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where will the big 10 championship be played | Big Ten Football Championship game - wikipedia
The Big Ten Football Championship Game is a college football game that is held by the Big Ten Conference each year since 2011 to determine the conference 's season champion. The championship game will pit the division champions from the conference 's West and East divisions in a game held after the regular season has been completed. The game is held the first Saturday of December at 8 PM Eastern.
The winner of this game will earn the Big Ten 's automatic berth in the Rose Bowl Game, unless the team is selected to play in the four - team College Football Playoff. If this is the case, they will go to one of the bowls hosting the national semifinals. The winner of this game will also receive the Stagg Championship Trophy, and the most valuable player of this game will receive the Grange - Griffin Championship Game Most Valuable Player Trophy.
The conference currently has a deal making Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis the site of the championship game through 2021.
Prior to the 2011 college football season, the Big Ten Conference determined its conference representative through regular season play, and, as there were only 11 member schools, there was no possibility for a conference championship game because, at the time, the NCAA required (for holding a conference championship game) that the conference have 12 teams with two divisions.
In 2010, the Big Ten Conference added the University of Nebraska, bringing the membership total to 12 teams. Thus, the conference was able to meet NCAA requirements. On August 5, 2010 Big Ten Conference Commissioner James Delany announced Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis had been chosen as the possible site for the inaugural championship game. The league office began a 30 - day period to negotiate a one - year agreement with Indiana Sports Corp and Lucas Oil Stadium to host the game. Delany also announced that once the 2011 agreement was in place, the conference office would conduct a thorough process over the next year to determine the location of the Big Ten Football Championship Game in 2012 and beyond.
On November 17, 2010, the Big Ten Conference announced a media agreement with FOX Sports to serve as the official broadcast partner for the 2011 - 16 Big Ten Football Championship Games. A source at the time stated that the six - year agreement with FOX Sports would be worth between $20 -- $25 million per season, making it one of the most valuable conference championship games in college football. In the league 's press release, it was confirmed that the 2011 event will take place at Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis, Indiana. The events will be played in prime time. Because FOX is a majority partner in the Big Ten Network, this may allow for the possibility of more involvement by the Big Ten Network in the event, including the use of Big Ten Network staff in the game coverage.
Commissioner Delany also stated at that time that the Big Ten would strongly consider rotating the site of the game, mentioning other possible host cities such as Chicago, Detroit, Minneapolis, Green Bay, and Cleveland.
On June 5, 2014 the Big Ten Conference announced via press release that the Big Ten Football Championship game would continue to be held at Lucas Oil Stadium through the 2021 season.
The Big Ten expanded to 11 schools by adding Penn State in 1990, but this did not yet meet the NCAA 's requirements for holding a conference championship game (that the conference have 12 teams with two divisions). A few other times during that period, there were talks between the Big Ten and other schools (namely, Kansas, Missouri, and Rutgers, and later Notre Dame) which might have led to the possibility of a conference with two divisions of at least six teams and a conference championship, but for various reasons, nothing came to fruition.
It was not until December 2009, when Commissioner Delany announced that the league would explore the possibility of adding one or more institutions, that the wheels were set in motion that would lead to the Big Ten adding a school for the first time in 20 years. Less than a year later, on June 11, 2010, Nebraska applied for membership and was unanimously accepted by the conference 's 11 member schools. Its membership became effective on July 1, 2011.
In November 2012, the Big Ten announced that Maryland and Rutgers would join the conference in 2014, which brought conference membership up to 14 schools.
After the addition of Nebraska to the conference, there was much debate over what would be the best division of the 12 schools. Some felt that it would be best to maintain geographical divisions. Others felt that geography should only be a factor insofar as there was competitive balance between the two divisions. Another very important factor for Big Ten schools was the maintenance of long - standing rivalries that the schools held with each other.
On September 1, 2010, Commissioner Delany revealed how the teams would be placed into the two divisions. They were provisionally called X and O.
Later, on December 13, 2010, Commissioner Delany announced that the two divisions would be called Legends and Leaders. The scheduling arrangement for the schools was that they would face each of the other schools in their division, plus three crossover opponents, one of which would be permanent. The permanent crossover opponent would be used to ensure that long standing historical rivalries would continue.
On August 4, 2011, the Big Ten Conference announced that there would be a nine - game conference schedule beginning in 2017, allowing schools to play four crossover opponents. However, the Big Ten and Pac - 12 later announced a multi-sport scheduling agreement that provides for each member school to play one non-conference football game per year against an opponent from the other conference, and with this announcement, the Big Ten backed away from the nine - game conference schedule proposal.
Following the 2014 entry of Maryland and Rutgers, the "Leaders '' and "Legends '' divisions were set aside and replaced by geographic divisions, with the schools in the Central Time Zone plus Purdue forming the new West Division, and the remaining members forming the East Division. In addition, the conference adopted a nine - game schedule beginning in 2016.
Rankings from the AP Poll released prior to the game
In 2012 Wisconsin finished third in the Leaders division, but division champion Ohio State and second place Penn State were banned from postseason play due to sanctions.
Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Northwestern, Purdue, and Rutgers have yet to make an appearance in a Big Ten Football Championship Game.
On September 1, 2011, the Big Ten Conference announced the divisional tiebreaker procedures that will be used to determine the representatives in the championship game. Division standings are based on each team 's overall conference record, excluding teams ineligible for postseason because of sanctions. In the event that two teams are tied, the head - to - head results between those two teams determines the tiebreaker. Unlike the Southeastern Conference, whose rules were established before NCAA overtime and inclement weather concerns are possible, the Big Ten does not have a policy in case the head - to - head result is a tie because of inclement weather.
If only two teams remain after any of the following steps, the tiebreaker will revert to the two - team tiebreaker above.
List of NCAA Division I FBS Conference Championship games
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differences between single beam and double beam spectrophotometer | Spectrophotometry - wikipedia
In chemistry, spectrophotometry is the quantitative measurement of the reflection or transmission properties of a material as a function of wavelength. It is more specific than the general term electromagnetic spectroscopy in that spectrophotometry deals with visible light, near - ultraviolet, and near - infrared, but does not cover time - resolved spectroscopic techniques.
Spectrophotometry is a tool that hinges on the quantitative analysis of molecules depending on how much light is absorbed by colored compounds. Spectrophotometry uses photometers, known as spectrophotometers, that can measure a light beam 's intensity as a function of its color (wavelength). Important features of spectrophotometers are spectral bandwidth (the range of colors it can transmit through the test sample), the percentage of sample - transmission, the logarithmic range of sample - absorption, and sometimes a percentage of reflectance measurement.
A spectrophotometer is commonly used for the measurement of transmittance or reflectance of solutions, transparent or opaque solids, such as polished glass, or gases. Although many biochemicals are colored, as in, they absorb visible light and therefore can be measured by colorimetric procedures, even colorless biochemicals can often be converted to colored compounds suitable for chromogenic color - forming reactions to yield compounds suitable for colorimetric analysis. However, they can also be designed to measure the diffusivity on any of the listed light ranges that usually cover around 200 nm - 2500 nm using different controls and calibrations. Within these ranges of light, calibrations are needed on the machine using standards that vary in type depending on the wavelength of the photometric determination.
An example of an experiment in which spectrophotometry is used is the determination of the equilibrium constant of a solution. A certain chemical reaction within a solution may occur in a forward and reverse direction, where reactants form products and products break down into reactants. At some point, this chemical reaction will reach a point of balance called an equilibrium point. In order to determine the respective concentrations of reactants and products at this point, the light transmittance of the solution can be tested using spectrophotometry. The amount of light that passes through the solution is indicative of the concentration of certain chemicals that do not allow light to pass through.
The absorption of light is due to the interaction of light with the electronic and vibrational modes of molecules. Each type of molecule has an individual set of energy levels associated with the makeup of its chemical bonds and nuclei, and thus will absorb light of specific wavelengths, or energies, resulting in unique spectral properties. This is based upon its specific and distinct makeup.
The use of spectrophotometers spans various scientific fields, such as physics, materials science, chemistry, biochemistry, and molecular biology. They are widely used in many industries including semiconductors, laser and optical manufacturing, printing and forensic examination, as well in laboratories for the study of chemical substances. Spectrophotometry is often used in measurements of enzyme activities, determinations of protein concentrations, determinations of enzymatic kinetic constants, and measurements of ligand binding reactions. Ultimately, a spectrophotometer is able to determine, depending on the control or calibration, what substances are present in a target and exactly how much through calculations of observed wavelengths.
In astronomy, the term spectrophotometry refers to the measurement of the spectrum of a celestial object in which the flux scale of the spectrum is calibrated as a function of wavelength, usually by comparison with an observation of a spectrophotometric standard star, and corrected for the absorption of light by the Earth 's atmosphere.
Invented by Arnold O. Beckman in 1940, the spectrophotometer was created with the aid of his colleagues at his company National Technical Laboratories founded in 1935 which would become Beckman Instrument Company and ultimately Beckman Coulter. This would come as a solution to the previously created spectrophotometers which were unable to absorb the ultraviolet correctly. He would start with the invention of Model A where a glass prism was used to absorb the UV light. It would be found that this did not give satisfactory results, therefore in Model B, there was a shift from a glass to a quartz prism which allowed for better absorbance results. From there, Model C was born with an adjustment to the wavelength resolution which ended up having three units of it produced. The last and most popular model became Model D which is better recognized now as the DU spectrophotometer which contained the instrument case, hydrogen lamp with ultraviolent continuum and a better monochromator. It was produced from 1941 to 1976 where the price for it in 1941 was US $ 723 (far - UV accessories were an option at additional cost). In the words of Nobel chemistry laureate Nobel chemistry laureate Bruce Merrifield said it was "probably the most important instrument ever developed towards the advancement of bioscience. ''
Once it became discontinued in 1976, another company known as Hewlett - Packard created the first commercially available diode - assay spectrophotometer in 1979 known as the HP 8450A. Diode - assay spectrophotometers differed from the original spectrophotometer created by Beckman because it was the first single - beam microprocessor - controlled spectrophotometer that scanned multiple wavelengths at a time in seconds. It irradiates the sample with polychromatic light which the sample absorbs depending on its properties. Then it is transmitted back by grating the photodiode array which detects the wavelength region of the spectrum. Since then, the creation and implementation of spectrophotometry devices has increased immensely and has become one of the most innovative instruments of our time.
There are two major classes of devices: single beam and double beam. A double beam spectrophotometer compares the light intensity between two light paths, one path containing a reference sample and the other the test sample. A single - beam spectrophotometer measures the relative light intensity of the beam before and after a test sample is inserted. Although comparison measurements from double - beam instruments are easier and more stable, single - beam instruments can have a larger dynamic range and are optically simpler and more compact. Additionally, some specialized instruments, such as spectrophotometers built onto microscopes or telescopes, are single - beam instruments due to practicality.
Historically, spectrophotometers use a monochromator containing a diffraction grating to produce the analytical spectrum. The grating can either be movable or fixed. If a single detector, such as a photomultiplier tube or photodiode is used, the grating can be scanned stepwise (scanning spectrophotometer) so that the detector can measure the light intensity at each wavelength (which will correspond to each "step ''). Arrays of detectors (array spectrophotometer), such as charge coupled devices (CCD) or photodiode arrays (PDA) can also be used. In such systems, the grating is fixed and the intensity of each wavelength of light is measured by a different detector in the array. Additionally, most modern mid-infrared spectrophotometers use a Fourier transform technique to acquire the spectral information. This technique is called Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy.
When making transmission measurements, the spectrophotometer quantitatively compares the fraction of light that passes through a reference solution and a test solution, then electronically compares the intensities of the two signals and computes the percentage of transmission of the sample compared to the reference standard. For reflectance measurements, the spectrophotometer quantitatively compares the fraction of light that reflects from the reference and test samples. Light from the source lamp is passed through a monochromator, which diffracts the light into a "rainbow '' of wavelengths through a rotating prism and outputs narrow bandwidths of this diffracted spectrum through a mechanical slit on the output side of the monochromator. These bandwidths are transmitted through the test sample. Then the photon flux density (watts per metre squared usually) of the transmitted or reflected light is measured with a photodiode, charge coupled device or other light sensor. The transmittance or reflectance value for each wavelength of the test sample is then compared with the transmission or reflectance values from the reference sample. Most instruments will apply a logarithmic function to the linear transmittance ratio to calculate the ' absorbency ' of the sample, a value which is proportional to the ' concentration ' of the chemical being measured.
In short, the sequence of events in a modern spectrophotometer is as follows:
In an array spectrophotometer, the sequence is as follows:
Many older spectrophotometers must be calibrated by a procedure known as "zeroing '', to balance the null current output of the two beams at the detector. The transmission of a reference substance is set as a baseline (datum) value, so the transmission of all other substances are recorded relative to the initial "zeroed '' substance. The spectrophotometer then converts the transmission ratio into ' absorbency ', the concentration of specific components of the test sample relative to the initial substance.
Spectrophotometry is an important technique used in many biochemical experiments that involve DNA, RNA, and protein isolation, enzyme kinetics and biochemical analyses. A brief explanation of the procedure of spectrophotometry includes comparing the absorbency of a blank sample that does not contain a colored compound to a sample that contains a colored compound. This coloring can be accomplished by either a dye such as Coomasie Brilliant Blue G - 250 dye measured at 595 nm or by an enzymatic reaction as seen between β - galactosidase and ONPG (turns sample yellow) measured at 420 nm. The spectrophotometer is used to measure colored compounds in the visible region of light (between 350 nm and 800 nm), thus it can be used to find more information about the substance being studied. In biochemical experiments, a chemical and / or physical property is chosen and the procedure that is used is specific to that property in order to derive more information about the sample, such as the quantity, purity, enzyme activity, etc. Spectrophotometry can be used for a number of techniques such as determining optimal wavelength absorbance of samples, determining optimal pH for absorbance of samples, determining concentrations of unknown samples, and determining the pKa of various samples. Spectrophotometry is also a helpful process for protein purification and can also be used as a method to create optical assays of a compound. Spectrophotometric data can also be used in conjunction with the Beer - Lambert Equation, A = - log T = εcl = OD, in order to determine various relationships between transmittance and concentration, and absorbance and concentration. Because a spectrophotometer measures the wavelength of a compound through its color, a dye binding substance can be added so that it can undergo a color change and be measured. It is possible to know the concentrations of a two component mixture using the absorption spectra of the standard solutions of each component. To do this, it is necessary to know the extinction coefficient of this mixture at two wave lengths and the extinction coefficients of solutions that contain the known weights of the two components. Spectrophotometers have been developed and improved over decades and have been widely used among chemists. Additionally, Spectrophotometers are specialized to measure either UV or Visible light wavelength absorbance values. It is considered to be a highly accurate instrument that is also very sensitive and therefore extremely precise, especially in determining color change. This method is also convenient for use in laboratory experiments because it is an inexpensive and relatively simple process.
Most spectrophotometers are used in the UV and visible regions of the spectrum, and some of these instruments also operate into the near - infrared region as well. The concentration of a protein can be estimated by measuring the OD at 280 nm due to the presence of tryptophan, tyrosine and phenylalanine. This method is not very accurate since the composition of proteins varies greatly and proteins with none of these amino acids do not have maximum absorption at 280 nm. Nucleic acid contamination can also interfere. This method requires a spectrophotometer capable of measuring in the UV region with quartz cuvettes.
Ultraviolet - visible (UV - vis) spectroscopy involves energy levels that excite electronic transitions. Absorption of UV - vis light excites molecules that are in ground - states to their excited - states
Visible region 400 -- 700 nm spectrophotometry is used extensively in colorimetry science. It is a known fact that it operates best at the range of 0.2 - 0.8 O.D. Ink manufacturers, printing companies, textiles vendors, and many more, need the data provided through colorimetry. They take readings in the region of every 5 -- 20 nanometers along the visible region, and produce a spectral reflectance curve or a data stream for alternative presentations. These curves can be used to test a new batch of colorant to check if it makes a match to specifications, e.g., ISO printing standards.
Traditional visible region spectrophotometers can not detect if a colorant or the base material has fluorescence. This can make it difficult to manage color issues if for example one or more of the printing inks is fluorescent. Where a colorant contains fluorescence, a bi-spectral fluorescent spectrophotometer is used. There are two major setups for visual spectrum spectrophotometers, d / 8 (spherical) and 0 / 45. The names are due to the geometry of the light source, observer and interior of the measurement chamber. Scientists use this instrument to measure the amount of compounds in a sample. If the compound is more concentrated more light will be absorbed by the sample; within small ranges, the Beer - Lambert law holds and the absorbance between samples vary with concentration linearly. In the case of printing measurements two alternative settings are commonly used - without / with uv filter to control better the effect of uv brighteners within the paper stock.
Samples are usually prepared in cuvettes; depending on the region of interest, they may be constructed of glass, plastic (visible spectrum region of interest), or quartz (Far UV spectrum region of interest). Some applications require small volume measurements which can be performed with micro-volume platforms.
As described in the applications section, spectrophotometry can be used in both qualitative and quantitative analysis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. Qualitative analysis can be used and spectrophotometers are used to record spectra of compounds by scanning broad wavelength regions to determine the absorbance properties (the intensity of the color) of the compound at each wavelength. One experiment that can demonstrate the various uses that visible spectrophotometry can have is the separation of β - galactosidase from a mixture of various proteins. Largely, spectrophotometry is best used to help quantify the amount of purification your sample has undergone relative to total protein concentration. By running an affinity chromatography, B - Galactosidase can be isolated and tested by reacting collected samples with ONPG and determining if the sample turns yellow. Following this testing the sample at 420 nm for specific interaction with ONPG and at 595 for a Bradford Assay the amount of purification can be assessed quantitatively. In addition to this spectrophotometry can be used in tandem with other techniques such as SDS - Page electrophoresis in order to purify and isolate various protein samples.
Spectrophotometers designed for the infrared region are quite different because of the technical requirements of measurement in that region. One major factor is the type of photosensors that are available for different spectral regions, but infrared measurement is also challenging because virtually everything emits IR light as thermal radiation, especially at wavelengths beyond about 5 μm.
Another complication is that quite a few materials such as glass and plastic absorb infrared light, making it incompatible as an optical medium. Ideal optical materials are salts, which do not absorb strongly. Samples for IR spectrophotometry may be smeared between two discs of potassium bromide or ground with potassium bromide and pressed into a pellet. Where aqueous solutions are to be measured, insoluble silver chloride is used to construct the cell.
Spectroradiometers, which operate almost like the visible region spectrophotometers, are designed to measure the spectral density of illuminants. Applications may include evaluation and categorization of lighting for sales by the manufacturer, or for the customers to confirm the lamp they decided to purchase is within their specifications. Components:
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do you have valid transport vehicle driving licence in hindi | Driving licence in India - wikipedia
In India, the driving licence is the official document which authorises its holder to operate various types of motor vehicle on highways and some other roads to which the public have access. In various Indian states, they are administered by the Regional Transport Authorities / Offices (RTA / RTO). A driving licence is required in India by any person driving a vehicle on any highway or other road defined in the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.
A modern photo of the driving licence can also serve many of the purposes of an identity card in non-driving contexts (proof of identity (e.g. when opening a bank account) or age (e.g. when applying for a mobile connection)).
Applications for a provisional driving licence can be made from the age of 16. Valid for driving a moped or gearless motorcycle (with a capacity of up to 50 cc) from aged 16, and a car from aged 18 or older to drive any other type of vehicle. The common "All India Permit '' allows the licensee to drive throughout the country. For driving commercial / transport vehicles, one should obtain endorsement (and a minimum age of 20 years, in some states) in the driving licence to effect under s. 3 (1) of The Motor Vehicles Act, 1988. Until a driving test (which consists of three sections: verbal or written test (depending on the state), road sign test followed by a supervised driving examination) has been passed a driver may hold only a provisional licence and be subject to certain conditions.
The conditions attached to provisional licences of a particular category of vehicle are:
After passing a driving test, the provisional licence may be surrendered in exchange for a full Indian licence for the relevant kind of vehicle. Full car licences allow use of mopeds, motorcycles and cars.
A licence if valid for 20 years from the date of issue or till the licence holders turns 50 years of age, whichever happens earlier. The driving licence is required to be renewed after expiry of its validity.
Tests on basic driving rules are conducted at the RTOs when an individual applies for provisional licence. The theoretical test in India consists of basic road sign questions, which are the same for car and motorcycle tests:
The theory test are completed on the computer, and both must be passed in order to pass the theory test.
This is a list of the categories that might be found on a driving licence in India.
Most of the legislation regarding licensing is in the Rules of the Road Regulation and the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988. Private / Commercial drivers should have an additional Badge if they are driving a taxi or any other public transport vehicle. scout
India uses cumulative points systems, broadly similar but different in detail in different countries, for offenders.
Points are given for driving offences by law courts, and the licence is endorsed accordingly. An Indian driving licence may be endorsed by the courts for various offences, not only for those committed whilst driving or in charge of a vehicle. If the individual committing the offence does not hold a valid driving licence the driver is subject to be penalised or face imprisonment of up to 3 months. Violation of traffic signals, triple driving on motor cycle, using vehicles without registration or in unsafe condition may endorse and attract 3 negative points in each case.
In case of two - wheelers, helmet laws is mandatory for the main rider and the pillion rider. Offences such as for drink or drug driving are recorded on the licence and the offender is prosecuted and imprisoned.
Twelve points on the licence makes the driver liable to cancellation / suspension of driving licence for one year; accumulation of twelve points for the second consecutive time would lead to suspension of driving licence for five years.
Drivers are legally obliged to carry a valid driving licence while driving. Under s. 130 of Motor Vehicles Act, 1988; A police officer or any other official authorised by the government can ask for vehicle - related documents, and the driver should produce them within 15 days at the police station (or the concerned department).
The law permits officials to seize a licence, and issue a temporary one for a specified time. The law also allows the state government to set the fines or prison terms for minor traffic violations, and specifies who has the rights to enforce these rules.
Every driving licence has a maximum number of endorsements allowed. If the driver does not follow the traffic rules or causes any fault, then a penalty fine is issued and an endorsement put on the licence. An excessive number of endorsements may lead to cancellation.
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credit planning in the banking sector of the country has been introduced by | Bank - wikipedia
A bank is a financial institution that accepts deposits from the public and creates credit. Lending activities can be performed either directly or indirectly through capital markets. Due to their importance in the financial stability of a country, banks are highly regulated in most countries. Most nations have institutionalized a system known as fractional reserve banking under which banks hold liquid assets equal to only a portion of their current liabilities. In addition to other regulations intended to ensure liquidity, banks are generally subject to minimum capital requirements based on an international set of capital standards, known as the Basel Accords.
Banking in its modern sense evolved in the 14th century in the prosperous cities of Renaissance Italy but in many ways was a continuation of ideas and concepts of credit and lending that had their roots in the ancient world. In the history of banking, a number of banking dynasties -- notably, the Medicis, the Fuggers, the Welsers, the Berenbergs and the Rothschilds -- have played a central role over many centuries. The oldest existing retail bank is Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena, while the oldest existing merchant bank is Berenberg Bank.
Banking began with the first prototype banks of merchants of the ancient world, which made grain loans to farmers and traders who carried goods between cities and this system is known as barter system. This began around 2000 BC in Assyria and Babylonia. Later, in ancient Greece and during the Roman Empire, lenders based in temples made loans and added two important innovations: they accepted deposits and changed money. Archaeology from this period in ancient China and India also shows evidence of money lending activity.
The origins of modern banking can be traced to medieval and early Renaissance Italy, to the rich cities in the centre and north like Florence, Lucca, Siena, Venice and Genoa. The Bardi and Peruzzi families dominated banking in 14th - century Florence, establishing branches in many other parts of Europe. One of the most famous Italian banks was the Medici Bank, set up by Giovanni di Bicci de ' Medici in 1397. The earliest known state deposit bank, Banco di San Giorgio (Bank of St. George), was founded in 1407 at Genoa, Italy.
Modern banking practices, including fractional reserve banking and the issue of banknotes, emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries. Merchants started to store their gold with the goldsmiths of London, who possessed private vaults, and charged a fee for that service. In exchange for each deposit of precious metal, the goldsmiths issued receipts certifying the quantity and purity of the metal they held as a bailee; these receipts could not be assigned, only the original depositor could collect the stored goods.
Gradually the goldsmiths began to lend the money out on behalf of the depositor, which led to the development of modern banking practices; promissory notes (which evolved into banknotes) were issued for money deposited as a loan to the goldsmith. The goldsmith paid interest on these deposits. Since the promissory notes were payable on demand, and the advances (loans) to the goldsmith 's customers were repayable over a longer time period, this was an early form of fractional reserve banking. The promissory notes developed into an assignable instrument which could circulate as a safe and convenient form of money backed by the goldsmith 's promise to pay, allowing goldsmiths to advance loans with little risk of default. Thus, the goldsmiths of London became the forerunners of banking by creating new money based on credit.
The Bank of England was the first to begin the permanent issue of banknotes, in 1695. The Royal Bank of Scotland established the first overdraft facility in 1728. By the beginning of the 19th century a bankers ' clearing house was established in London to allow multiple banks to clear transactions. The Rothschilds pioneered international finance on a large scale, financing the purchase of the Suez canal for the British government.
The word bank was borrowed in Middle English from Middle French banque, from Old Italian banca, meaning "table '', from Old High German banc, bank "bench, counter ''. Benches were used as makeshift desks or exchange counters during the Renaissance by Jewish Florentine bankers, who used to make their transactions atop desks covered by green tablecloths.
The definition of a bank varies from country to country. See the relevant country pages under for more information.
Under English common law, a banker is defined as a person who carries on the business of banking, which is specified as:
In most common law jurisdictions there is a Bills of Exchange Act that codifies the law in relation to negotiable instruments, including cheques, and this Act contains a statutory definition of the term banker: banker includes a body of persons, whether incorporated or not, who carry on the business of banking ' (Section 2, Interpretation). Although this definition seems circular, it is actually functional, because it ensures that the legal basis for bank transactions such as cheques does not depend on how the bank is structured or regulated.
The business of banking is in many English common law countries not defined by statute but by common law, the definition above. In other English common law jurisdictions there are statutory definitions of the business of banking or banking business. When looking at these definitions it is important to keep in mind that they are defining the business of banking for the purposes of the legislation, and not necessarily in general. In particular, most of the definitions are from legislation that has the purpose of regulating and supervising banks rather than regulating the actual business of banking. However, in many cases the statutory definition closely mirrors the common law one. Examples of statutory definitions:
Since the advent of EFTPOS (Electronic Funds Transfer at Point Of Sale), direct credit, direct debit and internet banking, the cheque has lost its primacy in most banking systems as a payment instrument. This has led legal theorists to suggest that the cheque based definition should be broadened to include financial institutions that conduct current accounts for customers and enable customers to pay and be paid by third parties, even if they do not pay and collect cheques.
Banks act as payment agents by conducting checking or current accounts for customers, paying cheques drawn by customers in the bank, and collecting cheques deposited to customers ' current accounts. Banks also enable customer payments via other payment methods such as Automated Clearing House (ACH), Wire transfers or telegraphic transfer, EFTPOS, and automated teller machines (ATMs).
Banks borrow money by accepting funds deposited on current accounts, by accepting term deposits, and by issuing debt securities such as banknotes and bonds. Banks lend money by making advances to customers on current accounts, by making installment loans, and by investing in marketable debt securities and other forms of money lending.
Banks provide different payment services, and a bank account is considered indispensable by most businesses and individuals. Non-banks that provide payment services such as remittance companies are normally not considered as an adequate substitute for a bank account.
Banks can create new money when they make a loan. New loans throughout the banking system generate new deposits elsewhere in the system. The money supply is usually increased by the act of lending, and reduced when loans are repaid faster than new ones are generated. In the United Kingdom between 1997 and 2007, there was an increase in the money supply, largely caused by much more bank lending, which served to push up property prices and increase private debt. The amount of money in the economy as measured by M4 in the UK went from £ 750 billion to £ 1700 billion between 1997 and 2007, much of the increase caused by bank lending. If all the banks increase their lending together, then they can expect new deposits to return to them and the amount of money in the economy will increase. Excessive or risky lending can cause borrowers to default, the banks then become more cautious, so there is less lending and therefore less money so that the economy can go from boom to bust as happened in the UK and many other Western economies after 2007.
Activities undertaken by banks include personal banking, corporate banking, investment banking, private banking, transaction banking, insurance, consumer finance, foreign exchange trading, commodity trading, trading in equities, futures and options trading and money market trading.
Banks offer many different channels to access their banking and other services:
A bank can generate revenue in a variety of different ways including interest, transaction fees and financial advice. Traditionally, the most significant method is via charging interest on the capital it lends out to customers. The bank profits from the difference between the level of interest it pays for deposits and other sources of funds, and the level of interest it charges in its lending activities.
This difference is referred to as the spread between the cost of funds and the loan interest rate. Historically, profitability from lending activities has been cyclical and dependent on the needs and strengths of loan customers and the stage of the economic cycle. Fees and financial advice constitute a more stable revenue stream and banks have therefore placed more emphasis on these revenue lines to smooth their financial performance.
In the past 20 years, American banks have taken many measures to ensure that they remain profitable while responding to increasingly changing market conditions.
This helps in making a profit and facilitates economic development as a whole.
Banks face a number of risks in order to conduct their business, and how well these risks are managed and understood is a key driver behind profitability, and how much capital a bank is required to hold. Bank capital consists principally of equity, retained earnings and subordinated debt.
After the 2007 - 2009 financial crisis, regulators force banks to issue Contingent convertible bonds (CoCos). These are hybrid capital securities that absorb losses in accordance with their contractual terms when the capital of the issuing bank falls below a certain level. Then debt is reduced and bank capitalization gets a boost. Owing to their capacity to absorb losses, CoCos have the potential to satisfy regulatory capital requirement.
Some of the main risks faced by banks include:
The capital requirement is a bank regulation, which sets a framework within which a bank or depository institution must manage its balance sheet. The categorization of assets and capital is highly standardized so that it can be risk weighted.
The economic functions of banks include:
Banks are susceptible to many forms of risk which have triggered occasional systemic crises. These include liquidity risk (where many depositors may request withdrawals in excess of available funds), credit risk (the chance that those who owe money to the bank will not repay it), and interest rate risk (the possibility that the bank will become unprofitable, if rising interest rates force it to pay relatively more on its deposits than it receives on its loans).
Banking crises have developed many times throughout history, when one or more risks have emerged for a banking sector as a whole. Prominent examples include the bank run that occurred during the Great Depression, the U.S. Savings and Loan crisis in the 1980s and early 1990s, the Japanese banking crisis during the 1990s, and the sub-prime mortgage crisis in the 2000s.
Assets of the largest 1,000 banks in the world grew by 6.8 % in the 2008 / 2009 financial year to a record US $96.4 trillion while profits declined by 85 % to US $115 billion. Growth in assets in adverse market conditions was largely a result of recapitalization. EU banks held the largest share of the total, 56 % in 2008 / 2009, down from 61 % in the previous year. Asian banks ' share increased from 12 % to 14 % during the year, while the share of US banks increased from 11 % to 13 %. Fee revenue generated by global investment banking totalled US $66.3 billion in 2009, up 12 % on the previous year.
The United States has the most banks in the world in terms of institutions (5,330 as of 2015) and possibly branches (81,607 as of 2015). This is an indicator of the geography and regulatory structure of the USA, resulting in a large number of small to medium - sized institutions in its banking system. As of November 2009, China 's top 4 banks have in excess of 67,000 branches (ICBC: 18000 +, BOC: 12000 +, CCB: 13000 +, ABC: 24000 +) with an additional 140 smaller banks with an undetermined number of branches. Japan had 129 banks and 12,000 branches. In 2004, Germany, France, and Italy each had more than 30,000 branches -- more than double the 15,000 branches in the UK.
Currently commercial banks are regulated in most jurisdictions by government entities and require a special bank license to operate.
Usually the definition of the business of banking for the purposes of regulation is extended to include acceptance of deposits, even if they are not repayable to the customer 's order -- although money lending, by itself, is generally not included in the definition.
Unlike most other regulated industries, the regulator is typically also a participant in the market, being either a publicly or privately governed central bank. Central banks also typically have a monopoly on the business of issuing banknotes. However, in some countries this is not the case. In the UK, for example, the Financial Services Authority licenses banks, and some commercial banks (such as the Bank of Scotland) issue their own banknotes in addition to those issued by the Bank of England, the UK government 's central bank.
Banking law is based on a contractual analysis of the relationship between the bank (defined above) and the customer -- defined as any entity for which the bank agrees to conduct an account.
The law implies rights and obligations into this relationship as follows:
These implied contractual terms may be modified by express agreement between the customer and the bank. The statutes and regulations in force within a particular jurisdiction may also modify the above terms and / or create new rights, obligations or limitations relevant to the bank - customer relationship.
Some types of financial institution, such as building societies and credit unions, may be partly or wholly exempt from bank license requirements, and therefore regulated under separate rules.
The requirements for the issue of a bank license vary between jurisdictions but typically include:
Banks ' activities can be divided into:
Most banks are profit - making, private enterprises. However, some are owned by government, or are non-profit organizations.
The United States banking industry is one of the most heavily regulated and guarded in the world, with multiple specialized and focused regulators. All banks with FDIC - insured deposits have the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) as a regulator. However, for soundness examinations (i.e., whether a bank is operating in a sound manner), the Federal Reserve is the primary federal regulator for Fed - member state banks; the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) is the primary federal regulator for national banks; and the Office of Thrift Supervision, or OTS, is the primary federal regulator for thrifts. State non-member banks are examined by the state agencies as well as the FDIC. National banks have one primary regulator -- the OCC.
Each regulatory agency has their own set of rules and regulations to which banks and thrifts must adhere. The Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council (FFIEC) was established in 1979 as a formal inter-agency body empowered to prescribe uniform principles, standards, and report forms for the federal examination of financial institutions. Although the FFIEC has resulted in a greater degree of regulatory consistency between the agencies, the rules and regulations are constantly changing.
In addition to changing regulations, changes in the industry have led to consolidations within the Federal Reserve, FDIC, OTS, and OCC. Offices have been closed, supervisory regions have been merged, staff levels have been reduced and budgets have been cut. The remaining regulators face an increased burden with increased workload and more banks per regulator. While banks struggle to keep up with the changes in the regulatory environment, regulators struggle to manage their workload and effectively regulate their banks. The impact of these changes is that banks are receiving less hands - on assessment by the regulators, less time spent with each institution, and the potential for more problems slipping through the cracks, potentially resulting in an overall increase in bank failures across the United States.
The changing economic environment has a significant impact on banks and thrifts as they struggle to effectively manage their interest rate spread in the face of low rates on loans, rate competition for deposits and the general market changes, industry trends and economic fluctuations. It has been a challenge for banks to effectively set their growth strategies with the recent economic market. A rising interest rate environment may seem to help financial institutions, but the effect of the changes on consumers and businesses is not predictable and the challenge remains for banks to grow and effectively manage the spread to generate a return to their shareholders.
The management of the banks ' asset portfolios also remains a challenge in today 's economic environment. Loans are a bank 's primary asset category and when loan quality becomes suspect, the foundation of a bank is shaken to the core. While always an issue for banks, declining asset quality has become a big problem for financial institutions.
There are several reasons for this, one of which is the lax attitude some banks have adopted because of the years of "good times. '' The potential for this is exacerbated by the reduction in the regulatory oversight of banks and in some cases depth of management. Problems are more likely to go undetected, resulting in a significant impact on the bank when they are discovered. In addition, banks, like any business, struggle to cut costs and have consequently eliminated certain expenses, such as adequate employee training programs.
Banks also face a host of other challenges such as ageing ownership groups. Across the country, many banks ' management teams and board of directors are ageing. Banks also face ongoing pressure by shareholders, both public and private, to achieve earnings and growth projections. Regulators place added pressure on banks to manage the various categories of risk. Banking is also an extremely competitive industry. Competing in the financial services industry has become tougher with the entrance of such players as insurance agencies, credit unions, cheque cashing services, credit card companies, etc.
As a reaction, banks have developed their activities in financial instruments, through financial market operations such as brokerage and have become big players in such activities.
To be able to provide home buyers and builders with the funds needed, banks must compete for deposits. The phenomenon of disintermediation had to dollars moving from savings accounts and into direct market instruments such as U.S. Department of Treasury obligations, agency securities, and corporate debt. One of the greatest factors in recent years in the movement of deposits was the tremendous growth of money market funds whose higher interest rates attracted consumer deposits.
To compete for deposits, US savings institutions offer many different types of plans:
Bank statements are accounting records produced by banks under the various accounting standards of the world. Under GAAP there are two kinds of accounts: debit and credit. Credit accounts are Revenue, Equity and Liabilities. Debit Accounts are Assets and Expenses. The bank credits a credit account to increase its balance, and debits a credit account to decrease its balance.
The customer debits his or her savings / bank (asset) account in his ledger when making a deposit (and the account is normally in debit), while the customer credits a credit card (liability) account in his ledger every time he spends money (and the account is normally in credit). When the customer reads his bank statement, the statement will show a credit to the account for deposits, and debits for withdrawals of funds. The customer with a positive balance will see this balance reflected as a credit balance on the bank statement. If the customer is overdrawn, he will have a negative balance, reflected as a debit balance on the bank statement.
One source of deposits for banks is brokers who deposit large sums of money on behalf of investors through trust corporations. This money will generally go to the banks which offer the most favourable terms, often better than those offered local depositors. It is possible for a bank to engage in business with no local deposits at all, all funds being brokered deposits. Accepting a significant quantity of such deposits, or "hot money '' as it is sometimes called, puts a bank in a difficult and sometimes risky position, as the funds must be lent or invested in a way that yields a return sufficient to pay the high interest being paid on the brokered deposits. This may result in risky decisions and even in eventual failure of the bank. Banks which failed during 2008 and 2009 in the United States during the global financial crisis had, on average, four times more brokered deposits as a percent of their deposits than the average bank. Such deposits, combined with risky real estate investments, factored into the savings and loan crisis of the 1980s. Regulation of brokered deposits is opposed by banks on the grounds that the practice can be a source of external funding to growing communities with insufficient local deposits. There are different types of accounts: saving, recurring and current accounts.
Custodial accounts are accounts in which assets are held for a third party. For example, businesses that accept custody of funds for clients prior to their conversion, return or transfer may have a custodial account at a bank for this purposes.
In modern time there has been huge reductions to the barriers of global competition in the banking industry. Increases in telecommunications and other financial technologies, such as Bloomberg, have allowed banks to extend their reach all over the world, since they no longer have to be near customers to manage both their finances and their risk. The growth in cross-border activities has also increased the demand for banks that can provide various services across borders to different nationalities. However, despite these reductions in barriers and growth in cross-border activities, the banking industry is nowhere near as globalized as some other industries. In the USA, for instance, very few banks even worry about the Riegle -- Neal Act, which promotes more efficient interstate banking. In the vast majority of nations around the globe the market share for foreign owned banks is currently less than a tenth of all market shares for banks in a particular nation. One reason the banking industry has not been fully globalized is that it is more convenient to have local banks provide loans to small business and individuals. On the other hand, for large corporations, it is not as important in what nation the bank is in, since the corporation 's financial information is available around the globe.
Types of institutions:
Terms and concepts:
Terms and concepts:
Crime:
Cyber Crime
Lists:
Banking by country
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volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion of carbon steel | Thermal expansion - wikipedia
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in shape, area, and volume in response to a change in temperature.
Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance. When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules increases. Thus, the molecules begin vibrating / moving more and usually maintain a greater average separation. Materials which contract with increasing temperature are unusual; this effect is limited in size, and only occurs within limited temperature ranges (see examples below). The relative expansion (also called strain) divided by the change in temperature is called the material 's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature.
If an equation of state is available, it can be used to predict the values of the thermal expansion at all the required temperatures and pressures, along with many other state functions.
A number of materials contract on heating within certain temperature ranges; this is usually called negative thermal expansion, rather than "thermal contraction ''. For example, the coefficient of thermal expansion of water drops to zero as it is cooled to 3.983 ° C and then becomes negative below this temperature; this means that water has a maximum density at this temperature, and this leads to bodies of water maintaining this temperature at their lower depths during extended periods of sub-zero weather. Also, fairly pure silicon has a negative coefficient of thermal expansion for temperatures between about 18 and 120 kelvins.
Unlike gases or liquids, solid materials tend to keep their shape when undergoing thermal expansion.
Thermal expansion generally decreases with increasing bond energy, which also has an effect on the melting point of solids, so, high melting point materials are more likely to have lower thermal expansion. In general, liquids expand slightly more than solids. The thermal expansion of glasses is higher compared to that of crystals. At the glass transition temperature, rearrangements that occur in an amorphous material lead to characteristic discontinuities of coefficient of thermal expansion and specific heat. These discontinuities allow detection of the glass transition temperature where a supercooled liquid transforms to a glass.
Absorption or desorption of water (or other solvents) can change the size of many common materials; many organic materials change size much more due to this effect than due to thermal expansion. Common plastics exposed to water can, in the long term, expand by many percent.
The coefficient of thermal expansion describes how the size of an object changes with a change in temperature. Specifically, it measures the fractional change in size per degree change in temperature at a constant pressure. Several types of coefficients have been developed: volumetric, area, and linear. The choice of coefficient depends on the particular application and which dimensions are considered important. For solids, one might only be concerned with the change along a length, or over some area.
The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is the most basic thermal expansion coefficient, and the most relevant for fluids. In general, substances expand or contract when their temperature changes, with expansion or contraction occurring in all directions. Substances that expand at the same rate in every direction are called isotropic. For isotropic materials, the area and volumetric thermal expansion coefficient are, respectively, approximately twice and three times larger than the linear thermal expansion coefficient.
Mathematical definitions of these coefficients are defined below for solids, liquids, and gases.
In the general case of a gas, liquid, or solid, the volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion is given by
The subscript p indicates that the pressure is held constant during the expansion, and the subscript V stresses that it is the volumetric (not linear) expansion that enters this general definition. In the case of a gas, the fact that the pressure is held constant is important, because the volume of a gas will vary appreciably with pressure as well as temperature. For a gas of low density this can be seen from the ideal gas law.
When calculating thermal expansion it is necessary to consider whether the body is free to expand or is constrained. If the body is free to expand, the expansion or strain resulting from an increase in temperature can be simply calculated by using the applicable coefficient of Thermal Expansion.
If the body is constrained so that it can not expand, then internal stress will be caused (or changed) by a change in temperature. This stress can be calculated by considering the strain that would occur if the body were free to expand and the stress required to reduce that strain to zero, through the stress / strain relationship characterised by the elastic or Young 's modulus. In the special case of solid materials, external ambient pressure does not usually appreciably affect the size of an object and so it is not usually necessary to consider the effect of pressure changes.
Common engineering solids usually have coefficients of thermal expansion that do not vary significantly over the range of temperatures where they are designed to be used, so where extremely high accuracy is not required, practical calculations can be based on a constant, average, value of the coefficient of expansion.
Linear expansion means change in one dimension (length) as opposed to change in volume (volumetric expansion). To a first approximation, the change in length measurements of an object due to thermal expansion is related to temperature change by a "linear expansion coefficient ''. It is the fractional change in length per degree of temperature change. Assuming negligible effect of pressure, we may write:
where L (\ displaystyle L) is a particular length measurement and d L / d T (\ displaystyle dL / dT) is the rate of change of that linear dimension per unit change in temperature.
The change in the linear dimension can be estimated to be:
This equation works well as long as the linear - expansion coefficient does not change much over the change in temperature Δ T (\ displaystyle \ Delta T), and the fractional change in length is small Δ L / L ≪ 1 (\ displaystyle \ Delta L / L \ ll 1). If either of these conditions does not hold, the equation must be integrated.
For solid materials with a significant length, like rods or cables, an estimate of the amount of thermal expansion can be described by the material strain, given by ε t h e r m a l (\ displaystyle \ epsilon _ (\ mathrm (thermal))) and defined as:
where L i n i t i a l (\ displaystyle L_ (\ mathrm (initial))) is the length before the change of temperature and L f i n a l (\ displaystyle L_ (\ mathrm (final))) is the length after the change of temperature.
For most solids, thermal expansion is proportional to the change in temperature:
Thus, the change in either the strain or temperature can be estimated by:
where
is the difference of the temperature between the two recorded strains, measured in degrees Celsius or kelvins, and α L (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (L)) is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion in "per degree Celsius '' or "per kelvin '', denoted by ° C or K, respectively. In the field of continuum mechanics, the thermal expansion and its effects are treated as eigenstrain and eigenstress.
The area thermal expansion coefficient relates the change in a material 's area dimensions to a change in temperature. It is the fractional change in area per degree of temperature change. Ignoring pressure, we may write:
where A (\ displaystyle A) is some area of interest on the object, and d A / d T (\ displaystyle dA / dT) is the rate of change of that area per unit change in temperature.
The change in the area can be estimated as:
This equation works well as long as the area expansion coefficient does not change much over the change in temperature Δ T (\ displaystyle \ Delta T), and the fractional change in area is small Δ A / A ≪ 1 (\ displaystyle \ Delta A / A \ ll 1). If either of these conditions does not hold, the equation must be integrated.
For a solid, we can ignore the effects of pressure on the material, and the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient can be written:
where V (\ displaystyle V) is the volume of the material, and d V / d T (\ displaystyle dV / dT) is the rate of change of that volume with temperature.
This means that the volume of a material changes by some fixed fractional amount. For example, a steel block with a volume of 1 cubic meter might expand to 1.002 cubic meters when the temperature is raised by 50 K. This is an expansion of 0.2 %. If we had a block of steel with a volume of 2 cubic meters, then under the same conditions, it would expand to 2.004 cubic meters, again an expansion of 0.2 %. The volumetric expansion coefficient would be 0.2 % for 50 K, or 0.004 % K.
If we already know the expansion coefficient, then we can calculate the change in volume
where Δ V / V (\ displaystyle \ Delta V / V) is the fractional change in volume (e.g., 0.002) and Δ T (\ displaystyle \ Delta T) is the change in temperature (50 ° C).
The above example assumes that the expansion coefficient did not change as the temperature changed and the increase in volume is small compared to the original volume. This is not always true, but for small changes in temperature, it is a good approximation. If the volumetric expansion coefficient does change appreciably with temperature, or the increase in volume is significant, then the above equation will have to be integrated:
where α V (T) (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (V) (T)) is the volumetric expansion coefficient as a function of temperature T, and T i (\ displaystyle T_ (i)), T f (\ displaystyle T_ (f)) are the initial and final temperatures respectively.
For isotropic materials the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is three times the linear coefficient:
This ratio arises because volume is composed of three mutually orthogonal directions. Thus, in an isotropic material, for small differential changes, one - third of the volumetric expansion is in a single axis. As an example, take a cube of steel that has sides of length L. The original volume will be V = L 3 (\ displaystyle V = L ^ (3)) and the new volume, after a temperature increase, will be
So
The above approximation holds for small temperature and dimensional changes (that is, when Δ T (\ displaystyle \ Delta T) and Δ L (\ displaystyle \ Delta L) are small); but it does not hold if we are trying to go back and forth between volumetric and linear coefficients using larger values of Δ T (\ displaystyle \ Delta T). In this case, the third term (and sometimes even the fourth term) in the expression above must be taken into account.
Similarly, the area thermal expansion coefficient is two times the linear coefficient:
This ratio can be found in a way similar to that in the linear example above, noting that the area of a face on the cube is just L 2 (\ displaystyle L ^ (2)). Also, the same considerations must be made when dealing with large values of Δ T (\ displaystyle \ Delta T).
Materials with anisotropic structures, such as crystals (with less than cubic symmetry, for example martensitic phases) and many composites, will generally have different linear expansion coefficients α L (\ displaystyle (\ frac () ()) \ alpha _ (L)) in different directions. As a result, the total volumetric expansion is distributed unequally among the three axes. If the crystal symmetry is monoclinic or triclinic, even the angles between these axes are subject to thermal changes. In such cases it is necessary to treat the coefficient of thermal expansion as a tensor with up to six independent elements. A good way to determine the elements of the tensor is to study the expansion by x-ray powder diffraction.
For an ideal gas, the volumetric thermal expansion (i.e., relative change in volume due to temperature change) depends on the type of process in which temperature is changed. Two simple cases are constant pressure (an isobaric process) and constant volume (an isochoric process).
The derivative of the ideal gas law, P V = T (\ displaystyle PV = T), is
where P (\ displaystyle P) is the pressure, V (\ displaystyle V) is the specific volume, and T (\ displaystyle T) is temperature measured in energy units.
By definition of an isobaric thermal expansion, we have d P = 0 (\ displaystyle dP = 0), so that P d V = d T (\ displaystyle PdV = dT), and the isobaric thermal expansion coefficient is
Similarly, if the volume is held constant, that is if d V = 0 (\ displaystyle dV = 0), we have V d P = d T (\ displaystyle VdP = dT), so that the isochoric thermal expansion is
Theoretically, the coefficient of linear expansion can be found from the coefficient of volumetric expansion (α ≈ 3α). For liquids, α is calculated through the experimental determination of α. Liquids, unlike solids have no definite shape and they take the shape of the container. Consequently, liquids have no definite length and area, so linear and areal expansions of liquids have no significance.
Liquids in general, expand on heating. However water is an exception to this general behaviour: Below 4 ° C it contracts on heating. For higher temperature it shows the normal positive thermal expansion. The thermal expansions of liquid is usually higher than in solids because of weak intermolecular forces present in liquids.
Thermal expansion of solids usually shows little dependence on temperature (except for low temperatures) whereas liquids expand at different rates at different temperatures.
The expansion of liquids is usually measured in a container. When a liquid expands in a vessel, the vessel expands along with the liquid. Hence the observed increase in volume of the liquid level is not actual increase in its volume. The expansion of the liquid relative to the container is called as Apparent Expansion. the actual expansion of the liquid is called Real (or) Absolute expansion. The ratio of apparent increase in volume of the liquid per unit rise of temperature to the original volume is called as coefficient of apparent expansion.
For small and same rise in temperature the increase in volume (real expansion) of liquid is equal to the sum of apparent increase in volume (apparent expansion) of liquid and the increase in volume of the containing vessel. Thus a liquid has two coefficients of expansion.
When measuring the expansion of a liquid, the measurement must account for the expansion of the container as well. For example, a flask that has been constructed with a long narrow stem filled with enough liquid that the stem itself is partially filled, when placed in a heat bath will initially show the column of liquid in the stem to drop followed by the immediate increase of that column until the flask - liquid - heat bath system has thermalized. The initial observation of the column of liquid dropping is not due to an initial contraction of the liquid but rather the expansion of the flask as it contacts the heat bath first. Soon after, the liquid in the flask is heated by the flask itself and begins to expand. Since liquids typically have a greater expansion over solids, the liquid in the flask eventually exceeds that of the flask, causing the column of liquid in the flask to rise. A direct measurement of the height of the liquid column is a measurement of the apparent expansion of the liquid. The absolute expansion of the liquid is the apparent expansion corrected for the expansion of the containing vessel.
The expansion and contraction of materials must be considered when designing large structures, when using tape or chain to measure distances for land surveys, when designing molds for casting hot material, and in other engineering applications when large changes in dimension due to temperature are expected.
Thermal expansion is also used in mechanical applications to fit parts over one another, e.g. a bushing can be fitted over a shaft by making its inner diameter slightly smaller than the diameter of the shaft, then heating it until it fits over the shaft, and allowing it to cool after it has been pushed over the shaft, thus achieving a ' shrink fit '. Induction shrink fitting is a common industrial method to pre-heat metal components between 150 ° C and 300 ° C thereby causing them to expand and allow for the insertion or removal of another component.
There exist some alloys with a very small linear expansion coefficient, used in applications that demand very small changes in physical dimension over a range of temperatures. One of these is Invar 36, with α approximately equal to 0.6 × 10 K. These alloys are useful in aerospace applications where wide temperature swings may occur.
Pullinger 's apparatus is used to determine the linear expansion of a metallic rod in the laboratory. The apparatus consists of a metal cylinder closed at both ends (called a steam jacket). It is provided with an inlet and outlet for the steam. The steam for heating the rod is supplied by a boiler which is connected by a rubber tube to the inlet. The center of the cylinder contains a hole to insert a thermometer. The rod under investigation is enclosed in a steam jacket. One of its ends is free, but the other end is pressed against a fixed screw. The position of the rod is determined by a micrometer screw gauge or spherometer.
The control of thermal expansion in brittle materials is a key concern for a wide range of reasons. For example, both glass and ceramics are brittle and uneven temperature causes uneven expansion which again causes thermal stress and this might lead to fracture. Ceramics need to be joined or work in concert with a wide range of materials and therefore their expansion must be matched to the application. Because glazes need to be firmly attached to the underlying porcelain (or other body type) their thermal expansion must be tuned to ' fit ' the body so that crazing or shivering do not occur. Good example of products whose thermal expansion is the key to their success are CorningWare and the spark plug. The thermal expansion of ceramic bodies can be controlled by firing to create crystalline species that will influence the overall expansion of the material in the desired direction. In addition or instead the formulation of the body can employ materials delivering particles of the desired expansion to the matrix. The thermal expansion of glazes is controlled by their chemical composition and the firing schedule to which they were subjected. In most cases there are complex issues involved in controlling body and glaze expansion, adjusting for thermal expansion must be done with an eye to other properties that will be affected, generally trade - offs are required.
Thermal expansion can have a noticeable effect in gasoline stored in above ground storage tanks which can cause gasoline pumps to dispense gasoline which may be more compressed than gasoline held in underground storage tanks in the winter time or less compressed than gasoline held in underground storage tanks in the summer time.
Heat - induced expansion has to be taken into account in most areas of engineering. A few examples are:
Thermometers are another application of thermal expansion -- most contain a liquid (usually mercury or alcohol) which is constrained to flow in only one direction (along the tube) due to changes in volume brought about by changes in temperature. A bi-metal mechanical thermometer uses a bimetallic strip and bends due to the differing thermal expansion of the two metals.
Metal pipes made of different materials are heated by passing steam through them. While each pipe is being tested, one end is securely fixed and the other rests on a rotating shaft, the motion of which is indicated with a pointer. The linear expansion of the different metals is compared qualitatively and the coefficient of linear thermal expansion is calculated.
This section summarizes the coefficients for some common materials.
For isotropic materials the coefficients linear thermal expansion α and volumetric thermal expansion α are related by α = 3α. For liquids usually the coefficient of volumetric expansion is listed and linear expansion is calculated here for comparison.
For common materials like many metals and compounds, the thermal expansion coefficient is inversely proportional to the melting point. In particular for metals the relation is:
for halides and oxides
In the table below, the range for α is from 10 K for hard solids to 10 K for organic liquids. The coefficient α varies with the temperature and some materials have a very high variation; see for example the variation vs. temperature of the volumetric coefficient for a semicrystalline polypropylene (PP) at different pressure, and the variation of the linear coefficient vs. temperature for some steel grades (from bottom to top: ferritic stainless steel, martensitic stainless steel, carbon steel, duplex stainless steel, austenitic steel). The highest linear coefficient in a solid has been reported for a Ti - Nb alloy.
(The formula α ≈ 3α is usually used for solids.)
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what is the name of the dog in scooby-doo | Scooby - Doo (character) - wikipedia
Scoobert "Scooby '' Doo is the eponymous character and protagonist of the animated television franchise of the same name created in 1969 by the American animation company Hanna - Barbera. Scooby - Doo is a male Great Dane and lifelong companion of amateur detective Shaggy Rogers, with whom he shares many personality traits. Named after a nonsense vocal line in Frank Sinatra 's hit song "Strangers in the Night '', he features a mix of both canine and human behaviors (reminiscent of other funny animals in the Golden age of American animation), treated by his friends more or less as an equal while speaking in a famous (and much parodied) speech impediment. His catchphrase is "Scooby - Dooby - Doo! ''
Writers Joe Ruby and Ken Spears created the original Scooby - Doo series, Scooby - Doo, Where are You!, for Hanna - Barbera for CBS 's 1969 -- 70 Saturday morning cartoon schedule. Originally titled Mysteries Five, the dog who later became Scooby was originally more of a sidekick character -- a bongo - playing dog named "Too Much '' whose breed varied between Great Dane and sheepdog between treatments. By the time the series was pitched to the network as Who 's S-S - Scared? in early 1969, Too Much was solidified as a cowardly Great Dane. Both the dog and the series would be renamed Scooby - Doo by Fred Silverman, CBS 's head of daytime programming, between its unsuccessful first pitch and a second pitch which earned the show a green light. Silverman came up with the name from the syllables "doo - be-doo - be-doo '' in Frank Sinatra 's hit song "Strangers in the Night ''.
Taking notes from a Hanna - Barbera colleague who was also a breeder of Great Danes, Production designer Iwao Takamoto designed the Scooby - Doo character with a sloping chin, spots, a long tail, a sloped back, and bow legs -- all traits in direct opposition to those of a prize - winning purebred Great Dane. In defining the personality of the dog, Ruby and Spears looked for inspiration to the characters played by Bob Hope in his horror - comedies -- a coward who shows traits of bravery when his friends are in danger. Veteran H-B voice artist Don Messick was the original voice of Scooby and spent decades working on the character.
Scooby - Doo, Where Are You! premiered on CBS on September 13, 1969, at 10: 30 am. EST and ran for two seasons, for a total of 25 episodes. Its final first - run episode aired on October 31, 1970.
In most incarnations of the series, Scooby is regarded as a unique Great Dane dog who is able to speak in broken English, and usually puts the letter "R '' in front of words and noises made. Other incarnations, such as A Pup Named Scooby - Doo, present talking dogs as quite common in the larger fictional universe. In recent years (most notably in Scooby - Doo! Mystery Incorporated), Scooby is able to speak in complete sentences and has more dialogue, though partially retaining his speech impediment. He consistently shows about the same level of intelligence as his friends, while also being subject to the same knack for clumsiness and moments of being dimwitted as well.
Different iterations of the character have been developed and expanded in the various series featuring the characters, many of them contradicting, such as the original series and recent live - action movies where Shaggy and Scooby first meet as older teenagers for the first time. This contradicts the animated series A Pup Named Scooby - Doo, where they know each other from almost infancy, though the films may be seen as having a different continuity altogether than the cartoon products. As an adult canine, Scooby is usually treated as a mix of a pet and a friend by his companions.
In all versions of the character, Scooby and Shaggy share several personality traits, mostly being cowardly and perpetually hungry. Yet their friends (Fred, Daphne, and Velma) encourage them to go after the costumed villains, usually with "Scooby Snacks ''. The biscuit - like dog treat or cookie snack is usually shaped like a bone or, in later versions of the cartoons, Scooby 's dog tag. However, Scooby 's inherent loyalty and courage do often force him to take a more heroic stance even without any prodding. Scooby is also extremely ticklish, and this is seen in many of the television series and movies.
Scooby has a speech impediment and tends to pronounce most words as if they begin with an "R ''; however, most characters are able to understand him almost perfectly. In most iterations, he keeps his sentences relatively short, usually using charades for anything longer than three or four words. His catchphrase, usually howled at the end of every production, is "Scooby - Dooby - Doo! '' or "Rooby - Rooby - Roo ''. Scooby was voiced by Don Messick through Arabian Nights in 1994, after which point Messick quit smoking; quitting smoking changed his voice and prevented him from achieving the same raspy vocal effect (despite Messick 's efforts, he suffered a career - ending stroke in 1996 and died in 1997, before any further Scooby - Doo productions were made). Messick is also known for providing the voice of the dogs Astro on The Jetsons and Muttley (who snickered). The characteristic speech impediments of Scooby and Astro are so similar that Astro 's signature phrase, "Ruh - roh! '', is popularly and improperly attributed to Scooby (as in "Ruh - roh, Raggy! ''); of the two voices, Scooby 's had a deeper and throatier timbre than Astro 's.
Scooby is brown from head to toe with several distinctive black spots on his upper body and does not seem to have a melanistic mask. He is generally a quadruped but displays bipedal ' human ' characteristics occasionally. Scooby also has opposable thumbs and can use his front paws like hands. He has a black nose and wears an off - yellow, diamond - shaped - tagged blue collar with an "SD '' (his initials) and has four toes on each foot. Unlike other dogs, Scooby only has one pad on the sole of each of his feet (so that it was easier to draw in the Scooby - Doo Annuals).
Scooby has a fully prehensile tail he can use to swing from or press buttons. Both his head and tail are malleable and useful as a communication aid or creating a distraction.
Creator Iwao Takamoto later explained that before he designed the character, he first spoke to a Great Dane breeder, who described to him the desirable characteristics of a pedigree dog. Takamoto then drew Scooby as the opposite of this. He said "I decided to go the opposite (way) and gave him a hump back, bowed legs, small chin and such. Even his color is wrong. ''
According to the official magazine that accompanied the 2002 movie, Scooby is seven years old.
Don Messick originated the character 's speech patterns and provided Scooby - Doo 's voice in every Scooby - Doo production from 1969 until 1994 's Scooby - Doo! in Arabian Nights. Voice actor Hadley Kay voiced the character for a brief period in 1997, for two episodes of Johnny Bravo, and a few television commercials. Scott Innes (also the then - voice of Shaggy) voiced Scooby - Doo in four late 1990s / early 2000s direct - to - video films and continued to voice the character regularly for toys and video games (such as Scooby - Doo! Night of 100 Frights) until 2008. Neil Fanning provided the voice of the computer - generated Scooby - Doo in the 2002 live - action film and its 2004 sequel. Frank Welker (also the voice of Fred since 1969) has voiced Scooby since 2002, taking over beginning with What 's New, Scooby - Doo? and other spin - offs including the live - action prequels Scooby - Doo! The Mystery Begins and Scooby - Doo! Curse of the Lake Monster. Dave Coulier and Seth Green have both voiced the character in Robot Chicken.
Voiced By:
Voiced by in unofficial material and other languages:
Over the course of Scooby - Doo 's various spin - offs, various relatives of Scooby were introduced:
Casey Kasem, the previous voice actor for Shaggy Rogers, said that Scooby is "the star of the show -- the Shaquille O'Neal of the show. '' Kasem explained "People love animals more than they love people. Am I right or wrong? They give more love to their pets than they give to people. Scooby is vulnerable and lovable and not brave, and very much like the kids who watch. But like kids, he likes to think that he 's brave. ''
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the life and adventure of santa claus 2000 | The Life & Adventures of Santa Claus (2000 film) - wikipedia
The Life & Adventures of Santa Claus is a 2000 film created by Mike Young Productions and released by Universal Studios Home Entertainment. It is based on the 1902 L. Frank Baum novel of the same name.
In the Forest of Burzee, where many immortals live (such as Knooks, fairies, and nymphs), their leader, Ak, the Master Woodsman of the World (governor of all forests), finds a human baby abandoned and places him in the care of the lioness, Shiegra. A wood nymph named Necile thereupon adopts the baby; later named Nicholas. Meanwhile, a shapeshifting pixie named Wisk is catapulted to Burzee over the mountain where the evil Awgwas live. When Nicholas reaches young adulthood, Ak shows him how mortals live, giving him a magic sash that makes him invisible. Nicholas sees that the humans, mostly the children, live cruel and unfair lives, mostly in poverty or child abuse (enforced by the Awgwas). Eventually, Nicholas and Wisk move to a spot near both Necile and the humans. The Knooks build a house for him, and Necile gives him a cat, whom he names Blinky. Nicholas travels to a village, in which he stops a baby from crying, and a girl named Megan talks for the first time. To help the children, Nicholas carves a toy cat of Blinky. One day in winter, Ethan the Cripple, a boy from a village, travels to his house to bring him a leaning stick. He nearly freezes to death, but Nicholas takes him into his house, much to the disappointment of King Mogorb, leader of the Awgwas. When he meets Blinky, Nicholas gives him the toy cat.
Nicholas makes more toys to give to children: mostly cats, and later birds, ponies, and doll figures of Necile. He also carves a image toy of Shiegra who comes to say goodbye to Nicholas as the end of her days on Earth grew near. After giving the children toys and bringing them happiness the Awgwas break into Nicholas 's house and send him to another forest but he returns soon after and continues to make toys for the children and his house grows bigger. Eventually, Nicholas ages. A Knook named Will gives him two reindeer, Mistletoe and Holly, to pull a sled so he can travel to the villages in winter, telling him to return before daybreak. For leaving many toys for the children, he becomes known as Saint Nicholas, or Santa Claus. But when he returns after daybreak Will tells him he can not use the reindeer anymore so while attempting to deliver more toys, Nicholas is attacked by the Awgwas, who steal all his toys. When they later attack Natalie, a princess, coming to see him, he brings this problem to Ak. Ak decides that Nicholas should travel to villages once a year, and that this day should be Christmas, and Will gives him eight reindeer for his sled. Unable to tolerate the Awgwas ' misdeeds, Ak and the other immortals decide to finish them once and for all and after a fierce battle they transform them into birds and insects, and retrieve the stolen toys. Every Christmas thereafter, Nicholas makes his trips to the villages, beginning the tradition of Christmas Trees by putting some in darker homes, and placing smaller gifts in stockings left up to dry. Some children leave milk and cookies for him, in return. Near the end of Nicholas ' days, as the Angel of Death is coming for him, Ak holds an immortals ' council, asking to make Nicholas immortal. Bo, Master Mariner of the World (governor of all water), calls for a vote. When the vote is in favor of using the Mantle of Immortality on Santa Claus, Ak tells the Angel of Death not to take him, and places the mantle around him (and Blinky) while he is asleep. Now immortal, Santa Claus, aided by Blinky and Wisk, continues giving people gifts at Christmas; the end showing a Christmas many years in the future.
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where was the last king of scotland filmed | The Last King of Scotland (film) - wikipedia
The Last King of Scotland is a 2006 historical drama film based on Giles Foden 's novel The Last King of Scotland (1998), adapted by screenwriters Peter Morgan and Jeremy Brock, and directed by Kevin Macdonald. The film was a co-production between companies from the United Kingdom and Germany.
The film tells the fictional story of Nicholas Garrigan (James McAvoy), a young Scottish doctor who travels to Uganda and becomes the personal physician of President Idi Amin (Forest Whitaker). The film is based on events of Amin 's rule, and the title comes from a reporter in a press conference who wishes to verify whether Amin, who was known to adopt fanciful imperial titles for himself, declared himself the King of Scotland. The film has an approval rating of 87 % at Rotten Tomatoes, and Whitaker won Best Actor at the 2006 Academy Awards, among other accolades.
In 1970, Nicholas Garrigan graduates from medical school at the University of Edinburgh. With dull prospects at home, he decides to seek adventure abroad by working at a Ugandan missionary clinic run by Dr. David Merrit and his wife, Sarah. Garrigan becomes attracted to Sarah, who enjoys the attention, but refuses to engage in an extramarital affair.
Meanwhile, General Idi Amin overthrows incumbent president Milton Obote in a coup d'état. Garrigan sincerely believes Amin will help the country, while Sarah warns him of presidents who have taken over before.
Garrigan is called to a minor car accident where he treats Amin 's hand. During the incident, Garrigan takes a gun and shoots a mortally wounded cow because no one else has the presence of mind to put it out of its misery. Amin is impressed by his quick action and initiative. Amin, fond of Scotland as a symbol of resilience and admiring of the Scottish people for their resistance to the English, is delighted to discover Garrigan 's nationality and exchanges his military shirt for Garrigan 's Scotland shirt. Later, Amin invites Garrigan to become his personal physician and take charge of modernising the country 's health care system.
Garrigan soon becomes Amin 's trusted confidant and is relied on for much more than medical care, such as matters of state. Although Garrigan is aware of violence around Kampala, he accepts Amin 's explanation that cracking down on the opposition will bring lasting peace to the country. Garrigan discovers that the polygamous leader has ostracised the youngest of his three wives, Kay, because she has given birth to an epileptic son, Mackenzie. When treating Mackenzie, Garrigan and Kay form a relationship and sleep with each other, but Kay tells him he must find a way to leave Uganda. Eventually, Garrigan begins to lose faith in Amin as he witnesses the increasing paranoia, murders, and xenophobia. Amin replaces Garrigan 's British passport with a Ugandan one to prevent him from escaping, which leads Garrigan to frantically seek help from Stone, the local British Foreign Office representative. Garrigan is told the British will help him leave Uganda if he uses his position to assassinate Amin, but Garrigan refuses.
Kay informs Garrigan that she has become pregnant with his child. Aware that Amin will murder her for infidelity if he discovers this, she begs Garrigan for a secret abortion. Delayed by Amin 's command that he attend a press conference with Western journalists, Garrigan fails to meet Kay at the appointed time. She concludes she has been abandoned and seeks out a primitive abortion in a nearby village, where she is apprehended by Amin 's forces. Garrigan finds her dismembered corpse on an autopsy table and falls retching to his knees, finally confronting the inhumanity of Amin 's regime and decides killing him will end it all.
A hijacked aircraft is flown to Entebbe by pro-Palestinian hijackers seeking asylum. Amin, sensing a major publicity opportunity, rushes to the scene, taking Garrigan along. At the airport, one of Amin 's bodyguards discovers Garrigan 's plot to poison Amin under the ruse of giving him pills for a headache. Garrigan is beaten by Amin 's henchmen before Amin arrives and discloses he is aware of the relationship with Kay. As punishment, Garrigan 's chest is pierced with meat hooks before he is hanged by his skin.
Amin arranges a plane for the release of non-Israeli passengers, and the torturers leave Garrigan unconscious on the floor while they relax in another room. Garrigan 's medical colleague, Dr. Junju, takes advantage of the opportunity to rescue him. He urges Garrigan to tell the world the truth about Amin 's regime, asserting that the world will believe Garrigan because he is white. Junju gives Garrigan his own jacket, enabling him to mingle unnoticed with the crowd of freed hostages and board the plane. When the torturers discover Garrigan 's absence, Junju is killed for aiding in the escape. Amin is informed too late to prevent it, while Garrigan tearfully remembers the people of Uganda.
The Last King of Scotland received a limited release in the United States on 27 September 2006, a UK release on 12 January 2007, a French release on 14 February 2007, and a German release on 15 March 2007. In the United States and Canada, the film earned $17,606,684 at the box office. In the United Kingdom, the film took $11,131,918. Its combined worldwide gross was $48,362,207.
The Last King of Scotland has an approval rating of 87 % on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 183 reviews, with an average score of 7.3 out of 10. The website 's critical consensus states: "Forest Whitaker 's performance as real - life megalomaniac dictator Idi Amin powers this fictionalized political thriller, a blunt and brutal tale about power and corruption ''. At Metacritic, the film has a score of 74 out of 100 based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Whitaker won in the best leading actor category at the Academy Awards, the Golden Globes, the Screen Actors Guild Awards and the BAFTAs. In addition, Whitaker also won awards from the Broadcast Film Critics Association, New York Film Critics ' Circle, Los Angeles Film Critics ' Association, the National Board of Review and many other critics awards, for a total of at least 23 major awards, with at least one more nomination.
The film received a 2007 BAFTA Award for Best British Film and the BAFTA award for Best Adapted Screenplay, in addition to receiving nominations for Best Film. McAvoy was nominated for Best Supporting Actor.
The film was received well in Uganda, where it premiered two days before Whitaker won the Best Actor Academy Award.
While the character of Idi Amin and the events surrounding him in the film are mostly based on fact, Garrigan is a fictional character. Foden has acknowledged that one real - life figure who contributed to the character Garrigan was English - born Bob Astles, who worked with Amin. Another real - life figure who has been mentioned in connection with Garrigan is Scottish doctor Wilson Carswell. Like the novel on which it is based, the film mixes fiction with real events in Ugandan history to give an impression of Amin and Uganda under his rule. While the basic events of Amin 's life are followed, the film often departs from actual history in the details of particular events.
In real life and in the book, Kay Amin was impregnated by her lover Dr. Mbalu Mukasa. She died during a botched abortion operation performed by Mukasa, who subsequently committed suicide. Bob Astles said in a lengthy interview with the journalist Paul Vallely in The Times that her body was dismembered by her lover so it could be hidden and was then sewn back together on Amin 's orders. Amin never had a son named Campbell.
Contrary to the wording of the film 's coda stating "48 hours later, Israeli Forces stormed Entebbe and liberated all but one of the hostages '', three hostages died during Operation Entebbe. The body of a fourth hostage, 75 - year - old Dora Bloch, who was killed by Ugandan Army officers at a nearby hospital in retaliation for Israel 's actions, was eventually returned to Israel.
Some historians believe the film and its depiction of Amin are comparable with the Shakespearean character Macbeth. According to Foden, adapting the titular character from Macbeth as a Third World dictator is plausible.
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where is fifa 2018 going to be held | 2018 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 2018 FIFA World Cup will be the 21st FIFA World Cup, a quadrennial international football tournament contested by the men 's national teams of the member associations of FIFA. It is scheduled to take place in Russia from 14 June to 15 July 2018, after the country was awarded the hosting rights on 2 December 2010. This will be the first World Cup held in Europe since the 2006 tournament in Germany; all but one of the stadium venues are in European Russia, west of the Ural Mountains to keep travel time manageable.
The final tournament will involve 32 national teams, which include 31 teams determined through qualifying competitions and the automatically qualified host team. Of the 32 teams, 20 will be making back - to - back appearances following the last tournament in 2014, including defending champions Germany, while Iceland and Panama will both be making their first appearances at a FIFA World Cup. A total of 64 matches will be played in 12 venues located in 11 cities. The final will take place on 15 July at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow.
The winners of the World Cup will qualify for the 2021 FIFA Confederations Cup.
The bidding procedure to host the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups began in January 2009, and national associations had until 2 February 2009 to register their interest. Initially, nine countries placed bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, but Mexico later withdrew from proceedings, and Indonesia 's bid was rejected by FIFA in February 2010 after the Indonesian government failed to submit a letter to support the bid. During the bidding process, the three remaining non-UEFA nations (Australia, Japan, and the United States) gradually withdrew from the 2018 bids, and the UEFA nations were thus ruled out of the 2022 bid. As such, there were eventually four bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup: England, Russia, Netherlands / Belgium, and Portugal / Spain.
The twenty - two - member FIFA Executive Committee convened in Zürich on 2 December 2010 to vote to select the hosts of both tournaments. Russia won the right to be the 2018 host in the second round of voting. The Portugal / Spain bid came second, and that from Belgium / Netherlands third. England 's bid to host its second tournament fell at the first hurdle.
The voting results were as follows:
The process was not without criticism: allegations of bribery on the part of the Russian team and corruption from FIFA members were made particularly by the English Football Association. It was alleged that four members of the executive committee had requested bribes to vote for England, and Sepp Blatter said that it had already been arranged before the vote that Russia would win. Although the 2014 Garcia Report absolved Russia of any blame, the FA refused to accept this, with Greg Dyke calling for a reexamination of the affair and David Bernstein calling for a boycott of the World Cup.
For the first time in the history of the FIFA World Cup, all eligible nations -- the 209 FIFA member associations minus automatically qualified hosts Russia -- entered the qualifying process. Zimbabwe and Indonesia were later disqualified before playing their first matches, while Gibraltar and Kosovo, who joined FIFA on 13 May 2016 after the qualifying draw but before European qualifying had begun, also entered the competition. Places in the tournament were allocated to continental confederations, with the allocation unchanged from the 2014 World Cup. The first qualification game began in Dili, Timor Leste, on 12 March 2015 as part of the AFC 's qualification, and the main qualifying draw took place at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg on 25 July 2015 at 18: 00 local time (UTC + 3).
Of the thirty - two nations qualified to play at the 2018 FIFA World Cup, twenty countries competed at the previous edition of the tournament in 2014. Both Iceland and Panama qualified for the first time, with the former becoming the smallest country in terms of population to reach the World Cup. Other teams returning after absences of at least three tournaments include: Egypt, returning to the finals after a 28 - year absence from their last appearance in 1990; Morocco, who last competed in 1998; Peru, returning after a 36 - year absence (since 1982); and Senegal, competing for the second time after reaching the quarter - finals in 2002. It is the first time three Nordic countries (Denmark, Iceland and Sweden) and four Arab nations (Egypt, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and Tunisia) have qualified for the World Cup.
Notable countries that failed to qualify include four - time champions Italy (for the first time since 1958) and three - time runner - up Netherlands. Four reigning continental champions failed to qualify: 2017 Africa Cup of Nations winner Cameroon, two - time Copa América champion and 2017 Confederations Cup runner - up Chile, 2016 OFC Nations Cup winner New Zealand, and 2017 CONCACAF Gold Cup champion United States (for the first time since 1986). The other notable qualifying streaks broken were for Ghana and Ivory Coast, who had both made the previous three tournaments.
The draw was held on 1 December 2017, at 18: 00 MSK, at the State Kremlin Palace in Moscow. The 32 teams were drawn into eight groups of four.
For the draw, the teams were allocated to four pots based on the FIFA World Rankings of October 2017. Pot 1 contained the hosts Russia (who were automatically assigned to Position A1) and the best seven teams, Pot 2 contained the next best eight teams, and so on for Pots 3 and 4. This was different from previous draws, where only Pot 1 was based on FIFA Rankings while the remaining pots were based on geographical considerations. However, still retained was the fact that teams from the same confederation were not drawn against each other for the group stage, except for UEFA where each group contained up to two teams.
Russia (65) (hosts) Germany (1) Brazil (2) Portugal (3) Argentina (4) Belgium (5) Poland (6) France (7)
Spain (8) Peru (10) Switzerland (11) England (12) Colombia (13) Mexico (16) Uruguay (17) Croatia (18)
Denmark (19) Iceland (21) Costa Rica (22) Sweden (25) Tunisia (28) Egypt (30) Senegal (32) Iran (34)
Serbia (38) Nigeria (41) Australia (43) Japan (44) Morocco (48) Panama (49) South Korea (62) Saudi Arabia (63)
Each team must first name a preliminary squad of 30 players. From the preliminary squad, the team must name a final squad of 23 players (three of whom must be goalkeepers) by the FIFA deadline. Players in the final squad may be replaced due to serious injury up to 24 hours prior to kickoff of the team 's first match, where the replacement players do not need to be in the preliminary squad.
For players named in the 30 - player preliminary squad, there is a mandatory rest period between 21 and 27 May 2018, except for those involved in the 2018 UEFA Champions League Final played on 26 May.
In February 2018, it was announced that the number of players to be named in the provisional squads would be increased from 30 to 35.
Russia proposed the following host cities: Kaliningrad, Kazan, Krasnodar, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Rostov - on - Don, Saint Petersburg, Samara, Saransk, Sochi, Volgograd, Yaroslavl, and Yekaterinburg. All the cities are in or just outside European Russia to reduce travel time for the teams in the huge country. The bid evaluation report stated: "The Russian bid proposes 13 host cities and 16 stadiums, thus exceeding FIFA 's minimum requirement. Three of the 16 stadiums would be renovated, and 13 would be newly constructed. ''
In October 2011, Russia decreased the number of stadiums from 16 to 14. Construction of the proposed Podolsk stadium in the Moscow region was cancelled by the regional government, and also in the capital, Otkrytiye Arena was competing with Dynamo Stadium over which would be constructed first.
The final choice of host cities was announced on 29 September 2012. The number of cities was further reduced to 11 and number of stadiums to 12 as Krasnodar and Yaroslavl were dropped from the final list.
Sepp Blatter stated in July 2014 that due to concerns over the completion of venues in Russia, the number of venues for the tournament may be reduced from 12 to 10. He also said, "We are not going to be in a situation, as is the case of one, two or even three stadiums in South Africa, where it is a problem of what you do with these stadiums ''.
In October 2014, on their first official visit to Russia, FIFA 's inspection committee and its head Chris Unger visited St Petersburg, Sochi, Kazan and both Moscow venues. They were satisfied with the progress.
On 8 October 2015, FIFA and the Local Organising Committee agreed on the official names of the stadiums used during the tournament.
Of the 12 venues used, the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow and the Saint Petersburg Stadium (the two largest stadiums in Russia) will be used most, with 7 matches being played at each of these stadiums. Sochi, Kazan, Nizhny Novogrod and Samara will host 6 matches including one quarter - final match apiece, and the Otkrytiye Stadium in Moscow and Rostov - on - Don will host 5 matches apiece including one round of 16 match each. Volgograd, Kaliningrad, Yekaterinburg and Saransk will host 4 matches each and none of these cities will host any knockout stage games.
Base camps were used by the 32 national squads to stay and train before and during the World Cup tournament. On 9 February 2018, FIFA announced the base camps for each participating team.
The full schedule was announced by FIFA on 24 July 2015 (without kick - off times, which were confirmed later). On 1 December 2017, following the final draw, six kick - off times were adjusted by FIFA. Russia was placed in position A1 in the group stage and will play in the opening match at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow on 14 June against Saudi Arabia, the two lowest ranked teams of the tournament at the time of the final draw. The Luzhniki Stadium will also host the second semi-final on 11 July and the final on 15 July. The Krestovsky Stadium in Saint Petersburg will host the first semi-final on 10 July and the third place play - off on 14 July.
The top two teams of each group advance to the round of 16. Matches are played on a round - robin basis.
All times listed are local time.
The rankings of teams in each group are determined as follows (regulations Article 32.5):
If two or more teams are equal on the basis of the above three criteria, their rankings are determined as follows:
Russia v Saudi Arabia
Egypt v Uruguay
Russia v Egypt
Uruguay v Saudi Arabia
Uruguay v Russia
Saudi Arabia v Egypt
Morocco v Iran
Portugal v Spain
Portugal v Morocco
Iran v Spain
Iran v Portugal
Spain v Morocco
France v Australia
Peru v Denmark
Denmark v Australia
France v Peru
Denmark v France
Australia v Peru
Argentina v Iceland
Croatia v Nigeria
Argentina v Croatia
Nigeria v Iceland
Nigeria v Argentina
Iceland v Croatia
Costa Rica v Serbia
Brazil v Switzerland
Brazil v Costa Rica
Serbia v Switzerland
Serbia v Brazil
Switzerland v Costa Rica
Germany v Mexico
Sweden v South Korea
South Korea v Mexico
Germany v Sweden
South Korea v Germany
Mexico v Sweden
Belgium v Panama
Tunisia v England
Belgium v Tunisia
England v Panama
England v Belgium
Panama v Tunisia
Colombia v Japan
Poland v Senegal
Japan v Senegal
Poland v Colombia
Japan v Poland
Senegal v Colombia
In the knockout stages, if a match is level at the end of normal playing time, extra time is played (two periods of 15 minutes each) and followed, if necessary, by a penalty shoot - out to determine the winners.
Winners Group C v Runners - up Group D
Winners Group A v Runners - up Group B
Winners Group B v Runners - up Group A
Winners Group D v Runners - up Group C
Winners Group E v Runners - up Group F
Winners Group G v Runners - up Group H
Winners Group F v Runners - up Group E
Winners Group H v Runners - up Group G
Winners Match 49 v Winners Match 50
Winners Match 53 v Winners Match 54
Winners Match 55 v Winners Match 56
Winners Match 51 v Winners Match 52
Winners Match 57 v Winners Match 58
Winners Match 59 v Winners Match 60
Losers Match 61 v Losers Match 62
Winners Match 61 v Winners Match 62
Prize money amounts were announced in October 2017.
The tournament logo was unveiled on 28 October 2014 by cosmonauts at the International Space Station and then projected onto Moscow 's Bolshoi Theatre during an evening television programme. Russian Sports Minister Vitaly Mutko said that the logo was inspired by "Russia 's rich artistic tradition and its history of bold achievement and innovation '', and FIFA President Sepp Blatter stated that it reflected the "heart and soul '' of the country. For the branding, a typeface called Dusha (from Душа, Russian for soul) was created by Portuguese design agency Brandia Central in 2014.
The official FIFA World Cup mascot for the 2018 tournament, a wolf named Zabivaka ("the one who scores '' in Russian), was unveiled on 21 October 2016. Representing an anthropomorphic wolf with brown and white wool T - shirt with the words "RUSSIA 2018 '' and orange sport glasses. The combination of white, blue and red T - shirt and shorts are the national colors of the Russian team. The student designer is Ekaterina Bocharova, and the mascot was selected by Internet voting.
The election results were announced on 22 October 2016, in the Evening Urgant on Channel One Russia. Wolf, named Zabivaka, scored 53 % of the vote, ahead of Tiger (27 %). Cat, with 20 % of the vote, was third. More than 1 million people participated in the voting, which took place during September 2016 on the FIFA platforms, as well as during the live broadcast on Channel One, where the results of the creative competition were announced.
The first phase of ticket sales started on 14 September 2017, 12: 00 Moscow time, and lasted until 12 October 2017. The general visa policy of Russia will not apply to the World Cup participants and fans, who will be able to visit Russia without a visa right before and during the competition regardless of their citizenship.
As with the 2014 Winter Olympics, the choice of Russia as host has been challenged. Controversial issues have included the level of racism in Russian football, and discrimination against LGBT people in wider Russian society. Russia 's involvement in the ongoing conflict in Ukraine has also caused calls for the tournament to be moved, particularly following the annexation of Crimea. FIFA President Sepp Blatter said: "The World Cup has been given and voted to Russia and we are going forward with our work ''.
Allegations of corruption in the bidding processes for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups caused threats from England 's FA to boycott the tournament. FIFA appointed Michael J. Garcia, a US attorney, to investigate and produce a report (the Garcia Report) on the corruption allegations. Although the report was never published, FIFA released a 42 - page summary of its findings as determined by German judge Hans - Joachim Eckert. Eckert 's summary cleared Russia and Qatar of any wrongdoing, but was denounced by critics as a whitewash. Garcia criticised the summary as being "materially incomplete '' with "erroneous representations of the facts and conclusions '', and appealed to FIFA 's Appeal Committee. The committee declined to hear his appeal, so Garcia resigned in protest of FIFA 's conduct, citing a "lack of leadership '' and lack of confidence in the independence of Eckert.
On 3 June 2015, the FBI confirmed that the federal authorities were investigating the bidding and awarding processes for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. In an interview published on 7 June 2015, Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA 's Audit And Compliance Committee, stated that "should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled ''.
Due to the financial crisis in the Russian economy, the budget for the preparations was cut a few times. In June 2015, a government decree cut the budget by $560 million, to a total of $11.8 billion.
After Morocco qualified for the tournament with a 2 -- 0 victory over Ivory Coast, the celebrations by the Moroccan community in Brussels turned into a riot with cars burnt, shops looted by some 300 rioters and 20 police officers injured. Firefighters sent to put out the fires were also attacked by the rioters.
Russia has had the most (51) Olympic medals stripped for doping violations -- the most of any country, four times the number of the runner - up, and nearly a third of the global total. From 2011 to 2015, more than a thousand Russian competitors in various sports, including summer, winter, and Paralympic sports, benefited from a cover - up. 33 footballers who are alleged to be part of the steroid program are listed in the McLaren Report.
On 5 December 2017 the IOC announced that Russia is not allowed to participate in the 2018 Winter Olympics. Deputy Prime Minister and President of the Russian Football Union Vitaly Mutko was banned for life from future Olympic Games for his role in the doping conspiracy.
On 22 December 2017 it was reported that FIFA fired a doctor who had been investigating doping in Russian football.
FIFA, through several companies, sold the broadcasting rights for the 2018 FIFA World Cup to various local broadcasters.
In the United States, the 2018 World Cup will be the first men 's World Cup whose rights will be held by Fox Sports. The elimination of the U.S. national team in qualifying led to concerns that U.S. interest and viewership of this World Cup would be reduced (particularly "casual '' viewers interested in the U.S. team), especially noting how much Fox paid for the rights, and that U.S. games at the 2014 World Cup peaked at 16.5 million viewers. During a launch event prior to the elimination, Fox stated that it had planned to place a secondary focus on the Mexican team in its coverage to take advantage of their popularity in the U.S.; the network stated that it still committed to broadcasting a significant amount of coverage for the tournament.
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who won the afl grand final last year | 2017 AFL grand final - Wikipedia
The 2017 AFL Grand Final was an Australian rules football game contested between the Adelaide Crows and the Richmond Tigers, held at the Melbourne Cricket Ground on 30 September 2017. It was the 121st annual grand final of the Australian Football League staged to determine the premiers for the 2017 AFL season. Richmond defeated Adelaide by 48 points, marking the club 's eleventh premiership and first since 1980. Richmond 's Dustin Martin won the Norm Smith Medal as the best player on the ground. The match was attended by 100,021 people, the largest crowd since the 1986 Grand Final.
Adelaide claimed the minor premiership for the second time in their history, finishing on top of the 2017 AFL ladder with 15 wins, 6 losses and 1 draw, edging out Geelong via a better percentage. The Crows recorded two dominant wins in the finals series, defeating Greater Western Sydney by 36 points in the qualifying final and then overwhelming Geelong to win the preliminary final by 61 points.
The Richmond Tigers improved immensely from their 13th - place finish last year, ending the home - and - away season with 15 wins and 7 losses (3 of which were by less than six points), placing them a very close third on the AFL ladder, their percentage giving them the edge over fourth - place Greater Western Sydney. Like Adelaide, Richmond faced tough opposition in the finals series but emerged with convincing victories. After a close first half, they ran away in the last quarter to defeat the higher ranked Geelong by 51 points in the qualifying final, which earnt them a week 's break and a home preliminary final against Greater Western Sydney, which they won by 36 points. Both were played at the Melbourne Cricket Ground before crowds in excess of 90,000, despite the first final being a home game for Geelong.
This was Richmond 's first grand final appearance in 35 years since 1982 (the club having last won a premiership in 1980) and Adelaide 's third appearance in the grand final (the club having won their last two grand finals in 1997 and 1998). This marked the first grand final since the inaugural VFL grand final 119 years earlier where neither team had any players to have previously played in a grand final.
Shortly after both teams qualified for the match, the AFL announced that Richmond would wear their rarely worn clash guernsey of predominantly yellow with a black sash, a decision which received severe criticism from ex-Richmond player Kevin Bartlett.
Richmond captain Trent Cotchin was scrutinised for an incident involving Greater Western Sydney midfielder Dylan Shiel in the preliminary final, though was cleared of any charge by the AFL Match Review Panel on the Monday of grand final week.
The two teams met only once in the home - and - away season in 2017, in Round 6, with Adelaide recording a 76 - point win at the Adelaide Oval. Bookmakers installed Adelaide as the favourites to win the grand final, with the Crows regarded by Sportsbet as $1.72 favourites compared to Richmond valued at $2.15 for the win.
The match was televised by the Seven Network. The match commentary line - up included Bruce McAvaney and Brian Taylor as play - by - play commentators, Wayne Carey and Cameron Ling were the analysts, while Tim Watson and Matthew Richardson were on the sideline as boundary riders. Hamish McLachlan and Basil Zempilas rotated hosting duties and Leigh Matthews, Nick Riewoldt and Daisy Pearce provided punditry as part of the pre-game panel.
This was the first grand final commentated by Brian Taylor on television, replacing veteran broadcaster Dennis Cometti who retired from television duties at the end of the 2016 season. McAvaney called his seventeenth grand final. It was also the first grand final in which Daisy Pearce was a member of the broadcast team.
The grand final was the most watched television program in Australia for the 2017 calendar year, for the fourth year running, with 2.72 million viewers in the five largest Australian metropolitan cities.
As has become custom in recent grand finals, the 2017 AFL Grand Final featured both pre-match and post-match entertainment on the ground. Several weeks before the match, the AFL announced that American rock band The Killers would headline the entertainment line - up, and would be joined by prominent Australian football singer Mike Brady. Former Australian representative at Eurovision Dami Im sang the national anthem. The Killers pre-match and post-match performance was praised highly by several news and entertainment outlets, some of whom described their sets as "the best ever '' performed at the Grand Final. Among others, the band played signatures songs Mr. Brightside, Somebody Told Me and When You Were Young, as well as newer song The Man and a cover of Midnight Oil 's Forgotten Years.
The Grand Final was played in cool, mostly cloudy conditions with light winds coming in from the southwest. Rain briefly fell at points during the second quarter but not enough to seriously influence the game.
Adelaide started the game strongly, with Matt Crouch finding Rory Sloane who kicked the Crows ' opener. Shortly afterwards, Nick Vlastuin slipped over near the Adelaide goal mouth and Eddie Betts kicked the Crows ' second. Richmond full forward Jack Riewoldt missed a string of chances for goal, and it took until the 16 - minute mark for the Tigers to score their first goal when Josh Caddy marked in the left forward pocket, ran round and converted. This was followed shortly after with a goal to Bachar Houli, which briefly gave Richmond the lead, before Sloane and Hugh Greenwood answered with crumbing majors for Adelaide to give the Crows a lead of 11 points at quarter - time.
The Crows had the first two scoring shots of the second term -- behinds to Betts and Tom Lynch -- but Richmond dominated the rest of the quarter. Tigers ' defender Alex Rance provided a pivotal moment three minutes into the term. With the Crows 13 points up and charging into attack, he effected a desperate diving spoil to deny Adelaide captain Taylor Walker on the lead at centre half - forward. Moments later, Riewoldt finally got on the board but he needed some sloppy defending from Adelaide, letting his kick bounce through with no one on the line and Jake Kelly 's late lunge ruled ineffective by a score review. Jacob Townsend, who had not played a game in the senior team before round 22, was then awarded a free kick in a marking contest just inside the 50 metre arc, and he converted the set shot to put Richmond within two points. Then 19 - year - old Jack Graham, the youngest player on the field, kicked Richmond 's fifth deep in time on to put Richmond in front, and they never trailed from there. A minute later Martin pushed deep forward and orchestrated a mismatch against Luke Brown, marked and kicked the Tigers ' fourth straight to put Richmond nine points up at half time.
Richmond started the second half in the same manner as they left off in the second. Three minutes into the term, a free for a high tackle from Sloane saw Jack Graham kick his side 's seventh. At the eight - minute mark, Shane Edwards managed to find an unguarded Shaun Grigg who converted a mark from 40 metres out. Ninety seconds later Grigg in turn passes to an open Kane Lambert full forward who snaps the Tigers ' ninth and the lead was out to 28 points. At the 14 - minute mark, Richmond 's string of unbroken goals was finally halted at seven as Walker marked inside 50 and converted, the Crows ' first major for a quarter and a half. But Graham soon answered with his third goal of the game. In time on, Martin took possession 25 metres out and fed the ball out to Jason Castagna, who snapped over his shoulder to effectively put the game beyond the reach of Adelaide, who trailed by 34 points at three quarter time.
Adelaide needed a record - breaking comeback to win, but Richmond opened the quarter with even more pressure. Riewoldt opened the quarter with his second goal from a well - contested mark inside the forward 50, then Lambert took advantage of an opening in the field to run it full forward and then pass to Dion Prestia to finish. The Crows tried to make a game of it, kicking two goals in 90 seconds through Walker and Brad Crouch. But any last hope for Adelaide was snuffed out as Townsend intercepted a kick - in and converted the mark for his second goal, and then Dan Butler added another for the Tigers before Martin kicked his second during time on. Charlie Cameron scored a late consolation goal for Adelaide.
Richmond dominated the game after quarter time with a streak that included 11 of 12 goals. The Tigers smashed the Crows in contested possessions (170 - 140) and also won the clearances (45 - 39). Richmond kept Adelaide to their lowest score of the year and completely nullified a team that looked to have as potent an attack as seen in recent years, with the Crows kicking only four goals in the last three quarters and eight in the game.
Dustin Martin was awarded the Norm Smith Medal, becoming the first player in VFL / AFL history to win a premiership, the Brownlow Medal and the Norm Smith Medal in the same season. Martin received a total of 13 Norm Smith votes out of a maximum of 15. Teammate Bachar Houli was the runner - up with 10 votes while no other player earned more than two votes. Three quarters of Martin 's 29 disposals were contested, and he collected 6 clearances and two goals.
The teams were announced on 28 September 2017. Both sides went into the match unchanged from their preliminary final teams. Injured Adelaide forward, Mitch McGovern failed to recover in time for selection, with Crows ' coach Don Pyke ruling him out of contention on the Wednesday of grand final week.
The umpiring panel, comprising three field umpires, four boundary umpires, two goal umpires and an emergency in each position is given below. All three field umpires, Matt Stevic, Simon Meredith and Shaun Ryan have umpired in previous AFL grand finals.
Numbers in brackets represent the number of grand finals umpired, including 2017.
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who played uncle fred in how to be a player | Def Jam 's How to Be a player - wikipedia
Def Jam 's How to Be a Player is a 1997 comedy film, starring Bill Bellamy, Natalie Desselle and Bernie Mac. The film was directed by Lionel C. Martin, and written by Mark Brown and Demetria Johnson.
The How to Be a Player Soundtrack, released by Def Jam Recordings on August 5, 1997, featured the hit single "Big Bad Mama '' by Foxy Brown featuring Dru Hill.
Drayton "Dray '' Jackson (Bill Bellamy) is a playboy with only one goal in his life: to have sex with as many women as possible. He dreamt that he got caught cheating on his girlfriend, Lisa, (Lark Voorhies) only to wake up for the dream to remind him not to get caught. The women he sleeps with are all a secret from Lisa, who comes over to his house for a bit to see him, before heading off from work. Dray 's sister, Jenny, (Natalie Desselle - Reid) also came by to his house to remind him about the cookout, Dray becomes fascinated with Jenny 's friend Katrina (Mari Morrow), he also invited her to a party his friend was hosting, but she told him she was busy.
Jenny could n't stand Dray 's ways of how he treats women. As soon as Dray leaves, she and Katrina snoop around and find Dray 's mobile black book of his women. Jenny plans to set Dray up at the party in a hostile environment, hoping that Dray, if he gets caught, will change his ways in the form of reform. As soon as Jenny and Katrina call the women and receive their numbers, they both leave out.
After Dray makes his daily rounds of having sex with his women (three of which are his main ones which includes: Robin, a married woman, (Beverly Johnson) Amber, a sexy thespian, (Amber Smith) and Sherri, a freaky dominatrix, (Stacii Jae Johnson)), Dray goes to the cookout for a bit before heading to the party. When he sees all of his women there, including Jenny and Katrina in which he found out that he was set up by them, he figures out a way get all of his women out of the party, without them noticing about each other and confrontation about Dray. He succeeds then heads to Jenny and Katrina to give a hindsight that when a player is put in a hostile environment, a player does n't reforms that he adapts to the situation. Dray leaves to go home, because he would be there to wait for Lisa to come see him after a long day at work.
Dray was ready for Lisa. However, at the last minute, Katrina showed up to apologize, yet she becomes fascinated with Dray in which this entire time she also fantasized about him. Before leaving, she made a move on Dray and they ended up having sex, in which she ended up having her fantasy fulfilled. Lisa returns and Katrina was able to leave without her noticing. However as Lisa changed into her nightwear, she sees a dress and heels with smears of lipstick conveying in a message: "Busted Adapt. '' It was clear that Katrina left those behind to set Dray up as Dray realizes that he finally got caught.
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what year did the rebel flag come out | Flags of the Confederate States of America - Wikipedia
Three successive designs served as the official national flag of the Confederate States of America (the "Confederate States '' or the "Confederacy '') during its existence from 1861 to 1865.
Since the end of the American Civil War, private and official use of the Confederacy 's flags, and of flags with derivative designs, has continued under philosophical, political, cultural, and racial controversy in the United States. These include flags displayed in states; cities, towns and counties; schools, colleges and universities; private organizations and associations; and by individuals.
The state flag of Mississippi features the Confederate army 's battle flag in the canton, or upper left corner, the only current U.S. state flag to do so. The state flag of Georgia is very similar to the first national flag of the Confederacy, the "Stars and Bars ''; a prior design incorporating the Confederate battle flag was in use from 1956 until 2001.
The first official national flag of the Confederacy, often called the Stars and Bars, flew from March 4, 1861, to May 1, 1863. It was designed by German / Prussian artist Nicola Marschall in Marion, Alabama, and resembled the flag of the Austrian Empire (later Austria - Hungary, now the Republic of Austria), with which Marschall would have been familiar. The "Stars and Bars '' flag was adopted March 4, 1861, in the first temporary national capital of Montgomery, Alabama, and raised over the dome of that first Confederate capitol. Marschall also designed the Confederate army uniform.
One of the first acts of the Provisional Confederate Congress was to create the Committee on the Flag and Seal, chaired by William Porcher Miles, a congressman and Fire - Eater from South Carolina. The committee asked the public to submit thoughts and ideas on the topic and was, as historian John M. Coski puts it, "overwhelmed by requests not to abandon the ' old flag ' of the United States. '' Miles had already designed a flag that later became known as the Confederate Battle Flag, and he favored his flag over the "Stars and Bars '' proposal. But given the popular support for a flag similar to the U.S. flag ("the Stars and Stripes '' -- originally established and designed in June 1777 during the Revolutionary War), the "Stars and Bars '' design was approved by the committee.
When the American Civil War broke out, the "Stars and Bars '' caused confusion on the battlefield at the First Battle of Bull Run because of its similarity to the U.S. flag, especially when it was hanging limp, down on the flagstaff. The "Stars and Bars '' was also criticized on ideological grounds for its resemblance to the U.S. flag. Many Confederates disliked the Stars and Bars, seeing it as symbolic of the centralized federal power the Confederate states were seceding from. As early as April 1861, a month after the flag 's adoption, some were already criticizing the flag, calling it a "servile imitation '' and a "detested parody '' of the U.S. flag. In January 1862, George William Bagby, writing for the Southern Literary Messenger, wrote that many Confederates disliked the flag. "Every body wants a new Confederate flag, '' Bagby wrote, also stating that "The present one is universally hated. It resembles the Yankee flag and that is enough to make it unutterably detestable. '' The editor of the Charleston Mercury expressed a similar view, stating that "It seems to be generally agreed that the ' Stars and Bars ' will never do for us. They resemble too closely the dishonored ' Flag of Yankee Doodle '... we imagine that the ' Battle Flag ' will become the Southern Flag by popular acclaim. '' In addition, William T. Thompson, the editor of the Savannah - based Daily Morning News also objected to the flag, due to its aesthetic similarity to the U.S. flag, which some Confederates negatively associated with emancipation and abolitionism. Thompson stated in April 1863 that he disliked the adopted flag "on account of its resemblance to that of the abolition despotism against which we are fighting. ''
Over the course of the flag 's use by the Confederacy, additional stars were added to the flag 's canton, eventually bringing the total number of stars on the flag to thirteen. This reflected the Confederacy 's claims of having admitted Kentucky and Missouri into the Confederacy. Although they were represented in the Confederate Congress for the duration of its meetings, and had shadow governments made up of deposed former state politicians, neither state was ever fully controlled or administered by the Confederacy. The first showing of the 13 - star flag was outside the Ben Johnson House in Bardstown, Kentucky; the 13 - star design was also in use as the Confederate navy 's battle ensign.
During the solicitation for a second Confederate national flag, many different types of designs were proposed, nearly all based on the battle flag, which by 1863 had become well - known and popular among those living in the Confederacy. The Confederate Congress specified that the new design be a white field "... with the union (now used as the battle flag) to be a square of two - thirds the width of the flag, having the ground red; thereupon a broad saltire of blue, bordered with white, and emblazoned with mullets or five - pointed stars, corresponding in number to that of the Confederate States. ''
The flag is also known as the Stainless Banner, and the matter of the person behind its design remains a point of contention. On April 23, 1863, the Savannah Morning News editor William Tappan Thompson, with assistance from William Ross Postell, a Confederate blockade runner, published an editorial championing a design featuring the battle flag on a white background he referred to later as "The White Man 's Flag. '' In explaining the white background, Thompson wrote, "As a people we are fighting to maintain the Heaven - ordained supremacy of the white man over the inferior or colored race; a white flag would thus be emblematical of our cause. '' In a letter to Confederate Congressman C.J. Villeré, dated April 24, 1863, a design similar to Thompson 's was proposed by General P.G.T. Beauregard, "whose earlier penchant for practicality had established the precedent for visual distinctiveness on the battlefield, proposed that ' a good design for the national flag would be the present battle - flag as Union Jack, and the rest all white or all blue '... The final version of the second national flag, adopted May 1, 1863, did just this: it set the St. Andrew 's Cross of stars in the Union Jack with the rest of the civilian banner entirely white. ''
The Confederate Congress debated whether the white field should have a blue stripe and whether it should be bordered in red. William Miles delivered a speech supporting the simple white design that was eventually approved. He argued that the battle flag must be used, but for a national flag it was necessary to emblazon it, but as simply as possible, with a plain white field. When Thompson received word the Congress had adopted the design with a blue stripe, he published an editorial on April 28 in opposition, writing that "the blue bar running up the centre of the white field and joining with the right lower arm of the blue cross, is in bad taste, and utterly destructive of the symmetry and harmony of the design. ''
Regardless of who truly originated the design of the Stainless Banner, whether by heeding Thompson 's editorials or Beauregard 's letter, the Stainless Banner was officially adopted by the Confederate Congress on May 1, 1863. The flags that were actually produced by the Richmond Clothing Depot used the 1.5: 1 ratio adopted for the Confederate navy 's battle ensign, rather than the official 2: 1 ratio.
Initial reaction to the second national flag was favorable, but over time it became criticized for being "too white. '' The Columbia - based Daily South Carolinian observed that it was essentially a battle flag upon a flag of truce and might send a mixed message. Military officers also voiced complaints about the flag being too white, for various reasons, such as the danger of being mistaken for a flag of truce, especially on naval ships, and that it was too easily soiled. Due to the flag 's resemblance to one of truce, some Confederates cut off the white portion of the flag, leaving only the canton.
The first official use of the "Stainless Banner '' was to drape the coffin of General Thomas J. "Stonewall '' Jackson as it lay in state in the Virginia capitol, May 12, 1863.
The third national flag (also called the "Blood Stained Banner '') was adopted March 4, 1865. The red vertical bar was proposed by Major Arthur L. Rogers, who argued that the pure white field of the Second National flag could be mistaken as a flag of truce: when hanging limp in no wind, the flag 's "Southern Cross '' canton could accidentally stay hidden, so the flag could mistakenly appear all white.
Rogers lobbied successfully to have this alteration introduced in the Confederate Senate. He defended his redesign as having "... as little as possible of the Yankee blue, '' and described it as symbolizing the primary origins of the people of the Confederacy, with the saltire of the Scottish flag and the red bar from the flag of France.
The Flag Act of 1865, passed by the Confederate congress near the very end of the War, describes the flag in the following language:
The Congress of the Confederate States of America do enact, That the flag of the Confederate States shall be as follows: The width two - thirds of its length, with the union (now used as the battle flag) to be in width three - fifths of the width of the flag, and so proportioned as to leave the length of the field on the side of the union twice the width of the field below it; to have the ground red and a broad blue saltire thereon, bordered with white and emblazoned with mullets or five pointed stars, corresponding in number to that of the Confederate States; the field to be white, except the outer half from the union to be a red bar extending the width of the flag.
Despite the passage of the Flag Act of 1865, very few of these third national flags were actually manufactured and put into use in the field, with many Confederates never seeing the flag. Moreover, the ones made by the Richmond Clothing Depot used the square canton of the second national flag rather than the slightly rectangular one that was specified by the law.
In addition to the national flags of the Confederacy, a wide variety of flags and banners were flown by Southerners during the War. Most famously, the "Bonnie Blue Flag '' was used as an unofficial flag during the early months of 1861. It was flying above the Confederate batteries that first opened fire on Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor, in South Carolina beginning the Civil War. The "Van Dorn battle flag '' was also carried by Confederate troops fighting in the Trans - Mississippi and Western theaters of war. In addition, many military units had their own regimental flags they would carry into battle.
The Army of Northern Virginia battle flag was square, of various sizes for the different branches of the service: 52 inches (130 cm) square for the infantry, 38 inches (97 cm) for the artillery, and 32 inches (81 cm) for the cavalry. Its design was derived from the previous Naval Jack of the Confederacy, which was rectangular. It was used in battle beginning in December 1861 until the fall of the Confederacy. The blue on the saltire in the battle flag was navy blue, as opposed to the much lighter blue of the Naval Jack.
This flag was used by the soldiers of the Army as the official flag was too similar to the Union 's flag. To avoid confusion on the battlefield, this flag was used consistently by almost the entire army.
The flag 's stars represented the number of states in the Confederacy. The distance between the stars decreased as the number of states increased, reaching thirteen when the secessionist factions of Kentucky and Missouri joined in late 1861.
At the First Battle of Manassas, near Manassas, Virginia, the similarity between the "Stars and Bars '' and the "Stars and Stripes '' caused confusion and military problems. Regiments carried flags to help commanders observe and assess battles in the warfare of the era. At a distance, the two national flags were hard to tell apart. In addition, Confederate regiments carried many other flags, which added to the possibility of confusion.
After the battle, General P.G.T. Beauregard wrote that he was "resolved then to have (our flag) changed if possible, or to adopt for my command a ' Battle flag ', which would be Entirely different from any State or Federal flag. '' He turned to his aide, who happened to be William Porcher Miles, the former chairman of the Confederate Congress 's Committee on the Flag and Seal. Miles described his rejected national flag design to Beauregard. Miles also told the Committee on the Flag and Seal about the general 's complaints and request that the national flag be changed. The committee rejected the idea by a four to one vote, after which Beauregard proposed the idea of having two flags. He described the idea in a letter to his commanding General Joseph E. Johnston: "I wrote to (Miles) that we should have ' two ' flags -- a ' peace ' or parade flag, and a ' war ' flag to be used only on the field of battle -- but congress having adjourned no action will be taken on the matter -- How would it do us to address the War Dept. on the subject of Regimental or badge flags made of red with two blue bars crossing each other diagonally on which shall be introduced the stars,... We would then on the field of battle know our friends from our Enemies. ''
The flag that Miles had favored when he was chairman of the "Committee on the Flag and Seal '' eventually became the battle flag and, ultimately, the most popular flag of the Confederacy. According to Museum of the Confederacy Director John Coski, Miles ' design was inspired by one of the many "secessionist flags '' flown at the South Carolina secession convention in Charleston of December 1860. That flag was a blue St George 's Cross (an upright or Latin cross) on a red field, with 15 white stars on the cross, representing the slaveholding states, and, on the red field, palmetto and crescent symbols. Miles received a variety of feedback on this design, including a critique from Charles Moise, a self - described "Southerner of Jewish persuasion. '' Moise liked the design but asked that "... the symbol of a particular religion not be made the symbol of the nation. '' Taking this into account, Miles changed his flag, removing the palmetto and crescent, and substituting a heraldic saltire ("X '') for the upright cross. The number of stars was changed several times as well. He described these changes and his reasons for making them in early 1861. The diagonal cross was preferable, he wrote, because "it avoided the religious objection about the cross (from the Jews and many Protestant sects), because it did not stand out so conspicuously as if the cross had been placed upright thus. '' He also argued that the diagonal cross was "more Heraldric (sic) than Ecclesiastical, it being the ' saltire ' of Heraldry, and significant of strength and progress. ''
According to Coski, the Saint Andrew 's Cross (also used on the flag of Scotland as a white saltire on a blue field) had no special place in Southern iconography at the time, and if Miles had not been eager to conciliate the Southern Jews, his flag would have used the traditional upright "Saint George 's Cross '' (as used on the flag of England, a red cross on a white field). A colonel named James B. Walton submitted a battle flag design essentially identical to Miles ' except with an upright Saint George 's cross, but Beauregard chose the diagonal cross design.
Miles ' flag and all the flag designs up to that point were rectangular ("oblong '') in shape. General Johnston suggested making it square to conserve material. Johnston also specified the various sizes to be used by different types of military units. Generals Beauregard and Johnston and Quartermaster General Cabell approved the design of the 12 - star Confederate Battle Flag at the Ratcliffe home, which served briefly as Beauregard 's headquarters, near Fairfax Court House in September 1861. The 12th star represented Missouri. President Jefferson Davis arrived by train at Fairfax Station soon after and was shown the design for the new battle flag at the Ratcliffe House. Hetty Cary and her sister and cousin made prototypes. One such 12 - star flag resides in the collection of Richmond 's Museum of the Confederacy and the other is in Confederate Memorial Hall in New Orleans.
On November 28, 1861, Confederate soldiers in General Robert E. Lee 's newly reorganized Army of Northern Virginia received the new battle flags in ceremonies at Centreville and Manassas, Virginia, and carried them throughout the Civil War. Beauregard gave a speech encouraging the soldiers to treat the new flag with honor and that it must never be surrendered. Many soldiers wrote home about the ceremony and the impression the flag had upon them, the "fighting colors '' boosting morale after the confusion at the Battle of First Manassas. From then on, the battle flag grew in its identification with the Confederacy and the South in general. Later, a 13th star was added for Kentucky.
The Army of Northern Virginia battle flag assumed a prominent place post-war when it was adopted as the copyrighted emblem of the United Confederate Veterans. Its continued use by the Southern Army 's post-war veterans groups, the United Confederate Veterans (U.C.V.) and the later Sons of Confederate Veterans, (S.C.V.), and elements of the design by related similar female descendants organizations of the United Daughters of the Confederacy, (U.D.C.), led to the assumption that it was, as it has been termed, the soldier 's flag or the Confederate battle flag.
The square "battle flag '' is also properly known as the flag of the Army of Northern Virginia. It was sometimes called Beauregard 's flag or the Virginia battle flag. A Virginia Department of Historic Resources marker declaring Fairfax, Virginia as the birthplace of the Confederate battle flag was dedicated on April 12, 2008, near the intersection of Main and Oak Streets, in Fairfax, Virginia.
The fledgling Confederate States Navy adopted and used several types of flags, banners, and pennants aboard all CSN ships: jacks, battle ensigns, and small boat ensigns, as well as commissioning pennants, designating flags, and signal flags.
The First Confederate Navy jacks, in use from 1861 to 1863, consisted of a circle of seven to fifteen five - pointed white stars against a field of "medium blue. '' It was flown forward aboard all Confederate warships while they were anchored in port. One seven - star jack still exists today (found aboard the captured ironclad CSS Atlanta) that is actually "dark blue '' in color (see illustration below, left).
The Second Confederate Navy Jack was a rectangular cousin of the Confederate Army 's battle flag and was in use from 1863 until 1865. It existed in a variety of dimensions and sizes, despite the CSN 's detailed naval regulations. The blue color of the diagonal saltire 's "Southern Cross '' was much lighter than the dark blue of the battle flag.
The first national flag, also known as the Stars and Bars (see above), served from 1861 to 1863 as the Confederate Navy 's first battle ensign. It was generally made with an aspect ratio of 2: 3, but a few very wide 1: 2 ratio ensigns still survive today in museums and private collections. As the Confederacy grew, so did the numbers of white stars seen on the ensign 's dark blue canton: seven -, nine -, eleven -, and thirteen - star groupings were typical. Even a few fourteen - and fifteen - starred ensigns were made to include states that were expected to secede but never completely joined the Confederacy.
The second national flag was later adapted as a naval ensign, using a shorter 2: 3 ratio than the 1: 2 ratio adopted by the Confederate Congress for the national flag. This particular battle ensign was the only example taken around the world, finally becoming the last Confederate flag lowered in the Civil War; this happened aboard CSS Shenandoah in Liverpool, England on November 7, 1865.
Despite never having historically represented the Confederate States of America as a country, nor officially recognized as one of its national flags, the rectangular Second Confederate Navy Jack and the Battle Flag of Northern Virginia are now flag types commonly referred to as the Confederate Flag. They both have become a widely recognized symbol of the Southern United States. It is also known as the rebel flag, Dixie flag, and Southern cross and is often incorrectly referred to as the Stars and Bars. The actual "Stars and Bars '' is the first national flag, which used an entirely different design.
As of the early 21st century, the "rebel flag '' has become a highly divisive symbol in the United States.
Drawing in the United Confederate Veterans 1895 Sponsor souvenir album
Jefferson Davis State Historic Site & Museum. The Bonnie Blue Flag is on the right.
Confederate National flag of Fort McAllister
Battle Flag of Fort McAllister
Confederate National Flag captured from Fort Jackson
Battle flag of the 11th Mississippi Infantry Regiment used at Antietam
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who is opening for katy perry's witness tour | Witness: the tour - wikipedia
Witness: The Tour is the fourth concert tour by American singer - songwriter Katy Perry, in support of her fifth studio album, Witness (2017). The tour began on September 19, 2017, in Montreal, Canada, at the Bell Centre, and is scheduled to conclude on August 21, 2018, in Auckland, New Zealand at the Spark Arena.
Perry first announced on May 15, 2017 that her fifth album Witness would be released on June 9, 2017, and that she would embark on Witness: The Tour in support of it. Copies of the album are included along with the purchased tickets. During the North American leg of the tour, one dollar from each ticket purchased will go to the Boys & Girls Clubs of America, and fans will also have a chance to win free tickets by doing volunteer work for that organization via Global Citizen.
In North America, Perry is scheduled to perform across the United States and Canada from September 2017 until February 2018. In October 2017, she announced three concerts in Mexico the following May taking place on the 3rd, 8th, and 11th. An additional concert for the country in Monterrey was added for May 9th after the first one sold out, and another show in Mexico City was added the following month for Mexico City on May 4th. In Europe, the singer is also scheduled to perform on 20 dates from May to June 2018. The tour will then visit Oceania from July 2018 to August 2018. In July 2017, three additional Australian dates were added following popular demand, resulting in 14 shows scheduled during the leg.
The tour was originally scheduled to begin in Columbus on September 7, 2017. However, Perry revealed on August 17 that due to production delays, the tour had been rescheduled to begin September 19, 2017, with the opening night set in Montreal at the Bell Centre. She also confirmed that Noah Cyrus, Purity Ring, and Carly Rae Jepsen would respectively serve as opening acts from September 19 to November 1, November 7 to December 20, and January 5, 2018 to February 5, 2018. The singer later added a final Canadian date for February 6 with Jepsen. Dates in Latin America were later added to the itinerary, including three dates in Brazil, one in Chile, Argentina and Peru, and five in Mexico.
Shortly before the show begins, the stage 's eye - shaped screen displays a video of Perry 's eye for a few moments. The eye transforms into a galaxy and a journey through outer space is shown, leading to a red - colored planet. The screen opens to reveal Perry riding upon a star - shaped structure, wearing a bejeweled and hooded red outfit with sunglasses. She performs the chorus of "Witness '', followed by "Roulette '' which she sings on top of giant climbable dice. "Dark Horse '' is then sung, with Perry and her dancers atop of moving platforms. Perry performs "Chained to the Rhythm '' next, with large puppets dressed in suits and sporting televisions for heads moving around the stage. A video interlude is played that shows a clock running backwards alongside childhood photos of Perry, as her backing singers perform portions of "Act My Age ''. Perry emerges wearing a pantsuit with a grid design, while her dancers wear shape - themed outfits. "Teenage Dream '' is performed, which culminates in Perry and her dancers performing synchronised choreography while sitting on a floating cuboid. Perry removes her jacket to reveal an LED top that displays the lyrics of "Hot n Cold '' as Perry performs the song with an electric guitar. "Hot n Cold '' transitions into "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.) '', which Perry and her backing singers perform at the front of the stage. Puppets in the shape of flamingos are guided around the stage by dancers during this number. Perry 's female dancers wear paper doll cut - outs of her most memorable outfits during "California Gurls '', and she is also joined by the Left Shark that featured in her Super Bowl XLIX halftime show. Perry and the Left Shark then typically bring out an oversized telephone, with which Perry calls someone close to her, such as her parents. Giant lips emerge from behind the stage, which Perry is lifted inside while performing "I Kissed a Girl ''.
An interlude is played, which features Perry floating through space. The stage is adorned with huge roses, and Perry emerges wearing a black - and - white, polka dot latex outfit. She performs "Déjà Vu '', followed by "Tsunami '', during which she dances on a rotating pole. Venus flytrap props are added to the stage, and Perry sings "E.T. '' as she is joined onstage by a dancer in stilts, dressed as an alien insect. "Bon Appétit '' is performed next. Towards the end of the song, jeweled flies are attached to Perry 's costume and she lies on a leaf, while dancers pour glitter on her from oversized salt and pepper shakers. The performance samples a portion of Janet Jackson 's song "What Have You Done for Me Lately '', which Perry performs with her backing singers. Perry exits the stage for a short time, while multi-colored planets descend from the venue 's ceiling, and Perry emerges from a planet wearing a crystal - covered gown and wig. She sings "Thinking of You '' with an acoustic guitar as the planet she is sitting on flies around the venue. Perry then moves to the Drop Zone, an area of the stage in which she is closest to fans. She invites a fan to join her on stage before singing "Power '', at the end of which Perry is given angel wings.
The next segment of the show is introduced with a video interlude showing Perry wearing a motorcycle helmet. She appears from behind the stage riding a motorcycle and wearing a striped blue outfit, and performs "Hey Hey Hey '', followed by "Part of Me ''. A huge basketball net appears on stage for "Swish Swish '', which Perry sings alongside dancers holding inflatable basketballs. Perry interrupts the song to hold an impromptu basketball game, during which she competes against a father of a young attendee from the audience. She finishes the song joined by her dancers on trampolines. "Roar '' is performed next, while a large lion 's head emerges from behind the screen. Perry returns to sing "Firework '' for the encore, which she performs wearing a sequined purple gown on top of a hand that rises from beneath the stage. Fireworks erupt on stage during the number. At the end of the song, the hand closes up with Perry inside as she ends the show.
Jon Caramanica from The New York Times said that the show was "game, wacky, mildly overcompensatory '' with an "impeccable '' set design, although he thought that the "new material '' she performed was "among her weakest ''. He praised Perry 's onstage charisma and despite he thought that her live vocals were often "low in the mix '', he complimented the acoustic performances when the singer sat down and played on a guitar. Jeffrey Lee Puckett from USA Today praised the visuals of the show, including the "non-stop blur of explosive lights, video, huge puppets, dancers, giant basketball goals, confetti and robot Venus flytraps ''. However, he felt the setlist was a "less successful '' aspect of the show, adding "Perry 's new songs from her Witness album do n't have the sharpness or pop exuberance of her older material, instead just kind of sliding into a generic beat - per - minute muddle. '' Jordan Zivitz from the Montreal Gazette said that "extra production time could have been used to adjust some visuals whose juxtapositions and statements were as confused as they were colourful '', but complimented Perry 's stage presence, adding that "the energy was certainly there, with the singer staying in constant motion on a multi-stage set for two hours. ''
This set list is from the show on October 2, 2017 in New York City. It is not intended to represent all concerts for the tour.
Encore:
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we have 2 states in nigeria with the same name and meaning | States of Nigeria - wikipedia
A Nigerian State is a federated political entity, which shares sovereignty with the Federal Government of Nigeria, There are 36 States in Nigeria, which are bound together by a federal agreement. There is also a territory called the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), which is not a state, but a territory, under the direct control of the Federal Government. The States are further divided into a total of 774 Local Government Areas. Under the Nigerian Constitution, states have the power to ratify constitutional amendments.
As sovereign entities, States of Nigeria have the right to organize / structure their individual governments in any way within the parameters set by the Constitution of Nigeria.
At the State level the legislature is unicameral with the number of its members equal to three times the amount of legislatures it has in the Federal House of Representatives, it has the power to legislate on matters on the concurrent list.
At the State level the Head of the executive is called the Governor who has the power to appoint people to the State Executive Council subject to the advice and consent of the State House of Assembly (Legislature). The Head of a ministry at the State level is called commissioner who is assisted by a permanent secretary who is also a senior civil servant of the State.
The Judiciary is one of the co-equal arms of the State government concerned with the interpretation of the laws of the State government. The Judiciary is headed by the Chief justice of the State appointed by the governor subject to the approval of the State House of Assembly.
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what is the current in the atlantic ocean called | Atlantic Ocean - Wikipedia
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world 's oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometers (41,100,000 square miles). It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earth 's surface and about 29 percent of its water surface area. It separates the "Old World '' from the "New World ''.
The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S - shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. As one component of the interconnected global ocean, it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean, to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south (other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica). The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean and the South Atlantic Ocean at about 8 ° N.
Scientific explorations of the Atlantic include the Challenger expedition, the German Meteor expedition, Columbia University 's Lamont - Doherty Earth Observatory and the United States Navy Hydrographic Office.
The oldest known mentions of an "Atlantic '' sea come from Stesichorus around mid-sixth century BC (Sch. A.R. 1. 211): Atlantikoi pelágei (Greek: Ἀτλαντικῷ πελάγει; English: ' the Atlantic sea '; etym. ' Sea of Atlantis ') and in The Histories of Herodotus around 450 BC (Hdt. 1.202. 4): Atlantis thalassa (Greek: Ἀτλαντὶς θάλασσα; English: ' Sea of Atlantis ' or ' the Atlantis sea ') where the name refers to "the sea beyond the pillars of Heracles '' which is said to be part of the ocean that surrounds all land. Thus, on one hand, the name refers to Atlas, the Titan in Greek mythology, who supported the heavens and who later appeared as a frontispiece in Medieval maps and also lent his name to modern atlases. On the other hand, to early Greek sailors and in Ancient Greek mythological literature such as the Iliad and the Odyssey, this all - encompassing ocean was instead known as Oceanus, the gigantic river that encircled the world; in contrast to the enclosed seas well - known to the Greeks: the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. In contrast, the term "Atlantic '' originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of million years ago.
The term "Aethiopian Ocean '', derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century. During the Age of Discovery, the Atlantic was also known to English cartographers as the Great Western Ocean.
The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defined the limits of the oceans and seas in 1953, but some of these definitions have been revised since then and some are not used by various authorities, institutions, and countries, see for example the CIA World Factbook. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies.
The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea and Barents Sea. To the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe: the Strait of Gibraltar (where it connects with the Mediterranean Sea -- one of its marginal seas -- and, in turn, the Black Sea, both of which also touch upon Asia) and Africa.
In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean. The 20 ° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60 ° parallel by the Southern Ocean.
The Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. These include the Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Caribbean Sea, Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, part of the Drake Passage, Gulf of Mexico, Labrador Sea, Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, Norwegian Sea, almost all of the Scotia Sea, and other tributary water bodies. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km (69,510 mi) compared to 135,663 km (84,297 mi) for the Pacific.
Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km (41,100,000 sq mi) or 23.5 % of the global ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km (74,471,500 cu mi) or 23.3 % of the total volume of the earth 's oceans. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km (31,570,000 sq mi) and has a volume of 305,811,900 km (73,368,200 cu mi). The North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km (16,020,000 sq mi) (11.5 %) and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km (15,550,000 sq mi) (11.1 %). The average depth is 3,646 m (11,962 ft) and the maximum depth, the Milwaukee Deep in the Puerto Rico Trench, is 8,486 m (27,841 ft).
The bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR). It runs from 87 ° N or 300 km (190 mi) south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42 ° S.
The MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2,000 m (6,600 ft) along most of its length, but is interrupted by larger transform faults at two places: the Romanche Trench near the Equator and the Gibbs Fracture Zone at 53 ° N. The MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other.
The MAR rises 2 -- 3 km (1.2 -- 1.9 mi) above the surrounding ocean floor and its rift valley is the divergent boundary between the North American and Eurasian plates in the North Atlantic and the South American and African plates in the South Atlantic. The MAR produces basaltic volcanoes in Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland, and pillow lava on the ocean floor. The depth of water at the apex of the ridge is less than 2,700 m (1,500 fathoms; 8,900 ft) in most places, while the bottom of the ridge is three times as deep.
The MAR is intersected by two perpendicular ridges: the Azores -- Gibraltar Transform Fault, the boundary between the Nubian and Eurasian plates, intersects the MAR at the Azores Triple Junction, on either side of the Azores microplate, near the 40 ° N. A much vaguer, nameless boundary, between the North American and South American plates, intersects the MAR near or just north of the Fifteen - Twenty Fracture Zone, approximately at 16 ° N.
In the 1870s, the Challenger expedition discovered parts of what is now known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, or:
An elevated ridge rising to an average height of about 1,900 fathoms (3,500 m; 11,400 ft) below the surface traverses the basins of the North and South Atlantic in a meridianal direction from Cape Farewell, probably its far south at least as Gough Island, following roughly the outlines of the coasts of the Old and the New Worlds.
The remainder of the ridge was discovered in the 1920s by the German Meteor expedition using echo - sounding equipment. The exploration of the MAR in the 1950s led to the general acceptance of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics.
Most of the MAR runs under water but where it reaches the surfaces it has produced volcanic islands. While nine of these have collectively been nominated a World Heritage Site for their geological value, four of them are considered of "Outstanding Universal Value '' based on their cultural and natural criteria: Þingvellir, Iceland; Landscape of the Pico Island Vineyard Culture, Portugal; Gough and Inaccessible Islands, United Kingdom; and Brazilian Atlantic Islands: Fernando de Noronha and Atol das Rocas Reserves, Brazil.
Continental shelves in the Atlantic are wide off Newfoundland, southern-most South America, and north - eastern Europe. In the western Atlantic carbonate platforms dominate large areas, for example the Blake Plateau and Bermuda Rise. The Atlantic is surrounded by passive margins except at a few locations where active margins form deep trenches: the Puerto Rico Trench (8,414 m or 27,605 ft maximum depth) in the western Pacific and South Sandwich Trench (8,264 m or 27,113 ft) in the South Atlantic. There are numerous submarine canyons off north - eastern North America, western Europe, and north - western Africa. Some of these canyons extend along the continental rises and farther into the abyssal plains as deep - sea channels.
In 1922 a historic moment in cartography and oceanography occurred. The USS Stewart used a Navy Sonic Depth Finder to draw a continuous map across the bed of the Atlantic. This involved little guesswork because the idea of sonar is straight forward with pulses being sent from the vessel, which bounce off the ocean floor, then return to the vessel. The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat with occasional deeps, abyssal plains, trenches, seamounts, basins, plateaus, canyons, and some guyots. Various shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11 % of the bottom topography with few deep channels cut across the continental rise.
The mean depth between 60 ° N and 60 ° S is 3,730 m (12,240 ft), or close to the average for the global ocean, with a modal depth between 4,000 and 5,000 m (13,000 and 16,000 ft).
In the South Atlantic the Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande Rise form barriers to ocean currents. The Laurentian Abyss is found off the eastern coast of Canada.
Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from below − 2 ° C (28 ° F) to over 30 ° C (86 ° F). Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by 7 -- 8 ° C (13 -- 14 ° F).
From October to June the surface is usually covered with sea ice in the Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and Baltic Sea.
The Coriolis effect circulates North Atlantic water in a clockwise direction, whereas South Atlantic water circulates counter-clockwise. The south tides in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-diurnal; that is, two high tides occur during each 24 lunar hours. In latitudes above 40 ° North some east - west oscillation, known as the North Atlantic oscillation, occurs.
On average, the Atlantic is the saltiest major ocean; surface water salinity in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand (3.3 -- 3.7 %) by mass and varies with latitude and season. Evaporation, precipitation, river inflow and sea ice melting influence surface salinity values. Although the lowest salinity values are just north of the equator (because of heavy tropical rainfall), in general the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers enter. Maximum salinity values occur at about 25 ° north and south, in subtropical regions with low rainfall and high evaporation.
The high surface salinity in the Atlantic, on which the Atlantic thermohaline circulation is dependent, is maintained by two processes: the Agulhas Leakage / Rings, which brings salty Indian Ocean waters into the South Atlantic, and the "Atmospheric Bridge '', which evaporates subtropical Atlantic waters and exports it to the Pacific.
The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major, upper water masses with distinct temperature and salinity. The Atlantic Subarctic Upper Water in the northern-most North Atlantic is the source for Subarctic Intermediate Water and North Atlantic Intermediate Water. North Atlantic Central Water can be divided into the Eastern and Western North Atlantic central Water since the western part is strongly affected by the Gulf Stream and therefore the upper layer is closer to underlying fresher subpolar intermediate water. The eastern water is saltier because of its proximity to Mediterranean Water. North Atlantic Central Water flows into South Atlantic Central Water at 15 ° N.
There are five intermediate waters: four low - salinity waters formed at subpolar latitudes and one high - salinity formed through evaporation. Arctic Intermediate Water, flows from north to become the source for North Atlantic Deep Water south of the Greenland - Scotland sill. These two intermediate waters have different salinity in the western and eastern basins. The wide range of salinities in the North Atlantic is caused by the asymmetry of the northern subtropical gyre and the large number of contributions from a wide range of sources: Labrador Sea, Norwegian - Greenland Sea, Mediterranean, and South Atlantic Intermediate Water.
The North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) is a complex of four water masses, two that form by deep convection in the open ocean -- Classical and Upper Labrador Sea Water -- and two that form from the inflow of dense water across the Greenland - Iceland - Scotland sill -- Denmark Strait and Iceland - Scotland Overflow Water. Along its path across Earth the composition of the NADW is affected by other water masses, especially Antarctic Bottom Water and Mediterranean Overflow Water. The NADW is fed by a flow of warm shallow water into the northern North Atlantic which is responsible for the anomalous warm climate in Europe. Changes in the formation of NADW have been linked to global climate changes in the past. Since man - made substances were introduced into the environment, the path of the NADW can be traced throughout its course by measuring tritium and radiocarbon from nuclear weapon tests in the 1960s and CFCs.
The clockwise warm - water North Atlantic Gyre occupies the northern Atlantic, and the counter-clockwise warm - water South Atlantic Gyre appears in the southern Atlantic.
In the North Atlantic, surface circulation is dominated by three inter-connected currents: the Gulf Stream which flows north - east from the North American coast at Cape Hatteras; the North Atlantic Current, a branch of the Gulf Stream which flows northward from the Grand Banks; and the Subpolar Front, an extension of the North Atlantic Current, a wide, vaguely defined region separating the subtropical gyre from the subpolar gyre. This system of currents transport warm water into the North Atlantic, without which temperatures in the North Atlantic and Europe would plunge dramatically.
North of the North Atlantic Gyre, the cyclonic North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre plays a key role in climate variability. It is governed by ocean currents from marginal seas and regional topography, rather than being steered by wind, both in the deep ocean and at sea level. The subpolar gyre forms an important part of the global thermohaline circulation. Its eastern portion includes eddying branches of the North Atlantic Current which transport warm, saline waters from the subtropics to the north - eastern Atlantic. There this water is cooled during winter and forms return currents that merge along the eastern continental slope of Greenland where they form an intense (40 -- 50 Sv) current which flows around the continental margins of the Labrador Sea. A third of this water become parts of the deep portion of the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). The NADW, in its turn, feed the meridional overturning circulation (MOC), the northward heat transport of which is threatened by anthropogenic climate change. Large variations in the subpolar gyre on a decade - century scale, associated with the North Atlantic oscillation, are especially pronounced in Labrador Sea Water, the upper layers of the MOC.
The South Atlantic is dominated by the anti-cyclonic southern subtropical gyre. The South Atlantic Central Water originates in this gyre, while Antarctic Intermediate Water originates in the upper layers of the circumpolar region, near the Drake Passage and Falkland Islands. Both these currents receive some contribution from the Indian Ocean. On the African east coast the small cyclonic Angola Gyre lies embedded in the large subtropical gyre. The southern subtropical gyre is partly masked by a wind - induced Ekman layer. The residence time of the gyre is 4.4 -- 8.5 years. North Atlantic Deep Water flows southerward below the thermocline of the subtropical gyre.
The Sargasso Sea in the western North Atlantic can be defined as the area where two species of Sargassum (S. fluitans and natans) float, an area 4,000 km (2,500 mi) wide and encircled by the Gulf Stream, North Atlantic Drift, and North Equatorial Current. This population of seaweed probably originated from Tertiary ancestors on the European shores of the former Tethys Ocean and has, if so, maintained itself by vegetative growth, floating in the ocean for millions of years.
Other species endemic to the Sargasso Sea include the sargassum fish, a predator with algae - like appendages who hovers motionless among the Sargassum. Fossils of similar fishes have been found in fossil bays of the former Tethys Ocean, in what is now the Carpathian region, that were similar to the Sargasso Sea. It is possible that the population in the Sargasso Sea migrated to the Atlantic as the Tethys closed at the end of the Miocene around 17 Ma. The origin of the Sargasso fauna and flora remained enigmatic for centuries. The fossils found in the Carpathians in the mid-20th century, often called the "quasi-Sargasso assemblage '', finally showed that this assemblage originated in the Carpathian Basin from were it migrated over Sicily to the Central Atlantic where it evolved into modern species of the Sargasso Sea.
The location of the spawning ground for European eels remained unknown for decades. In the early 19th century it was discovered that the southern Sargasso Sea is the spawning ground for both the European and American eel and that the former migrate more than 5,000 km (3,100 mi) and the latter 2,000 km (1,200 mi). Ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream transport eel larvae from the Sargasso Sea to foraging areas in North America, Europe, and Northern Africa. Recent but disputed research suggests that eels possibly use Earth 's magnetic field to navigate through the ocean both as larvae and as adults.
Climate is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as winds. Because of the ocean 's great capacity to store and release heat, maritime climates are more moderate and have less extreme seasonal variations than inland climates. Precipitation can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from water temperatures.
The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents influence climate by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. The winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents influence adjacent land areas.
The Gulf Stream and its northern extension towards Europe, the North Atlantic Drift is thought to have at least some influence on climate. For example, the Gulf Stream helps moderate winter temperatures along the coastline of southeastern North America, keeping it warmer in winter along the coast than inland areas. The Gulf Stream also keeps extreme temperatures from occurring on the Florida Peninsula. In the higher latitudes, the North Atlantic Drift, warms the atmosphere over the oceans, keeping the British Isles and north - western Europe mild and cloudy, and not severely cold in winter like other locations at the same high latitude. The cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of eastern Canada (the Grand Banks of Newfoundland area) and Africa 's north - western coast. In general, winds transport moisture and air over land areas.
Icebergs are common from February to August in the Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and the northwestern Atlantic and have been spotted as far south as Bermuda and Madeira. Ships are subject to superstructure icing in the extreme north from October to May. Persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September, as can hurricanes north of the equator (May to December).
The United States ' southeast coast, especially the Virginia and North Carolina coasts, has a long history of shipwrecks due to its many shoals and reefs.
The Bermuda Triangle is popularly believed to be the site of numerous aviation and shipping incidents because of unexplained and supposedly mysterious causes, but Coast Guard records do not support this belief.
Hurricanes are also a natural hazard in the Atlantic, but mainly in the northern part of the ocean, rarely tropical cyclones form in the southern parts. Hurricanes usually form annually between June and November.
The break - up of Pangaea began in the Central Atlantic, between North America and Northwest Africa, where rift basins opened during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. This period also saw the first stages of the uplift of the Atlas Mountains. The exact timing is controversial with estimates ranging from 200 to 170 Ma.
The opening of the Atlantic Ocean coincided with the initial break - up of the supercontinent Pangaea, both of which were initiated by the eruption of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP), one of the most extensive and voluminous large igneous provinces in Earth 's history associated with the Triassic -- Jurassic extinction event, one of Earth 's major extinction events. Theoliitic dikes, sills, and lava flows from the CAMP eruption at 200 Ma have been found in West Africa, eastern North America, and northern South America. The extent of the volcanism has been estimated to 4.5 × 10 km (1.7 × 10 sq mi) of which 2.5 × 10 km (9.7 × 10 sq mi) covered what is now northern and central Brazil.
The formation of the Central American Isthmus closed the Central American Seaway at the end of the Pliocene 2.8 Ma ago. The formation of the isthmus resulted in the migration and extinction of many land - living animals, known as the Great American Interchange, but the closure of the seaway resulted in a "Great American Schism '' as it affected ocean currents, salinity, and temperatures in both the Atlantic and Pacific. Marine organisms on both sides of the isthmus became isolated and either diverged or went extinct.
Geologically the Northern Atlantic is the area delimited to the south by two conjugate margins, Newfoundland and Iberia, and to the north by the Arctic Eurasian Basin. The opening of the Northern Atlantic closely followed the margins of its predecessor, the Iapetus Ocean, and spread from the Central Atlantic in six stages: Iberia -- Newfoundland, Porcupine -- North America, Eurasia -- Greenland, Eurasia -- North America. Active and inactive spreading systems in this area are marked by the interaction with the Iceland hotspot.
West Gondwana (South America and Africa) broke up in the Early Cretaceous to form the South Atlantic. The apparent fit between the coastlines of the two continents was noted on the first maps that included the South Atlantic and it was also the subject of the first computer - assisted plate tectonic reconstructions in 1965. This magnificent fit, however, has since then proven problematic and later reconstructions have introduced various deformation zones along the shorelines to accommodate the northward - propagating break - up. Intra-continental rifts and deformations have also been introduced to subdivide both continental plates into sub-plates.
Geologically the South Atlantic can be divided into four segments: Equatorial segment, from 10 ° N to the Romanche Fracture Zone (RFZ);; Central segment, from RFZ to Florianopolis Fracture Zone (FFZ, north of Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande Rise); Southern segment, from FFZ to the Agulhas - Falkland Fracture Zone (AFFZ); and Falkland segment, south of AFFZ.
In the southern segment the Early Cretaceous (133 -- 130 Ma) intensive magmatism of the Paraná -- Etendeka Large Igneous Province produced by the Tristan hotspot resulted in an estimated volume of 1.5 × 10 to 2.0 × 10 km (3.6 × 10 to 4.8 × 10 cu mi). It covered an area of 1.2 × 10 to 1.6 × 10 km (4.6 × 10 to 6.2 × 10 sq mi) in Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay and 0.8 × 10 km (3.1 × 10 sq mi) in Africa. Dyke swarms in Brazil, Angola, eastern Paraguay, and Namibia, however, suggest the LIP originally covered a much larger area and also indicate failed rifts in all these areas. Associated offshore basaltic flows reach as far south as the Falkland Islands and South Africa. Traces of magmatism in both offshore and onshore basins in the central and southern segments have been dated to 147 -- 49 Ma with two peaks between 143 -- 121 Ma and 90 -- 60 Ma.
In the Falkland segment rifting began with dextral movements between the Patagonia and Colorado sub-plates between the Early Jurassic (190 Ma) and the Early Cretaceous (126.7 Ma). Around 150 Ma sea - floor spreading propagated northward into the southern segment. No later than 130 Ma rifting had reached the Walvis Ridge -- Rio Grande Rise.
In the central segment rifting started to break Africa in two by opening the Benue Trough around 118 Ma. Rifting in the central segment, however, coincided with the Cretaceous Normal Superchron (also known as the Cretaceous quiet period), a 40 Ma period without magnetic reversals, which makes it difficult to date sea - floor spreading in this segment.
The equatorial segment is the last phase of the break - up, but, because it is located on the Equator, magnetic anomalies can not be used for dating. Various estimates date the propagation of sea - floor spreading in this segment to the period 120 -- 96 Ma. This final stage, nevertheless, coincided with or resulted in the end of continental extension in Africa.
About 50 Ma the opening of the Drake Passage resulted from a change in the motions and separation rate of the South American and Antarctic plates. First small ocean basins opened and a shallow gateway appeared during the Middle Eocene. 34 -- 30 Ma a deeper seaway developed, followed by an Eocene -- Oligocene climatic deterioration and the growth of the Antarctic ice sheet.
An embryonic subduction margin is potentially developing west of Gibraltar. The Gibraltar Arc in the western Mediterranean is migrating westward into the Central Atlantic where it joins the converging African and Eurasian plates. Together these three tectonic forces are slowly developing into a new subduction system in the eastern Atlantic Basin. Meanwhile, the Scotia Arc and Caribbean Plate in the western Atlantic Basin are eastward - propagating subduction systems that might, together with the Gibraltar system, represent the beginning of the closure of the Atlantic Ocean and the final stage of the Atlantic Wilson cycle.
Humans evolved in Africa; first by diverging from other apes around 7 Ma; then developing stone tools around 2.6 Ma; to finally evolve as modern humans around 100 kya. The earliest evidences for the complex behavior associated with this behavioral modernity has been found in the Greater Cape Floristic Region (GCFR) along the coast of South Africa. During the latest glacial stages the now - submerged plains of the Agulhas Bank were exposed above sea level, extending the South African coastline farther south by hundreds of kilometers. A small population of modern humans -- probably fewer than a thousand reproducing individuals -- survived glacial maxima by exploring the high diversity offered by these Palaeo - Agulhas plains. The GCFR is delimited to the north by the Cape Fold Belt and the limited space south of it resulted in the development of social networks out of which complex Stone Age technologies emerged. Human history thus begins on the coasts of South Africa where the Atlantic Benguela Upwelling and Indian Ocean Agulhas Current meet to produce an intertidal zone on which shellfish, fur seal, fishes and sea birds provided the necessary protein sources. The African origin of this modern behaviour is evidenced by 70,000 years - old engravings from Blombos Cave, South Africa.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies indicate that 80 -- 60,000 years ago a major demographic expansion within Africa, derived from a single, small population, coincided with the emergence of behavioral complexity and the rapid MIS 5 -- 4 environmental changes. This group of people not only expanded over the whole of Africa, but also started to disperse out of Africa into Asia, Europe, and Australasia around 65,000 years ago and quickly replaced the archaic humans in these regions. During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) 20,000 years ago humans had to abandon their initial settlements along the European North Atlantic coast and retreat to the Mediterranean. Following rapid climate changes at the end of the LGM this region was repopulated by Magdalenian culture. Other hunter - gatherers followed in waves interrupted by large - scale hazards such as the Laacher See volcanic eruption, the inundation of Doggerland (now the North Sea), and the formation of the Baltic Sea. The European coasts of the North Atlantic were permanently populated about 9 -- 8.5 thousand years ago.
This human dispersal left abundant traces along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. 50 ka - old, deeply stratified shell middens found in Ysterfontein on the western coast of South Africa are associated with the Middle Stone Age (MSA). The MSA population was small and dispersed and the rate of their reproduction and exploitation was less intense than those of later generations. While their middens resemble 12 -- 11 ka - old Late Stone Age (LSA) middens found on every inhabited continent, the 50 -- 45 ka - old Enkapune Ya Muto in Kenya probably represents the oldest traces of the first modern humans to disperse out of Africa.
The same development can be seen in Europe. In La Riera Cave (23 -- 13 ka) in Asturias, Spain, only some 26,600 molluscs were deposited over 10 ka. In contrast, 8 -- 7 ka - old shell middens in Portugal, Denmark, and Brazil generated thousands of tons of debris and artefacts. The Ertebølle middens in Denmark, for example, accumulated 2,000 m (71,000 cu ft) of shell deposits representing some 50 million molluscs over only a thousand years. This intensification in the exploitation of marine resources has been described as accompanied by new technologies -- such as boats, harpoons, and fish - hooks -- because many caves found in the Mediterranean and on the European Atlantic coast have increased quantities of marine shells in their upper levels and reduced quantities in their lower. The earliest exploitation, however, took place on the now submerged shelves, and most settlements now excavated were then located several kilometers from these shelves. The reduced quantities of shells in the lower levels can represent the few shells that were exported inland.
During the LGM the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of northern North America while Beringia connected Siberia to Alaska. In 1973 late U.S. geoscientist Paul S. Martin proposed a "blitzkrieg '' colonization of America by which Clovis hunters migrated into North America around 13,000 years ago in a single wave through an ice - free corridor in the ice sheet and "spread southward explosively, briefly attaining a density sufficiently large to overkill much of their prey. '' Others later proposed a "three - wave '' migration over the Bering Land Bridge. These hypotheses remained the long - held view regarding the settlement of the Americas, a view challenged by more recent archaeological discoveries: the oldest archaeological sites in the Americas have been found in South America; sites in north - east Siberia report virtually no human presence there during the LGM; and most Clovis artefacts have been found in eastern North America along the Atlantic coast. Furthermore, colonisation models based on mtDNA, yDNA, and atDNA data respectively support neither the "blitzkrieg '' nor the "three - wave '' hypotheses but they also deliver mutually ambiguous results. Contradictory data from archaeology and genetics will most likely deliver future hypotheses that will, eventually, confirm each other. A proposed route across the Pacific to South America could explain early South American finds and another hypothesis proposes a northern path, through the Canadian Arctic and down the North American Atlantic coast. Early settlements across the Atlantic have been suggested by alternative theories, ranging from purely hypothetical to mostly disputed, including the Solutrean hypothesis and some of the Pre-Columbian trans - oceanic contact theories.
The Norse settlement of the Faroe Islands and Iceland began during the 9th and 10th centuries. A settlement on Greenland was established before 1000 CE, but contact with it was lost in 1409 and it was finally abandoned during the early Little Ice Age. This setback was caused by a range of factors: an unsustainable economy resulted in erosion and denudation, while conflicts with the local Inuit resulted in the failure to adapt their Arctic technologies; a colder climate resulted in starvation; and the colony got economically marginalized as the Great Plague and Barbary pirates harvested its victims on Iceland in the 15th century. Iceland was initially settled 865 -- 930 CE following a warm period when winter temperatures hovered around 2 ° C (36 ° F) which made farming favorable at high latitudes. This did not last, however, and temperatures quickly dropped; at 1080 CE summer temperatures had reached a maximum of 5 ° C (41 ° F). The Landnámabók (Book of Settlement) records disastrous famines during the first century of settlement -- "men ate foxes and ravens '' and "the old and helpless were killed and thrown over cliffs '' -- and by the early 1200s hay had to be abandoned for short - season crops such as barley.
Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas in 1492 under Spanish flag. Six years later Vasco da Gama reached India under Portuguese flag, by navigating south around the Cape of Good Hope, thus proving that the Atlantic and Indian Oceans are connected. In 1500, in his voyage to India following Vasco da Gama, Pedro Alvares Cabral reached Brazil, taken by the currents of the South Atlantic Gyre. Following these explorations, Spain and Portugal quickly conquered and colonized large territories in the New World and forced the Native American population into slavery in order to explore the vast quantities of silver and gold they found. Spain and Portugal monopolized this trade in order to keep other European nations out, but conflicting interests nevertheless led to a series of Spanish - Portuguese wars. A peace treaty mediated by the Pope divided the conquered territories into Spanish and Portuguese sectors while keeping other colonial powers away. England, France, and the Dutch Republic enviously watched the Spanish and Portuguese wealth grow and allied themselves with pirates such as Henry Mainwaring and Alexandre Exquemelin. They could explore the convoys leaving America because prevailing winds and currents made the transport of heavy metals slow and predictable.
In the American colonies depredation, disease, and slavery quickly reduced the indigenous American population to the extent that the Atlantic slave trade had to be introduced to replace them -- a trade that became norm and an integral part of the colonization. Between the 15th century and 1888, when Brazil became the last part of America to end slave trade, an estimated ten million Africans were exported as slaves, most of them destined for agricultural labour. The slave trade was officially abolished in the British Empire and the United States in 1808, and slavery itself was abolished in the British Empire in 1838 and in the U.S. in 1865 after the Civil War.
From Columbus to the Industrial Revolution Trans - Atlantic trade, including colonialism and slavery, became crucial for Western Europe. For European countries with a direct access to the Atlantic (including Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain) 1500 -- 1800 was a period of sustained growth during which these countries grew richer than those in Eastern Europe and Asia. Colonialism evolved as part of the Trans - Atlantic trade, but this trade also strengthened the position of merchant groups at the expense of monarchs. Growth was more rapid in non-absolutist countries, such as Britain and the Netherlands, and more limited in absolutist monarchies, such as Portugal, Spain, and France, where profit mostly or exclusively benefited the monarchy and its allies.
Trans - Atlantic trade also resulted in an increasing urbanization: in European countries facing the Atlantic urbanization grew from 8 % in 1300, 10.1 % in 1500, to 24.5 % in 1850; in other European countries from 10 % in 1300, 11.4 % in 1500, to 17 % in 1850. Likewise, GDP doubled in Atlantic countries but rose by only 30 % in the rest of Europe. By end of the 17th century the volume of the Trans - Atlantic trade had surpassed that of the Mediterranean trade.
The Atlantic has contributed significantly to the development and economy of surrounding countries. Besides major transatlantic transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the sedimentary rocks of the continental shelves.
The Atlantic harbors petroleum and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales), sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, and precious stones. Gold deposits are a mile or two under water on the ocean floor, however the deposits are also encased in rock that must be mined through. Currently, there is no cost - effective way to mine or extract gold from the ocean to make a profit.
Various international treaties attempt to reduce pollution caused by environmental threats such as oil spills, marine debris, and the incineration of toxic wastes at sea.
The shelves of the Atlantic hosts one of the world 's richest fishing resources. The most productive areas include the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, the Scotian Shelf, Georges Bank off Cape Cod, the Bahama Banks, the waters around Iceland, the Irish Sea, the Bay of Fundy, the Dogger Bank of the North Sea, and the Falkland Banks. Fisheries have, however, undergone significant changes since the 1950s and global catches can now be divided into three groups of which only two are observed in the Atlantic: fisheries in the Eastern Central and South - West Atlantic oscillate around a globally stable value, the rest of the Atlantic is in overall decline following historical peaks. The third group, "continuously increasing trend since 1950 '', is only found in the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific.
In the North - East Atlantic total catches decreased between the mid-1970s and the 1990s and reached 8.7 million tons in 2013. Blue whiting reached a 2.4 million tons peak in 2004 but was down to 628,000 tons in 2013. Recovery plans for cod, sole, and plaice have reduced mortality in these species. Arctic cod reached its lowest levels in the 1960s -- 1980s but is now recovered. Arctic saithe and haddock are considered fully fished; Sand eel is overfished as was capelin which has now recovered to fully fished. Limited data makes the state of redfishes and deep - water species difficult to assess but most likely they remain vulnerable to overfishing. Stocks of northern shrimp and Norwegian lobster are in good condition. In the North - East Atlantic 21 % of stocks are considered overfished.
In the North - West Atlantic landings have decreased from 4.2 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.9 million tons in 2013. During the 21st century some species have shown weak signs of recovery, including Greenland halibut, yellowtail flounder, Atlantic halibut, haddock, spiny dogfish, while other stocks shown no such signs, including cod, witch flounder, and redfish. Stocks of invertebrates, in contrast, remain at record levels of abundance. 31 % of stocks are overfished in the North - west Atlantic.
In 1497 John Cabot became the first to explore mainland North America and one of his major discoveries was the abundant resources of Atlantic cod off Newfoundland. Referred to as "Newfoundland Currency '' this discovery supplied mankind with some 200 million tons of fish over five centuries. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries new fisheries started to exploit haddock, mackerel, and lobster. From the 1950s to the 1970s the introduction of European and Asian distant - water fleets in the area dramatically increased the fishing capacity and number of exploited species. It also expanded the exploited areas from near - shore to the open sea and to great depths to include deep - water species such as redfish, Greenland halibut, witch flounder, and grenadiers. Overfishing in the area was recognised as early as the 1960s but, because this was occurring on international waters, it took until the late 1970s before any attempts to regulate was made. In the early 1990s this finally resulted in the collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery. The population of a number of deep - sea fishes also collapsed in the process, including American plaice, redfish, and Greenland halibut, together with flounder and grenadier.
In the Eastern Central Atlantic small pelagic fishes constitute about 50 % of landings with sardine reaching 0.6 -- 1.0 million tons per year. Pelagic fish stocks are considered fully fishes or overfished, with sardines south of Cape Bojador the notable exception. Almost half of stocks are fished at biologically unsustainable levels. Total catches have been fluctuating since the 1970s; reaching 3.9 million tons in 2013 or slightly less than the peak production in 2010.
In the Western Central Atlantic catches have been decreasing since 2000 and reached 1.3 million tons in 2013. The most important species in the area, Gulf menhaden, reached a million tons in the mid-1980s but only half a million tons in 2013 and is now considered fully fished. Round sardinella was an important species in the 1990s but is now considered overfished. Groupers and snappers are overfished and northern brown shrimp and American cupped oyster are considered fully fished approaching overfished. 44 % of stocks are being fished at unsustainable levels.
In the South - East Atlantic catches have decreased from 3.3 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.3 million tons in 2013. Horse mackerel and hake are the most important species, together representing almost half of the landings. Off South Africa and Namibia deep - water hake and shallow - water Cape hake have recovered to sustainable levels since regulations were introduced in 2006 and the states of Southern African pilchard and anchovy have improved to fully fished in 2013.
In the South - West Atlantic a peak was reached in the mid-1980s and catches now fluctuate between 1.7 and 2.6 million tons. The most important species, the Argentine shortfin squid, which reached half a million tons in 2013 or half the peak value, is considered fully fished to overfished. Another important species was the Brazilian sardinella, with a production of 100,000 tons in 2013 it is now considered overfished. Half the stocks in this area are being fished at unsustainable levels: Whitehead 's round herring has not yet reached fully fished but Cunene horse mackerel is overfished. The sea snail perlemoen abalone is targeted by illegal fishing and remain overfished.
Endangered marine species include the manatee, seals, sea lions, turtles, and whales. Drift net fishing can kill dolphins, albatrosses and other seabirds (petrels, auks), hastening the fish stock decline and contributing to international disputes. Municipal pollution comes from the eastern United States, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea.
North Atlantic hurricane activity has increased over past decades because of increased sea surface temperature (SST) at tropical latitudes, changes that can be attributed to either the natural Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) or to anthropogenic climate change. A 2005 report indicated that the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) slowed down by 30 % between 1957 and 2004. If the AMO were responsible for SST variability, the AMOC would have increased in strength, which is apparently not the case. Furthermore, it is clear from statistical analyses of annual tropical cyclones that these changes do not display multidecadal cyclicity. Therefore, these changes in SST must be caused by human activities.
The ocean mixed layer plays an important role heat storage over seasonal and decadal time - scales, whereas deeper layers are affected over millennia and has a heat capacity about 50 times that of the mixed layer. This heat uptake provides a time - lag for climate change but it also results in a thermal expansion of the oceans which contribute to sea - level rise. 21st century global warming will probably result in an equilibrium sea - level rise five times greater than today, whilst melting of glaciers, including that of the Greenland ice - sheet, expected to have virtually no effect during the 21st century, will probably result in a sea - level rise of 3 -- 6 m over a millennium.
On 7 June 2006, Florida 's wildlife commission voted to take the manatee off the state 's endangered species list. Some environmentalists worry that this could erode safeguards for the popular sea creature.
Marine pollution is a generic term for the entry into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemicals or particles. The biggest culprits are rivers and with them many agriculture fertilizer chemicals as well as livestock and human waste. The excess of oxygen - depleting chemicals leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.
Marine debris, which is also known as marine litter, describes human - created waste floating in a body of water. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter.
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who does the voice of south park characters | List of South Park cast members - wikipedia
South Park is an American adult animated sitcom created by Trey Parker and Matt Stone who also do the majority of the voices. Both Parker and Stone do most of the male characters on the show along with April Stewart and Mona Marshall, who do the female characters on the show. Guest stars have lend their voices to the show including Jay Leno, George Clooney, Robert Smith and the comedy duo Cheech & Chong voiced characters representing their likenesses for the season four (2000) episode "Cherokee Hair Tampons '', which was the duo 's first collaborative effort in 20 years.
Characters in the show, according to Parker and Stone, are inspired by people they met when they were kids. Stan Marsh is made based on Parker himself while Kyle Broflovski is based on Stone himself. Eric Cartman is partially named after and based on Matt Karpman, a high school classmate of Parker who remains a friend of both Parker and Stone. Cartman is also inspired by All in the Family patriarch Archie Bunker, of whom Parker and Stone are fans. They state that creating Cartman as a "little eight - year - old fat kid '' made it easier for the two to portray a Bunker - like character after the introduction of political correctness to late - 20th century television. Kenny McCormick was based on the creator 's observation that most groups of childhood friends in small middle - class towns always included "the one poor kid '' and decided to portray Kenny in this light. Butters Stotch is loosely based on South Park co-producer Eric Stough.
Some of the original voice actors left the show. Mary Kay Bergman voiced the majority of the female characters until her suicide on November 11, 1999. Mona Marshall and Eliza Schneider succeeded Bergman, with Schneider leaving the show after its seventh season (2003). She was replaced by April Stewart, who, along with Marshall, continues to voice most of the female characters. Issac Hayes, who voiced the character Chef, left the show after Parker and Stone 's depiction of his religion Scientology in the episode Trapped in the Closet.
Parker and Stone voice most of the male South Park characters. Mary Kay Bergman voiced the majority of the female characters until her suicide on November 11, 1999. Mona Marshall and Eliza Schneider succeeded Bergman in 2000, with Schneider leaving the show after its seventh season (2003). She was replaced by April Stewart, who, along with Marshall, continues to voice most of the female characters. Bergman was originally listed in the credits under the alias Shannen Cassidy to protect her reputation as the voice of several Disney and other kid - friendly characters. Stewart was originally credited under the name Gracie Lazar, while Schneider was sometimes credited under her rock opera performance pseudonym Blue Girl.
Other voice actors and members of South Park 's production staff have voiced minor characters for various episodes, while a few staff members voice recurring characters; supervising producer Jennifer Howell voices student Bebe Stevens, co-producer and storyboard artist Adrien Beard voices the school 's only black student, Token Black, writing consultant Vernon Chatman voices an anthropomorphic towel named Towelie, and production supervisor John Hansen voices Mr. Slave, the former gay lover of Mr. Garrison. Throughout the show 's run, the voices for toddler and kindergarten characters have been provided by various small children of the show 's production staff.
When voicing child characters, the voice actors speak within their normal vocal range while adding a childlike inflection. The recorded audio is then edited with Pro Tools, and the pitch is altered to make the voice sound more like that of a fourth grader.
Isaac Hayes voiced the character of Chef, a black, soul - singing cafeteria worker who was one of the few adults the boys consistently trusted. Hayes agreed to voice the character after being among Parker and Stone 's ideal candidates which also included Lou Rawls and Barry White. Hayes, who lived and hosted a radio show in New York during his tenure with South Park, would record his dialogue on a digital audio tape while a respective episode 's director would give directions over the phone, then the tape would be shipped to the show 's production studio in California. After Hayes left the show in early 2006, the character of Chef was killed off in the season 10 (2006) premiere "The Return of Chef ''.
Celebrities who appear on the show are usually impersonated, though some celebrities lend their voice to their characters. Celebrities who have voiced themselves include Michael Buffer, Brent Musburger, Jay Leno, Robert Smith, and the bands Radiohead and Korn. Comedy team Cheech & Chong voiced characters representing their likenesses for the season four (2000) episode "Cherokee Hair Tampons '', which was the duo 's first collaborative effort in 20 years. Malcolm McDowell appears in live - action sequences as the narrator of the season four episode "Pip ''.
Jennifer Aniston, Richard Belzer, Natasha Henstridge, Norman Lear, and Peter Serafinowicz have guest starred as other speaking characters. During South Park 's earliest seasons, several high - profile celebrities inquired about guest - starring on the show. As a joke, Parker and Stone responded by offering low - profile, non-speaking roles, most of which were accepted; George Clooney provided the barks for Stan 's dog Sparky in the season one (1997) episode "Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride '', Leno provided the meows for Cartman 's cat in the season one finale "Cartman 's Mom Is a Dirty Slut '', and Henry Winkler voiced the various growls and grunts of a kid - eating monster in the season two (1998) episode "City on the Edge of Forever ''. Jerry Seinfeld offered to lend his voice for the Thanksgiving episode "Starvin ' Marvin '', but declined to appear when he was only offered a role as "Turkey # 2 ''.
Trey Parker voices four of the main characters: Stan Marsh, Eric Cartman, Randy Marsh and Mr. Garrison. He also provides the voices of several recurring characters, such as Clyde Donovan, Mr. Hankey, Mr. Mackey, Stephen Stotch, Jimmy Valmer, Timmy Burch, Tuong Lu Kim and Phillip.
Matt Stone voices three of the main characters: Kyle Broflovski, Kenny McCormick and Butters Stotch. He also provides the voices of several recurring characters, such as Gerald Broflovski, Stuart McCormick, Craig Tucker, Jimbo Kern, Terrance, Saddam Hussein, Tweek Tweak, Mr. Adler and Jesus.
Mona Marshall voices Sheila Broflovski and Linda Stotch.
April Stewart voices Liane Cartman, Sharon Marsh, Carol McCormick, Shelley Marsh, Mayor McDaniels, Principal Victoria and Wendy Testaburger.
The recurring guest voices include John Hansen, Vernon Chatman, Adrien Beard and Jennifer Howell.
Mary Kay Bergman voiced the majority of the female characters until her suicide on November 11, 1999. Mona Marshall and Eliza Schneider succeeded Bergman in 2000, with Schneider leaving the show after its seventh season (2003). She was replaced by April Stewart, who, along with Marshall, continues to voice most of the female characters. Isaac Hayes, who voiced the character Chef, left the show after Parker and Stone 's depiction of his religion Scientology in the episode "Trapped in the Closet ''.
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codes for red vs blue vs green vs yellow event | Hospital emergency codes - wikipedia
Hospital emergency codes are coded messages often announced over a public address system of a hospital to alert staff to various classes of on - site emergencies. The use of codes is intended to convey essential information quickly and with minimal misunderstanding to staff while preventing stress and panic among visitors to the hospital. Such codes are sometimes posted on placards throughout the hospital or are printed on employee identification badges for ready reference.
Hospital emergency codes have often varied widely by location, even between hospitals in the same community. Confusion over these codes has led to the proposal for and sometimes adoption of standardized codes. In many American, Canadian, New Zealand and Australian hospitals, for example "code blue '' indicates a patient has entered cardiac arrest, while "code red '' indicates that a fire has broken out somewhere in the hospital facility.
In order for a code call to be useful in activating the response of specific hospital personnel to a given situation, it is usually accompanied by a specific location description (e.g., "Code red, Second floor, corridor three, room two - twelve ''). Other codes, however, only signal hospital staff generally to prepare for the fallout of some external event such as a natural disaster.
Note: Different codes are used in different hospitals.
"Code Blue '' is generally used to indicate a patient requiring resuscitation or in need of immediate medical attention, most often as the result of a respiratory arrest or cardiac arrest (by cardiac arrest is nowadays considered to not just mean asystole, the most severe example, but also pulseless electrical activity (PEA), coarse or fine ventricular fibrillation (VF or V - fib), or unstable irregular ventricular tachycardia (VT or V - tach) - some of these lethal, non-circulating arrhythmias are shockable by a defibrillator, some are not and are primarily treated by epinephrine and similar drugs). When called overhead, the page takes the form of "Code Blue, (floor), (room) '' to alert the resuscitation team where to respond. Every hospital, as a part of its disaster plans, sets a policy to determine which units provide personnel for code coverage. In theory any medical professional may respond to a code, but in practice the team makeup is limited to those with advanced cardiac life support or other equivalent resuscitation training. Frequently these teams are staffed by physicians (from anesthesia and internal medicine in larger medical centers or the Emergency physician in smaller ones), respiratory therapists, pharmacists, and nurses. A code team leader will be a physician in attendance on any code team; this individual is responsible for directing the resuscitation effort and is said to "run the code ''. This phrase was coined at Bethany Medical Center in Kansas City, Kansas. The term "code '' by itself is commonly used by medical professionals as a slang term for this type of emergency, as in "calling a code '' or describing a patient in arrest as "coding '' or "coded ''.
In some hospitals or other medical facilities, the resuscitation team may purposely respond slowly to a patient in cardiac arrest, a practice known as "slow code '', or may fake the response altogether for the sake of the patient 's family, a practice known as "show code ''. Such practices are ethically controversial, and are banned in some jurisdictions.
"Plan Blue '' was used at St. Vincent 's Hospital in New York City to indicate arrival of a trauma patient so critically injured that even the short delay of a stop in the ER for evaluation could be fatal; the "Plan Blue '' was called out to alert the surgeon on call to go immediately to the ER entrance and take the patient for immediate surgery. This was illustrated in an episode of Trauma: Life in the ER, entitled "West Side Stories ''.
"Doctor '' codes are often used in hospital settings for announcements over a general loudspeaker or paging system that might cause panic or endanger a patient 's privacy. Most often, "Doctor '' codes take the form of "Paging Dr. Sinclair '', where the doctor 's "name '' is a code word for a dangerous situation or a patient in crisis. In Johnny Mnemonic It was explained by Spider (Henry Rollins) that the doctor 's name was "Dr. Allcome ''. e.g.: "Paging Doctor Firestone, third floor, '' to indicate a possible fire in the location specified. "Paging Dr. Stork '' normally indicates that a woman is in labor and needs immediate assistance.
Specific to emergency medicine, incoming patients in immediate danger of life or limb, whether presenting via ambulance or walk - in triage, are paged locally within the emergency department as "Resus '' (ri: səs) codes. These codes indicate the type of emergency (general medical, trauma, cardiopulmonary or neurological) and type of patient (adult or pediatric). An estimated time of arrival may be included, or "now '' if the patient is already in the department. The patient is transported to the nearest open trauma bay or evaluation room, and is immediately attended by a designated team of physicians and nurses for purposes of immediate stabilization and treatment.
An Australian standard code used to describe any outside of the hospital incident such as loss of power, communications, a natural disaster (such as flood or bushfire) that threatens to overwhelm or disrupt a hospital or health service capability with large numbers of casualties.
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who belongs to the national council of churches | List of National Council of Churches members - wikipedia
This List of National Council of Churches members mentions the individual member organizations of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA.
Rastafarianism
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what is a public listed company in australia | Unlisted public company - wikipedia
An unlisted public company is a public company, which is a company that can have an unlimited number of shareholders to raise capital for any commercial venture, but which is not listed on any stock exchange. A company may not be listed on a stock exchange for a number of reasons, including because it is too small to qualify for a stock exchange listing, does not seek public investors, or there are too few shareholders for a listing. Each stock exchange has its own listing requirements. Unlisted public companies tend to be larger than companies limited by guarantee.
Unlisted public companies are more likely to engage in profit - maximising behavior as their share capital structure makes it very easy to give their members financial returns.
In Australia, a public company, whether listed or not, is required to prepare an annual report that includes a directors ' report, financial report, and an auditor 's report. The report is to be distributed to shareholders 21 days before an annual general meeting or four months after the end of the financial year. These rules are in place because members of the public who have invested in such companies are not always in a position to get information about the companies performance, and so would not be able to monitor their investment and determine the return on their investment one leading unlisted company BC to AD hyperlink ltd & Aayukh chits limited.
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who drafted the document called the justification of black studies | African - American Studies - wikipedia
Origins of the civil rights movement Civil rights movement Black Power movement
African - American studies is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to the study of the history, culture, and politics of Black Americans. Taken broadly, the field studies not only the cultures of people of African descent in the United States, but the cultures of the entire African diaspora but it has been defined in different ways. The field includes scholars of African - American literature, history, politics, religion and religious studies, sociology, and many other disciplines within the humanities and social sciences.
Intensive academic efforts to reconstruct African - American history began in the late 19th century (W.E.B. Du Bois, The Suppression of the African Slave Trade to the United States of America, 1896). Among the pioneers in the first half of the 20th century were Carter G. Woodson, Herbert Aptheker, Melville Herskovits, and Lorenzo Dow Turner.
Programs and departments of African - American studies were first created in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of inter-ethnic student and faculty activism at many universities, sparked by a five - month strike for black studies at San Francisco State. In February 1968, San Francisco State hired sociologist Nathan Hare to coordinate the first black studies program and write a proposal for the first Department of Black Studies; the department was created in September 1968 and gained official status at the end of the five - months strike in the spring of 1969. The creation of programs and departments in black studies was a common demand of protests and sit - ins by minority students and their allies, who felt that their cultures and interests were underserved by the traditional academic structures.
Black studies is a systematic way of studying black people in the world -- such as their history, culture, sociology, and religion. It is a study of the black experience and the effect of society on them and their effect within society. This study aims to, among other things, help eradicate many racial stereotypes. Black studies implements: history, family structure, social and economic pressures, stereotypes, and gender relationships.
In the United States the 1960s is rightfully known as the "Turbulent Sixties ''. During this time period the nation experienced great social unrest, as citizens challenged the social order in radical ways. Many movements took place in the United States during this time period, including: women 's rights movement, labor rights movement, and the civil rights movement.
The students at the University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley) were witnesses to the Civil Rights Movement, and by 1964 they were thrust into activism. On October 1, 1964, Jack Weinberg, a former graduate student, was sitting at a table where the Congress of Racial Equality was distributing literature encouraging students to protest against institutional racism. Police asked Weinberg to produce his ID to confirm that he was a student, but he refused to do so and was therefore arrested. In support of Weinberg 3,000 students surrounded the police vehicle, and even used the car as a podium from where they spoke about their right to engage in political protest on campus. This impromptu demonstration was the first of many protests, culminating in the institutionalization of African - American Studies.
Two months later students at UC Berkeley organized sit - in at the Sproul Hall Administration building to protest an unfair rule which prohibited all political clubs from fundraising, excluding the democrat and republican clubs. Police arrested 800 students. Students a "Freedom of Speech Movement '' and Mario Savio became its poetic leader, stating that "freedom of speech was something that represents the very dignity of what a human is... '' The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), a well - connected and organized club, hosted a conference entitled "Black Power and its Challenges ''. Black leaders who were directly tied to then ongoing civil rights movements spoke to a predominantly white audience about their respective goals and challenges. These leaders included Stokely Carmichael of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and James Bevel of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC).
Educational conferences like that of SDS forced the university to take some measures to correct the most obvious racial issue on campus -- the sparse black student population. In 1966 the school held its first official racial and ethnic survey, it which it was discovered that the "American Negro '' represented 1.02 % of the university population. In 1968 the university instituted its Educational Opportunity Program (EOP) facilitated the increased minority student enrollment, and offered financial aid to minority students with high potential. By 1970 there were 1,400 EOP students. As the minority student population increased tension between activists clubs and minorities rose, because minority wanted the reigns of the movement that affected them directly. One student asserted that it was "backward to educate white people about Black Power when many black people are still uneducated on the matter. '' The members of the Afro - American Student Union (AASU) proposed an academic department called "Black Studies '' in April 1968. "We demand a program of "Black Studies, '' a program that will be of and for black people. We demand to be educated realistically and that no form of education which attempts to lie to us, or otherwise miss - educate us will be accepted. ''
AASU members asserted that "The young people of America are the inheritors of what is undoubtedly one of the most challenging, and threatening set of social circumstances that has ever fallen upon a generation of young people in history... '' AASU used these claims to gain ground on their proposal to create a black studies department. Nathan Hare, a sociology professor at San Francisco State University, created what was known as the "A Conceptual Proposal for Black Studies '' and AASU used Hare 's framework to create a set of criteria. A Black Studies Program was implemented by UC Berkeley administration on January 13, 1969. In 1969, St. Clair Drake was named the first chair of the degree granting, Program in African and Afro - American Studies at Stanford University. Many Black Studies Programs and departments and programs around the nation were created in subsequent years.
At University of California, Santa Barbara, similarly, student activism led to the establishment of a Black Studies department, amidst great targeting and discrimination of student leaders of color on the University of California campuses. In the fall of 1968, black students from UCSB joined the national civil rights movement to end racial segregation and exclusion of Black history and studies from college campuses. Triggered by the insensitivity of the administration and general campus life, they occupied North Hall and presented the administration with a set of demands. Such efforts led to the eventual creation of the Black Studies department and the Center for Black Studies.
Similar activism was happening outside of California. At Yale University, a committee headed by political scientist Robert Dahl recommended establishing an undergraduate major in African - American culture, one of the first such at an American university.
When Ernie Davis from Syracuse University became the first African American to win the Heisman trophy in College football, it renewed debates about race in college campuses in the country. Inspired by the Davis win, civil rights movement and nationwide student activism, in 1969 Black and White students led by the Student African American Society (SAS) at Syracuse University marched in front of the building at Newhouse and demanded Black studies be taught at Syracuse. It existed as an independent, underfunded non-degree offering program from 1971 until 1979. In 1979 the program became the Department of African American Studies, offering degrees within the College of Arts and Sciences.
One of the major setbacks with Black Studies / African - American Studies Programs or departments is that there is a lack of financial resources available to student and faculty. Many universities and colleges around the country provided Black Studies programs with small budgets and therefore it is difficult for the department to purchase materials and hire staff. Because the budget allocated to Black Studies is limited some faculty are jointly appointed therefore, causing faculty to leave their home disciplines to teach a discipline of which they may not be familiar. Budgetary issues make it difficult for Black Studies Programs and departments to function, and promote themselves.
Some critics claim that racism perpetrated by many administrators hinders the institutionalization of Black Studies at major universities. As with the case of UC Berkeley most of the Black Studies programs across the country were instituted because of the urging and demanding of black students to create the program. In many instances black students also called for the increased enrollment of black students and offer financial assistance to these students. Also seen in the case of UC Berkeley is the constant demand to have such a program, but place the power of control in the hands of black people. The idea was that black studies could not be "realistic '' if it was not taught by someone who was not accustomed to the black experience. On many campuses directors of black studies have little to no autonomy -- they do not have the power to hire or grant tenure to faculty. On many campuses an overall lack of respect for the discipline has caused instability for the students and for the program.
In the past thirty years there has been a steady decline of Black studies scholars.
African - American studies scholars have often explored the unique experiences of black boys / men. This line of research dates back to W.E.B. Dubois in his analysis of black male training in his book Souls of Black Folk. Though African - American studies as its own discipline has been in decline, its perpetuation as a sub-discipline in various social science fields (e.g., education, sociology, cultural anthropology, urban studies) has risen. This rise has coincided with the emergence of men 's studies (also referred to as masculine studies). Since the early 1980s increasing interest in Black males among scholars and policy makers has resulted in a marked rise in the sub-discipline Black Male Studies. Today, numerous books, research articles, conferences, foundations, research centers and institutes, academic journals, initiatives, and scholarly collectives emphasize or focus entirely on the status of Black boys and men in society.
Non-African - American specific:
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level of wizards in lord of the rings | Wizard (Middle - earth) - wikipedia
In the fiction of J.R.R. Tolkien, the Wizards of Middle - earth are a group of beings outwardly resembling Men but possessing much greater physical and mental power. They are also called the Istari (Quenya for "Wise Ones '') by the Elves. The Sindarin word is Ithryn (sing. Ithron). They were sent by the Valar to assist the people of Middle - earth to contest Sauron.
The wizards of Middle - earth were Maiar: spirits of the same order as the Valar, but lesser in power. The first three of these five wizards were known in the Mannish tongues of the Lord of the Rings series as Saruman "man of skill '' (Rohirric), Gandalf "elf of the staff '' (northern Men), and Radagast "tender of beasts '' (possibly Westron). Tolkien never provided non-Elvish names for the other two; one tradition gives their names in Valinor as Alatar and Pallando, and another as Morinehtar and Rómestámo in Middle - earth. Each wizard in the series had robes of a characteristic colour: white for Saruman (the chief and the most powerful of the five), grey for Gandalf, brown for Radagast, and sea - blue for Alatar and Pallando (known consequently as the Blue Wizards). Gandalf and Saruman both play important roles in The Lord of the Rings, while Radagast appears only briefly. Alatar and Pallando do not feature in the story, as they are said to have journeyed far into the east after their arrival in Middle - earth.
Tolkien gives multiple names for all of them. In Quenya, Saruman was Curumo ("skillful one ''); Gandalf was Olórin ("dreaming '' or "dreamer ''); and Radagast was Aiwendil ("friend of birds ''). The Quenya names Morinehtar ("darkness - slayer '') and Rómestámo ("east - helper '') are given for Alatar and Pallando, though it is not clear which name goes with which wizard. Other names are noted in individual articles.
As the Istari were Maiar, each one served a Vala in some way. Saruman was the servant and helper of Aulë, and so learned much in the art of craftsmanship, mechanics, and metal - working, as was seen in the later Third Age. Gandalf was the servant of Manwë or Varda, but was a lover of the Gardens of Lórien, and so knew much of the hopes and dreams of Men and Elves. Radagast, servant of Yavanna, loved the things of nature, both Kelvar and Olvar. As each of these Istari learned from their Vala, so they acted in Middle - earth.
They came to Middle - earth around the year 1000 of the Third Age, when the forest of ' Greenwood the Great ' fell under shadow and became known as Mirkwood. The wizards already appeared old when they entered Middle - earth. They were "clothed '' in the bodies of old Men, as the Valar wished them to guide the inhabitants of Middle - earth by persuasion and encouragement, not by force or fear. They were forbidden to dominate the free peoples of Middle - earth or to match Sauron 's power with power. However, they aged very slowly and were in fact immortal. Physically they were "real '' Men, and felt all the urges, pleasures and fears of flesh and blood. Therefore, in spite of their specific and unambiguous goal, the Wizards were capable of human feelings; Gandalf, for example, felt great affection for the Hobbits. They could also feel negative human emotions such as greed, jealousy, and lust for power. It is hinted in the essay in Unfinished Tales that the Blue Wizards may have fallen prey to these temptations, though information published in The Peoples of Middle - earth seems to contradict this version of their history.
Although immortal, their physical bodies could be destroyed by violence -- thus Gandalf truly died in the fight with the Balrog, beyond the power of the Valar to resurrect him; Eru Ilúvatar intervened to send Gandalf back. Similarly, Saruman was killed when his throat was cut by his servant in The Return of the King. The Istari also carried staves, which seem to aid their magic. When Saruman is defeated at Isengard, Gandalf casts him from the White Council and breaks his staff.
Even after his staff is broken, however, Saruman retains persuasive power over the heart and will of men. Similarly, when Gandalf 's staff is broken at the Bridge of Khazad - dûm he is still able to slay the Balrog, showing that a wizard 's strength was not entirely dependent on his staff.
Though the Valar intervened only rarely in Middle - earth, they sent the wizards as emissaries from Valinor because they had not forsaken the Men and Elves of Middle - earth. In imposing the prohibition against using force to compel the Children of Eru, the Valar sought with the wizards to avoid repeating an ancient error. They had tried direct intervention in the destiny of the Elves in the Years of the Trees by leading the Eldar into the West, but this resulted in many bloody wars and confrontations. In the struggle against the Dark Lord, they hoped instead to help Men achieve their own destiny. Thus Gandalf and the other wizards were meant to use their great wisdom to persuade Men to courses of action which would achieve Men 's own goals, rather than trying to dominate them, hence their power was ultimately restricted. Saruman failed in this when he tried to set himself up as a commander in opposition to Sauron, but Gandalf remained faithful to his charge.
The wizards landed at the Grey Havens in the North - west of Middle - earth, for the Valar felt that Arnor and Gondor, remnants of Elendil 's old kingdom, had the greatest hope of mounting resistance against Sauron. Few of Middle - earth 's inhabitants knew who the wizards really were; the wizards did not share their identities and purposes widely. Most thought they were Elves or wise Men; the name Gandalf, meaning "Wand - elf '', reflects the belief that he was an Elf.
Saruman originally was the most powerful of the five and was head of the White Council. In T.A. 2759 he took over the defence of Isengard with the consent of the Steward of Gondor, who gave him the key to Orthanc. Saruman was learned in the lore of the Rings of Power, and gradually became corrupted by desire for the Rings and by Sauron 's direct influence through the palantír of Orthanc. Eventually he took the title "Saruman of Many Colours '' and took robes to match. He assisted Sauron in the War of the Ring, biding time to secure the One Ring for himself, in order to supplant Sauron, but his plans and forces were thwarted by the power of the Ents. Gandalf broke his staff and cast him from the White Council. However, Saruman later invaded the hobbit lands of the Shire, ruling as a petty lord, but was eventually overthrown again by the hobbits. He was finally murdered by his servant Gríma Wormtongue.
During the War of the Ring, it was Gandalf who led the Free Peoples to victory over Sauron. He also became "Gandalf the White '', and defeated the traitorous Saruman. After the destruction of Sauron 's forces in front of the Black Gate at the mountainous borders of Mordor, Gandalf left Middle - earth and went over the Sea to Aman, along with the Ring - bearers and many of the Elves.
In the course of The Lord of the Rings, it is never made clear what exactly Gandalf and Saruman are. Treebeard tells Merry and Pippin that the wizards appeared after the Great Ships came over the Sea (ca. T.A. 1000, according to Appendix B, some 2,000 years before the time of The Lord of the Rings), but little else is revealed in the narrative. Riding with Pippin to Minas Tirith at the end of Book III, Gandalf ponders the ability of the palantíri to see into the past, and recalls events in Valinor from the Years of the Trees -- though whether from his own memory is not clear. Later in Minas Tirith, Pippin wonders what Gandalf really is, and realizes that this is the first time in his life that he has done so.
The essay given in Unfinished Tales was originally begun in order to be included in the appendices of The Lord of the Rings, but was not completed in time. A more explanatory passage on the nature of the wizards is found at the end of The Silmarillion.
In Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit film trilogies, three of the Istari are featured as characters: Saruman (portrayed by Christopher Lee), Gandalf (played by Ian McKellen), and Radagast (portrayed by Sylvester McCoy). Gandalf mentions the two Blue Wizards in The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey, but comments that he can not recall their names; this is a reference to the fact that they went unnamed in both The Hobbit and the Lord of the Rings. In The Hobbit films, it is Radagast who first discovers the presence of the Necromancer at Dol Guldur, and alerts Gandalf who in turn informs the White Council, including Saruman. Gandalf is quick to deduce the Necromancer 's true identity, but Saruman is reluctant to accept that Sauron could have returned. At the behest of Galadriel, Gandalf and Radagast meet at the tomb of the Nine Kings of Men, and then travel to Dol Guldur. Radagast is then sent to take word to the White Council while Gandalf enters Dol Guldur alone, where he confronts and is captured by Sauron. The White Council arrived in force to rescue him, with Saruman, Elrond, and Galadriel confronting the evil there while Radagast took Gandalf to safety. Saruman later forbade pursuit of Sauron, feeling that their foe would never be able to rise again, while Gandalf and Radagast later took part in The Battle of the Five Armies.
As in the novels, Saruman later joined forces with Sauron, though he retained his white robes and was not shown to be seeking the One Ring for his own use. He and Gandalf are the only wizards featured or mentioned in the Lord of the Rings films, and for the most part go through the same experiences as in the novels. However, as seen in the extended edition of The Return of the King, Saruman is killed by Wormtongue atop Orthanc rather than in The Shire. The films place a greater emphasis on the connection between the Wizards ' powers being manifested through their staffs: Gandalf and Saruman are visibly seen employing their staffs in their battle inside Orthanc, and Gandalf is rendered helpless when Saruman takes his staff from him. In a departure from the books, Gandalf 's staff is shattered during his confrontation with the Witch - king.
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when was the last time a college team went undefeated | List of undefeated NCAA Division I Football teams - wikipedia
This is a list of undefeated NCAA Division I football teams, which describes all teams that finished a college football season in the NCAA 's Division I, or historic equivalent, without any losses.
NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) is currently the highest division of play in college football. However this nomenclature and these categories of divisional play have only existed since 2006 and 1978, respectively. Prior to the formation of the NCAA in 1906, there was no differentiation between the level of play from one college to another, and thus all intercollegiate teams can be thought of as having played in the same division. Likewise, even after the formation of the NCAA, there was no differentiation into divisions until 1956, when play was separated in the upper "University '' division and lower "Collegiate '' division. In 1973, a three division reorganization occurred placing teams into NCAA Division I (highest), Division II, or Division III (lowest). In 1978, Division I was further subdivided into Division I-A (highest) and Division I - AA. In 2006, these subdivisions were renamed Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) and Football Championship Subdivision (FCS), respectively.
The following categories represent the historical equivalents of the highest level of play over the history of college football, and the subsequent tables list the teams for each season that went undefeated while competing in these highest categories:
These teams finished the season having won every game in which they played, thus completing a "perfect season ''.
note: in 1917, 1918, 1943 and 1944, football teams from military training facilities competed alongside college programs
These teams all finished the season with no losses, but with ties.
Teams ordered by the number of undefeated seasons in the top division. Teams in italics no longer compete in Division I FBS.
Coaches ordered by the number of undefeated seasons in the top division.
Coaches with three undefeated seasons include Don Coryell, Fritz Crisler, Bill Edwards, Don Faurot, T.A. Dwight Jones, John McKay, Ace Mumford, Frank Murray, William D. Murray, Tom Osborne, Ara Parseghian, Frank Thomas, Wallace William Wade and George Washington Woodruff.
This section covers teams that competed in the second tier of Division I since it was split in 1978:
Note that Division I FCS features a single - elimination championship tournament, reducing the likelihood of multiple teams finishing the season with undefeated records. However, several conferences voluntarily do not compete in the tournament, thus there exists a chance to have multiple undefeated teams in the same year.
In both lists in this section, teams in bold competed in the I - AA or FCS playoffs, thereby winning the national title.
These teams finished the season with no losses or ties in Division I - AA or FCS football since 1978.
These teams finished the season with no losses, but with ties, in Division I - AA or FCS football since 1978.
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who is the girl in old dominion break up with him video | Break up with Him - wikipedia
"Break Up with Him '' is a song by American country music group Old Dominion. Originally released as the second single off their self - titled EP on ReeSmack in January 2015, the band later signed with RCA Nashville on February 2015 and re-released the song on May 11 as the lead single from their debut album Meat and Candy. The song garnered positive reviews from critics praising the production and lyrical content.
"Break Up with Him '' peaked at number one on the Billboard Country Airplay chart, giving the band their first number - one country hit. It also charted at numbers 3 and 44 on the Hot Country Songs and Hot 100 charts respectively. The song was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and has sold 719,000 copies in the United States as of May 2016. It achieved similar chart success in Canada, peaking at number 3 on the Country chart and number 53 on the Canadian Hot 100. It was certified Platinum by Music Canada, denoting sales of over 80,000 units in that country.
The accompanying music video for the song, directed by Steve Condon, pays homage to the 1985 sci - fi film Back to the Future.
Before the song was released as the second single from the band 's debut EP, it gained popularity after receiving airplay on the satellite Sirius XM Radio 's "The Highway '' channel in late 2014. The band released the song on the independent label ReeSmack to radio on January 20, 2015. The band became signed to RCA Nashville in late February 2015, and the song was re-released on May 11, 2015 as an RCA single release. All five members of the band wrote the song, and Shane McAnally produced it.
Giving it 4.5 out of 5 stars, Markos Papadatos of Digital Journal wrote that the song "is mellow and distinct '' and that, "(t) heir sound is crisp and unique, which stands out by a mile on the country radio airwaves. '' Jason Scott of AXS found the song 's "hip - hop phrasing and definitive rock overtones '' has comparable charm to Luke Bryan and Florida Georgia Line. He also thought that the song, "on its own merits of structure and quality, stands alone in the face of country music 's other superstar groups '', the band "have a different kind of spark that blazes through on this track. '' On its story told on the song of a man trying to seduce a girl over the phone, Billy Dukes of Taste of Country called it "wonderful selfishness '' and praised its "refreshing boldness ''. In a more critical review, Kevin John Coyne of Country Universe gave the song a "D '' grade, saying that there are "Two ways to hear (this song): One, if the guy is right, then it 's a mediocre love song about that moment when two people decide to get into a relationship. The other, if the guy is wrong, it 's a creepy stalker monologue headed toward an order of protection. ''
The song became available for download with the release of the Old Dominion EP on October 7, 2014. It initially gained airplay on the Sirius XM radio stations and reached No. 1 on its chart, "The Highway '' Hot 45 Countdown, at the end of 2014, 11 weeks after the song became available. It entered the Hot Country Songs chart at No. 58 for chart dated January 16, 2015, and entered the Hot Country Song chart at No. 50 two weeks later. The early sales were mainly due to SiriusXM airplay. The song began to gain traction on other radio stations, and rose steadily on the chart. It debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at No. 99 for chart dated July 25, 2015. It reached No. 1 on Country Airplay for chart dated November 14, 2015, and peaked at Hot 100 at No. 44 the same week.
The EP was certified Gold by the RIAA on September 23, 2015. The song has sold 719,000 copies in the US as of May 2016.
The song 's music video was released on July 9, 2015. Directed by Steve Condon, the video pays homage to the 1985 movie Back to the Future, with lead singer Matthew Ramsey as Marty McFly.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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the arc of history is long and it bends toward justice | Theodore Parker - wikipedia
Theodore Parker (August 24, 1810 -- May 10, 1860) was an American Transcendentalist and reforming minister of the Unitarian church. A reformer and abolitionist, his words and popular quotations would later inspire speeches by Abraham Lincoln and Martin Luther King, Jr.
Theodore Parker was born in Lexington, Massachusetts, the youngest child in a large farming family. His paternal grandfather was John Parker, the leader of the Lexington militia at the Battle of Lexington. Among his colonial Yankee ancestors were Thomas Hastings, who came from the East Anglia region of England to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1634, and Deacon Thomas Parker, who came from England in 1635 and was one of the founders of Reading.
Most of Theodore 's family had died by the time he was 27, probably due to tuberculosis. Out of eleven siblings, only five remained: three brothers, including Theodore, and two sisters. His mother, to whom he was emotionally close, died when he was eleven. He responded to these tragedies by refusing to lapse into what he called "the valley of tears, '' focusing instead on other events and demands, and by affirming "the immortality of the soul, '' later a benchmark of his theology.
Descriptions of Parker as a teenager recall him as "raw '' and rough, emotional and poetic, sincere, "arch, '' "roguish, '' volatile, witty, and quick. He excelled at academics and gained an early education through country schools and personal study. He studied long and late when farm chores allowed, tutoring himself in math, Latin, and other subjects. At seventeen he began teaching in local schools. He continued tutoring himself and private students in advanced and specialized subjects. He learned Hebrew from Joshua Seixas (son of Gershom Mendes Seixas and Hannah Manuel), whom he may have baptized in a covert conversion to Christianity. He also studied for a time under Convers Francis, who later preached at Parker 's ordination.
In 1830, at age 19, Parker walked the ten miles from Lexington to Cambridge to apply to Harvard College. He was accepted but could not pay the tuition, so he lived and studied at home, continued to work on his father 's farm, and joined his classmates only for exams. Under that program, he was able to complete three years of study in one. He then took various posts as a teacher, conducting an academy from 1831 to 1834 at Watertown, Massachusetts, where his late mother 's family lived. At Watertown, he met his future wife, Lydia Dodge Cabot. He announced their engagement to his father in October, 1833. Theodore and Lydia were married four years later on April 20, 1837.
While at Watertown, Parker produced his first significant manuscript, The History of the Jews, which outlined his skepticism of biblical miracles and an otherwise liberal approach to Bible. These were to be themes throughout his career.
Parker considered a career in law, but his strong faith led him to theology. He entered the Harvard Divinity School in 1834. He specialized in the study of German theology and was drawn to the ideas of Coleridge, Carlyle and Emerson. He wrote and spoke (with varying degrees of fluency) Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and German. His journal and letters show that he was acquainted with many other languages, including Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, Coptic and Ethiopic. He completed the divinity school program quickly, in 1836, in order to marry and begin preaching without delay.
Parker called the late 1830s a "period of... disappointment. '' Citing "home; children; & a good professional sphere, '' he wrote in his journal that "All fail me, & all equally. '' Increasing controversies in his career culminated in a break with orthodoxy in the early 1840s. The fallout from these events affected him deeply, and it took him a few years to land on his feet and move forward.
Parker and Lydia Cabot married in 1837, but the union was rocky at first due to environmental stresses and incompatibilities, and both were saddened to have no children. In 1840 he sought emotional release in the company of a neighboring woman, Anna Blake Shaw, who had a similar theology and temperament to his own, but the friendship was by all accounts not sexual. This attachment naturally increased problems at home, where he may have found it difficult to meet the emotional needs of his wife.
Parker had spent 1836 visiting pulpits in the Boston area (G 80), but for family reasons accepted a pastorate at West Roxbury in 1837. At first, he found the location less than stimulating and work constraining. He adapted to pastoral life, however, and preached in many pulpits around Boston as a visitor. He gained a wide reputation as an earnest, effective speaker. In 1840 Harvard awarded him an honorary master 's degree on the basis of his extensive learning.
Parker delivered one especially popular sermon twenty - five times between 1838 and 1841. In it, he argued against the popular notion that religion could be reduced to morality. "The principle of morality is obedience to the Law of con (science), '' he wrote, while religion required more: that we "feel naturally, allegiance to a superior Being: dependence on him & accountability to him. '' (The theme of dependence echoes Schleiermacher, an indication of the German influence on his theology.) Morality involves right acting, while religion requires love of God and regular prayer, which Parker considered essential to human life. "No feeling is more deeply planted in human nature than the tendency to adore a superior being, '' he preached, "to reverence him, to bow before him, to feel his presence, to pray to him for aid in times of need '' and "to bless him when the heart is full of joy. ''
In 1837, Parker had begun attending meetings of the group later known as the Transcendental Club. Ralph Waldo Emerson 's Divinity School Address that year had been deeply arresting to him, and he welcomed the opportunity to associate with Emerson, Amos Bronson Alcott, Orestes Brownson, and several others. Transcendentalists such as Henry David Thoreau and Parker wrote of the world as divine, and of themselves as part of this divinity. Unlike Emerson and other Transcendentalists, however, Parker believed the movement was rooted in deeply religious ideas and did not believe it should retreat from religion. All shared a conviction that slavery should be abolished and social reforms should take root.
Parker gradually introduced Transcendentalist ideas into his sermons. He tempered his radicalism with diplomacy and discretion, however. "I preach abundant heresies, '' he wrote to a friend, "and they all go down -- for the listeners do not know how heretical they are. '' For years he had wrestled with the factuality of the Hebrew Scriptures, and by 1837 he was wishing "some wise man would now write a book... and show up the absurdity of... the Old Testament miracles, prophecies, dreams, miraculous births, etc. ' '' He was hardly alone. "' What shall we do with the Old Testament? ' asked James Walker in 1838. ' That question is of such frequent recurrence among laymen as well as clergymen, that any well - considered attempt to answer it, or supply the means of answering it, is almost sure of hearty welcome. '' Questions regarding biblical realism and meaning, and the answers clergy increasingly found through the German - based higher criticism, formed the basis of liberal Christianity as it emerged and developed throughout the nineteenth century.
In 1838 Parker published his first major article, a critical review of an orthodox work written by his former professor John Gorham Palfrey. In it Parker broke for the first time with supernatural realism, as he also increasingly did in his sermons. To him, Christianity was natural rather than miraculous. More and more, he praised social reform movements such as those for temperance, peace, and the abolition of slavery. In 1840 he described such movements as divinely inspired, though he added that they did not fully address the spiritual and intellectual ills of society. Controversy mounted regarding these and other Transcendentalist elements in his work. So did criticism, which often saddened and distressed him.
In 1841, Parker laid bare his radical theological position in a sermon titled A Discourse on the Transient and Permanent in Christianity, in which he espoused his belief that the scriptures of historic Christianity did not reflect the truth. In so doing, he made an open break with orthodox theology. He instead argued for a type of Christian belief and worship in which the essence of Jesus 's teachings remained permanent but the words, traditions, and other forms of their conveyance did not. He stressed the immediacy of God and saw the Church as a communion, looking upon Christ as the supreme expression of God. Ultimately, he rejected all miracles and revelation and saw the Bible as full of contradictions and mistakes. He retained his faith in God but suggested that people experience God intuitively and personally, and that they should center their religious beliefs on individual experience.
Parker 's West Roxbury church remained loyal. Sermons and media attacked him, however, when he denied Biblical miracles and the literal authority of the Bible and Jesus. Many questioned his Christianity. Nearly all the pulpits in the Boston area were closed to him, and he lost friends. Parker reacted with grief and defiance. He remained unwilling to concede that his views placed him beyond the outer bounds of Unitarian liberalism. After this unwilling break with the Unitarian establishment, he spent two years (1841 - 1843) adjusting to the reality of his newly controversial and independent career and increasing his social activism on religious grounds. He began to see himself as a prophetic religious reformer.
Parker accepted an invitation from supporters to preach in Boston in January 1845. He preached his first sermon there in February. His supporters organized the 28th Congregational Society of Boston in December and installed Parker as minister in January 1846. His congregation, which included Louisa May Alcott, William Lloyd Garrison, Julia Ward Howe, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, grew to 7000.
Parker 's family life, temperament, and work steadied during the 1840s. The second half of his career revolved around antislavery, democracy, and religious social activism.
In 1843 and 1844, Theodore and Lydia traveled in Europe. While there his theology, career, and personal life matured and steadied. He was no longer as sensitive to criticism and bore difficulties more easily. Away from extended family problems in West Roxbury, his marriage seems to have improved and become more steadily affectionate. Despite complex issues that occasionally resurfaced, he and Lydia were happier. "My wife is kind as an angel, '' he would write in his journal during denominational trials in 1845. His travels also seemed to stimulate a growing interest in political and social issues.
Returning to the United States, Parker found Unitarianism on the cusp of a division over his right to fellowship as a minister. His controversial 1841 sermon had created a stir that ballooned into an allout storm in 1844. The debate over the nature and degree of Parker 's "infidelity '' caused Unitarians to adopt a liberal creed, which they had formerly declined to do based on an inclusive principle. Their position proved too orthodox to include Parker.
In January, 1845, a sizeable group of supporters gathered at Marlboro Chapel in Boston and resolved to provide Parker "a chance to be heard in Boston. '' Calling themselves "Friends of Theodore Parker, '' they hired a hall and invited him to preach there on Sunday mornings. Despite misgivings, Parker accepted and preached his first sermon at the Melodean Theater in February. Although the arrangement was temporary at first, he resigned his West Roxbury pastorate in early 1846 (to the dismay of his faithful parishioners there). He elected to call his new congregation the 28th Congregational Society of Boston.
Parker 's congregation grew to 2,000 -- then three percent of Boston 's population -- and included influential figures such as Louisa May Alcott, William Lloyd Garrison, Julia Ward Howe (a personal friend), and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Stanton called his sermons "soul - satisfying '' when beginning her career, and she credited him with introducing her to the idea of a Heavenly Mother in the Trinity. Parker was increasingly known for preaching what he and his followers identified as a type of prophetic Christian social activism.
After 1846, Parker shifted from a focus on Transcendentalism and challenging the bounds of Unitarian theology to a focus on the gathering national divisions over slavery and the challenges of democracy. In Boston, he led the movement to combat the stricter Fugitive Slave Act, a controversial part of the Compromise of 1850. This act required law enforcement and citizens of all states -- free states as well as slave states -- to assist in recovering fugitive slaves. Parker called the law "a hateful statute of kidnappers '' and helped organize open resistance to it. He and his followers formed the Boston Vigilance Committee, which refused to assist with the recovery of fugitive slaves and helped hide them. For example, they smuggled away Ellen and William Craft when Georgian slave catchers came to Boston to arrest them. Due to such efforts, from 1850 to the onset of the American Civil War in 1861, only twice were slaves captured in Boston and transported back to the South. On both occasions, Bostonians combatted the actions with mass protests.
As Parker 's early biographer John White Chadwick wrote, Parker was involved with almost all of the reform movements of the time: "peace, temperance, education, the condition of women, penal legislation, prison discipline, the moral and mental destitution of the rich, the physical destitution of the poor '' though none became "a dominant factor in his experience '' with the exception of his antislavery views. He "denounced the Mexican War and called on his fellow Bostonians in 1847 ' to protest against this most infamous war. ' '' Yet his abolitionism became his most controversial stance. He wrote the scathing To a Southern Slaveholder in 1848, as the abolition crisis was heating up and took a strong stance against slavery and advocated violating the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, a controversial part of the Compromise of 1850 which required the return of escaped slaves to their owners. Parker worked with many fugitive slaves, some of whom were among his congregation. As in the case of William and Ellen Craft, he hid them in his home. Although he was indicted for his actions, he was never convicted.
As a member of the Secret Six, he supported the abolitionist John Brown, whom many considered a terrorist. After Brown 's arrest, Parker wrote a public letter, "John Brown 's Expedition Reviewed, '' arguing for the right of slaves to kill their masters and defending Brown 's actions.
Following a lifetime of overwork, Parker 's ill health forced his retirement in 1859. He developed tuberculosis, then without effective treatment, and departed for Florence, Italy, where he died on May 10, 1860. He sought refuge in Florence because of his friendship with Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning, Isa Blagden and Frances Power Cobbe, but died scarcely a month following his arrival. It was less than a year before the outbreak of the American Civil War.
Parker was a patient of William Wesselhoeft, who practiced homeopathy. Wesselhoeft gave the oration at Parker 's funeral He is buried in the English Cemetery in Florence. When Frederick Douglass visited Florence, he went first from the railroad station to Parker 's tomb.
Parker 's headstone by Joel Tanner Hart was later replaced by one by William Wetmore Story. Other Unitarians buried in the English Cemetery include Thomas Southwood Smith and Richard Hildreth. The British writer Fanny Trollope, also buried here, wrote the first anti-slavery novel and Hildreth wrote the second. Both books were used by Harriet Beecher Stowe for her antislavery novel Uncle Tom 's Cabin (1852).
"I do not pretend to understand the moral universe; the arc is a long one, my eye reaches but little ways; I can not calculate the curve and complete the figure by the experience of sight; I can divine it by conscience. And from what I see I am sure it bends towards justice. ''
"The domestic function of the woman does not exhaust her powers... To make one half of the human race consume its energies in the functions of housekeeper, wife and mother is a monstrous waste of the most precious material God ever made '' (1853).
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who wrote the song the house i live in | The House I Live in (1945 film) - wikipedia
The House I Live In is a ten - minute short film written by Albert Maltz, produced by Frank Ross and Mervyn LeRoy, and starring Frank Sinatra. Made to oppose anti-Semitism at the end of World War II, it received an Honorary Academy Award and a special Golden Globe award in 1946.
In 2007, this film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Sinatra, apparently playing himself, takes a break from a recording session and steps outside to smoke a cigarette. He sees more than ten boys chasing a Jewish boy and intervenes, first with dialogue, then with a short speech. His main points are that we are "all '' Americans and that one American 's blood is as good as another 's and that all our religions are to be respected equally.
The song originally appeared in the musical revue, Let Freedom Sing, which opened on Broadway on October 5, 1942. Brooks Atkinson wrote in the New York Times: "Although Mordecai Bauman does not sing it particularly well, he sings it with earnest sincerity, without feeling that he must imitate youth by blasting the voice amplifying system and cutting a rug. ''
In the film, Sinatra sings the title song. His recording became a national hit. The music was written by Earl Robinson. Robinson was later blacklisted during the McCarthy era for being a member of the Communist Party. He also wrote campaign songs for the presidential campaigns of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Henry A. Wallace, and, in 1984, Jesse Jackson. The lyrics were written in 1943 by Abel Meeropol under the pen name Lewis Allan. In 1957 Meeropol adopted two boys, Michael and Robert, who had been orphaned when their parents Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed in 1953. Meeropol was enraged that the second verse of the song was not used in the film. When the film premiered, he protested against the deletion of the verse referring to "my neighbors white and black ''.
The song was memorably covered in later years by Paul Robeson, Mahalia Jackson, and Josh White. Sam Cooke also covered it. Kim Weston included it on her second post-Motown album This Is America (1968). Sinatra continued to include it in his repertory for decades. He performed it during a state dinner at the White House during the Nixon administration at the 1985 inaugural ceremonies of Ronald Reagan, and at the ceremony marking the centenary of the Statue of Liberty that same year. Bill Cosby used a recording of the song to open some of his shows in 2002.
The song figures prominently in Arch Oboler 's radio play "The House I Live In, '' which aired on April 26, 1945.
Film:
Song:
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when is weed going to be legal in oklahoma | Cannabis in Oklahoma - Wikipedia
Marijuana in Oklahoma is illegal for all purposes, and Oklahoma is recognized for having some of the strictest laws on cannabis in the United States. Medical marijuana is not legal, but in April 2014 limited trials for medical use of CBD oil were legalized. On June 26th 2018 Oklahoma voters will vote on ballot initiative Question 788 to legalize medical marijuana. If passed, Oklahoma will become the 30th state to legalize medical cannabis.,
As part of a larger trend nationwide to restrict cannabis, Oklahoma banned the drug in 1933.
In 2014, Oklahomans for Health circulated a petition to get medical cannabis legalization on the ballot, but failed to gain sufficient signatures. In late 2015, Green the Vote announced that they were beginning a new petition drive to place medical legalization on the 2016 ballot. The initiative gathered the required number of signatures, but backers alleged that Attorney General Scott Pruitt had changed the verbiage of the initiative in a misleading way. After Oklahomans for Health sued over the ballot rewrite, the Oklahoma Supreme Court ordered the original language be restored. As result of the legal dispute, the vote for the initiative was pushed back to 2018. Governor Mary Fallin established a ballot date on January 4th 2018, of June 26th, 2018 as a referendum initiative.
In April 2015, Governor Mary Fallin signed into law a bill which allows clinical trials of CBD oil; Fallin emphasized to the press that she does not condone the full legalization of cannabis.
Oklahoma is recognized for having some of the strictest cannabis laws in the nation, and has sentenced individuals to life sentences for possession. In 1992, a Tulsa man was given a life sentence for felony possession of. 16 grams (. 0056 ounces) of cannabis.
Oklahoma 's Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs has conducted helicopter patrols to find cannabis grows in 1983. In 1995, a Bureau of Indian Affairs anti-narcotics agent was killed when one of these helicopters crashed after striking power lines.
DUI penalties pursuant to H.B. 1441, effective October 1, 2013, a person will be jailed for no less than 10 days or more than 1 year if: A person "has any amount of a Schedule I chemical or controlled substance, as defined in Section 2 - 204 of Title 63 of the Oklahoma Statutes, or one of its metabolites or analogs in the person 's blood, saliva, urine or any other bodily fluid at the time of a test of such person 's blood, saliva, urine or any other bodily fluid administered within two (2) hours after the arrest of such person. '' A second offense will have longer sentencing as well as require an ignition interlock device that can only detect alcohol even if person is not a user of alcohol. New penalties for possession or making of hashish, a grinder, or brownies that may include life imprisonment were enacted in 2011 introduced by State Representative Sue Tibbs.
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where did the ethnic groups in west africa migrated from | List of ethnic groups of Africa - Wikipedia
The ethnic groups of Africa number in the thousands, with each population generally having its own language (or dialect of a language) and culture. The ethnolinguistic groups include various Afroasiatic, Khoisan, Niger - Congo and Nilo - Saharan populations.
The official population count of the various ethnic groups in Africa is highly uncertain, both due to limited infrastructure to perform censuses and due to the rapid population growth. There have also been accusations of deliberate misreporting in order to give selected ethnicities numerical superiority (as in the case of Nigeria 's Hausa, Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo people).
A 2009 genetic clustering study, which genotyped 1327 polymorphic markers in various African populations, identified six ancestral clusters. The clustering corresponded closely with ethnicity, culture and language. A 2018 whole genome sequencing study of the world 's populations observed similar clusters among the populations in Africa. At K = 9, distinct ancestral components defined the Afrosiatic - speaking populations inhabiting North Africa and Northeast Africa; the Nilo - Saharan - speaking populations in Northeast Africa and East Africa; the Ari populations in Northeast Africa; the Niger - Congo - speaking populations in West - Central Africa, West Africa, East Africa and Southern Africa; the Pygmy populations in Central Africa; and the Khoisan populations in Southern Africa.
As a first overview, the following table lists major groups by ethno - linguistic affiliation, with rough population estimates (as of 1016):
The following is a table of major ethnic groups (10 million people or more):
Africa
Asia
Europe
North America
Oceania
South America
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when does the punisher tv series come out on netflix | The Punisher (TV series) - wikipedia
Marvel 's The Punisher, or simply The Punisher, is an American web television series created for Netflix by Steve Lightfoot, based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films and other television series of the franchise, and is a spin - off of Marvel 's Daredevil. The series is produced by Marvel Television in association with ABC Studios and Bohemian Risk Productions, with Lightfoot serving as showrunner.
The series revolves around Frank Castle, who uses lethal methods to fight crime as the vigilante "the Punisher ''. Jon Bernthal reprises the role as Castle from Daredevil. Ebon Moss - Bachrach, Ben Barnes, Amber Rose Revah, Deborah Ann Woll, Daniel Webber, Jason R. Moore, Paul Schulze, Jaime Ray Newman, and Michael Nathanson also star. A television series centered on the Punisher received a put - pilot commitment at Fox in 2011, but that project fell through. In June 2015, Bernthal was cast as the character to appear in the second season of Daredevil. Development on a spin - off titled The Punisher began by January 2016, before the second season of Daredevil was released. In April 2016, Marvel and Netflix ordered the series, confirmed Bernthal 's involvement, and announced Lightfoot as executive producer and showrunner. Filming began in New York City in October 2016, and concluded in April 2017.
The Punisher premiered in New York City on November 6, 2017, with the full season of thirteen episodes released on November 17, 2017 on Netflix.
Former Force Recon officer Frank Castle, known throughout New York City as "the Punisher '' after exacting revenge on those responsible for the death of his family, uncovers a larger conspiracy that begins to haunt him.
While interrogating Micro, Frank learns that he has rigged the hideout to explode if he is not at his console. Frank, however, reveals that he did not see any bombs when he secured the perimeter. Micro reveals he filmed Frank and, after disarming the security, knocks him out with a tranquilizer. Shortly after Frank regains consciousness, Micro reveals he wants to help him take down the people who destroyed their lives. Meanwhile, Dinah juggles engaging in a jurisdictional dispute with the NYPD and the FBI and dealing with guilt over Wolf 's death. When Dinah 's partner Sam tells her that Wolf had $30 million hidden in offshore accounts, she decides to trust him.
In October 2011, ABC Studios sold a script based on the Punisher to Fox, who gave the project a put - pilot commitment. The series would be an hour - long procedural following NYPD detective Frank Castle, "whose alter ego is that of a vigilante seeking justice for those failed by the court system. '' Ed Bernero was attached as executive producer, but by May 2012, the project had not moved forward. A year later, the character 's film rights reverted to Marvel from Lionsgate. In June 2015, Jon Bernthal was announced as cast as Frank Castle in the second season of Marvel 's Daredevil on Netflix. The series was the first of several live action series provided to Netflix by Marvel Television and ABC Studios, with subsequent series featuring Jessica Jones, Luke Cage, and Iron Fist all leading up to a miniseries based on the Defenders.
By January 2016, ahead of the Daredevil season two release, Netflix was in "very early development '' on a spin - off series titled The Punisher, and was looking for a showrunner. The series would be centered on Bernthal as Castle, and was described as a stand - alone series, outside of the series leading up to Marvel 's The Defenders. Head of Marvel Television and executive producer Jeph Loeb implied that Marvel Television had not instigated the development of the spin - off and were focusing on making "the best 13 episodes of Daredevil season two '' at the time, but did say, "I 'm never going to discourage a network from looking at one of our characters and encouraging us to do more... If we are lucky enough that through the writing, through the direction, through the actor that people want to see more of that person, terrific. '' Loeb stated a month later that the reports about the potential spin - off were "something that people are speculating on, as opposed to something that 's actually happening. ''
In April 2016, Netflix officially ordered a full 13 episode season of The Punisher, confirmed Bernthal 's involvement, and named Steve Lightfoot as executive producer and showrunner. Loeb, Cindy Holland, and Jim Chory also serve as executive producers.
Lightfoot noted that "anti-heroes with dark pasts, that are morally grey, are always interesting to write. '' On deciding to work on The Punisher, Lightfoot stated, "I was drawn to a guy who is dealing with grief - how does he do that?... We talked a lot as we developed the show that once you take hold of the hand of violence it 's impossible to let it go. That relationship to violence really interested me, not just the fact he has the ability to use it but also the cost of it. '' Bernthal stated the series would be "loose with chronology '' for the character, depicting events before and after the events of Daredevil season two.
Bernthal had been cast as Castle in June 2015 to appear in the second season of Daredevil, and was confirmed to be reprising the role for the spin - off in April 2016. That September, Ben Barnes was cast in the series in an unspecified series regular role. The next month, set photos revealed that Deborah Ann Woll would reprise her Daredevil role as Karen Page, Barnes was announced as playing Billy Russo, while Ebon Moss - Bachrach and Amber Rose Revah also joined the series, as David Lieberman / Micro and Dinah Madani, respectively. At New York Comic Con, Bernthal confirmed Woll as a co-star. At the end of October, Marvel announced the additional casting of Daniel Webber as Lewis Wilson, Jason R. Moore as Curtis Hoyle, Paul Schulze as Rawlins, Jaime Ray Newman as Sarah Lieberman, and Michael Nathanson as Sam Stein.
In August 2017, Shohreh Aghdashloo was revealed to be portraying Farah Madani, Dinah 's mother, in a recurring role for the series. Rob Morgan reprises his role from previous Marvel Netflix series as Turk Barrett.
Filming began on October 3, 2016 in Brooklyn, New York, under the working title Crime. Additional filming took place in Astoria, Queens in December 2016. Filming wrapped on April 9, 2017.
In April 2017, Tyler Bates was announced as the composer for The Punisher, after previously composing for Marvel 's Guardians of the Galaxy and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. In order to "get into the dark corners of the Punisher 's mind, '' Bates played "more of a broken blues '' guitar, which was augmented with talkbox effects and other "guitar noises '', along with guitar - vol and melodica. On this style, Bates said, "The rough edges and broken nature of (music like this) leaves a great deal of space for emotion and interesting color -- and a bit of an attitude. Otherwise it 's not going to be an authentic expression of the idea. There 's a darkness in there that I 'm happy to tap into. ''
The Punisher was released on November 17, 2017 on the streaming service Netflix, worldwide. The 13, hour - long episodes will be released simultaneously, as opposed to a serialized format, to encourage binge - watching, a format which has been successful for other Netflix series. In July 2016, Netflix COO Ted Sarandos stated that The Punisher would not debut until 2018 at the earliest, after The Defenders released on August 18, 2017, but that October, Marvel confirmed a 2017 release instead.
In early September 2017, Dominic Patten and Denise Petski of Deadline.com commented on the lack of specific release date for the series at the time, calling it "an unusual '', "rare move for Marvel and Netflix, who usually give a lot of lead - up to the launch of the high profile and much anticipated series. '' The pair felt with the increased marketing of the series, it would release "sooner rather than later ''. Allison Keene of Collider felt Marvel and Netflix holding back the release date was "really weird and unnecessary... If you 're excited for this show, you 'll watch it whenever it appears. For TV editors who have to plan reviews and other content, it 's just irritating. '' Polygon 's Susana Polo felt Marvel and Netflix were waiting for their scheduled panel at New York Comic Con 2017 during the first weekend of October to reveal the series ' release date, as the convention had been used in previous years to reveal "breaking fall Marvel / Netflix news ''. It was reported that Netflix had been planning a surprise "drop '' release of the series in mid-October 2017, mimicking a strategy from the music industry where an artist 's album is released "with little or no fanfare '', after their panel at New York Comic Con 2017, but decided to delay the release to later in 2017 after the Las Vegas shooting and subsequently cancelling the panel. Two weeks later, the November 17 release was announced.
Regarding the decisions made concerning the New York Comic Con panel and the series ' release, Loeb said that they were made "specifically because it was a week after a horrible, horrible incident. It has n't changed the television series, the show is not predominantly about gun violence, and in fact it shows you the problems that occur in that world. '' Bernthal felt delaying the release of the series "was the right decision '' out of respect for the victims. Between the delaying of the series due to the Vegas shooting until the November 17 release, the U.S. experienced another mass shooting with the Sutherland Springs church shooting. Bernthal hoped that after these two shootings and the release of the series, it would help further the discussion on gun violence, with "all sides of this debate '' represented in The Punisher.
Bernthal and Woll appeared at New York Comic Con in October 2016 to officially announce the start of production on the series and the latter 's involvement. At San Diego Comic - Con International 2017, Bernthal presented exclusive footage. A teaser was revealed on Netflix in August 2017, appearing after the credits of the final episode of The Defenders. Also in the month, the series ' Twitter account revealed the episode titles as Morse code messages. In September 2017, the series ' Instagram account released viral videos made to look like security footage, while episodic photos and a poster for the series with a redacted release date were also released. On September 20, the official trailer for the series was released. Andrew Liptak of The Verge noted the trailer "sets up The Punisher with its own distinct tone that 's different from the other Marvel Netflix shows. It wades into government conspiracies and hacking, which is reminiscent of shows like CBS 's Person of Interest or USA 's Mr. Robot, but with more gunfire. '' Nerdist 's Kendall Ashley called the trailer "intense, super bloody, and has (me) INCREDIBLY pumped for the show 's premiere. '' She added, "The hype is huge for this show. If this trailer is any indication, The Punisher is definitely going to live up to fan expectations, and is going to be an intense and awesome addition to the Marvel Netflix universe. '' Ashley felt the inclusion of "One '' by Metallica in the trailer "helps paint Frank as a badass unlike any we 've seen on the Marvel Netflix shows so far. '' Cooper Hood, writing for Screen Rant felt that, even though the series was still without a release date, the trailer would "undoubtedly only increase the fever for The Punisher. '' He continued that "unlike some of the more cryptic and quiet (marketing) videos that have come before, '' the trailer "especially fits the mold of Punisher. While it looked like at the beginning of the trailer that this one would again be a quieter piece of marketing, it turned out to be anything but. The trailer is stylish and well - cut to the beat of the song, with the choice of "One '' only further amplifying the intensity. ''
By the end of September, Netflix had updated their viral website for the New York Bulletin to include a profile page for Karen Page. After revealing her login credentials in a post on Daredevil 's Facebook page, readers who visited Page 's profile found images within folders titled "Research '', "Trial '' and "Evidence ''. The images referenced events and Page 's research into Castle from the second season of Daredevil. Bernthal and other members of the cast were scheduled to appear at New York Comic Con 2017 to promote the series, but the panel was cancelled after the 2017 Las Vegas Strip shooting. Two weeks later, a second trailer was released, that revealed the series ' release date of November 17, 2017. Tom Philip writing for GQ was not very enthused with the trailer, saying it was, "hard to get super jazzed about another gritty, ultra-violent, gun - loving, non-superhero show right now. '' He was critical of the "utilitarian - sounding writing '' in the trailer, but felt the chemistry between Bernthal and Woll would be a reason to watch The Punisher. Philip also felt the addition of Moss - Bachrach was "curious, but at least it 's a swing for the fences from a TV studio that tends to play it astoundingly safe. '' Scott Mendelson of Forbes noted that the gun violence sequences featured were mainly "flashbacks with military men doing military things in full fatigues or scenes of bad guys shooting at not - so - bad guys with heavy gunfire '', which was a strong contrast to the first trailer. Mendelson felt this shift in the marketing strategy could have been in response to the Las Vegas shootings. TechCrunch 's Darrell Etherington agreed with Mendelson, noting how the trailer "plays up Castle 's motivations and the more human side of the story '', while still looking "gritty and dark, (and) Bernthal 's portrayal looking as strong as ever. '' Etherington did also criticize the soundtrack of the trailer. The Punisher had its red carpet premiere on November 6, 2017, in New York City at the 34th Street AMC Loews theatre.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 61 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.82 / 10 based on 54 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads, "A rocky start ca n't keep The Punisher from pushing the boundaries of Marvel 's TV universe with a fresh take on the comics - derived action thriller. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 54 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Summarizing the critical response to the entirety of the first season, GameSpot said reviews were "mixed. '' It received mixed to negative reviews from the LA Times, Salon and AV Club.
The Washington Post said that Netflix had finally gotten the franchise "right '' in a live - action in a way the prior three movies had failed to please fans. It gave the credit to the "soul '' of the show and Bernthal as "one of Marvel 's great casting gets '' and made the show "a definitive adaptation that doubles as Netflix 's best Marvel show to date. '' The Hollywood Reporter thought the first 13 episode season felt "at least twice the length it should be. '' The New York Times said "the action picks up as the season progresses, but The Punisher never quite gets in touch with the visceral roots of its material. ''
Esquire called the first season "a compelling and complex horror story about the military. '' The New York Times said that although the action picks up later in the first season, the slow pace made it less pulpy and more of a procedural thriller with a moody and psychological approach, particularly for its focus on PTSD. Variety also wrote positively of both the show and Bernthal 's "seamless '' performance, saying that "It 's difficult to imagine better casting than Bernthal, who communicates so fluently with impassive silences, and is convincing both when he is being terribly violent and especially gentle. '' However, the review said the show took some time to show that it "transcends what it appears to be '' at first, through Steve Lightfoot 's "sharp, conscious storytelling. '' It also praised what it called anti-violence themes throughout the series. Vanity Fair wrote a less positive review, saying the show was as "psychologically confused as its antihero, '' as the writers had Castle target people for questionable reasons but portrayed him as justified. Vanity Fair wrote that "What the series neglects to examine, of course, is the fact that the Punisher is just as wicked as the villains he targets. '' Vulture described the show 's attempts to "humanize and deepen '' Castle beyond the violent "monster '' he was in the original comics as "unpersuasive, '' and described a conflict between the showing wanting to be both The Best Years of Our Lives and Death Wish IV: The Crackdown at the same time.
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how many seats are in parliament of ghana | List of Ghana Parliament constituencies - wikipedia
This is a list of the 275 constituencies represented in the Parliament of the Republic of Ghana, as at the December 2012 parliamentary election. Each constituency is represented by a single Member of Parliament (MP). The number of seats was increased from 200 to 230 after the December 2000 elections. The total list of constituencies was increased to 275 prior to the Ghanaian general election in 2012.
The number of constituencies in this region increased from 33 to 39 in 2004 and 47 in 2012 prior to the Ghana General Election, 2012. Some new districts were created in 2008 affecting the location of some constituencies.
The number of constituencies increased from 21 to 24 in 2004 and 29 in 2012 prior to the Ghana General Election, 2012.
The number of constituencies in the region increased from 17 to 19 in 2004 and 23 in 2012 prior to the Ghanaian general election, 2012.
The number of constituencies was increased from 26 to 28 in 2004 and 33 in 2012 prior to the Ghanaian general election, 2012.
The number of constituencies increased from 22 to 27 in 2004 and 34 prior to the Ghanaian general election, 2012.
The number of constituencies increased from 23 to 26 in 2004 and 31 in 2012 prior to the Ghanaian general election, 2012.
The number of constituencies increased from 12 to 13 in 2004 and 15 in 2012 prior to the Ghanaian general election, 2012.
The number of constituencies increased from 8 to 10 and 11 in 2012 prior to the Ghanaian general election, 2012.
The number of constituencies increased from 19 to 22 in 2004 and 26 in 2012 prior to the Ghanaian general election, 2012.
The Adaklu District was created in 2012 from the former Adaklu - Anyigbe District.
The Afadzato South District was created in 2012 from the Hohoe Municipal District.
The Agotime Ziope District was created in 2012 from the former Adaklu - Anyigbe District.
The Akatsi North District was created in 2012 from the former Akatsi District.
The Akatsi South District is the result of Akatsi North District being carved out of the former Akatsi District in 2012.
The Ho West District was carved out of the Ho Municipal District in 2012.
Carved out of Krachi West District
The number of constituencies increased from 19 to 22 in 2004 and 26 in 2012.
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who was the original singer of i swear | I Swear - wikipedia
"I Swear '' is a ballad written by Gary Baker and Frank J. Myers that became a hit for two acts in 1993. Initially, it was a number - one single on the U.S. Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart for American country music artist John Michael Montgomery at the beginning of the year. His version crossed over to pop radio and climbed to number 42 on the Billboard Hot 100. A few months later, American pop group All - 4 - One covered the song and achieved great success in many countries. In Latin America it has been translated "Juraré '' performed by the Costa Rican group Centinelas Vocal Band. In 1998, the Mexican country band Caballo Dorado recorded a Spanish version called "Ya sé ''.
The song is a ballad in which the narrator promises his significant other that he will always love her.
The music video was directed by Marc Ball and premiered in late 1993.
"I Swear '' debuted on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs for the week of December 18, 1993.
Several months after John Michael Montgomery had released his original version, All - 4 - One recorded their own version with record producer David Foster.
All - 4 - One 's version hit number one in numerous countries, including the Billboard Hot 100 in the U.S., where it remained for eleven consecutive weeks. It peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart, where it stayed for seven consecutive weeks, being held off number one by Wet Wet Wet 's "Love Is All Around '', which went on to spend 15 weeks at number one. This version spent a total of 18 weeks in the UK charts.
The All - 4 - One version of the song is slightly different to the original, in that the line "And when there 's silver in your hair '' from the second verse was replaced by "And when just the two of us are there. '' This version ranks number 88 on Billboard 's All - Time Top 100 Songs list.
On May 9, 2016, All - 4 - One posted a video on YouTube recording a new version of the song with Montgomery.
A music video was produced to promote the single. It portrays the members of All - 4 - One hanging out on a rooftop singing interspersed with scenes with a young woman walking on the sidewalk below. They go down to walk and talk with her as they implore her not to leave. Ultimately, she says goodbye to each member before boarding a departing bus.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
In 1997, Sandy Lam, Qi Yu, Prudence Liew and Teresa Carpio released a cover of the song, along with What A Wonderful World
The final eleven contestants from Popstars: Girls forever, ninth season of TV talent show POPSTARS in Germany, they released a cover version of the song with Gary Baker on November 19, 2010. The finalists premiered the song live on the November 18th edition of the programme; the single was available for digital download on November 16, 2010 and a physical release followed the day after the live performance of the song. The song was recorded at Noiseblock Studios in Florence, Alabama.
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who started the first university in the world | University of Al Quaraouiyine - wikipedia
The University of al - Qarawiyyin, also written Al Quaraouiyine or Al - Karaouine (Arabic: جامعة القرويين ; Berber languages: ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵍⵇⴰⵕⴰⵡⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ; French: Université Al Quaraouiyine), is a university located in Fez, Morocco. It is the oldest existing, continually operating and the first degree - awarding educational institution in the world according to UNESCO and Guinness World Records and is sometimes referred to as the oldest university. It was founded by Fatima al - Fihri in 859 with an associated madrasa, which subsequently became one of the leading spiritual and educational centers of the historic Muslim world. It was incorporated into Morocco 's modern state university system in 1963.
Education at Al Quaraouiyine University concentrates on the Islamic religious and legal sciences with a heavy emphasis on, and particular strengths in Classical Arabic grammar / linguistics and Maliki law, although a few lessons on other non-Islamic subjects such as French, English are also offered to students. Teaching is delivered in the traditional method, in which students are seated in a semi-circle (halqa) around a sheikh, who prompts them to read sections of a particular text, asks them questions on particular points of grammar, law, or interpretation, and explains difficult points. Students from all over Morocco and Islamic West Africa attend the Qarawiyyin, although a few might come from as far afield as Muslim Central Asia. Even Spanish Muslim converts frequently attend the institution, largely attracted by the fact that the sheikhs of the Qarawiyyin, and Islamic scholarship in Morocco in general, are heirs to the rich religious and scholarly heritage of Muslim al - Andalus.
Most students at the Qarawiyyin range from between the ages of 13 and 30, and study towards high school - level diplomas and university - level bachelor 's degrees, although Muslims with a sufficiently high level of Arabic are also able to attend lecture circles on an informal basis, given the traditional category of visitors "in search of (religious and legal) knowledge '' ("zuwwaar li'l - talab fii ' ilm ''). In addition to being Muslim, prospective students of the Qarawiyyin are required to have memorized the Qur'an in full as well as several other shorter medieval Islamic texts on grammar and Maliki law, and in general to have a very good command of Classical Arabic. It is a common misconception that the university is open only to men, however. It is open to both men and women.
Successive dynasties expanded the Al Quaraouiyine mosque until it became the largest in Africa, with a capacity of 22,000 worshipers. Compared with the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul or the Jameh Mosque in Isfahan, the design is austere. The columns and arches are plain white; the floors are covered in reed mats, not lush carpets. Yet the seemingly endless forest of arches creates a sense of infinite majesty and intimate privacy, while the simplicity of the design complements the finely decorated niches, pulpit and outer courtyard, with its superb tiles, plasterwork, woodcarvings and paintings.
The present form of the mosque is the result of a long historical evolution over the course of more than 1,000 years. Originally the mosque was about 30 meters long with a courtyard and four transverse aisles. The first expansion was undertaken in 956, by Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba, Abd - ar - Rahman III. The prayer hall was extended and the minaret was relocated, taking on a square form that served as a model for countless North African minarets. At this time it became a tradition that other mosques of Fes would make the call to prayer only after they heard Al Quaraouiyine. In the minaret of Al Quaraouiyine mosque there is a special room, the Dar al - Muwaqqit, where the times of prayer are established.
The most extensive reconstruction was carried out in 1135 under the patronage of the Almoravid ruler sultan Ali Ibn Yusuf who ordered the extension of the mosque from 18 to 21 aisles, expanding the structure to more than 3,000 square meters. The mosque acquired its present appearance at this time, featuring horseshoe arches and ijmiz frames decorated with beautiful geometrical and floral Andalusian art, bordered with Kufic calligraphy.
In the 16th century, the Saadis restored the mosque, adding two pavilions to the northern and southern ends of the courtyard.
Al Quaraouiyine was founded with an associated madrasa, in 859 by Fatima al - Fihri, the daughter of a wealthy merchant named Mohammed Al - Fihri. The Al - Fihri family had migrated from Kairouan (hence the name of the mosque), Tunisia to Fes in the early 9th century, joining a community of other migrants from Kairouan who had settled in a western district of the city. Fatima and her sister Mariam, both of whom were well educated, inherited a large amount of money from their father. Fatima vowed to spend her entire inheritance on the construction of a mosque suitable for her community. At that time, the city of Fes was the capital of the Idrisid Dynasty.
In some sources, the medieval madrasa is described as a "university '' in one Rough Guide book even as vying with Al - Azhar (c. 970) in Cairo "for the title of world 's oldest university ''.
Some scholars, noting certain parallels between such madrasas and European medieval universities, have proposed that the latter may have been influenced by the madrasas of Islamic Spain and the Emirate of Sicily. Other scholars have questioned this, citing the lack of evidence for an actual transmission from the Islamic world to Christian Europe and highlighting the differences in the structure, methodologies, procedures, curricula and legal status of the "Islamic college '' (madrasa) versus the European university.
Al Quaraouiyine gained the patronage of politically powerful sultans. It compiled a large selection of manuscripts that were kept at a library founded by the Marinid Sultan Abu Inan Faris in 1349. Among the most precious manuscripts currently housed in the library are volumes from the famous Al - Muwatta of Malik written on gazelle parchment, the Sirat Ibn Ishaq, a copy of the Qur'an given by Sultan Ahmad al - Mansur in 1602, and the original copy of Ibn Khaldun 's book Al - ' Ibar. Among the subjects taught, alongside the Qur'an and Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), are grammar, rhetoric, logic, medicine, mathematics, astronomy.
The twelfth century cartographer Mohammed al - Idrisi, whose maps aided European exploration in the Renaissance is said to have lived in Fes for some time, suggesting that he may have worked or studied at Al Quaraouiyine. The madrasa has produced numerous scholars who have strongly influenced the intellectual and academic history of the Muslim world. Among these are Ibn Rushayd al - Sabti (d. 1321), Mohammed Ibn al - Hajj al - Abdari al - Fasi (d. 1336), Abu Imran al - Fasi (d. 1015), a leading theorist of the Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence, Leo Africanus, a renowned traveler and writer. Pioneer scholars such as Al - Idrissi (d. 1166 AD), Ibn al - Arabi (1165 - 1240 AD), Ibn Khaldun (1332 - 1395 AD), Ibn al - Khatib, Al - Bitruji (Alpetragius), Ibn Hirzihim, and Al - Wazzan were all connected with the madrasa either as students or lecturers. Among Christian scholars visiting Al Quaraouiyine were the Belgian Nicolas Cleynaerts and the Dutchman Golius and Pope Sylvester II.
At the time Morocco became a French protectorate in 1912, Al Quaraouiyine had witnessed a decline as a religious center of learning from its medieval prime. However, it had retained some significance as an educational venue for the sultan 's administration. The student body was rigidly divided along social strata; ethnicity (Arab or Berber), social status, personal wealth and the geographic background (rural or urban) determined the group membership of the students who were segregated on the teaching facility as well as in their personal quarters. The French administration implemented a number of structural reforms between 1914 and 1947, but did not modernize the contents of teaching likewise which were still dominated by the traditional worldviews of the ulama. At the same time, the student numbers at Al Quaraouiyine dwindled to a total of 300 in 1922 as the Moroccan elite began to send its children instead to the new - found Western - style colleges and institutes elsewhere in the country.
In 1947, Al Quaraouiyine was integrated into the state educational system, but it was only by royal decree after independence, in 1963, that the madrasa was finally transformed into a university under the supervision of the ministry of education. The old madrasa was shut down and the new campus established at former French Army barracks. While the dean took its seat at Fez, four faculties were founded in and outside the city: a faculty of Islamic law in Fez, a faculty of Arab studies in Marrakech and a faculty of theology in Tétouan, plus one near Agadir in 1979. Modern curricula and textbooks were introduced and the professional training of the teachers improved. Following the reforms, Al Quaraouiyine was officially renamed "University of Al Quaraouiyine '' in 1965.
In 1975, the General Studies were transferred to the newly founded Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University; Al Quaraouiyine kept the Islamic and theological courses of studies.
In 1988, after a hiatus of almost three decades, the teaching of traditional Islamic education at the madrasa of Al Quaraouiyine was resumed by king Hassan II in what has been interpreted as a move to bolster conservative support for the monarchy.
According to UNESCO, and a number of other scholars, Al Quaraouiyine is considered to have been a university since its founding and therefore that it is the oldest university in the world. According to Yahya Pallavicini, the university model did not spread in Europe until the 12th century, and was found throughout the Muslim world from the founding of Al Quaraouiyine in the 9th century until at least European colonialism. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, universities had existed in parts of Asia and Africa prior to the founding of the first medieval European universities.
A number of other scholars, however, consider the medieval university (from Latin universitas) to be an institution unique to Christian Europe, arguing that the first universities were located in Western Europe with Paris and Bologna often cited as the earliest examples. Several scholars consider that Al Quaraouiyine was founded and run as a madrasa (Arabic: مدرسة ) until after World War II. They consider institutions like Al Quaraouiyine to be higher education colleges of Islamic law where other subjects were only of secondary importance. They also consider that the University was only adopted outside the West, including into the Islamic world, in the course of modernization programmes since the beginning of the 19th century. They date the transformation of the madrasa of Al Quaraouiyine into a university to its modern reorganization in 1963. In the wake of these reforms, Al Quaraouiyine was officially renamed "University of Al Quaraouiyine '' two years later.
At Al - Karaouine, students have studied theology, jurisprudence, philosophy, mathematics, astrology, astronomy and languages. The university had among its students since the Middle Age famous people from all around the Mediterranean sea such as the philosopher Averroes, the geographer Muhammad al - Idrisi and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides.
List of alumni:
The Adjustments of Original Institutions of the Higher Learning: the Madrasah. Significantly, the institutional adjustments of the madrasahs affected both the structure and the content of these institutions. In terms of structure, the adjustments were twofold: the reorganization of the available original madaris, and the creation of new institutions. This resulted in two different types of Islamic teaching institutions in al - Maghrib. The first type was derived from the fusion of old madaris with new universities. For example, Morocco transformed Al - Qarawiyin (859 A.D.) into a university under the supervision of the ministry of education in 1963.
The Quaraouiyine Mosque, founded in 859, is the most famous mosque of Morocco and attracted continuous investment by Muslim rulers.
As for the nature of its curriculum, it was typical of other major madrasahs such as al - Azhar and Al Quaraouiyine, though many of the texts used at the institution came from Muslim Spain... Al Quaraouiyine began its life as a small mosque constructed in 859 C.E. by means of an endowment bequeathed by a wealthy woman of much piety, Fatima bint Muhammed al - Fahri.
Thus the university, as a form of social organization, was peculiar to medieval Europe. Later, it was exported to all parts of the world, including the Muslim East; and it has remained with us down to the present day. But back in the middle ages, outside of Europe, there was nothing anything quite like it anywhere.
Higher education has always been an integral part of Morocco, going back to the ninth century when the Karaouine Mosque was established. The madrasa, known today as Al Qayrawaniyan University, became part of the state university system in 1947.
al - qarawiyin is the oldest university in Morocco. It was founded as a mosque in Fès in the middle of the ninth century. It has been a destination for students and scholars of Islamic sciences and Arabic studies throughout the history of Morocco. There were also other religious schools like the madras of ibn yusuf and other schools in the sus. This system of basic education called al - ta'lim al - aSil was funded by the sultans of Morocco and many famous traditional families. After independence, al - qarawiyin maintained its reputation, but it seemed important to transform it into a university that would prepare graduates for a modern country while maintaining an emphasis on Islamic studies. Hence, al - qarawiyin university was founded in February 1963 and, while the dean 's residence was kept in Fès, the new university initially had four colleges located in major regions of the country known for their religious influences and madrasas. These colleges were kuliyat al - shari 's in Fès, kuliyat uSul al - din in Tétouan, kuliyat al - lugha al - ' arabiya in Marrakech (all founded in 1963), and kuliyat al - shari'a in Ait Melloul near Agadir, which was founded in 1979.
Madrasa, in modern usage, the name of an institution of learning where the Islamic sciences are taught, i.e. a college for higher studies, as opposed to an elementary school of traditional type (kuttab); in mediaeval usage, essentially a college of law in which the other Islamic sciences, including literary and philosophical ones, were ancillary subjects only.
A madrasa is a college of Islamic law. The madrasa was an educational institution in which Islamic law (fiqh) was taught according to one or more Sunni rites: Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanafi, or Hanbali. It was supported by an endowment or charitable trust (waqf) that provided for at least one chair for one professor of law, income for other faculty or staff, scholarships for students, and funds for the maintenance of the building. Madrasas contained lodgings for the professor and some of his students. Subjects other than law were frequently taught in madrasas, and even Sufi seances were held in them, but there could be no madrasa without law as technically the major subject.
In studying an institution which is foreign and remote in point of time, as is the case of the medieval madrasa, one runs the double risk of attributing to it characteristics borrowed from one 's own institutions and one 's own times. Thus gratuitous transfers may be made from one culture to the other, and the time factor may be ignored or dismissed as being without significance. One can not therefore be too careful in attempting a comparative study of these two institutions: the madrasa and the university. But in spite of the pitfalls inherent in such a study, albeit sketchy, the results which may be obtained are well worth the risks involved. In any case, one can not avoid making comparisons when certain unwarranted statements have already been made and seem to be currently accepted without question. The most unwarranted of these statements is the one which makes of the "madrasa '' a "university ''.
Thus the university, as a form of social organization, was peculiar to medieval Europe. Later, it was exported to all parts of the world, including the Muslim East; and it has remained with us down to the present day. But back in the Middle Ages, outside of Europe, there was nothing anything quite like it anywhere.
The university is a European institution; indeed, it is the European institution par excellence. There are various reasons for this assertion. As a community of teachers and taught, accorded certain rights, such as administrative autonomy and the determination and realization of curricula (courses of study) and of the objectives of research as well as the award of publicly recognized degrees, it is a creation of medieval Europe, which was the Europe of papal Christianity...
No other European institution has spread over the entire world in the way in which the traditional form of the European university has done. The degrees awarded by European universities -- the bachelor 's degree, the licentiate, the master 's degree, and the doctorate -- have been adopted in the most diverse societies throughout the world. The four medieval faculties of artes -- variously called philosophy, letters, arts, arts and sciences, and humanities --, law, medicine, and theology have survived and have been supplemented by numerous disciplines, particularly the social sciences and technological studies, but they remain none the less at the heart of universities throughout the world.
Even the name of the universitas, which in the Middle Ages was applied to corporate bodies of the most diverse sorts and was accordingly applied to the corporate organization of teachers and students, has in the course of centuries been given a more particular focus: the university, as a universitas litterarum, has since the eighteenth century been the intellectual institution which cultivates and transmits the entire corpus of methodically studied intellectual disciplines.
No one today would dispute the fact that universities, in the sense in which the term is now generally understood, were a creation of the Middle Ages, appearing for the first time between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It is no doubt true that other civilizations, prior to, or wholly alien to, the medieval West, such as the Roman Empire, Byzantium, Islam, or China, were familiar with forms of higher education which a number of historians, for the sake of convenience, have sometimes described as universities. Yet a closer look makes it plain that the institutional reality was altogether different and, no matter what has been said on the subject, there is no real link such as would justify us in associating them with medieval universities in the West. Until there is definite proof to the contrary, these latter must be regarded as the sole source of the model which gradually spread through the whole of Europe and then to the whole world. We are therefore concerned with what is indisputably an original institution, which can only be defined in terms of a historical analysis of its emergence and its mode of operation in concrete circumstances.
In many respects, if there is any institution that Europe can most justifiably claim as one of its inventions, it is the university. As proof thereof and without wishing here to recount the whole history of the birth of universities, it will suffice to describe briefly how the invention of universities took the form of a polycentric process of specifically European origin.
Thus the university, as a form of social organization, was peculiar to medieval Europe. Later, it was exported to all parts of the world, including the Muslim East; and it has remained with us down to the present day. But back in the Middle Ages, outside of Europe, there was nothing anything quite like it anywhere.
Coordinates: 34 ° 3 ′ 52 '' N 4 ° 58 ′ 24 '' W / 34.06444 ° N 4.97333 ° W / 34.06444; - 4.97333
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what kinds of climates are found in texas | Climate of Texas - wikipedia
Texas ' weather varies widely, from arid in the west to humid in the east. The huge expanse of Texas encompasses several regions with distinctly different climates: Northern Plains, Trans - Pecos Region, Texas Hill Country, Piney Woods, and South Texas. Generally speaking, the part of Texas that lies to the east of Interstate 35 is subtropical, while the portion that lies to the west of Interstate 35 is arid desert.
Texas ranks first in tornado occurrence with an average of 139 per year. Tropical cyclones can affect the state, either from the Gulf of Mexico or from an overland trajectory originating in the eastern Pacific Ocean. Those originating from the Gulf of Mexico are more likely to strike the upper Texas coast than elsewhere. Significant floods have occurred across the state throughout history, both from tropical cyclones and from stalled weather fronts.
The Northern Plains ' climate is semi-arid and is prone to drought, annually receiving between 16 and 32 inches (810 mm) of precipitation, and average annual snowfall ranging between 15 and 30 inches, with the greatest snowfall amounts occurring in the Texas panhandle and areas near the border with New Mexico. During the summer, this area of state sees the most clear days. Winter nights commonly see temperatures fall below the freezing mark, or 32 ° F (0 ° C). The wettest months of the year are April and May. Tornadoes, caused by the convergence of westerly and southerly prevailing winds during the late spring, are common, making the region part of Tornado Alley. Poor land management, drought, and high wind speeds can cause large dust storms, minimized in modern times by improved land - management practices, but most troublesome in the 1930s during the Dust Bowl period. The panhandle region, farthest from the Gulf of Mexico, experiences colder winters than the other regions of Texas, where occasional wintertime Arctic blasts can cause temperatures to plunge to well below freezing and bring snowy conditions.
The Trans - Pecos region, also known as Big Bend Country, is in the west - central and western parts of the state, consisting of the Chihuahuan Desert and isolated mountain ranges. During fall, winter, and spring, it experiences the most clear days statewide. It is also the driest receiving an average annual rainfall of only 16 inches (410 mm) or less. Snowfall is rare at lower elevations, although the highest mountain peaks are prone to heavy snowfalls during winter. The arid climate is the main reason for desertification of the land, but overgrazing is slowly widening the land area of that desert. In the mountain areas one can see coniferous forests in a wetter and more temperate environment. The wettest months in this region occur during the summer. Winds are strengthened as they are forced to push through canyons and valleys. In the flatter areas these winds are harvested into usable electricity.
The Texas Hill Country, or central Texas is shaped by its many rivers and hills. The climate is semi-arid, with cool winters and hot summers. The vegetation is both deciduous in the river valleys, and coniferous where there is greater elevation. In a single year the region can receive up to 48 inches (1,200 mm) of rain, and flooding is common near rivers and in low - lying areas. The wettest months of the year are April and May.
The Piney Woods is the eastern region of Texas and is within the humid subtropical climate zone. It receives the most rainfall; more than 60 inches (1,500 mm) annually in the far east. (1) This is due to the gulf currents that carry humid air to the region, where it condenses and precipitates out in the vicinity of sea breeze fronts as well as when extratropical cyclones move by. While coastal sections see the most cloudy days statewide and year - round, northern sections see the most clear days during the summer. The wettest months of the year are April and May. The area is prone to severe thunderstorms and tornadoes when the proper conditions exist, generally in the springtime. Hurricanes also strike the region, the most disastrous of which was the Galveston Hurricane of 1900. More recently Hurricane Rita pummeled the Golden Triangle of southeast Texas. The higher humidity of the region amplifies the feeling of heat during the summer. During winter and spring along the immediate coast, temperatures are kept cool by relatively cool gulf waters. Dense advection fog can form when warm air moves over the cool shelf waters during February and March, stopping ship traffic for days.
The region of South Texas includes the semiarid ranch country and the wetter Rio Grande Valley. Considered to be the southernmost tip of the American Great Plains region, the inland region has rainfall that is similar to that of the Northern Plains. The coastal areas are nearly warm most of the year due to currents of the Gulf of Mexico, but can get cold in winter if a strong front comes in, and sometimes even causing snow at sea level. Summers are hot and humid. Rain in the coastal region is more abundant than in the inland region, and subtropical forests line the Rio Grande. The wettest months of the year are April and May in western areas, but approaching the Gulf Coast, September becomes the year 's wettest month on average. This owes to the threat from tropical weather systems, including hurricanes, which can bring torrential rains of 5 - 10 + inches in one or two days. The resulting September monthly rainfall maximum prevails, for example, at Corpus Christi, South Padre Island and Brownsville. Inland, where it is drier, ranches dominate the landscape, characterized by thick spiny brush and grasslands. The winters in the inland region are variable, but usually mild, but are subject to Arctic air outbreaks from Canada, Snow is a rare occurrence due to the lack of humidity in winter, and the summers are for the most part hot and dry, but at times can be humid when winds come off the Gulf of Mexico. Tornadoes can occur in this region, but are less frequent than in other parts of the state.
The southernmost part of the state falls just within the tropical climate classification. Occasional years of above average temperatures result in an abundance of tropical flora in the lower Rio Grande Valley, typical of a Tropical savanna climat.
Northern and western sections of the state average snowfall annually due to their colder average readings each winter. For one week in February 1956, a snow storm of historic proportions struck northern Texas. The maximum amount measured was 61 inches (150 cm) at Vega with Plainview receiving 24 inches (61 cm) in one day. El Paso, in Far West Texas, received 22.4 in (57 cm) of snow during a 24 - hour period December 13 -- 14, 1987. For central and southern sections, snowfall is considerably more unusual. In February 1895, a large area of southeastern Texas received over 12 inches (30 cm) of snow, with peak amounts near 30 inches (76 cm) at Port Arthur. More recently around Christmas of 2004, up to 13 inches (33 cm) of snow fell along the middle coast, with the maximum occurring at Victoria.
The worst cold snap to occur statewide occurred during the last half of December in 1983. Four stations recorded their longest continuous readings at or below 32 ° F (0 ° C) on record. At Austin, the temperature remained at or below freezing for 139 hours. At Abilene, the period at or below freezing totaled 202 hours. Lubbock saw temperatures at or below freezing for 207 hours. The Dallas - Fort Worth airport measured temperatures at or below freezing for a total of 296 consecutive hours. Snow which fell on December 14 and 15 across northern Texas stayed on the ground until New Year 's Day of 1984.
Thunderstorms are very common in Texas, especially the eastern and northern portion. Texas is part of the Tornado Alley section of the country. The state experiences the most tornadoes in the Union, an average of 139 a year. These strike most frequently in North Texas and the Panhandle. Tornadoes in Texas generally occur in April, May, and June.
Texas 's position at the northwestern end of the Gulf of Mexico makes it vulnerable to hurricanes. Some of the most destructive hurricanes in U.S. history have impacted Texas. A hurricane in 1875 killed approximately 400 people in Indianola, followed by another hurricane in 1886 that destroyed the town, which was at the time the most important port city in the state. This allowed Galveston to take over as the chief port city, but it was subsequently devastated by a hurricane in 1900 that killed approximately 8,000 people (possibly as many as 12,000), making it the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history. Other devastating Texan hurricanes include the 1915 Galveston Hurricane, Hurricane Carla in 1961, Hurricane Beulah in 1967, Hurricane Alicia in 1983, Hurricane Rita in 2005, and Hurricane Ike in 2008.
The climatology of where tropical cyclone strikes are most likely within the state appears to be changing. In the early 1980s, the most favored region during the previous century was the middle coast. However, that region of the coastline has been rarely impacted since the 1960s, and a recent study indicates that the most vulnerable location to a tropical cyclone strike since 1851 is the upper coast, which has received 56 percent of all tropical cyclone landfalls, of which 66 percent originate from the Gulf of Mexico. This is in contrast with Louisiana and the lower Texan coast, where only 39 percent of the landfalls are from tropical cyclones of Gulf of Mexico origin.
The most serious threat from tropical cyclones for Texans is from flooding. The worst aspect about tropical cyclones is that the weaker they are, the more efficient they can be at producing heavy rains and catastrophic flooding. Systems with sprawling circulations, such as Hurricane Beulah, also tend to make good rainmakers. Slow moving systems, such as Tropical Storm Amelia (1978) and Hurricane Harvey (2017) can produce significant rainfall. Tropical cyclones from the eastern Pacific and Atlantic Basins can impact the Lone Star State. In general, flooding across Texas is more common during the spring and early autumn months, and it can also be due to nearby stationary fronts interacting with strong upper level cyclones. The most likely location for floods statewide is the Balcones Escarpment, an area of steep elevation gradient in central Texas at the boundary between the Edwards Plateau and the coastal plain.
The highest temperature ever measured in Texas was 120 ° F (48.9 ° C), recorded on August 12, 1936 in Seymour, during the 1936 North American Heatwave, and again on June 28, 1994 in Monahans. The lowest temperature ever measured in Texas was − 23 ° F (− 30.6 ° C), recorded on February 8, 1933 in Seminole.
The El Niño -- Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle is a huge impact on the weather in Texas. During the El Niño phase, the jet stream is located west - to - east across the southern portion of the United States. Therefore, winters in Texas are colder and receive more snowfall than normal. Texas is also less likely to get impacted by hurricanes due to the increased wind shear across the Atlantic. Spring to early summer yields increased rainfall especially where a low pressure system is located over the Four Corners region or northern Mexico which yields monsoon - like climate (which was exacerbated during the 2015 and 2016 spring season where the City of Houston was the hardest hit as if the climate was similar to Mumbai or Kolkata, India with heavy rainfall usually from moisture from the Gulf of Mexico). During the opposite phase, La Niña, the jet stream is much further north, therefore winter is milder and drier than normal. Hurricanes are more likely to impact Texas during La Niña due to decreased wind shear in the Atlantic. Droughts in Texas are much more likely during La Niña. The 2010 - 11 La Niña is mostly to blame for one of the worst droughts in Texas history.
Texas emits the most greenhouse gases in the US. The state 's annual carbon dioxide emissions are nearly 1.5 trillion pounds (680 billion kg). Texas would be the world 's seventh - largest producer of greenhouse gases if it were an independent nation. The primary factors in Texas ' greenhouse gas emissions are the state 's large number of coal power plants and the state 's refining and manufacturing industries which provides the bulk of the United States ' petroleum products.
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what bacterial parts are vital to a bacterium | Bacteria - wikipedia
Actinobacteria (high - G + C) Firmicutes (low - G + C) Tenericutes (no wall)
Aquificae Bacteroidetes / Fibrobacteres -- Chlorobi (FCB group) Chlamydiae Deinococcus - Thermus Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Planctomycetes -- Verrucomicrobia / Chlamydiae (PVC group) Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Synergistetes
Acidobacteria Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Dictyoglomi Thermodesulfobacteria Thermotogae
Eubacteria Woese & Fox, 1977
Bacteria (/ bækˈtɪəriə / (listen); common noun bacteria, singular bacterium) constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep portions of Earth 's crust. Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only about half of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology.
There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. There are approximately 5 × 10 bacteria on Earth, forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants and animals. Bacteria are vital in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of dead bodies and bacteria are responsible for the putrefaction stage in this process. In the biological communities surrounding hydrothermal vents and cold seeps, extremophile bacteria provide the nutrients needed to sustain life by converting dissolved compounds, such as hydrogen sulphide and methane, to energy. In March 2013, data reported by researchers in October 2012, was published. It was suggested that bacteria thrive in the Mariana Trench, which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest known part of the oceans. Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2.6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, "You can find microbes everywhere -- they 're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are. ''
The famous notion that bacterial cells in the human body outnumber human cells by a factor of 10: 1 has been debunked. There are approximately 39 trillion bacterial cells in the human microbiota as personified by a "reference '' 70 kg male 170 cm tall, whereas there are 30 trillion human cells in the body. This means that although they do have the upper hand in actual numbers, it is only by 30 %, and not 900 %.
The largest number exist in the gut flora, and a large number on the skin. The vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system, though many are beneficial particularly in the gut flora. However several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause infectious diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy, and bubonic plague. The most common fatal bacterial diseases are respiratory infections, with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people per year, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa. In developed countries, antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections and are also used in farming, making antibiotic resistance a growing problem. In industry, bacteria are important in sewage treatment and the breakdown of oil spills, the production of cheese and yogurt through fermentation, and the recovery of gold, palladium, copper and other metals in the mining sector, as well as in biotechnology, and the manufacture of antibiotics and other chemicals.
Once regarded as plants constituting the class Schizomycetes, bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane - bound organelles. Although the term bacteria traditionally included all prokaryotes, the scientific classification changed after the discovery in the 1990s that prokaryotes consist of two very different groups of organisms that evolved from an ancient common ancestor. These evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea.
The word bacteria is the plural of the New Latin bacterium, which is the latinisation of the Greek βακτήριον (bakterion), the diminutive of βακτηρία (bakteria), meaning "staff, cane '', because the first ones to be discovered were rod - shaped.
The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, about 4 billion years ago. For about 3 billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life. In 2008, fossils of macroorganisms were discovered and named as the Francevillian biota. Although bacterial fossils exist, such as stromatolites, their lack of distinctive morphology prevents them from being used to examine the history of bacterial evolution, or to date the time of origin of a particular bacterial species. However, gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny, and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal / eukaryotic lineage. Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence, that of the archaea and eukaryotes. Here, eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into endosymbiotic associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells, which were themselves possibly related to the Archaea. This involved the engulfment by proto - eukaryotic cells of alphaproteobacterial symbionts to form either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes, which are still found in all known Eukarya (sometimes in highly reduced form, e.g. in ancient "amitochondrial '' protozoa). Later on, some eukaryotes that already contained mitochondria also engulfed cyanobacterial - like organisms. This led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants. There are also some algae that originated from even later endosymbiotic events. Here, eukaryotes engulfed a eukaryotic algae that developed into a "second - generation '' plastid. This is known as secondary endosymbiosis.
In March 2017, researchers reported evidence of possibly the oldest forms of life on Earth. Putative fossilized microorganisms were discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec, Canada, that may have lived as early as 4.280 billion years ago, not long after the oceans formed 4.4 billion years ago, and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago. According to biologist Stephen Blair Hedges, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth... then it could be common in the universe. ''
Bacteria display a wide diversity of shapes and sizes, called morphologies. Bacterial cells are about one - tenth the size of eukaryotic cells and are typically 0.5 -- 5.0 micrometres in length. However, a few species are visible to the unaided eye -- for example, Thiomargarita namibiensis is up to half a millimetre long and Epulopiscium fishelsoni reaches 0.7 mm. Among the smallest bacteria are members of the genus Mycoplasma, which measure only 0.3 micrometres, as small as the largest viruses. Some bacteria may be even smaller, but these ultramicrobacteria are not well - studied.
Most bacterial species are either spherical, called cocci (sing. coccus, from Greek kókkos, grain, seed), or rod - shaped, called bacilli (sing. bacillus, from Latin baculus, stick). Elongation is associated with swimming. Some bacteria, called vibrio, are shaped like slightly curved rods or comma - shaped; others can be spiral - shaped, called spirilla, or tightly coiled, called spirochaetes. A small number of species even have tetrahedral or cuboidal shapes. More recently, some bacteria were discovered deep under Earth 's crust that grow as branching filamentous types with a star - shaped cross-section. The large surface area to volume ratio of this morphology may give these bacteria an advantage in nutrient - poor environments. This wide variety of shapes is determined by the bacterial cell wall and cytoskeleton, and is important because it can influence the ability of bacteria to acquire nutrients, attach to surfaces, swim through liquids and escape predators.
Many bacterial species exist simply as single cells, others associate in characteristic patterns: Neisseria form diploids (pairs), Streptococcus form chains, and Staphylococcus group together in "bunch of grapes '' clusters. Bacteria can also be elongated to form filaments, for example the Actinobacteria. Filamentous bacteria are often surrounded by a sheath that contains many individual cells. Certain types, such as species of the genus Nocardia, even form complex, branched filaments, similar in appearance to fungal mycelia.
Bacteria often attach to surfaces and form dense aggregations in bacterial mats called biofilms. These biofilms can range from a few micrometres in thickness to up to half a metre in depth, and may contain multiple species of bacteria, protists and archaea. Bacteria living in biofilms display a complex arrangement of cells and extracellular components, forming secondary structures, such as microcolonies, through which there are networks of channels to enable better diffusion of nutrients. In natural environments, such as soil or the surfaces of plants, the majority of bacteria are bound to surfaces in biofilms. Biofilms are also important in medicine, as these structures are often present during chronic bacterial infections or in infections of implanted medical devices, and bacteria protected within biofilms are much harder to kill than individual isolated bacteria.
Even more complex morphological changes are sometimes possible. For example, when starved of amino acids, Myxobacteria detect surrounding cells in a process known as quorum sensing, migrate towards each other, and aggregate to form fruiting bodies up to 500 micrometres long and containing approximately 100,000 bacterial cells. In these fruiting bodies, the bacteria perform separate tasks; this type of cooperation is a simple type of multicellular organisation. For example, about one in 10 cells migrate to the top of these fruiting bodies and differentiate into a specialised dormant state called myxospores, which are more resistant to drying and other adverse environmental conditions than are ordinary cells.
The bacterial cell is surrounded by a cell membrane (also known as a lipid, cytoplasmic or plasma membrane). This membrane encloses the contents of the cell and acts as a barrier to hold nutrients, proteins and other essential components of the cytoplasm within the cell. As they are prokaryotes, bacteria do not usually have membrane - bound organelles in their cytoplasm, and thus contain few large intracellular structures. They lack a true nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts and the other organelles present in eukaryotic cells. Bacteria were once seen as simple bags of cytoplasm, but structures such as the prokaryotic cytoskeleton and the localisation of proteins to specific locations within the cytoplasm that give bacteria some complexity have been discovered. These subcellular levels of organisation have been called "bacterial hyperstructures ''.
Bacterial microcompartments, such as carboxysomes, provide a further level of organisation; they are compartments within bacteria that are surrounded by polyhedral protein shells, rather than by lipid membranes. These "polyhedral organelles '' localise and compartmentalise bacterial metabolism, a function performed by the membrane - bound organelles in eukaryotes.
Many important biochemical reactions, such as energy generation, use concentration gradients across membranes. The general lack of internal membranes in bacteria means reactions such as electron transport occur across the cell membrane between the cytoplasm and the periplasmic space. However, in many photosynthetic bacteria the plasma membrane is highly folded and fills most of the cell with layers of light - gathering membrane. These light - gathering complexes may even form lipid - enclosed structures called chlorosomes in green sulfur bacteria. Other proteins import nutrients across the cell membrane, or expel undesired molecules from the cytoplasm.
Bacteria do not have a membrane - bound nucleus, and their genetic material is typically a single circular bacterial chromosome of DNA located in the cytoplasm in an irregularly shaped body called the nucleoid. The nucleoid contains the chromosome with its associated proteins and RNA. The phylum Planctomycetes and candidate phylum Poribacteria may be exceptions to the general absence of internal membranes in bacteria, because they appear to have a double membrane around their nucleoids and contain other membrane - bound cellular structures. Like all living organisms, bacteria contain ribosomes, often grouped in chains called polyribosomes, for the production of proteins, but the structure of the bacterial ribosome is different from that of eukaryotes and Archaea. Bacterial ribosomes have a sedimentation rate of 70S (measured in Svedberg units): their subunits have rates of 30S and 50S. Some antibiotics bind specifically to 70S ribosomes and inhibit bacterial protein synthesis. Those antibiotics kill bacteria without affecting the larger 80S ribosomes of eukaryotic cells and without harming the host.
Some bacteria produce intracellular nutrient storage granules for later use, such as glycogen, polyphosphate, sulfur or polyhydroxyalkanoates. Certain bacterial species, such as the photosynthetic Cyanobacteria, produce internal gas vesicles, which they use to regulate their buoyancy -- allowing them to move up or down into water layers with different light intensities and nutrient levels. Intracellular membranes called chromatophores are also found in membranes of phototrophic bacteria. Used primarily for photosynthesis, they contain bacteriochlorophyll pigments and carotenoids. An early idea was that bacteria might contain membrane folds termed mesosomes, but these were later shown to be artefacts produced by the chemicals used to prepare the cells for electron microscopy. Inclusions are considered to be nonliving components of the cell that do not possess metabolic activity and are not bounded by membranes. The most common inclusions are glycogen, lipid droplets, crystals, and pigments. Volutin granules are cytoplasmic inclusions of complexed inorganic polyphosphate. These granules are called metachromatic granules due to their displaying the metachromatic effect; they appear red or blue when stained with the blue dyes methylene blue or toluidine blue. Gas vacuoles, which are freely permeable to gas, are membrane - bound vesicles present in some species of Cyanobacteria. They allow the bacteria to control their buoyancy. Microcompartments are widespread, membrane - bound organelles that are made of a protein shell that surrounds and encloses various enzymes. Carboxysomes are bacterial microcompartments that contain enzymes involved in carbon fixation. Magnetosomes are bacterial microcompartments, present in magnetotactic bacteria, that contain magnetic crystals.
In most bacteria, a cell wall is present on the outside of the cell membrane. The cell membrane and cell wall comprise the cell envelope. A common bacterial cell wall material is peptidoglycan (called "murein '' in older sources), which is made from polysaccharide chains cross-linked by peptides containing D - amino acids. Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and fungi, which are made of cellulose and chitin, respectively. The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan. The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria, and the antibiotic penicillin is able to kill bacteria by inhibiting a step in the synthesis of peptidoglycan.
There are broadly speaking two different types of cell wall in bacteria, a thick one in the gram - positives and a thinner one in the gram - negatives. The names originate from the reaction of cells to the Gram stain, a long - standing test for the classification of bacterial species.
Gram - positive bacteria possess a thick cell wall containing many layers of peptidoglycan and teichoic acids. In contrast, gram - negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall consisting of a few layers of peptidoglycan surrounded by a second lipid membrane containing lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins. Lipopolysaccharides, also called endotoxins, are composed of polysaccharides and lipid A that is responsible for much of the toxicity of gram - negative bacteria. Most bacteria have the gram - negative cell wall, and only the Firmicutes and Actinobacteria have the alternative gram - positive arrangement. These two groups were previously known as the low G + C and high G + C gram - positive bacteria, respectively. These differences in structure can produce differences in antibiotic susceptibility; for instance, vancomycin can kill only gram - positive bacteria and is ineffective against gram - negative pathogens, such as Haemophilus influenzae or Pseudomonas aeruginosa. If the bacterial cell wall is entirely removed, it is called a protoplast, whereas if it is partially removed, it is called a spheroplast. β - Lactam antibiotics, such as penicillin, inhibit the formation of peptidoglycan cross-links in the bacterial cell wall. The enzyme lysozyme, found in human tears, also digests the cell wall of bacteria and is the body 's main defence against eye infections.
Acid - fast bacteria, such as Mycobacteria, are resistant to decolorisation by acids during staining procedures. The high mycolic acid content of Mycobacteria is responsible for the staining pattern of poor absorption followed by high retention. The most common staining technique used to identify acid - fast bacteria is the Ziehl - Neelsen stain or acid - fast stain, in which the acid - fast bacilli are stained bright - red and stand out clearly against a blue background. L - form bacteria are strains of bacteria that lack cell walls. The main pathogenic bacteria in this class is Mycoplasma (not to be confused with Mycobacteria).
In many bacteria, an S - layer of rigidly arrayed protein molecules covers the outside of the cell. This layer provides chemical and physical protection for the cell surface and can act as a macromolecular diffusion barrier. S - layers have diverse but mostly poorly understood functions, but are known to act as virulence factors in Campylobacter and contain surface enzymes in Bacillus stearothermophilus.
Flagella are rigid protein structures, about 20 nanometres in diameter and up to 20 micrometres in length, that are used for motility. Flagella are driven by the energy released by the transfer of ions down an electrochemical gradient across the cell membrane.
Fimbriae (sometimes called "attachment pili '') are fine filaments of protein, usually 2 -- 10 nanometres in diameter and up to several micrometres in length. They are distributed over the surface of the cell, and resemble fine hairs when seen under the electron microscope. Fimbriae are believed to be involved in attachment to solid surfaces or to other cells, and are essential for the virulence of some bacterial pathogens. Pili (sing. pilus) are cellular appendages, slightly larger than fimbriae, that can transfer genetic material between bacterial cells in a process called conjugation where they are called conjugation pili or "sex pili '' (see bacterial genetics, below). They can also generate movement where they are called type IV pili (see movement, below).
Glycocalyx are produced by many bacteria to surround their cells, and vary in structural complexity: ranging from a disorganised slime layer of extra-cellular polymer to a highly structured capsule. These structures can protect cells from engulfment by eukaryotic cells such as macrophages (part of the human immune system). They can also act as antigens and be involved in cell recognition, as well as aiding attachment to surfaces and the formation of biofilms.
The assembly of these extracellular structures is dependent on bacterial secretion systems. These transfer proteins from the cytoplasm into the periplasm or into the environment around the cell. Many types of secretion systems are known and these structures are often essential for the virulence of pathogens, so are intensively studied.
Certain genera of gram - positive bacteria, such as Bacillus, Clostridium, Sporohalobacter, Anaerobacter, and Heliobacterium, can form highly resistant, dormant structures called endospores. In almost all cases, one endospore is formed and this is not a reproductive process, although Anaerobacter can make up to seven endospores in a single cell. Endospores have a central core of cytoplasm containing DNA and ribosomes surrounded by a cortex layer and protected by an impermeable and rigid coat. Dipicolinic acid is a chemical compound that composes 5 % to 15 % of the dry weight of bacterial spores. It is implicated as responsible for the heat resistance of the endospore.
Endospores show no detectable metabolism and can survive extreme physical and chemical stresses, such as high levels of UV light, gamma radiation, detergents, disinfectants, heat, freezing, pressure, and desiccation. In this dormant state, these organisms may remain viable for millions of years, and endospores even allow bacteria to survive exposure to the vacuum and radiation in space. According to scientist Dr. Steinn Sigurdsson, "There are viable bacterial spores that have been found that are 40 million years old on Earth -- and we know they 're very hardened to radiation. '' Endospore - forming bacteria can also cause disease: for example, anthrax can be contracted by the inhalation of Bacillus anthracis endospores, and contamination of deep puncture wounds with Clostridium tetani endospores causes tetanus.
Bacteria exhibit an extremely wide variety of metabolic types. The distribution of metabolic traits within a group of bacteria has traditionally been used to define their taxonomy, but these traits often do not correspond with modern genetic classifications. Bacterial metabolism is classified into nutritional groups on the basis of three major criteria: the kind of energy used for growth, the source of carbon, and the electron donors used for growth. An additional criterion of respiratory microorganisms are the electron acceptors used for aerobic or anaerobic respiration.
Carbon metabolism in bacteria is either heterotrophic, where organic carbon compounds are used as carbon sources, or autotrophic, meaning that cellular carbon is obtained by fixing carbon dioxide. Heterotrophic bacteria include parasitic types. Typical autotrophic bacteria are phototrophic cyanobacteria, green sulfur - bacteria and some purple bacteria, but also many chemolithotrophic species, such as nitrifying or sulfur - oxidising bacteria. Energy metabolism of bacteria is either based on phototrophy, the use of light through photosynthesis, or based on chemotrophy, the use of chemical substances for energy, which are mostly oxidised at the expense of oxygen or alternative electron acceptors (aerobic / anaerobic respiration).
Bacteria are further divided into lithotrophs that use inorganic electron donors and organotrophs that use organic compounds as electron donors. Chemotrophic organisms use the respective electron donors for energy conservation (by aerobic / anaerobic respiration or fermentation) and biosynthetic reactions (e.g., carbon dioxide fixation), whereas phototrophic organisms use them only for biosynthetic purposes. Respiratory organisms use chemical compounds as a source of energy by taking electrons from the reduced substrate and transferring them to a terminal electron acceptor in a redox reaction. This reaction releases energy that can be used to synthesise ATP and drive metabolism. In aerobic organisms, oxygen is used as the electron acceptor. In anaerobic organisms other inorganic compounds, such as nitrate, sulfate or carbon dioxide are used as electron acceptors. This leads to the ecologically important processes of denitrification, sulfate reduction, and acetogenesis, respectively.
Another way of life of chemotrophs in the absence of possible electron acceptors is fermentation, wherein the electrons taken from the reduced substrates are transferred to oxidised intermediates to generate reduced fermentation products (e.g., lactate, ethanol, hydrogen, butyric acid). Fermentation is possible, because the energy content of the substrates is higher than that of the products, which allows the organisms to synthesise ATP and drive their metabolism.
These processes are also important in biological responses to pollution; for example, sulfate - reducing bacteria are largely responsible for the production of the highly toxic forms of mercury (methyl - and dimethylmercury) in the environment. Non-respiratory anaerobes use fermentation to generate energy and reducing power, secreting metabolic by - products (such as ethanol in brewing) as waste. Facultative anaerobes can switch between fermentation and different terminal electron acceptors depending on the environmental conditions in which they find themselves.
Lithotrophic bacteria can use inorganic compounds as a source of energy. Common inorganic electron donors are hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia (leading to nitrification), ferrous iron and other reduced metal ions, and several reduced sulfur compounds. In unusual circumstances, the gas methane can be used by methanotrophic bacteria as both a source of electrons and a substrate for carbon anabolism. In both aerobic phototrophy and chemolithotrophy, oxygen is used as a terminal electron acceptor, whereas under anaerobic conditions inorganic compounds are used instead. Most lithotrophic organisms are autotrophic, whereas organotrophic organisms are heterotrophic.
In addition to fixing carbon dioxide in photosynthesis, some bacteria also fix nitrogen gas using the enzyme nitrogenase. This environmentally important trait can be found in most bacteria of the metabolic types listed above.
Regardless of the type of metabolic process they employ, the majority of bacteria are able to take in raw materials only in the form of relatively small molecules, which enter the cell by diffusion or through molecular channels in cell membranes. The Planctomycetes are the exception (as they are in possessing membranes around their nuclear material). It has recently been shown that Gemmata obscuriglobus is able to take in large molecules via a process that in some ways resembles endocytosis, the process used by eukaryotic cells to engulf external items.
Unlike in multicellular organisms, increases in cell size (cell growth) and reproduction by cell division are tightly linked in unicellular organisms. Bacteria grow to a fixed size and then reproduce through binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction. Under optimal conditions, bacteria can grow and divide extremely rapidly, and bacterial populations can double as quickly as every 9.8 minutes. In cell division, two identical clone daughter cells are produced. Some bacteria, while still reproducing asexually, form more complex reproductive structures that help disperse the newly formed daughter cells. Examples include fruiting body formation by Myxobacteria and aerial hyphae formation by Streptomyces, or budding. Budding involves a cell forming a protrusion that breaks away and produces a daughter cell.
In the laboratory, bacteria are usually grown using solid or liquid media. Solid growth media, such as agar plates, are used to isolate pure cultures of a bacterial strain. However, liquid growth media are used when measurement of growth or large volumes of cells are required. Growth in stirred liquid media occurs as an even cell suspension, making the cultures easy to divide and transfer, although isolating single bacteria from liquid media is difficult. The use of selective media (media with specific nutrients added or deficient, or with antibiotics added) can help identify specific organisms.
Most laboratory techniques for growing bacteria use high levels of nutrients to produce large amounts of cells cheaply and quickly. However, in natural environments, nutrients are limited, meaning that bacteria can not continue to reproduce indefinitely. This nutrient limitation has led the evolution of different growth strategies (see r / K selection theory). Some organisms can grow extremely rapidly when nutrients become available, such as the formation of algal (and cyanobacterial) blooms that often occur in lakes during the summer. Other organisms have adaptations to harsh environments, such as the production of multiple antibiotics by Streptomyces that inhibit the growth of competing microorganisms. In nature, many organisms live in communities (e.g., biofilms) that may allow for increased supply of nutrients and protection from environmental stresses. These relationships can be essential for growth of a particular organism or group of organisms (syntrophy).
Bacterial growth follows four phases. When a population of bacteria first enter a high - nutrient environment that allows growth, the cells need to adapt to their new environment. The first phase of growth is the lag phase, a period of slow growth when the cells are adapting to the high - nutrient environment and preparing for fast growth. The lag phase has high biosynthesis rates, as proteins necessary for rapid growth are produced. The second phase of growth is the log phase, also known as the logarithmic or exponential phase. The log phase is marked by rapid exponential growth. The rate at which cells grow during this phase is known as the growth rate (k), and the time it takes the cells to double is known as the generation time (g). During log phase, nutrients are metabolised at maximum speed until one of the nutrients is depleted and starts limiting growth. The third phase of growth is the stationary phase and is caused by depleted nutrients. The cells reduce their metabolic activity and consume non-essential cellular proteins. The stationary phase is a transition from rapid growth to a stress response state and there is increased expression of genes involved in DNA repair, antioxidant metabolism and nutrient transport. The final phase is the death phase where the bacteria run out of nutrients and die.
The genomes of thousands of bacterial species have been sequenced, with at least 9,000 sequences completed and more than 42,000 left as "permanent '' drafts (as of Sep 2016).
Most bacteria have a single circular chromosome that can range in size from only 160,000 base pairs in the endosymbiotic bacteria Candidatus Carsonella ruddii, to 12,200,000 base pairs in the soil - dwelling bacteria Sorangium cellulosum. The genes in bacterial genomes are usually a single continuous stretch of DNA and although several different types of introns do exist in bacteria, these are much rarer than in eukaryotes. Some bacteria, including the Spirochaetes of the genus Borrelia are a notable exception to this arrangement. Borrelia burgdorferi, the cause of Lyme disease, contains a single linear chromosome and several linear and circular plasmids.
Plasmids are small extra-chromosomal DNAs that may contain genes for antibiotic resistance, enzymes that degrade unusual organic substrates, toxins that kill other bacteria, or virulence factors. Plasmids replicate independently of chromosomes and often encode partition systems that ensure each daughter cell receives a copy of the plasmid following cell division. Partition systems are also encoded by most bacterial chromosomes. Plasmids that are maintained at a high copy number per cell typically lack partition systems because plasmids will randomly assort to both daughter cells.
Bacteria, as asexual organisms, inherit identical copies of their parent 's genes (i.e., they are clonal). However, all bacteria can evolve by selection on changes to their genetic material DNA caused by genetic recombination or mutations. Mutations come from errors made during the replication of DNA or from exposure to mutagens. Mutation rates vary widely among different species of bacteria and even among different clones of a single species of bacteria. Genetic changes in bacterial genomes come from either random mutation during replication or "stress - directed mutation '', where genes involved in a particular growth - limiting process have an increased mutation rate.
Some bacteria also transfer genetic material between cells. This can occur in three main ways. First, bacteria can take up exogenous DNA from their environment, in a process called transformation. Genes can also be transferred by the process of transduction, when the integration of a bacteriophage introduces foreign DNA into the chromosome. The third method of gene transfer is conjugation, whereby DNA is transferred through direct cell contact.
Transduction of bacterial genes by bacteriophage is a consequence of infrequent errors during intracellular assembly of virus particles. Conjugation, in the much - studied E. coli system, is determined by plasmid genes that encode the machinery necessary to transfer a new copy of the plasmid DNA from one bacterial host to another. It is seldom that a conjugative plasmid integrates into the host bacterial chromosome and subsequently transfers part of the host bacterial DNA to another bacterium.
Transformation, unlike transduction or conjugation, depends on numerous bacterial gene products that specifically interact to perform this complex process. In order for a bacterium to bind, take up and recombine donor DNA into its own chromosome, it must first enter a special physiological state termed competence (see Natural competence). In Bacillus subtilis, about 40 genes are required for the development of competence. The length of DNA transferred during B. subtilis transformation can be between a third of a chromosome up to the whole chromosome. Transformation appears to be common among bacterial species, and thus far at least 60 species are known to have the natural ability to become competent for transformation. The development of competence in nature is usually associated with stressful environmental conditions, and seems to be an adaptation for facilitating repair of DNA damage in recipient cells.
In ordinary circumstances, transduction, conjugation, and transformation involve transfer of DNA between individual bacteria of the same species, but occasionally transfer may occur between individuals of different bacterial species and this may have significant consequences, such as the transfer of antibiotic resistance. In such cases, gene acquisition from other bacteria or the environment is called horizontal gene transfer and may be common under natural conditions. Gene transfer is particularly important in antibiotic resistance as it allows the rapid transfer of resistance genes between different pathogens.
Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria. Many types of bacteriophage exist, some simply infect and lyse their host bacteria, while others insert into the bacterial chromosome. A bacteriophage can contain genes that contribute to its host 's phenotype: for example, in the evolution of Escherichia coli O157: H7 and Clostridium botulinum, the toxin genes in an integrated phage converted a harmless ancestral bacterium into a lethal pathogen. Bacteria resist phage infection through restriction modification systems that degrade foreign DNA, and a system that uses CRISPR sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of phage that the bacteria have come into contact with in the past, which allows them to block virus replication through a form of RNA interference. This CRISPR system provides bacteria with acquired immunity to infection.
Bacteria frequently secrete chemicals into their environment in order to modify it favourably. The secretions are often proteins and may act as enzymes that digest some form of food in the environment.
A few bacteria have chemical systems that generate light. This bioluminescence often occurs in bacteria that live in association with fish, and the light probably serves to attract fish or other large animals.
Bacteria often function as multicellular aggregates known as biofilms, exchanging a variety of molecular signals for inter-cell communication, and engaging in coordinated multicellular behaviour.
The communal benefits of multicellular cooperation include a cellular division of labour, accessing resources that can not effectively be used by single cells, collectively defending against antagonists, and optimising population survival by differentiating into distinct cell types. For example, bacteria in biofilms can have more than 500 times increased resistance to antibacterial agents than individual "planktonic '' bacteria of the same species.
One type of inter-cellular communication by a molecular signal is called quorum sensing, which serves the purpose of determining whether there is a local population density that is sufficiently high that it is productive to invest in processes that are only successful if large numbers of similar organisms behave similarly, as in excreting digestive enzymes or emitting light.
Quorum sensing allows bacteria to coordinate gene expression, and enables them to produce, release and detect autoinducers or pheromones which accumulate with the growth in cell population.
Many bacteria can move using a variety of mechanisms: flagella are used for swimming through fluids; bacterial gliding and twitching motility move bacteria across surfaces; and changes of buoyancy allow vertical motion.
Swimming bacteria frequently move near 10 body lengths per second and a few as fast as 100. This makes them at least as fast as fish, on a relative scale.
In bacterial gliding and twitching motility, bacteria use their type IV pili as a grappling hook, repeatedly extending it, anchoring it and then retracting it with remarkable force (> 80 pN).
Our observations redefine twitching motility as a rapid, highly organized mechanism of bacterial translocation by which Pseudomonas aeruginosa can disperse itself over large areas to colonize new territories. It is also now clear, both morphologically and genetically, that twitching motility and social gliding motility, such as occurs in Myxococcus xanthus, are essentially the same process.
Flagella are semi-rigid cylindrical structures that are rotated and function much like the propeller on a ship. Objects as small as bacteria operate a low Reynolds number and cylindrical forms are more efficient than the flat, paddle - like, forms appropriate at human - size scale.
Bacterial species differ in the number and arrangement of flagella on their surface; some have a single flagellum (monotrichous), a flagellum at each end (amphitrichous), clusters of flagella at the poles of the cell (lophotrichous), while others have flagella distributed over the entire surface of the cell (peritrichous). The bacterial flagella is the best - understood motility structure in any organism and is made of about 20 proteins, with approximately another 30 proteins required for its regulation and assembly. The flagellum is a rotating structure driven by a reversible motor at the base that uses the electrochemical gradient across the membrane for power. This motor drives the motion of the filament, which acts as a propeller.
Many bacteria (such as E. coli) have two distinct modes of movement: forward movement (swimming) and tumbling. The tumbling allows them to reorient and makes their movement a three - dimensional random walk. (See external links below for link to videos.) The flagella of a unique group of bacteria, the spirochaetes, are found between two membranes in the periplasmic space. They have a distinctive helical body that twists about as it moves.
Motile bacteria are attracted or repelled by certain stimuli in behaviours called taxes: these include chemotaxis, phototaxis, energy taxis, and magnetotaxis. In one peculiar group, the myxobacteria, individual bacteria move together to form waves of cells that then differentiate to form fruiting bodies containing spores. The myxobacteria move only when on solid surfaces, unlike E. coli, which is motile in liquid or solid media.
Several Listeria and Shigella species move inside host cells by usurping the cytoskeleton, which is normally used to move organelles inside the cell. By promoting actin polymerisation at one pole of their cells, they can form a kind of tail that pushes them through the host cell 's cytoplasm.
Classification seeks to describe the diversity of bacterial species by naming and grouping organisms based on similarities. Bacteria can be classified on the basis of cell structure, cellular metabolism or on differences in cell components, such as DNA, fatty acids, pigments, antigens and quinones. While these schemes allowed the identification and classification of bacterial strains, it was unclear whether these differences represented variation between distinct species or between strains of the same species. This uncertainty was due to the lack of distinctive structures in most bacteria, as well as lateral gene transfer between unrelated species. Due to lateral gene transfer, some closely related bacteria can have very different morphologies and metabolisms. To overcome this uncertainty, modern bacterial classification emphasises molecular systematics, using genetic techniques such as guanine cytosine ratio determination, genome - genome hybridisation, as well as sequencing genes that have not undergone extensive lateral gene transfer, such as the rRNA gene. Classification of bacteria is determined by publication in the International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, and Bergey 's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. The International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology (ICSB) maintains international rules for the naming of bacteria and taxonomic categories and for the ranking of them in the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria.
The term "bacteria '' was traditionally applied to all microscopic, single - cell prokaryotes. However, molecular systematics showed prokaryotic life to consist of two separate domains, originally called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria, but now called Bacteria and Archaea that evolved independently from an ancient common ancestor. The archaea and eukaryotes are more closely related to each other than either is to the bacteria. These two domains, along with Eukarya, are the basis of the three - domain system, which is currently the most widely used classification system in microbiology. However, due to the relatively recent introduction of molecular systematics and a rapid increase in the number of genome sequences that are available, bacterial classification remains a changing and expanding field. For example, a few biologists argue that the Archaea and Eukaryotes evolved from gram - positive bacteria.
The identification of bacteria in the laboratory is particularly relevant in medicine, where the correct treatment is determined by the bacterial species causing an infection. Consequently, the need to identify human pathogens was a major impetus for the development of techniques to identify bacteria.
The Gram stain, developed in 1884 by Hans Christian Gram, characterises bacteria based on the structural characteristics of their cell walls. The thick layers of peptidoglycan in the "gram - positive '' cell wall stain purple, while the thin "gram - negative '' cell wall appears pink. By combining morphology and Gram - staining, most bacteria can be classified as belonging to one of four groups (gram - positive cocci, gram - positive bacilli, gram - negative cocci and gram - negative bacilli). Some organisms are best identified by stains other than the Gram stain, particularly mycobacteria or Nocardia, which show acid - fastness on Ziehl -- Neelsen or similar stains. Other organisms may need to be identified by their growth in special media, or by other techniques, such as serology.
Culture techniques are designed to promote the growth and identify particular bacteria, while restricting the growth of the other bacteria in the sample. Often these techniques are designed for specific specimens; for example, a sputum sample will be treated to identify organisms that cause pneumonia, while stool specimens are cultured on selective media to identify organisms that cause diarrhoea, while preventing growth of non-pathogenic bacteria. Specimens that are normally sterile, such as blood, urine or spinal fluid, are cultured under conditions designed to grow all possible organisms. Once a pathogenic organism has been isolated, it can be further characterised by its morphology, growth patterns (such as aerobic or anaerobic growth), patterns of hemolysis, and staining.
As with bacterial classification, identification of bacteria is increasingly using molecular methods. Diagnostics using DNA - based tools, such as polymerase chain reaction, are increasingly popular due to their specificity and speed, compared to culture - based methods. These methods also allow the detection and identification of "viable but nonculturable '' cells that are metabolically active but non-dividing. However, even using these improved methods, the total number of bacterial species is not known and can not even be estimated with any certainty. Following present classification, there are a little less than 9,300 known species of prokaryotes, which includes bacteria and archaea; but attempts to estimate the true number of bacterial diversity have ranged from 10 to 10 total species -- and even these diverse estimates may be off by many orders of magnitude.
Despite their apparent simplicity, bacteria can form complex associations with other organisms. These symbiotic associations can be divided into parasitism, mutualism and commensalism. Due to their small size, commensal bacteria are ubiquitous and grow on animals and plants exactly as they will grow on any other surface. However, their growth can be increased by warmth and sweat, and large populations of these organisms in humans are the cause of body odour.
Some species of bacteria kill and then consume other microorganisms, these species are called predatory bacteria. These include organisms such as Myxococcus xanthus, which forms swarms of cells that kill and digest any bacteria they encounter. Other bacterial predators either attach to their prey in order to digest them and absorb nutrients, such as Vampirovibrio chlorellavorus, or invade another cell and multiply inside the cytosol, such as Daptobacter. These predatory bacteria are thought to have evolved from saprophages that consumed dead microorganisms, through adaptations that allowed them to entrap and kill other organisms.
Certain bacteria form close spatial associations that are essential for their survival. One such mutualistic association, called interspecies hydrogen transfer, occurs between clusters of anaerobic bacteria that consume organic acids, such as butyric acid or propionic acid, and produce hydrogen, and methanogenic Archaea that consume hydrogen. The bacteria in this association are unable to consume the organic acids as this reaction produces hydrogen that accumulates in their surroundings. Only the intimate association with the hydrogen - consuming Archaea keeps the hydrogen concentration low enough to allow the bacteria to grow.
In soil, microorganisms that reside in the rhizosphere (a zone that includes the root surface and the soil that adheres to the root after gentle shaking) carry out nitrogen fixation, converting nitrogen gas to nitrogenous compounds. This serves to provide an easily absorbable form of nitrogen for many plants, which can not fix nitrogen themselves. Many other bacteria are found as symbionts in humans and other organisms. For example, the presence of over 1,000 bacterial species in the normal human gut flora of the intestines can contribute to gut immunity, synthesise vitamins, such as folic acid, vitamin K and biotin, convert sugars to lactic acid (see Lactobacillus), as well as fermenting complex undigestible carbohydrates. The presence of this gut flora also inhibits the growth of potentially pathogenic bacteria (usually through competitive exclusion) and these beneficial bacteria are consequently sold as probiotic dietary supplements.
If bacteria form a parasitic association with other organisms, they are classed as pathogens. Pathogenic bacteria are a major cause of human death and disease and cause infections such as tetanus, typhoid fever, diphtheria, syphilis, cholera, foodborne illness, leprosy and tuberculosis. A pathogenic cause for a known medical disease may only be discovered many years after, as was the case with Helicobacter pylori and peptic ulcer disease. Bacterial diseases are also important in agriculture, with bacteria causing leaf spot, fire blight and wilts in plants, as well as Johne 's disease, mastitis, salmonella and anthrax in farm animals.
Each species of pathogen has a characteristic spectrum of interactions with its human hosts. Some organisms, such as Staphylococcus or Streptococcus, can cause skin infections, pneumonia, meningitis and even overwhelming sepsis, a systemic inflammatory response producing shock, massive vasodilation and death. Yet these organisms are also part of the normal human flora and usually exist on the skin or in the nose without causing any disease at all. Other organisms invariably cause disease in humans, such as the Rickettsia, which are obligate intracellular parasites able to grow and reproduce only within the cells of other organisms. One species of Rickettsia causes typhus, while another causes Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Chlamydia, another phylum of obligate intracellular parasites, contains species that can cause pneumonia, or urinary tract infection and may be involved in coronary heart disease. Finally, some species, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Burkholderia cenocepacia, and Mycobacterium avium, are opportunistic pathogens and cause disease mainly in people suffering from immunosuppression or cystic fibrosis.
Bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics, which are classified as bacteriocidal if they kill bacteria, or bacteriostatic if they just prevent bacterial growth. There are many types of antibiotics and each class inhibits a process that is different in the pathogen from that found in the host. An example of how antibiotics produce selective toxicity are chloramphenicol and puromycin, which inhibit the bacterial ribosome, but not the structurally different eukaryotic ribosome. Antibiotics are used both in treating human disease and in intensive farming to promote animal growth, where they may be contributing to the rapid development of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations. Infections can be prevented by antiseptic measures such as sterilising the skin prior to piercing it with the needle of a syringe, and by proper care of indwelling catheters. Surgical and dental instruments are also sterilised to prevent contamination by bacteria. Disinfectants such as bleach are used to kill bacteria or other pathogens on surfaces to prevent contamination and further reduce the risk of infection.
Bacteria, often lactic acid bacteria, such as Lactobacillus and Lactococcus, in combination with yeasts and moulds, have been used for thousands of years in the preparation of fermented foods, such as cheese, pickles, soy sauce, sauerkraut, vinegar, wine and yogurt.
The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable and has been used in waste processing and bioremediation. Bacteria capable of digesting the hydrocarbons in petroleum are often used to clean up oil spills. Fertiliser was added to some of the beaches in Prince William Sound in an attempt to promote the growth of these naturally occurring bacteria after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill. These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil. Bacteria are also used for the bioremediation of industrial toxic wastes. In the chemical industry, bacteria are most important in the production of enantiomerically pure chemicals for use as pharmaceuticals or agrichemicals.
Bacteria can also be used in the place of pesticides in the biological pest control. This commonly involves Bacillus thuringiensis (also called BT), a gram - positive, soil dwelling bacterium. Subspecies of this bacteria are used as a Lepidopteran - specific insecticides under trade names such as Dipel and Thuricide. Because of their specificity, these pesticides are regarded as environmentally friendly, with little or no effect on humans, wildlife, pollinators and most other beneficial insects.
Because of their ability to quickly grow and the relative ease with which they can be manipulated, bacteria are the workhorses for the fields of molecular biology, genetics and biochemistry. By making mutations in bacterial DNA and examining the resulting phenotypes, scientists can determine the function of genes, enzymes and metabolic pathways in bacteria, then apply this knowledge to more complex organisms. This aim of understanding the biochemistry of a cell reaches its most complex expression in the synthesis of huge amounts of enzyme kinetic and gene expression data into mathematical models of entire organisms. This is achievable in some well - studied bacteria, with models of Escherichia coli metabolism now being produced and tested. This understanding of bacterial metabolism and genetics allows the use of biotechnology to bioengineer bacteria for the production of therapeutic proteins, such as insulin, growth factors, or antibodies.
Because of their importance for research in general, samples of bacterial strains are isolated and preserved in Biological Resource Centers. This ensures the availability of the strain to scientists worldwide.
Bacteria were first observed by the Dutch microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, using a single - lens microscope of his own design. He then published his observations in a series of letters to the Royal Society of London. Bacteria were Leeuwenhoek 's most remarkable microscopic discovery. They were just at the limit of what his simple lenses could make out and, in one of the most striking hiatuses in the history of science, no one else would see them again for over a century. Only then were his by - then - largely - forgotten observations of bacteria -- as opposed to his famous "animalcules '' (spermatozoa) -- taken seriously.
Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg introduced the word "bacterium '' in 1828. In fact, his Bacterium was a genus that contained non-spore - forming rod - shaped bacteria, as opposed to Bacillus, a genus of spore - forming rod - shaped bacteria defined by Ehrenberg in 1835.
Louis Pasteur demonstrated in 1859 that the growth of microorganisms causes the fermentation process, and that this growth is not due to spontaneous generation. (Yeasts and moulds, commonly associated with fermentation, are not bacteria, but rather fungi.) Along with his contemporary Robert Koch, Pasteur was an early advocate of the germ theory of disease.
Robert Koch, a pioneer in medical microbiology, worked on cholera, anthrax and tuberculosis. In his research into tuberculosis Koch finally proved the germ theory, for which he received a Nobel Prize in 1905. In Koch 's postulates, he set out criteria to test if an organism is the cause of a disease, and these postulates are still used today.
Though it was known in the nineteenth century that bacteria are the cause of many diseases, no effective antibacterial treatments were available. In 1910, Paul Ehrlich developed the first antibiotic, by changing dyes that selectively stained Treponema pallidum -- the spirochaete that causes syphilis -- into compounds that selectively killed the pathogen. Ehrlich had been awarded a 1908 Nobel Prize for his work on immunology, and pioneered the use of stains to detect and identify bacteria, with his work being the basis of the Gram stain and the Ziehl -- Neelsen stain.
A major step forward in the study of bacteria came in 1977 when Carl Woese recognised that archaea have a separate line of evolutionary descent from bacteria. This new phylogenetic taxonomy depended on the sequencing of 16S ribosomal RNA, and divided prokaryotes into two evolutionary domains, as part of the three - domain system.
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who was the actor that played the godfather | The Godfather - wikipedia
The Godfather is a 1972 American crime film directed by Francis Ford Coppola and produced by Albert S. Ruddy, based on Mario Puzo 's best - selling novel of the same name. It stars Marlon Brando and Al Pacino as the leaders of a fictional New York crime family. The story, spanning 1945 to 1955, chronicles the family under the patriarch Vito Corleone (Brando), focusing on the transformation of Michael Corleone (Pacino) from reluctant family outsider to ruthless mafia boss.
Paramount Pictures obtained the rights to the novel for the price of $80,000, before it gained popularity. Studio executives had trouble finding a director; their first few candidates turned down the position. They and Coppola disagreed over who would play several characters, in particular, Vito and Michael. Filming was done on location and completed earlier than scheduled. The musical score was composed primarily by Nino Rota with additional pieces by Carmine Coppola.
The film was the highest - grossing film of 1972 and was for a time the highest - grossing film ever made. It won the Oscars for Best Picture, Best Actor (Brando) and Best Adapted Screenplay (for Puzo and Coppola). Its seven other Oscar nominations included Pacino, James Caan, and Robert Duvall for Best Supporting Actor and Coppola for Best Director.
The Godfather is widely regarded as one of the greatest films in world cinema and one of the most influential, especially in the gangster genre. It was selected for preservation in the U.S. National Film Registry of the Library of Congress in 1990, being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant '' and is ranked the second - greatest film in American cinema (behind Citizen Kane) by the American Film Institute. It was followed by sequels The Godfather Part II (1974) and The Godfather Part III (1990).
In 1945, at his daughter Connie 's wedding, Vito Corleone hears requests in his role as the Godfather, the Don of a New York crime family. Vito 's youngest son, Michael, who was a Marine during World War II, introduces his girlfriend, Kay Adams, to his family at the reception. Johnny Fontane, a famous singer and Vito 's godson, seeks Vito 's help in securing a movie role; Vito dispatches his consigliere, Tom Hagen, to Los Angeles to persuade the obnoxious studio head, Jack Woltz, to give Johnny the part. Woltz refuses until he wakes up in bed with the severed head of his prized stallion.
Shortly before Christmas, drug baron Virgil "The Turk '' Sollozzo, backed by the Tattaglia crime family, asks Vito for investment in his narcotics business and protection through his political connections. Wary of involvement in a dangerous new trade that risks alienating political insiders, Vito declines. Suspicious, Vito sends his enforcer, Luca Brasi, to spy on them. However, a Tattaglia button man garrotes Brasi during Brasi 's first meeting with Bruno Tattaglia and Sollozzo. Later Sollozzo has Vito gunned down in the street, then kidnaps Hagen. With Corleone first - born Sonny in command, Sollozzo pressures Hagen to persuade Sonny to accept Sollozzo 's deal, then releases him. The family receives fish wrapped in Brasi 's bullet - proof vest, indicating that Luca "sleeps with the fishes. '' Vito survives, and at the hospital Michael thwarts another attempt on his father; Michael 's jaw is broken by NYPD Captain Marc McCluskey, Sollozzo 's bodyguard. Sonny retaliates with a hit on Bruno Tattaglia. Michael plots to murder Sollozzo and McCluskey: on the pretext of settling the dispute, Michael agrees to meet them in a Bronx restaurant. There, retrieving a planted handgun, he kills both men.
Despite a clampdown by the authorities, the Five Families erupt in open warfare and Vito 's sons fear for their safety. Michael takes refuge in Sicily and Fredo is sheltered by Moe Greene in Las Vegas. Sonny attacks his brother - in - law Carlo on the street for abusing his sister and threatens to kill him if it happens again. When it does, Sonny speeds to their home, but is ambushed at a highway toll booth and riddled with submachine gun fire. While in Sicily, Michael meets and marries Apollonia Vitelli, but a car bomb intended for him takes her life.
Devastated by Sonny 's death, Vito moves to end the feuds. Realizing that the Tattaglias are controlled by the now - dominant Don Emilio Barzini, Vito assures the Five Families that he will withdraw his opposition to their heroin business and forgo avenging his son 's murder. His safety guaranteed, Michael returns home to enter the family business and marry Kay, promising her that the business will be legitimate within five years. Kay gives birth to two children by the early 1950s, and with his father at the end of his career and his brother too weak, Michael takes the family reins. He insists Hagen relocate to Las Vegas and relinquish his role to Vito because Tom is not a "wartime consigliere ''; Vito agrees Tom should "have no part in what will happen '' in the coming battles with rival families. Michael travels to Las Vegas to buy out Greene 's stake in the family 's casinos. Michael is dismayed to see that Fredo has fallen under Greene 's sway.
In 1955, Vito suffers a fatal heart attack. At the funeral, Tessio, a Corleone capo, asks Michael to meet with Don Barzini, signalling the betrayal that Vito had forewarned. The meeting is set for the same day as the christening of Connie 's baby. While Michael stands at the altar as the child 's godfather, Corleone assassins murder the other New York dons and Moe Greene. Tessio is executed for his treachery and Michael extracts Carlo 's confession to his complicity in setting up Sonny 's murder for Barzini. A Corleone capo, Clemenza, garrotes Carlo with a wire. Connie accuses Michael of the murder, telling Kay that Michael ordered all the killings. Kay is relieved when Michael finally denies it, but, when the capos arrive, they address her husband as Don Corleone, and she watches as they close the door on her.
The film is based on Mario Puzo 's The Godfather, which remained on The New York Times Best Seller list for 67 weeks and sold over nine million copies in two years. Published in 1969, it became the best selling published work in history for several years. Paramount Pictures originally found out about Puzo 's novel in 1967 when a literary scout for the company contacted then Paramount Vice President of Production Peter Bart about Puzo 's sixty - page unfinished manuscript. Bart believed the work was "much beyond a Mafia story '' and offered Puzo a $12,500 option for the work, with an option for $80,000 if the finished work were made into a film. Despite Puzo 's agent telling him to turn down the offer, Puzo was desperate for money and accepted the deal. Paramount 's Robert Evans relates that, when they met in early 1968, it was he who offered Puzo the $12,500 deal for the 60 - page manuscript titled Mafia after the author confided in him that he urgently needed $10,000 to pay off gambling debts.
In March 1967, Paramount announced that they backed Puzo 's upcoming work in the hopes of making a film. In 1969, Paramount confirmed their intentions to make a film out of the novel for the price of $80,000, with aims to have the film released on Christmas Day in 1971. On March 23, 1970, Albert S. Ruddy was officially announced as the film 's producer, in part because studio executives were impressed with his interview and because he was known for bringing his films in under budget.
Evans wanted the picture to be directed by an Italian American to make the film "ethnic to the core ''. Paramount 's latest mafia based movie, The Brotherhood, had been a box office bomb; Evans believed that the reason for its failure was its almost complete lack of cast members or creative personnel of Italian descent (the director Martin Ritt and star Kirk Douglas were both Jewish). Sergio Leone was Paramount 's first choice to direct the film. Leone turned down the option to work on his own gangster film Once Upon a Time in America. Peter Bogdanovich was then approached but he also declined the offer because he was not interested in the mafia. In addition, Peter Yates, Richard Brooks, Arthur Penn, Costa - Gavras, and Otto Preminger were all offered the position and declined. Evans ' chief assistant Peter Bart suggested Francis Ford Coppola, as a director of Italian ancestry who would work for a low sum and budget after the poor reception of his latest film The Rain People. Coppola initially turned down the job because he found Puzo 's novel sleazy and sensationalist, describing it as "pretty cheap stuff ''. At the time Coppola 's studio, American Zoetrope, owed over $400,000 to Warner Bros. for budget overruns with the film THX 1138 and when coupled with his poor financial standing, along with advice from friends and family, Coppola reversed his initial decision and took the job. Coppola was officially announced as director of the film on September 28, 1970. Paramount had offered twelve other directors the job with The Godfather before Coppola agreed. Coppola agreed to receive $125,000 and six percent of the gross rentals.
Before The Godfather was in production, Paramount had been going through an unsuccessful period. In addition to the failure of The Brotherhood, the studio had usurped their budget for their recent films: Darling Lili, Paint Your Wagon, and Waterloo. The budget for the film was originally $2.5 million but as the book grew in popularity Coppola argued for and ultimately received a larger budget. Paramount executives wanted the movie to be set in then modern - day Kansas City and shot in the studio backlot in order to cut down on costs. Coppola objected and wanted to set the movie in the same time period as its eponymous novel, the 1940s and 1950s; Coppola 's reasons included: Michael Corleone 's Marine Corps stint, the emergence of corporate America, and America in the years after World War II. The executives eventually agreed to Coppola 's wish as the novel became increasingly successful. The studio heads subsequently let Coppola film on location in New York City and Sicily.
Gulf & Western executive Charles Bluhdorn was frustrated with Coppola over the number of screen tests he had performed without finding a person to play the various roles. Production quickly fell behind because of Coppola 's indecisiveness and conflicts with Paramount, which led to costs being around $40,000 per day. With the rising costs, Paramount had then Vice President Jack Ballard keep a close eye on production costs. While filming, Coppola stated that he felt he could be fired at any point as he knew Paramount executives were not happy with many of the decisions he had made. Coppola was aware that Evans had asked Elia Kazan to take over directing the film, because he feared that Coppola was too inexperienced to cope with the increased size of the production. Coppola was also convinced that the film editor, Aram Avakian, and the assistant director, Steve Kestner, were conspiring to get him fired. Avakian complained to Evans that he could not edit the scenes correctly because Coppola was not shooting enough footage. Evans however was satisfied with the footage being sent to the west coast, and authorized Coppola to fire them both. Coppola later explained: "Like the godfather, I fired people as a preemptory strike. The people who were angling the most to have me fired, I had fired. '' Brando threatened that he would quit if Coppola were fired.
Paramount wanted The Godfather to appeal to a wide audience and threatened Coppola with a "violence coach '' to make the film more exciting. Coppola added a few more violent scenes to keep the studio happy. The scene in which Connie smashes crockery after finding out Carlo has been cheating was added for this reason.
On April 14, 1970, it was revealed that Puzo was hired by Paramount for $100,000, along with a percentage of the film 's profits, to work on the screenplay for the film. Working from the book, Coppola wanted to have the themes of culture, character, power, and family at the forefront of the film, whereas Puzo wanted to retain aspects from his novel and his initial draft of 150 pages was finished on August 10, 1970. After Coppola was hired as director, both Puzo and Coppola worked on the screenplay, but separately. Puzo worked on his draft in Los Angeles, while Coppola wrote his version in San Francisco. Coppola created a book where he tore pages out of Puzo 's book and pasted them into his book. There, he made notes about each of the book 's fifty scenes, which related to major themes prevalent in the scene, whether the scene should be included in the film, along with ideas and concepts that could be used when filming to make the film true to Italian culture. The two remained in contact while they wrote their respective screenplays and made decisions on what to include and what to remove for the final version. A second draft was completed on March 1, 1971, and was 173 pages long. The final screenplay was finished on March 29, 1971, wound up being 163 pages long, 40 pages over what Paramount had asked for. When filming, Coppola referred to the notebook he had created over the final draft of the screenplay. Screenwriter Robert Towne did uncredited work on the script, particularly on the Pacino - Brando garden scene. Despite finishing the third draft, some scenes in the film were still not written yet and were written during production.
The Italian - American Civil Rights League wanted all uses of the words "mafia '' and "Cosa Nostra '' to be removed from the script, in addition to feeling that the film emphasized stereotypes about Italian - Americans. The league also requested that all the money earned from the premiere be donated to the league 's fund to build a new hospital. Coppola claimed that Puzo 's screenplay only contained two instances of the word "mafia '' being used, while "Cosa Nostra '' was not used at all. Those two uses were removed and replaced with other terms, which Coppola felt did not change the story at all. The league eventually gave its support for the script.
Puzo was first to show interest in having Marlon Brando portray Don Vito Corleone by sending a letter to Brando in which he stated Brando was the "only actor who can play the Godfather. '' Despite Puzo 's wishes, the executives at Paramount were against having Brando, partly due to the poor performance of his recent films and also his short temper. Coppola favored Brando or Laurence Olivier for the role, but Olivier 's agent refused the role claiming Olivier was sick; however, Olivier went on to star in Sleuth later that year. The studio mainly pushed for Ernest Borgnine to receive the part. Other considerations were George C. Scott, Richard Conte, Anthony Quinn, and Orson Welles.
After months of debate between Coppola and Paramount over Brando, the two finalists for the role were Borgnine and Brando, the latter of which Paramount president Stanley Jaffe required to perform a screen test. Coppola did not want to offend Brando and stated that he needed to test equipment in order to set up the screen test at Brando 's California residence. For make - up, Brando stuck cotton balls in his cheeks, put shoe polish in his hair to darken it, and rolled his collar. Coppola placed Brando 's audition tape in the middle of the videos of the audition tapes as the Paramount executives watched them. The executives were impressed with Brando 's efforts and allowed Coppola to cast Brando for the role if Brando accepted a lower salary and put up a bond to ensure he would not cause any delays in production.
From the start of production, Coppola wanted Robert Duvall to play the part of Tom Hagen. After screen testing several other actors, Coppola eventually got his wish and Duvall was awarded the part of Tom Hagen. Al Martino, a then famed singer in nightclubs, was notified of the character Johnny Fontane by a friend who read the eponymous novel and felt Martino represented the character of Johnny Fontane. Martino then contacted producer Al Ruddy, who gave him the part. However, Martino was stripped of the part after Coppola became director and then awarded the role to Italian singer Vic Damone. Damone eventually dropped the role because he did not want to play an anti-Italian American character, in addition to being paid too little. According to Martino, after being stripped of the role, he went to his godfather and crime boss Russ Bufalino who then orchestrated the publication of various news articles that talked of how Coppola was unaware of Ruddy giving Martino the part; that, when coupled with pressure from the mafia who felt Martino deserved the role, led Damone to quit as Fontane. Either way, the part of Johnny Fontane ended up with Martino.
Robert De Niro originally was given the part of Paulie Gatto. A spot in The Gang That Could n't Shoot Straight opened up after Al Pacino quit the project in favor of The Godfather, which led De Niro to audition for the role and leave The Godfather after receiving the part. After De Niro quit, Johnny Martino was given the role of Gatto. Coppola cast Diane Keaton for the role of Kay Adams due to her reputation for being eccentric. John Cazale was given the part of Fredo Corleone after Coppola saw him perform in an Off Broadway production. Gianni Russo was given the role of Carlo Rizzi after he was asked to perform a screen test in which he acted out the fight between Rizzi and Connie.
Nearing the start of filming on March 29, Michael Corleone had yet to be cast. Paramount executives wanted a popular actor, either Warren Beatty or Robert Redford. Producer Robert Evans wanted Ryan O'Neal to receive the role in part due to his recent success in Love Story. Pacino was Coppola 's favorite for the role as he could picture him roaming the Sicilian countryside, and wanted an unknown actor who looked like an Italian - American. However, Paramount executives found Pacino to be too short to play Michael. Dustin Hoffman, Martin Sheen, and James Caan also auditioned. Caan was well received by the Paramount executives and was given the part of Michael initially, while the role of Sonny Corleone was awarded to Carmine Caridi. Coppola still pushed for Pacino to play Michael after the fact and Evans eventually conceded, allowing Pacino to have the role of Michael as long as Caan played Sonny. Evans preferred Caan over Caridi because Caan was seven inches shorter than Caridi, which was much closer to Pacino 's height. Despite agreeing to play Michael Corleone, Pacino was contracted to star in MGM 's The Gang That Could n't Shoot Straight, but the two studios agreed on a settlement and Pacino was signed by Paramount three weeks before shooting began.
Coppola gave several roles in the film to family members. He gave his sister, Talia Shire, the role of Connie Corleone. His daughter Sofia played Michael Francis Rizzi, Connie 's and Carlo 's newborn son. Carmine Coppola, his father, appeared in the film as an extra playing a piano during a scene. Coppola 's wife, mother, and two sons all appeared as extras in the picture. Several smaller roles, like Luca Brasi, were cast after the filming had started.
Before the filming began, the cast received a two - week period for rehearsal, which included a dinner where each actor and actress had to assume character for its duration. Filming was scheduled to begin on March 29, 1971, with the scene between Michael Corleone and Kay Adams as they leave Best & Co. in New York City after shopping for Christmas gifts. The weather on March 23 predicted snow flurries, which caused Ruddy to move the filming date forward; however snow never materialized and a snow machine was used. Principal filming in New York continued until July 2, 1971. Coppola asked for a three - week break before heading overseas to film in Sicily. Following the crew 's departure for Sicily, Paramount announced that the release date would be moved from December to spring 1972.
Cinematographer Gordon Willis initially turned down the opportunity to film The Godfather because the production seemed "chaotic '' to him. After Willis later accepted the offer, he and Coppola agreed to not use any modern filming devices, helicopters, or zoom lenses. Willis and Coppola chose to use a "tableau format '' of filming to make it seem if it was viewed like a painting. He made use of shadows and low light levels throughout the film to showcase psychological developments. Willis and Coppola agreed to interplay light and dark scenes throughout the film. Willis underexposed the film in order to create a "yellow tone. '' The scenes in Sicily were shot to display the countryside and "display a more romantic land, '' giving these scenes a "softer, more romantic '' feel than the New York scenes.
One of the film 's most shocking moments involved an actual, severed, horse 's head. Coppola received some criticism for the scene, although the head was obtained from a dog - food company from a horse that was to be killed regardless of the film. On June 22, the scene where Sonny is killed was shot on a runway at Mitchel Field in Mineola, where three tollbooths were built, along with guard rails, and billboards to set the scene. Sonny 's car was a 1941 Lincoln Continental with holes drilled in it to resemble bullet holes. The scene took three days to film and cost over $100,000.
Coppola 's request to film on location was observed; approximately 90 percent was shot in New York City and its surrounding suburbs, using over 120 unique locations. Several scenes were filmed at the Filmways Studio in East Harlem. The remaining portions were filmed in California, or on - site in Sicily, except for the scenes set in Las Vegas because there were insufficient funds to travel there. Savoca and Forza d'Agrò were the Sicilian towns featured in the film. The opening wedding scene was shot in a Staten Island neighborhood using almost 750 locals as extras. The house used as the Corleone household and the wedding location was at 110 Longfellow Road in the Todt Hill neighborhood of Staten Island. The wall around the Corleone compound was made from styrofoam. Scenes set in and around the Corleone olive oil business were filmed on Mott Street.
After filming had ended on August 7, post-production efforts were focused on trimming the film to a manageable length. In addition, producers and director were still including and removing different scenes from the end product, along with trimming certain sequences. In September, the first rough cut of the film was viewed. Many of the scenes removed from the film were centered around Sonny, which did not advance the plot. By November, Coppola and Ruddy finished the semi-final cut. Debates over personnel involved with the final editing remained even 25 years after the release of the film. The film began to be shown to Paramount staff and exhibitors in late December and going into the new year.
Coppola hired Italian composer Nino Rota to create the underscore for the film, including the main theme, "Speak Softly Love ''. For the score, Rota was to relate to the situations and characters in the film. Rota synthesized new music for the film and took some parts from his Fortunella score, in order to create an Italian feel and evoke the tragic film 's themes. Paramount executive Evans found the score to be too "highbrow '' and did not want to use it; however, it was used after Coppola managed to get Evans to agree. Coppola believed that Rota 's musical piece gave the film even more of an Italian feel. Coppola 's father, Carmine, created some additional music for the film, particularly the music played by the band during the opening wedding scene. There are a total of nine instances within the film where incidental music can be heard.
There was a soundtrack released for the film in 1972 in vinyl form by Paramount Records, on CD in 1991 by Geffen Records, and digitally by Geffen on August 18, 2005. The album contains over 31 minutes of music coming from the movie, with most being composed by Rota, along with a song from Coppola and one by Johnny Farrow and Marty Symes. Allmusic gave the album five out of five stars, with editor Zach Curd saying it is a "dark, looming, and elegant soundtrack. '' An editor for Filmtracks believed that Rota did a great job of relating the music to the core aspects of the film, which the editor believed to be "tradition, love, and fear. ''
The world premiere for The Godfather took place in New York City on March 14, 1972, almost three months after the planned release date of Christmas Day in 1971, with profits from the premiere donated to The Boys Club of New York. Before the film premiered, the film had already made $15 million from rentals from over 400 theaters. The following day, the film opened in New York at five theaters. Next was Los Angeles at two theaters on March 22. The Godfather was commercially released on March 24, 1972, throughout the rest of the United States. The film reached 316 theaters around the country five days later.
The Godfather was a blockbuster, breaking many box office records to become the highest grossing film of 1972. It earned $81.5 million in theatrical rentals in the USA & Canada during its initial release, increasing its earnings to $85.7 million through a reissue in 1973, and including a limited re-release in 1997 it ultimately earned an equivalent exhibition gross of $135 million. It displaced Gone with the Wind to claim the record as the top rentals earner, a position it would retain until the release of Jaws in 1975. News articles at the time proclaimed it was the first film to gross $100 million in North America, but such accounts are erroneous; this record belongs to The Sound of Music, released in 1965. The film repeated its native success overseas, earning in total an unprecedented $142 million in worldwide theatrical rentals, to become the highest net earner. Profits were so high for The Godfather that earnings for Gulf & Western Industries, Inc., which owned Paramount, jumped from 77 cents per share to $3.30 a share for the year, according to a Los Angeles Times article, dated December 13, 1972. To date, it has grossed between $245 million and $286 million in worldwide box office receipts, and adjusted for ticket price inflation in North America, ranks among the top 25 highest - grossing films.
The Godfather has received critical acclaim and is seen as one of the most influential films of all time, particularly in the gangster genre. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 98 % rating based on 88 reviews, with an average rating of 9.3 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "One of Hollywood 's greatest critical and commercial successes, The Godfather gets everything right; not only did the movie transcend expectations, it established new benchmarks for American cinema ''. Metacritic assigned the film an average score of 100 % based on 14 reviews from mainstream critics, considered to be "universal acclaim ''. The film is ranked at the top of Metacritic 's top 100 list, and is ranked 7th on Rotten Tomatoes ' all - time best list (100 % "Certified Fresh '').
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times praised Coppola 's efforts to follow the storyline of the eponymous novel, the choice to set the film in the same time as the novel, and the film 's ability to "absorb '' the viewer over its three - hour run time. While Ebert was mainly positive, he criticized Brando 's performance, saying his movements lacked "precision '' and his voice was "wheezy. '' The Chicago Tribune 's Gene Siskel gave the film four out of four stars, commenting that it was "very good. '' The Village Voice 's Andrew Sarris believed Brando portrayed Vito Corleone well and that his character dominated each scene it appeared in, but felt Puzo and Coppola had the character of Michael Corleone too focused on revenge. In addition, Sarris stated that Richard Castellano, Robert Duvall, and James Caan were good in their respective roles.
Desson Howe of The Washington Post called the film a "jewel '' and wrote that Coppola deserves most of the credit for the film. Writing for The New York Times, Vincent Canby felt that Coppola had created one of the "most brutal and moving chronicles of American life '' and went on to say that it "transcends its immediate milieu and genre. '' Director Stanley Kubrick thought the film had the best cast ever and could be the best movie ever made. Stanley Kauffmann of The New Republic wrote negatively of the film in a contemporary review, claiming that Pacino "rattles around in a part too demanding for him, '' while also criticizing Brando 's make - up and Rota 's score.
Previous mafia films had looked at the gangs from the perspective of an outraged outsider. In contrast, The Godfather presents the gangster 's perspective of the Mafia as a response to corrupt society. Although the Corleone family is presented as immensely rich and powerful, no scenes depict prostitution, gambling, loan sharking or other forms of racketeering. Some critics argue that the setting of a criminal counterculture allows for unapologetic gender stereotyping, and is an important part of the film 's appeal ("You can act like a man! '', Don Vito tells a weepy Johnny Fontane).
Remarking on the fortieth anniversary of the film 's release, film critic John Podhoretz praised The Godfather as "arguably the great American work of popular art '' and "the summa of all great moviemaking before it ''. Two years before, Roger Ebert wrote in his journal that it "comes closest to being a film everyone agrees... is unquestionably great. ''
The Godfather was nominated for seven awards at the 30th Golden Globe Awards: Best Picture -- Drama, James Caan for Best Supporting Actor, Al Pacino and Marlon Brando for Best Actor -- Drama, Best Score, Best Director, and Best Screenplay. When the winners were announced on January 28, 1973, the film had won the categories for: Best Screenplay, Best Director, Best Actor -- Drama, Best Original Score, and Best Picture -- Drama. The Godfather won a record five Golden Globes, which was not surpassed until 2017.
Rota 's score was also nominated for Grammy Award for Best Original Score for a Motion Picture or TV Special at the 15th Grammy Awards. Rota was announced the winner of the category on March 3 at the Grammys ' ceremony in Nashville, Tennessee.
When the nominations for the 45th Academy Awards were revealed on February 12, 1973, The Godfather was nominated for eleven awards. The nominations were for: Best Picture, Best Costume Design, Marlon Brando for Best Actor, Mario Puzo and Francis Ford Coppola for Best Adapted Screenplay, Pacino, Caan, and Robert Duvall for Best Supporting Actor, Best Film Editing, Nino Rota for Best Original Score, Coppola for Best Director, and Best Sound. Upon further review of Rota 's love theme from The Godfather, the Academy found that Rota had used a similar score in Eduardo De Filippo 's 1958 comedy Fortunella. This led to re-balloting, where members of the music branch chose from six films: The Godfather and the five films that had been on the shortlist for best original dramatic score but did not get nominated. John Addison 's score for Sleuth won this new vote, and thus replaced Rota 's score on the official list of nominees. Going into the awards ceremony, The Godfather was seen as the favorite to take home the most awards. From the nominations that The Godfather had remaining, it only won three of the Academy Awards: Best Actor, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Picture.
Brando, who had also not attended the Golden Globes ceremony two months earlier, boycotted the Academy Awards ceremony and refused to accept the Oscar, becoming the second actor to refuse a Best Actor award after George C. Scott in 1970. Brando sent American Indian Rights activist Sacheen Littlefeather in his place, to announce at the awards podium Brando 's reasons for declining the award which were based on his objection to the depiction of American Indians by Hollywood and television. In addition, Pacino boycotted the ceremony. He was insulted at being nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor award, noting that he had more screen time than his co-star and Best Actor winner Brando and thus he should have received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor.
The Godfather had five nominations for awards at the 26th British Academy Film Awards. The nominees were: Pacino for Most Promising Newcomer, Rota for the Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music, Duvall for Best Supporting Actor, and Brando for Best Actor, the film 's costume designer Anna Hill Johnstone for Best Costume Design. All of The Godfather 's nominations failed to win except for Rota.
Although many films about gangsters preceded The Godfather, Coppola 's heavy infusion of Italian culture and stereotypes, and his portrayal of mobsters as characters of considerable psychological depth and complexity was unprecedented. Coppola took it further with The Godfather Part II, and the success of those two films, critically, artistically and financially, opened the doors for numerous other depictions of Italian Americans as mobsters, including films such as Martin Scorsese 's Goodfellas and TV series such as David Chase 's The Sopranos. A comprehensive study of Italian American culture on film, conducted from 1996 to 2001 by the Italic Institute of America, showed that close to 300 movies featuring Italian Americans as mobsters (mostly fictitious) have been produced since The Godfather, an average of nine per year.
The Godfather epic, encompassing the original trilogy and the additional footage Coppola incorporated later, is by now thoroughly integrated into American life and, together with a succession of mob - theme imitators, has led to a highly stereotyped concept of Italian American culture. The first film had the largest impact and, unlike any film before it, its depiction of Italians who immigrated to the United States in the early decades of the 20th century is perhaps attributable to the Italian American director, presenting his own understanding of their experience. The films explain through their action the integration of fictional Italian American criminals into American society. Though the story is set in the period of mass immigration to the U.S., it is rooted in the specific circumstances of the Corleones, a family that lives outside of the law. Although some critics have refashioned the Corleone story into one of universality of immigration, other critics have posited that it leads the viewer to identify organized crime with Italian American culture. Released in a period of intense national cynicism and self - criticism, the American film struck a chord about the dual identities inherent in a nation of immigrants. The Godfather increased Hollywood 's negative portrayals of immigrant Italians in the aftermath of the film and was a recruiting tool for organized crime.
The concept of a mafia "Godfather '' was an invention of Mario Puzo 's and the film 's effect was to add the fictional nomenclature to the language. Similarly, Don Vito Corleone 's unforgettable "I 'm gon na make him an offer he ca n't refuse '' -- voted the second-most memorable line in cinema history in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes by the American Film Institute -- was adopted by actual gangsters. In the French novel Le Père Goriot, Honoré de Balzac wrote of Vautrin telling Eugene: "In that case I will make you an offer that no one would decline. ''
Real - life gangsters responded enthusiastically to the film, with many of them feeling it was a portrayal of how they were supposed to act. Salvatore "Sammy the Bull '' Gravano, the former underboss in the Gambino crime family, stated: "I left the movie stunned... I mean I floated out of the theater. Maybe it was fiction, but for me, then, that was our life. It was incredible. I remember talking to a multitude of guys, made guys, who felt exactly the same way. '' According to Anthony Fiato after seeing the film, Patriarca crime family members Paulie Intiso and Nicky Giso altered their speech patterns closer to that of Vito Corleone 's. Intiso would frequently swear and use poor grammar; but after the movie came out, he started to articulate and philosophize more.
John Belushi, appearing in a Saturday Night Live sketch as Vito Corleone in a therapy session expressing his inner feelings towards the Tattaglia Family, says, "Also, they shot my son Santino 56 times ''.
In the television show The Sopranos, Tony Soprano 's topless bar is named Bada Bing, echoing the line in The Godfather when Sonny Corleone says, "You 've got ta get up close like this and bada - bing! You blow their brains all over your nice Ivy League suit. ''
The film has been parodied several times on the animated television series The Simpsons. In the season three episode "Lisa 's Pony '' Lisa wakes up to find a horse in her bed and starts screaming. The music and the scene itself resemble the famous "horse 's head '' scene in The Godfather. In the season four episode "Mr. Plow '', the scene in which Sonny Corleone is shot at the tollbooth is mimicked when Bart Simpson is pelted with snowballs. The scene is again parodied in the season sixteen episode "All 's Fair in Oven War '', which includes James Caan as himself in a guest voice role. In the season eighteen episode "The Mook, the Chef, the Wife and Her Homer '', the film 's final scene is mimicked with a door being closed on Lisa Simpson.
The theatrical version of The Godfather debuted on American network television on November 16, 1974, on NBC, and again two days later, with only minor edits. The television airings attracted a large audience and helped generate anticipation for the upcoming sequel. The next year, Coppola created The Godfather Saga expressly for American television in a release that combined The Godfather and The Godfather Part II with unused footage from those two films in a chronological telling that toned down the violent, sexual, and profane material for its NBC debut on November 18, 1977. In 1981, Paramount released the Godfather Epic boxed set, which also told the story of the first two films in chronological order, again with additional scenes, but not redacted for broadcast sensibilities. The Godfather Trilogy was released in 1992, in which the films are fundamentally in a chronological order.
The Godfather Family: A Look Inside was a 73 - minute documentary released in 1991. Directed by Jeff Warner, the film featured some behind the scenes content from all three films, interviews with the actors, and screen tests. The Godfather DVD Collection was released on October 9, 2001, in a package that contained all three films -- each with a commentary track by Coppola -- and a bonus disc containing The Godfather Family: A Look Inside. The DVD also held a Corleone family tree, a "Godfather '' timeline, and footage of the Academy Award acceptance speeches.
During the film 's original theatrical release, the original negatives were worn down due to the reel being printed so much to meet demand. In addition, the duplicate negative was lost in Paramount archives. In 2006 Coppola contacted Steven Spielberg -- whose studio DreamWorks had recently been bought out by Paramount -- about restoring The Godfather. Robert A. Harris was hired to oversee the restoration of The Godfather and its two sequels, with the film 's cinematographer Willis participating in the restoration. Work began in November 2006 by repairing the negatives so they could go through a digital scanner to produce high resolution 4K files. If a negative were damaged and discolored, work was done digitally to restore it to its original look. After a year and a half of working on the restoration, the project was complete. Paramount called the finished product The Godfather: The Coppola Restoration and released it to the public on September 23, 2008, on both DVD and Blu - ray Disc. Dave Kehr of The New York Times believed the restoration brought back the "golden glow of their original theatrical screenings ''. As a whole, the restoration of the film was well received by critics and Coppola. The Godfather: The Coppola Restoration contains several new special features that play in high definition, along with additional scenes.
The game is based upon this film and tells the story of an original character, Aldo Trapani, whose rise through the ranks of the Corleone family intersects with the plot of the film on numerous occasions. Duvall, Caan, and Brando supplied voiceovers and their likenesses, but Pacino did not. Francis Ford Coppola openly voiced his disapproval of the game.
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the role that the behavioral sciences plays in a criminal investigation | Criminal psychology - wikipedia
Criminal psychology, also referred to as criminological psychology, is the study of the wills, thoughts, intentions, and reactions of criminals and all that partakes in the criminal behavior.
It is related to the field of criminal anthropology. The study goes deeply into what makes someone commit a crime, but also the reactions after the crime, on the run or in court. Criminal psychologists are often called up as witnesses in court cases to help the jury understand the mind of the criminal. Some types of psychiatry also deal with aspects of criminal behavior.
Psychiatrists and psychologists are licensed professionals that can assess both mental and physical states. Profilers look for patterns in behavior to typify the individual (s) behind a crime. A group effort attempts to answer the most common psychological questions: If there is a risk of a sexual predator re-offending if put back in society; if an offender is competent to stand trial; whether or not an offender was sane / insane at the time of the offense.
The question of competency to stand trial is a question of an offender 's current state of mind. This assesses the offender 's ability to understand the charges against them, the possible outcomes of being convicted / acquitted of these charges and their ability to assist their attorney with their defense. The question of sanity / insanity or criminal responsibility is an assessment of the offenders state of mind at the time of the crime. This refers to their ability to understand right from wrong and what is against the law. The insanity defense is rarely used, as it is very difficult to prove. If declared insane, an offender is committed to a secure hospital facility for much longer than they would have served in prison -- theoretically, that is.
In 1981, one of the fathers of UK 's criminal psychology -- Professor Lionel Haward -- described four ways that psychologist may perform upon being professionally involved in criminal proceedings. These are the following:
Clinical: In this situation, the psychologist is involved in assessment of an individual in order to provide a clinical judgment. The psychologist can use assessment tools, interview or psychometric tools in order to aid in his / her assessment. These assessments can help police or other comparable organizations to determine how to process the individual in question. For example, help finding out whether he / she is capable to stand trial or whether the individual has mental illness which relates to whether he / she is able or unable to understand the proceedings.
Experimental: In this case, the task of the psychologist is to perform research in order to inform a case. This can involve executing experimental tests for the purposes of illustrating a point or providing further information to courts. This may involve false memory, eyewitness credibility experiments and such. For example, this way questions similar to "how likely would a witness see an object in 100 meters? '' could be answered.
Actuarial: This role involves usage of statistics in order to inform a case. For example, a psychologist may be asked to provide probability of an event occurring. For example, the courts may ask how likely it is that a person will reoffend if a sentence is declined.
Advisory: Here, a psychologist may advise police about how to proceed with the investigation. For example, which is the best way to interview the individual, how best to cross-examine a vulnerable or another expert witness, how an offender will act after committing the offence.
A major part of criminal psychology, known as criminal profiling, began in the 1940s when the United States Office of Strategic Services asked William L. Langer 's brother Walter C. Langer, a well renowned psychiatrist, to draw up a profile of Adolf Hitler. After the Second World War, British psychologist Lionel Haward, while working for the Royal Air Force police, drew up a list of characteristics which high - ranking war criminals might display, to be able to spot them amongst ordinary captured soldiers and airmen.
A renowned Italian Psychologist Cesare Lombroso (1835 - 1909) was thought to be one of the first criminologists to attempt to formally classify criminals based on age, sex, gender, physical characteristics, education, and geographic region. When comparing these similar characteristics, he better understood the origin of motivation of criminal behavior, and in 1876, he published his book called The Criminal Man. Lombroso studied 383 Italian inmates. Based on his studies, he suggested that there were three types of criminals. There were born criminals, who were degenerates and insane criminals, who suffered from a mental illness. Also, he studied and found specific physical characteristics. A few examples included asymmetry of the face, eye defects and peculiarities, and ears of unusual size, etc.
In the 1950s, US psychiatrist James A. Brussel drew up what turned to be an uncannily accurate profile of a bomber who had been terrorizing New York City.
It was first introduced to the FBI in the 1960s when several classes were taught to the American Society of crime lab directors. Most of the public at that time knew little if not anything about how profilers would profile people until TV came into play. Later films based on the fictional works of author Thomas Harris that caught the public eye as a profession in particular Manhunter (1986) and Silence of the Lambs (1991). The fastest development occurred when the FBI opened its training academy, the Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU), in Quantico, Virginia. It led to the establishment of the National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime and the violent criminal apprehension program. The idea was to have a system which could pick up links between unsolved major crimes.
In the United Kingdom, Professor David Canter was a pioneer helping to guide police detectives from the mid-1980s to an offender who had carried out a series of serious attacks, but Canter saw the limitations of "offender profiling '' - in particular, the subjective, personal opinion of a psychologist. He and a colleague coined the term investigative psychology and began trying to approach the subject from what they saw as a more scientific point of view.
Criminal profiling, also known as offender profiling, is the process of linking an offender 's actions at the crime scene to their most likely characteristics to help police investigators narrow down and prioritize a pool of most likely suspects. Profiling is a relatively new area of forensic psychology that during the past 20 years has developed from what used to be described as an art to a rigorous science. Part of a sub-field of forensic psychology called investigative psychology, criminal profiling is based on increasingly rigorous methodological advances and empirical research.
Criminal profiling is a process now known in the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) as criminal investigative analysis. Profilers, or criminal investigative analysts, are trained and experienced law enforcement officers who study every behavioral aspect and detail of an unsolved violent crime scene in which a certain amount of psychopathology has been left at the scene. The characteristics of a good profiler are discussed. Five behavioral characteristics that can be gleaned from the crime scene are described: 1) amount of planning that went into the crime, 2) degree of control used by the offender, 3) escalation of emotion at the scene, 4) risk level of both the offender and victim, and 5) appearance of the crime scene (disorganized versus organized). The process of interpreting the behavior observed at a crime scene is briefly discussed.
The effect of psychological and social factors on the functioning of our brain is the central question forensic or criminal psychologists deal with, due to the fact it is the seed of all our actions. For forensic psychiatry, the main question is ' Which patient becomes an offender? ', or ' Which offender becomes a patient? '. Another main question asked by these psychiatrists is, ' What came first, the crime or the mental disorder? '.
Criminal and forensic psychologists may also consider the following questions:
Accordingly, individual psychiatric evaluations are resorted to measuring personality traits by psychological testing that have good validity for the purpose of the court.
A number of key studies of psychology especially relevant to understanding criminology have been undertaken, these include:
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what happened to max and jimmy in midnight express | Midnight Express (film) - Wikipedia
United Kingdom
Midnight Express is a 1978 British - American prison drama film directed by Alan Parker, produced by David Puttnam and starring Brad Davis, Irene Miracle, Bo Hopkins, Paolo Bonacelli, Paul L. Smith, Randy Quaid, Norbert Weisser, Peter Jeffrey and John Hurt. It is based on Billy Hayes ' 1977 non-fiction book Midnight Express and was adapted into the screenplay by Oliver Stone.
Hayes was a young American student sent to a Turkish prison for trying to smuggle hashish out of Turkey. The film deviates from the book 's accounts of the story -- especially in its portrayal of Turks -- and some have criticised this version, including Billy Hayes himself. Later, both Stone and Hayes expressed their regret about how Turkish people were portrayed in the film. The film 's title is prison slang for an inmate 's escape attempt.
Midnight Express was released on October 6, 1978. Upon release, the film received generally positive reviews from critics. Many praised Davis 's performance as well as the cast, the writing, the direction and the musical score by Giorgio Moroder. However, Hayes and others criticized the film for portraying the Turkish prison men as violent and villainous and for deviating too much from the material source. The film grossed over $35 million worldwide against budget of $2 million.
On October 6, 1970, while on holiday in Istanbul, Turkey, American college student Billy Hayes straps 2 kg of hashish blocks to his chest. While attempting to board a plane back to the United States with his girlfriend, Billy is arrested by Turkish police on high alert due to fear of terrorist attacks. He is strip - searched, photographed and questioned.
After a while, a shadowy American (who is never named, but is nicknamed "Tex '' by Billy due to his thick Texan accent) arrives, takes Billy to a police station and translates Billy 's English for one of the detectives. On questioning Billy tells them that he bought the hashish from a taxicab driver, and offers to help the police track him down in exchange for his release. Billy goes with the police to a nearby market and points out the cab driver, but when they go to arrest the cabbie, it becomes apparent that the police have no intention of keeping their end of the deal with Billy. He sees an opportunity and makes a run for it, only to get cornered and recaptured by the mysterious American.
During his first night in holding at a local jail, a freezing - cold Billy sneaks out of his cell and steals a blanket. Later that night he is rousted from his cell and brutally beaten by chief guard Hamidou for the blanket theft.
He wakes a few days later in Sağmalcılar Prison, surrounded by fellow Western prisoners Jimmy (an American -- in for stealing two candlesticks from a mosque), Max (an English heroin addict) and Erich (a Swede, also in for drug smuggling) who help him to his feet. Jimmy tells Billy that the prison is a dangerous place for foreigners like themselves, and that no one can be trusted -- not even the young children.
Billy meets his father along with a U.S representative and a Turkish lawyer to discuss what will happen to him. Billy is sent to trial for his case where the angry prosecutor makes a case against him for drug smuggling. The lead judge is sympathetic to Billy and gives him only a four - year sentence for drug possession. Billy and his father are horrified at the outcome, but their Turkish lawyer insists that the term is a very good result.
Jimmy tries to encourage Billy to become part of an escape attempt through the prison 's tunnels. Believing he is to be released soon, Billy rebuffs Jimmy who goes on to attempt an escape himself; he is brutally beaten when he 's caught. Billy finds out afterwards (1974), out of the blue one day, that his sentence is overturned by the Turkish High Court in Ankara after a prosecution appeal (the prosecutor originally wished to have him found guilty of smuggling and not the lesser charge of possession), and he is ordered to serve a 30 - years - to - life term for his crime. He is in shock.
Billy goes along with a prison - break Jimmy has masterminded. Billy, Jimmy, and Max try to escape through the catacombs below the prison, but their plans are revealed to the prison authorities by fellow - prisoner Rifki. His stay becomes harsh and brutal: terrifying scenes of physical and mental torture follow one another, culminating in Billy having a breakdown. He beats up and nearly kills Rifki. Following this breakdown, he is sent to the prison 's ward for the insane, where he wanders in a daze among the other disturbed and catatonic prisoners. These scenes are moving and show Billy 's profound pain.
In 1975, Billy 's girlfriend Susan comes to see him. Devastated at what has happened to Billy, she tells him that he has to escape or else he will die in there. She leaves him a scrapbook with money hidden inside as "a picture of your good friend Mr. Franklin from the bank '', hoping Billy can use it to help him escape. Her visit moves Billy strongly, and he regains his senses.
He says goodbye to Max, telling him not to die, and promising to come back for him. He then tries to bribe Hamidou into taking him where there are no guards, but Hamidou takes Billy to another room and prepares to rape him. Billy is clearly afraid and powerless, but he is still fighting back, and suddenly he inadvertently kills Hamidou by pushing his head / skull onto a coat hook sticking out of the wall. This is clearly the miracle he has been waiting for four years. He seizes the opportunity to escape by putting on a guard 's uniform and walking out of the front door. In the epilogue, it is explained that on the night of October 4, 1975, he successfully crossed the border to Greece, and arrived home three weeks later.
Although the story is set largely in Turkey, the movie was filmed almost entirely at Fort Saint Elmo in Valletta, Malta, after permission to film in Istanbul was denied. Ending credits of the movie state: "Made entirely on location in Malta and recorded at EMI Studios, Borehamwood by Columbia Pictures Corporation Limited 19 / 23 Wells Street, London, W1 England. ''
A made - for - TV documentary of the film, I 'm Healthy, I 'm Alive, and I 'm Free (alternative title: The Making of Midnight Express), was released on January 1st, 1977. It is seven minutes long. It features commentary from the cast and crew on how they worked together during production, and the effort it took from beginning to completion. It also includes footage from the creation of the film, and Billy Hayes ' emotional first visit to the prison set.
Various aspects of Hayes ' story were fictionalized or added to for the movie. Of note:
The film was first released on VHS and Betamax by Columbia Pictures Home Entertainment in 1979. It made its DVD debut in 1998. A 30th Anniversary DVD release of the film was released in 2008, and a Blu - ray release was released in 2009.
Released on October 6, 1978 by Casablanca Records, the soundtrack to Midnight Express was composed by Italian synth - pioneer Giorgio Moroder. The score won the Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1979.
Midnight Express received both critical acclaim and box office success. According to the film review aggregate site Rotten Tomatoes, 95 % of film critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 20 reviews.
Negative criticisms focused mainly on its unfavorable portrayal of Turkish people. In Mary Lee Settle 's 1991 book Turkish Reflections, she writes, "The Turks I saw in Lawrence of Arabia and Midnight Express were like cartoon caricatures, compared to the people I had known and lived among for three of the happiest years of my life. '' Pauline Kael, in reviewing the film, commented, "This story could have happened in almost any country, but if Billy Hayes had planned to be arrested to get the maximum commercial benefit from it, where else could he get the advantages of a Turkish jail? Who wants to defend Turks? (They do n't even constitute enough of a movie market for Columbia Pictures to be concerned about how they are represented) ''. One reviewer writing for World Film Directors wrote, "Midnight Express is ' more violent, as a national hate - film than anything I can remember ', ' a cultural form that narrows horizons, confirming the audience 's meanest fears and prejudices and resentments ' ''.
David Denby of New York criticized the film as "merely anti-Turkish, and hardly a defense of prisoners ' rights or a protest against prison conditions ''. Denby said also that all Turks in the movie -- guardian or prisoner -- were portrayed as "losers '' and "swine '' and that "without exception (all the Turks) are presented as degenerate, stupid slobs ''.
Turkish Cypriot film director Derviş Zaim wrote a thesis at the University of Warwick on the representation of Turks in the film, in which he concluded that the one - dimensional portrayal of the Turks as "terrifying '' and "brutal '' served merely to reinforce the sensational outcome and was likely influenced by such factors as Orientalism and capitalism.
Midnight Express won Academy Awards for Best Music, Original Score (Giorgio Moroder) and Best Writing, Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium (Oliver Stone). It was also nominated for Best Actor in a Supporting Role (John Hurt), Best Director, Best Film Editing and Best Picture.
The film was entered into the 1978 Cannes Film Festival.
In some instances, days before U.S. Navy ships made ports of call in Turkish cities such as Izmir and Antalya, the film was shown to sailors on board as a cautionary tale of what could happen to them if they committed any type of crime, or misbehaved in any way.
An amateur interview with Hayes appeared on YouTube, recorded during the 1999 Cannes Film Festival, in which he described his experiences and expressed his disappointment with the film adaptation. In an article for the Seattle Post-Intelligencer, Hayes was reported as saying that the film "depicts all Turks as monsters ''.
Professional wrestling tag team The Midnight Express used Moroder 's theme as their ring entry music in the 1980s.
Moroder 's work "The Chase '' is often used as bumper music on the American late - night radio talk show radio program Coast to Coast AM.
When he visited Turkey in 2004, screenwriter Oliver Stone, who won an Academy Award for the film, made an apology for the portrayal of the Turkish people in the film. He "eventually apologized for tampering with the truth. ''
Alan Parker, Oliver Stone and Billy Hayes were invited to attend a special film screening with prisoners in the garden of an L - type prison in Döşemealtı, Turkey, as part of the 47th Antalya Golden Orange Film Festival in October 2010.
Dialogue from the film was sampled in the song "Sanctified '' on the original version of Nine Inch Nails ' debut album Pretty Hate Machine. The sample was removed from the 2010 remaster for copyright reasons.
Other dialogue was also sampled for and possibly inspired the song "Rifki '' from Wumpscut 's 2008 album Schädling.
In 2016 Alan Parker returned to Malta as a special guest during the second edition of the Valletta Film Festival to attend a screening of the film on 4 June at Fort St Elmo, where many of the prison scenes were filmed.
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when is the state of the union usually given | State of the Union - wikipedia
The State of the Union Address is an annual message presented by the President of the United States to a joint session of the United States Congress, except in the first year of a new president 's term. The message includes a budget message and an economic report of the nation, and also allows the President to propose their outlined legislative agenda (for which the cooperation of Congress is needed) and national priorities.
The address fulfills rules in Article II, Section 3 of the U.S. Constitution, requiring the President to periodically "give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient. '' During most of the country 's first century, the President primarily only submitted a written report to Congress. After 1913, Woodrow Wilson, the 28th U.S. President, began the regular practice of delivering the address to Congress in person as a way to rally support for his agenda. With the advent of radio and television, the address is now broadcast live across the country on many networks.
The practice arises from a duty given to the president in the Constitution of the United States:
He shall from time to time give to Congress information of the State of the Union and recommend to their Consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient.
Although the language of this State of the Union Clause of the Constitution is not specific, since the 1930s, the President makes this report annually in late January or early February. Between 1934 and 2013 the date has been as early as January 3, and as late as February 12.
While not required to deliver a speech, every president since Woodrow Wilson, with the notable exception of Herbert Hoover, has made at least one State of the Union report as a speech delivered before a joint session of Congress. Before that time, most presidents delivered the State of the Union as a written report.
Since Franklin Roosevelt, the State of the Union is given typically each January before a joint session of the United States Congress and is held in the House of Representatives chamber of the United States Capitol. Newly inaugurated presidents generally deliver an address to Congress in February of the first year of their term, but this speech is not officially considered to be a "State of the Union ''.
What began as a communication between president and Congress has become a communication between the president and the people of the United States. Since the advent of radio, and then television, the speech has been broadcast live on most networks, preempting scheduled programming. To reach the largest audience, the speech, once given during the day, is now typically given in the evening, after 9pm ET (UTC - 5).
George Washington delivered the first regular annual message before a joint session of Congress on January 8, 1790, in New York City, then the provisional U.S. capital. In 1801, Thomas Jefferson discontinued the practice of delivering the address in person, regarding it as too monarchical (similar to the Speech from the Throne). Instead, the address was written and then sent to Congress to be read by a clerk until 1913 when Woodrow Wilson re-established the practice despite some initial controversy. However, there have been exceptions to this rule. Presidents during the latter half of the 20th century have sent written State of the Union addresses. The last President to do this was Jimmy Carter in 1981, after his defeat by Ronald Reagan and days before his term ended.
For many years, the speech was referred to as "the President 's Annual Message to Congress ''. The actual term "State of the Union '' first emerged in 1934 when Franklin D. Roosevelt used the phrase, becoming its generally accepted name since 1947.
Prior to 1934, the annual message was delivered at the end of the calendar year, in December. The ratification of the 20th Amendment on January 23, 1933, changed the opening of Congress from early March to early January, affecting the delivery of the annual message. Since 1934, the message or address has been delivered to Congress in January or February.
The Twentieth Amendment also established January 20 as the beginning of the presidential term. In years when a new president is inaugurated, the outgoing president may deliver a final State of the Union message, but none has done so since Jimmy Carter sent a written message in 1981. In 1953 and 1961, Congress received both a written State of the Union message from the outgoing president and a separate State of the Union speech by the incoming president. Since 1989, in recognition that the responsibility of reporting the State of the Union formally belongs to the president who held office during the past year, newly inaugurated Presidents have not officially called their first speech before Congress a "State of the Union '' message.
In 1936, President Roosevelt set a precedent when he delivered the address at night. Only once before -- when Woodrow Wilson asked Congress to order the U.S. into World War I -- had a sitting president addressed Congress at night.
Warren Harding 's 1922 speech was the first to be broadcast on radio, albeit to a limited audience, while Calvin Coolidge 's 1923 speech was the first to be broadcast across the nation. Harry S. Truman 's 1947 address was the first to be broadcast on television. Lyndon B. Johnson 's address in 1965 was the first delivered in the evening. Three years later, in 1968, television networks in the United States, for the first time, imposed no time limit for their coverage of a State of the Union address. Delivered by Lyndon B. Johnson, this address was followed by extensive televised commentary by, among others, Daniel Patrick Moynihan and Milton Friedman. Ronald Reagan 's 1986 State of the Union Address is the only one to have been postponed. He had planned to deliver it on January 28, 1986 but postponed it for a week after learning of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster and instead addressed the nation on the day 's events. Bill Clinton 's 1997 address was the first broadcast available live on the World Wide Web.
A formal invitation is made by the Speaker of the House to the President several weeks before each State of the Union Address.
Every member of Congress can bring one guest to the State of the Union address. The President may invite up to 24 guests with the First Lady in her box. The Speaker of the House may invite up to 24 guests in the Speaker 's box. Seating for Congress on the main floor is by a first - in, first - served basis with no reservations. The Cabinet, Supreme Court justices, members of the Diplomatic Corps, and Joint Chiefs have reserved seating.
By approximately 8: 30 pm on the night of the address, the members of the House have gathered in their seats for the joint session. Then, the Deputy Sergeant at Arms addresses the Speaker and loudly announces the Vice President and members of the Senate, who enter and take the seats assigned for them.
The Speaker, and then the Vice President, specify the members of the House and Senate, respectively, who will escort the President into the House chamber. The Deputy Sergeant at Arms addresses the Speaker again and loudly announces, in order, the Dean of the Diplomatic Corps, the Chief Justice of the United States and the Associate Justices, and the Cabinet, each of whom enters and takes their seats when called. The justices take the seats nearest to the Speaker 's rostrum and adjacent to the sections reserved for the Cabinet and the members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
Just after 9 pm, as the President reaches the door to the chamber, the House Sergeant at Arms stands just inside the doors, faces the Speaker, and waits until the President is ready to enter the chamber. When the President is ready, the Sergeant at Arms always announces his entrance, loudly stating the phrase: "Mister Speaker, the President of the United States! ''
As applause and cheering begins, the President slowly walks toward the Speaker 's rostrum, followed by members of his Congressional escort committee. The President 's approach is slowed by pausing to shake hands, hug, kiss, and autograph copies of his speech for Members of Congress. After he takes his place at the House Clerk 's desk, he hands two manila envelopes, previously placed on the desk and containing copies of the speech, to the Speaker and Vice President.
After continuing applause from the attendees has diminished, the Speaker introduces the President to the Representatives and Senators, stating: "Members of Congress, I have the high privilege and distinct honor of presenting to you the President of the United States. '' This leads to a further round of applause and, eventually, the beginning of the address by the President.
At close of the ceremony, attendees leave on their own accord. The Sergeants at Arms guides the President out of the Chamber. Some politicians stay to shake hands with and congratulate the President on his way out.
Customarily, one cabinet member (the designated survivor) does not attend the speech, in order to provide continuity in the line of succession in the event that a catastrophe disables the President, the Vice President, and other succeeding officers gathered in the House chamber. Additionally, since the September 11 attacks in 2001, a few members of Congress have been asked to relocate to undisclosed locations for the duration of the speech to form a rump Congress in the event of a disaster. Since 2003, each chamber of Congress has formally named a separate designated survivor.
Both the Speaker and the Vice President sit at the Speaker 's desk, behind the President for the duration of the speech. If either is unavailable, the next highest - ranking member of the respective house substitutes. Once the chamber settles down from the President 's arrival, the Speaker officially presents the President to the joint session of Congress. The President then delivers the speech from the podium at the front of the House Chamber.
In the State of the Union the President traditionally outlines the administration 's accomplishments over the previous year, as well as the agenda for the coming year, often in upbeat and optimistic terms. Since the 1982 address, it has also become common for the President to honor special guests sitting in the gallery, such as American citizens or visiting heads of state. During that 1982 address, President Ronald Reagan acknowledged Lenny Skutnik for his act of heroism following the crash of Air Florida Flight 90. Since then, the term "Lenny Skutniks '' has been used to refer to individuals invited to sit in the gallery, and then cited by the President, during the State of the Union.
State of the Union speeches usually last a little over an hour, partly because of the large amounts of applause that occur from the audience throughout. The applause is often political in tone, with many portions of the speech being applauded only by members of the President 's own party. As non-political officeholders, members of the Supreme Court or the Joint Chiefs of Staff rarely applaud in order to retain the appearance of political impartiality. In recent years, the presiding officers of the House and the Senate, the Speaker and the Vice President, respectively, have departed from the neutrality expected of presiding officers of deliberative bodies, as they, too, stand and applaud in response to the remarks of the President with which they agree.
For the 2011 address, Senator Mark Udall of Colorado proposed a break in tradition wherein all members of Congress sit together regardless of party, as well as the avoiding of standing; this was in response to the 2011 Tucson Shooting in which Representative Gabrielle Giffords was shot and wounded in an assassination attempt. This practice was also repeated during the 2012 address and every address after.
Since 1966, the speech has been followed on television by a response or rebuttal by a member of the major political party opposing the President 's party. The response is typically broadcast from a studio with no audience. In 1970, the Democratic Party put together a TV program with their speech to reply to President Nixon, as well as a televised response to Nixon 's written speech in 1973. The same was done by Democrats for President Reagan 's speeches in 1982 and 1985. The response is not always produced in a studio; in 1997, the Republicans for the first time delivered the response in front of high school students. In 2004, the Democratic Party 's response was also delivered in Spanish for the first time, by New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson. In 2011, Minnesota Congresswoman Michele Bachmann also gave a televised response for the Tea Party Express, a first for a political movement.
Although much of the pomp and ceremony behind the State of the Union address is governed by tradition rather than law, in modern times, the event is seen as one of the most important in the US political calendar. It is one of the few instances when all three branches of the US government are assembled under one roof: members of both houses of Congress constituting the legislature, the President 's Cabinet constituting the executive, and the Chief Justice and Associate Justices of the Supreme Court constituting the judiciary. In addition, the military is represented by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, while foreign governments are represented by the Dean of the Diplomatic Corps. The address has also been used as an opportunity to honor the achievements of some ordinary Americans, who are typically invited by the President to sit with the First Lady.
Certain states have a similar annual address given by the governor. For most of them, it is called the State of the State address. In Iowa, it is called the Condition of the State Address; in Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, the speech is called the State of the Commonwealth address. The mayor of Washington, D.C. gives a State of the District address. American Samoa has a State of the Territory address given by the governor. Puerto Rico has a State Address given by the governor. In Guam, the governor delivers an annual State of the Island Address, during his / her term.
Some cities or counties also have an annual State of the City Address given by the mayor, county commissioner or board chair, including Sonoma County, California; Orlando, Florida; Cincinnati, Ohio; New Haven, Connecticut; Parma, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; Seattle, Washington; Birmingham, Alabama; Boston, Massachusetts; Los Angeles, California; Buffalo, New York; Rochester, New York; San Antonio, Texas; McAllen, Texas; and San Diego, California. The Mayor of the Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County in Nashville, Tennessee gives a speech similar called the State of Metro Address. Some university presidents give a State of the University address at the beginning of every academic term. Private companies usually have a "State of the Corporation '' or "State of the Company '' address given by the respective CEO.
The State of the Union model has also been adopted by the European Union, and in France since the presidency of Emmanuel Macron.
Television ratings for recent State of the Union Addresses were:
millions
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who replaced kevin spacey in all the money in the workd | All the Money in the World - wikipedia
All the Money in the World is a 2017 crime thriller film directed by Ridley Scott and written by David Scarpa, based on John Pearson 's 1995 book Painfully Rich: The Outrageous Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Heirs of J. Paul Getty. It stars Michelle Williams, Christopher Plummer, Mark Wahlberg, Romain Duris, Charlie Plummer, Andrew Buchan, and Timothy Hutton. The film depicts J. Paul Getty 's refusal to cooperate with the extortion demands of a group of kidnappers from the organized crime Mafia group ' Ndrangheta, who abducted his grandson John Paul Getty III in 1973.
Kevin Spacey originally portrayed J. Paul Getty, appearing in the film 's initial marketing campaign. However, after multiple sexual misconduct allegations were leveled against Spacey, the role was recast with Plummer. Scenes were reshot just a month prior to the film 's release.
All the Money in the World premiered at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in Beverly Hills on December 18, 2017, followed by a United States theatrical release via TriStar Pictures on December 25, 2017. For his performance as Getty, Christopher Plummer received acclaim from critics and earned nominations from the Academy Awards, Golden Globes and BAFTAs, among others. The film itself received positive reviews with critics praising the performances, and received three nominations at the 75th Golden Globe Awards, including Best Director and Best Actress -- Drama for Williams.
In 1973, 16 - year - old John Paul Getty III (Paul), grandson of oil tycoon J. Paul Getty who was at that time the world 's richest private citizen, is kidnapped in Rome by an organized crime ring. The kidnappers demand a ransom of $17 million. Flashbacks show that Paul 's parents, Gail Harris and John Paul Getty Jr., were divorced in 1971 due to Getty Jr. 's drug addiction and that Gail rejected any alimony in exchange for full custody of her children in the divorce settlement; therefore she does not have the means to pay the ransom. She travels to Getty 's estate to beseech him to pay the ransom but he refuses, stating that it would encourage further kidnappings on his family members. The media picks up on the story, with many believing Gail to be rich herself and blaming her for the refusal to pay the ransom. Meanwhile, Getty asks Fletcher Chase, a Getty Oil negotiator and former CIA operative, to investigate the case and secure Paul 's release.
Paul is kept hostage in a remote location in Italy. Initially his captors, particularly Cinquanta, are tolerant with him because his quiet and submissive demeanor causes them few problems. However, things grow increasingly tense as weeks go by without the ransom being paid, far longer than the captors anticipated. Arguments arise over whether to move Paul to a new location as winter is approaching and their hideout is not suitable for cold conditions. Things get worse when one of the kidnappers accidentally shows his face to Paul, prompting one of the others to kill the man for his foolish mistake. His burned and disfigured body is recovered in the river; investigators erroneously identify the body as Paul 's, but Gail examines the body and refutes this.
Using the new lead of the body, Chase is able to pinpoint the hideout where Paul is being held. A raid is conducted with several kidnappers being killed, but Paul is no longer there; he had been sold on to a new crime organization. The new captors are much less patient with Paul and negotiate more aggressively with the Getty family to receive their payment. After repeated negotiations with Gail and Chase, and frustration from the captors at how long the process was taking, they lower the asking price to $4 million. Getty finally decides to contribute to the ransom, but only $1 million -- this being the maximum amount that he can claim as tax deductible. Moreover, he also will only do so if Gail signs a legal document waiving her parental access rights to Paul and her other children, giving them to Getty 's son, her ex-husband. She reluctantly signs them.
The kidnappers cut off one of Paul 's ears and mail it to a major newspaper, claiming that they will continue mutilating him until the ransom is paid. Berated by an exasperated Chase, Getty finally relents and agrees to pay the full ransom, also voiding the parental agreement with Gail. Gail and Chase take the money to Italy and follow specific instructions from the captors, leaving the money in a remote location and receiving orders to pick up Paul from a construction site. However, a frightened Paul runs away from the site towards the nearest town, miles away. Meanwhile the captors realize that Chase has broken his word and led the police to them; angry, they decide to find and kill Paul. Chase, Gail, and the captors arrive at the town to look for Paul. One of the kidnappers finds Paul first, but Cinquanta attacks the man in order to allow Paul to escape. Chase and Gail find Paul and smuggle him out of the country to safety.
Getty dies of unrelated causes, and Gail is tasked with managing her children 's inherited wealth until they are of age. The company was set up as a charitable trust, which meant that Getty 's income was tax - free but also not spendable. He had invested much of it in paintings, sculptures and other artifacts, which Gail begins to organize for sale. Most of them now reside in the Getty Museum in Los Angeles.
On March 13, 2017, it was reported that Ridley Scott was finalizing plans to direct the David Scarpa - scripted All the Money in the World, a film about the kidnapping of John Paul Getty III. Scott stated that he was attracted to the project because of Scarpa 's script, adding "I just consumed it (...) I knew about the kidnapping, but this story was very, very provocative... Gail Getty was an exceptional character, and there are many facets of the man Getty that make him a really great study. There 's this great dynamic. It was like a play, and not a movie. ''
Natalie Portman was initially pursued for the role of Gail Harris. On March 31, 2017, it was reported that Michelle Williams and Kevin Spacey were circling the roles of Harris and J. Paul Getty, respectively, while Mark Wahlberg was in talks for an unspecified role. On casting Spacey, Scott stated, "When I read the script, I started thinking, ' Who was Paul Getty? ' In my mind, I saw Kevin Spacey. Kevin 's a brilliant actor, but I 've never worked with him, and I always knew I would have to have him portray Getty in this film (...) He was so obsessed with what he was doing (...) He was n't giving people a second thought. '' In regards to Williams, Scott stated that while she was not his first choice, "Michelle is very special as an actress, and I 've never done anything with her before (...) The family was very private and there was very little footage of (Gail), but around the kidnapping, there was one particular interview she did that Michelle jumped at, and it shows Gail Getty being very assertive, very smart, '' both qualities Williams possessed. On May 2, Charlie Plummer joined the cast as John Paul Getty III. Timothy Hutton was added to the cast on June 16.
On May 31, 2017, it was reported that All the Money in the World had begun principal photography. Filming continued at Elveden Hall in west Suffolk for a week at the end of July. The aristocratic Grade II - listed stately home was used to represent a Moroccan palace in the filming of a series of flashback scenes. Kevin Spacey worked for just ten days on the film. The original production reportedly concluded in August.
Beginning in late October, numerous sexual harassment and sexual assault allegations were made against Spacey, who played J. Paul Getty in the film. The film 's premiere at the AFI Fest on November 16 was cancelled, and its Academy Awards campaign -- which focused on Spacey 's supporting role -- was reworked.
On November 8, it was announced that although the film was otherwise ready for release, reshoots had been commissioned to replace Spacey with Christopher Plummer in the role of Getty. Despite his earlier statements to the contrary, Scott claimed that Plummer had been his original choice for the role, and that studio executives had persuaded him to cast the "bigger name '' Spacey. Spacey still appears in one wide shot that would have been too expensive or complex to reshoot within the release deadline; the scene features Getty disembarking off a train in the desert and Spacey 's face is not visible.
Reshoots with Plummer began on November 20 and ended on the 29th, with the first footage of him in the role released in a new trailer the same day. The decision cost millions of dollars in rush fees, among other costs, to meet the film 's late - December release. The reshoots ended up costing $10 million, making the final production cost of the film $50 million.
While it was initially reported that the actors filmed the reshoots for free, it was later revealed that Wahlberg was paid $1.5 million while Williams only received $800 in per diems, as she was contractually obligated to appear in reshoots, while Wahlberg was not. Wahlberg 's fee for the original shooting is alleged by The Hollywood Reporter to have been $5 million, while Michelle Williams is reported to have been paid $625,000. The New York Times has reported that Wahlberg was paid 80 % less than his usual fee. The $1.5 million Wahlberg received for reshoots was in addition to this. Wahlberg 's contract allowed him to approve co-stars, and he reportedly refused to approve Plummer as Spacey 's replacement unless he was paid extra. In response to the backlash brought on by the difference in the actors ' pay, Wahlberg announced he would donate the $1.5 million to the Time 's Up movement in Williams ' name.
The film premiered at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in Beverly Hills, California on December 18, 2017. In the United States, the film was originally slated for a release on December 22, 2017, but two weeks prior to its debut, it was pushed to December 25, to avoid competition with Star Wars: The Last Jedi.
As of February 25, 2018, All the Money in the World has grossed $25.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $28.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $53.9 million, against a production budget of $50 million.
On Christmas Day, the film 's opening day, it grossed $2.6 million from 2,068 theaters. In its first full weekend the film made $5.4 million from 2,074 theaters, finishing 7th at the box office. In its second weekend the film made $3.6 million, dropping 36 % and finishing 10th.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 78 % based on 206 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "All the Money in the World offers an absorbing portrayal of a true story, brought compellingly to life by a powerful performance from Christopher Plummer. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
Writing for The Hollywood Reporter, Todd McCarthy said, "(Scott and Plummer) show what they 're made of in All the Money in the World, a terrifically dexterous and detailed thriller about the Italian mob 's 1973 kidnapping for ransom of the grandson of the world 's richest man, John Paul Getty (sic). '' Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film three out of four stars, commending it as a whole despite criticizing the middle section as repetitive, and the character of J. Paul Getty being "repugnant '' without proper context. He stated that "The film is also a testament to the awesome work ethic of its 80 - year old but still apparently tireless director, who fired Kevin Spacey... they 're worth noting because the end product is much better than anyone could have expected, considering the challenges faced and met by all involved. ''
Writing for New York, David Edelstein gave a strong review for the performance of Michelle Williams in the film, stating: "My guess is that there was one overriding factor in Scott 's decision to rebuild sets and summon back his actors (after the Spacey controversy): The fear that Spacey 's presence would distract the world (which includes Oscar voters) from the marvelous performance of Michelle Williams as Gail. It 's a real transformation. I 've never heard this diction from her before -- sharp, with a hint of North Shore (i.e., old money) Long Island and perhaps a Kennedy or two. (The real Gail grew up in San Francisco but was well acquainted with the cadences of the East Coast rich.) Through the tension in her body and intensity of her voice, Williams conveys not just the terror of losing a son but the tragic absurdity of bearing the illustrious name Getty when family ties confer zero power. ''
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what percentage of the world's electricity is supplied by nuclear fusion reactors | Nuclear power in France - wikipedia
Nuclear power is a major source of energy in France, with a 40 % share of energy consumption in 2015. Nuclear power is the largest source of electricity in the country, with a generation of 416.8 TWh, or 76.3 % of the country 's total production of 546 TWh, the highest percentage in the world.
Électricité de France (EDF) -- the country 's main electricity generation and distribution company -- manages the country 's 58 power reactors. EDF is substantially owned by the French Government, with around 85 % shares in government hands.
As of 2012, France 's electricity price to household customers is the seventh - cheapest amongst the 28 members of the European Union, and also the seventh - cheapest to industrial consumers, with a rate of € 0.14 per kWh to households and € 0.07 per kWh to industrial consumers. France was the biggest electricity exporter in the EU in 2012, exporting 45TWh of electricity to its neighbours. With very inclement weather, when demand exceeds supply, France infrequently becomes a net - importer of electricity in these rare cases, because of the lack of more flexible generating plants.
France 's nuclear power industry has been called "a success story '' that has put the nation "ahead of the world '' in terms of providing cheap energy with low CO emissions.
France has a long relationship with nuclear power, starting with Henri Becquerel 's discovery of natural radioactivity in the 1890s and continued by famous nuclear scientists like Pierre and Marie Curie.
Before World War II, France had been mainly involved in nuclear research through the work of the Joliot - Curies. In 1945 the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF) created the Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique (CEA) governmental agency, and Nobel prize winner Frédéric Joliot - Curie, member of the French Communist Party (PCF) since 1942, was appointed high - commissioner. He was relieved of his duties in 1950 for political reasons, and would be one of the 11 signatories to the Russell - Einstein Manifesto in 1955. The CEA was created by Charles de Gaulle on 18 October 1945. Its mandate is to conduct fundamental and applied research into many areas, including the design of nuclear reactors, the manufacturing of integrated circuits, the use of radionuclides for medical treatments, seismology and tsunami propagation, and the safety of computerized systems.
Nuclear research was discontinued for a time after the war because of the instability of the Fourth Republic and the lack of finances available. However, in the 1950s a civil nuclear research program was started, a by - product of which would be plutonium. In 1956 a secret Committee for the Military Applications of Atomic Energy was formed and a development program for delivery vehicles started. In 1957, soon after the Suez Crisis and the diplomatic tension with both the USSR and the United States, French president René Coty decided the creation of the C.S.E.M. in what was then French Sahara, a new nuclear tests facility replacing the C.I.E.E.S. See France and nuclear weapons.
The first nuclear power plant by EDF in France was opened in 1962.
As a direct result of the 1973 oil crisis, on 6 March 1974 Prime Minister Pierre Messmer unexpectedly announced what became known as the ' Messmer Plan ', a huge nuclear power program aimed at generating all of France 's electricity from nuclear power. At the time of the oil crisis most of France 's electricity came from foreign oil. Nuclear power allowed France to compensate for its lack of indigenous energy resources by applying its strengths in heavy engineering. The situation was summarized in a slogan: "In France, we do not have oil, but we have ideas. ''
The announcement of the Messmer Plan, which was enacted without public or parliamentary debate, also led to the foundation of the Groupement des scientifiques pour l'information sur l'énergie nucléaire (Association of Scientists for Information on Nuclear Energy), formed after around 4,000 scientists signed a petition of concern over the government 's action, known as the Appeal of the 400 after the 400 scientists who initially signed it.
The plan envisaged the construction of around 80 nuclear plants by 1985 and a total of 170 plants by 2000. Work on the first three plants, at Tricastin, Gravelines, and Dampierre started the same year and France installed 56 reactors over the next 15 years.
Following the 2011 Fukushima I nuclear accidents, the head of France 's nuclear safety agency has said that France needs to upgrade the protection of vital functions in all its nuclear reactors to avoid a disaster in the event of a natural calamity, adding there was no need to close any plants. "There is a need to add a layer to protect safety mechanisms in reactors that are vital for the protection of the reactor such as cooling functions and electric powering, '' Jacques Repussard, head of the IRSN, said. Opinion polls show support for atomic energy has dropped since Fukushima. Forty - percent of the French "are ' hesitant ' about nuclear energy while a third are in favor and 17 percent are against, according to a survey by pollster Ifop published November 13 ''.
In February 2012, President Sarkozy decided to extend the life of existing nuclear reactors beyond 40 years, following the Court of Audit decision that this is the best option as new nuclear capacity or other forms of energy would be more costly and available too late. Within ten years 22 out of the 58 reactors will have been operating for over 40 years. The court expects EDF 's projected investment programme in existing plant, including post Fukushima safety improvements, will add between 9.5 % and 14.5 % to generation costs, taking costs to between 37.9 and 54.2 EUR / MWh. Generation costs from the new Flamanville EPR reactor are estimated to be at least in the 70 to 90 EUR / MWh range, depending on construction outcome. Academics at Paris Dauphine University forecast that domestic electricity prices will rise by about 30 % by 2020.
Following François Hollande 's victory in the 2012 presidential election, it is thought that there may be a partial nuclear phaseout in France. This follows a national debate in the run - up to the election, with President Nicolas Sarkozy backing nuclear power and François Hollande proposing a cut in nuclear power 's electricity contribution by more than a third by 2025. It seems certain that Hollande will at least order the closure of the Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant, probably by 2017, where there has been an ongoing closure campaign due to concerns about seismic activity and flooding.
Active efforts by the French government to market the advanced European Pressurized Reactor have been hampered by cost overruns, delays, and competition from other nations, such as South Korea, which offer simpler, cheaper reactors.
In 2015, the National Assembly voted that by 2025 only 50 % of France 's energy will be produced by nuclear plants. Environment Minister Nicolas Hulot noted in November 2017 that this goal is unrealistic, postponing the reduction to 2030 or 2035.
In 2016, following a discovery at Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant, about 400 large steel forgings manufactured by Le Creusot Forge since 1965 have been found to have carbon - content irregularities that weakened the steel. A widespread programme of reactor checks was started involving a progressive programme of reactor shutdowns, likely to continue over the winter high electricity demand period into 2017. This caused power price increases in Europe as France increased electricity imports, especially from Germany, to augment supply. As of late October 2016, 20 of France 's 58 reactors are offline. These steel quality concerns may prevent the regulator giving the life extensions from 40 to 50 years, that had been assumed by energy planners, for many reactors. In December 2016 the Wall Street Journal characterised the problem as a "decades long coverup of manufacturing problems '', with Areva executives acknowledging that Le Creusot had been falsifying documents.
Électricité de France (EDF) -- the country 's main electricity generation and distribution company -- manages the country 's nuclear power plants. EDF is substantially owned by the French government, with around 85 % of EDF shares in government hands. 78.9 % of Areva shares are owned by the French public sector company CEA and are therefore in public ownership. EDF remains heavily in debt. Its profitability suffered during the recession which began in 2008. It made € 3.9 billion in 2009, which fell to € 1.02 billion in 2010, with provisions set aside amounting to € 2.9 billion. The Nuclear industry has been accused of significant cost overruns and failing to cover the total costs of operation, including waste management and decommissioning.
In 2001, nuclear construction and services company Areva was created by the merger of CEA Industrie, Framatome and Cogema (now Areva NC). Its main shareholder is the French owned company CEA, but the German federal government also holds, through Siemens, 34 % of the shares of Areva 's subsidiary, Areva NP, in charge of building the EPR (third - generation nuclear reactor).
As of 2015, France 's electricity price, excluding taxation, to household customers is the 12th cheapest amongst the 28 member European Union and the second - cheapest to industrial consumers.
EdF said its third - generation nuclear reactor EPR project at its Flamanville, northern France, plant will be delayed until 2016, due to "both structural and economic reasons, '' which will bring the project 's total cost to EUR8. 5 billion. Similarly, the cost of the EPR to be built at Olkiluoto, Finland has escalated. Areva and the utility involved "are in bitter dispute over who will bear the cost overruns and there is a real risk now that the utility will default. EDF has suggested that if the political environment causes the EPR costs to overrun, the design would be replaced with a cheaper and simpler Franco - Japanese design, the Atmea for which the design will be completed by 2013, or the already operating Franco - Chinese design, the CPR - 1000.
In July 2015, EDF agreed to take a majority stake in Areva NP, following a French government instruction they create a "global strategic partnership ''.
In 2016, the European Commission assessed that France 's nuclear decommissioning liabilities were seriously underfunded, with only 23 billion euros of earmarked assets to cover 74.1 billion euros of expected decommissioning costs.
Drawing such a large percentage of overall electrical production from nuclear power is unique to France. This reliance has resulted in certain necessary deviations from the standard design and function of other nuclear power programs. For instance, in order to meet changing demand throughout the day, some plants must work as peaking power plant, whereas most nuclear plants in the world operate as base - load plants, and allow other fossil or hydro units to adjust to demand. Nuclear power in France has a total capacity factor of around 77 %, which is low due to load following. However availability is around 84 %, indicating excellent overall performance of the plants.
The first eight power reactors in the nation were gas cooled reactor types (UNGG reactor), whose development was pioneered by CEA. Coinciding with a uranium enrichment program, EDF developed pressurized water reactor (PWR) technology which eventually became the dominant type. The gas - cooled reactors located at Brennilis, Bugey, Chinon, and Marcoule have all been shut down.
All operating plants today are PWRs. The sodium - cooled fast breeder reactor technology development reactors, Phénix and Superphénix, have been shut down with work ongoing for a more advanced replacement in the form of the ASTRID (reactor).
The PWR plants were all developed by Framatome (now Areva) from the initial Westinghouse design. All currently operating PWR plants are of three design variations, having output powers of 900 MWe, 1300 MWe, and 1450 MWe. The repeated use of these standard variants of a design has afforded France the greatest degree of nuclear plant standardization in the world.
There are a total of 34 of these reactors in operation; most were constructed in the 1970s and the early 1980s. In 2002, they had a uniform review and all were granted a 10 - year life extension.
With the CP0 and CP1 designs, two reactors share the same machine and command room. With the CP2 design, each reactor has its own machine and command room. Apart from this difference, CP1 and CP2 use the same technologies, and the two types are frequently referred to as CPY. Compared to CP0 they have an additional cooling circuit between the emergency system that in case of an accident allows to spray water into the containment and the circuit which contains river water, a more flexible control system and some minor difference in the layout of the building.
This three loop design (three steam generators and three primary circulation pumps) was also exported to a number of other countries, including:
There are 20 reactors of this design (four steam generators and four primary circulation pumps) operating in France. The P4 and P'4 type have some minor difference in the layout of the building, especially for the structure which contain the fuel rods and the circuitry.
There are only 4 of these reactors, housed at two separate sites: Civaux and Chooz. Construction of these reactors started between 1984 and 1991, but full commercial operation did not begin until between 2000 and 2002 because of thermal fatigue flaws in the heat removal system requiring the redesign and replacement of parts in each N4 power station. In 2003 the stations were all uprated to 1500 MWe.
The next generation design for French reactors is the EPR, which will have a broader scope than France alone, with a plant in Finland and two in China undergoing construction, and two more proposed for the United Kingdom. The first French EPR is under construction at the Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant. As a result of delays and cost overruns, completion is now scheduled for 2017. An additional EPR reactor was planned for the Penly Nuclear Power Plant, but this project has now been abandoned.
The reactor design was developed by Areva contributing its N4 reactor technology and the German company Siemens contributing its Konvoi reactor technology. In keeping with the French approach of highly standardized plants and proven technology, it uses more traditional active safety systems and is more similar to current plant designs than international competitors such as the AP1000 or the ESBWR.
In 2013, EDF acknowledged the difficulties it was having building the EPR design. In September 2015 EDF 's chief executive, Jean - Bernard Lévy, stated that the design of a "New Model '' EPR was being worked on, which will be easier and cheaper to build, which would be ready for orders from about 2020. In 2016 EDF planned to build two New Model EPR reactors in France by 2030 to prepare for renewing its fleet of older reactors. However following financial difficulties at Areva, and its merger with EDF, French Energy Minister Nicolas Hulot said in January 2018 "for now (building a New Model EPR) is neither a priority or a plan. Right now the priority is to develop renewable energy and to reduce the share of nuclear. ''
The majority of nuclear plants in France are located away from the coasts and obtain their cooling water from rivers. These plants employ cooling towers to reduce their impact on the environment. The temperature of emitted water carrying the waste heat is strictly limited by the French government, and this has proved to be problematic during recent heat waves.
Five plants, equaling 18 reactors are located on the coast:
These five get their cooling water directly from the ocean and can thus dump their waste heat directly back into the sea, which is slightly more economical.
France is one of the few countries in the world with an active nuclear reprocessing program, with the COGEMA La Hague site. Enrichment work, some MOX fuel fabrication, and other activities take place at the Tricastin Nuclear Power Centre. Enrichment is completely domestic and is powered by 2 / 3 of the output of the nuclear plant at Tricastin. Reprocessing of fuel from other countries has been done for the United States and Japan, who have expressed the desire to develop a more closed fuel cycle similar to what France has achieved. MOX fuel fabrication services have also been sold to other countries, notably to the USA for the Megatons to Megawatts Program, using plutonium from dismantled nuclear weapons.
While France does not mine uranium for the front end of the fuel cycle domestically, French companies have various holdings in the uranium market. Uranium for the French program totals 10,500 tonnes per year coming from various locations such as:
Final disposal of the high level nuclear waste is planned to be done at the Meuse / Haute Marne Underground Research Laboratory deep geological repository.
France 's nuclear reactors comprise 90 per cent of EDFs capacity and so they are used in load - following mode and some reactors close at weekends because there is no market for the electricity. This means that the capacity factor is low by world standards, usually in the high seventies as a percentage, which is not an ideal economic situation for nuclear plants.
During periods of high demand EDF has been routinely "forced into the relatively expensive spot and short - term power markets because it lacks adequate peak load generating capacity ''. France heavily relies on electric heating, with about one third of existing and three - quarters of new houses using electric space heating due to the low off - peak tariffs offered. Due to this residential heating demand, about 2.3 GW of extra power is needed for every degree Celsius of temperature drop. This means that during cold snaps, French electricity demand increases dramatically, forcing the country to import at full capacity from its neighbours during peak demand. For example, in February 2012, Germany "came to the rescue of France during last week 's cold snap by massively exporting electricity to its neighbour ''.
All but five of EDFs plants are inland and require fresh water for cooling. Eleven of these 15 inland plants have cooling towers, using evaporative cooling, while the others use lake or river water directly. In very hot summers, generation output may be restricted.
In 2008, nuclear power accounted for 16 % of final energy consumption in France. As is common in all industrialized nations, fossil fuels still dominate energy consumption, particularly in the transportation and heating sectors. However, nuclear constitutes a higher level of total energy consumption in France than in any other country. In 2001, nuclear power accounted for 37 % of the total energy consumption in France. In 2011 France consumed ~ 11 quadrillion BTUs (3224 TWh) of energy according to the Energy Information Administration.
A common criticism of French energy policy is that the country may have over-invested in nuclear power plants, requiring electricity export when French electricity demand is low or "dumping '' in the French market, encouraging the use of electricity for space heating and water heating. This can be regarded as an economically wasteful practice. However, as the adoption of electric cars, such as the French Renault Fluence Z.E., over internal combustion engine vehicles increases, reducing fossil fuel dependence, France 's comparatively cheap peak and off peak electricity prices could act as a strong customer incentive that may spur the speed of the adoption of electric vehicles, essentially turning the current perceived glut of relatively cheap fission - electricity into an asset, as demand for electric vehicle recharging stations becomes more and more commonplace.
Due to France 's very low - carbon power electricity grid, the carbon dioxide emissions from charging an electric car from the French electricity grid are 12 g per km traveled. This compares favourably to the direct emissions of one of the most successful hybrid electric vehicles, the Toyota Prius, which produces carbon dioxide emissions at the higher rate of 105 g per km traveled.
In July 2008, 18,000 litres (4,755 gallons) of uranium solution containing natural uranium were accidentally released from Tricastin Nuclear Power Centre. Due to cleaning and repair work the containment system for a uranium solution holding tank was not functional when the tank filled. The inflow exceeded the tank 's capacity and 30 cubic metres of uranium solution leaked, with 18 cubic metres spilled on the ground. Testing found elevated uranium levels in the nearby Gaffière and Lauzon rivers. The liquid that escaped to the ground contained about 75 kg of natural uranium, which is toxic as a heavy metal, but only slightly radioactive. Estimates for the releases were initially higher, up to 360 kg of natural uranium, but revised downward later. French authorities banned the use of water from the Gaffière and Lauzon for drinking and watering of crops for 2 weeks. Swimming, water sports and fishing were also banned. This incident has been classified as Level 1 (anomaly) on the International Nuclear Event Scale. Shortly after the first incident, approximately 100 employees were exposed to minor doses of radiation (1 / 40 of the annual limit) due to a piping failure.
In October 2017 EDF announced it would repair fire safety system pipes at 20 nuclear reactors to increase seismic safety after discovering thinning metal in some sections of pipes. EDF classified this as a Level 2 (incident) on the International Nuclear Event Scale.
In 2006 the Autorité de sûreté nucléaire (ASN) was created as the independent French nuclear safety regulator, replacing the General Direction for Nuclear Safety and Radioprotection.
In 2012, the ASN released a report announcing a sweeping safety upgrade to all the country 's reactors. The ASN 's report states plainly that a loss of coolant or electricity could, in the worst cases, see meltdowns at nuclear reactors in hours. It also lists many shortcomings found during ' stress tests ', in which some safety aspects of plants were found not to meet existing standards. It will now require all power plants to build a set of safety systems of last resort, contained in bunkers that will be hardened to withstand more extreme earthquakes, floods and other threats than plants themselves are designed to cope with. It will also adopt a proposal by EDF to create an elite force that is specifically trained to tackle nuclear accidents and could be deployed to any site within hours. Both moves are a response to the Fukushima nuclear disaster.
Monique Sené is a nuclear physicist and one of the co-founders of the Groupement des scientifiques pour l'information sur l'énergie nucléaire (GSIEN) (Association of Scientists for Information on Nuclear Energy) and its first president. As of March 2011, she was Honorary Research Director at the National Centre for Scientific Research and president of GSIEN. Although she is not an opponent of nuclear power per se, Sené is a high - profile critic of the French nuclear power programme due to concerns about its safety, the handling of nuclear waste and its imposition without public debate.
Following the 2011 Fukushima I nuclear accidents there has been an increased focus on the risks associated with seismic activity in France, with particular attention focused on the Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant.
General seismic risk in France is categorised on a five - point scale, with zone 1 being very low risk, through to zone 5 in areas with a ' very strong ' risk. In Metropolitan France the areas of highest risk are rated at 4, ' strong ', and are located in the Pyrenees, Alps, the south of the Haut - Rhin département, the Territoire de Belfort and a few communes in Doubs. A new zoning map comes into force on 1 May 2011, which significantly increases the rating for many areas. The major nuclear research facilities at Cadarache are located in a zone 4 area near the fault that caused the 1909 Lambesc earthquake, while the Marcoule research centre and the nuclear power plants at Tricastin, Cruas, Saint - Alban, Bugey and Fessenheim (near the fault that caused the 1356 Basel earthquake) are all within zone 3. A further 6 plants lie within zone 2.
The current process for evaluating the seismic hazard for a nuclear plant is set out in Règle Fondamentale de Sûreté (Fundamental Safety Rule) RFS 2001 - 01, published by the Institute for Radioprotection and Nuclear Safety, which uses more detailed seismotectonic zones. RFS 2001 - 01 replaced RFS I. 2. c, published in 1981, however it has been criticised for continuing to require a deterministic assessment (rather than a probabilistic approach) that relies primarily on the strongest ' historically known ' earthquake near a site. This leads to a number of problems including the short period (in geological timescales) for which there are records, the difficulty of assessing the characteristics of earthquakes that occurred prior to the use of seismometers, the difficulty of identifying the existence of all earthquakes that pre-date the historic record, and ultimately the reliance on one single earthquake scenario. Other criticisms include the use of intensity in the evaluation method, rather than spectral acceleration, which is commonly used elsewhere.
Following the 2011 Fukushima I nuclear accidents an OpinionWay poll at the end of March found that 57 % of the French population were opposed to nuclear energy in France. A TNS - Sofres poll in the days following the accident found 55 % in favour of nuclear power. In 2006, BBC / GlobeScan poll found 57 % of the French opposed to nuclear energy.
In May 2001, an Ipsos poll found that nearly 70 % of the population had a ' good opinion ' of nuclear power, however 56 % also preferred not to live near a nuclear plant and the same proportion thought that a ' Chernobyl - like accident ' could occur in France. The same Ipsos poll revealed that 50 % thought that nuclear power was the best way of solving the problem of the greenhouse effect, while 88 % thought this was a major reason for continuing to use nuclear power.
Historically the position has generally been favourable, with around two - thirds of the population strongly supporting nuclear power, while the Gaullists, the Socialist Party and the Communist Party were also all in favour.
When the Civaux Nuclear Power Plant was being constructed in 1997, it was claimed to be welcomed by the local community:
In France, unlike in America, nuclear energy is accepted, even popular. Everybody I spoke to in Civaux loves the fact their region was chosen. The nuclear plant has brought jobs and prosperity to the area. Nobody I spoke to, nobody, expressed any fear.
A variety of reasons were cited for the popular support; a sense of national independence and reduced reliance on foreign oil, reduction of greenhouse gases, and a cultural interest in large technological projects (like the TGV, (whose high - speed lines are powered by these plants) and Concorde).
In the 1970s, an anti-nuclear movement in France, consisting of citizens ' groups and political action committees, emerged. Between 1975 and 1977, some 175,000 people protested against nuclear power in ten demonstrations.
In January 2004, up to 15,000 anti-nuclear protesters marched in Paris against a new generation of nuclear reactors, the European Pressurised Reactor (EPR). On 17 March 2007, simultaneous protests, organised by Sortir du nucléaire, were staged in 5 French towns to protest against the construction of EPR plants.
After Japan 's 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, thousands staged anti-nuclear protests around France, demanding reactors be closed. Protesters ' demands were focused on getting France to shut its oldest nuclear power station at Fessenheim. Many people also protested at the Cattenom nuclear plant, France 's second most powerful.
In November 2011, thousands of anti-nuclear protesters delayed a train carrying radioactive waste from France to Germany. Many clashes and obstructions made the journey the slowest one since the annual shipments of radioactive waste began in 1995. Also in November 2011, a French court fined nuclear power giant Électricité de France € 1.5 m and jailed two senior employees for spying on Greenpeace, including hacking into Greenpeace 's computer systems. Greenpeace was awarded € 500,000 in damages.
On the first anniversary of the Fukushima nuclear disaster, organisers of French anti-nuclear demonstrations claim 60,000 supporters formed a human chain 230 kilometres long, stretching from Lyon to Avignon. Austrian Chancellor Werner Faymann expects anti-nuclear petition drives to start in at least six European Union countries in 2012 with the goal of having the EU abandon nuclear power.
In March 2014, police arrested 57 Greenpeace protesters who used a truck to break through security barriers and enter the Fessenheim nuclear in eastern France. The activists hung antinuclear banners, but France 's nuclear safety authority said that the plant 's security had not been compromised. Although President Hollande promised to close Fessenheim by 2016, and Greenpeace continues to demand immediate closure, Fessenheim continues to operate without problems.
In 2007, Areva NC claimed that, due to their reliance on nuclear power, France 's carbon emissions per kWh are less than 1 / 10 that of Germany and the UK, and 1 / 13 that of Denmark, which has no nuclear plants. Its emissions of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide have been reduced by 70 % over 20 years, even though the total power output has tripled in that time.
If done without environmental or health over-sight, conventional mining for uranium can produce large amounts of mining tailings and contaminated water but as of 2010, about half of the world 's uranium supply is increasingly generated from In situ recovery (ISR) technology, that does not require physical mining in the conventional sense and if responsibly operated is considerably cleaner. Another alternative to ISR is remote controlled underground mining, the French owned Areva Resources Canada owns a large stake in the Canadian McArthur River uranium mine, the world 's highest grade and largest uranium mine by output, the underground remote operation of mining vehicles in this mine, is designed to keep personnel exposure to rock particulates and radon gas etc. low. The mine is a frequent winner of the John T. Ryan National Safety Trophy award in Canada, which is bestowed upon the safest mine in the country every year.
According to the French embassy to the US, fission - electricity "helps to reduce French greenhouse gas emissions by avoiding the release of 31 billions tones of carbon dioxide (contrary to coal or gas generation) and making France the less carbon emitting country within the OECD ''. It further notes that, due to recycling of spent nuclear fuel, French fission - electric stations, produce 10 g / year / inhabitant of "nuclear waste '', which is primarily fission products and other safety concerning solid decaying radioactive isotopes.
French environmentalist Bruno Comby started the group Environmentalists For Nuclear Energy in 1996, and said in 2005, "If well - managed, nuclear energy is very clean, does not create polluting gases in the atmosphere, produces very little waste and does not contribute to the greenhouse effect ''.
Unlike its neighboring countries of Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom, France does not rely very much on fossil fuels and biomass for electricity or home heating thanks to an abundance of cheap nuclear power. Taken as a whole, the country therefore has superior air quality and lower pollution related deaths. Air pollution in France largely comes from cars and a minority is carried by the wind from Germany. Each year, the coal fired power stations in Germany are the cause of a calculated 1,860 premature domestic deaths and approximately 2,500 deaths abroad.
Outdoor fossil fuel and biomass pollution, from particulate matter alone, kill more people than is popularly know, approximately 1 million people every year according to the World Health Organization. The level of atmospheric particulate matter, small enough to enter and cause damage to the lungs -- is 13 micrograms per cubic metre in France, cleaner than the air in Germany, where the particulate air pollution is higher at 16 micrograms per cubic metre.
The nuclear fusion project International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor is constructing the world 's largest and most advanced experimental tokamak nuclear fusion reactor in the south of France. A collaboration between the European Union (EU), India, Japan, China, Russia, South Korea and the United States, the project aims to make a transition from experimental studies of plasma physics to electricity - producing fusion power plants. In 2005, Greenpeace International issued a press statement criticizing government funding of the ITER, believing the money should have been diverted to renewable energy sources and claiming that fusion energy would result in nuclear waste and nuclear weapons proliferation issues. A French association including about 700 anti-nuclear groups, Sortir du nucléaire (Get Out of Nuclear Energy), claimed that ITER was a hazard because scientists did not yet know how to manipulate the high - energy deuterium and tritium hydrogen isotopes used in the fusion process. According to most anti-nuclear groups, nuclear fusion power "remains a distant dream ''. The World Nuclear Association says that fusion "presents so far insurmountable scientific and engineering challenges ''. Construction of the ITER facility began in 2007, but the project has run into many delays and budget overruns. The facility is now not expected to begin operations until the year 2027 -- 11 years after initially anticipated.
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when did the 27 inch imac come out | IMac - Wikipedia
iMac is a family of all - in - one Macintosh desktop computers designed and built by Apple Inc. It has been the primary part of Apple 's consumer desktop offerings since its debut in August 1998, and has evolved through seven distinct forms.
In its original form, iMac G3 had a gumdrop or egg - shaped look, with a CRT monitor, mainly enclosed by a colored, translucent plastic case, which was refreshed early on with a sleeker design notable for its slot - loaded optical drive. The second major revision, iMac G4, moved the design to a hemispherical base containing all the main components and an LCD monitor on a freely moving arm attached to it. The third and fourth major revisions, iMac G5 and the Intel iMac respectively, placed all the components immediately behind the display, creating a slim unified design that tilts only up and down on a simple metal base. The fifth major revision (mid-2007) shared the same form as the previous model, but was thinner and used anodized aluminum and a glass panel over the entire front. The sixth major revision (late 2012) uses a different display unit, omits the SuperDrive, and uses different production techniques from the older unibody versions. This allows it to be thinner at the edge than older models, with an edge thickness of 5.9 mm (but the same maximum depth). It also includes a dual microphone setup, and includes solid - state drive (SSD) or hard disk storage, or an Apple Fusion Drive, a hybrid of solid state and hard disk drives. This version of iMac was announced in October 2012, with the 21.5 - inch (55 cm) version released in November and the 27 - inch (69 cm) version in December; these were refreshed in September 2013, with new Haswell processors, faster graphics, faster and larger SSD options and 802.11 ac Wi - Fi cards.
In October 2014, the seventh major revision of the 27 - inch (69 cm) iMac was announced, whose main feature is a "Retina 5K '' display at a resolution of 5120 × 2880 pixels. The new model also includes a new processor, graphics chip, and IO, along with several new storage options. The seventh major revision of the 21.5 - inch (55 cm) iMac was announced in October 2015. Its main feature is a "Retina 4K '' display at a resolution of 4096 × 2304 pixels. It has the same new processor, graphics chip, and IO as the 27 - inch iMac, along with several new storage options.
On June 5, 2017, Apple announced a workstation - class version of the iMac, called the "iMac Pro ''. The iMac Pro shares the design and screen of the 5K iMac, but is colored in Space Gray rather than silver. It comes with Intel Xeon processors and standard SSD storage. Apple began shipping the iMac Pro in December 2017.
The announcement of iMac in 1998 was a source of controversy and anticipation among commentators, Mac fans, and detractors. Opinions were divided over Apple 's drastic changes to the Macintosh hardware. At the time, Apple had suffered a series of setbacks as consumers increasingly opted for Wintel (Windows PCs) machines instead of Apple 's Performa models. Many in the industry thought that "beleaguered Apple '' would soon be forced to start selling computers with a custom interface built on top of one or more potential operating system bases, such as Taligent, Solaris, or Windows 98.
Part of Apple 's effort to maintain the Mac platform was trying to improve its retail strategy; to this end, Apple secured a deal with CompUSA to set up a "store within a store '' section at many CompUSA locations. As these stores developed, however, they became a detriment to Apple sales, as CompUSA employees were unfamiliar with the Macintosh and directed customers to Wintel boxes instead.
The designer behind iMac 's case was Jonathan Ive.
Ken Segall was an employee at an L.A. ad agency handling Apple 's account who came up with the name "iMac '' and pitched it to Steve Jobs. Jobs wanted the product to be called "MacMan '', but eventually warmed to Segall 's suggestion. Segall says that the "i '' stands for "Internet '', but also represents the product as a personal and revolutionary device (' i ' for "individuality '' and "innovation ''). Apple later adopted the ' i ' prefix across its consumer hardware and software lines, such as iPod, iBook (later MacBook), iPhone, iPad and various pieces of software such as the iLife suite and iWork and the company 's media player / store, iTunes.
Attention was given to the out - of - box experience: the user needed to go through only two steps to set up and connect to the Internet. "There 's no step 3! '' was the catch - phrase in a popular iMac commercial narrated by actor Jeff Goldblum. Another commercial, dubbed "Simplicity Shootout '', pitted seven - year - old Johann Thomas and his border collie Brodie, with an iMac, against Adam Taggart, a Stanford University MBA student, with an HP Pavilion 8250, in a race to set up their computers. Johann and Brodie finished in 8 minutes and 15 seconds, whereas Adam was still working on it by the end of the commercial.
By 2005, it had become more and more apparent that IBM 's development for the desktop implementation of PowerPC was grinding to a halt. Apple announced at the Worldwide Developers Conference that it would be switching the Macintosh to the x86 architecture and Intel 's line of Core processors. The first Intel - equipped Macs were unveiled on January 10, 2006: the Intel iMac and the introductory MacBook Pro. Within nine months, Apple had smoothly transitioned the entire Macintosh line to Intel. One of the highly touted side benefits of this switch was the ability to run Windows on Mac hardware.
On July 27, 2010, Apple updated its line of iMacs to feature the new Intel Core "i - series '' processors across the line. The 21.5 '' models now feature the Core i3 processor, but these are upgradable to the Core i5. The high end 27 '' features a Quad - Core i5 processor, which is upgradable to a Quad - Core i7. On this date Apple also announced its new "Apple Magic Trackpad '' peripheral, a trackpad similar to that of MacBook Pro for use with iMac or any other Apple computer. Apple also introduced a AA NiMH battery charger intended to simplify the use of batteries in these peripherals. Apple offers an option to use a solid state drive instead of a large mechanical drive.
On May 3, 2011, Apple updated its iMac line with the introduction of Intel Thunderbolt technology and Intel Core i5 and i7 Sandy Bridge processors as well as a 1 mega pixel high definition FaceTime camera, features which were first introduced in the MacBook Pro line in February 2011.
On October 23, 2012, a new iMac was announced (for a November / December release) with a substantially thinner edge, new Apple Fusion Drive, faster processors (Intel Core i5 and i7 Ivy Bridge) and graphics along with updates to the ports, but with the same overall depth (stand depth: 8 inches (20.3 cm)). To reduce the edge, the SuperDrive was removed on these iMacs.
On October 16, 2014, a new version of the 27 - inch (69 cm) iMac was announced, whose main feature is a "Retina 5K '' display at a resolution of 5120 × 2880 pixels. The new model also includes a new processor, graphics chip, and I / O, along with several new storage options. This computer was designed with professional photographers and video editors in mind, with the 5K resolution allowing 4K video to be played at its native resolution in Final Cut Pro, with room for toolbars on the side.
On June 6, 2017, Apple 's 21.5 - inch iMac 2017, which has a full HD resolution display and the latest Intel 7th generation i5 processor, is announced. The iMac has Turbo Boost up to 3.6 GHz supported, and 1 TB hard drive. Apple 's iMac with 4K display has Intel Core i5 quad - core processor with 3GHz or 3.4 GHz clock speed. The RAM on board is 8GB, and it will support Turbo boost of up to 3.8 GHz. This iMac has options of 1TB hard drive or 1TB Fusion Drive. This 21.5 - inch iMac also has the option of Radeon Pro 555 with 2GB of video RAM for graphics or a Radeon Pro 560 with 4GB of video RAM. Apple 's 27 - inch iMac with the 5K display comes with the quad - core Intel Core i5 processor, which is clocked at 3.4 GHz, 3.5 GHz or 3.8 GHz. This iMac supports Turbo boost of up to 4.2 Ghz, and comes with 8GB RAM option.
The original iMac was the first legacy - free PC. It was the first Macintosh computer to have a USB port but no floppy disk drive. Subsequently, all Macs have included USB. Via the USB port, hardware makers could make products compatible with both x86 PCs and Macs. Previously, Macintosh users had to seek out certain hardware, such as keyboards and mice specifically tailored for the "old world '' Mac 's unique ADB interface and printers and modems with MiniDIN - 8 serial ports. Only a limited number of models from certain manufacturers were made with these interfaces, and often came at a premium price. USB, being cross-platform, has allowed Macintosh users to select from a large selection of devices marketed for the Wintel PC platform, such as hubs, scanners, storage devices, USB flash drives, and mice. After the iMac, Apple continued to remove older peripheral interfaces and floppy drives from the rest of its product line.
Borrowing from the 1997 Twentieth Anniversary Macintosh, the various LCD - based iMac designs continued the all - in - one concept first envisioned in Apple 's original Macintosh computer. The successful iMac allowed Apple to continue targeting the Power Macintosh line at the high - end of the market. This foreshadowed a similar strategy in the notebook market when the iMac - like MacBook was released in 2006. Since then, the company has continued this strategy of differentiating the consumer versus professional product lines. Apple 's focus on design has allowed each of its subsequent products to create a distinctive identity. Apple avoided using the beige colors then pervading the PC industry. The company would later drift from the multicolored designs of the late 1990s and early 2000s. The latter part of the decade saw Apple using anodized aluminum; glass; and white, black, and clear polycarbonate plastics among their build materials. Today many PCs are more design - conscious than before the iMac 's introduction, with multi-shaded design schemes being common, and some desktops and laptops available in colorful, decorative patterns.
Apple 's use of translucent, candy - colored plastics inspired similar industrial designs in other consumer products. Apple 's later introduction of the iPod, iBook G3 (Dual USB), and iMac G4 (all featuring snowy - white plastic), inspired similar designs in other companies ' consumer electronics products. The color rollout also featured two distinctive ads: one called ' Life Savers ' featured the Rolling Stones song "She 's a Rainbow '' and an advertisement for the white version had the introduction of Cream 's "White Room '' as its backing track.
iMac has received considerable critical acclaim, including praise from technology columnist Walt Mossberg as the "Gold Standard of desktop computing ''; Forbes magazine described the original candy - colored line of iMac computers as being an "industry - altering success ''. The first 24 '' Core 2 Duo iMac received CNET 's "Must - have desktop '' in their 2006 Top 10 Holiday Gift Picks.
Apple faced a class - action lawsuit filed in 2008 for allegedly deceiving the public by promising millions of colors from the LCD screens of all Mac models while its 20 - inch model only held 262,144 colors. This issue arose due to the use of 6 - bit per pixel Twisted nematic LCD screens. The case was dismissed on January 21, 2009.
While not a criticism of iMac per se, the integrated design has some inherent tradeoffs that have garnered criticism. In The Mythical Midrange Mac Minitower, Dan Frakes of Macworld suggests that with iMac occupying the midrange of Apple 's product line, Apple has little to offer consumers who want some ability to expand or upgrade their computers, but do n't need (or ca n't afford) the Mac Pro. For example, iMac 's integration of monitor and computer, while convenient, commits the owner to replacing both at the same time. For a time before the Mac mini 's introduction, there were rumors of a "headless iMac '' but the G4 Mac mini as introduced had lower performance compared to the iMac, which at the time featured a G5 processor. Some third party suppliers such as Other World Computing provide upgrade kits that include specialized tools for working on iMacs.
Similarly, though the graphics chipset in some Intel models is on a removable MXM, neither Apple nor third parties have offered retail iMac GPU upgrades, with the exception of those for the original iMac G3 's "mezzanine '' PCI slot. Models after iMac G5 (excluding the August 7, 2007 iMac update) made it difficult for the end - user to replace the hard disk or optical drive, and Apple 's warranty explicitly forbids upgrading the socketed CPU. While conceding the possibility of a minitower cannibalizing sales from the Mac Pro, Frakes argues there is enough frustration with iMac 's limitations to make such a proposition worthwhile. This disparity has become more pronounced after the G4 era since the bottom - end Power Mac G5 (with one brief exception) and Mac Pro models have all been priced in the US $1999 -- 2499 range, while base model Power Macs G4s and earlier were US $1299 -- 1799. The current generation iMac has Intel 5th generation i5 and i7 processors, ranging from quad core 2.7 GHz i5 to a quad core 3.4 GHz i7 processor, however it is possible to upgrade the 2010 edition of the iMac quite easily.
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who plays bernadette in the big bang theory | Melissa Rauch - wikipedia
Melissa Ivy Rauch (born June 23, 1980) is an American actress and comedian. She is known for playing Bernadette Rostenkowski - Wolowitz on the CBS sitcom The Big Bang Theory.
Rauch was born to a Jewish family in Marlboro Township, New Jersey. Her parents are Susan and David Rauch. She has a brother, Ben. She developed an interest in acting while attending Marlboro High School. Rauch graduated from Marymount Manhattan College in New York City in 2002.
Some of Rauch 's early work was as a regular contributor to VH1 's Best Week Ever television show.
In 2009, Rauch began playing the recurring role of Bernadette Rostenkowski, a co-worker of Penny who began to date Howard Wolowitz, in the third season of TV 's The Big Bang Theory. The following season her character became Howard 's fiancée and Rauch was promoted to a series regular. The characters married in the season five finale. In December 2011, Rauch and fellow cast members of The Big Bang Theory received the first of four nominations for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series.
Other acting credits include True Blood (on which she had a recurring role in 2010 as Summer, a girl who likes Hoyt), The Office, the American remake of the Australian TV series Kath & Kim, Wright v Wrong, and the film I Love You, Man.
Rauch is also part of the cast of the comedic stage show The Realest Real Housewives with Casey Wilson, June Diane Raphael, Jessica St. Clair and Danielle Schneider. The show began running at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre in 2011.
Rauch co-wrote and co-produced the film The Bronze, in which she starred as Hope Annabelle Greggory, a bronze medal - winning gymnast clinging to her glory days of 12 years earlier. It opened the 2015 Sundance Film Festival. Variety said, "Rauch, who co-wrote the screenplay with her husband Winston, has never carried a film before. But she delivers the best breakthrough comedic performance by an actress since Melissa McCarthy in Bridesmaids. '' Sony Pictures Classics acquired the film in September 2015.
In 2017, Rauch voiced Harley Quinn in the animated film Batman and Harley Quinn and she voiced Light Thief in Light Riders from Blaze and the Monster Machines.
Rauch is married to writer Winston Rauch (né Beigel), who collaborated with her on The Miss Education of Jenna Bush and other projects. Rauch announced that she was pregnant on July 11, 2017, and disclosed that she had a miscarriage previously. On December 4, 2017 Rauch announced on Instagram that she had given birth to a girl, Sadie.
Rauch modeled the voice of Bernadette after her parents: the "sweet, high - pitched purr '' is modeled after her mother, while the "eerie, haranguing imitation '' of Mrs. Wolowitz is modeled after her father. Both are "very different '' from Rauch 's real voice.
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about how many miles is it from north to south across texas at its widest point | Rio Grande - wikipedia
The Rio Grande (/ ˈriːoʊ ˈɡrænd / or / ˈriːoʊ ˈɡrɑːndeɪ /; Spanish: Río Bravo del Norte, pronounced (ˈri. o ˈβɾaβo ðel ˈnorte) or simply Río Bravo) is one of the principal rivers in the southwest United States and northern Mexico (the other being the Colorado River). The Rio Grande begins in south - central Colorado in the United States and flows to the Gulf of Mexico. Along the way, it forms part of the Mexico -- United States border. According to the International Boundary and Water Commission, its total length was 1,896 miles (3,051 km) in the late 1980s, though course shifts occasionally result in length changes. Depending on how it is measured, the Rio Grande is either the fourth - or fifth - longest river system in North America.
The river serves as part of the natural border between the U.S. state of Texas and the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas. A very short stretch of the river serves as part of the boundary between the U.S. states of Texas and New Mexico. Since the mid -- 20th century, heavy water consumption of farms and cities along with many large diversion dams on the river has left only 20 % of its natural discharge to flow to the Gulf. Near the river 's mouth, the heavily irrigated lower Rio Grande Valley is an important agricultural region.
The Rio Grande 's watershed covers 182,200 square miles (472,000 km). Many endorheic basins are situated within, or adjacent to, the Rio Grande 's basin, and these are sometimes included in the river basin 's total area, increasing its size to about 336,000 square miles (870,000 km).
The Rio Grande rises in the western part of the Rio Grande National Forest in the U.S. state of Colorado. The river is formed by the joining of several streams at the base of Canby Mountain in the San Juan Mountains, just east of the Continental Divide. From there, it flows through the San Luis Valley, then south into the Middle Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico, passing through the Rio Grande Gorge near Taos, then toward Española, and picking up additional water from the San Juan - Chama Diversion Project from the Rio Chama. It then continues on a southerly route through the desert cities of Albuquerque, and Las Cruces to El Paso, Texas and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua. In the Albuquerque area, the river flows past a number of historic Pueblo villages, including Sandia Pueblo and Isleta Pueblo. Below El Paso, it serves as part of the border between the United States and Mexico.
The official river border measurement ranges from 889 miles (1,431 km) to 1,248 miles (2,008 km), depending on how the river is measured. A major tributary, the Rio Conchos, enters at Ojinaga, Chihuahua, below El Paso, and supplies most of the water in the border segment. Other tributaries include the Pecos and the smaller Devils, which join the Rio Grande on the site of Amistad Dam. Despite its name and length, the Rio Grande is not navigable by ocean - going ships, nor do smaller passenger boats or cargo barges use it as a route. It is barely navigable at all, except by small boats in a few places; at its deepest point, the river 's depth is 60 feet (18 m),
The Rio Grande rises in high mountains and flows for much of its length at high elevation; Albuquerque is 5,312 feet (1,619 m), and El Paso 3,762 feet (1,147 m) above sea level. In New Mexico, the river flows through the Rio Grande rift from one sediment - filled basin to another, cutting canyons between the basins and supporting a fragile bosque ecosystem on its flood plain. From El Paso eastward, the river flows through desert. Although irrigated agriculture exists throughout most of its stretch, it is particularly extensive in the subtropical Lower Rio Grande Valley. The river ends in a small, sandy delta at the Gulf of Mexico. During portions of 2001 and 2002, the mouth of the Rio Grande was blocked by a sandbar. In the fall of 2003, the sandbar was cleared by high river flows around 7,063 cubic feet per second (200 m / s).
Navigation was active during much of the 19th century, with over 200 different steamboats operating between the river 's mouth close to Brownsville, and Rio Grande City, Texas. Many steamboats from the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers were requisitioned by the US government and moved to the Rio Grande during the Mexican War in 1846. They provided transport for the U.S. Army, under General Zachary Taylor, to invade Monterrey, Mexico, via Camargo Municipality, Tamaulipas. Army engineers recommended that with small improvements, the river could easily be made navigable as far north as El Paso. Those recommendations were never acted upon.
The Brownsville & Matamoros International Bridge, a large swing bridge, dates back to 1910 and is still in use today by automobiles connecting Brownsville with Matamoros, Tamaulipas. It has not been opened since the early 1900s, though, when the last of the big steamboats disappeared. At one point, the bridge also had rail traffic. Railroad trains no longer use this bridge. A new rail bridge (West Rail International Crossing) connecting the U.S. and Mexico was built about 15 miles west of the Brownsville & Matamoros International Bridge. It was inaugurated in August 2015. It moved all rail operations out of downtown Brownsville and Matamoros. The West Rail International Crossing is the first new international rail crossing between the U.S. and Mexico in 105 years. The Brownsville & Matamoros International Bridge is now operated by the Brownsville and Matamoros Bridge Company, a joint venture between the Mexican government and the Union Pacific Railroad.
At the mouth of the Rio Grande, on the Mexican side, was the large commercial port of Bagdad. During the American Civil War, this was the only legitimate port of the Confederacy. European warships anchored offshore to maintain the port 's neutrality, and managed to do so successfully throughout that conflict, despite occasional stare - downs with blockading ships from the US Navy. It was a shallow - draft river port, with several smaller vessels that hauled cargo to and from the deeper - draft cargo ships anchored off shore. These deeper - draft ships could not cross the shallow sandbar at the mouth of the river. The port 's commerce was European military supplies, in exchange for bales of cotton.
During the late - 1830s and early - 1840s, the river marked the disputed border between Mexico and the nascent Republic of Texas; Mexico marked the border at the Nueces River. The disagreement provided part of the rationale for the US invasion of Mexico in 1846, after Texas had been admitted as a new state. Since 1848, the Rio Grande has marked the boundary between Mexico and the United States from the twin cities of El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, to the Gulf of Mexico. As such, crossing the river was the escape route used by some Texan slaves to seek freedom. Mexico had liberal colonization policies and had abolished slavery in 1828.
In 1899, after a gradual change to the river position, a channel was dug for flood control which moved the river, creating what was called Cordova Island, which became the center of the Chamizal dispute. Resolving the dispute took many years and almost resulted in the assassination of the American and Mexican presidents.
In 1944, the US and Mexico signed a treaty regarding the river, and in 1997, the US designated the Rio Grande as one of the American Heritage Rivers. Two portions of the Rio Grande are designated National Wild and Scenic Rivers System, one in northern New Mexico and the other in Texas, at Big Bend National Park.
In the summer of 2001, a 328 - foot (100 m) - wide sandbar formed at the mouth of the river, marking the first time in recorded history that the Rio Grande failed to empty into the Gulf of Mexico. The sandbar was subsequently dredged, but it reformed almost immediately. Spring rains the following year flushed the reformed sandbar out to sea, but it returned in the summer of 2002. As of the fall of 2003, the river once again reaches the Gulf.
The United States and Mexico share the water of the river under a series of agreements administered by the International Boundary and Water Commission (IBWC), US - Mexico. The most notable of these treaties were signed in 1906 and 1944. The IBWC traces its institutional roots to 1889, when the International Boundary Committee was established to maintain the border. The IBWC today also allocates river waters between the two nations, and provides for flood control and water sanitation.
Use of that water belonging to the United States is regulated by the Rio Grande Compact, an interstate pact between Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas. The water of the Rio Grande is over-appropriated: that is, more users for the water exist than water in the river. Because of both drought and overuse, the section from El Paso downstream through Ojinaga was recently tagged "The Forgotten River '' by those wishing to bring attention to the river 's deteriorated condition.
A number of dams are on the Rio Grande, including Rio Grande Dam, Cochiti Dam, Elephant Butte Dam, Caballo Dam, Amistad Dam, Falcon Dam, Anzalduas Dam, and Retamal Dam. In southern New Mexico and the upper portion of the Texas border segment, the river 's discharge dwindles. Diversions, mainly for agricultural irrigation, have increased the natural decrease in flow such that by the time the river reaches Presidio, little or no water is left. Below Presidio, the Rio Conchos restores the flow of water. Near Presidio, the river 's discharge is frequently zero. Its average discharge is 178 cubic feet per second (5 m / s), down from 945 cubic feet per second (27 m / s) at Elephant Butte Dam. Supplemented by other tributaries, the Rio Grande 's discharge increases to its maximum annual average of 3,504 cubic feet per second (99 m / s) near Rio Grande City. Large diversions for irrigation below Rio Grande City reduce the river 's average flow to 889 cubic feet per second (25 m / s) at Brownsville and Matamoros.
The major international border crossings along the river are at Ciudad Juárez and El Paso; Presidio, and Ojinaga; Laredo, and Nuevo Laredo; McAllen and Reynosa; and Brownsville and Matamoros. Other notable border towns are the Texas / Coahuila pairings of Del Rio -- Ciudad Acuña and Eagle Pass -- Piedras Negras.
Río Grande is Spanish for "Big River '' and Río Grande del Norte means "Great River of the North ''. In English, Rio Grande is pronounced either / ˈriːoʊ ˈɡrænd / or / ˈriːoʊ ˈɡrɑːndeɪ /. Because río means "river '' in Spanish, the phrase Rio Grande River is redundant.
In Mexico, it is known as Río Bravo or Río Bravo del Norte, bravo meaning (among other things) "furious '' or "agitated ''.
Historically, the Pueblo and Navajo peoples also had names for the Rio Grande / Rio Bravo:
The four Pueblo names likely antedated the Spanish entrada by several centuries.
Rio del Norte was most commonly used for the upper Rio Grande (roughly, within the present - day borders of New Mexico) from Spanish colonial times to the end of the Mexican period in the mid-19th century. This use was first documented by the Spanish in 1582. Early American settlers in South Texas began to use the modern ' English ' name Rio Grande. By the late 19th century, in the United States, the name Rio Grande had become standard in being applied to the entire river, from Colorado to the sea.
By 1602, Río Bravo had become the standard Spanish name for the lower river, below its confluence with the Rio Conchos.
The largest tributary of the Rio Grande by discharge is the Rio Conchos, which contributes almost twice as much water as any other. In terms of drainage basin size, the Pecos River is the largest.
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when did the usa win a world cup | United States men 's national Soccer team - Wikipedia
The United States men 's national soccer team is controlled by the United States Soccer Federation and competes in the Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football. The team has appeared in ten FIFA World Cups, including the first in 1930, where they reached the semi-finals. The U.S. participated in the 1934 and 1950 World Cups, winning 1 -- 0 against England in the latter. After 1950, the U.S. did not qualify for the World Cup until 1990. The U.S. hosted the 1994 World Cup, where they lost to Brazil in the round of sixteen. They qualified for five more consecutive World Cups after 1990 (for a total of seven straight appearances, a feat shared with only seven other nations), becoming one of the tournament 's regular competitors and often advancing to the knockout stage. The U.S. reached the quarter - finals of the 2002 World Cup, where they lost to Germany. In the 2009 Confederations Cup, they eliminated top - ranked Spain in the semi-finals before losing to Brazil in the final, their only appearance in a final. The team failed to qualify for the 2018 World Cup, having been eliminated in continental qualifying, ending the streak of consecutive World Cups at seven.
The U.S. also competes in continental tournaments, including the CONCACAF Gold Cup and Copa América. The U.S. has hosted fourteen editions of the Gold Cup, winning six, and has achieved a fourth - place finish in two Copa Américas, including the 2016 edition that they hosted. The team 's head coaching position was vacated with Bruce Arena 's resignation in October 2017, after which Dave Sarachan became the team 's interim head coach. Earnie Stewart is the team 's General Manager since August 1, 2018.
The first U.S. national soccer team was constituted in 1885, when it played Canada in the first international match held outside the United Kingdom. Canada defeated the U.S. 1 -- 0 in Newark, New Jersey. The U.S. had its revenge the following year when it beat Canada 1 -- 0, also in Newark, although neither match was officially recognized. The U.S. earned both silver and bronze medals in men 's soccer at the 1904 St. Louis Summer Olympics through Christian Brothers College and St. Rose Parish, though the tournament is declared official only by the IOC (FIFA does n't endorse tournaments held before 1908). The U.S. played its first official international match under the auspices of U.S. Soccer on August 20, 1916, against Sweden in Stockholm, where the U.S. won 3 -- 2.
The U.S. fielded a team in the 1930 World Cup in Uruguay, the first ever World Cup to be played. The U.S. began group play by beating Belgium 3 -- 0. The U.S. then earned a 3 -- 0 victory over Paraguay, with FIFA crediting Bert Patenaude with two of the goals. In November 2006, FIFA announced that it had accepted evidence that Patenaude scored all three goals against Paraguay, and was thus the first person to score a hat trick in a World Cup. In the semifinals, the U.S. lost to Argentina 6 -- 1. There was no third place game. However, using the overall tournament records in 1986, FIFA credited the U.S. with a third - place finish ahead of fellow semi-finalist Yugoslavia. This remains the U.S. team 's best World Cup result, and is the highest finish of any team from outside of South America and Europe.
The U.S. qualified for the 1934 World Cup by defeating Mexico 4 -- 2 in Italy a few days before the finals started. In a straight knock - out format, the team first played host Italy and lost 7 -- 1, eliminating the U.S. from the tournament. At the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin, the U.S. again lost to Italy in the first round and were eliminated, although this time with a score of 1 - 0.
The 1950 World Cup in Brazil was the next World Cup appearance for the U.S. as it withdrew in 1938 and the tournament was n't held again until 1950. The U.S. lost its first match 3 -- 1 against Spain, but then won 1 -- 0 against England at Independência Stadium in Belo Horizonte. Striker Joe Gaetjens was the goal scorer. Called "The Miracle on Grass '', the result is considered one of the greatest upsets in the history of the World Cup. Months before the World Cup, England had beaten an all - star "rest of Europe '' side 6 -- 1 in an exhibition match. In their third game of the tournament, a 5 - 2 defeat by Chile saw the U.S. eliminated from the tournament. It would be four decades before the U.S. would make another appearance in the World Cup finals.
The national team spent the mid-to - late 20th century in near complete irrelevance in both the international game and the domestic sporting scene. There was only one World Cup berth for CONCACAF during this period until 1982. The emergence of the North American Soccer League in the 1960s and 1970s raised hopes that the U.S. national team would soon improve and become a global force. However such hopes were not realized and by the 1980s the U.S. Soccer Federation found itself in serious financial struggles, with the national team playing only two matches from 1981 to 1983. U.S. Soccer targeted the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles and the 1986 World Cup as means of rebuilding the national team and its fan base. The International Olympic Committee declared that teams from outside Europe and South America could field full senior teams, including professionals (until then, the amateur - only rule had heavily favored socialist countries from Eastern Europe whose players were professionals in all but name). The U.S. had a very strong showing at the tournament, beating Costa Rica, tying Egypt, losing only to favorite Italy and finishing 1 -- 1 -- 1 but did n't make the second round, losing to Egypt on a tiebreaker (both had three points).
To provide a more stable national team program and renew interest in the NASL, U.S. Soccer entered the national team into the NASL league schedule for the 1983 season as Team America. This team lacked the continuity and regularity of training that conventional clubs enjoy, and many players were unwilling to play for the national team instead of their own clubs when conflicts arose. Team America finished the season at the bottom of the league, with U.S. Soccer canceling the experiment and withdrawing the national team from the NASL after one season. By the end of 1984, the NASL had folded, leaving the U.S. without a single professional - level outdoor soccer league.
The U.S. bid to host the 1986 World Cup after Colombia withdrew from contention due to economic concerns, but FIFA selected Mexico to host the tournament. In the last game of CONCACAF qualifying for the 1986 World Cup, the U.S. needed only a tie against Costa Rica to reach the final qualification group against Honduras and Canada. U.S. Soccer scheduled the game to be played in Torrance, California, an area with many Costa Rican expatriates, and marketed the game almost exclusively to the Costa Rican community. Costa Rica won the match 1 -- 0, and kept the U.S. from reaching its fourth World Cup finals.
In 1988, U.S. Soccer attempted to re-implement its national - team - as - club concept, offering contracts to players to train with the national program full - time while occasionally loaning them to club teams as a revenue source for the federation. This brought many key veterans back into the program and allowed the team to begin playing more matches which, combined with an influx of talent from new youth clubs and leagues established across the nation in the wake of the NASL 's popularity, allowed the national team to end the 1980s with optimism and higher hopes of qualifying for the 1990 World Cup than had existed for previous tournaments.
In 1988, FIFA named the U.S. as the host of the 1994 World Cup (success of the 1984 Summer Olympics played the major role), but it did so under significant international criticism because of the perceived weakness of the national team and the lack of a professional outdoor league. This criticism diminished somewhat when a 1 -- 0 win against Trinidad and Tobago, the U.S. 's first road win in nearly two years, in the last match of the 1989 CONCACAF Championship, earned the U.S. its first World Cup appearance in 40 years.
The team was managed by Bob Gansler in preparation for the 1990 World Cup in Italy, with two of the team 's more experienced players, Rick Davis and Hugo Perez, recovering from serious injuries and unavailable for selection. Rather than fill out his team with veteran professionals from American indoor soccer leagues as suggested by some, Gansler and his assistant Stejem Mark chose to select many younger players with better conditioning for the outdoor game, including some amateurs playing for college teams. The U.S. entered the tournament as massive underdogs and suffered defeats in all three of its group games to Czechoslovakia, Italy, and Austria.
In a historic match, in 1993 U.S. Cup, U.S. beat England by 2 -- 0.
After qualifying automatically as the host of the 1994 World Cup under Bora Milutinović, the U.S. opened its tournament schedule with a 1 -- 1 tie against Switzerland in the Pontiac Silverdome in the suburbs of Detroit, the first World Cup game played indoors. In its second game, the U.S. faced Colombia, then ranked fourth in the world, at the Rose Bowl. Aided by an own goal from Andrés Escobar, the U.S. won 2 -- 1. Escobar was later murdered in his home country, possibly in retaliation for this mistake. Despite a 1 -- 0 loss to Romania in its final group game, the U.S. made it past the initial round for the first time since 1930. In the round of 16, the U.S. lost 1 -- 0 to the eventual champion Brazil. Despite this success, the team fired Bora in 1995, reportedly because he was not interested in administrative duties.
In a 1995 friendly, the U.S. came back from 3 -- 0 to win 4 -- 3 against Saudi Arabia, the biggest comeback in the team 's history.
In the 1998 World Cup in France, the team lost all three group matches, 2 -- 0 to Germany, 2 -- 1 to Iran, and 1 -- 0 to Yugoslavia, finishing dead last in the field of 32. Head coach Steve Sampson received much of the blame for the performance as a result of abruptly cutting team captain John Harkes, whom Sampson had named "Captain for Life '' shortly before, as well as several other players who were instrumental to the qualifying effort, from the squad. Thomas Dooley became the Captain at that point. It emerged in February 2010 that Sampson removed Harkes from the team due to Harkes allegedly having an affair with teammate Eric Wynalda 's wife.
In the 2002 World Cup under Bruce Arena, the U.S. reached the quarterfinals, its best finish in a World Cup since 1930. The team advanced in the group stage with a 1 -- 1 -- 1 record. The team started with a 3 -- 2 upset win over Portugal, followed by a 1 -- 1 tie with co-host and eventual semi-finalist, South Korea. The third and final match was lost 1 -- 3 to Poland, but the team still got to the round of 16 when South Korea defeated Portugal. This set the stage for a face - off with continental rivals Mexico, the first time they met in a World Cup. The U.S. won the game 2 -- 0. Brian McBride opened the scoring, and Landon Donovan scored the second goal. That victory advanced the team to the quarterfinals, where it met Germany. The team lost 1 -- 0 after being denied a penalty when Torsten Frings handled the ball to prevent a Gregg Berhalter goal. All of the U.S. games in the 2002 World Cup were played in South Korea and all their victories came wearing the white kit while their only defeats came while wearing the blue kit.
In the 2006 World Cup, after finishing top of the CONCACAF qualification tournament, the U.S. was drawn into Group E along with the Czech Republic, Italy, and Ghana. The United States opened its tournament with a 3 -- 0 loss to the Czech Republic. The team then tied 1 -- 1 against Italy, who went on to win the World Cup. The U.S. was then knocked out of the tournament when beaten 2 -- 1 by Ghana in its final group match, with Clint Dempsey scoring the U.S. 's only goal in the tournament -- the goal against Italy had been an own goal by Italian defender Cristian Zaccardo. Following the tournament, Arena 's contract was not renewed. After the national team remained dormant for the rest of 2006 while negotiating with various coaches, the federation hired former Chicago Fire, MetroStars and Chivas USA manager Bob Bradley in early 2007.
Bradley began his competitive career with the national team with the 2007 Gold Cup. In the final, the United States beat Mexico 2 -- 1, which qualified it for the 2009 Confederations Cup.
The U.S. had a notable performance at the 2009 Confederations Cup. In the semifinals, the U.S. defeated Spain 2 -- 0. At the time, Spain was atop the FIFA World Rankings and was on a run of 35 games undefeated. With the win, the United States advanced to its first - ever final in a men 's FIFA tournament. The team lost 3 -- 2 to Brazil after leading 2 -- 0 at half time.
The United States then hosted the 2009 Gold Cup. In the final, the United States was beaten by Mexico 5 -- 0. This defeat broke the U.S. team 's 58 - match home unbeaten streak against CONCACAF opponents, and was the first home loss to Mexico since 1999.
In the Fourth round of the 2010 World Cup qualification, the U.S. began by beating Mexico 2 -- 0. The February 2009 loss extended Mexico 's losing streak against America on U.S. soil to 11 matches. Jozy Altidore became the youngest U.S. player to score a hat - trick, in a 3 -- 0 victory over Trinidad and Tobago. Near the end of the summer of 2009, the United States lost 2 -- 1 to Mexico at Estadio Azteca. On October 10, the U.S. secured qualification to the 2010 World Cup with a 3 -- 2 win over Honduras. Four days later, the U.S. finished in first place in the group with a 2 -- 2 tie against Costa Rica.
In the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the U.S. team were drawn in Group C against England, Slovenia and Algeria. After drawing against England (1 -- 1) and Slovenia (2 -- 2), the U.S. defeated Algeria 1 -- 0 with a stoppage time goal from Landon Donovan, taking first place in a World Cup Finals group for the first time since 1930. In the round of 16, the U.S. was eliminated by Ghana, 2 -- 1. On FIFA 's ranking of World Cup teams the U.S. finished in 12th place out of the 32 - team field.
The U.S. again hosted the Gold Cup in 2011. The U.S. advanced past the group stage, then defeated Jamaica 2 -- 0 in the quarterfinals and Panama 1 -- 0 in the semifinals before losing to Mexico 4 -- 2 in the final. Later in the summer, Bob Bradley was relieved of his duties and former German national team manager Jürgen Klinsmann was hired as head coach.
The U.S. had some success in friendlies in 2012 and 2013. The U.S. team won 1 -- 0 in Italy on February 29, 2012, the team 's first ever win over Italy. On June 2, 2013, the U.S. played a friendly against Germany at a sold out RFK Stadium in Washington D.C., with the U.S. winning 4 -- 3. In July 2013, the U.S. hosted the 2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup where it went undefeated in the group stage and won with a 1 -- 0 victory over Panama in the final, with Landon Donovan winning the tournament 's golden ball award.
A 4 -- 3 victory over Bosnia and Herzegovina in an international friendly match in Sarajevo represented the 12th straight win for the USMNT, the longest winning streak for any team in the world at that time. The 12 game winning streak ended September 6, 2013, when the U.S. lost to Costa Rica 3 -- 1 in San José. In 2013 the national team played the final round of qualification, and by defeating Mexico in September, the U.S. clinched a spot in the 2014 World Cup.
For the 2014 World Cup, the U.S. was drawn into Group G, along with Ghana, Germany, and Portugal. The U.S. took revenge on the Ghanaians, winning 2 -- 1. They tied their second group game against Portugal 2 -- 2. In the final game of the group stage, the U.S. fell to Germany 1 -- 0, but moved on to the knockout stage on goal difference. This was the first time that the team made two consecutive trips to the knockout stage of the FIFA World Cup. In the round of 16, the U.S. lost 2 -- 1 to Belgium in extra time, despite goalkeeper Tim Howard making a World Cup record 15 saves during the match.
The national team 's next tournament under Klinsmann was the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup. The U.S. were eliminated by Jamaica 2 -- 1 in the semifinals, before losing to Panama on penalties in the third place match. The fourth - place finish was the worst Gold Cup performance by the national team since 2000, and the first time the team failed to make the tournament final since 2003. In the 2015 CONCACAF Cup playoff to determine the region 's entry to the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup, the U.S. were defeated 3 -- 2 by Mexico at the Rose Bowl. In June 2016, the U.S. played as hosts of Copa América Centenario. The U.S. topped Group A on goal difference against Colombia. The U.S. beat Ecuador 2 -- 1 in the quarter - finals, but then fell to Argentina 4 -- 0 and lost to Colombia again 1 -- 0 in the third place match. They finished fourth at the Copa América, tying their best finish ever in 1995.
Following consecutive losses to Mexico and Costa Rica in the opening games of the final round of qualification for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Klinsmann was removed as national team coach and technical director and replaced by previous U.S. manager Bruce Arena. World Cup qualification resumed on March 24, 2017, where Arena and his team had a record 6 -- 0 win over Honduras. Four days later, the team traveled to Panama City, drawing Panama 1 -- 1. After beating Trinidad and Tobago 2 -- 0, the U.S. got their third ever result in World Cup Qualification at the Estadio Azteca when they drew 1 -- 1 against Mexico. In July 2017, the U.S. won their sixth CONCACAF Gold Cup with a 2 -- 1 win over Jamaica in the final. Following an agonizing 2 -- 1 defeat to Trinidad and Tobago on October 10, 2017, the U.S. failed to qualify for the 2018 World Cup, missing the tournament for the first time since 1986. On October 13, 2017, Arena resigned. Many pundits and analysts called this the worst result and worst performance in the history of the national team.
In June 2018 Earnest Stewart was named General Manager of the U.S. Soccer Federation.
Since their first unofficial game against Canada, the most common U.S. uniform has been white tops with blue shorts. In 1950, the U.S. adopted a Peru - styled diagonal stripe or "sash '' across the shirt. The stripe has been on third uniforms for 2003, 2004, and 2006, as well as the 2010 home, road and third uniforms. An additional color scheme based on the U.S. flag has been occasionally used (most prominently in the 1994 World Cup and 2012 -- 13 qualifiers as well the 1983 Team America franchise of the North American Soccer League) comprising a shirt with red and white stripes with blue shorts.
Adidas provided the uniforms for the United States from 1984 until 1994. Since 1995, Nike has been the uniform supplier.
The teams of Mexico and the United States are widely considered as the two major powers of CONCACAF. Matches between the two nations often attract much media attention, public interest and comment in both countries. Although the first match was played in 1934, their rivalry was not considered major until the 1980s, when the teams began to frequently compete in CONCACAF cups. On August 15, 2012, the United States defeated Mexico at Estadio Azteca in the first victory for the U.S. against Mexico on Mexican soil in 75 years. Ever since their first meeting in 1934, the two teams have met 65 times, with Mexico leading the overall series 34 -- 18 -- 15 (W -- L -- T), outscoring the U.S. 138 -- 79. However, since the 1990s, the tide began to change due to a rapid growth of soccer in the United States. During the 21st century, the series has favored the U.S. 13 -- 7 -- 6 (W -- L -- T). The United States and Mexico have won every edition of the CONCACAF Gold Cup except one (the 2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup was won by Canada).
In recent years the United States has also begun to develop a rivalry with Costa Rica.
There have been two main supporter groups backing the United States men 's national soccer team, Sam 's Army and The American Outlaws. Sam 's Army started shortly after the 1994 World Cup in the United States and were active through 2014. Sam 's Army members wore red to matches and sung or chanted throughout the match. They often brought huge U.S. flags and other banners to the game.
The American Outlaws was started in Lincoln, Nebraska in 2007 as a local supporters ' group. The group 's membership attempted to address a lack of consistency from game to game in supporter organization and social events on match days. To achieve this goal the American Outlaws became a nationwide, non-profit, supporters ' group. Some American Outlaws members wear American flag bandanas over their faces and commonly wear soccer supporter scarves. Some branches of the American Outlaws have their own scarves specific to their branch.
The United States does not have a dedicated national stadium like other national teams; instead, the team has played their home matches at 107 venues in 27 states and the District of Columbia. Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium, located in the national capital of Washington, D.C., has hosted 24 matches, the most of any stadium. The State of California has hosted 109 matches, the most of any state, and the Los Angeles metropolitan area has hosted 73 matches at several venues in and around the city of Los Angeles. The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum hosted 20 matches from 1965 to 2000, but fell out of use due to its age. The Rose Bowl, a 92,000 - seat venue in Pasadena, has hosted 17 national team matches, as well as the 1994 FIFA World Cup Final, the 1999 FIFA Women 's World Cup Final, and the 1984 Olympics Gold Medal Match.
ESPN and Fox Sports 1 evenly split the English language rights for U.S. Soccer broadcasts from 2015 to 2022. Univision Deportes has the Spanish language rights to all U.S. Soccer broadcasts from 2015 to 2022. These agreements do not apply to FIFA World Cup away qualifiers, whose rights are distributed by the host country. Therefore, these matches can often be found on other networks such as beIN Sports and Telemundo.
For all past and present players who have appeared for the national team, see United States men 's national team players.
The following 20 players were named to the squad for the friendly against France, on June 9, 2018. Caps and goals are updated as of June 9, 2018, after the match against France.
The following players have also been called up to the United States squad within the last twelve months.
Notes:
The following is a list of match results from the previous 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.
For all past match results of the national team, see single - season articles and the team 's results page.
The U.S. regularly competes at the FIFA World Cup, the CONCACAF Gold Cup, and the Summer Olympics. The U.S. has also played in the FIFA Confederations Cup, Copa América by invitation, as well as several minor tournaments.
The best result for the United States in a World Cup came in 1930 when they reached the semifinals. The best result in the modern era is the 2002 World Cup, when the U.S. reached the quarterfinals. The worst result in the modern era was a first round elimination in 1990, 1998, and 2006.
In the Confederations Cup, the United States finished in third place in both 1992 and 1999, and were runner - up in 2009. The United States appeared in their first intercontinental tournament final at the 2009 Confederations Cup. In the semifinals, the United States upset top ranked Spain 2 -- 0, to advance to the final. In the final, the United States lost 3 -- 2 to Brazil.
The U.S. men 's soccer team have played in the Summer Olympics since 1924. From that tournament to 1976, only amateur players were allowed on Olympic teams per Olympic rules. The Olympics became a full international tournament in 1984 after the IOC allowed full national teams from outside FIFA CONMEBOL & UEFA confederations. Since then the U.S. national team results have dramatically improved. Ever since 1992 the men 's Olympic event has been age - restricted, under 23 plus three overage players, and participation has been by the United States men 's national under - 23 soccer team.
In regional competitions, the United States has won the CONCACAF Gold Cup six times, with their most recent title in 2017. Their best ever finish at the Copa América was fourth - place at the 1995 and 2016 editions.
CONCACAF Championship 1963 -- 1989, CONCACAF Gold Cup 1991 -- present
South American Championship 1916 -- 1967, Copa América 1975 -- present
Major competitions
Minor competitions
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university of waterloo engineers dye themselves this colour for frosh week | Engineering traditions in Canada - wikipedia
Engineering traditions in Canada are diverse. Many of the traditions are practised at the engineering departments of Canadian universities, where student organisations continue to practise traditions started by other engineers in previous years.
In the early 1920s, Professor H.E.T. Haultain of the University of Toronto wrote to Rudyard Kipling, who had made reference to the work of engineers in some of his poems and writings. He asked Kipling for his assistance in developing a suitably dignified obligation and ceremony for its undertaking. Kipling was very enthusiastic in his response and shortly produced both an obligation and a ceremony formally entitled "The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer. ''
Kipling had long been the literary hero of engineers, having published the poem "The Sons of Martha '' in 1907. In the poem, Kipling identifies engineers with Martha and her children, who continue to do the chores necessary to keep the household running rather than sit at the Lord 's feet.
Although some later engineers would read Kipling 's poem as condemning engineers to being second - class citizens compared to managers, those of Haultain 's generation were pleased to take "The Sons of Martha '' as their defining text.
The first Iron Ring ceremony was held at the University of Toronto in 1925, with the first rings made of "hammered iron '' that Kipling called "cold ''. Although some say the writer used the adjective because the structural material did not forgive the mistakes of engineers working in it, another poem of his puts it in a different and more positive context:
The iron ring 's circular shape has been said to symbolize the continuity of the profession and its methods and the circle is also an appropriate symbol of the iterative engineering design process. The original rings were said to have been fabricated from the wreckage of the Québec Bridge, which collapsed during construction in 1907. Although this is generally thought to be false, the Québec Bridge is still held as significant. That bridge, whose 1,800 foot main span was to be the largest cantilever structure in the world, collapsed under its own weight because of an error in the design engineer 's calculations. The bridge was redesigned, but suffered a second accident in 1916, when its centre span fell while being hoisted into place. Finally, in 1917 the bridge was completed and stood across the St. Lawrence River as a symbolic gateway into Canada. The engineers sometimes regard the bridge as a reminder to Canadian engineers to take care with their designs and to persevere in the face of adversity.
Many engineering students become licensed Professional Engineers after graduation which gives them the right to practise in public. It is usually a structured 4 plus year period of work experience following graduation. Professional status entails both responsibilities as well as privileges, and is not, as some may think, the automatic result of graduation. In every province of Canada and every U.S. state, it is by law mandatory for an Engineer to be registered with the appropriate association before he or she may practise as a Professional Engineer. In Canada, registration as a Professional Engineer is granted only to those whose personal qualifications and professional experience, as well as academic training, can be proven to the satisfaction of their province. This is a matter of law and not choice in order to protect the public. Upon graduation, engineering graduates are permitted to apply for the status as an Engineer - in - Training as the next step in becoming a fully qualified Professional Engineer. By law, only Professional Engineers can call themselves by the name "Professional Engineer '', "Mechanical Engineer '' and "Electrical Engineer '' and their abbreviations. The use of the term "Engineer '' is restricted in Canada if it implies one is a Professional engineer. And the term "engineer '' or engineering '' can never be used in the title of a business unless approved by the professional licensing body, Professional Engineers Ontario for example. In this case a business requires a "certificate of authorization '' enabling it to advertise and offer engineering services to the public. However there are occasions where engineer may be loosely used to describe people working in the field of Engineering as Technologists, Technicians and Trades. For example the Canadian Coast Guard and the Canadian Navy have "Marine Engineers '', "Power Engineers '', and "Military Engineers '' terms only used within the organization, not publicly. "Locomotive Engineers '' have been an integral part of the Canadian railroad industry since its inception.
In a related field, accreditation of baccalaureate programs in Computer Science and Management Information Systems are performed by the Canadian Information Processing Society, while Software Engineering can be accreditaded by both CIPS and the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board. Some professionals in the software development field are as certified as Information Systems Professional (ISP) while others prefer to be accredited as a Professional Engineer under the discipline known as Software Engineering.
At numerous engineering departments at Canadian universities, Lady Godiva is considered a mascot, sometimes called the "Patron Saint of Engineers '' or "Goddess of Engineering '', and is the subject of the traditional engineering drinking song "Godiva 's Hymn ''. The University of Toronto and McMaster University hold annual "Godiva Weeks ''. In the past, engineering departments would sponsor a naked woman (or costumed man) to ride a horse across campus. The practice has declined in recent years.
Several engineering departments at Canadian university have a tradition of pulling technical pranks or practical jokes. Perhaps most famous amongst these is the hanging of a Volkswagen Beetle shell from the Golden Gate Bridge, as well as other bridges around Vancouver, by engineering students at the University of British Columbia.
Over the years engineering departments at universities in Canada have come up with various songs, some now obscure but others, such as the Engineers ' Hymn, still in frequent use.
The color purple plays a significant role in the traditions of engineering schools across Canada. The tradition of purple representing engineering is commonly cited to the story of the sinking of the Titanic, in which the purple - clad Marine Engineers remained on board to delay the ship 's sinking, though the legitimacy of this origin is questionable.
Purple is also the colour of the Engineering Corp in the British Military. It is common for engineers across schools in Canada to dye themselves (and their leather jackets, in the case of Queen 's University engineers) purple using the medical dye Gentian Violet, especially during events such as Frosh Week.
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when is lab rats elite force season 2 coming out | Lab Rats: Elite Force - Wikipedia
Lab Rats: Elite Force is an American sitcom created by Chris Peterson and Bryan Moore that premiered on Disney XD on March 2, 2016. The series is a combined spinoff of Lab Rats and Mighty Med and stars William Brent, Bradley Steven Perry, Jake Short, Paris Berelc, and Kelli Berglund.
Davenport has come up with a plan to form an elite team of bionic heroes and superheroes to fight a common threat from their headquarters in Centium City. He puts his plan into action after villains have destroyed Mighty Med Hospital.
Lab Rats: Elite Force is created by Chris Peterson and Bryan Moore, the duo who created Lab Rats. It is produced by Britelite Productions and It 's a Laugh Productions for Disney XD. On September 3, 2015, it was announced that Lab Rats and Mighty Med would have a joint spinoff series called Lab Rats: Elite Force. Only William Brent, formerly credited as Billy Unger, and Kelli Berglund from Lab Rats and Bradley Steven Perry, Jake Short, and Paris Berelc from Mighty Med were announced as returning for the new spinoff series. Production on the series began in October 2015. It was subsequently announced that Lab Rats: Elite Force would premiere on Disney XD broadcast services on March 2, 2016, and will be available for earlier viewing on the channel 's video - on - demand services on February 29, 2016.
In October 2016, actress Kelli Berglund reported on Twitter that there would not be a second season of Lab Rats: Elite Force.
The series premiered in Canada on Disney XD on March 2, 2016, and on Disney Channel on March 6, 2016.
On October 13, 2016, series co-creator Bryan Moore posted on Twitter that there would be a Lab Rats marathon followed by the finale of Lab Rats: Elite Force, "The Attack '', which aired on October 22, 2016.
Following the events of the Lab Rats finale, Davenport introduces Chase and Bree to their new team 's headquarters in Centium City and new teammates, Kaz, Oliver, and Skylar, and together they will form an Elite Force. Kaz immediately wants to find the people who recently destroyed Mighty Med, while the others want to come up with a plan first. A mysterious box then shatters their window, which contains a flash drive that shows a video of the two people who destroyed Mighty Med. The pair declares that Kaz, Oliver, and Skylar will be eliminated as well as anyone else who protects them. Kaz runs off to find the culprits and meets them in an alley, but he is surprised to find that they are shapeshifters Roman and Riker, the sons of a former superhero named Rodissius whose superpowers Kaz and Oliver had earlier taken away in order to save his life, and as such, Roman and Riker want to eliminate Kaz and Oliver to get revenge. A confrontation between the villains and the Elite Force takes place, but they are eventually knocked out cold and Roman and Riker take Skylar away. The remaining heroes later locate the villains and Skylar and Oliver freezes the cloud that Roman and Riker form into. As the Elite Force team celebrates with a team selfie, Roman and Riker escape.
Special guest star: Hal Sparks as Davenport
Oliver works to master his superpowers after being outshined by Kaz during superhero training. Meanwhile, when Bree says Skylar is like a sister to her, they work out their new sisterhood. Later, Kaz discovers a new superpower, which enables him to shoot fire out of his mouth and Chase and Davenport are impressed; however, Oliver feels intimidated as he 's still struggling with controlling his new superpowers. Meanwhile, Bree is having trouble bonding with Skylar as a sister because on her planet all girls roughhouse with their siblings as a way of having fun and showing love to them. Oliver later discovers a new superpower that he calls cyclone fingers, but when Oliver shows Davenport his new superpower, things go awry and he knocks him off his feet and Davenport is sent flying in the air and goes over the terrace railing. Rather than plummeting to the ground below, Davenport is able to hang off a bust of his head on the side of the skyscraper. Oliver goes to save him, while Kaz and Chase watch him with no backup plan. Oliver hangs from the head for a while, but he eventually saves Davenport. Later, Skylar and Bree finally form a bond in the meantime.
Oliver has always had a major crush on Skylar, and now that Oliver has superpowers, Skylar does not like it because she has lost her superpowers. Chase decides to come up with a solution to give Skylar her superpowers back, but he must inject coal into her body, though it is her one weakness. Oliver gets jealous because he wants to be the one to give Skylar her superpowers back, so Chase decides to let Oliver take the credit despite being reluctant to it. After injecting the cure, Skylar starts to become weak and ill from the coal and is coughing up vapor that can kill everyone in the building. Skylar pulls through and gets her superpowers back and learns that the illness was just a side effect. Meanwhile, Kaz goes behind Bree 's back and agrees to babysit Mrs. Ramsey 's pig; however, this is all just a scheme for the woman impersonating their neighbor to rob the penthouse. Later, the pig outsmarts both Kaz and Bree and locks them out on the balcony and they then watch Mrs. Ramsey stealing everything until Kaz notices an open window above them and flies back into the penthouse. Chase, Oliver, and Skylar come upstairs and Skylar stops Mrs. Ramsey with her newly restored superpowers.
When Kaz 's little brother, Kyle, visits, Kaz becomes jealous that Kyle seems to like Chase more than him, and Kaz can not reveal his identity as a superhero due to the "superhero code ''. Chase 's controlling attitude gets on Kaz 's nerves and Kaz and Kyle explore the unauthorized areas of the base. Kyle ends up trapped after messing with the mainframe computer and Chase attempts to get him out of the cage, but he is knocked out by a shock from the cage. Kaz is forced to reveal his superhero identity and uses his firepower to break the cage open. As Kaz is about to reveal the truth, Kyle thinks they made Kaz bionic, with which he goes along. Oliver and Skylar agree they will also have to pass themselves off as bionic in public so that they can use their superpowers freely.
Douglas comes to see the team and wants to start making the mission suits for them. Chase initially competes with Douglas to make the mission suits for the team and Chase and Kaz work together to make their version of mission suits while Oliver and Douglas work together to make their version of the mission suits. When Kaz and Oliver test out their mission suits, they fail to catch a fly, which proves their suits ' impracticality. Chase and Douglas decide to put their differences aside and work together to make the best mission suits for the team. Meanwhile, Bree is filming a shoe commercial and she and Skylar compete in a super speed race. The shoe commercial is not successful as Bree and Skylar end up sabotaging each other in the super speed race.
After Chase is left behind during a mission because Perry shot out the controls of the hyperlift, Skylar steps in as mission leader. However, this makes Chase jealous, and on the next mission, when Skylar is downstairs with Perry, Chase disables the hyperlift. Perry helps Skylar out of headquarters and to the mission site through the underground tunnels that Perry used to break into headquarters. At the mission location, the tunnel becomes unstable and almost collapses on Skylar and Perry, but Chase pushes them out of the way; however, it traps them in the process. Perry tells Skylar that Chase disabled the hyperlift before the mission so that he could be mission leader again and Chase later admits that he feared losing the respect of the entire team. On the other side of the rubble, Kaz manages to make a stable tunnel to where Chase, Skylar, and Perry are trapped and rescues Chase, Skylar, and Perry. Later, when Skylar is asked by the rest of the team as to why she missed the mission, she tells them that the hyperlift malfunctioned again. When Chase asks why she did n't say anything about the incident, she explains it was the exact same way she felt when she lost her superpowers and that she would not wish that to happen to anyone. Perry uses this opportunity to blackmail Chase into getting her a penthouse next door to theirs.
The team receives a box from Davenport with all the gadgets they used back at Mission Creek. Chase hosts a team meeting and compiles a list of all the superheroes from Mighty Med and warns them that they are being hunted. Along with Skylar 's mentor and first friend: Crossbow. Skylar wants to see her again, but Chase refuses. Skylar is worried that Crossbow did not get the message and she and Oliver set out to find her. When they leave, it 's discovered that Roman and Riker had been eavesdropping on them as ravens. As soon as they start to leave, Roman shows up and attacks Crossbow who suffers a tough blow. When Bree talks about the dolls that Kaz was playing with, he does not remember it as he 's not Kaz and transforms into Riker, who was looking for the list. Back at the park, Oliver tries to attack Roman, but he is easily defeated; then Skylar attacks him, but she is defeated as well. As Roman tries to walk away with Crossbow, Riker shows up and informs him that the other superheroes know of their presence. Chase and Bree follow Riker to the park and Roman and Riker try to form their deadly swarm. Bree informs Roman that Riker is locked in a freezer, causing Roman to make a deal. Skylar agrees and Bree brings back Riker; however, when Roman tosses the list to Riker, Crossbow destroys it and is defeated in the process. Skylar becomes upset and attacks Roman and Riker and defeats them. Roman and Riker retreat. Later, Kaz and Oliver are able to revive Crossbow.
When Oliver 's hero is in town, he gets excited and wants to meet him at the Olympics Send - off Celebration at the park. Kaz, Oliver, and Skylar go to meet Clutch while Chase and Bree go to a mini-Olympics competition for children, where they run into Bob. He had signed up for the competition and would win by using his bionic abilities, but Bree convinces him not to cheat. Meanwhile, Oliver, Kaz, and Skylar are waiting for Clutch to arrive; when Clutch arrives, he shows off his skills, impressing Oliver. However, things go wrong when Oliver asks Kaz to hold his sign and Clutch notices Kaz instead and asks Kaz to be his spotter, which causes Oliver to become jealous. Clutch attempts to lift 1,000 pounds, but he quickly starts struggling; when Oliver attempts to help, he drops the weight on Clutch 's foot. Meanwhile, Bree discovers that Chase has become Bob 's coach and is upset that they are going to cheat. Later, Oliver feels sorry for hurting his hero and Skylar runs to the hospital and abducts Clutch. She brings Clutch back to the penthouse and Skylar pep talks Oliver to fix him with his old Mighty Med supplies. Oliver quickly responds by saying it is not possible, but he will try to help Clutch. Meanwhile, Bree has found a child named Zoe who was originally going to compete in the competition with her dad; however, something had come up and Bree decides to become her new coach, though her plan is also to use her bionics. During the final part of the competition, Chase tells Zoe that Bree does not think Zoe can win by herself and Zoe wants to do it without Bree 's help; consequently, Chase agrees he will not help Bob. When Chase sees that Zoe is winning, he cheats and uses his bionics to hold Zoe back, so Bree uses her bionics and pushes Bob back. Chase and Bree start fighting while Bob and Zoe run to the finish line. Bob wins the mini-Olympics competition and Chase feels joyful and grabs the prize out of Bob 's hands; however, Bob takes it back and hands it to Zoe as he wants her and her dad to run with the flame. Meanwhile, Oliver finds out a way to fix Clutch and freezes his foot while Kaz heats his foot.
A ten - year - old computer genius boy living on the floor below the Elite Force manages to break into the penthouse, so Chase improves the security system by installing retina scanners, but the boy manages to get back in because he hacked Chase 's chip. He later uses his tablet to make Chase disable the security system. Meanwhile, the others are having a contest to determine who can go longer without using superpowers or bionics and they make two teams: Oliver and Kaz versus Bree and Skylar. Bree uses her super speed when Oliver lies and says he sees Harry Styles from One Direction in front of their building. In retaliation, Bree asks to borrow Oliver 's phone and throws it off from the terrace and Oliver uses his flying power to go after it, which gets him disqualified. Bree tries the same thing with Kaz by throwing off many of his valuables, but he resists using his superpowers. Meanwhile, Chase 's magnetism app glitches because of what AJ did to his chip and every metal object starts flying toward Chase. As a result, Kaz and Skylar have to put the contest on hold to help Chase. AJ then realizes that Chase 's capsule can reset his operating system and fix the glitch and Oliver and Bree quickly bring down his capsule. With Chase rescued, the contest is back on and Bree manages to trick Kaz into using his superpowers by using her cyber cloak to pretend to be Oliver and make him fire up the grill; as a result, the girls win the contest.
AJ reveals that he knows that Kaz, Oliver, and Skylar are superheroes and compiles a list of the team 's usefulness, causing hurt feelings with Chase and Bree. Meanwhile, Oliver discovers that Kaz has been keeping the Arcturion in storage, though he was n't aware of it, and Chase tells Kaz and Oliver to take the Arcturion to Facility Y, which is one of Davenport 's storage locations. However, they discover it is missing and suspect AJ who was fascinated by it earlier. Chase kicks AJ out of the penthouse in anger, but the team later realizes that Bree took it because she was jealous of the others. Meanwhile, Bree plans on touching the Arcturion to get more powers, but Skylar blasts the Arcturion before Bree can grab it; however, the blast redirects and hits Bree. Later, Chase is determined to raise his rank and builds a hover bike with AJ in order to get to missions faster; however, when the bike goes missing and it 's discovered that AJ has taken it, Chase, Kaz, and Oliver go to his rescue. Meanwhile, Bree grows weak from the Arcturion 's blast and Skylar is forced to touch the Arcturion to redirect its healing energy into Bree. However, it comes with a cost because Skylar loses a few of her superpowers. Since Bree made indirect contact with the Arcturion, she gains superpowers known as thermo touch and proton ring generation, which makes Bree the world 's first bionic superhero hybrid, and Bree and Skylar agree to keep Bree 's new powers a secret for now.
When Skylar 's friend Scarlett from Caldera visits. She attempts to convince Skylar to come back to Caldera. But when she refuses, Scarlett kidnaps her and takes her to Caldera and imprisons her. Scarlett reveals that Caldera is having a civil war with ones wanting to help others and the opposition, who want to help themselves and she is part of the opposition. Bree and Oliver find out about Skylar and head to Caldera to rescue her. There Bree reveals her new superpowers to Oliver when they are attacked by Scarlett. Oliver and Bree find Skylar but are too imprison with Skylar. Scarlett threatens Oliver and Bree unless Skylar joins. Skylar agrees and is stripped of her powers. Bree send an email to Chase. Skylar reveals that she is leaving the team and joining the opposition. Meanwhile, Chase creates a robotic girlfriend named Sabrina. But she falls in love with Kaz. Chase creates multiple girlfriends but they all fall in love with Kaz. When they get Bree 's message they head for Caldera. When Bree and Oliver try to leave Caldera, Oliver refuses to leave Skylar but is beaten by Scarlett, who imprisons them in a metal cage hovering over lava. Chase, Kaz and the robotic girls come and saves them. Bree reveals her superpowers to Kaz and Chase when she uses it to defeat Scarlett. Scarlett attempts to kill the group but falls to her death trying to do so. Once they get back home, Skylar is depressed over Caldera 's civil war. But Bree informs her that Earth is her home. Kaz and Chase play a prank on Oliver using the robotic girls.
Guest stars: Angeline Appel as Christina, Alexxis Lemire as Scarlett Double, Melissa Christine as Skylar Double
Chase attempts to learn more about Roman and Riker 's shape - shifting abilities by developing a potion. While Chase is not around, Kaz drinks the potion to test it out on himself, and gains shape - shifting abilities. While demonstrating his abilities to Oliver and Skylar, Kaz turns himself into a sheep, but then does not revert to his human appearance. Chase discovers that Kaz drank the potion, and explains that when he became a sheep, he took on the mental capacity of the animal, preventing him from knowing how to change back. The effects of the potion eventually wear off and Kaz returns to his former self. Meanwhile, Perry reveals to Bree that she starred on a television series when she was a child, and that a cast or crew member has died on every Halloween since the show ended. Perry is the last surviving member of the series and fears for her life, so she has Bree protect her.
Oliver becomes jealous when Kaz begins spending time with Chase to build a drone for a drone race. Chase agrees to implement Kaz 's unusual ideas into the drone design, but reveals to Oliver that he plans to remove the designs before the competition to increase the chances of winning. After Oliver tells Kaz about Chase 's plans, they decide to take one of Davenport 's drones to enter it in the competition against Chase. At the competition, Chase tells Kaz and Oliver that the drone they activated is an attack drone designed to destroy any threat it senses. Chase also reveals that he chose to leave Kaz 's design ideas intact. Meanwhile, Perry reveals that she comes from a family of circus people, and that the women in her family were skilled tightrope walkers. Perry, feeling the need to achieve an accomplishment of her own, decides to tightrope - walk between two skyscrapers, which makes Bree nervous for Perry 's safety. Perry dresses up with a circus outfit and umbrella for the stunt. Perry slips from the tightrope after the attack drone flies past her, although she manages to grab onto the rope before falling. The attack drone targets Perry, who destroys it with her umbrella.
Chase becomes obsessed with developing an age - reversal device after Kaz uses a mobile phone app to show him a picture of what he will look like when he is older. Tasha brings her baby daughter Naomi to visit the Elite Force. Naomi cries whenever she is held by Bree, who becomes jealous when she sees that Naomi likes being held by Skylar. Tasha says she has had little free time since Naomi was born, and asks the children if they would like to watch the baby for a while. Despite that she is not well - liked by Naomi, Bree insists on taking care of the baby to show Tasha that she can be trusted. While Bree is distracted by cleaning baby food off of her shirt, Naomi wanders away and finds the mission command center, where she uses Chase 's anti-aging device. However, the device was not finished and instead ages Naomi by 12 years. Tasha returns and meets the older Naomi, whom Bree and Skylar say is actually a friend of theirs. When Chase is unable to turn Naomi back into a baby, Bree realizes she must confess to Tasha. As Bree is about to tell Tasha, Chase realizes how to turn Naomi back, and successfully does so without Tasha finding out what happened.
The Elite Force is surprised to see that Chase now has a girlfriend named Reese, who he just met at a library. They later learn that Roman and Riker are using their shape - shifting abilities to terrorize the city. Power goes out all over the city, and the Elite Force goes out to stop Roman and Riker. Reese is left at the penthouse with Douglas. Perry comes to be with Douglas as she is afraid of the chaos outside. Douglas leaves to activate the skyscraper 's emergency generator, while Perry insists on her and Reese giving each other makeovers. The Elite Force arrives on the city streets to battle Roman and Riker, but they realize that they are actually up against a dozen shape - shifters. Rodissius arrives and reveals that the shape - shifters are his children, who are avenging him and the loss of his powers by attacking the city. Rodissius reveals that Reese is one of his children, and that his plan is for her to obtain the superhero list from the mission command center while it is unprotected by the Elite Force. Bree uses a new superhero ability to attack Rodissius. Douglas activates the generator, and then flees after seeing Perry 's makeover, allowing Reese to enter the mission command center. Douglas retreats to the command center, where he is attacked by Reese. She escapes with the superhero list and then rescues her father. Perry and the Elite Force find Douglas badly injured, and discover that communications have been blocked, preventing them from warning the superheroes of Rodissius ' plan. Chase declares war against Rodissius and his children.
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what kind of food is new york known for | Cuisine of New York City - wikipedia
The cuisine of New York City comprises many cuisines belonging to various ethnic groups that have entered the United States through the city. Almost all ethnic cuisines are well represented in New York City, both within and outside the various ethnic neighborhoods. New York City was also the founding city of New York Restaurant Week which has spread around the world due to the discounted prices that such a deal offers. In New York City there are over 12,000 bodegas, delis and groceries and many among them are open 24 / 7.
Much of the cuisine usually associated with New York City stems in part from its large community of Ashkenazi Jews and their descendants. The world famous New York institution of the "Delicatessen, '' commonly referred to as a "Deli, '' was originally an institution of the city 's Jewry. Much of New York City 's Jewish fare has become popular around the globe, especially bagels. (New York City 's Jewish community is also famously fond of Chinese food, and many members of this community think of it as their second ethnic cuisine.)
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when does daylight savings time start and end | Daylight saving time - wikipedia
Daylight saving time (abbreviated DST), sometimes referred to as daylight savings time in US, Canadian and Australian speech, and known as British Summer Time (BST) in the UK and just summer time in some countries, is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months so that evening daylight lasts longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use daylight saving time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring and adjust them backward in the autumn to standard time.
George Hudson proposed the idea of daylight saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria - Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30, 1916. Many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s.
DST is generally not observed near the equator, where sunrise times do not vary enough to justify it. Some countries observe it only in some regions; for example, southern Brazil observes it while equatorial Brazil does not. Only a minority of the world 's population uses DST, because Asia and Africa generally do not observe it.
DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates and timings may be confusing.
Industrialized societies generally follow a clock - based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, and the coordination of mass transit, for example, usually remain constant year - round. In contrast, an agrarian society 's daily routines for work and personal conduct are more likely governed by the length of daylight hours and by solar time, which change seasonally because of the Earth 's axial tilt. North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater the further one moves away from the tropics.
By synchronously resetting all clocks in a region to one hour ahead of standard time, individuals who follow such a year - round schedule will wake an hour earlier than they would have otherwise; they will begin and complete daily work routines an hour earlier, and they will have available to them an extra hour of daylight after their workday activities. However, they will have one less hour of daylight at the start of each day, making the policy less practical during winter.
While the times of sunrise and sunset change at roughly equal rates as the seasons change, proponents of Daylight Saving Time argue that most people prefer a greater increase in daylight hours after the typical "nine to five '' workday. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, but the actual effect on overall energy use is heavily disputed.
The manipulation of time at higher latitudes (for example Iceland, Nunavut or Alaska) has little impact on daily life, because the length of day and night changes more extremely throughout the seasons (in comparison to other latitudes), and thus sunrise and sunset times are significantly out of phase with standard working hours regardless of manipulations of the clock. DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. The effect also varies according to how far east or west the location is within its time zone, with locations farther east inside the time zone benefiting more from DST than locations farther west in the same time zone.
Although they did not fix their schedules to the clock in the modern sense, ancient civilizations adjusted daily schedules to the sun more flexibly than DST does, often dividing daylight into twelve hours regardless of daytime, so that (for example) each daylight hour became progressively longer during spring and shorter during autumn. For example, the Romans kept time with water clocks that had different scales for different months of the year: at Rome 's latitude the third hour from sunrise, hora tertia, started by modern standards at 09: 02 solar time and lasted 44 minutes at the winter solstice, but at the summer solstice it started at 06: 58 and lasted 75 minutes. After ancient times, equal - length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal ones, so civil time no longer varies by season. Unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies.
During his time as an American envoy to France (1776 - 1785), Benjamin Franklin, publisher of the old English proverb "Early to bed, and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise '', anonymously published a letter suggesting that Parisians economize on candles by rising earlier to use morning sunlight. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells and firing cannons at sunrise. Despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST; 18th - century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this soon changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklin 's day.
The New Zealand entomologist George Hudson first proposed modern DST. Hudson 's shift - work job gave him leisure time to collect insects and led him to value after - hours daylight. In 1895 he presented a paper to the Wellington Philosophical Society proposing a two - hour daylight - saving shift, and after considerable interest was expressed in Christchurch, he followed up with an 1898 paper. Many publications credit DST proposal to the prominent English builder and outdoorsman William Willett, who independently conceived DST in 1905 during a pre-breakfast ride, when he observed with dismay how many Londoners slept through a large part of a summer day. An avid golfer, Willett also disliked cutting short his round at dusk. His solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The Liberal Party member of parliament (MP) Robert Pearce took up Willett 's proposal, introducing the first Daylight Saving Bill to the House of Commons on February 12, 1908. A select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearce 's bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915.
William Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912.
Starting on April 30, 1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria - Hungary introduced DST (German: Sommerzeit) as a way to conserve coal during wartime. Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the next year, and the United States adopted daylight saving in 1918.
Broadly speaking, most jurisdictions abandoned daylight saving time in the years after the war ended in 1918 (with some notable exceptions including Canada, the UK, France, and Ireland). However, many different places adopted it for periods of time during the following decades and it became common during World War II. It became widely adopted, particularly in North America and Europe, starting in the 1970s as a result of the 1970s energy crisis.
Since then, the world has seen many enactments, adjustments, and repeals. For specific details, see Daylight saving time by country.
In the United States, a one - hour time shift occurs at 02: 00 local time. In spring the clock jumps forward from the last instant of 01: 59 standard time to 03: 00 DST and that day has 23 hours. In autumn the clock jumps backward from the last instant of 01: 59 DST to 01: 00 standard time, repeating that hour, and that day has 25 hours. A digital display of local time does not read 02: 00 exactly at the shift to summer time, but instead jumps from 01: 59: 59.9 forward to 03: 00: 00.0.
Clock shifts are usually scheduled near a weekend midnight to lessen disruption to weekday schedules. A one - hour shift is customary. Twenty - minute and two - hour shifts have been used in the past.
Coordination strategies differ when adjacent time zones shift clocks. The European Union shifts all zones at the same instant, at 01: 00 Greenwich Mean Time or 02: 00 CET or 03: 00 EET. The result of this procedure is that Eastern European Time is always one hour ahead of Central European Time, at the cost of the shift happening at different local times. In contrast most of North America shifts at 02: 00 local time, so its zones do not shift at the same instant; for example, Mountain Time is temporarily (for one hour) zero hours ahead of Pacific Time, instead of one hour ahead, in the autumn and two hours, instead of one, ahead of Pacific Time in the spring. In the past, Australian districts went even further and did not always agree on start and end dates; for example, in 2008 most DST - observing areas shifted clocks forward on October 5 but Western Australia shifted on October 26. In some cases only part of a country shifts; for example, in the U.S., Hawaii and most of Arizona do not observe DST.
Start and end dates vary with location and year. Since 1996, European Summer Time has been observed from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October; previously the rules were not uniform across the European Union. Starting in 2007, most of the United States and Canada observe DST from the second Sunday in March to the first Sunday in November, almost two - thirds of the year. The 2007 U.S. change was part of the Energy Policy Act of 2005; previously, from 1987 through 2006, the start and end dates were the first Sunday in April and the last Sunday in October, and Congress retains the right to go back to the previous dates now that an energy - consumption study has been done. Proponents for permanently retaining November as the month for ending DST point to Halloween as a reason to delay the change -- to provide extra daylight on October 31.
Beginning and ending dates are roughly the reverse in the southern hemisphere. For example, mainland Chile observed DST from the second Saturday in October to the second Saturday in March, with transitions at 24: 00 local time.
As a result, time difference between two regions varies along the year because of DST. Central European Time is usually six hours later than North American Eastern Time, except a few weeks in March and October / November. Likewise, the United Kingdom and mainland Chile could be five hours apart during the northern summer, three hours during the southern summer, and four hours a few weeks per year because of mismatch of changing dates.
Daylight saving has caused controversy since it began. Winston Churchill argued that it enlarges "the opportunities for the pursuit of health and happiness among the millions of people who live in this country '' and pundits have dubbed it "Daylight Slaving Time ''. Historically, retailing, sports, and tourism interests have favored daylight saving, while agricultural and evening entertainment interests have opposed it, and its initial adoption had been prompted by energy crises and war.
The fate of Willett 's 1907 proposal illustrates several political issues involved. The proposal attracted many supporters, including Arthur Balfour, Churchill, David Lloyd George, Ramsay MacDonald, Edward VII (who used half - hour DST at Sandringham or "Sandringham time ''), the managing director of Harrods, and the manager of the National Bank. However, the opposition was stronger: it included Prime Minister H.H. Asquith, Christie (the Astronomer Royal), George Darwin, Napier Shaw (director of the Meteorological Office), many agricultural organizations, and theatre owners. After many hearings the proposal was narrowly defeated in a parliamentary committee vote in 1909. Willett 's allies introduced similar bills every year from 1911 through 1914, to no avail. The U.S. was even more skeptical: Andrew Peters introduced a DST bill to the United States House of Representatives in May 1909, but it soon died in committee.
After Germany led the way with starting DST (German: Sommerzeit) during World War I on April 30, 1916 together with its allies to alleviate hardships from wartime coal shortages and air raid blackouts, the political equation changed in other countries; the United Kingdom used DST first on May 21, 1916. U.S. retailing and manufacturing interests led by Pittsburgh industrialist Robert Garland soon began lobbying for DST, but were opposed by railroads. The U.S. 's 1917 entry to the war overcame objections, and DST was established in 1918.
The war 's end swung the pendulum back. Farmers continued to dislike DST, and many countries repealed it after the war. Britain was an exception: it retained DST nationwide but over the years adjusted transition dates for several reasons, including special rules during the 1920s and 1930s to avoid clock shifts on Easter mornings. Now under a European Community directive summer time begins annually on the last Sunday in March, which may be Easter Sunday (as in 2016). The U.S. was more typical: Congress repealed DST after 1919. President Woodrow Wilson, like Willett an avid golfer, vetoed the repeal twice but his second veto was overridden. Only a few U.S. cities retained DST locally thereafter, including New York so that its financial exchanges could maintain an hour of arbitrage trading with London, and Chicago and Cleveland to keep pace with New York. Wilson 's successor Warren G. Harding opposed DST as a "deception ''. Reasoning that people should instead get up and go to work earlier in the summer, he ordered District of Columbia federal employees to start work at 08: 00 rather than 09: 00 during summer 1922. Some businesses followed suit though many others did not; the experiment was not repeated.
Since Germany 's adoption in 1916, the world has seen many enactments, adjustments, and repeals of DST, with similar politics involved.
The history of time in the United States includes DST during both world wars, but no standardization of peacetime DST until 1966. In May 1965, for two weeks, St. Paul, Minnesota and Minneapolis, Minnesota were on different times, when the capital city decided to join most of the nation by starting Daylight Saving Time while Minneapolis opted to follow the later date set by state law. In the mid-1980s, Clorox (parent of Kingsford Charcoal) and 7 - Eleven provided the primary funding for the Daylight Saving Time Coalition behind the 1987 extension to U.S. DST, and both Idaho senators voted for it based on the premise that during DST fast - food restaurants sell more French fries, which are made from Idaho potatoes.
In 1992, after a three - year trial of daylight saving in Queensland, Australia, a referendum on daylight saving was held and defeated with a 54.5 % ' no ' vote -- with regional and rural areas strongly opposed, while those in the metropolitan south - east were in favor. In 2005, the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association and the National Association of Convenience Stores successfully lobbied for the 2007 extension to U.S. DST. In December 2008, the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland (DS4SEQ) political party was officially registered in Queensland, advocating the implementation of a dual - time zone arrangement for daylight saving in South East Queensland while the rest of the state maintains standard time. DS4SEQ contested the March 2009 Queensland state election with 32 candidates and received one percent of the statewide primary vote, equating to around 2.5 % across the 32 electorates contested. After a three - year trial, more than 55 % of Western Australians voted against DST in 2009, with rural areas strongly opposed. On April 14, 2010, after being approached by the DS4SEQ political party, Queensland Independent member Peter Wellington, introduced the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland Referendum Bill 2010 into the Queensland parliament, calling for a referendum at the next state election on the introduction of daylight saving into South East Queensland under a dual - time zone arrangement. The Bill was defeated in the Queensland parliament on June 15, 2011.
In the UK the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents supports a proposal to observe SDST 's additional hour year - round, but is opposed in some industries, such as postal workers and farmers, and particularly by those living in the northern regions of the UK.
In some Muslim countries, DST is temporarily abandoned during Ramadan (the month when no food should be eaten between sunrise and sunset), since the DST would delay the evening dinner. Ramadan took place in July and August in 2012. This concerns at least Morocco, although Iran keeps DST during Ramadan. Most Muslim countries do not use DST, partially for this reason.
The 2011 declaration by Russia that it would stay in DST all year long was subsequently followed by a similar declaration from Belarus. Russia 's plan generated widespread complaints due to the dark of wintertime morning, and thus was abandoned in 2014. The country changed its clocks to Standard Time on October 26, 2014 and intends to stay there permanently.
Proponents of DST generally argue that it saves energy, promotes outdoor leisure activity in the evening (in summer), and is therefore good for physical and psychological health, reduces traffic accidents, reduces crime or is good for business. Groups that tend to support DST are urban workers, retail businesses, outdoor sports enthusiasts and businesses, tourism operators, and others who benefit from having more hours of light after the end of a typical workday in the warmer months.
Opponents argue that actual energy savings are inconclusive, that DST increases health risks such as heart attack, that DST can disrupt morning activities, and that the act of changing clocks twice a year is economically and socially disruptive and cancels out any benefit. Farmers have tended to oppose DST.
Having a common agreement about the day 's layout or schedule confers so many advantages that a standard schedule over whole countries or large areas has generally been chosen over ad hoc efforts in which some people get up earlier and others do not. The advantages of coordination are so great that many people ignore whether DST is in effect by altering their nominal work schedules to coordinate with television broadcasts or daylight. DST is commonly not observed during most of winter, because the days are shorter then; workers may have no sunlit leisure time, and students may need to leave for school in the dark. Since DST is applied to many varying communities, its effects may be very different depending on their culture, light levels, geography, and climate. Because of this variation, it is hard to make generalized conclusions about the absolute effects of the practice. The costs and benefits may differ from place to place. Some areas may adopt DST simply as a matter of coordination with others rather than for any direct benefits.
A 2017 meta - analysis of 44 studies found that DST leads to electricity savings of only 0.34 % during the days when DST applies. The meta - analysis furthermore found that "electricity savings are larger for countries farther away from the equator, while subtropical regions consume more electricity because of DST. '' This means that DST may conserve electricity in some countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom, but be wasteful in other places, such as Mexico, the southern United States, and northern Africa. The savings in electricity may also be offset by extra use of other types of energy, such as heating fuel.
The period of Daylight Saving Time before the longest day is shorter than the period after, in several countries including the United States and Europe. This unequal split is an energy - saving measure. For example, in the U.S. the period of Daylight Saving Time is defined by the Energy Policy Act of 2005. The period for Daylight Saving Time was extended by changing the start date from the first Sunday of April to the second Sunday of March, and the end date from the last Sunday in October to the first Sunday in November.
DST 's potential to save energy comes primarily from its effects on residential lighting, which consumes about 3.5 % of electricity in the United States and Canada. Delaying the nominal time of sunset and sunrise reduces the use of artificial light in the evening and increases it in the morning. As Franklin 's 1784 satire pointed out, lighting costs are reduced if the evening reduction outweighs the morning increase, as in high - latitude summer when most people wake up well after sunrise. An early goal of DST was to reduce evening usage of incandescent lighting, once a primary use of electricity. Although energy conservation remains an important goal, energy usage patterns have greatly changed since then. Electricity use is greatly affected by geography, climate, and economics, so the results of a study conducted in one place may not be relevant to another country or climate.
Several studies have suggested that DST increases motor fuel consumption. The 2008 DOE report found no significant increase in motor gasoline consumption due to the 2007 United States extension of DST.
The undisputed winners of DST are the retailers, sporting goods makers, and other businesses that benefit from extra afternoon sunlight. Having more hours of sunlight in between the end of the typical workday and bedtime induces customers to shop and to participate in outdoor afternoon sports. People are more likely to stop by a store on their way home from work if the sun is still up. In 1984, Fortune magazine estimated that a seven - week extension of DST would yield an additional $30 million for 7 - Eleven stores, and the National Golf Foundation estimated the extension would increase golf industry revenues $200 million to $300 million. A 1999 study estimated that DST increases the revenue of the European Union 's leisure sector by about 3 %.
Conversely, DST can harm some farmers, young children, who have difficulty getting enough sleep at night when the evenings are bright, and others whose hours are set by the sun. One reason why farmers oppose DST is that grain is best harvested after dew evaporates, so when field hands arrive and leave earlier in summer, their labor is less valuable. Dairy farmers are another group who complain of the change. Their cows are sensitive to the timing of milking, so delivering milk earlier disrupts their systems. Today some farmers ' groups are in favor of DST.
DST also hurts prime - time television broadcast ratings, drive - ins and other theaters.
Changing clocks and DST rules has a direct economic cost, entailing extra work to support remote meetings, computer applications and the like. For example, a 2007 North American rule change cost an estimated $500 million to $1 billion, and Utah State University economist William F. Shughart II has estimated the lost opportunity cost at around US $1.7 billion. Although it has been argued that clock shifts correlate with decreased economic efficiency, and that in 2000 the daylight - saving effect implied an estimated one - day loss of $31 billion on U.S. stock exchanges, the estimated numbers depend on the methodology. The results have been disputed, and the original authors have refuted the points raised by disputers.
In 1975 the U.S. DOT conservatively identified a 0.7 % reduction in traffic fatalities during DST, and estimated the real reduction at 1.5 % to 2 %, but the 1976 NBS review of the DOT study found no differences in traffic fatalities. In 1995 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety estimated a reduction of 1.2 %, including a 5 % reduction in crashes fatal to pedestrians. Others have found similar reductions. Single / Double Summer Time (SDST), a variant where clocks are one hour ahead of the sun in winter and two in summer, has been projected to reduce traffic fatalities by 3 % to 4 % in the UK, compared to ordinary DST. However, accidents do increase by as much as 11 % during the two weeks that follow the end of British Summer Time. It is not clear whether sleep disruption contributes to fatal accidents immediately after the spring clock shifts. A correlation between clock shifts and traffic accidents has been observed in North America and the UK but not in Finland or Sweden. If this effect exists, it is far smaller than the overall reduction in traffic fatalities. A 2009 U.S. study found that on Mondays after the switch to DST, workers sleep an average of 40 minutes less, and are injured at work more often and more severely.
DST likely reduces some kinds of crime, such as robbery and sexual assault, as fewer potential victims are outdoors after dusk. Artificial outdoor lighting has a marginal and sometimes even contradictory influence on crime and fear of crime.
In several countries, fire safety officials encourage citizens to use the two annual clock shifts as reminders to replace batteries in smoke and carbon monoxide detectors, particularly in autumn, just before the heating and candle season causes an increase in home fires. Similar twice - yearly tasks include reviewing and practicing fire escape and family disaster plans, inspecting vehicle lights, checking storage areas for hazardous materials, reprogramming thermostats, and seasonal vaccinations. Locations without DST can instead use the first days of spring and autumn as reminders.
A 2017 study in the American Economic Journal: Applied Economics estimated that "the transition into DST caused over 30 deaths at a social cost of $275 million annually, '' primarily by increasing sleep deprivation.
DST has mixed effects on health. In societies with fixed work schedules it provides more afternoon sunlight for outdoor exercise. It alters sunlight exposure; whether this is beneficial depends on one 's location and daily schedule, as sunlight triggers vitamin D synthesis in the skin, but overexposure can lead to skin cancer. DST may help in depression by causing individuals to rise earlier, but some argue the reverse. The Retinitis Pigmentosa Foundation Fighting Blindness, chaired by blind sports magnate Gordon Gund, successfully lobbied in 1985 and 2005 for U.S. DST extensions. DST shifts are associated with higher rates of ischemic stroke in the first two days after the shift, though not in the week thereafter.
Clock shifts were found to increase the risk of heart attack by 10 percent, and to disrupt sleep and reduce its efficiency. Effects on seasonal adaptation of the circadian rhythm can be severe and last for weeks. A 2008 study found that although male suicide rates rise in the weeks after the spring transition, the relationship weakened greatly after adjusting for season. A 2008 Swedish study found that heart attacks were significantly more common the first three weekdays after the spring transition, and significantly less common the first weekday after the autumn transition. A 2013 review found little evidence that people slept more on the night after the fall DST shift, even though it is often described as allowing people to sleep for an hour longer than normal. The same review stated that the lost hour of sleep resulting from the spring shift appears to result in sleep loss for at least a week afterward. In 2015, two psychologists recommended that DST be abolished, citing its disruptive effects on sleep as one reason for this recommendation.
The government of Kazakhstan cited health complications due to clock shifts as a reason for abolishing DST in 2005. In March 2011, Dmitri Medvedev, president of Russia, claimed that "stress of changing clocks '' was the motivation for Russia to stay in DST all year long. Officials at the time talked about an annual increase in suicides.
An unexpected adverse effect of daylight saving time may lie in the fact that an extra part of morning rush hour traffic occurs before dawn and traffic emissions then cause higher air pollution than during daylight hours.
In 2017, researchers at the University of Washington and the University of Virginia reported that judges who experienced sleep deprivation as a result of DST tended to issue longer sentences.
DST 's clock shifts have the obvious disadvantage of complexity. People must remember to change their clocks; this can be time - consuming, particularly for mechanical clocks that can not be moved backward safely. People who work across time zone boundaries need to keep track of multiple DST rules, as not all locations observe DST or observe it the same way. The length of the calendar day becomes variable; it is no longer always 24 hours. Disruption to meetings, travel, broadcasts, billing systems, and records management is common, and can be expensive. During an autumn transition from 02: 00 to 01: 00, a clock reads times from 01: 00: 00 through 01: 59: 59 twice, possibly leading to confusion.
Damage to a German steel facility occurred during a DST transition in 1993, when a computer timing system linked to a radio time synchronization signal allowed molten steel to cool for one hour less than the required duration, resulting in spattering of molten steel when it was poured. Medical devices may generate adverse events that could harm patients, without being obvious to clinicians responsible for care. These problems are compounded when the DST rules themselves change; software developers must test and perhaps modify many programs, and users must install updates and restart applications. Consumers must update devices such as programmable thermostats with the correct DST rules or manually adjust the devices ' clocks. A common strategy to resolve these problems in computer systems is to express time using the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) rather than the local time zone. For example, Unix - based computer systems use the UTC - based Unix time internally.
Some clock - shift problems could be avoided by adjusting clocks continuously or at least more gradually -- for example, Willett at first suggested weekly 20 - minute transitions -- but this would add complexity and has never been implemented.
DST inherits and can magnify the disadvantages of standard time. For example, when reading a sundial, one must compensate for it along with time zone and natural discrepancies. Also, sun - exposure guidelines such as avoiding the sun within two hours of noon become less accurate when DST is in effect.
As explained by Richard Meade in the English Journal of the (American) National Council of Teachers of English, the form daylight savings time (with an "s '') was already in 1978 much more common than the older form daylight saving time in American English ("the change has been virtually accomplished ''). Nevertheless even dictionaries such as Merriam - Webster 's, American Heritage, and Oxford, which describe actual usage instead of prescribing outdated usage (and therefore also list the newer form), still list the older form first. This is because the older form is still very common in print and preferred by many editors. ("Although daylight saving time is considered correct, daylight savings time (with an "s '') is commonly used. ") The first two words are sometimes hyphenated (daylight - saving (s) time). Merriam - Webster 's also lists the forms daylight saving (without "time ''), daylight savings (without "time ''), and daylight time.
In Britain, Willett 's 1907 proposal used the term daylight saving, but by 1911 the term summer time replaced daylight saving time in draft legislation. The same or similar expressions are used in many other languages: Sommerzeit in German, zomertijd in Dutch, kesäaika in Finnish, horario de verano or hora de verano in Spanish, and heure d'été in French.
The name of local time typically changes when DST is observed. American English replaces standard with daylight: for example, Pacific Standard Time (PST) becomes Pacific Daylight Time (PDT). In the United Kingdom, the standard term for UK time when advanced by one hour is British Summer Time (BST), and British English typically inserts summer into other time zone names, e.g. Central European Time (CET) becomes Central European Summer Time (CEST).
The North American English mnemonic "spring forward, fall back '' (also "spring ahead... '', "spring up... '', and "... fall behind '') helps people remember which direction to shift clocks.
Changes to DST rules cause problems in existing computer installations. For example, the 2007 change to DST rules in North America required that many computer systems be upgraded, with the greatest impact on e-mail and calendar programs. The upgrades required a significant effort by corporate information technologists.
Some applications standardize on UTC to avoid problems with clock shifts and time zone differences. Likewise, most modern operating systems internally handle and store all times as UTC and only convert to local time for display.
However, even if UTC is used internally, the systems still require external leap second updates and time zone information to correctly calculate local time as needed. Many systems in use today base their date / time calculations from data derived from the tz database also known as zoneinfo.
The tz database maps a name to the named location 's historical and predicted clock shifts. This database is used by many computer software systems, including most Unix - like operating systems, Java, and the Oracle RDBMS; HP 's "tztab '' database is similar but incompatible. When temporal authorities change DST rules, zoneinfo updates are installed as part of ordinary system maintenance. In Unix - like systems the TZ environment variable specifies the location name, as in TZ = ': America / New_York '. In many of those systems there is also a system - wide setting that is applied if the TZ environment variable is not set: this setting is controlled by the contents of the / etc / localtime file, which is usually a symbolic link or hard link to one of the zoneinfo files. Internal time is stored in timezone - independent epoch time; the TZ is used by each of potentially many simultaneous users and processes to independently localize time display.
Older or stripped - down systems may support only the TZ values required by POSIX, which specify at most one start and end rule explicitly in the value. For example, TZ = ' EST5EDT, M3. 2.0 / 02: 00, M11. 1.0 / 02: 00 ' specifies time for the eastern United States starting in 2007. Such a TZ value must be changed whenever DST rules change, and the new value applies to all years, mishandling some older timestamps.
As with zoneinfo, a user of Microsoft Windows configures DST by specifying the name of a location, and the operating system then consults a table of rule sets that must be updated when DST rules change. Procedures for specifying the name and updating the table vary with release. Updates are not issued for older versions of Microsoft Windows. Windows Vista supports at most two start and end rules per time zone setting. In a Canadian location observing DST, a single Vista setting supports both 1987 -- 2006 and post-2006 time stamps, but mishandles some older time stamps. Older Microsoft Windows systems usually store only a single start and end rule for each zone, so that the same Canadian setting reliably supports only post-2006 time stamps.
These limitations have caused problems. For example, before 2005, DST in Israel varied each year and was skipped some years. Windows 95 used rules correct for 1995 only, causing problems in later years. In Windows 98, Microsoft marked Israel as not having DST, forcing Israeli users to shift their computer clocks manually twice a year. The 2005 Israeli Daylight Saving Law established predictable rules using the Jewish calendar but Windows zone files could not represent the rules ' dates in a year - independent way. Partial workarounds, which mishandled older time stamps, included manually switching zone files every year and a Microsoft tool that switches zones automatically. In 2013, Israel standardized its daylight saving time according to the Gregorian calendar.
Microsoft Windows keeps the system real - time clock in local time. This causes several problems, including compatibility when multi booting with operating systems that set the clock to UTC, and double - adjusting the clock when multi booting different Windows versions, such as with a rescue boot disk. This approach is a problem even in Windows - only systems: there is no support for per - user timezone settings, only a single system - wide setting. In 2008 Microsoft hinted that future versions of Windows will partially support a Windows registry entry RealTimeIsUniversal that had been introduced many years earlier, when Windows NT supported RISC machines with UTC clocks, but had not been maintained. Since then at least two fixes related to this feature have been published by Microsoft.
The NTFS file system used by recent versions of Windows stores the file with a UTC time stamp, but displays it corrected to local -- or seasonal -- time. However, the FAT filesystem commonly used on removable devices stores only the local time. Consequently, when a file is copied from the hard disk onto separate media, its time will be set to the current local time. If the time adjustment is changed, the timestamps of the original file and the copy will be different. The same effect can be observed when compressing and uncompressing files with some file archivers. It is the NTFS file that changes seen time. This effect should be kept in mind when trying to determine if a file is a duplicate of another, although there are other methods of comparing files for equality (such as using a checksum algorithm). A ready clue is if the time stamps differ by precisely 1 hour.
A move to "permanent daylight saving time '' (staying on summer hours all year with no time shifts) is sometimes advocated, and has in fact been implemented in some jurisdictions such as Argentina, Chile, Iceland, Singapore, Uzbekistan, Belarus, Turkey and Northern Cyprus. It could be a result of following the timezone of a neighbouring region, political will or other causes. Advocates cite the same advantages as normal DST without the problems associated with the twice yearly time shifts. However, many remain unconvinced of the benefits, citing the same problems and the relatively late sunrises, particularly in winter, that year - round DST entails.
Russia switched to permanent DST from 2011 to 2014, but the move proved unpopular because of the late sunrises in winter, so the country switched permanently back to "standard '' or "winter '' time in 2014 for the whole Russian federation and parts of Ukraine (Luhansk, Donetsk and Crimea regions). The United Kingdom also experimented with year - round summer time between 1968 and 1971, and put clocks forward by an extra hour during World War II.
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gray matter vs white matter in the brain | White matter - wikipedia
White matter refers to areas of the central nervous system (CNS) that are mainly made up of myelinated axons, also called tracts. Long thought to be passive tissue, white matter affects learning and brain functions, modulating the distribution of action potentials, acting as a relay and coordinating communication between different brain regions.
White matter is named for its relatively light appearance resulting from the lipid content of myelin. However, the tissue of the freshly cut brain appears pinkish white to the naked eye because myelin is composed largely of lipid tissue veined with capillaries. Its white color in prepared specimens is due to its usual preservation in formaldehyde.
White matter is composed of bundles, which connect various gray matter areas (the locations of nerve cell bodies) of the brain to each other, and carry nerve impulses between neurons. Myelin acts as an insulator, which allows electrical signals to jump, rather than coursing through the axon, increasing the speed of transmission of all nerve signals.
The total number of long range fibers within a cerebral hemisphere is 2 % of the total number of cortico - cortical fibers (across cortical areas) and is roughly the same number as those that communicate between the two hemispheres in the brain 's largest white tissue structure, the Corpus callosum. Schüz and Braitenberg note "As a rough rule, the number of fibres of a certain range of lengths is inversely proportional to their length. ''
White matter in nonelderly adults is 1.7 -- 3.6 % blood.
The other main component of the brain is grey matter (actually pinkish tan due to blood capillaries), which is composed of neurons. The substantia nigra is a third colored component found in the brain that appears darker due to higher levels of melanin in dopaminergic neurons than its nearby areas. Note that white matter can sometimes appear darker than grey matter on a microscope slide because of the type of stain used. Cerebral - and spinal white matter do not contain dendrites, neural cell bodies, or shorter axons, which can only be found in grey matter.
White matter forms the bulk of the deep parts of the brain and the superficial parts of the spinal cord. Aggregates of gray matter such as the basal ganglia (caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, substantia nigra, subthalamic nucleus, nucleus accumbens) and brainstem nuclei (red nucleus, cranial nerve nuclei) are spread within the cerebral white matter.
The cerebellum is structured in a similar manner as the cerebrum, with a superficial mantle of cerebellar cortex, deep cerebellar white matter (called the "arbor vitae '') and aggregates of grey matter surrounded by deep cerebellar white matter (dentate nucleus, globose nucleus, emboliform nucleus, and fastigial nucleus). The fluid - filled cerebral ventricles (lateral ventricles, third ventricle, cerebral aqueduct, fourth ventricle) are also located deep within the cerebral white matter.
Men have more white matter than females both in volume and in length of myelinated axons. At the age of 20, the total length of myelinated fibers in males is 176,000 km while that of a female is 149,000 km. There is a decline in total length with age of about 10 % each decade such that a man at 80 years of age has 97,200 km and a female 82,000 km. Most of this reduction is due to the loss of thinner fibers.
White matter is the tissue through which messages pass between different areas of gray matter within the central nervous system. The white matter is white because of the fatty substance (myelin) that surrounds the nerve fibers (axons). This myelin is found in almost all long nerve fibers, and acts as an electrical insulation. This is important because it allows the messages to pass quickly from place to place.
Unlike gray matter, which peaks in development in a person 's twenties, the white matter continues to develop, and peaks in middle age.
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is one of the most common diseases which affect white matter. In MS lesions, the myelin shield around the axons has been destroyed by inflammation.
Alcohol use disorders are associated with decrease in white matter volume. Animal studies suggest that alcohol may cause loss of white matter by damaging oligodendrocytes, the glial cell responsible for maintaining myelin.
Changes in white matter known as amyloid plaques are associated with Alzheimer 's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases. White matter injuries ("axonal shearing '') may be reversible, while gray matter regeneration is less likely. Other changes that commonly occur with age include the development of leukoaraiosis, which is a rarefaction of the white matter that can be caused by a variety of conditions, including loss of myelin, axonal loss, and a breakdown of the blood -- brain barrier.
The study of white matter has been advanced with the neuroimaging technique called diffusion tensor imaging where magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain scanners are used. As of 2007, more than 700 publications have been published on the subject.
A 2009 paper by Jan Scholz and colleagues used diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to demonstrate changes in white matter volume as a result of learning a new motor task (e.g. juggling). The study is important as the first paper to correlate motor learning with white matter changes. Previously, many researchers had considered this type of learning to be exclusively mediated by dendrites, which are not present in white matter. The authors suggest that electrical activity in axons may regulate myelination in axons. Or, gross changes in the diameter or packing density of the axon might cause the change. A more recent DTI study by Sampaio - Baptista and colleagues reported changes in white matter with motor learning along with increases in myelination.
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who is considered the author of the constitution | United States Bill of Rights - wikipedia
The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. Proposed following the oftentimes bitter 1787 -- 88 battle over ratification of the U.S. Constitution, and crafted to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government 's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those found in several earlier documents, including the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the English Bill of Rights 1689, along with earlier documents such as Magna Carta (1215). In practice, the amendments had little impact on judgements by the courts for the first 150 years after ratification.
On June 8, 1789, Representative James Madison introduced nine amendments to the constitution in the House of Representatives. Among his recommendations Madison proposed opening up the Constitution and inserting specific rights limiting the power of Congress in Article One, Section 9. Seven of these limitations would become part of the ten ratified Bill of Rights amendments. Ultimately, on September 25, 1789, Congress approved twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution, each consisting of one one - sentence paragraph, and submitted them to the states for ratification. Contrary to Madison 's original proposal that the articles be incorporated into the main body of the Constitution, they were proposed as supplemental additions (codicils) to it. Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15, 1791, and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution. Article Two became part of the Constitution on May 5, 1992, as the Twenty - seventh Amendment. Article One is technically still pending before the states.
Although Madison 's proposed amendments included a provision to extend the protection of some of the Bill of Rights to the states, the amendments that were finally submitted for ratification applied only to the federal government. The door for their application upon state governments was opened in the 1860s, following ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. Since the early 20th century both federal and state courts have used the Fourteenth Amendment to apply portions of the Bill of Rights to state and local governments. The process is known as incorporation.
There are several original engrossed copies of the Bill of Rights still in existence. One of these is on permanent public display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.
Prior to the ratification and implementation of the United States Constitution, the thirteen sovereign states followed the Articles of Confederation, created by the Second Continental Congress and ratified in 1781. However, the national government that operated under the Articles of Confederation was too weak to adequately regulate the various conflicts that arose between the states. The Philadelphia Convention set out to correct weaknesses of the Articles that had been apparent even before the American Revolutionary War had been successfully concluded.
The convention took place from May 14 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles, the intention of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The convention convened in the Pennsylvania State House, and George Washington of Virginia was unanimously elected as president of the convention. The 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution are among the men known as the Founding Fathers of the new nation. Thomas Jefferson, who was Minister to France during the convention, characterized the delegates as an assembly of "demi - gods. '' Rhode Island refused to send delegates to the convention.
On September 12, George Mason of Virginia suggested the addition of a Bill of Rights to the Constitution modeled on previous state declarations, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts made it a formal motion. However, the motion was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations after only a brief discussion. Madison, then an opponent of a Bill of Rights, later explained the vote by calling the state bills of rights "parchment barriers '' that offered only an illusion of protection against tyranny. Another delegate, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, later argued that the act of enumerating the rights of the people would have been dangerous, because it would imply that rights not explicitly mentioned did not exist; Hamilton echoed this point in Federalist No. 84. Because Mason and Gerry had emerged as opponents of the proposed new Constitution, their motion -- introduced five days before the end of the convention -- may also have been seen by other delegates as a delaying tactic. The quick rejection of this motion, however, later endangered the entire ratification process. Author David O. Stewart characterizes the omission of a Bill of Rights in the original Constitution as "a political blunder of the first magnitude '' while historian Jack N. Rakove calls it "the one serious miscalculation the framers made as they looked ahead to the struggle over ratification ''.
Thirty - nine delegates signed the finalized Constitution. Thirteen delegates left before it was completed, and three who remained at the convention until the end refused to sign it: Mason, Gerry, and Edmund Randolph of Virginia. Afterward, the Constitution was presented to the Articles of Confederation Congress with the request that it afterwards be submitted to a convention of delegates, chosen in each State by the people, for their assent and ratification.
Following the Philadelphia Convention, some leading revolutionary figures such as Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and Richard Henry Lee publicly opposed the new frame of government, a position known as "Anti-Federalism ''. Elbridge Gerry wrote the most popular Anti-Federalist tract, "Hon. Mr. Gerry 's Objections '', which went through 46 printings; the essay particularly focused on the lack of a bill of rights in the proposed constitution. Many were concerned that a strong national government was a threat to individual rights and that the president would become a king. Jefferson wrote to Madison advocating a Bill of Rights: "Half a loaf is better than no bread. If we can not secure all our rights, let us secure what we can. '' The pseudonymous Anti-Federalist "Brutus '' wrote,
We find they have, in the ninth section of the first article declared, that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless in cases of rebellion -- that no bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed -- that no title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, etc. If every thing which is not given is reserved, what propriety is there in these exceptions? Does this Constitution any where grant the power of suspending the habeas corpus, to make ex post facto laws, pass bills of attainder, or grant titles of nobility? It certainly does not in express terms. The only answer that can be given is, that these are implied in the general powers granted. With equal truth it may be said, that all the powers which the bills of rights guard against the abuse of, are contained or implied in the general ones granted by this Constitution.
He continued with this observation:
Ought not a government, vested with such extensive and indefinite authority, to have been restricted by a declaration of rights? It certainly ought. So clear a point is this, that I can not help suspecting that persons who attempt to persuade people that such reservations were less necessary under this Constitution than under those of the States, are wilfully endeavoring to deceive, and to lead you into an absolute state of vassalage.
Supporters of the Constitution, known as Federalists, opposed a bill of rights for much of the ratification period, in part due to the procedural uncertainties it would create. Madison argued against such an inclusion, suggesting that state governments were sufficient guarantors of personal liberty, in No. 46 of The Federalist Papers, a series of essays promoting the Federalist position. Hamilton opposed a bill of rights in The Federalist No. 84, stating that "the constitution is itself in every rational sense, and to every useful purpose, a bill of rights. He stated that ratification did not mean the American people were surrendering their rights, making protections unnecessary: "Here, in strictness, the people surrender nothing, and as they retain everything, they have no need of particular reservations. '' Patrick Henry criticized the federalist point of view, writing that the legislature must be firmly informed "of the extent of the rights retained by the people... being in a state of uncertainty, they will assume rather than give up powers by implication. '' Other anti-federalists pointed out that earlier political documents, in particular the Magna Carta had protected specific rights. In response, Hamilton argued that the Constitution was inherently different:
Bills of rights are in their origin, stipulations between kings and their subjects, abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege, reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince. Such was the Magna Charta, obtained by the Barons, swords in hand, from King John.
In December 1787 and January 1788, five states -- Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut -- ratified the Constitution with relative ease, though the bitter minority report of the Pennsylvania opposition was widely circulated. In contrast to its predecessors, the Massachusetts convention was angry and contentious, at one point erupting into a fistfight between Federalist delegate Francis Dana and Anti-Federalist Elbridge Gerry when the latter was not allowed to speak. The impasse was resolved only when revolutionary heroes and leading Anti-Federalists Samuel Adams and John Hancock agreed to ratification on the condition that the convention also propose amendments. The convention 's proposed amendments included a requirement for grand jury indictment in capital cases, which would form part of the Fifth Amendment, and an amendment reserving powers to the states not expressly given to the federal government, which would later form the basis for the Tenth Amendment.
Following Massachusetts ' lead, the Federalist minorities in both Virginia and New York were able to obtain ratification in convention by linking ratification to recommended amendments. A committee of the Virginia convention headed by law professor George Wythe forwarded forty recommended amendments to Congress, twenty of which enumerated individual rights and another twenty of which enumerated states ' rights. The latter amendments included limitations on federal powers to levy taxes and regulate trade.
A minority of the Constitution 's critics, such as Maryland 's Luther Martin, continued to oppose ratification. However, Martin 's allies, such as New York 's John Lansing, Jr., dropped moves to obstruct the Convention 's process. They began to take exception to the Constitution "as it was, '' seeking amendments. Several conventions saw supporters for "amendments before '' shift to a position of "amendments after '' for the sake of staying in the Union. The New York Anti-Federalist "circular letter '' was sent to each state legislature proposing a second constitutional convention for "amendments before '', but it failed in the state legislatures. Ultimately, only North Carolina and Rhode Island waited for amendments from Congress before ratifying.
Article Seven of the proposed Constitution set the terms by which the new frame of government would be established. The new Constitution would become operational when ratified by at least nine states. Only then would it replace the existing government under the Articles of Confederation and would apply only to those states that ratified it.
Following contentious battles in several states, the proposed Constitution reached that nine state ratification plateau in June 1788. On September 13, 1788, the Articles of Confederation Congress certified that the new Constitution had been ratified by more than enough states for the new system to be implemented and directed the new government to meet in New York City on the first Wednesday in March the following year. On March 4, 1789, the new frame of government came into force with eleven of the thirteen states participating.
The 1st United States Congress, which met in New York City 's Federal Hall, was a triumph for the Federalists. The Senate of eleven states contained 20 Federalists with only two Anti-Federalists, both from Virginia. The House included 48 Federalists to 11 Anti-Federalists, the latter of whom were from only four states: Massachusetts, New York, Virginia and South Carolina. Among the Virginia delegation to the House was James Madison, Patrick Henry 's chief opponent in the Virginia ratification battle. In retaliation for Madison 's victory in that battle at Virginia 's ratification convention, Henry and other Anti-Federalists, who controlled the Virginia House of Delegates had gerrymandered a hostile district for Madison 's planned congressional run and recruited Madison 's future presidential successor, James Monroe, to oppose him. Madison defeated Monroe after offering a campaign pledge that he would introduce constitutional amendments comprising a Bill of Rights at the First Congress.
Originally opposed to the inclusion of a bill of rights in the Constitution, he had gradually come to understand the importance of doing so during the often contentious ratification debates. By taking the initiative to propose amendments himself through the Congress, he hoped to preempt a second constitutional convention that might, it was feared, undo the difficult compromises of 1787, and open the entire Constitution to reconsideration, thus risking the dissolution of the new federal government. Writing to Jefferson, he stated, "The friends of the Constitution, some from an approbation of particular amendments, others from a spirit of conciliation, are generally agreed that the System should be revised. But they wish the revisal to be carried no farther than to supply additional guards for liberty. '' He also felt that amendments guaranteeing personal liberties would "give to the Government its due popularity and stability ''. Finally, he hoped that the amendments "would acquire by degrees the character of fundamental maxims of free government, and as they become incorporated with the national sentiment, counteract the impulses of interest and passion ''. Historians continue to debate the degree to which Madison considered the amendments of the Bill of Rights necessary, and to what degree he considered them politically expedient; in the outline of his address, he wrote, "Bill of Rights -- useful -- not essential -- ''.
On the occasion of his April 30, 1789 inauguration as the nation 's first president, George Washington addressed the subject of amending the Constitution. He urged the legislators,
whilst you carefully avoid every alteration which might endanger the benefits of an united and effective government, or which ought to await the future lessons of experience; a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen, and a regard for public harmony, will sufficiently influence your deliberations on the question, how far the former can be impregnably fortified or the latter be safely and advantageously promoted.
James Madison introduced a series of Constitutional amendments in the House of Representatives for consideration. Among his proposals was one that would have added introductory language stressing natural rights to the preamble. Another would apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government. Several sought to protect individual personal rights by limiting various Constitutional powers of Congress. Like Washington, Madison urged Congress to keep the revision to the Constitution "a moderate one '', limited to protecting individual rights.
Madison was deeply read in the history of government and used a range of sources in composing the amendments. The English Magna Carta of 1215 inspired the right to petition and to trial by jury, for example, while the English Bill of Rights of 1689 provided an early precedent for the right to keep and bear arms (although this applied only to Protestants) and prohibited cruel and unusual punishment.
The greatest influence on Madison 's text, however, was existing state constitutions. Many of his amendments, including his proposed new preamble, were based on the Virginia Declaration of Rights drafted by Anti-Federalist George Mason in 1776. To reduce future opposition to ratification, Madison also looked for recommendations shared by many states. He did provide one, however, that no state had requested: "No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases. '' He did not include an amendment that every state had asked for, one that would have made tax assessments voluntary instead of contributions.
First. That there be prefixed to the constitution a declaration that all power is originally vested in, and consequently derived from the people. That government is instituted, and ought to be exercised for the benefit of the people; which consists in the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the right of acquiring and using property, and generally of pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety. That the people have an indubitable, unalienable, and indefeasible right to reform or change their government, whenever it be found adverse or inadequate to the purposes of its institution. Secondly. That in article 1st, section 2, clause 3, these words be struck out, to wit: "The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative, and until such enumeration shall be made; '' and in place thereof be inserted these words, to wit: "After the first actual enumeration, there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number amounts to --, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that the number shall never be less than --, nor more than --, but each State shall, after the first enumeration, have at least two Representatives; and prior thereto. '' Thirdly. That in article 2nd, section 6, clause 1, there be added to the end of the first sentence, these words, to wit, "But no law varying the compensation last ascertained shall operate before the next ensuing election of representatives. '' Fourthly. That in article 2nd, section 9, between clauses 3 and 4, be inserted these clauses, to wit, The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship, nor shall any national religion be established, nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience by in any manner, or on any pretext infringed. The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak, to write, or to publish their sentiments; and the freedom of the press, as one of the great bulwarks of liberty, shall be inviolable. The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their common good, nor from applying to the legislature by petitions, or remonstrances for redress of their grievances. The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; a well armed, and well regulated militia being the best security of a free country: but no person religiously scrupulous of bearing arms, shall be compelled to render military service in person. No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor at any time, but in a manner warranted by law. No person shall be subject, except in cases of impeachment, to more than one punishment, or one trial for the same office; nor shall be compelled to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; nor be obliged to relinquish his property, where it may be necessary for public use, without a just compensation. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. The rights of the people to be secured in their persons, their houses, their papers, and their other property from all unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated by warrants issued without probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, or not particularly describing the places to be searched, or the persons or things to be seized. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, to be informed of the cause and nature of the accusation, to be confronted with his accusers, and the witnesses against him; to have a compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. The exceptions here or elsewhere in the constitution, made in favor of particular rights, shall not be so construed as to diminish the just importance of other rights retained by the people; or as to enlarge the powers delegated by the constitution; but either as actual limitations of such powers, or as inserted merely for greater caution. Fifthly. That in article 2nd, section 10, between clauses 1 and 2, be inserted this clause, to wit: No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases Sixthly. That article 3rd, section 2, be annexed to the end of clause 2nd, these words to wit: but no appeal to such court shall be allowed where the value in controversy shall not amount to -- dollars: nor shall any fact triable by jury, according to the course of common law, be otherwise re-examinable than may consist with the principles of common law. Seventhly. That in article 3rd, section 2, the third clause be struck out, and in its place be inserted the classes following, to wit: The trial of all crimes (except in cases of impeachments, and cases arising in the land or naval forces, or the militia when on actual service in time of war or public danger) shall be by an impartial jury of freeholders of the vicinage, with the requisite of unanimity for conviction, of the right of challenge, and other accustomed requisites; and in all crimes punishable with loss of life or member, presentment or indictment by a grand jury shall be an essential preliminary, provided that in cases of crimes committed within any county which may be in possession of an enemy, or in which a general insurrection may prevail, the trial may by law be authorized in some other county of the same State, as near as may be to the seat of the offence. In cases of crimes committed not within any county, the trial may by law be in such county as the laws shall have prescribed. In suits at common law, between man and man, the trial by jury, as one of the best securities to the rights of the people, ought to remain inviolate. Eighthly. That immediately after article 6th, be inserted, as article 7th, the clauses following, to wit: The powers delegated by this constitution, are appropriated to the departments to which they are respectively distributed: so that the legislative department shall never exercise the powers vested in the executive or judicial; nor the executive exercise the powers vested in the legislative or judicial; nor the judicial exercise the powers vested in the legislative or executive departments. The powers not delegated by this constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the States respectively. Ninthly. That article 7th, be numbered as article 8th.
Federalist representatives were quick to attack Madison 's proposal, fearing that any move to amend the new Constitution so soon after its implementation would create an appearance of instability in the government. The House, unlike the Senate, was open to the public, and members such as Fisher Ames warned that a prolonged "dissection of the constitution '' before the galleries could shake public confidence. A procedural battle followed, and after initially forwarding the amendments to a select committee for revision, the House agreed to take Madison 's proposal up as a full body beginning on July 21, 1789.
The eleven - member committee made some significant changes to Madison 's nine proposed amendments, including eliminating most of his preamble and adding the phrase "freedom of speech, and of the press ''. The House debated the amendments for eleven days. Roger Sherman of Connecticut persuaded the House to place the amendments at the Constitution 's end so that the document would "remain inviolate '', rather than adding them throughout, as Madison had proposed. The amendments, revised and condensed from twenty to seventeen, were approved and forwarded to the Senate on August 24, 1789.
The Senate edited these amendments still further, making 26 changes of its own. Madison 's proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government was eliminated, and the seventeen amendments were condensed to twelve, which were approved on September 9, 1789. The Senate also eliminated the last of Madison 's proposed changes to the preamble.
On September 21, 1789, a House -- Senate Conference Committee convened to resolve the numerous differences between the two Bill of Rights proposals. On September 24, 1789, the committee issued this report, which finalized 12 Constitutional Amendments for House and Senate to consider. This final version was approved by joint resolution of Congress on September 25, 1789, to be forwarded to the states on September 28.
By the time the debates and legislative maneuvering that went into crafting the Bill of Rights amendments was done, many personal opinions had shifted. A number of Federalists came out in support, thus silencing the Anti-Federalists ' most effective critique. Many Anti-Federalists, in contrast, were now opposed, realizing that Congressional approval of these amendments would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention. Anti-Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution, such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation, intact.
Madison remained active in the progress of the amendments throughout the legislative process. Historian Gordon S. Wood writes that "there is no question that it was Madison 's personal prestige and his dogged persistence that saw the amendments through the Congress. There might have been a federal Constitution without Madison but certainly no Bill of Rights. ''
The twelve articles of amendment approved by congress were officially submitted to the Legislatures of the several States for consideration on September 28, 1789. The following states ratified some or all of the amendments:
Having been approved by the requisite three - fourths of the several states, there being 14 States in the Union at the time (as Vermont had been admitted into the Union on March 4, 1791), the ratification of Articles Three through Twelve was completed and they became Amendments 1 through 10 of the Constitution. President Washington informed Congress of this on December 30, 1791.
As they had not yet been approved by 11 of the 14 states, the ratification of Article One (ratified by 10) and Article Two (ratified by 6) remained incomplete. The ratification plateau they needed to reach soon rose to 12 of 15 states when Kentucky joined the Union (June 1, 1792). On June 27, 1792, the Kentucky General Assembly ratified all 12 amendments, however this action did not come to light until 1996.
Article One came within one state of the number needed to become adopted into the Constitution on two occasions between 1789 and 1803. Despite coming close to ratification early on, it has never received the approval of enough states to become part of the Constitution. As Congress did not attach a ratification time limit to the article, it is still technically pending before the states. Since no state has approved it since 1792, ratification by an additional 27 states would now be necessary for the article to be adopted.
Article Two, initially ratified by seven states through 1792 (including Kentucky), was not ratified by another state for eighty years. The Ohio General Assembly ratified it on May 6, 1873 in protest of an unpopular Congressional pay raise. A century later, on March 6, 1978, the Wyoming Legislature also ratified the article. Gregory Watson, a University of Texas at Austin undergraduate student, started a new push for the article 's ratification with a letter - writing campaign to state legislatures. As a result, by May 1992, enough states had approved Article Two (38 of the 50 states in the Union) for it to become the Twenty - seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution. The amendment 's adoption was certified by Archivist of the United States Don W. Wilson and subsequently affirmed by a vote of Congress on May 20, 1992.
Three states did not complete action on the twelve articles of amendment when they were initially put before the states. Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify. Both chambers of the Massachusetts General Court ratified a number of the amendments (the Senate adopted 10 of 12 and the House 9 of 12), but failed to reconcile their two lists or to send official notice to the Secretary of State of the ones they did agree upon. Both houses of the Connecticut General Assembly voted to ratify Articles Three through Twelve but failed to reconcile their bills after disagreeing over whether to ratify Articles One and Two. All three later ratified the Constitutional amendments originally known as Articles Three through Twelve as part of the 1939 commemoration of the Bill of Rights ' sesquicentennial: Massachusetts on March 2, Georgia on March 18, and Connecticut on April 19. Connecticut and Georgia would also later ratify Article Two, on May 13, 1987 and February 2, 1988 respectively.
The Bill of Rights had little judicial impact for the first 150 years of its existence; in the words of Gordon S. Wood, "After ratification, most Americans promptly forgot about the first ten amendments to the Constitution. '' The Court made no important decisions protecting free speech rights, for example, until 1931. Historian Richard Labunski attributes the Bill 's long legal dormancy to three factors: first, it took time for a "culture of tolerance '' to develop that would support the Bill 's provisions with judicial and popular will; second, the Supreme Court spent much of the 19th century focused on issues relating to intergovernmental balances of power; and third, the Bill initially only applied to the federal government, a restriction affirmed by Barron v. Baltimore (1833). In the twentieth century, however, most of the Bill 's provisions were applied to the states via the Fourteenth Amendment -- a process known as incorporation -- beginning with the freedom of speech clause, in Gitlow v. New York (1925). In Talton v. Mayes (1896), the Court ruled that Constitutional protections, including the provisions of the Bill of Rights, do not apply to the actions of American Indian tribal governments. Through the incorporation process the United States Supreme Court succeeded in extending to the States almost all of the protections in the Bill of Rights, as well as other, unenumerated rights. The Bill of Rights thus imposes legal limits on the powers of governments and acts as an anti-majoritarian / minoritarian safeguard by providing deeply entrenched legal protection for various civil liberties and fundamental rights. The Supreme Court for example concluded in the West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (1943) case that the founders intended the Bill of Rights to put some rights out of reach from majorities, ensuring that some liberties would endure beyond political majorities. As the Court noted the idea of the Bill of Rights "was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts. '' This is why "fundamental rights may not be submitted to a vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections. ''
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
The First Amendment prohibits the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion, impeding the free exercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press, interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances. Initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today.
In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson 's correspondence to call for "a wall of separation between church and State '', though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute. Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th - and 21st - century court decisions that protected various forms of political speech, anonymous speech, campaign financing, pornography, and school speech; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections. The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for libel suits, most notably in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964). Commercial speech is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation.
The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, and applies to a wide variety of media. In Near v. Minnesota (1931) and New York Times v. United States (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint -- pre-publication censorship -- in almost all cases. The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects freedom of association.
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.
The Second Amendment protects the individual right to keep and bear arms. The concept of such a right existed within English common law long before the enactment of the Bill of Rights. First codified in the English Bill of Rights of 1689 (but there only applying to Protestants), this right was enshrined in fundamental laws of several American states during the Revolutionary era, including the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights and the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776. Long a controversial issue in American political, legal, and social discourse, the Second Amendment has been at the heart of several Supreme Court decisions.
No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
The Third Amendment restricts the quartering of soldiers in private homes, in response to Quartering Acts passed by the British parliament during the Revolutionary War. The amendment is one of the least controversial of the Constitution, and, as of 2016, has never been the primary basis of a Supreme Court decision.
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
The Fourth Amendment guards against unreasonable searches and seizures, along with requiring any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause. It was adopted as a response to the abuse of the writ of assistance, which is a type of general search warrant, in the American Revolution. Search and seizure (including arrest) must be limited in scope according to specific information supplied to the issuing court, usually by a law enforcement officer who has sworn by it. The amendment is the basis for the exclusionary rule, which mandates that evidence obtained illegally can not be introduced into a criminal trial. The amendment 's interpretation has varied over time; its protections expanded under left - leaning courts such as that headed by Earl Warren and contracted under right - leaning courts such as that of William Rehnquist.
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
The Fifth Amendment protects against double jeopardy and self - incrimination and guarantees the rights to due process, grand jury screening of criminal indictments, and compensation for the seizure of private property under eminent domain. The amendment was the basis for the court 's decision in Miranda v. Arizona (1966), which established that defendants must be informed of their rights to an attorney and against self - incrimination prior to interrogation by police.
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.
The Sixth Amendment establishes a number of rights of the defendant in a criminal trial:
In Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), the Court ruled that the amendment guaranteed the right to legal representation in all felony prosecutions in both state and federal courts.
In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
The Seventh Amendment guarantees jury trials in federal civil cases that deal with claims of more than twenty dollars. It also prohibits judges from overruling findings of fact by juries in federal civil trials. In Colgrove v. Battin (1973), the Court ruled that the amendment 's requirements could be fulfilled by a jury with a minimum of six members. The Seventh is one of the few parts of the Bill of Rights not to be incorporated (applied to the states).
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
The Eighth Amendment forbids the imposition of excessive bails or fines, though it leaves the term "excessive '' open to interpretation. The most frequently litigated clause of the amendment is the last, which forbids cruel and unusual punishment. This clause was only occasionally applied by the Supreme Court prior to the 1970s, generally in cases dealing with means of execution. In Furman v. Georgia (1972), some members of the Court found capital punishment itself in violation of the amendment, arguing that the clause could reflect "evolving standards of decency '' as public opinion changed; others found certain practices in capital trials to be unacceptably arbitrary, resulting in a majority decision that effectively halted executions in the United States for several years. Executions resumed following Gregg v. Georgia (1976), which found capital punishment to be constitutional if the jury was directed by concrete sentencing guidelines. The Court has also found that some poor prison conditions constitute cruel and unusual punishment, as in Estelle v. Gamble (1976) and Brown v. Plata (2011).
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
The Ninth Amendment declares that there are additional fundamental rights that exist outside the Constitution. The rights enumerated in the Constitution are not an explicit and exhaustive list of individual rights. It was rarely mentioned in Supreme Court decisions before the second half of the 20th century, when it was cited by several of the justices in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965). The Court in that case voided a statute prohibiting use of contraceptives as an infringement of the right of marital privacy. This right was, in turn, the foundation upon which the Supreme Court built decisions in several landmark cases, including, Roe v. Wade (1973), which overturned a Texas law making it a crime to assist a woman to get an abortion, and Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), which invalidated a Pennsylvania law that required spousal awareness prior to obtaining an abortion.
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
The Tenth Amendment reinforces the principles of separation of powers and federalism by providing that powers not granted to the federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the states, are reserved to the states or the people. The amendment provides no new powers or rights to the states, but rather preserves their authority in all matters not specifically granted to the federal government.
Congress has sometimes gotten around the Tenth Amendment by invoking the Commerce Clause in Article One or by threatening to withhold funding for a federal program from noncooperative States, as in South Dakota v. Dole (1987).
George Washington had fourteen handwritten copies of the Bill of Rights made, one for Congress and one for each of the original thirteen states. The copies for Georgia, Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania went missing. The New York copy is thought to have been destroyed in a fire. Two unidentified copies of the missing four (thought to be the Georgia and Maryland copies) survive; one is in the National Archives, and the other is in the New York Public Library. North Carolina 's copy was stolen from the State Capitol by a Union soldier following the Civil War. In an FBI sting operation, it was recovered in 2003. The copy retained by the First Congress has been on display (along with the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence) in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom room at the National Archives Building in Washington, D.C. since December 13, 1952.
After fifty years on display, signs of deterioration in the casing were noted, while the documents themselves appeared to be well preserved. Accordingly, the casing was updated and the Rotunda rededicated on September 17, 2003. In his dedicatory remarks, President George W. Bush stated, "The true (American) revolution was not to defy one earthly power, but to declare principles that stand above every earthly power -- the equality of each person before God, and the responsibility of government to secure the rights of all. ''
In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared December 15 to be Bill of Rights Day, commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Bill of Rights. In 1991, the Virginia copy of the Bill of Rights toured the country in honor of its bicentennial, visiting the capitals of all fifty states.
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who wrote the 12 steps and 12 traditions | Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions - wikipedia
Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions is a 1953 book, which explains the twenty - four basic principles of Alcoholics Anonymous and their application. The book dedicates a chapter to each step and each tradition, providing a detailed interpretation of these principles for personal recovery and the organization of the group. Bill W. began work on this project in early 1952. By 1957, 50,000 copies were in circulation.
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who played tupac in the all eyez on me movie | All Eyez on Me (film) - Wikipedia
All Eyez on Me is a 2017 American biographical drama film about hip - hop artist Tupac Shakur, directed by Benny Boom and written by Jeremy Haft, Eddie Gonzalez and Steven Bagatourian. Titled after Shakur 's 1996 fourth studio album of the same name, the film stars Demetrius Shipp Jr. as Shakur with Kat Graham, Lauren Cohan, Hill Harper and Danai Gurira in supporting roles.
Principal photography began in mid-December 2015 in Atlanta, Georgia. All Eyez on Me premiered on June 14, 2017, in Los Angeles and was released in the United States on June 16, 2017, on what would have been Shakur 's 46th birthday. The film received negative reviews from critics but a positive response from audiences, and grossed $54 million worldwide.
At the Clinton Correctional Facility in 1995, a documentary filmmaker shows up with his crew and equipment to sit down with Tupac Shakur.
In 1971, Tupac 's mother, Afeni Shakur, is released from prison along with her fellow Black Panther Party following her acquittal of several charges. She is pregnant with Tupac and voices her complaints to a reporter over the unfair treatment of black individuals in the country from not only society, but the system sworn to protect its citizens.
From an early age, Tupac is taught about black pride, and is witness to multiple injustices in his neighborhood. His stepfather, Mutulu, is a revolutionary who has influenced Afeni, who in turn influences her son and Tupac 's sister Set. Mutulu is wanted by the FBI for a robbery of an armored truck, and the murder of two officers and a guard. FBI agents follow Afeni and her children. Mutulu is eventually caught during a raid when cops burst into the Shakurs ' apartment, with cops violently pinning Tupac and his sister to the ground.
As Tupac gets older, he distances himself more and more from his mother 's ideals and behavior. He attends the Baltimore School for the Arts, where he becomes close friends with Jada Pinkett.
Tupac 's music career begins when he joins Digital Underground for their hit "Same Song ''. Under his manager, Leila Steinberg, he begins to have hip - hop albums produced. Although his music becomes popular, he gets into hot water with record producers for songs like "Brenda 's Got a Baby '', which is about a young girl who is raped by her cousin, has a baby on the bathroom floor, turns to prostitution and selling drugs for money, and how she is ultimately murdered on the streets. Tupac argues that the song comes from real stories in the streets of the impoverished and how nobody is willing to help people like the subject of the song.
Tupac also begins acting in movies such as Juice, as well as collaborating with other artists like Biggie Smalls, both performing to excited crowds at venues. He generates as much praise as he does controversy in what he does outside of music, such as donating money to poor black citizens.
Outside of his performances, Tupac has run - ins with officers when he is caught jaywalking, and is beaten by two officers. On another occasion, he and one of his friends catch two white men assaulting a black man. When they try to intervene, one man pulls a gun on Tupac. He goes back to his limo and gets his own gun. It soon reveals that the two men were off - duty cops, and Tupac is arrested for shooting at them.
Tupac becomes involved with a dealer named Nigel, and they do business together in music. When things go awry, Tupac and Nigel have a quarrel. Nigel 's guys want to retaliate against Tupac, but Nigel says that nobody touches Tupac unless he says so. The other guys appear to go against Nigel 's orders.
In 1993, Tupac meets a young woman named Briana, and she is with Tupac along with other men in a hotel room one night. Briana barges into his room hours later crying and screaming, indicating that the other men raped her. Tupac is later on trial for rape and harassment charges.
On November 30, 1994, Tupac is attacked by three men in the lobby of Quad Recording Studios. Tupac is shot five times before the men flee. Biggie and other guys in Tupac 's entourage rush to him before he is taken to the hospital. When Biggie tries to visit Tupac, he is turned down for not being a family member. Tupac checks himself out of the hospital early against doctors ' orders.
The following day, Tupac 's sentence is declared in his trial. He is found not guilty of rape, but is found guilty of illegal touching, and is thus sentenced to eighteen months in prison.
While in prison, Tupac hears Biggie 's song "Who Shot Ya? '', and interprets it as a diss track bragging about Biggie 's alleged involvement in his shooting. Tupac encounters Mutulu in there, who encourages him to work after he gets out. Mutulu later murders another inmate by stabbing him to death. Tupac is also assaulted by two guards while in prison.
Following his release, Tupac signs to Death Row Records under Suge Knight, who also collaborates with other artists, like Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg. Tupac and Dre work on the hit song "California Love ''. He releases the track "Hit Em Up '' as a response to "Who Shot Ya? '' in which Tupac brags about supposedly having an affair with Biggie 's wife Faith Evans.
In Tupac 's final months, he decides to part ways with Death Row Records to start his own company to produce more music, movies, and TV shows. Suge reminds Tupac that he is still in debt from other business dealings. Later, however, Suge offers Tupac a chance to become partners, with Suge taking over the West Coast part of Death Row, and Tupac taking over the East Coast. Tupac agrees to it.
On September 7, 1996, Tupac, Suge, and the rest of their group are leaving the Mike Tyson vs. Bruce Seldon boxing match at the MGM Grand Las Vegas. One of the Death Row guys alerts Tupac and Suge to a gang member that jumped him and stole his chain. Tupac and company confront the gang member, and Tupac attacks him, knocking him to the ground. Suge and his guys start assaulting the man as Tupac is pulled off of him. Tupac stops by his hotel to change his clothes. He tells Kidada about the situation. She tries to go with him, but Tupac assures her he will only be gone for an hour.
Tupac and Suge drive from the hotel with the rest of his guys following them. At the intersection of Flamingo Road and Koval Lane, a Cadillac pulls alongside Tupac 's BMW and Tupac is shot multiple times before the Cadillac flees the scene.
The ending text states that six days later, Tupac was pronounced dead. To this day, his murder remains unsolved. By the age of 25, he released 15 albums, seven posthumous albums, 713 songs, and seven movies.
On February 10, 2011, it was announced that Morgan Creek Productions had developed and would finance and produce the rap legend Tupac Amaru Shakur 's biopic titled Tupac, which would follow his life from growing up to his death. Antoine Fuqua was attached as the director of the film, and the script was from Steven Bagatourian, Stephen J. Rivele, and Christopher Wilkinson. James G. Robinson and David C. Robinson would produce the film along with Program Pictures ' L.T. Hutton, and Tupac 's mother Afeni Shakur as executive producer, with production scheduled to begin that summer. On September 19, 2013, Emmett / Furla / Oasis Films came on board to co-finance and co-produce the $45 million budgeted film along with Morgan Creek. Ed Gonzalez and Jeremy Haft were writing the latest draft of the film. On February 12, 2014, John Singleton again signed on to rewrite, direct and produce the film. On April 16, 2014, Open Road Films acquired the United States distribution rights to the film. Gonzalez, Haft, and Singleton wrote the latest draft of the script for the film, about Tupac 's life from his growing up in East Harlem to becoming a legendary songwriter and hip - hop artist, to his death in Las Vegas at the age of 25. On April 7, 2015, it was revealed that Singleton exited the film due to some major creative differences, while Carl Franklin was being eyed to hold the direction duties. On October 28, 2015, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Emmett / Furla / Oasis had sued Morgan Creek over $10 million for breaking the companies co-production agreement signed in September 2013. In the agreement, terms were not to exceed the production budget above $30 million, mutual approval for the lead actor 's selection, filming schedule, and distribution and sales agreements. Randall Emmett and George Furla also claimed that they all first signed a distribution deal with Open Road, which Morgan Creek rejected, and then Morgan Creek inked a new deal with Open Road without mutual approval.
On November 30, 2015, it was reported that music director Benny Boom would be directing the film now replacing Franklin. Early - December 2015, the film 's title was confirmed to be All Eyez On Me On December 24, 2015, newcomer Demetrius Shipp, Jr. was cast in the film to play the role of Tupac. Jamal Woolard also joined the film to play the role of The Notorious B.I.G., Tupac 's former friend turned rival, reprising the role Woolard portrayed in the 2009 film Notorious. On January 11, 2016, Danai Gurira was added to the film 's cast to play Tupac 's mother Afeni Shakur, a political activist and member of the Black Panthers. Following Gurira 's casting, Variety reported on the next day that Kat Graham had signed on to play Jada Pinkett, a friend of Tupac from the Baltimore School for the Arts. It was revealed later that Dominic L. Santana had been cast as record producer Suge Knight.
On January 13, Jamie Hector signed on to star as Mutulu Shakur, Tupac 's stepfather. On January 15, Lauren Cohan joined the film 's cast to play the role of Leila Steinberg, a key figure in Tupac 's life as his mentor. Money B would appear in the film as himself, Tupac 's coworker at Digital Underground, Clifton Powell as Floyd, inmate at Clinton Correctional Facility, and Johnell Young as a Tupac 's close friend, Ray Luv. On January 19, TheWrap confirmed that Grace Gibson was cast in the film to play Biggie Smalls ' wife, Faith Evans, who was reportedly in an adulterous affair with Shakur. On January 22, 2016, Keith Robinson was cast as Atron Gregory, TNT Records founder who first helped Tupac becoming a dancer and then a solo artist. Annie Ilonzeh was added to the cast in February 2016 to play the role of Kidada Jones, engaged to Tupac at the time of his death.
Principal photography on the film began in mid-December 2015 in Atlanta, Georgia. Filming wrapped on April 12, 2016, in Las Vegas, Nevada.
On June 16, 2016, on what would have been Shakur 's 45th birthday, a teaser trailer for the film was released. On September 13, 2016, the 20th anniversary of Shakur 's death, a second teaser trailer was released. It was announced that the film will be released on June 16, 2017. On February 10, 2017, a third teaser trailer was released, confirming Summit, Morgan Creek, Program Pictures, and Codeblack Films as producers and distributors. On April 6, 2017, a fourth trailer was released.
No official soundtrack album was released to accompany the movie 's release.
All Eyez on Me grossed $44.8 million in the United States and Canada and $10 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $54.8 million, against a production budget of $40 million.
In North America, All Eyez on Me was released on June 16, 2017, alongside Rough Night, 47 Meters Down and Cars 3, and was originally projected to gross $17 -- 20 million from 2,471 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $12.8 million on Friday (including $3.1 million from Thursday night previews), increasing weekend estimates to $31 million. It ended up debuting to $26.4 million, finishing 3rd at the box office behind Cars 3 ($53.7 million) and Wonder Woman ($41.3 million). Deadline.com attributed the film 's success to the release corresponding with Tupac 's birthday, as well as audience interest on the subject matter following the success of Straight Outta Compton in 2015.
Despite its surprising opening weekend success, the film experienced a historic drop in its second weekend, dropping 78 % to $5.8 million, the 16th largest such decline in history. In its third weekend the film was pulled from 1,213 theaters and dropped another 68.6 % to $1.8 million, finishing 11th at the box office.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 18 % based on 79 reviews, with an average rating of 4.3 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Despite Demetrius Shipp Jr. 's fine lead performance, All Eyez on Me is mostly a surface - skimming, by - the - numbers biopic of a larger - than - life icon. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a weighted average score of 38 out of 100, based on 21 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Glenn Kenny of The New York Times gave the film a negative review, saying: "Almost all the dialogue is that flat - footed. It 's a stark contrast to the almost always vivid power of Shakur 's own words, which could be profoundly empathetic and pettily profane. '' Owen Gleiberman of Variety wrote: "Comprehensive but sketchy, richly atmospheric but often under - dramatized, it is not, in the end, a very good movie (there are a few scenes, like Tupac 's initial meeting with Ted Field of Interscope Records, that are embarrassingly bad). Yet it 's highly worth seeing because in its volatility and hunger, and the desperation of its violence, it captures something about the space in which Tupac Shakur lived: a place that wanted to be all about pride and power, but was really about flying over the abyss. ''
On her Twitter account, Jada Pinkett Smith stated that the film contained many inaccuracies about her relationship with Tupac and why he left for Los Angeles. Smith claimed that Tupac never read the poem he read to her character in the film and that she had no knowledge that it even existed until it was published in his book. She also stated that she never attended one of Tupac 's shows at his request and that there was no backstage argument. She did, however, praise the performances of Shipp and Graham. Both Sean Combs and Suge Knight gave blessings to the film, praising their respective portrayals.
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who's been sleeping in my bed by barry manilow | One Voice (Barry Manilow album) - wikipedia
One Voice is the sixth studio album by singer / songwriter Barry Manilow, released in 1979. It was recorded at United Western Studios and Allen Zentz Recording in Hollywood. The album was a signature of a minor decline in Manilow 's success. It reached 2x platinum, not 3x platinum, as his past six albums did. The album only contained one top ten hit, "Ships '', which peaked at # 9 on the Billboard Hot 100.
The title track was featured in a lengthy segment in an episode of the British comedy show Only Fools and Horses, "Fatal Extraction '', where the show 's central character Del Boy starts singing the song outside a block of flats late at night after he 's been drinking, starting a riot.
The song "Who 's Been Sleeping in My Bed? '' was sampled in the song "Superheroes '' by Daft Punk in the album Discovery.
Music and lyrics written by Barry Manilow, except where noted.
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who got 100 points in a basketball game | Wilt Chamberlain 's 100 - point game - wikipedia
Wilt Chamberlain set the single - game scoring record in the National Basketball Association (NBA) by scoring 100 points for the Philadelphia Warriors in a 169 -- 147 win over the New York Knicks on March 2, 1962, at Hershey Sports Arena in Hershey, Pennsylvania. It is widely considered one of the greatest records in basketball. Chamberlain set five other league records that game including most free throws made, a notable achievement, as he was regarded as a poor free throw shooter. The teams broke the record for most combined points in a game (316). That season, Chamberlain averaged a record 50.4 points per game, and he had broken the NBA single - game scoring record (71) earlier in the season in December with 78 points. The third - year center had already set season scoring records in his first two seasons. In the fourth quarter, the Knicks began fouling other players to keep the ball away from Chamberlain, and they also became deliberate on offense to reduce the number of possessions for Philadelphia. The Warriors countered by committing fouls of their own to get the ball back.
The game was not televised, and no video footage of the game has been recovered; there are only audio recordings of the game 's fourth quarter. The NBA was not yet a major sports league and struggled to compete against college basketball. The attendance at this game was around half of capacity, and no members of the New York press were at the game.
Chamberlain was in his third season in the NBA, having set season scoring records in each of his first two seasons with 37.6 and then 38.4 points per game. Frank McGuire, the Warriors ' new coach, started the season vowing to get the ball to Chamberlain "two - thirds of the time. '' Sports Illustrated wrote that McGuire 's "eventual effect may be to measurably change the character of professional basketball from the brawling, hustling, cigar - in - the - face and eye - on - the - till game it has been for decades to the major league sport which it longs and deserves to be. '' He was determined to play Chamberlain every minute of every game; the 7 - foot - 1 - inch (2.16 m) and 260 - pound (120 kg) center had missed only eight minutes and 33 seconds that season due to disqualification in a game from technical fouls. In three earlier games that week, Chamberlain had scored 67, 65, and 61 points respectively, giving him an already - record 15 times scoring 60 or more points in his career. He was closing in on 4,000 points for the season, needing 237 more; no other player had ever scored 3,000 points at that point. On December 8, 1961, in a triple overtime game versus the Los Angeles Lakers, he set a new NBA record by scoring 78 points, breaking the record of 71 previously set by Elgin Baylor. Legendary Laker broadcaster Chick Hearn often told the story that after the game, he asked Baylor if it bothered him that Chamberlain had an extra 15 minutes to break the record. According to Hearn, Baylor said he was n't concerned because "someday that guy is going to score 100 ''. Rival center Bill Russell predicted, "(Chamberlain) has the size, strength, and stamina to score one hundred some night. '' In a high school game in 1955, Chamberlain had scored 90 points in a 123 -- 21 victory. The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote, "Chamberlain might have hit 100 if he had played the entire 32 minutes. ''
Before Chamberlain, the most dominant big man in the NBA was 6 - foot - 10 - inch (2.08 m) George Mikan. In November 1950, the Fort Wayne Pistons held the ball for minutes at a time without shooting to limit the impact of the Minneapolis Lakers ' Mikan. The Pistons attempted 13 shots in the game, and won 19 -- 18. NBA President Maurice Podoloff said, "In our game, with the number of stars we have, we of necessity run up big scores. '' In the 1950 -- 51 season, teams averaged just above 80 points per game. The NBA introduced the 24 - second shot clock in 1954, and league scoring and attendance increased. By the 1961 -- 62 season, teams were averaging 119 points each game. Chamberlain that season was one of 37 black players in the league, the NBA having started integration of blacks in 1950. With their emergence, the NBA game was stylistically being played faster and above the rim. Many of the league 's great players were black, and blacks believed they were limited by a league quota of four black players per team. Critics suggested that basketball was becoming uninteresting with taller players dominating. Warriors teammate Joe Ruklick thought that "the attitude (among white players in the NBA) was, in my opinion, ' (Chamberlain) is a freak who will come and go. There will never be a black guy doing this again. ' '' Chamberlain, nicknamed Dipper, was revolutionizing the sport with his slam dunks, nicknamed the Dipper Dunk. Traditionalists considered dunking poor sportsmanship, and their occurrence was rare. As the league 's second tallest player, Chamberlain began dunking more regularly. He was still more of a finesse player, preferring fadeaway shots and finger rolls. He rarely dunked forcefully. Teammate Paul Arizin believed Chamberlain did not want to be perceived as great merely from being tall.
There was little advance excitement about the pending Warriors - Knicks game that Friday. Only five games remained in the regular season, with the Warriors (46 -- 29) in second place -- eleven games behind the Boston Celtics -- and the Knicks in last place. Chamberlain had spent the night before the game in New York City, partying all night with a female companion before dropping her off at her home at 6 am With no sleep and suffering from a hangover, he boarded the train to Philadelphia at 8 am, met several friends at the Philadelphia train station, and had a long lunch with them, thus almost missing the team bus to Hershey. The other players were similarly bored. Warriors player York Larese said: "The biggest thrill in my life was to see that. There was nothing exciting about the Knicks playing the Warriors in Hershey. Chocolate was more exciting. '' The game was played at Hershey Sports Arena, an old drafty gym originally built for ice hockey. The league occasionally played games in remote towns to attract new fans. This was the Warriors ' third "home '' game of the season in Hershey, which was 85 miles (137 km) from Philadelphia. The Warriors ' Tom Meschery called the arena "god - forsaken place... The town of Hershey was built around a huge chocolate factory; everything there became permeated with the smell of chocolate. It was practically impossible to stay indoors; people felt sick. I was just dreaming to leave the place as fast as I could. ''
On a cold, rainy Friday night, only 4,124 spectators paid to see the game, more to see players from the Philadelphia Eagles, the local American football team, play an exhibition basketball game against their colleagues from the Baltimore Colts before the NBA game started. The arena 's capacity was over 8,000, and Warriors owner Eddie Gottlieb was infamous for exaggerating attendance numbers. Warriors home attendance had dropped from 7,000 in Chamberlain 's rookie season to less than 5,000 in this, his third, season. College basketball had started offering doubleheaders during the Great Depression to provide customers value for their money. Fans had grown accustomed to watching two games, so doubleheaders in the NBA became common.
The National Basketball Association was still struggling in its 16th season, not yet a major sports league and less established than college basketball. The league was hardly national, with only one team, the Los Angeles Lakers, west of St. Louis. The NBA received low television ratings, and this game was not televised. The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) considered not renewing the league 's television contract. No members from the New York press were present as reporters were in Florida covering spring training for the New York Yankees and the expansion New York Mets. With few in the media present, the Warriors ' publicist was tasked this night with being the stringer for the Associated Press (AP), United Press International (UPI), and The Philadelphia Inquirer. Only two photographers were at the game.
The Knicks were shorthanded with their starting center, Phil Jordon, out sick. Jordon 's illness was officially reported as influenza but it was widely suspected he was simply hung over. Jordon, in an early - season game, had played Chamberlain even, scoring 33 points to the Warriors center 's 34. The Knicks instead started 6 - foot - 10 - inch (2.08 m), 220 - pound (100 kg), second - year player Darrall Imhoff, a strong defensive player in college who led the California Golden Bears to the NCAA championship in 1959 and won a gold medal in the 1960 Summer Olympics. New York also had 6 - foot - 9 - inch (2.06 m), 210 - pound (95 kg), backup center Cleveland Buckner, a better shooter than a defender who Chamberlain overpowered for an NBA record 28 points in one quarter two days earlier.
According to McGuire, the game did not start with any game plan to get Chamberlain 100 points. After a few minutes, the Warriors led 19 -- 3, and their star center had already scored 13 points and made his first five shots. At the end of the first quarter, the Knicks trailed 42 -- 26, and in his typical style, Chamberlain had already scored 23 points, making all nine of his free throws. Free throws were the weakest part of his game, making barely more than half in his first seasons. He had started shooting free throws underhanded that season per McGuire 's suggestion. Chamberlain at that point was thinking more about a free throw shooting record than scoring a lot of points; the NBA record was 24 free throws made in a game. Imhoff was soon benched because of foul trouble. After one foul, he snapped at the referee, "Well, why do n't you just give the guy a hundred now and we 'll all go home! '' Neither referee had ever been a lead official before, and Imhoff privately wished a stronger lead was working the game. By halftime, the Warriors had lost some of their edge, but still led 79 -- 68. Chamberlain 's point total stood at 41. The Warriors felt little excitement, as he had scored 60 or more points on 15 previous occasions. "I often came into the locker room with 30 or 35 points, therefore, 41 points was not a big deal '', Chamberlain later explained. During halftime, the Warriors ' Guy Rodgers said, "Let 's get the ball to Dip. Let 's see how many he can get. '' McGuire agreed.
This simple tactic proved unstoppable. Soon, he had surpassed the 50 - point barrier, causing arena speaker Dave Zinkoff to fire up the previously sleepy crowd. Chamberlain also kept his cool despite getting perpetually triple and quadruple - teamed by the Knicks, who did not shy away from hard fouls to distract the center. McGuire was irate and demanded that the referees call more fouls, but Chamberlain could not be stopped. He scored another 28 points to lift his Warriors to a commanding 125 -- 106 lead by the end of the third quarter. His own total stood at 69, nine shy of his previous scoring record. The Knicks ' third center, Dave Budd, who alternated with the foul - troubled Imhoff at pivot, later stated that resistance was futile: "You could n't play (Chamberlain) conventionally because he was so big. The only thing you could attempt to do was either front him, and in that case they 'd try to lob it in to him, or beat him down the floor and set up where he wanted to get and force him out a couple of extra steps. The guy weighed 300 or 270 (pounds), so that was n't easy, either. '' Chamberlain now realized he could break his own 73 - point scoring record (for a regulation 48 - minute game) or his record 78 points, set in triple overtime.
Dave Zinkoff, the public address announcer, began announcing Chamberlain 's point total after each of his baskets. With ten minutes to play in the game, Warriors forward Tom Meschery sensed the team concept breaking down. The team 's offense had shifted to getting Chamberlain the ball and then stopping and watching instead of cutting and moving without the ball. Chamberlain needed 25 points with eight minutes remaining to reach 100, a rate equivalent to 150 points in a full game. He scored his 79th point with 7: 51 left, breaking his own record and sending the crowd into a frenzy. The 4,124 spectators screamed, "Give it to Wilt! Give it to Wilt! '' After he reached 80, the crowd yelled for 100. Chamberlain thought, "Man, these people are tough. I 'm tired. I 've got 80 points and no one has ever scored 80. '' The Warriors continued giving Chamberlain the ball. Warrior Al Attles later explained, "We wanted that Wilt got the record, because we all liked him. '' Attles himself led by example, passing up on an easy layup so that Chamberlain could score points 88 and 89, five minutes before the end.
With six minutes remaining, the Knicks began intentionally fouling any Warrior except Chamberlain, keeping the ball out of the center 's hands. New York also began moving the ball slowly and using as much of the shot clock as possible to leave fewer opportunities for Chamberlain to score. Effectively, they played the opposite of what a normal club would do if they faced a deficit, willingly giving up many easy points instead of making attempts to rally back. Meschery said the Warriors lobbed the ball in from the sideline across the floor directly to Chamberlain, who would use his size and strength to get the ball. Chamberlain was the only Warrior to make a field goal in almost four minutes before Meschery made a jump shot at 4: 15. Philadelphia began quickly fouling New York with around four minutes left, reciprocating the intentional foul strategy. Warriors coach Frank McGuire at one point pulled out his entire starting five, save Chamberlain, and replaced them with bench players. The intention was to foul the Knicks, get the ball back after free throws and give Chamberlain the ball. Thus each team spent the last minutes fouling each other. The Warriors ended with 25 personal fouls, and the Knicks with 32, and lost Imhoff and Willie Naulls with six fouls.
With 2: 12 left, Chamberlain had 94 points, and he scored on a fadeaway for his 96th point. His next basket at 1: 19 came off a lob pass from York Larese for a powerful dunk that was rare for Chamberlain. Gary M. Pomerantz in his book Wilt, 1962: The Night of 100 Points and the Dawn of a New Era wrote that Chamberlain 's usual "Dipper Dunk '' was "a considerably less emphatic basket stuff, like a rock that barely ripples the pond. '' With less than a minute left in the game, Chamberlain set up in the post. Ruklick passed to Rodgers, who passed to Chamberlain close to the basket, but he missed the shot. Ted Luckenbill rebounded and passed it back to Chamberlain, who missed again. Luckenbill again rebounded and this time passed to Ruklick, who eschewed an easy layup and instead lobbed a high pass to Chamberlain. With 46 seconds left, Chamberlain got free from the five Knicks, jumped high and put the ball into the basket to hit the century mark. Eyewitness accounts of the historic basket differ as to whether Chamberlain merely laid the ball in or actually stuffed the ball through the hoop for an alley - oop slam dunk. In any event, the arena exploded in a frenzy and over 200 spectators stormed the floor, wanting to touch the hero of the night. Ruklick immediately ran to the scorer 's table to ensure that he was officially credited with the assist.
For years, the belief was that the final 46 seconds of the game were not played after Chamberlain scored his 100th point due to the celebration on the court; Chamberlain himself was quoted as having made that claim. However, recordings from the WCAU radio broadcast include announcer Bill Campbell resuming his play - by - play call after Chamberlain 's 100th point and calling the game to its conclusion. A copy of the radio broadcast of the game was only uncovered in 1988. WCAU 's original game tape had been recorded over by one of its engineers, a standard practice in those days. However, a Philadelphian had recorded with a Dictaphone part of Campbell 's coverage in the fourth quarter, but only the Warriors possessions. Two years later, a reel - to - reel tape of Campbell 's entire fourth quarter call surfaced; Jim Trelease, then a college student at the University of Massachusetts, had recorded a 3 am re-broadcast of the fourth quarter of the game. The NBA merged the reel - to - reel with the Dictaphone tape, which also included a short postgame show. German sports journalist Gunter Bork specified that the interruption resulting from Chamberlain 's 100th point lasted for nine minutes, after which play continued.
Over the years, Harvey Pollack, who at the time was in charge of publicity and statistics for the Warriors, has given conflicting statements on the question. In a 1992 book, he was twice quoted as saying that the game ended with 46 seconds remaining. But in a 2002 interview quoted by Chamberlain biographer Robert Cherry, Pollack said that the last 46 seconds were played, and that Chamberlain just stood in the middle circle, waiting for the game to end and not wanting to touch the ball, as "100 sounded better than 102 ''. The game 's official box score notes that Warrior Joe Ruklick missed two free throws after the break. Ruklick said he planned to miss the second free throw in hopes that Chamberlain might rebound it and get 102 points.
The radio postgame show reported the Warriors defeating the Knicks 169 -- 150. However, the official scorer 's report recorded the game as 169 -- 147, a discrepancy that has never been explained. Chamberlain made 36 of 63 field - goals and 28 of 32 free throws, the latter a far better rate than his roughly 50 % career average. In two earlier games at Hershey that season, Chamberlain had made a combined 27 of 38 free throws, 71 percent. The basket rims at the arena were aged, flimsy, and forgiving. Balls would bounce off of typical firm rims, whereas balls near the rim in Hershey were apt to get a good roll and fall in. Playing all 48 minutes of the game, Chamberlain set NBA records for field goals attempted (63) and made (36), free throws made (28), most points in a quarter (31), and half (59). He averaged 73 points in four games that week, exceeding 60 in all of them.
Rodgers finished with a game - high 20 assists and later said: "It was the easiest game ever for me to get assists, all I had to do was pass it to Wilt. '' Attles was a defensive specialist who rarely scored, yet went 8 -- 8 from the field and hit his single free throw. He later lamented, "In the game where I literally could n't miss, Wilt had to go out and score 100. ''
The Warriors and Knicks combined for a record 316 points. Philadelphia fell short of the Boston Celtics ' then - record of 173 points in a game. It was not uncommon for late - season NBA games to feature little defense. Celtics guard Bob Cousy said that the level of play in the NBA decreased as the season progressed, and "defenses are out of gas '' by the end of the season.
The following night, Chamberlain got permission to travel back to New York with three Knicks players. According to Cherry, Chamberlain drifted in and out of sleep and got a kick overhearing the New York players talk about the "S.O.B. who scored 100 points on us ''. On March 4, the Warriors played the Knicks again in Madison Square Garden, and Imhoff got a standing ovation for "holding '' Chamberlain to 58 points.
The record was not highly anticipated like the four - minute mile had been. In Philadelphia, there was little fanfare in The Philadelphia Inquirer or The Philadelphia Bulletin, which both had a box on the front page announcing the achievement with a story in the sports section. Philadelphia Daily News had no mention on its cover. The Bulletin wrote, "Thus was fulfilled a prophecy made the first time the magnificent 7'1 '' scoring star of the Warriors played a game in the National Basketball Association three years ago. '' New York City papers ran stories from the news agencies. The New York Times and The New York Herald Tribune ran the AP story on pages 14 and 11, respectively. The New York Daily News ran the UPI story on page 26. The New York Post gave prominent back - page coverage to Chamberlain 's feat on Sunday. The New York Daily News on Sunday wrote, "Basketball is not prospering because most normal sized American youngsters or adults can not identify themselves with the freakish stars... You just ca n't sell a seven - foot basket stuffing monster to even the most gullible adolescent. '' In his prime, Chamberlain was such a dominant scorer that his feat was mostly taken for granted. Warriors player Al Attles said that after Chamberlain 's previous record 78 - point game, "It was only a matter of time until he reached 100, you could wait for it. '' Warriors coach Frank McGuire initially thought the same thing, then said, "I always thought it was inevitable that he would do it. But when he did, I stopped and thought about it. I could n't believe it. ''
Chamberlain thanked his teammates. "It would n't even have been close to possible without them. They wanted me to get it as much I did. '' He added, "They had to do more than just give up open shots. They had to avoid fouls and pass me the ball in traffic. '' Knicks ' player Richie Guerin felt the Warriors broke a code of honor in sports by embarrassing an opponent and setting a record outside the normal flow of the game. Although effusive in his praise of Chamberlain, Guerin nonetheless estimated that if the game had played out normally, Chamberlain would have finished 15 to 20 points shy of 100. Chamberlain countered he could have scored 140 if the Knicks "had played straight - up basketball. '' New York coach Eddie Donovan suggested, "The game was a farce. They would foul us and we would foul them. '' The Knicks ' Naulls stated, "The game was not a fluke... I thought it was absolutely authentic. '' Imhoff said Zinkoff 's announcements did not help the Knicks ' cause.
Johnny Kerr of the Syracuse Nationals marveled, "How about this: He 's the world 's worst free - throw shooter and he 's 28 out of 32! '' Cousy figured the game must have gone out of control, just as when Cousy had 29 assists when the Celtics scored 173 points against Minneapolis. Boston coach Red Auerbach laughed, "He 's playing against nobody. '' Bill Russell smiled and said, "The Big Fella finally did it. '' In a conversation with Naulls after the game, Chamberlain predicted he would win his NBA championships but still be known for his individualism, versus Russell who was credited for making his team -- the Boston Celtics -- great. Two days after the historic feat, Chamberlain made a guest appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show.
Chamberlain finished the season with a record of 50.4 points per game. He scored a record 4,029 points, more than the division - winning Warriors in 1947 -- 48 scored as a team. He played in a record 3,882 minutes -- including every minute of 79 (a record) of 80 games. He averaged 48.5 minutes per game. An NBA game is 48 minutes, but Chamberlain played in 10 overtime periods in seven games. He was second in the league in field goal percentage at. 506 and made 61 percent of his free throws, a career high. The Warriors finished the season with a 49 -- 31 record. They lost in the conference finals of the playoffs to the Celtics, losing the seventh game 109 -- 107. The closest Chamberlain came again to 100 was 73 and 72 points the next season, when he also averaged 44.8 points. The NBA in 1964 widened the lane from 12 feet (3.7 m) to 16 feet (4.9 m) to limit Chamberlain, and he averaged 36.9 that season.
The anniversary of the game was not widely commemorated until its silver anniversary in 1987. By that time, the NBA had grown to be a popular sports league with average attendance of 13,000 fans per game and star players like Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, and Michael Jordan. The Warriors ' PR director Harvey Pollack said an impossible 40,000 people claimed to have seen the game, and some even testified it took place in Madison Square Garden. Chamberlain later stated it was one of his favorite games, but not the favorite: that title belonged to the match in which he grabbed an NBA record 55 rebounds against perennial rival Bill Russell. He did not want to feed the criticism that he was more interested in personal stardom than winning. Although Chamberlain won two NBA championships and was the NBA 's all - time leading scorer and rebounder when he retired, he was mostly remembered as the man who had single - handedly scored 100 points in a game. Chamberlain publicly embraced the 100 - point game in his final years. On a radio show commemorating the game 's 31st anniversary in 1993, he said, "As time goes by, I feel more a part of that 100 - point game. '' He explained that growing up on the streets, he would have been derisively labelled a gunner, a glory - hound, for attempting 63 shots. "You take that many shots on the playground, and no one ever wants you on their team again. '' He said he took shots he normally would not, noting that in contests which he considered to be better he scored 50 to 60 points on around 75 percent shooting, as opposed to his 57 percent shooting in the 100 - point game. He was proud that people who knew nothing about basketball would point out the game to their kids when they saw him. "I know that it has been my tag. I am definitely proud of it. But it was definitely a team effort. You had to see some of the things my teammates did to get me the ball... It was almost like a circus out there for a while. ''
Two other participants were profoundly affected. Firstly, Knicks center Darrall Imhoff was branded as the player who let Chamberlain score 100 on him, although he only played 20 of 48 minutes and was not on the court when it happened. On the other hand, the game immortalized little - used Warriors reserve player Joe Ruklick as the man who gave Chamberlain the 100 - point assist. Decades later, The New York Times interviewed Ruklick and found out that he refers to himself as "a walking footnote '' of one of basketball 's greatest moments. The game also produced the famous picture of Chamberlain sitting on a bench, holding up a paper with a scribbled "100 ''. The photograph was actually a matter of improvisation: when Warriors PR manager Harvey Pollack entered the Warriors locker room, he took a paper and scribbled the number on it, and Associated Press photographer Paul Vathis who was there at the game (not for professional reasons, but rather because he wanted to give his son a treat) took the now - famous photo. Cherry calls it the "ultimate picture '' of Wilt Chamberlain.
Chamberlain 's 100 points is widely considered one of basketball 's greatest records. Decades after his record, many NBA teams did not even average 100 points as fewer field goals per game were being attempted. The closest any player has gotten to 100 points was the Los Angeles Lakers ' Kobe Bryant, who scored 81 in a 122 -- 104 win over the Toronto Raptors on January 22, 2006. Whereas Chamberlain was fed repeatedly by teammates for inside shots in a blowout win, Bryant created his own shot -- mostly from the outside -- in a game which the Lakers trailed at halftime by 14 and did not pull away until the fourth quarter. Chamberlain, playing in an era when the games were paced faster and scoring opportunities were more plentiful, accounted for 59 percent of his team 's points, compared to Bryant scoring 66 percent of the Lakers ' 122 points. Bryant afterwards said Chamberlain 's record was "unthinkable... It 's pretty exhausting to think about it. '' David Thompson broke Chamberlain 's record for points in a quarter by scoring 32 in the first quarter of his 73 - point game. Adrian Dantley tied the record of 28 free throws made in a regular season game on January 4, 1984, but through the 2010 -- 11 season, all of Chamberlain 's other records set that day still stand. Twenty years after the Warriors and Knicks combined for 316 points, the San Antonio Spurs defeated the Milwaukee Bucks 171 -- 166 in triple overtime on March 6, 1982, for a total of 337 points. That record was broken more quickly as the Detroit Pistons defeated the Denver Nuggets 186 -- 184 (also in triple overtime) on December 13, 1983, for 370 points.
Pomerantz wrote in his 2005 book that the lack of videotape of the 100 - point game "only added to its mystique. '' For a while, NBA Commissioner David Stern 's office phone would play Campbell 's call of the 100 - point basket to callers on hold: "He made it! He made it! He made it! A Dipper Dunk! '' Kerry Ryman, who was 14 years old when he attended the game, claimed to have left the arena with the basketball that Chamberlain used to score his famous basket. The ball was auctioned by Leland 's Auction in 2000 for $551,844, which was the then - third highest sports memorabilia auction price. After controversy over the ball 's authenticity, the sale was suspended. The ball was relisted months later and sold for only $67,791. Attles contends that Chamberlain gave him the actual 100 - point ball. In 2014, Josh Pastner, then head coach of the Memphis Tigers, stated that his father, who was a ballboy for the Warriors, had taped the game starting in the second quarter. Pastner 's father had been attempting to locate the footage among his many boxes, but he also conceded that the footage might be lost.
In 1961 -- 62, the NBA 's three highest scoring averages were by black players (Chamberlain, Baylor, Walt Bellamy). Oscar Robertson, a Hall of Famer, believes the NBA would have lost its small television contract and not survived without the emergence of black superstars. "People heard about Wilt scoring a 100, averaging 50 a night, and they wanted to see the guy do it... I believe Wilt Chamberlain single - handedly saved the league. '' Naulls wrote, "Wilt had rung the bell of freedom loud and clear, shouting, ' Let my people be free to express themselves. ' For we were and will be for all time those who withstood the humiliation of racial quotas even to the point of the NBA 's facing extinction because of retarded expression and stagnating growth. ''
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what do you call the curved upper surface of water | Meniscus (liquid) - wikipedia
The meniscus (plural: menisci, from the Greek for "crescent '') is the curve in the upper surface of a liquid close to the surface of the container or another object, caused by surface tension. It can be either concave or convex, depending on the liquid and the surface.
A concave meniscus occurs when the particles of the liquid are more strongly attracted to the container (adhesion) than to each other (cohesion), causing the liquid to climb the walls of the container. This occurs between water and glass. Water - based fluids like sap, honey, and milk also have a concave meniscus in glass or other wettable containers.
Conversely, a convex meniscus occurs when the particles in the liquid have a stronger attraction to each other than to the material of the container. Convex menisci occur, for example, between mercury and glass in barometers and thermometers.
The formation of menisci is commonly used in surface science to measure contact angles and surface tension. In a contact angle measurement, the shape of the menisci is measured with a balance or optically with a digital camera. In a surface tension measurement, the measurement probe has a contact angle of zero and the surface tension can be obtained by measuring the mass of the menisci. This is typically done with a Wilhelmy plate.
When reading a depth scale on the side of an instrument filled with liquid, such as a water level device, the meniscus must be taken into account in order to obtain an accurate measurement. Depth must be measured with the meniscus at eye level (to eliminate parallax error) and at the center of the meniscus, i.e. the top of a convex meniscus or the bottom of a concave meniscus.
Manufacturers of glassware and other tools calibrate their measurement marks to account for the meniscus. This means that any instrument is calibrated for a specific liquid, usually water.
Menisci are a manifestation of capillary action, by which surface adhesion pulls a liquid up to form a concave meniscus or internal cohesion pulls the liquid down to form a convex meniscus. This phenomenon is important in transpirational pull in plants. When a tube of a narrow bore, often called a capillary tube, is dipped into a liquid and the liquid wets the tube (with zero contact angle), the liquid surface inside the tube forms a concave meniscus, which is a virtually spherical surface having the same radius, r, as the inside of the tube. The tube experiences a downward force of magnitude 2πrσ, where σ is the surface tension of the liquid.
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where is the pioneer woman filmed in oklahoma | Ree Drummond - wikipedia
Ann Marie "Ree '' Drummond (née Smith, born January 6, 1969) is an award - winning American blogger, No. 1 New York Times bestselling author, food writer, photographer and television personality who lives on a working ranch outside of Pawhuska, Oklahoma. In February 2010, she was listed as No. 22 on Forbes ' Top 25 Web Celebrities -- one of only four women. Her blog, The Pioneer Woman, which documents Drummond 's daily life as a ranch wife and mother, was named Weblog of the Year 2009, 2010 and 2011 at the Annual Weblog Awards (The Bloggies).
Drummond has appeared on Good Morning America, Today Show, The View, The Chew and The Bonnie Hunt Show. She has been featured in Ladies ' Home Journal, Woman 's Day, People and Southern Living. Her first cookbook, The Pioneer Woman Cooks: Recipes from an Accidental Country Girl, was published in October 2009. Her second cookbook, The Pioneer Woman Cooks: Food from My Frontier, was published in March 2012.
Ann Marie, nicknamed Ree, grew up in a home overlooking the grounds of a country club in the oil town of Bartlesville, Oklahoma, with two brothers, Doug and Mike, and a younger sister, Betsy. Mike is developmentally disabled. She graduated from Bartlesville High School in 1987 after which she left Oklahoma to attend college in Los Angeles, California. She graduated from the University of Southern California in 1991, having first studied journalism before switching to gerontology. After graduation she hoped to attend law school in Chicago, but her plans changed unexpectedly when she met and married her husband, Ladd Drummond.
Her father, William Dale Smith, an orthopedic surgeon, and her mother Gerre Schwert are divorced. "Bill '' Smith, as he is more commonly known, later married his current wife, Patsy.
Ree was raised Episcopalian. She is an alumna of Pi Beta Phi Fraternity for Women.
Drummond began blogging in May 2006, initially using the subdomain pioneerwoman.typepad.com within the Typepad blogging service. She registered her own domain -- thepioneerwoman.com -- on October 18, 2006.
Drummond 's wildly successful blog, titled The Pioneer Woman, was originally titled Confessions of a Pioneer Woman. The latter is now the title of a section within the site. The site is hosted by Rackspace.
Drummond writes about topics such as ranch life and homeschooling. About a year after launching her blog, she posted her first recipe and a tutorial on "How to Cook a Steak ''. The tutorial was accompanied by 20 photos explaining the cooking process in what she calls "ridiculous detail ''. Her stories about her husband, family, and country living, and her step - by - step cooking instructions and elaborate food photography, proved highly popular with readers. Confessions of a Pioneer Woman won honors at the Weblog Awards (also known as the Bloggies) in 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2010. In 2009 and 2010 it took the top prize as Weblog of the Year.
As of September 2009, Drummond 's blog reportedly received 13 million page views per month. On May 9, 2011, the blog 's popularity had risen to approximately 23.3 million page views per month and 4.4 million unique visitors. According to an article in The New Yorker, "This is roughly the same number of people who read The Daily Beast ''. An article in the Toronto Globe and Mail described it as "(s) lickly photographed with legions of fans... arguably the mother of all farm girl blogs. '' The blog has been referenced in the Los Angeles Times, The New York Times, and BusinessWeek. In 2009 TIME Magazine named Drummond 's Confessions of a Pioneer Woman one of the "25 Best Blogs '' in the world. Estimates for her site 's income suggest she is making a million dollars or more per year from display (advertisement) income alone.
Drummond 's blog is especially noted for its visually descriptive recipes and high - quality photography.
In April 2008, Drummond held a giveaway contest in the cooking section of her blog The Pioneer Woman in which she asked readers to share one of their favorite recipes. The response was an unexpected 5000 + recipes in less than 24 hours. She realized that she had not only grown a community of loyal readers but a community of food lovers as well. She immediately sought a way to catalog the recipes and make them searchable for all.
A little over a year later, on July 14, 2009, Drummond announced the launch of TastyKitchen.com -- a simple and free online community website with the tag line Favorite Recipes from Real Kitchens Everywhere!. The site was built for her food loving readers as a place where they could easily contribute, search for and print recipes. In addition to sharing recipes, users can create personal membership profiles and communicate with one another via posts and direct messages. Users also have the ability to rate and review recipes.
Tasty Kitchen quickly rose to become a favorite among food bloggers who could link their recipes back to posts on their own websites, thus exposing themselves to a wider readership.
The Pioneer Woman Cooks: Recipes from an Accidental Country Girl Drummond 's first cookbook, The Pioneer Woman Cooks: Recipes from an Accidental Country Girl, was published in October 2009 after reaching the top spot on Amazon.com 's preorder list for hardcover books. A New York Times reviewer described Drummond as "funny, enthusiastic and self - deprecating '', and commented: "Vegetarians and gourmands wo n't find much to cook here, but as a portrait of a real American family kitchen, it works. ''
Black Heels to Tractor Wheels In 2007, Drummond began writing a series on her blog titled From Black Heels to Tractor Wheels. In the series, she chronicled her personal love story detailing how, in the process of relocating from Los Angeles to Chicago, she wound up settling down with a cowboy on a cattle ranch in rural Oklahoma. In February 2011, the series was compiled into a book and published by William Morrow, an imprint of HarperCollins. It quickly rose to No. 2 on both The New York Times Best Seller list for hardcover nonfiction and The Wall Street Journal 's list.
Charlie the Ranch Dog In April 2011, Drummond published a children 's book titled Charlie the Ranch Dog, featuring her family 's beloved Basset Hound Charlie. According to Publishers Weekly, "Adult readers will recognize in Charlie 's voice the understated humor that has made Drummond 's blog so successful; kids should find it irresistible. '' The book was illustrated by Diane deGroat, an illustrator of more than 120 children 's books.
The Pioneer Woman Cooks: Food from My Frontier Drummond 's second cookbook, The Pioneer Woman Cooks: Food from My Frontier, released in March 2012 and was a # 1 New York Times Bestseller.
Charlie and the Christmas Kitty Diane deGroat again illustrates this children book about the family 's Basset Hound. Released in December 2012.
The Pioneer Woman Cooks: A Year of Holidays: 140 Step - by - Step Recipes for Simple, Scrumptious Celebrations A cookbook for holidays throughout the year. Released October 29, 2013.
Charlie and the New Baby Another children 's book about the family 's basset hound, illustrated by Diane deGroat. Released in April 2014.
Drummond made her television debut on an episode of Throwdown! With Bobby Flay when the celebrity chef was challenged by her (in a change from the show 's normal format) to a special Thanksgiving face - off. Flay traveled to her Oklahoma ranch for the event. The episode aired on the Food Network on Wednesday, November 17, 2010. Drummond 's home cooking beat Flay 's gourmet - style spread in a tight contest. Music artist and fellow Oklahoma resident Trisha Yearwood was one of the judges.
In April 2011, the Food Network announced that Drummond would host her own daytime television series on the network. The Pioneer Woman premiered on Saturday, August 27, 2011.
On March 19, 2010, Drummond confirmed media reports that Columbia Pictures had acquired the film rights to her book From Black Heels to Tractor Wheels. The production company was reported to be in talks with Reese Witherspoon to star as Ree in a motion picture based on the book.
On September 21, 1996, Drummond married Ladd Drummond, a fourth - generation member of a prominent Osage County cattle ranching family whom she refers to as "the Marlboro Man '' in her books and her blog. They spent their honeymoon in Australia. They live on a remote working cattle ranch approximately 8 miles west of Pawhuska, Oklahoma with their four children -- Alex, Paige, Bryce and Todd. Alex is currently a student at Texas A&M University while the Drummonds homeschool their younger children.
In late 2016, the Drummonds opened The Mercantile, a restaurant and retail store located in a 100 year old downtown Pawhuska building that they bought and began renovating in 2012.
Seventh Annual Weblog Awards -- The 2007 Bloggies 2007 Best Kept Secret Weblog -- Confessions of a Pioneer Woman (won)
Eighth Annual Weblog Awards -- The 2008 Bloggies 2008 Best Food Weblog -- The Pioneer Woman Cooks (won) 2008 Best Writing of a Weblog -- Confessions of a Pioneer Woman (won)
Ninth Annual Weblog Awards -- The 2009 Bloggies 2009 Weblog of the Year -- Confessions of a Pioneer Woman (won) 2009 Best Designed Weblog -- Confessions of a Pioneer Woman (won) 2009 Best Photography of a Weblog -- Pioneer Woman Photography (won) 2009 Best Food Weblog -- The Pioneer Woman Cooks (nominated) 2009 Most Humorous Weblog -- Confessions of a Pioneer Woman (nominated) 2009 Best Writing of a Weblog -- Confessions of a Pioneer Woman (nominated)
Tenth Annual Weblog Awards -- The 2010 Bloggies 2010 Weblog of the Year -- The Pioneer Woman (won) 2010 Best Writing of a Weblog -- The Pioneer Woman (won) 2010 Best Designed Weblog -- The Pioneer Woman (won)
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when did the irish first come to america | Irish Americans - wikipedia
Irish Americans (Irish: Gael - Mheiriceánaigh) are an ethnic group comprising Americans who have full or partial ancestry from Ireland, especially those who identify with that ancestry, along with their cultural characteristics. About 33 million Americans -- 10.5 % of the total population -- reported Irish ancestry in the 2013 American Community Survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau. This compares with a population of 6.4 million on the island of Ireland. Three million people separately identified as Scots - Irish, whose ancestors were Ulster Scots who emigrated from Ireland to the United States but are considered Irish Americans.
Many colonial settlers coming from the province of Ulster came to be known in the United States as the "Scots - Irish '', although most descendants of the Scots - Irish today identify their ancestry as "American '' or "Irish '', most of them were descendants of Scottish and English tenant farmers who had been settled in Ireland by the British government during the 17th - century Plantation of Ulster. An estimated 250,000 migrated to the United States during the colonial era. Only 20,000 immigrants of these immigrants from Ireland were Catholics -- English, Irish or a few Germans. Catholics numbered 40,000 or 1.6 % of the total population of 2.5 million in 1775. However religious numbers should be noted in context that at this period of time the Roman Catholic religion was proscribed and discouraged and that many Protestants are descendants of Catholics by logical definition. The Scots - Irish settled mainly in the colonial "back country '' of the Appalachian Mountain region, and became the prominent ethnic strain in the culture that developed there. The descendants of Scots - Irish settlers had a great influence on the later culture of the United States through such contributions as American folk music, country and western music, and stock car racing, which became popular throughout the country in the late 20th century.
Irish immigrants of this period participated in significant numbers in the American Revolution, leading one British major general to testify at the House of Commons that "half the rebel Continental Army were from Ireland. '' Irish Americans signed the foundational documents of the United States -- the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution -- and, beginning with Andrew Jackson, served as President.
The early Ulster immigrants and their descendants at first usually referred to themselves simply as "Irish '', without the qualifier "Scotch ''. It was not until more than a century later, following the surge in Irish immigration after the Great Irish Famine of the 1840s, that some descendants of the Protestant Irish began to refer to themselves as "Scots - Irish '' to distinguish them from the predominantly Catholic, and largely destitute, wave of immigrants from Ireland in that era. However, most descendants of the Scots - Irish continued to consider themselves "Irish '' or "American '' rather than Scots - Irish. The two groups had little initial interaction in America, as the 18th - century Ulster immigrants were predominantly Protestant and had become settled largely in upland regions of the American interior, while the huge wave of 19th - century Catholic immigrant families settled primarily in the Northeast and Midwest port cities such as Boston, Philadelphia, New York, Buffalo, or Chicago. However, beginning in the early 19th century, many Irish migrated individually to the interior for work on large - scale infrastructure projects such as canals and, later in the century, railroads.
During the colonial period, Scots - Irish settled in the southern Appalachian backcountry and in the Carolina Piedmont. They became the primary cultural group in these areas, and their descendants were in the vanguard of westward movement through Virginia into Tennessee and Kentucky, and thence into Arkansas, Missouri and Texas. By the 19th century, through intermarriage with settlers of English and German ancestry, the descendants of the Scots - Irish lost their identification with Ireland. "This generation of pioneers... was a generation of Americans, not of Englishmen or Germans or Scots - Irish. ''
In 1820 Irish - born John England became the first Catholic bishop in the mainly Protestant city of Charleston, South Carolina. During the 1820s and ' 30s, Bishop England defended the Catholic minority against Protestant prejudices. In 1831 and 1835, he established free schools for free African American children. Inflamed by the propaganda of the American Anti-Slavery Society, a mob raided the Charleston post office in 1835 and the next day turned its attention to England 's school. England led Charleston 's "Irish Volunteers '' to defend the school. Soon after this, however, all schools for "free blacks '' were closed in Charleston, and England acquiesced.
The Irish Catholics concentrated in a few medium - sized cities, where they were highly visible, especially in Charleston, Savannah and New Orleans. They often became precinct leaders in the Democratic Party Organizations, strongly opposed abolition of slavery, and generally favored preserving the Union in 1860, when they voted for Stephen Douglas.
After secession in 1861, the Irish Catholic community supported the Confederacy and 20,000 served in the Confederate Army. Gleason says:
Support for Irish Confederate soldiers from home was vital both for encouraging them to stay in the army and to highlight to native white southerners that the entire Irish community was behind the Confederacy. Civilian leaders of the Irish and the South did embrace the Confederate national project and most became advocates of a ' hard - war ' policy.
Irish nationalist John Mitchel lived in Tennessee and Virginia during his exile from Ireland and was one of the South 's most outspoken supporters during the American Civil War through his newspapers the Southern Citizen and the Richmond Enquirer.
Although most began as unskilled laborers, Irish Catholics in the South achieved average or above average economic status by 1900. David T. Gleeson emphasizes how well they were accepted by society:
Native tolerance, however, was also a very important factor in Irish integration (into Southern society)... Upper - class southerners, therefore, did not object to the Irish, because Irish immigration never threatened to overwhelm their cities or states... The Irish were willing to take on potentially high - mortality occupations, thereby sparing valuable slave property. Some employers objected not only to the cost of Irish labor but also to the rowdiness of their foreign - born employees. Nevertheless, they recognized the importance of the Irish worker to the protection of slavery... The Catholicism practiced by Irish immigrants was of little concern to Southern natives.
Irish immigration had greatly increased beginning in the 1820s due to the need for labor in canal building, lumbering, and civil construction works in the Northeast. The large Erie Canal project was one such example where Irishmen were many of the laborers. Small but tight communities developed in growing cities such as Philadelphia, Boston, New York and Providence.
From 1820 to 1860, 1,956,557 Irish arrived, 75 % of these after the Great Irish Famine (or The Great Hunger, Irish: An Gorta Mór) of 1845 -- 1852, struck.
Of the total Irish immigrants to the U.S. from 1820 to 1860, many died crossing the ocean due to disease and dismal conditions of what became known as coffin ships.
Most Irish immigrants to the United States during this period favored large cities because they could create their own communities for support and protection in a new environment. Another reason for this trend was that many Irish immigrants could not afford to move inland and had to settle close to the ports at which they arrived. Cities with large numbers of Irish immigrants included Boston, Philadelphia, and New York, as well as Pittsburgh, Baltimore, Detroit, Chicago, Cleveland, St. Louis, St. Paul, San Francisco, and Los Angeles.
While many Irish did stay near large cities, countless others were part of westward expansion. They were enticed by tales of gold, and by the increasing opportunities for work and land. In 1854, the government opened Kansas Territory to settlers. While many people in general moved to take advantage of the unsettled land, Irish were an important part. Many Irish men were physical laborers. In order to civilize the west, many strong men were needed to build the towns and cities. Kansas City was one city that was built by Irish immigrants. Much of its population today is of Irish descent. Another reason for Irish migration west was the expansion of railroads. Railway work was a common occupation among immigrant men because workers were in such high demand. Many Irish men followed the expansion of railroads, and ended up settling in places that they built in. Since the Irish were a large part of those Americans moving west, much of their culture can still be found today.
The Irish were having a huge impact on America as a whole. In 1910, there were more people in New York City of Irish ancestry than Dublin 's whole population, and even today, many of these cities still retain a substantial Irish American community. Mill towns such as Lawrence, Lowell, and Pawtucket attracted many Irish women in particular. The anthracite Coal Region of northeastern Pennsylvania saw a massive influx of Irish during this time period; conditions in the mines eventually gave rise to groups such as the Molly Maguires. The best urban economic opportunities for unskilled Irish women and men included "factory and millwork, domestic service, and the physical labor of public work projects. ''
During the mid-1900s Irish immigration to the United States began to decrease. From the years of 1941 -- 1950, there were only 1,000,000 immigrants in total, and only 68,151 of them were coming from Ireland. These immigrants from Ireland were coming to the U.S. for the same reasons as those before them; they came looking for jobs.
A second wave of post-famine Irish immigration, resulting largely from a changing rural economy and the lure of high - paying jobs in America, continued from 1855 to 1921, when the Emergency Immigration Acts of 1921 and 1924 imposed a "quota system '' that significantly limited immigration. These later immigrants mostly settled in industrial towns and cities of the Northeastern, Mid-Atlantic, and Midwestern United States where Irish American neighborhoods had previously been established.
During the American Civil War, Irish Americans volunteered in high numbers for the Union Army, and at least 38 Union regiments had the word "Irish '' in their title. 144,221 Union soldiers were born in Ireland; additionally, perhaps an equal number were of Irish descent. Many immigrant soldiers formed their own regiments, such as the Irish Brigade.
General John McCausland was a notable brigadier general for the Confederate States Army during the Civil War. He was the son of an Irish immigrant.
However, conscription was resisted by many Irish Catholics as an imposition. When the conscription law was passed in 1863, major draft riots erupted in New York. It coincided with the efforts of the city 's dominant political machine, Tammany Hall, to enroll Irish immigrants as citizens so they could vote in local elections. Many such immigrants suddenly discovered they were now expected to fight for their new country. The Irish, employed primarily as laborers, were usually unable to afford the $300 as a "commutation fee '' to procure a replacement for service. Many of the Irish viewed blacks as competition for scarce jobs, and as the reason why the Civil War was being fought. African Americans who fell into the mob 's hands were often beaten or killed. The Colored Orphan Asylum on Fifth Avenue, which provided shelter for hundreds of children, was attacked by a mob. It was seen as a "symbol of white charity to blacks and of black upward mobility, '' reasons enough for its destruction at the hands of a predominantly Irish mob which looked upon African Americans as direct social and economic competitors. Fortunately, the largely Irish - American police force was able to secure the orphanage for enough time to allow orphans to escape.
In the Confederacy, the Irish Catholics were first reluctant to support secession; most voted for Stephen Douglas in 1860 presidential election. However several bishops were enthusiastic supporters of the Confederacy, and the Irish volunteered for service. Gleeson wrote that they had higher desertion rates than non-Irish, and sometimes switched sides, suggesting a tepid support for the Confederacy. During Reconstruction, however, they took a strong position in favor of white supremacy, and played major roles in attacking blacks in riots in Memphis and New Orleans.
In 1871, New York 's Orange Riots resulted from Irish Protestants celebrating the British victory at the Battle of the Boyne with parades through Irish Catholic neighborhoods, taunting the residents who then responded with violence. Police Superintendent James J. Kelso, a Protestant, ordered the parade cancelled as a threat to public safety. Kelso was overruled by the governor, who ordered out 5000 militia to protect the marchers. The Catholics attacked but were stopped by the militia and police, who opened fire killing about 63 Catholics.
Relations between the U.S. and Britain were chilly during the 1860s as Americans resented British and Canadian support for the Confederacy during the Civil War. After the war American authorities looked the other way as Irish Catholic "Fenians '' plotted and even attempted an invasion of Canada. The Fenians proved a failure, but Irish Catholic politicians, a growing power in the Democratic Party, demanded more independence for Ireland and made anti-British rhetoric -- called "twisting the lion 's tail '' -- a staple of election campaign appeals to the Irish Catholic vote.
The Irish - American immigration of women
The Irish people were the first of many to immigrate to the U.S. in mass waves, including large groups of single young women between the ages of 16 and 24. Up until this point, free women who settled in the colonies mostly came after their husbands had already made the journey and could afford their trip, or were brought over to be married to an eligible colonist who paid for their journey. Many Irish fled their home country to escape unemployment and starvation during the Great Irish Famine. The richest of the Irish resettled in England, where their skilled work was greatly accepted, but lower class Irish and women could find little work in Western Europe, leading them to cross the Atlantic in search of greater financial opportunities.
Women at this time were largely considered to be "unskilled '' workers. Many Irish women would resort to working in factories doing "slopwork '' for very low wages. Working in a factory meant long hours in deplorable conditions and more often than not Irish women were verbally and sexually assaulted by their managers. Some Irish women resorted to prostitution in higher populated cities such as Boston, MA and New York City, NY. Most of the single Irish women preferred service labor as a form of income. These women made a higher wage than most by serving the middle and high - class in their own homes as nannies, cooks and cleaners. The wages for domestic service may have been higher than that of factory workers, but the freedoms were virtually nonexistent as women were made to live with their employers family and work around the clock. By 1870, forty percent of Irish women worked as domestic servants in New York City, making them over fifty percent of the service industry at the time.
Irish men and women both had a hard time finding skilled work in the U.S. due to the stigmas of being both Irish as well as Catholic. Prejudices ran deep in the north and could be seen in newspaper cartoons depicting Irish men as drunkards and Irish women as prostitutes. Many businesses hung signs out front of their shops that read "No Irish Need Apply '', or "NINA '' for short. The initial backlash the Irish received in America lead to their self - imposed seclusion, making assimilation into society a long and painful process.
Down to the end of the 19th century a large number of Irish immigrants arrived speaking Irish as their first language. This continued to be the case with immigrants from certain counties even in the 20th century. The Irish language was first mentioned as being spoken in North America in the 17th century. Large numbers of Irish emigrated to America throughout the 18th century, bringing the language with them, and it was particularly strong in Pennsylvania. It was also widely spoken in such places as New York City, where it proved a useful recruiting tool for Loyalists during the American Revolution.
Irish speakers continued to arrive in large numbers throughout the 19th century, particularly after the Famine. There was a certain amount of literacy in Irish, as shown by the many Irish - language manuscripts which immigrants brought with them. In 1881 An Gaodhal was founded, being the first newspaper in the world to be largely in Irish. It continued to be published into the 20th century, and now has an online successor in An Gael, an international literary magazine. A number of Irish immigrant newspapers in the 19th and 20th centuries had Irish language columns.
Irish immigrants fell into three linguistic categories: monolingual Irish speakers, bilingual speakers of both Irish and English, and monolingual English speakers. Estimates indicate that there were around 400,000 Irish speakers in the United States in the 1890s, located primarily in New York City, Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago and Yonkers. The Irish - speaking population of New York reached its height in this period, when speakers of Irish numbered between 70,000 and 80,000. This number declined during the early 20th century, dropping to 40,000 in 1939, 10,000 in 1979, and 5,000 in 1995.
According to the latest census, the Irish language ranks 66th out of the 322 languages spoken today in the U.S., with over 25,000 speakers. New York state has the most Irish speakers of the 50 states, and Massachusetts the highest percentage.
Daltaí na Gaeilge, a nonprofit Irish language advocacy group based in Elberon, New Jersey, estimated that about 30,000 people spoke the language in America as of 2006. This, the organization claimed, was a remarkable increase from only a few thousand at the time of the group 's founding in 1981.
Before 1800, significant numbers of Irish Protestant immigrants became farmers; many headed to the frontier where land was cheap or free and it was easier to start a farm or herding operation. Many Irish Protestants and Catholics alike were indentured servants, unable to pay their own passage or sentenced to servitude.
After 1840, most Irish Catholic immigrants went directly to the cities, mill towns, and railroad or canal construction sites on the East Coast. In upstate New York, the Great Lakes area, the Midwest and the Far West, many became farmers or ranchers. In the East, male Irish laborers were hired by Irish contractors to work on canals, railroads, streets, sewers and other construction projects, particularly in New York state and New England. The Irish men also worked in these labor positions in the mid-west. They worked to construct towns where there had been none previously. Kansas city was one such town, and eventually became an important cattle town and railroad center. Labor positions were n't the only occupations for Irish though. Some moved to New England mill towns, such as Holyoke, Lowell, Taunton, Brockton, Fall River, and Milford, Massachusetts, where owners of textile mills welcomed the new low - wage workers. They took the jobs previously held by Yankee women known as Lowell girls. A large fraction of Irish Catholic women took jobs as maids in hotels and private households.
Large numbers of unemployed or very poor Irish Catholics lived in squalid conditions in the new city slums and tenements.
Single, Irish immigrant women quickly assumed jobs in high demand but for very low pay. The majority of them worked in mills, factories, and private households and were considered the bottommost group in the female job hierarchy, alongside African American women. Workers considered mill work in cotton textiles and needle trades the least desirable because of the dangerous and unpleasant conditions. Factory work was primarily a worst - case scenario for widows or daughters of families already involved in the industry. Unlike many other immigrants, Irish women preferred domestic work because it was constantly in great demand among middle - and upper - class American households. Although wages differed across the country, they were consistently higher than those of the other occupations available to Irish women and could often be negotiated because of the lack of competition. Also, the working conditions in well - off households were significantly better than those of factories or mills, and free room and board allowed domestic servants to save money or send it back to their families in Ireland.
Despite some of the benefits of domestic work, Irish women 's job requirements were difficult and demeaning. Subject to their employers around the clock, Irish women cooked, cleaned, babysat and more. Because most servants lived in the home where they worked, they were separated from their communities. Most of all, the American stigma on domestic work suggested that Irish women were failures who had "about the same intelligence as that of an old grey - headed negro. '' This quote illustrates how, in a period of extreme racism towards African Americans, society similarly viewed Irish immigrants as inferior beings.
Although the Irish Catholics started very low on the social status scale, by 1900 they had jobs and earnings about equal on average to their neighbors. This was largely due to their ability to speak English when they arrived. The Irish were able to rise quickly within the working world, unlike non-English speaking immigrants. Yet there were still many shanty and lower working class communities in Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, New York, and other parts of the country.
After 1945, the Catholic Irish consistently ranked at the top of the social hierarchy, thanks especially to their high rate of college attendance, and due to that many Irish American men have risen to higher socio - economic table.
Irish immigrants found employment in the police departments, fire departments and other public services of major cities, largely in the Northeast and around the Great Lakes. By 1855, according to New York Police Commissioner George W. Matsell (1811 -- 1877), almost 17 percent of the police department 's officers were Irish - born (compared to 28.2 percent of the city) in a report to the Board of Aldermen; of the NYPD 's 1,149 men, Irish - born officers made up 304 of 431 foreign - born policemen. In the 1860s more than half of those arrested in New York City were Irish born or of Irish descent but nearly half of the city 's law enforcement officers were also Irish. By the turn of the 20th century, five out of six NYPD officers were Irish born or of Irish descent. As late as the 1960s, 42 % of the NYPD were Irish Americans.
Up to the 20th and early 21st century, Irish Catholics continue to be prominent in the law enforcement community, especially in the Northeastern United States. The Emerald Society, an Irish American fraternal organization, was founded in 1953 by the NYPD. When the Boston chapter of the Emerald Society formed in 1973, half of the city 's police officers became members.
Towards the end of the 19th century, schoolteaching became the most desirable occupation for the second generation of female Irish immigrants. Teaching was similar to domestic work for the first generation of Irish immigrants in that it was a popular job and one that relied on a woman 's decision to remain unmarried. The disproportionate number of Irish - American Catholic women who entered the job market as teachers in the late 19th century and early 20th century from Boston to San Francisco was a beneficial result of the Irish National school system. Irish schools prepared young single women to support themselves in a new country, which inspired them to instill the importance of education, college training, and a profession in their American - born daughters even more than in their sons. Evidence from schools in New York City illustrate the upward trend of Irish women as teachers: "as early as 1870, twenty percent of all schoolteachers were Irish women, and... by 1890 Irish females comprised two - thirds of those in the Sixth Ward schools. '' Irish women attained admirable reputations as schoolteachers, which enabled some to pursue professions of even higher stature.
Upon arrival in the United States, many Irish women became Catholic nuns and participated in the many American sisterhoods, especially those in St. Louis in Missouri, St. Paul in Minnesota, and Troy in New York. Additionally, the women who settled in these communities were often sent back to Ireland to recruit. This kind of religious lifestyle appealed to Irish female immigrants because they outnumbered their male counterparts and the Irish cultural tendency to postpone marriage often promoted gender separation and celibacy. Furthermore, "the Catholic church, clergy, and women religious were highly respected in Ireland, '' making the sisterhoods particularly attractive to Irish immigrants. Nuns provided extensive support for Irish immigrants in large cities, especially in fields such as nursing and teaching but also through orphanages, widows ' homes, and housing for young, single women in domestic work. Although many Irish communities built parish schools run by nuns, the majority of Irish parents in large cities in the East enrolled their children in the public school system, where daughters or granddaughters of Irish immigrants had already established themselves as teachers.
Religion has been important to the Irish American identity in America, and continues to play a major role in their communities. Irish Americans today are predominantly Protestant with a Catholic minority. The Protestants ' ancestors arrived primarily in the colonial era, while Catholics are primarily descended from immigrants of the 19th century. Irish leaders have been prominent in the Catholic Church in the United States for over 150 years. The Irish have been leaders in the Presbyterian and Methodist traditions, as well.
Surveys in the 1990s show that of Americans who identify themselves as "Irish '', 51 % said they were Protestant and 36 % identified as Catholic. In the South, Protestants account for 73 % of those claiming Irish origins, while Catholics account for 19 %. It is common for Protestant Scotch - Irish Americans to call themselves "Irish '', in particular because most immigration to colonial America was of Protestant settlers, so there was no need to distinguish themselves from Irish Catholics. In the North, 45 % of those claiming Irish origin are Catholic, while 39 % are Protestant. Many African Americans and Native Americans claim Irish Protestant or Scots - Irish ancestry.
Between 1607 and 1820, the majority of emigrants from Ireland to America were Protestants who were described simply as "Irish ''. The religious distinction became important after 1820, when large numbers of Irish Catholics began to emigrate to the United States. Some of the descendants of the colonial Irish Protestant settlers from Ulster began thereafter to redefine themselves as "Scotch Irish '', to stress their historic origins, and distanced themselves from Irish Catholics; others continued to call themselves Irish, especially in areas of the South which saw little Irish Catholic immigration. By 1830, Irish diaspora demographics had changed rapidly, with over 60 % of all Irish settlers in the US being Catholics from rural areas of Ireland.
Some Protestant Irish immigrants became active in explicitly anti-Catholic organizations such as the Orange Institution and the American Protective Association. However, participation in the Orange Institution was never as large in the United States as it was in Canada. In the early nineteenth century, the post-Revolutionary republican spirit of the new United States attracted exiled United Irishmen such as Theobald Wolf Tone and others, with the presidency of Andrew Jackson exemplifying this attitude. Most Protestant Irish immigrants in the first several decades of the nineteenth century were those who held to the republicanism of the 1790s, and who were unable to accept Orangeism. Loyalists and Orangemen made up a minority of Irish Protestant immigrants to the United States during this period. Most of the Irish loyalist emigration was bound for Upper Canada and the Canadian Maritime provinces, where Orange lodges were able to flourish under the British flag.
By 1870, when there were about 930 Orange lodges in the Canadian province of Ontario, there were only 43 in the entire eastern United States. These few American lodges were founded by newly arriving Protestant Irish immigrants in coastal cities such as Philadelphia and New York. These ventures were short - lived and of limited political and social impact, although there were specific instances of violence involving Orangemen between Catholic and Protestant Irish immigrants, such as the Orange Riots in New York City in 1824, 1870 and 1871.
The first "Orange riot '' on record was in 1824, in Abingdon Square, New York, resulting from a 12 July march. Several Orangemen were arrested and found guilty of inciting the riot. According to the State prosecutor in the court record, "the Orange celebration was until then unknown in the country. '' The immigrants involved were admonished: "In the United States the oppressed of all nations find an asylum, and all that is asked in return is that they become law - abiding citizens. Orangemen, Ribbonmen, and United Irishmen are alike unknown. They are all entitled to protection by the laws of the country. ''
The later Orange Riots of 1870 and 1871 killed nearly 70 people, and were fought out between Irish Protestant and Catholic immigrants. After this the activities of the Orange Order were banned for a time, the Order dissolved, and most members joined Masonic orders. After 1871, there were no more riots between Irish Catholics and Protestants.
America offered a new beginning, and "... most descendents of the Ulster Presbyterians of the eighteenth century and even many new Protestant Irish immigrants turned their backs on all associations with Ireland and melted into the American Protestant mainstream. ''
Irish priests (especially Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustinians and Capuchins) came to the large cities of the East in the 1790s, and when new dioceses were erected in 1808 the first bishop of New York was an Irishman in recognition of the contribution of the early Irish clergy.
Saint Patrick 's Battalion (San Patricios) was a group of several hundred immigrant soldiers, the majority Irish, who deserted the U.S. Army during the Mexican -- American War because of ill treatment or sympathetic leanings to fellow Mexican Catholics. They joined the Mexican army.
In Boston between 1810 and 1840 there had been serious tensions between the bishop and the laity who wanted to control the local parishes. By 1845, the Catholic population in Boston had increased to 30,000 from around 5,000 in 1825, due to the influx of Irish immigrants. With the appointment of John B. Fitzpatrick as bishop in 1845, tensions subsided as the increasingly Irish Catholic community grew to support Fitzpatrick 's assertion of the bishop 's control of parish government.
In New York, Archbishop John Hughes (1797 -- 1864), an Irish immigrant himself, was deeply involved in "the Irish question '' -- Irish independence from British rule. Hughes supported Daniel O'Connell 's Catholic emancipation movement in Ireland, but rejected such radical and violent societies as the Young Irelanders and the National Brotherhood. Hughes also disapproved of American Irish radical fringe groups, urging immigrants to assimilate themselves into American life while remaining patriotic to Ireland "only individually ''. In Hughes 's view, a large - scale movement to form Irish settlements in the western United States was too isolationist and ultimately detrimental to immigrants ' success in the New World.
In the 1840s, Hughes crusaded for public - funded Irish Schools modeled after the successful Irish public school system in Lowell, Massachusetts. Hughes denounced the Public School Society of New York as an extension of an Old - World struggle whose outcome was directed not by understanding of the basic problems but, rather, by mutual mistrust and violently inflamed emotions. For Irish Catholics, the motivation lay largely in memory of British oppression, while their antagonists were dominated by the English Protestant historic fear of papal interference in civil affairs. Because of the vehemence of this quarrel, the New York Legislature passed the Maclay Act in 1842, giving New York City an elective Board of Education empowered to build and supervise schools and distribute the education fund -- but with the proviso that none of the money should go to schools which taught religion. Hughes responded by building an elaborate parochial school system that stretched to the college level, setting a policy followed in other large cities. Efforts to get city or state funding failed because of vehement Protestant opposition to a system that rivaled the public schools.
In the west, Catholic Irish were having a large effect as well. The open west attracted many Irish immigrants. Many of these immigrants were Catholic. When they migrated west, they would form "little pockets '' with other Irish immigrants. Irish Catholic communities were made in "supportive, village style neighborhoods centered around a Catholic church and called ' parishes ' ''. These neighborhoods affected the overall lifestyle and atmosphere of the communities. Other ways religion played a part in these towns was the fact that many were started by Irish Catholic priests. Father Bernard Donnelly started "Town of Kansas '' which would later become Kansas City. His influence over early stages Kansas City was great, and so the Catholic religion was spread to other settlers who arrived. While not all settlers became Catholics, a great number of the early settlers were Catholic. In other western communities, Irish priests wanted to convert the Native Americans to Catholicism. These Catholic Irish would contribute not only to the growth of Catholic population in America, but to the values and traditions in America.
Jesuits established a network of colleges in major cities, including Boston College, Fordham University in New York, and Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. Fordham was founded in 1841 and attracted students from other regions of the United States, and even South America and the Caribbean. At first exclusively a liberal arts institution, it built a science building in 1886, lending more legitimacy to science in the curriculum there. In addition, a three - year bachelor of science degree was created. Boston College, by contrast, was established over twenty years later in 1863 to appeal to urban Irish Catholics. It offered a rather limited intellectual curriculum, however, with the priests at Boston College prioritizing spiritual and sacramental activities over intellectual pursuits. One consequence was that Harvard Law School would not admit Boston College graduates to its law school. Modern Jesuit leadership in American academia was not to become their hallmark across all institutions until the 20th century.
The Irish became prominent in the leadership of the Catholic Church in the U.S. by the 1850s -- by 1890 there were 7.3 million Catholics in the U.S. and growing, and most bishops were Irish. As late as the 1970s, when Irish were 17 % of American Catholics, they were 35 % of the priests and 50 % of the bishops, together with a similar proportion of presidents of Catholic colleges and hospitals.
The Scots - Irish who settled in the back country of colonial America were largely Presbyterians. The establishment of many settlements in the remote back - country put a strain on the ability of the Presbyterian Church to meet the new demand for qualified, college - educated clergy. Religious groups such as the Baptists and Methodists did not require higher education of their ministers, so they could more readily supply ministers to meet the demand of the growing Scots - Irish settlements. By about 1810, Baptist and Methodist churches were in the majority, and the descendants of the Scotch - Irish today remain predominantly Baptist or Methodist. They were avid participants in the revivals taking place during the Great Awakening from the 1740s to the 1840s. They take pride in their Irish heritage because they identify with the values ascribed to the Scotch - Irish who played a major role in the American Revolution and in the development of American culture.
The first Presbyterian community in America was established in 1640 in Southampton, Long Island New York. Francis Makemie, an Irish Presbyterian immigrant later established churches in Maryland and Virginia. Makemie was born and raised near Ramelton, County Donegal, to Ulster Scots parents. He was educated in the University of Glasgow and set out to organize and initiate the construction of several Presbyterian Churches throughout Maryland and Virginia. By 1706, Makemie and his followers constructed a Presbyterian Church in Rehobeth, Maryland. In 1707, after traveling to New York to establish a presbytery, Francis Makemie was charged with preaching without a license by the English immigrant and Governor of New York, Edward Hyde. Makemie won a vital victory for the fight of religious freedom for Scots - Irish immigrants when he was acquitted and gained recognition for having "stood up to Anglican authorities ''. Makemie became one of the wealthiest immigrants to colonial America, owning more than 5,000 acres and 33 slaves.
New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey, later renamed Princeton University, in 1746 in order to train ministers dedicated to their views. The college was the educational and religious capital of Scots - Irish America. By 1808, loss of confidence in the college within the Presbyterian Church led to the establishment of the separate Princeton Theological Seminary, but deep Presbyterian influence at the college continued through the 1910s, as typified by university president Woodrow Wilson.
Out on the frontier, the Scots - Irish Presbyterians of the Muskingum Valley in Ohio established Muskingum College at New Concord in 1837. It was led by two clergymen, Samuel Wilson and Benjamin Waddle, who served as trustees, president, and professors during the first few years. During the 1840s and 1850s the college survived the rapid turnover of very young presidents who used the post as a stepping stone in their clerical careers, and in the late 1850s it weathered a storm of student protest. Under the leadership of L.B.W. Shryock during the Civil War, Muskingum gradually evolved from a local and locally controlled institution to one serving the entire Muskingum Valley. It is still affiliated with the Presbyterian church.
Brought up in a Scots - Irish Presbyterian home, Cyrus McCormick of Chicago developed a strong sense of devotion to the Presbyterian Church. Throughout his later life, he used the wealth gained through invention of the mechanical reaper to further the work of the church. His benefactions were responsible for the establishment in Chicago of the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of the Northwest (after his death renamed the McCormick Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian Church). He assisted the Union Presbyterian Seminary in Richmond, Virginia. He also supported a series of religious publications, beginning with the Presbyterian Expositor in 1857 and ending with the Interior (later called The Continent), which his widow continued until her death.
Irish immigrants were the first immigrant group to America to build and organize Methodist churches. Many of the early Irish immigrants who did so came from a German - Irish background. Barbara Heck, an Irish woman of German descent from County Limerick, Ireland, immigrated to America in 1760, with her husband, Paul. She is often considered to be the "Mother of American Methodism. '' Heck guided and mentored her cousin, Philip Embury, who was also an "Irish Palatine '' immigrant. Heck and Embury constructed the John Street Methodist Church, which today is usually recognized as the oldest Methodist Church in the United States. However, another church constructed by prominent Irish Methodist immigrant, Robert Strawbridge, may have preceded the John Street Methodist Church.
Catholics and Protestants kept their distance; intermarriage between Catholics and Protestants was uncommon, and strongly discouraged by both Protestant ministers and Catholic priests. As Dolan notes, "' Mixed marriages ', as they were called, were allowed in rare cases, were warned against repeatedly, and were uncommon. '' Rather, intermarriage was primarily with other ethnic groups who shared their religion. Irish Catholics, for example, would commonly intermarry with German Catholics or Poles in the Midwest and Italians in the Northeast.
Irish - American journalists "scoured the cultural landscape for evidence of insults directed at the Irish in America. '' Much of what historians know about hostility to the Irish comes from their reports in Irish and in Democratic newspapers.
While the parishes were struggling to build parochial schools, many Catholic children attended public schools. The Protestant King James Version of the Bible was widely used in public schools, but Catholics were forbidden by their church from reading or reciting from it. Many Irish children complained that Catholicism was openly mocked in the classroom. In New York City, the curriculum vividly portrayed Catholics, and specifically the Irish, as villainous. The Catholic archbishop John Hughes, an immigrant to America from County Tyrone, Ireland, campaigned for public funding of Catholic education in response to the bigotry. While never successful in obtaining public money for private education, the debate with the city 's Protestant elite spurred by Hughes ' passionate campaign paved the way for the secularization of public education nationwide. In addition, Catholic higher education expanded during this period with colleges and universities that evolved into such institutions as Fordham University and Boston College providing alternatives to Irish who were not otherwise permitted to apply to other colleges.
Prejudice against Irish Catholics in the U.S. reached a peak in the mid-1850s with the Know Nothing Movement, which tried to oust Catholics from public office. After a year or two of local success, the Know Nothing Party vanished. Some historians, however, maintain that actual job discrimination was minimal.
Many Irish work gangs were hired by contractors to build canals, railroads, city streets and sewers across the country. In the South, they underbid slave labor. One result was that small cities that served as railroad centers came to have large Irish populations.
In 1895, the Knights of Equity was founded, to combat discrimination against Irish Catholics in the U.S., and to assist them financially when needed.
Irish Catholics were popular targets for stereotyping in the 19th century. According to historian George Potter, the media often stereotyped the Irish in America as being boss - controlled, violent (both among themselves and with those of other ethnic groups), voting illegally, prone to alcoholism and dependent on street gangs that were often violent or criminal. Potter quotes contemporary newspaper images:
You will scarcely ever find an Irishman dabbling in counterfeit money, or breaking into houses, or swindling; but if there is any fighting to be done, he is very apt to have a hand in it. '' Even though Pat might "' meet with a friend and for love knock him down, ' '' noted a Montreal paper, the fighting usually resulted from a sudden excitement, allowing there was "but little ' malice prepense ' in his whole composition. '' The Catholic Telegraph of Cincinnati in 1853, saying that the "name of ' Irish ' has become identified in the minds of many, with almost every species of outlawry, '' distinguished the Irish vices as "not of a deep malignant nature, '' arising rather from the "transient burst of undisciplined passion, '' like "drunk, disorderly, fighting, etc., not like robbery, cheating, swindling, counterfeiting, slandering, calumniating, blasphemy, using obscene language, &c.
The Irish had many humorists of their own, but were scathingly attacked in political cartoons, especially those in Puck magazine from the 1870s to 1900; it was edited by secular Germans who opposed the Catholic Irish in politics. In addition, the cartoons of Thomas Nast were especially hostile; for example, he depicted the Irish - dominated Tammany Hall machine in New York City as a ferocious tiger.
The stereotype of the Irish as violent drunks has lasted well beyond its high point in the mid-19th century. For example, President Richard Nixon once told advisor Charles Colson that "(t) he Irish have certain -- for example, the Irish ca n't drink. What you always have to remember with the Irish is they get mean. Virtually every Irish I 've known gets mean when he drinks. Particularly the real Irish. ''
Discrimination against Irish Americans differed depending on gender. For example, Irish women were sometimes stereotyped as "reckless breeders '' because some American Protestants feared high Catholic birth rates would eventually result in a Protestant minority. Many native - born Americans claimed that "their incessant childbearing (would) ensure an Irish political takeover of American cities (and that) Catholicism would become the reigning faith of the hitherto Protestant nation. '' Irish men were also targeted, but in a different way than women were. The difference between the Irish female "Bridget '' and the Irish male "Pat '' was distinct; while she was impulsive but fairly harmless, he was "always drunk, eternally fighting, lazy, and shiftless ''. In contrast to the view that Irish women were shiftless, slovenly and stupid (like their male counterparts), girls were said to be "industrious, willing, cheerful, and honest -- they work hard, and they are very strictly moral ''.
There were also Darwinian - inspired excuses for the discrimination of the Irish in America. Many Americans believed that since the Irish were Celts and not Anglo - Saxons, they were racially inferior and deserved second - hand citizenship. The Irish being of inferior intelligence was a belief held by many Americans. This notion was held due to the fact that the Irish topped the charts demographically in terms of arrests and imprisonment. They also had more people confined to insane asylums and poorhouses than any other group. The racial supremacy belief that many Americans had at the time contributed significantly to Irish discrimination.
Many people of Irish descent retain a sense of their Irish heritage. Article 2 of the Constitution of Ireland formally recognizes and embraces this fact:
... the Irish Nation cherishes its special affinity with people of Irish ancestry living abroad who share its cultural identity and heritage.
Irish independence from Great Britain encouraged the hope that descendants of Irish abroad who had retained a cultural connection and identified with Ireland would resettle there, as opposed to attracting immigrants from other cultures in other countries. One member of an Irish government of the early republic expressed his hope as follows:
I do not think (the Irish Free State) will afford sufficient allurements to the citizens of other States... The children of Irish parents born abroad are sometimes more Irish than the Irish themselves, and they would come with added experience and knowledge to our country... 4 = Sen. Patrick Kenny, Seanad Éireann 1924,
A sense of exile, diaspora, and (in the case of songs) even nostalgia is a common theme. The modern term "Plastic Paddy '' generally refers to someone who was not born in Ireland and is separated from his closest Irish - born ancestor by several generations but still considers themselves "Irish ''. It is occasionally used in a derogatory fashion towards Irish Americans, in an attempt to undermine the "Irishness '' of the Irish diaspora based on nationality and (citizenship) rather than ethnicity. The term is freely applied to relevant people of all nationalities, not solely Irish Americans.
Some Irish Americans were enthusiastic supporters of Irish independence; the Fenian Brotherhood movement was based in the United States and in the late 1860s launched several unsuccessful attacks on British - controlled Canada known as the "Fenian Raids ''. The Provisional IRA received significant funding and volunteers for its paramilitary activities from Irish expatriates and Irish American supporters -- in 1984, the US Department of Justice won a court case forcing the Irish American fund - raising organization NORAID to acknowledge the Provisional IRA as its "foreign principal ''.
Irish Catholic Americans settled in large and small cities throughout the North, particularly railroad centers and mill towns. They became perhaps the most urbanized group in America, as few became farmers. Areas that retain a significant Irish American population include the metropolitan areas of Boston, Philadelphia, Providence, Hartford, Pittsburgh, Buffalo, Baltimore, New York City, Chicago, Cleveland, San Francisco and Los Angeles, where most new arrivals of the 1830 -- 1910 period settled. As a percentage of the population, Massachusetts is the most Irish state, with about a quarter, 21.2 %, of the population claiming Irish descent. The most Irish American towns in the United States are Scituate, Massachusetts, with 47.5 % of its residents being of Irish descent; Milton, Massachusetts, with 44.6 % of its 26,000 being of Irish descent; and Braintree, Massachusetts with 46.5 % of its 34,000 being of Irish descent. (Weymouth, Massachusetts, at 39 % of its 54,000 citizens, and Quincy, Massachusetts, at 34 % of its population of 90,000, are the two most Irish cities in the country. Squantum, a peninsula in the northern part of Quincy, is the most Irish neighborhood in the country, with close to 60 % of its 2600 residents claiming Irish descent.)
Philadelphia, Boston, New York, and Chicago have historically had neighborhoods with higher percentages of Irish American residents. Regionally, the most Irish American states are Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine, Vermont, Rhode Island, Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut, according to the U.S. Census Bureau American Community Survey in 2013. In consequence of its unique history as a mining center, Butte, Montana, is also one of the country 's most thoroughly Irish American cities. Smaller towns, such as Greeley, Nebraska (population 466), with an estimated 51.7 % of the residents identifying as Irish American as of 2009 -- 13 were part of the Irish Catholic Colonization effort of Bishop O'Connor of New York in the 1880s.
The states with the top percentages of Irish:
The United States Declaration of Independence contained 56 delegate signatures. Of the signers, eight were of Irish descent. Three signers, Matthew Thornton, George Taylor and James Smith, were born in Ireland; the remaining five Irish Americans, George Read, Thomas McKean, Thomas Lynch, Jr., Edward Rutledge and Charles Carroll, were the sons or grandsons of Irish immigrants. Though not a delegate but the secretary at the Congress, Charles Thompson, also Irish American, signed as well. The Constitution of the United States was created by a convention of 36 delegates. Of these, at least six were Irish American. George Read and Thomas McKean had already worked on the Declaration, and were joined by John Rutledge, Pierce Butler, Daniel Carroll, and Thomas Fitzsimons. The Carrolls and Fitzsimmons were Catholic, the remainder Protestant.
By the 1850s, the Irish were already a major presence in the police departments of large cities. In New York City in 1855, of the city 's 1,149 policemen, 305 were natives of Ireland. Within 30 years, Irish Americans in the NYPD were almost twice their proportion of the city 's population. Both Boston 's police and fire departments provided many Irish immigrants with their first jobs. The creation of a unified police force in Philadelphia opened the door to the Irish in that city. By 1860 in Chicago, 49 of the 107 on the police force were Irish. Chief O'Leary headed the police force in New Orleans, and Malachi Fallon was chief of police of San Francisco.
The Irish Catholic diaspora are very well - organized and since 1850 have produced a majority of the leaders of the U.S. Catholic Church, labor unions, the Democratic Party in larger cities, and Catholic high schools, colleges and universities.
Many major cities have elected Irish American Catholic mayors. Indeed, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Houston, Newark, New York City, Omaha, Scranton, Pittsburgh, St. Louis, Saint Paul, and San Francisco have all elected natives of Ireland as mayors. Chicago, Boston, and Jersey City, New Jersey have had more Irish American mayors than any other ethnic group. The cities of Milwaukee (Tom Barrett; 2004 -), St. Paul (Chris Coleman; 2006 -), Northampton, Massachusetts (Clare Higgins; 2000 -), Rockford, Illinois (Lawrence Morrissey; 2005 -) and Detroit (Mike Duggan; 2012 -) currently (as of 2016) have Irish American mayors. Pittsburgh mayor Bob O'Connor died in office in 2006. New York City has had at least three Irish - born mayors and over eight Irish American mayors. The most recent one was County Mayo native William O'Dwyer, elected in 1949.
The Irish Protestant vote has not been studied nearly as much. Historian Timothy J. Meagher argues that by the late 19th century, most of the Protestant Irish "turned their backs on all associations with Ireland and melted into the American Protestant mainstream. '' A minority insisted on a "Scotch - Irish '' identity.
In Canada, by contrast, Irish Protestants remained a political force, with many belonging to the Orange Order. It was an anti-Catholic social organization with chapters across Canada. It was most powerful during the late 19th century.
Al Smith and later John F. Kennedy were the political heroes for Catholics. Al Smith, who had an Irish mother and an English - German father, in 1928 became the first Catholic to run for president. From the 1830s to the 1960s, Irish Catholics voted heavily Democratic, with occasional exceptions like the election of 1920. Their precincts showed average support levels of 80 %. As historian Lawrence McCaffrey notes, "until recently they have been so closely associated with the Democratic party that Irish, Catholic, and Democrat composed a trinity of associations, serving mutual interests and needs. ''
The great majority of Irish Catholic politicians were Democrats, with a few exceptions before 1970 such as Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy. Today, Irish politicians are associated with both parties. Ronald Reagan boasted of his Irishness. Historically, Irish Catholics controlled prominent Democratic city organizations. Among the most prominent were New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston, San Francisco, Pittsburgh, Jersey City, and Albany. Many served as chairmen of the Democratic National Committee, including County Monaghan native Thomas Taggart, Vance McCormick, James Farley, Edward J. Flynn, Robert E. Hannegan, J. Howard McGrath, William H. Boyle, Jr., John Moran Bailey, Larry O'Brien, Christopher J. Dodd, Terry McAuliffe and Tim Kaine. In Congress, the Irish are represented in both parties; currently, Susan Collins of Maine, Pat Toomey of Pennsylvania, Bob Casey, Jr. of Pennsylvania, Lisa Murkowski of Alaska, Dick Durbin of Illinois, Patrick Leahy of Vermont, and Maria Cantwell of Washington are Irish Americans serving in the United States Senate. Former Vice Presidential Candidate and current Speaker of the House of Representatives Paul Ryan is another prominent Irish - American Republican. Exit polls show that in recent presidential elections Irish Catholics have split about 50 -- 50 for Democratic and Republican candidates. The pro-life faction in the Democratic party includes many Irish Catholic politicians, such as the former Boston mayor and ambassador to the Vatican Ray Flynn and senator Bob Casey, Jr., who defeated Senator Rick Santorum in a high visibility race in Pennsylvania in 2006.
On one hand, in some areas such as metropolitan New York and Illinois, the most heavily Irish communities now tend to be in the outer suburbs and generally support Republican candidates, such as New Fairfield. On the other, in Massachusetts and elsewhere in Southern New England, significant majorities of the local Irish stayed with the Democratic party. In some heavily Irish small towns in Northern New England the Irish vote is quite Republican, but other places like Gloucester, New Jersey and Butte, Montana which retain strongly liberal and Democratic leaning Irish populations.
The voting intentions of Irish Americans and other white ethnic groups attracted attention in the 2016 US election. In the Democratic primaries, Boston 's Irish were said to break strongly for Hillary Clinton, whose victories in Irish - heavy Boston suburbs may have helped her narrowly carry the state over Bernie Sanders. A 2016 March survey by Irish Central showed that 45 % of Irish Americans nationwide supported Trump, although the majority of those in Massachusetts supported Hillary Clinton. The presence of supporters of Trump among Irish and Italian communities which had once themselves been marginalized immigrants generated controversy, with Irish American and Italian American politicians and columnists admonishing their co-ethnics against "myopia '' and "amnesia ''. An October poll by Buzzfeed showed that Irish respondents nationwide split nearly evenly between Trump (40 %) and Clinton (39 %), with large numbers either undecided or supporting other candidates (21 %), and that the Irish were more supportive of Clinton than all the other West European - descended Americans including fellow Catholic Italian Americans. In early November 2016, six days before the election, another poll by IrishCentral showed Clinton ahead at 52 % among Irish Americans, while Trump was at 40 % and the third party candidates together had 8 %; Irish respondents in Massachusetts similarly favored Clinton by majority. In the official 2016 election results, Irish - heavy Boston suburbs including on the South Shore witnessed swings to the left (Scituate: + 19.5 % D, Cohasset: + 32.8 % D, Milton: + 26.6 % D, etc.) even as the country as a whole moved right. This caused many of the most heavily Irish - descended communities in the country, such as Scituate, to flip from split or Republican - voting to Democrat - voting by significant margins (Scituate: + 18 % D, Hull: + 21 % D, Cohasset: + 24 % D, Milton: + 41 % D). Despite voting against Trump, many of these same communities had some of the highest levels of opposition to the legalization of marijuana, a typically socially conservative position.
In 2017, a survey with 3,181 Irish American respondents (slightly over half being beyond 3rd generation) by Irish Times found that 41 % identified as Democrats while 23 % identified as Republicans, while 45 % used NBC (typically considered left - leaning) for their news while 36 % used Fox News (considered right - leaning).
A number of the presidents of the United States have Irish origins. The extent of Irish heritage varies. For example, Chester Arthur 's father and both of Andrew Jackson 's parents were Irish - born, while George W. Bush has a rather distant Irish ancestry. Ronald Reagan 's father was of Irish ancestry, while his mother also had some Irish ancestors. John F. Kennedy had Irish lineage on both sides. Within this group, only Kennedy was raised as a practicing Roman Catholic. Barack Obama 's Irish heritage originates from his Kansas - born mother, Ann Dunham, whose ancestry is Irish and English.
The annual celebration of Saint Patrick 's Day is a widely recognized symbol of the Irish presence in America. The largest celebration of the holiday takes place in New York, where the annual St. Patrick 's Day Parade draws an average of two million people. The second - largest celebration is held in Boston. The South Boston Parade is one the nation 's oldest, dating back to 1737. Savannah, Georgia, also holds one of the largest parades in the United States.
Since the arrival of nearly two million Irish immigrants in the 1840s, the urban Irish police officer and firefighter have become virtual icons of American popular culture. In many large cities, the police and fire departments have been dominated by the Irish for over 100 years, even after the ethnic Irish residential populations in those cities dwindled to small minorities. Many police and fire departments maintain large and active "Emerald Societies '', bagpipe marching groups, or other similar units demonstrating their members ' pride in their Irish heritage.
While these archetypal images are especially well known, Irish Americans have contributed to U.S. culture in a wide variety of fields: the fine and performing arts, film, literature, politics, sports, and religion. The Irish - American contribution to popular entertainment is reflected in the careers of figures such as James Cagney, Bing Crosby, Walt Disney, John Ford, Judy Garland, Gene Kelly, Grace Kelly, Tyrone Power, Chuck Conners, Ada Rehan, Jena Malone, and Spencer Tracy. Irish - born actress Maureen O'Hara, who became an American citizen, defined for U.S. audiences the archetypal, feisty Irish "colleen '' in popular films such as The Quiet Man and The Long Gray Line. More recently, the Irish - born Pierce Brosnan gained screen celebrity as James Bond. During the early years of television, popular figures with Irish roots included Gracie Allen, Art Carney, Joe Flynn, Jackie Gleason, Luke Gordon and Ed Sullivan.
Since the late days of the film industry, celluloid representations of Irish Americans have been plentiful. Famous films with Irish - American themes include social dramas such as Little Nellie Kelly and The Cardinal, labor epics like On the Waterfront, and gangster movies such as Angels with Dirty Faces, The Friends of Eddie Coyle, and The Departed. Irish - American characters have been featured in popular television series such as Ryan 's Hope, Rescue Me and Blue Bloods.
Prominent Irish - American literary figures include Pulitzer and Nobel Prize -- winning playwright Eugene O'Neill, Jazz Age novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald, author and poet Edgar Allan Poe, social realist James T. Farrell, and Southern Gothic writer Flannery O'Connor. The 19th - century novelist Henry James was also of partly Irish descent. While Irish Americans have been underrepresented in the plastic arts, two well - known American painters claim Irish roots. 20th - century painter Georgia O'Keeffe was born to an Irish - American father, and 19th - century trompe - l'œil painter William Harnett emigrated from Ireland to the United States.
The Irish - American contribution to politics spans the entire ideological spectrum. Two prominent American socialists, Mary Harris "Mother '' Jones and Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, were Irish Americans. In the 1960s, Irish - American writer Michael Harrington became an influential advocate of social welfare programs. Harrington 's views profoundly influenced President John F. Kennedy and his brother, Robert F. Kennedy. Meanwhile, Irish - American political writer William F. Buckley emerged as a major intellectual force in American conservative politics in the latter half of the 20th century. Buckley 's magazine, National Review, proved an effective advocate of successful Republican candidates such as Ronald Reagan.
Notorious Irish Americans include the legendary New Mexico outlaw Billy the Kid. Many historians believe he was born in New York City to Famine - era immigrants from Ireland. Mary Mallon, also known as Typhoid Mary, was an Irish immigrant, as was madam Josephine Airey, who also went by the name of "Chicago Joe '' Hensley. New Orleans socialite and murderer Delphine LaLaurie, whose maiden name was Macarty, was of partial paternal Irish ancestry. Irish - American mobsters include, amongst others, George "Bugs '' Moran, Dean O'Banion, Jack "Legs '' Diamond, Buddy McLean, Howie Winter and Whitey Bulger. Lee Harvey Oswald, the assassin of John F. Kennedy, had an Irish - born great - grandmother by the name of Mary Tonry. Colorful Irish Americans also include Margaret Tobin of RMS Titanic fame, scandalous model Evelyn Nesbit, dancer Isadora Duncan, San Francisco madam Tessie Wall, and Nellie Cashman, nurse and gold prospector in the American West.
The wide popularity of Celtic music has fostered the rise of Irish - American bands that draw heavily on traditional Irish themes and music. Such groups include New York City 's Black 47, founded in the late 1980s, blending punk rock, rock and roll, Irish music, rap / hip - hop, reggae, and soul; and the Dropkick Murphys, a Celtic punk band formed in Quincy, Massachusetts, nearly a decade later. The Decemberists, a band featuring Irish - American singer Colin Meloy, released "Shankill Butchers '', a song that deals with the Ulster Loyalist gang of the same name. The song appears on their album The Crane Wife. Flogging Molly, led by Dublin - born Dave King, are relative newcomers building upon this new tradition.
Starting with the sons of the famine generation, the Irish dominated baseball and boxing, and played a major role in other sports. John L. Sullivan (1858 -- 1918), The heavyweight boxing champion, was the first of the modern sports superstars, winning scores of contests -- perhaps as many as 200 -- with a purse that reached the fabulous sum of one million dollars.
Famous in their day were NFL quarterbacks and Super Bowl champions John Elway and Tom Brady, NBA forward Rick Barry, tennis greats Jimmy Connors and John McEnroe, baseball pitcher Nolan Ryan, baseball shortstop Derek Jeter, basketball point guard Jason Kidd, boxing legend Jack Dempsey, world champion pro surfer Kelly Slater, national champion skier Ryan Max Riley, and legendary golfer Ben Hogan.
The Irish dominated professional baseball in the late 19th century, comprising a third or more of the players and many of the top stars and managers. The professional teams played in northeastern cities with large Irish populations that provided a fan base, as well as training for ambitious youth. Casway argues that:
Irish stars included Charles Comiskey, Connie Mack, Michael "King '' Kelly, Roger Connor, Eddie Collins, Roger Bresnahan, Ed Walsh and New York Giants manager John McGraw. The large 1945 class of inductees enshrined in the National Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown included nine Irish Americans.
The Philadelphia Phillies always play at home during spring training on St. Patrick 's Day. The Phillies hold the distinction of being the first baseball team to wear green uniforms on St. Patricks Day. The tradition was started by Phillies pitcher Tug McGraw, who dyed his uniform green the night before March 17, 1981.
The Irish brought their native games of handball, hurling and Gaelic football to America. Along with camogie, these sports are part of the Gaelic Athletic Association. The North American GAA organization is still very strong.
Irish Americans have been prominent in comedy. Notable comedians of Irish descent include Jackie Gleason, George Carlin, Bill Burr, Bill Murray, Will Ferrell, Ben Stiller, Chris Farley, Stephen Colbert, Conan O'Brien, Denis Leary (holds dual American and Irish citizenship), Colin Quinn, Charles Nelson Reilly, Bill Maher, Molly Shannon, John Mulaney, Kathleen Madigan, Jimmy Fallon, Des Bishop, and Jim Gaffigan, among others. Musicians of Irish descent include Mariah Carey, Christina Aguilera, Kelly Clarkson, Kurt Cobain, Bing Crosby, Tori Kelly, Alicia Keys, Beyonce, Tim McGraw, Mandy Moore, Hilary Duff, Fergie, Judy Garland, Katy Perry, Tom Petty, Pink, Elvis Presley, Britney Spears, Bruce Springsteen, Gwen Stefani, Taylor Swift, Justin Timberlake, Prodigy, Post Malone and others.
Fictional Irish Americans: In the Comic Strips:
According to the 2010 U.S. Census, the city of Butte, Montana has the highest percentage of Irish Americans per capita of any city in the United States, with around one - quarter of the population reporting Irish ancestry. Butte 's Irish Catholic population originates from the waves of Irish immigrants who arrived in the city in the late - nineteenth century to work in the industrial mines. By population, however, Boston and Philadelphia have the two largest Irish American populations in the country. There are Irish neighborhoods scattered all throughout Boston, most notably South Boston. Many of Philadelphia 's Irish neighborhoods are located in the Northeast Philadelphia section of the city, particularly in the Fishtown, Mayfair, and Kensington neighborhoods, as well as the South Philadelphia section, most notably the Pennsport ("Two Street '' to the locals) neighborhood. There are large Irish populations in the Boston and Philadelphia metropolitan areas as well.
Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here.
Yugoslav Americans are the American people from the former Yugoslavia.
Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace.
Azerbaijan and Georgia are transcontinental countries. They have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus.
Kazakhstan is technically a bicontinental country, having a small portion in European hands.
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what happens at the end of brian's winter | Brian 's Winter - Wikipedia
Brian 's Winter also known as Hatchet: Winter is a 1996 young adult novel by Gary Paulsen. It is the third novel in the Hatchet series, but second in terms of chronology as an alternate ending sequel to Hatchet.
It was also released as Hatchet: Winter by Pan Macmillan on February 9, 1996.
At the end of Hatchet, thirteen - year - old Brian Robeson, who has been trapped in the Canadian wilderness after a plane accident, decides to dive for a "survival pack '' from the submerged aircraft. He almost drowns trying to tear the plane open. He recovers, among other things, an emergency transmitter. Within hours, a pilot receives the beacon and rescues him. The book begins with a foreword that Brian, who learned wilderness survival through trial and error, probably would not have survived the upcoming harsh winter on his own.
Paulsen says that many readers wrote to him, complaining about the deus ex machina ending. In response, Paulsen wrote Brian 's Winter, which explores what would have happened if Brian had not activated the transmitter.
The story deals with Brian, still stranded at the L - shaped lake during the fall and winter, constructing a winter shelter, building snow shoes, being confronted by a bear, befriending and naming a skunk and learning how to make a bow more powerful. Eventually, Brian meets a family of Cree trappers, the Smallhorns, who help him return home.
Brian 's Winter is followed chronologically by the two sequels, Brian 's Return and Brian 's Hunt as they recognize the book as a series canon. The River does not and includes no mention that the events of Brian 's Winter ever took place as Brian tells Derek Holtzer that he only spent fifty - four days in the wilderness. This is because The River was published in 1991, five years before the release of Brian 's Winter.
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who has the most #1 country singles | George Strait - wikipedia
George Harvey Strait (born May 18, 1952) is an American country music singer, songwriter, actor, and music producer. He is known as the "King of Country '' and is considered one of the most influential and popular recording artists of all time. He is known for his neotraditionalist country style, cowboy look, and being one of the first and main country artists to bring country music back to its roots and away from the pop country era in the 1980s.
Strait 's success began when his first single "Unwound '' was a hit in 1981. During the 1980s, seven of his albums reached number one on the country charts. In the 2000s, Strait was named Artist of the Decade by the Academy of Country Music, was elected into the Country Music Hall of Fame, and won his first Grammy award for the album Troubadour. Strait was named CMA Entertainer of the Year in 1989, 1990 and 2013, and ACM Entertainer of the Year in 1990 and 2014. He has been nominated for more CMA and ACM awards and has more wins in both categories than any other artist.
By 2009, he broke Conway Twitty 's previous record for the most number - one hits on Billboard 's Hot Country Songs chart when his 44 number one singles surpassed Twitty 's 40. Counting all music charts, Strait has amassed a total of 60 number - one hits, breaking a record also previously set by Twitty, and giving him more number one songs than any other artist in any genre of music.
Strait is also known for his touring career when he designed a 360 - degree configuration and introduced festival style tours. For example, the Strait Tours earned $99 million in three years. His concert at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas in June 2014 drew 104,793 people, marking a new record for largest indoor concert in North America. Strait was successful innovating country music and in numerous aspects of being a part of popular music.
Strait has sold more than 100 million records worldwide, making him one of the best - selling music artists of all time. His certifications from the RIAA include 13 multi-platinum, 33 platinum, and 38 gold albums. His best - selling album is Pure Country (1992), which sold 6 million (6 × platinum). His highest certified album is Strait Out of the Box (1995), which sold 2 million copies (8 × Platinum due to being a box set with four CDs). According to the RIAA, Strait is the 12th best - selling album recording artist in the United States overall.
George Harvey Strait was born on May 18, 1952, in Poteet, Texas, to John Byron Strait Sr. (January 11, 1922 -- June 4, 2013), and Doris Jean Couser (June 26, 1930 -- January 30, 2010).
He grew up in nearby Pearsall, in Frio County, where his father was a junior high school mathematics teacher and the owner of a 2,000 - acre (810 ha) cattle ranch outside of Big Wells, Texas. The family worked at the ranch on the weekends and in the summers. When George was in the fourth grade, his father and mother were divorced, and his mother moved away with his sister, Pency. George and his brother John Jr. (1950 -- 2009), were raised by their father.
He is a cousin of technology and retail entrepreneur, investor, electrical engineer, computer scientist, and philanthropist Jeff Bezos, the wealthiest man in the world, via their grandmother, Mattie Louise Gise (née Strait).
Strait began his musical interest while attending Pearsall High School, where he played in a rock and roll garage band. The Beatles were popular when Strait was in high school. "The Beatles were big '', Strait confirmed. "I listened to them a lot and that whole bunch of groups that were popular then ''. His musical preference soon turned to country with singers Hank Thompson, Lefty Frizzell, Merle Haggard, George Jones, Bob Wills, Hank Williams, and Frank Sinatra influencing his style. Strait did not tune to the country music radio often as a youth, usually listening to the news and the farmer 's report. His introduction to country music came mostly by way of live performances, which, according to Strait, could be heard in every town in Texas.
He eloped with his high school sweetheart, Norma. The couple initially married in Mexico on December 4, 1971. That same year, he enlisted in the United States Army. While stationed at Schofield Barracks in Hawaii as a part of the 25th Infantry Division, Strait began performing with a U.S. Army - sponsored band, "Rambling Country '', which played off - base under the name "Santee ''. On October 6, 1972, while still in Hawaii, George and Norma had their first child, Jennifer.
After Strait was honorably discharged from the Army in 1975, he enrolled at Southwest Texas State University in San Marcos and graduated with a degree in agriculture.
During his college years, Strait joined the country band Stoney Ridge, answering a flyer the band posted around campus looking for a new vocalist. Strait renamed the group the Ace in the Hole Band and quickly became the lead; they began to perform at different honky - tonks and bars around south and central Texas, traveling as far east as Huntsville and Houston. They gained a regional following and opened for national acts such as The Texas Playboys. Soon, his band was given the opportunity to record several Strait - penned singles including "That Do n't Change The Way I Feel About You, '' and "I Ca n't Go On Dying Like This '' for the Houston - based D label. However, the songs never achieved wide recognition, and Strait continued to manage his family cattle ranch during the day in order to make some extra cash.
While he continued to play with his band, without any real connections to the recording industry, Strait became friends with Erv Woolsey, who operated one of the bars in which the Ace in the Hole band played, and who had previously worked for the major label MCA Records. Woolsey convinced some of his Music Row (Nashville) connections to come to Texas and to listen to Strait and his band play. Impressed with the performance, but concerned that they could n't market the Western Swing sound that the band featured, they left without a deal.
After several unsuccessful trips to Nashville in search of a record deal in which Strait was turned down by every label in town, he considered giving up music altogether. He was offered a job designing cattle pens and decided to take it. He gave the band notice that he was leaving, but after a discussion with his wife, she convinced him to give music one more year. Not long afterward, MCA signed Strait to a recording contract in February 1981. The initial deal was for one song. If the single did well, the label would then consider doing an album. The Ace in the Hole band remained with Strait, performing as the backup and touring band for the now solo act.
In the spring of 1981, Strait released his first single for MCA Records, entitled "Unwound '', which climbed to # 6 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart that year, and was included on his debut album Strait Country. The record featured two more singles including "Down and Out '', a No. 16 hit for Strait, and "If You 're Thinking You Want a Stranger (There 's One Coming Home) '', which reached number three early in 1982, sparking a string of Top Ten hits that ran well into the 1990s.
Strait Country was hailed by critics as a traditionalist breakthrough that broke the trend of pop - influenced country prevalent at the time. The year 1982 also saw the release of Strait 's second album, the critically acclaimed Strait from the Heart, which featured the first number one single of his career, "Fool Hearted Memory '', and the top five "Amarillo by Morning '' originally sung and written by Terry Stafford in 1973. In 1983, Strait made his first appearance at the Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo when the headlining star, Eddie Rabbitt, came down sick with the flu. Performing at that rodeo has since become a mainstay throughout his career, making more than twenty appearances at the Rodeo, and playing to a total of more than one million fans.
Strait recorded 17 subsequent No. 1 's in the decade, including a string of five that lasted from 1983 -- 84 from his next two albums Right or Wrong, his first number one album and the CMA award - winning Does Fort Worth Ever Cross Your Mind. The next year, he won the CMA award for top male vocalist, and released his first Greatest hits compilation, which featured songs from his first three albums. Also in 1985, Strait released Something Special, the third straight number - one album of his career, featuring the number - one single "The Chair ''. In 1986, Strait repeated as the CMA vocalist of the year and released his fourth No. 1 album # 7.
Strait and his family were struck with tragedy when his 13 - year - old daughter, Jenifer, was killed in a one - car non-alcohol - related accident. She was riding in a Ford Mustang driven by Gregory Wilson Allen, 18, of Staples, Texas. He was subsequently charged with a Class A misdemeanor for vehicular homicide. Mike Cox, spokesman for the Texas Department of Public Safety in Austin, said "The responding trooper determined the cause of accident to be excessive speed and that the car did not negotiate the turn properly. Jenifer was riding in the front passengers seat and none of the four occupants were wearing seat belts at the time. When the vehicle flipped over onto its passenger 's side, Jenifer was partially ejected, causing her to be dead upon impact. The incident caused Strait to greatly limit his contact with the media. He stopped doing interviews for many years after the accident as he and his family did not wish to discuss Jenifer 's death.
His grief did not hinder his performance, however, or his output, as he went on to release 11 straight No. 1 hits, starting with "Nobody in His Right Mind Would 've Left Her '' in 1986 and ending with "Ace in the Hole '' in 1989. The singles spanned four albums, including # 7, Ocean Front Property in 1987, If You Ai n't Lovin ' You Ai n't Livin ' in 1988 and 1989 's Beyond the Blue Neon, all of which reached the number one spot on country album charts. Ocean Front Property was the first country album to ever debut at No. 1 on the charts by any artist. The streak included such songs as "Ocean Front Property '', "All My Ex 's Live in Texas '', "Famous Last Words of a Fool '' and "Baby Blue ''. Strait finished the decade by winning the CMA Entertainer of the Year award in 1989. A year later, he won the award again.
Strait began the decade with the release of his tenth studio album, Livin ' It Up, which featured two No. 1 hits including "Love Without End, Amen '', his first multi-week hit, and "I 've Come to Expect It From You ''. Both songs remained No. 1 for five weeks in 1990. Chill of an Early Fall shortly followed in 1991, and received positive reviews. Entertainment Weekly noted that the album marked a shift for Strait from "repeating himself '' in his previous works to producing different material. It produced the No. 1 's "If I Know Me '' and "You Know Me Better Than That '', but ended his streak of 31 straight top ten hits with the cover of "Lovesick Blues '', which peaked at No. 24. The record blocked his run of eight top charting albums with its peak of No. 4. In the spring of 1992, Holding My Own was released. It did not produce any No. 1s but did include two top five songs including "So Much Like My Dad ''.
Later in 1992, Strait played the main character in the movie Pure Country, and released the film 's soundtrack. It was his most successful studio album, producing such hits as "Heartland '', "I Cross My Heart '', and "When Did You Stop Loving Me '', and peaked at No. 1 and No. 6 respectively on the Country and Billboard 200 album charts. The success continued with his next album, Easy Come, Easy Go in 1993, which reached the top five on the Billboard 200 and featured the hits "I 'd Like to Have That One Back '', "The Man in Love with You '', and the No. 1 title track.
His next four albums, including Lead On in 1994, Blue Clear Sky in 1996, Carrying Your Love with Me in 1997, and 1998 's One Step at a Time, all charted at No. 1, with Blue Clear Sky claiming the spot on its debut week, and Carrying Your Love with Me peaking at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 for the first time in Strait 's career. This series of albums produced eight number one singles for Strait, including "You Ca n't Make a Heart Love Somebody '', "Carried Away '', "One Night at a Time '', and "I Just Want to Dance with You ''.
During this period, Strait also released a four - disc box set career retrospective, Strait Out of the Box, in 1995, which became the second - best - selling box set ever with shipments of 8 million in the United States. He was named as the CMA 's Top Male Vocalist in 1997 and 1998. Starting in ' 97, and continuing until the first year of the 21st century, Strait headlined the George Strait Country Music Festival, which included artists such as Tim McGraw, Faith Hill, Kenny Chesney, Alan Jackson, and others.
In an effort to introduce these acts to as many fans as possible, the festival promised not to visit any market more than twice. It played only a small number of dates, usually no more than twenty a year, but still managed to be the ninth - biggest - grossing tour of 1998.
Strait completed the decade with the album Always Never the Same in 1999, which peaked at No. 2 on country charts and matched the cross-over success of Pure Country by reaching No. 6 on the Billboard 200. The record produced the hits "What Do You Say to That '', "Meanwhile '', and the No. 1 "Write This Down ''. Reviews of the album 's material were generally moderate, but Entertainment Weekly observed that at this point in his career, Strait could record the "most lightweight '' material and "make it soar '' on the radio with his "grace ''. All in all, Strait scored 17 No. 1 hits on the Billboard country airplay charts in the decade, and carried his successes into the next century.
Strait released a self - named album in 2000, which despite a No. 1 and No. 7 showing on the country and Billboard 200 album charts, produced no No. 1 singles, and was the first studio album of his career to not be certified platinum. The singles "Go On '' and "If You Can Do Anything Else '' were released from the record, with both peaking in the top five. In May 2001, The Road Less Traveled was released. Reviews for the album were mostly positive, Rolling Stone described it as sticking to the formula "but adds a few twists that make it superior to his last few releases. '' It featured "vocal processing '', and was considered by some critics as an experimental album.
Three singles were released from it, two of which reached No. 1, including "She 'll Leave You with a Smile '', his 50th on combined charts and "Living and Living Well '', both of which reached the top 30 of Billboard Hot 100, with the former peaking at No. 23, Strait 's highest rank on the chart. The single "Run '' peaked at No. 2 and reached No. 34 on the Billboard 100. Strait released two records in 2003. For the Last Time: Live from the Astrodome was a recording of the last Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo to take place in the Astrodome. The performance itself, set the record for paid attendance at the venue, with 68,266 people, breaking Latin superstar Selena 's previous record of approximately 67,000 in 1995.
His next album, Honkytonkville was described as "a fiery set of hard country '', and was praised "for its mixture of the old Strait with his modern, superstar self. '' It did n't produce any No. 1 's for Strait but included the hits "Cowboys Like Us '' and a cover of Bruce Robison 's "Desperately ''. His 2004 performance at Reliant Stadium set a new Rodeo attendance record, with 68,679 spectators. That year he issued a Greatest Hits package billed as 50 Number Ones, chronicling the No. 1 hits of his career from all charts, starting with "Fool Hearted Memory '' and ending with "She 'll Leave You With a Smile. '' A new track, "I Hate Everything '', was also included, and became his 51st overall Number One in 2004.
The next year, Somewhere Down in Texas arrived, which produced the hit "You 'll Be There, '' marking Strait 's first appearance on the Adult Contemporary chart. The next year, he embarked on a tour that included only 18 performances but grossed over $15 million. He attributed this success to the fact that he and his band are "musically very tight, '' have a large pool of songs to draw from, and perform those songs very similarly to how they sound on their albums.
On October 3, 2006, Strait marked his 30th year in the music industry with the release of a new album titled It Just Comes Natural. The album was recorded in Key West, Fla. in Jimmy Buffett 's Shrimp Boat Sound Studio (said to be a better recording location due to lack of allergy flare ups during recording process), which was also the recording location of "Troubadour ''.
It featured fifteen new songs. Strait 's long - time friend and songwriter, Dean Dillon co-wrote two of the songs on the album. It received generally positive reviews from critics. People, in their four - star review, remarked that "If ever there was a natural in country music, it 's Strait, '' while USA Today raved that "he continues to make such consistent quality look easy ''. The first single from the album, "Give It Away '' reached No. 1, making one of its co-writers, country legend "Whispering Bill '' Anderson, the first songwriter to have a # 1 hit in five different decades. The title track, "It Just Comes Natural '' became his 42nd Billboard No. 1.
In 2007, "Wrapped '' reached No. 1 on the Mediabase 24 / 7 country music charts, giving Strait his 55th overall number - one single. From January through April of that year, Strait headlined a 23 - date arena tour with country music legend Ronnie Milsap and then newcomer Taylor Swift. He released a new album titled Troubadour on April 1, 2008. The CD contained 12 tracks, including a duet with Patty Loveless and another with long - time songwriter Dean Dillon. The lead single from the album, "I Saw God Today '', debuted at No. 19 on the Radio and Records and Billboard charts. It is the highest debut ever for a single from Strait and the fourth highest debut for a song in country music history. Troubadour debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Top 200 album charts, selling over 160,000 copies in its first week of release. "River of Love '' the 3rd single from the album became his 57th number - one song in 2009.
In April 2009, Strait was honored by the Academy of Country Music with the Artist of the Decade Award, which was presented to Strait by the previous ACM Artist of the Decade, Garth Brooks. In June of that year he headlined the first event at the new Dallas Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas. Strait 's single "Living for the Night '' was released on May 28, 2009, and was written by Strait, his son Bubba, and Dean Dillon. The song was the lead single from his album Twang, released on August 11, 2009. Twang was certified gold for selling over 500,000 copies.
In 2010, Billboard ranked Strait No. 1 in the top 25 country artists of the past 25 years. On September 6, 2011, Strait released the album, Here for a Good Time, which yielded two No. 1 singles -- "Here for a Good Time '' and "Love 's Gonna Make It Alright '' -- bringing Strait 's No. 1 singles total to 59. The album 's third single, "Drinkin ' Man '', was less successful, peaking at No. 37.
In October 2012, Strait released the single "Give It All We Got Tonight '', which was included on his album Love Is Everything, released on May 14, 2013. The song initiated a "60 for 60 '' movement by Strait 's label, to make the song his sixtieth number - one single on all country charts while he was still 60 years old. The song reached the top of the Mediabase charts in May 2013. The album 's next single "I Believe '' reached No. 50 on The U.S. Country Airplay chart, making it Strait 's first single to miss the Top 40. Strait won the 2013 CMA Entertainer of the Year award.
In November 2013, Billboard presented Strait with its Legend of Live honor during the 10th annual Billboard Touring Awards ceremony. The award honors the concert industry 's top artist based on Billboard 's Boxscore chart and box office performance. Strait is the first country artist to receive Billboard 's highest touring accolade. On April 19, 2015, Strait made a guest appearance at the 2015 ACM Awards, he performed "All My Ex 's Lives In Texas '' and his new single "Let it Go ''.
In 2016, Strait was selected as one of 30 artists to perform on "Forever Country '', a mash - up track of Take Me Home, Country Roads, On the Road Again and I Will Always Love You which celebrates 50 years of the CMA Awards.
On September 26, 2012, Strait announced that he was retiring from touring, and that his Cowboy Rides Away Tour would be his last. Tickets for both arenas and stadiums on the Cowboy Rides Away Tour sold out in a matter of hours. The tour started on January 18, 2013 in Lubbock, Texas and was divided into two legs: 21 concerts in 2013 and 26 concerts in 2014, for a total of 47 concerts. The tour ended in Arlington, Texas on June 7, 2014. Strait was supported on the tour by his longtime eleven - member touring group, the Ace in the Hole Band. For the 2013 leg, Martina McBride was the opening performer.
On January 9, 2014, Strait initiated the second leg of the tour, which featured the opening performers Jason Aldean, Eric Church, Martina McBride, Miranda Lambert, Little Big Town, Vince Gill, Sheryl Crow, Lee Ann Womack, Merle Haggard, Chris Young, Ronnie Dunn, Luke Bryan, Tim McGraw, Faith Hill, Kenny Chesney, Alan Jackson, and Asleep at the Wheel. Many of these performers gathered together for the tour 's final concert in Arlington, Texas, before 104,793 fans -- the largest ticketed attendance at a single - show concert in the United States. The concert also set a record for the largest gross at a single - show country concert, $18,194,374.
A live album recorded from the final concert in Arlington titled The Cowboy Rides Away: Live from AT&T Stadium was released on September 16, 2014, with a DVD / CDs of the concert being released on November 10, 2014, with Wal - mart exclusively releasing a Deluxe edition including 2 cd 's as well. This Deluxe DVD is the entire 3 + hour concert and the accompanying 2 cd 's have 28 of the 40 songs sung that night. On August 29, 2014, the Country Music Television channel broadcast a two - hour concert special of the event titled George Strait: The Cowboy Rides Away. This CMT concert special had 1 - 1 / 4 hours of music from the 3 + hour concert, and interviews.
Strait eloped to Mexico with his high school sweetheart Norma in December 1971. Their first child, Jenifer, was born on October 6, 1972. Their son, George Strait Jr., known as "Bubba '', was born in 1981.
Jenifer was killed in an automobile accident in San Marcos on June 25, 1986, at age 13. The family set up the Jenifer Lynn Strait Foundation, which donates money to children 's charities in the San Antonio area. George Strait Jr., who is a graduate of Texas A&M in College Station, used to compete as a Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA) team roping competitor. Strait was able to watch his son compete at the Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo in 2006 shortly before taking the stage for his own performance.
Since 2010, Strait has served as spokesman for the Wrangler National Patriot program, a campaign designed to raise awareness and funds for America 's wounded and fallen military veterans and their families. Strait says, "I 've been a part of the Wrangler family for a long time... when they came to me with the idea for supporting fallen and wounded American veterans and their families, I knew I wanted to get involved. ''
In February 2012, Strait became a grandfather when George Strait Jr. and his wife Tamara had their first child, a son. According to reports, he was named George H. Strait III as a tribute to his grandfather.
Strait owns a Bombardier Challenger 300 business jet and carries a personal registration N518GS. His personal aircraft is housed at the Landmark Aviation facility in San Antonio. He has teamed up with Texas Governor Greg Abbott to help with disaster relief efforts in the wake of Hurricane Harvey, which devastated coastal areas of Texas.
Strait along with long time friend and business partner Tom Cusick created the Vaqueros Del Mar (Cowboys of the Sea) Invitational Golf Tournament and Concert held annually at Strait and Cusick 's Texas Hill Country resort Tapatio Springs Resort in Boerne Texas. The Invitational raises money for David Feherty 's Troops First Foundation, benefitting wounded servicemen, servicewomen and their families. Since its beginning in 2012, more than 5 million dollars (USD) has been raised by the events. In January 2018, George Strait was named the 2018 Texan of the Year by the Texas Legislative Conference, a statewide group of business and political leaders. Strait is being honored for his fundraising efforts in the wake of the widespread flooding following Hurricane Harvey.
Strait 's maternal grandmother was Mattie Louise Gise (née Strait), through whom he is a cousin of Jeff Bezos, founder, chairman, and chief executive officer of Amazon.com, the world 's largest online shopping retailer, and the wealthiest man in the world since November 2017.
In more than 30 years of recording, all of which have been spent with MCA Records, George Strait has garnered 61 No. 1 songs on all country charts (including Mediabase 24 / 7, the former Radio & Records chart, and the now - defunct Gavin Report chart), and has more No. 1 hits than any other artist in any genre. His 45 Billboard country number 1 hits are a record, four more than Conway Twitty 's total that includes several duets with Loretta Lynn. Additionally, Strait is also the first artist in the history of Billboard to have at least one single enter the Top 10 of a Billboard chart for 30 consecutive years, starting in 1981 when his debut single "Unwound '' peaked at No. 6 on the Hot Country Singles chart. All of his Top 10 singles have been on that chart. Strait has sold more than 68 million records in the United States alone and his certifications from the RIAA include 13 multi-platinum, 33 platinum, and 38 gold albums.
Strait has acted in several films. He had a bit part in The Soldier (1982) and starred in Pure Country (1992). He also appeared as himself in Grand Champion (2002).
The film Pure Country featured George Strait in the lead role as Dusty Chandler, a famous country singer who strays too far from his country roots and traditional sound. It provided the opportunity for Strait to branch out from his own traditional country sound for a more rock - and - roll approach. The film saw little success at the box office, taking in only $15 million, but the soundtrack, also called Pure Country, produced several hit singles for Strait, and has become his best - selling album to date. Strait had a limited role in the sequel to Pure Country, Pure Country 2: The Gift.
Strait is also a music producer.
Strait holds the record for most number one albums and singles, gold albums, platinum albums, and multi-platinum in the history of country music, and is eleventh in the most number one albums in all other genres. Strait is third only to Elvis Presley and The Beatles with the most gold and platinum albums in the history of music. Strait has been certified as the twelfth best selling artist in American history, with career record sales of 70 million.
Strait has recorded the most number one songs and top five songs in the history of music of any kind, and is the only artist in the history of music of any kind to have a top ten hit every year for 30 years. He is also second all - time in top ten hits in the history of music, currently 5 away from breaking the all - time record held by Eddy Arnold who had 92 in his historic career. Strait has also won 22 CMA Awards, including consecutive Entertainer of the Year honors in 1989 and 1990, and also just recently won that same honor in 2013 (and is the only artist to win the top honor in three different decades) and holds the career record for CMA nominations (as a whole) and the most consecutively of all time.
As of 2009 he holds the record for the most CMA awards. Strait also holds those same records for wins and nominations for the ACM Awards. Strait was elected into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 2006, performing his then - latest No. 1 hit "Give it Away '' right before accepting his replica Hall of Fame plaque at the 40th CMA Awards. He was only the second artist (after Eddy Arnold in 1966) to be inducted into the Hall of Fame while still actively recording and producing chart - topping hits and albums.
As of June 8, 2010, Strait was named the top country music artist of the past 25 years according to Billboard. In October 2008, the Academy of Country Music Awards named Strait their Artist of the Decade for the 2000s. He was presented the award by the previous winner Garth Brooks. Past winners of the award are Marty Robbins (1960s), Loretta Lynn (1970s), Alabama (1980s) and Garth Brooks (1990s). And with the win of the entertainer of the year award in 2013 he is the only artist to ever win the entertainer of the year in three different decades and also was the oldest winner. The win is currently the longest span between wins for that award as well. Strait is also tied with Merle Haggard for the most male vocalist of the year awards.
On June 1, 2013, Strait appeared in The Alamodome, in San Antonio, Texas, before 70,000 fans in the last concert of the first half of his two - year farewell tour. Governor Rick Perry, who was in attendance with First Lady Anita Thigpen Perry, announced that henceforth May 18, Strait 's birthday, would be "George Strait Day '' in Texas.
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what channel is bravo on bell express view | Bravo (Canada) - Wikipedia
Bravo (styled bravo) is a Canadian English language Category A cable and satellite specialty channel that is owned by Bell Media.
The channel was founded as a Canadian version of the U.S. channel Bravo (which is now owned by NBCUniversal), and originally focused on performing arts, drama, and independent film. However, as with its U.S. counterpart, the channel has largely dropped its arts programming, and now focuses primarily on mainstream films and scripted series.
In the 1980s, a precursor to Bravo existed called C Channel. The service was a national commercial - free pay television channel that focused on arts programming. C Channel launched on February 1, 1983 before it went bankrupt and ceased operations five months later on June 30 of that year due to its inability to attract a sufficient number of subscribers at a price of $16 per month.
Over 10 years later, another attempt at an arts - based channel was proposed when CHUM Limited applied to the Canadian Radio - television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) for a license to operate Bravo. In June 1994, CHUM 's application for Bravo was approved, citing its nature of service as focusing on "performance and drama programming, as well as documentary and discussion. ''
Bravo was launched on January 1, 1995 at 3pm, with an introductory slide of a letter from Moses Znaimer explaining how Bravo was intended to help show that TV was not "a monumental waste of time '', as he claimed most people thought of it, followed by their first program, the BBC documentary TV Is King. It focused on arts programming, including music, ballet, literature, television and film drama, visual arts, modern dance, opera and architecture. As a condition of licence, Bravo was to contribute a predetermined amount or percentage of its revenues to ArtsFACT (now called Bravo! FACT), a fund established to provide grants for the production of Canadian short films covering a wide range of arts - related disciplines. Films funded by Bravo! FACT have regularly aired on the channel.
In July 2006, Bell Globemedia (later called CTVglobemedia) announced that it would purchase CHUM for an estimated CAD $1.7 billion, included in the sale was Bravo The sale was approved by the CRTC on June 8, 2007, and the transaction was completed on June 22, 2007. After CTVglobemedia 's purchase of Bravo, the channel increasingly shifted its focus toward more television and film dramas (such as Criminal Minds), and lessened its focus on arts programming.
On September 10, 2010, BCE Inc. (a minority shareholder in CTVglobemedia) announced that it planned to acquire 100 % interest in CTVglobemedia for a total debt and equity transaction cost of CAD $3.2 billion. The deal was approved by the CRTC on March 7, 2011, and was finalized on April 1 of that year, on which CTVglobemedia was rebranded Bell Media.
While under Bell Media ownership, the shift toward television and film dramas and general entertainment programming was expanded upon, although it still carries some arts - related programming as a condition of its licence. This format shift was further emphasized on May 14, 2012, when Bravo unveiled a new on - air logo and new on - air presentation as part of an extensive rebranding of the network. The new logo dropped the original "square '' logo that Bravo had maintained since its launch (which resembled the 1993 to 2003 logo used by the U.S. channel), in favour of a design no longer resembling any logo used by its American counterpart.
On June 6, 2013, Bell announced that Bravo would become the company 's first network to implement a TV Everywhere service, which would allow subscribers of participating television service providers that carry Bravo to stream video on demand content as well as a live feed of the Bravo channel via the Bravo Go app.
In its early years, Bravo often aired short films by Canadian artists between programs, funded by its foundation Bravo! FACT, which ranged from comedy to drama to opera to jazz to animation. Many of these also aired on Bravo 's weekly series Bravo! Fact Presents. Bravo has also produced a limited amount of scripted and non-scripted series and has broadcast many notable specials, including a telecast of Canadian rock band Spirit of the West 's Open Heart Symphony concert with the Vancouver Symphony Orchestra, and three early television films within the Murdoch Mysteries franchise: Except the Dying, Poor Tom Is Cold and Under the Dragon 's Tail.
Bravo HD is a high definition simulcast feed of Bravo, which broadcasts in the 1080i resolution format; the feed was launched on October 6, 2011. It is available through all major TV providers.
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a scientist who studies the relation between crops and environment | Agricultural science - wikipedia
Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. (Veterinary science, but not animal science, is often excluded from the definition.)
The three terms are often confused. However, they cover different concepts:
Agricultural sciences include research and development on:
Agricultural biotechnology is a specific area of agricultural science involving the use of scientific tools and techniques, including genetic engineering, molecular markers, molecular diagnostics, vaccines, and tissue culture, to modify living organisms: plants, animals, and microorganisms.
One of the most common yield reducers is because of fertilizer not being applied in slightly higher quantities during transition period, the time it takes the soil to rebuild its aggregates and organic matter. Yields will decrease temporarily because of nitrogen being immobilized in the crop residue, which can take a few months to several years to decompose, depending on the crop 's C to N ratio and the local environment.
With the exception of theoretical agronomy, research in agronomy, more than in any other field, is strongly related to local areas. It can be considered a science of ecoregions, because it is closely linked to soil properties and climate, which are never exactly the same from one place to another. Many people think an agricultural production system relying on local weather, soil characteristics, and specific crops has to be studied locally. Others feel a need to know and understand production systems in as many areas as possible, and the human dimension of interaction with nature.
Agricultural science began with Gregor Mendel 's genetic work, but in modern terms might be better dated from the chemical fertilizer outputs of plant physiological understanding in 18th - century Germany. In the United States, a scientific revolution in agriculture began with the Hatch Act of 1887, which used the term "agricultural science ''. The Hatch Act was driven by farmers ' interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer. The Smith - Hughes Act of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots, but the scientific foundation had been built. After 1906, public expenditures on agricultural research in the US exceeded private expenditures for the next 44 years.
Intensification of agriculture since the 1960s in developed and developing countries, often referred to as the Green Revolution, was closely tied to progress made in selecting and improving crops and animals for high productivity, as well as to developing additional inputs such as artificial fertilizers and phytosanitary products.
As the oldest and largest human intervention in nature, the environmental impact of agriculture in general and more recently intensive agriculture, industrial development, and population growth have raised many questions among agricultural scientists and have led to the development and emergence of new fields. These include technological fields that assume the solution to technological problems lies in better technology, such as integrated pest management, waste treatment technologies, landscape architecture, genomics, and agricultural philosophy fields that include references to food production as something essentially different from non-essential economic ' goods '. In fact, the interaction between these two approaches provide a fertile field for deeper understanding in agricultural science.
New technologies, such as biotechnology and computer science (for data processing and storage), and technological advances have made it possible to develop new research fields, including genetic engineering, agrophysics, improved statistical analysis, and precision farming. Balancing these, as above, are the natural and human sciences of agricultural science that seek to understand the human - nature interactions of traditional agriculture, including interaction of religion and agriculture, and the non-material components of agricultural production systems.
Agriculture sciences seek to feed the world 's population while preventing biosafety problems that may affect human health and the environment. This requires promoting good management of natural resources and respect for the environment, and increasingly concern for the psychological wellbeing of all concerned in the food production and consumption system.
Economic, environmental, and social aspects of agriculture sciences are subjects of ongoing debate. Recent crises (such as avian influenza, mad cow disease and issues such as the use of genetically modified organisms) illustrate the complexity and importance of this debate.
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what are the names of all the caribbean islands | List of Caribbean islands - wikipedia
Antigua
Barbuda
Redonda
Spanish town Manchester Mandeville Ocho Rios Montego Bay
Saint Thomas, Saint Croix, and Saint John are the main three United States Virgin Islands. The capital, Charlotte Amalie, is on Saint Thomas.
The following two countries of the Lucayan Archipelago are the portion of the West Indies that is not a part of the Caribbean. The Commonwealth of the Bahamas and the British Overseas Territory of the Turks and Caicos Islands are located in the North Atlantic Ocean rather than the Caribbean Sea, but they are often grouped with the nations of the Caribbean for convenience.
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who owns the copyright to the book of mormon | Book of Mormon - wikipedia
Book of Mormon portal
The Book of Mormon is a sacred text of the Latter Day Saint movement, which adherents believe contains writings of ancient prophets who lived on the American continent from approximately 2200 BC to AD 421. It was first published in March 1830 by Joseph Smith as The Book of Mormon: An Account Written by the Hand of Mormon upon Plates Taken from the Plates of Nephi.
According to Smith 's account and the book 's narrative, the Book of Mormon was originally written in otherwise unknown characters referred to as "reformed Egyptian '' engraved on golden plates. Smith said that the last prophet to contribute to the book, a man named Moroni, buried it in Cumorah Hill in present - day New York, then returned to Earth in 1827 as an angel, revealing the location of the plates to Smith, and instructing him to translate it into English for use in the restoration of Christ 's true church in the latter days. Critics claim that it was fabricated by Smith, drawing on material and ideas from contemporary 19th - century works rather than translating an ancient record.
The Book of Mormon has a number of original and distinctive doctrinal discussions on subjects such as the fall of Adam and Eve, the nature of the Atonement, eschatology, redemption from physical and spiritual death, and the organization of the latter - day church. The pivotal event of the book is an appearance of Jesus Christ in the Americas shortly after his resurrection.
The Book of Mormon is the earliest of the unique writings of the Latter Day Saint movement, the denominations of which typically regard the text primarily as scripture, and secondarily as a historical record of God 's dealings with the ancient inhabitants of the Americas. The Book of Mormon is divided into smaller books, titled after the individuals named as primary authors and, in most versions, divided into chapters and verses. It is written in English very similar to the Early Modern English linguistic style of the King James Version of the Bible, and has since been fully or partially translated into 108 languages. As of 2011, more than 150 million copies of the Book of Mormon have been published.
According to Joseph Smith, he was seventeen years of age when an angel of God named Moroni appeared to him and said that a collection of ancient writings was buried in a nearby hill in present - day Wayne County, New York, engraved on golden plates by ancient prophets. The writings were said to describe a people whom God had led from Jerusalem to the Western hemisphere 600 years before Jesus ' birth. According to the narrative, Moroni was the last prophet among these people and had buried the record, which God had promised to bring forth in the latter days. Smith stated that this vision occurred on the evening of September 21, 1823 and that on the following day, via divine guidance, he located the burial location of the plates on this hill; was instructed by Moroni to meet him at the same hill on September 22 of the following year to receive further instructions; and that, in four years from this date, the time would arrive for "bringing them forth '', i.e., translating them. Smith 's description of these events recounts that he was allowed to take the plates on September 22, 1827, exactly four years from that date, and was directed to translate them into English.
Accounts vary of the way in which Smith dictated the Book of Mormon. Smith himself implied that he read the plates directly using spectacles prepared for the purpose of translating. Other accounts variously state that he used one or more seer stones placed in a top hat. Both the special spectacles and the seer stone were at times referred to as the "Urim and Thummim ''. During the translating process itself, Smith sometimes separated himself from his scribe with a blanket between them. Additionally, the plates were not always present during the translating process, and when present, they were always covered up.
Smith 's first published description of the plates said that the plates "had the appearance of gold ''. They were described by Martin Harris, one of Smith 's early scribes, as "fastened together in the shape of a book by wires. '' Smith called the engraved writing on the plates "reformed Egyptian ''. A portion of the text on the plates was also "sealed '' according to his account, so its content was not included in the Book of Mormon.
In addition to Smith 's account regarding the plates, eleven others stated that they saw the golden plates and, in some cases, handled them. Their written testimonies are known as the Testimony of Three Witnesses and the Testimony of Eight Witnesses. These statements have been published in most editions of the Book of Mormon.
Smith enlisted his neighbor Martin Harris as a scribe during his initial work on the text. (Harris later mortgaged his farm to underwrite the printing of the Book of Mormon.) In 1828, Harris, prompted by his wife Lucy Harris, repeatedly requested that Smith lend him the current pages that had been translated. Smith reluctantly acceded to Harris 's requests. Lucy Harris is thought to have stolen the first 116 pages. After the loss, Smith recorded that he had lost the ability to translate, and that Moroni had taken back the plates to be returned only after Smith repented. Smith later stated that God allowed him to resume translation, but directed that he begin translating another part of the plates (in what is now called the Book of Mosiah). In 1829, work resumed on the Book of Mormon, with the assistance of Oliver Cowdery, and was completed in a short period (April -- June 1829). Smith said that he then returned the plates to Moroni upon the publication of the book. The Book of Mormon went on sale at the bookstore of E.B. Grandin in Palmyra, New York on March 26, 1830. Today, the building in which the Book of Mormon was first published and sold is known as the Book of Mormon Historic Publication Site.
Since its first publication and distribution, critics of the Book of Mormon have claimed that it was fabricated by Smith and that he drew material and ideas from various sources rather than translating an ancient record. Works that have been suggested as sources include the King James Bible, The Wonders of Nature, View of the Hebrews, and an unpublished manuscript written by Solomon Spalding. FairMormon maintains that all of these theories have been disproved and discredited, arguing that both Mormon and non-Mormon historians have found serious flaws in their research The position of most adherents of the Latter Day Saint movement and the official position of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) is that the book is an accurate historical record.
Smith stated that the title page, and presumably the actual title of the 1830 edition, came from the translation of "the very last leaf '' of the golden plates, and was written by the prophet - historian Moroni. The title page states that the purpose of the Book of Mormon is "to (show) unto the remnant of the house of Israel what great things the Lord hath done for their fathers;... and also to the convincing of the Jew and Gentile that Jesus is the Christ, the eternal God, manifesting himself unto all nations. ''
The Book of Mormon is organized as a compilation of smaller books, each named after its main named narrator or a prominent leader, beginning with the First Book of Nephi (1 Nephi) and ending with the Book of Moroni.
The book 's sequence is primarily chronological based on the narrative content of the book. Exceptions include the Words of Mormon and the Book of Ether. The Words of Mormon contains editorial commentary by Mormon. The Book of Ether is presented as the narrative of an earlier group of people who had come to America before the immigration described in 1 Nephi. First Nephi through Omni are written in first - person narrative, as are Mormon and Moroni. The remainder of the Book of Mormon is written in third - person historical narrative, said to be compiled and abridged by Mormon (with Moroni abridging the Book of Ether).
Most modern editions of the book have been divided into chapters and verses. Most editions of the book also contain supplementary material, including the "Testimony of Three Witnesses '' and the "Testimony of Eight Witnesses ''.
The books from First Nephi to Omni are described as being from "the small plates of Nephi ''. This account begins in ancient Jerusalem around 600 BC. It tells the story of a man named Lehi, his family, and several others as they are led by God from Jerusalem shortly before the fall of that city to the Babylonians in 586 BC. The book describes their journey across the Arabian peninsula, and then to the promised land, the Americas, by ship. These books recount the group 's dealings from approximately 600 BC to about 130 BC, during which time the community grew and split into two main groups, which are called the Nephites and the Lamanites, that frequently warred with each other.
Following this section is the Words of Mormon. This small book, said to be written in AD 385 by Mormon, is a short introduction to the books of Mosiah, Alma, Helaman, Third Nephi, and Fourth Nephi. These books are described as being abridged from a large quantity of existing records called "the large plates of Nephi '' that detailed the people 's history from the time of Omni to Mormon 's own life. The Book of Third Nephi is of particular importance within the Book of Mormon because it contains an account of a visit by Jesus from heaven to the Americas sometime after his resurrection and ascension. The text says that during this American visit, he repeated much of the same doctrine and instruction given in the Gospels of the Bible and he established an enlightened, peaceful society which endured for several generations, but which eventually broke into warring factions again.
The portion of the greater Book of Mormon called the Book of Mormon is an account of the events during Mormon 's life. Mormon is said to have received the charge of taking care of the records that had been hidden, once he was old enough. The book includes an account of the wars, Mormon 's leading of portions of the Nephite army, and his retrieving and caring for the records. Mormon is eventually killed after having handed down the records to his son Moroni.
According to the text, Moroni then made an abridgment (called the Book of Ether) of a record from a previous people called the Jaredites. The account describes a group of families led from the Tower of Babel to the Americas, headed by a man named Jared and his brother. The Jaredite civilization is presented as existing on the American continent beginning about 2500 BC, -- long before Lehi 's family arrived shortly after 600 BC -- and as being much larger and more developed.
The Book of Moroni then details the final destruction of the Nephites and the idolatrous state of the remaining society. It also includes significant doctrinal teachings and closes with Moroni 's testimony and an invitation to pray to God for a confirmation of the truthfulness of the account.
The Book of Mormon contains doctrinal and philosophical teachings on a wide range of topics, from basic themes of Christianity and Judaism to political and ideological teachings. Jesus is mentioned every 1.7 verses and is referred to by one hundred different names.
Stated on the title page, the Book of Mormon 's central purpose is for the "convincing of the Jew and Gentile that Jesus is the Christ, the Eternal God, manifesting himself unto all nations. ''
The book describes Jesus, prior to his birth, as a spirit "without flesh and blood '', although with a spirit "body '' that looked similar to how Jesus would appear during his physical life. Jesus is described as "the Father and the Son ''. He is said to be: "God himself (who) shall come down among the children of men, and shall redeem his people... (b) eing the Father and the Son -- the Father, because he was conceived by the power of God; and the Son, because of the flesh; thus becoming the Father and Son -- and they are one God, yea, the very Eternal Father of heaven and of earth. '' Other parts of the book portray the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost as "one. '' As a result, beliefs among the churches of the Latter Day Saint movement encompass nontrinitarianism (in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints) to trinitarianism (particularly among the Community of Christ). See Godhead (Latter Day Saints).
In furtherance of its theme of reconciling Jews and Gentiles to Jesus, the book describes a variety of visions or visitations to some early inhabitants in the Americas involving Jesus. Most notable among these is a described visit of Jesus to a group of early inhabitants shortly after his resurrection. Many of the book 's contributors described other visions of Jesus, including one by the Brother of Jared who, according to the book, lived before Jesus, and saw the "body '' of Jesus ' spirit thousands of years prior to his birth. According to the book, a narrator named Nephi described a vision of the birth, ministry, and death of Jesus, including a prophecy of Jesus ' name, said to have taken place nearly 600 years prior to Jesus ' birth.
In the narrative, at the time of King Benjamin (about 130 BC), the Nephite believers were called "the children of Christ ''. At another place, the faithful members of the church at the time of Captain Moroni (73 BC) were called "Christians '' by their enemies, because of their belief in Jesus Christ. The book also states that for nearly 200 years after Jesus ' appearance at the temple in the Americas the land was filled with peace and prosperity because of the people 's obedience to his commandments. Later, the prophet Mormon worked to convince the faithless people of his time (AD 360) of Christ. Many other prophets in the book write of the reality of the Messiah, Jesus Christ.
In the Bible, Jesus spoke to the Jews in Jerusalem of "other sheep '' who would hear his voice. The Book of Mormon claims this meant that the Nephites and other remnants of the lost tribes of Israel throughout the world were to be visited by Jesus after his resurrection.
On most religious issues, Book of Mormon doctrines are similar to those found in the Bible and among other Christian denominations. Among its somewhat distinctive theological interpretations are the following:
The book delves into political theology within a Christian or Jewish context. Among these themes are American exceptionalism. According to the book, the Americas are portrayed as a "land of promise '', the world 's most exceptional land of the time. The book states that any righteous society possessing the land would be protected, whereas if they became wicked they would be destroyed and replaced with a more righteous civilization.
On the issue of war and violence, the book teaches that war is justified for people to "defend themselves against their enemies ''. However, they were never to "give an offense, '' or to "raise their sword... except it were to preserve their lives. '' The book praises the faith of a group of former warriors who took an oath of complete pacifism, refusing to take arms even to defend themselves and their people. However, 2,000 of their descendants, who had not taken the oath of their parents not to take up arms against their enemies, chose to go to battle against the Lamanites, and it states that in their battles the 2,000 men were protected by God through their faith and, though many were injured, none of them died.
The book recommends monarchy as an ideal form of government, but only when the monarch is righteous. The book warns of the evil that occurs when the king is wicked, and therefore suggests that it is not generally good to have a king. The book further records the decision of the people to be ruled no longer by kings, choosing instead a form of democracy led by elected judges. When citizens referred to as "king - men '' attempted to overthrow a democratically elected government and establish an unrighteous king, the book praises a military commander who executed pro-monarchy citizens who had vowed to destroy the church of God and were unwilling to defend their country from hostile invading forces. The book also speaks favorably of a particular instance of what appears to be a peaceful Christ - centered theocracy, which lasted approximately 194 years before contentions began again.
The book supports notions of economic justice, achieved through voluntary donation of "substance, every man according to that which he had, to the poor. '' In one case, all the citizens held their property in common. When individuals within a society began to disdain and ignore the poor, to "wear costly apparel '', and otherwise engage in wickedness for personal gain, such societies are repeatedly portrayed in the book as being ripe for destruction.
Joseph Smith characterized the Book of Mormon as the "keystone '' of Mormonism, and claimed that it was "the most correct of any book on earth ''. Smith produced a written revelation in 1832 that condemned the "whole church '' for treating the Book of Mormon lightly.
The Book of Mormon is one of four sacred texts or standard works of the LDS Church. Church leaders have frequently restated Smith 's claims of the book 's significance to the faith. Church members believe that the Book of Mormon is more correct than the Bible because the Bible was the result of a multiple - generation translation process and the Book of Mormon was not.
For most of the history of the LDS Church, the Book of Mormon was not used as much as other books of scripture such as the New Testament and the Doctrine and Covenants. This changed in the 1980s when efforts were made to reemphasize the Book of Mormon. As part of this effort, a new edition was printed with the added subtitle "Another Testament of Jesus Christ ''.
The importance of the Book of Mormon was a focus of Ezra Taft Benson, the church 's thirteenth president. Benson stated that the church was still under condemnation for treating the Book of Mormon lightly. In an August 2005 message, LDS Church president Gordon B. Hinckley challenged each member of the church to re-read the Book of Mormon before the year 's end. The book 's importance is commonly stressed at the twice - yearly general conference, at special devotionals by general authorities, and in the church 's teaching publications. Since the late 1980s, church members have been encouraged to read from the Book of Mormon daily.
The LDS Church encourages discovery of the book 's truth by following the suggestion in its final chapter to study, ponder, and pray to God concerning its veracity. This passage is sometimes referred to as "Moroni 's Promise ''.
As of April 2011, the LDS Church has published more than 150 million copies of the Book of Mormon.
The Community of Christ, formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, views the Book of Mormon as an additional witness of Jesus Christ and publishes two versions of the book through its official publishing arm, Herald House: the Authorized Edition, which is based on the original printer 's manuscript, and the 1837 Second Edition (or "Kirtland Edition '') of the Book of Mormon. Its content is similar to the Book of Mormon published by the LDS Church, but the versification is different. The Community of Christ also publishes a 1966 "Revised Authorized Edition '', which attempts to modernize some language.
In 2001, Community of Christ President W. Grant McMurray reflected on increasing questions about the Book of Mormon: "The proper use of The Book of Mormon as sacred scripture has been under wide discussion in the 1970s and beyond, in part because of long - standing questions about its historical authenticity and in part because of perceived theological inadequacies, including matters of race and ethnicity. ''
At the 2007 Community of Christ World Conference, President Stephen M. Veazey ruled out - of - order a resolution to "reaffirm the Book of Mormon as a divinely inspired record. '' He stated that "while the Church affirms the Book of Mormon as scripture, and makes it available for study and use in various languages, we do not attempt to mandate the degree of belief or use. This position is in keeping with our longstanding tradition that belief in the Book of Mormon is not to be used as a test of fellowship or membership in the church. ''
There are a number of other churches that are part of the Latter Day Saint movement. Most of these churches were created as a result of issues ranging from differing doctrinal interpretations and acceptance of the movement 's scriptures, including the Book of Mormon, to disagreements as to who was the divinely chosen successor to Joseph Smith. These groups all have in common the acceptance of the Book of Mormon as scripture. It is this acceptance which distinguishes the churches of the Latter Day Saint movement from other Christian denominations. Separate editions of the Book of Mormon have been published by a number of churches in the Latter Day Saint movement, along with private individuals and foundations not endorsed by any specific denomination.
The archaeological, historical and scientific communities are generally skeptical of the claims that the Book of Mormon is an ancient record of actual historical events. This skepticism tends to focus on four main areas:
Most adherents of the Latter Day Saint movement consider the Book of Mormon to generally be a historically accurate account. Within the Latter Day Saint movement there are several apologetic groups that disagree with the skeptics and seek to reconcile the discrepancies in diverse ways. Among these apologetic groups, much work has been published by Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (FARMS), and Foundation for Apologetic Information & Research (FAIR), defending the Book of Mormon as a literal history, countering arguments critical of its historical authenticity, or reconciling historical and scientific evidence with the text. One of the more common recent arguments is the limited geography model, which states that the people of the Book of Mormon covered only a limited geographical region in either Mesoamerica, South America, or the Great Lakes area. The LDS Church has published material indicating that science will support the historical authenticity of the Book of Mormon.
The Book of Mormon was dictated by Joseph Smith to several scribes over a period of 13 months, resulting in three manuscripts.
The 116 lost pages contained the first portion of the Book of Lehi; it was lost after Smith loaned the original, uncopied manuscript to Martin Harris.
The first completed manuscript, called the original manuscript, was completed using a variety of scribes. Portions of the original manuscript were also used for typesetting. In October 1841, the entire original manuscript was placed into the cornerstone of the Nauvoo House, and sealed up until nearly forty years later when the cornerstone was reopened. It was then discovered that much of the original manuscript had been destroyed by water seepage and mold. Surviving manuscript pages were handed out to various families and individuals in the 1880s.
Only 28 percent of the original manuscript now survives, including a remarkable find of fragments from 58 pages in 1991. The majority of what remains of the original manuscript is now kept in the LDS Church 's Archives.
The second completed manuscript, called the printer 's manuscript, was a copy of the original manuscript produced by Oliver Cowdery and two other scribes. It is at this point that initial copyediting of the Book of Mormon was completed. Observations of the original manuscript show little evidence of corrections to the text. Shortly before his death in 1850, Cowdery gave the printer 's manuscript to David Whitmer, another of the Three Witnesses. In 1903, the manuscript was bought from Whitmer 's grandson by the Community of Christ, known at the time as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints. On September 20, 2017, the LDS Church purchased the manuscript from the Community of Christ at a reported price of $35 million. The printer 's manuscript is now the earliest surviving complete copy of the Book of Mormon, being nearly 100 percent extant. The manuscript was imaged in 1923 and was recently made available for viewing online.
Critical comparisons between surviving portions of the manuscripts show an average of two to three changes per page from the original manuscript to the printer 's manuscript, with most changes being corrections of scribal errors such as misspellings or the correction, or standardization, of grammar inconsequential to the meaning of the text. The printer 's manuscript was further edited, adding paragraphing and punctuation to the first third of the text.
The printer 's manuscript was not used fully in the typesetting of the 1830 version of Book of Mormon; portions of the original manuscript were also used for typesetting. The original manuscript was used by Smith to further correct errors printed in the 1830 and 1837 versions of the Book of Mormon for the 1840 printing of the book.
In the late 19th century the extant portion of the printer 's manuscript remained with the family of David Whitmer, who had been a principal founder of the Latter Day Saints and who, by the 1870s, led the Church of Christ (Whitmerite). During the 1870s, according to the Chicago Tribune, the LDS Church unsuccessfully attempted to buy it from Whitmer for a record price. LDS president Joseph F. Smith refuted this assertion in a 1901 letter, believing such a manuscript "possesses no value whatever. '' In 1895, David Whitmer 's grandson George Schweich inherited the manuscript. By 1903 Schweich had mortgaged the manuscript for $1,800 and neededing to raise at least that sum, sold a collection including this 72 - percent of the Book of the original the printer 's manuscript (John Whitmer 's manuscript history, parts of Joseph Smith 's translation of the Bible, manuscript copies of several revelations, and a piece of paper containing copied Book of Mormon characters) to the RLDS church (now the Community of Christ) for $2,450, with $2,300 of this amount for the printer 's manuscript. The LDS Church had not sought to purchase the manuscript.
In 2015 this remaining portion was published by the Church Historian 's Press in its Joseph Smith Papers series, in Volume Three of "Revelations and Translations ''; and, in 2017, the LDS Church bought the printer 's manuscript for US $ 35,000,000.
The original 1830 publication did not have verse markers, although the individual books were divided into relatively long chapters. Just as the Bible 's present chapter and verse notation system is a later addition of Bible publishers to books that were originally solid blocks of undivided text, the chapter and verse markers within the books of the Book of Mormon are conventions, not part of the original text.
Publishers from different factions of the Latter Day Saint movement have published different chapter and verse notation systems. The two most significant are the LDS system, introduced in 1879, and the RLDS system, which is based on the original 1830 chapter divisions.
The RLDS 1908 edition, RLDS 1966 edition, the Church of Christ (Temple Lot) edition, and Restored Covenant editions use the RLDS system while most other current editions use the LDS system.
The Book of Mormon is currently printed by the following publishers:
The following non-current editions marked major developments in the text or reader 's helps printed in the Book of Mormon.
The following versions are published online:
In 1989, scholars at Brigham Young University began work on a critical text edition of the Book of Mormon. Volumes 1 and 2, published in 2001, contain transcriptions of all the text variants of the English editions of the Book of Mormon, from the original manuscript to the newest editions. Volume 4, which is being published in parts, is a critical analysis of all the text variants. Volume 3, which is not yet published, will describe the history of all the English - language texts from Joseph Smith to today.
Differences between the original and printer 's manuscript, the 1830 printed version, and modern versions of the Book of Mormon have led some critics to claim that evidence has been systematically removed that could have proven that Smith fabricated the Book of Mormon, or are attempts to hide embarrassing aspects of the church 's past.
The LDS version of the Book of Mormon has been translated into 83 languages and selections have been translated into an additional 25 languages. In 2001, the LDS Church reported that all or part of the Book of Mormon was available in the native language of 99 percent of Latter - day Saints and 87 percent of the world 's total population.
Translations into languages without a tradition of writing (e.g., Kaqchikel, Tzotzil) are available on audio cassette. Translations into American Sign Language are available on videocassette and DVD.
Typically, translators are members of the LDS Church who are employed by the church and translate the text from the original English. Each manuscript is reviewed several times before it is approved and published.
In 1998, the LDS Church stopped translating selections from the Book of Mormon, and instead announced that each new translation it approves will be a full edition.
Events of the Book of Mormon are the focus of several LDS Church films, including The Life of Nephi (1915), How Rare a Possession (1987) and The Testaments of One Fold and One Shepherd (2000). Such films in LDS cinema (i.e., films not officially commissioned by the LDS Church) include The Book of Mormon Movie, Vol. 1: The Journey (2003) and Passage to Zarahemla (2007).
Second Nephi 9: 20 -- 27 from the Book of Mormon is quoted in a funeral service in Alfred Hitchcock 's film Family Plot.
In 2003, a South Park episode titled "All About Mormons '' parodied the origins of the Book of Mormon.
In 2011, a long - running religious satire musical titled The Book of Mormon, by the South Park creators, premiered on Broadway, winning 9 Tony Awards, including best musical. Its London production won the Olivier Award for best musical.
The LDS Church, which distributes free copies of the Book of Mormon, reported in 2011 that 150 million copies of the book have been printed since its initial publication.
The initial printing of the Book of Mormon in 1830 produced 5000 copies. The 50 millionth copy was printed in 1990, with the 100 millionth following in 2000 and reaching 150 million in 2011.
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who is the actor who plays jacob in twilight | Taylor Lautner - wikipedia
Taylor Lautner (/ ˈlaʊtnər /; born February 11, 1992) is an American actor, voice actor, and model. He is known for playing Jacob Black in The Twilight Saga film series based on the novels of the same name by Stephenie Meyer.
Lautner began his acting career playing bit roles in comedy series such as The Bernie Mac Show (2003) and My Wife and Kids (2004), before having voice roles in television series like What 's New, Scooby - Doo? (2005) and Danny Phantom (2005). In 2005, he appeared in the film Cheaper by the Dozen 2 and starred in The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3 - D. He also starred in the 2011 action film Abduction.
Since 2013, Lautner has starred in the BBC sitcom Cuckoo as the son of the titular main character. In 2016, he joined the main cast of FOX black comedy series Scream Queens as Dr. Cassidy Cascade, joining in the second series.
The late 2000s saw Lautner become a teen idol and sex symbol, after extensively changing his physique to keep the role of Jacob Black in further Twilight installments, and generating media attention for his looks. In 2010, he was ranked second on Glamour 's "The 50 Sexiest Men of 2010 '' list, and fourth on People 's "Most Amazing Bodies '' list. Also in the same year, Lautner was named the highest - paid teenage actor in Hollywood.
Lautner was born on February 11, 1992 in Grand Rapids, Michigan, the son of Deborah and Daniel Lautner. His mother works for a software development company, while his father was a Midwest Airlines pilot. He has one younger sister named Makena. Raised as a Roman Catholic, Lautner has Austrian, Dutch, English, French, German, Irish, and Swiss ancestry, and has stated that he has "distant '' Native American ancestry (specifically Ottawa and Potawatomi) through his mother. He grew up in Hudsonville, Michigan, a town near Grand Rapids. He has stated that he was bullied in school because he was an actor. He commented, "I just had to tell myself ' I ca n't let this get to me. This is what I love to do. And I 'm going to continue doing it. ' ''
He took his first karate class at the age of six. A year later, he attended the national karate tournament in Louisville, Kentucky, where he met Michael Chaturantabut, the founder of Xtreme Martial Arts. Chaturantabut invited Lautner to a camp he held at University of California, Los Angeles. Lautner trained with Chaturantabut for several years, earning his black belt by the age of eight, and winning several junior world championships. He appeared in an ISKA karate event televised on ESPN in 2003 that was later lampooned on the sports - comedy show Cheap Seats that first aired in 2006.
In junior high, Lautner -- who was involved in karate, baseball and hip - hop dance -- won the award for "Best Smile '' and played in the school 's Turkey Bowl American Football game. He went to public school in Valencia, California at Valencia High School until his sophomore year. Chaturantabut, who once portrayed the Blue Ranger in Power Rangers Lightspeed Rescue, suggested to Lautner that he take up acting. For a few years, the Lautners flew from Michigan to Los Angeles for auditions when his talent agency called, and returned to Grand Rapids for school sometimes the same day. Lautner balanced karate and acting with being on the football and baseball teams at his school, and taking up jazz and hip - hop dance. After that became tiring, Lautner and his family decided to move to California for a month, to try it out, before moving to Santa Clarita, California, permanently in 2002.
In his first months after moving to Los Angeles, Lautner appeared in small television roles, small film roles, and ads and commercials. In 2001, Lautner first appeared in the made - for - television film, Shadow Fury. He then got a voice - over job in a commercial for Rugrats Go Wild. He then appeared in small television roles on The Bernie Mac Show, My Wife and Kids, and Summerland. Lautner then earned voice - over roles in animated series such as Danny Phantom, Duck Dodgers, and What 's New, Scooby - Doo?. The same year, he earned his first breakout role, starring in the film, The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3 - D. Lautner spent three months on location in Austin, Texas, to film the movie, which was received with negative reviews from critics, and was a minor international success. However, Lautner was nominated at the 2006 Young Artist Awards for Best Performance in a Feature Film by a Leading Actor. For the film, Lautner choreographed all of his fight scenes after director Robert Rodríguez learned of his extensive martial arts training. Months later, he played Eliot Murtaugh in Cheaper by the Dozen 2, which was panned by critics, being named one of the "Worst Films of the 2000s '' by Rotten Tomatoes. After returning from Canada filming the latter movie, Lautner said he realized his newfound fame, from Sharkboy and Lavagirl. In 2006 he appeared in the show Love Inc. and the TV special He 's a Bully, Charlie Brown. Two years later, Lautner appeared in a lead role in the short - lived NBC drama, My Own Worst Enemy, portraying Christian Slater 's son, Jack Spivey. Rolling Stone coined his early roles as either "the popular kid, jock, or bully. ''
In 2007, filmmakers began a search for actors to portray Jacob Black, a Native American friend of lead character Bella Swan in Twilight, the first film in The Twilight Saga film series. In January 2008, an open casting call was held in Portland, Oregon. Lautner had not heard of the Twilight series before, but was urged by his agent to audition. At his audition, he read lines with Kristen Stewart, who had already been cast as Bella, and they acted out scenes from The Twilight Saga: New Moon and The Twilight Saga: Eclipse. The film was a commercial success, earning $69 million its opening weekend, and has grossed $392 million worldwide. It received mixed reviews from critics, having a "Rotten '' rating with a weighted average of 5.5 / 10. In describing the critical consensus, it stated: "Having lost much of its bite transitioning to the big screen, Twilight will please its devoted fans, but do little for the uninitiated. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 reviews from film critics, it has an average score of 56 from the 37 reviews. At the 2009 MTV Movie Awards, Lautner was nominated for Male Breakthrough Performance, which was won by co-star Robert Pattinson.
Initially, director Chris Weitz wanted to recast the role of Jacob Black for Twilight 's sequel, The Twilight Saga: New Moon, due to the major physical changes that occur in Black between the two novels, and have an actor that would accurately portray "the new, larger Jacob Black. '' Black 's role in the novel also increases significantly, with him falling in love with Bella and becoming a werewolf, putting the actor in a starring role. Representatives for Weitz had stated that they were make a full effort to recast the "high - profile gig, '' and MTV News confirmed that Weitz was looking at Michael Copon to take on the role; however, Summit Entertainment said a decision had not been made. In an attempt to keep the role, Lautner weight - trained extensively and gained approximately 30 pounds of muscle. In January 2009, Weitz and Summit Entertainment announced that Lautner would continue to play the role of Jacob in the sequel. In an interview, fellow cast member Kristen Stewart talked about Lautner 's transformation saying, "He 's an entirely different person physically. '' Stewart later said, "He gets a lot of attention because he 's buff, but I think as soon as the movie comes out, people are going to realize that 's not why he got the job. '' Co-star Robert Pattinson said after seeing Lautner 's body, "I saw him and thought ' Jesus, I 'm going to get fired. '' In an interview with The Wrap, Weitz said Lautner deserved a lot of credit for the movie 's box office, stating, "If you look at the movie, it should have been the weakest in the franchise, because Robert Pattinson does n't play as big a role. '' Weitz said Lautner had to "pick up that slack, and if his character had n't been emotionally, not just physically, appealing, the movie would n't have been as big a hit. '' The commercial performance of the film outpaced the first film, setting several box office records including the biggest midnight opening in the United States and Canada and the biggest single - day opening. The opening weekend of New Moon is the third highest opening weekend in domestic history with $142,839,137. The Twilight Saga: New Moon also has the sixth highest worldwide opening weekend with $274.9 million total. Critical reception was less favorable, with the movie getting a 4.6 / 10 average from Rotten Tomatoes, and a 44 on Metacritic. Lautner won Favorite Breakout Movie Actor at the 35th People 's Choice Awards.
Although it began after the release of the first film, upon release of New Moon, Lautner and his co-stars Stewart and Pattinson transitioned to teen idol status, with Lautner particularly admired by teens for his new physical characteristics, becoming a sex symbol. The trio appeared on many covers and televised appearances together. In between the second and third films in the Twilight series, Lautner was a part of the ensemble cast in the movie Valentine 's Day as Willy Harrington, acting alongside his rumored girlfriend at the time, American country pop singer Taylor Swift. The duo was nominated at the 2010 MTV Movie Awards for Best Kiss. Although it received generally negative reviews, the film grossed $213 million and had the second biggest opening in the United States for a romantic comedy film. Lautner presented at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards and the 82nd Academy Awards. Lautner hosted Saturday Night Live on December 12, 2009, making him one of the youngest celebrity hosts in the show 's history.
Lautner returned for the third Twilight film, The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, in 2010. Receiving mixed reviews from critics, the film surpassed its predecessor to become the highest - grossing film of the franchise and the highest - grossing romantic fantasy, werewolf and vampire movie of all time at the American and Canadian box office. It ranks as the 36th highest - grossing film of all - time in the U.S. and Canada. The popularity of Lautner and his cast members continued to summit, especially via the "Team Edward vs. Team Jacob '' campaign that promoted the film. Lautner 's fanbase also began to expand to older audiences. Lautner won Best Fantasy Actor at the 2010 Scream Awards, and he is nominated for Favorite Movie Actor for his role in Eclipse at the 37th People 's Choice Awards. In November 2010 The Hollywood Reporter named Lautner as one of the young male actors who are "pushing -- or being pushed '' into taking over Hollywood as the new "A-List ''.
Lautner was initially supposed to be in two films, Northern Lights and a movie based on Max Steel, but pulled out of both films due to scheduling conflicts and better offers. Other planned projects were the lead in a movie about Stretch Armstrong and a hostage thriller, Cancun. Lautner filmed a Bourne Identity-esque spy film with Lily Collins, entitled Abduction. It was released in September 2011 to universally negative reviews from critics and Lautner 's performance was heavily criticised. He appeared in the remaining parts of the Twilight series, The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn films, which were released over a two - year period from 2011 -- 2012.
In 2010, Lautner was considered to be the highest - paid teen actor in Hollywood. In February 2014, it was confirmed that Lautner would be joining the BBC Three comedy series Cuckoo, replacing Andy Samberg. Lautner continued in this role for two years, co-starring in the BBC comedy for three series. On June 23, 2016 it was announced that Lautner had been cast in the Ryan Murphy comedy horror series Scream Queens.
Publications such as GQ, Rolling Stone, and People have referred to Lautner as a sex symbol, with the latter publication calling the actor a future epitome of pop culture. He has been called the new young adult star that can "both woo the girls with his intensity and impress the boys with his rugged agility. '' According to Mickey Rapkin of GQ, the use of Lautner 's physique in films has been compared to Megan Fox in her work. After his massive physical change following Twilight, Lautner became a tabloid teen idol with his co-stars Robert Pattinson and Kristen Stewart. Lautner, determined to stay in the series, worked out every day and gained over 30 pounds (14 kg) of muscle in order to bulk up for the role of Jacob Black in the remaining films in The Twilight Saga. Michelle Lanz of MSN Wonderwall said that Lautner 's change may have saved his career. Several critics credit Lautner 's physical characteristics for much of the success of the Twilight series, with critic Sharon Waxman stating, "as a tabloid teen idol, he certainly deserves some credit for New Moon 's $700 million worldwide gross. '' Lautner 's abs in particular have been subject to media attention, with The Wrap stating that companies bidding for the actor in movies in 2011 would "shell out for the young actor 's much - on - display though mostly untried abs. '' Mickey Rapkin of GQ said, "the film 's marketing issues were solved when Lautner 's "abdominal muscles became New Moon 's main talking point, not to mention his calling card. '' He was named number one on Access Hollywood 's "Top 5 Hollywood Abs '' list.
Before the actor turned 18, his sexualized image was often critiqued, and subject to controversy. In December 2009, Lautner appeared on the cover of Rolling Stone in a wet T - shirt. Jennifer Cady of E! Online said to wait a few months when Lautner would "be of age, which will make this whole operation you got going on completely legal. '' In his interview with the magazine, after declining to talk about whether he was dating Taylor Swift, the magazine pressed Lautner on rumors of him being homosexual, which he brushed off. Brent Hartinger, a columnist for AfterElton, blasted the magazine, calling the questioning "unimaginably irresponsible, '' commenting that Lautner was just "a 17 - year old kid '' and that while the rumors were baseless and speculation from certain blogs and fans, it was disappointing that a "legitimate media outlet '' would print gossip. Hartinger said the magazine reached a "new low '' and did not have common decency, noting that the line between child and adult "is there for a good reason ''.
Lautner has stated that he does not want to be just known for his looks, as some have attributed his popularity to that and not his actual acting skill. In an interview, the actor revealed that he was originally supposed to have a baring scene in the movie Valentine 's Day. He stated, "The script said we were walking into school and Willy takes off his shirt. I said, ' Whoa, whoa, whoa. Time out. He 's gon na take off his shirt in the middle of school? No, no, no. The reason I took off my shirt for New Moon is because it 's written in the book that way. And there 's reasons behind it. '' Lautner later said he would not bare his chest for any role that did not call for it. In June 2010, Lautner covered GQ magazine. The actor was lampooned in conservative writer Laura Ingraham 's satirical The Obama Diaries, commenting to have Lautner as a mascot for the White House Easter Egg Roll, to fit their health - conscious theme, and have Lautner don a furry bunny head and appear shirtless. In 2010, Lautner was ranked number two on Glamour 's "50 Sexiest Men of 2010 '' list. Men 's Health ranked him at third on their list of "Top 10 Summer Bodies. '' Additionally in 2010, he was ranked fourth on People 's "Most Amazing Bodies '' list.
Lautner has an intricate workout plan, which was covered by Men 's Health, and has a specific diet after developing his body for The Twilight Saga: New Moon. In addition, he still practices and trains in martial arts regularly. He has stated that he is drug - and alcohol - free.
Lautner resides with his parents and younger sister in Valencia, California, which he says he prefers because of the paparazzi. Lautner has said that he has never thought of moving out on his own, stating, "The thing I love is that my home life has n't changed. I still help out with the garbage. I still help out with the lawn. '' He owns a BMW 5 series, with dark - tinted windows intended to provide anonymity.
The boost given to his career by the success of the Twilight films made him too busy to attend school, so he took the California High School Proficiency Exam to graduate from high school in 2008. He has stated on Late Show with David Letterman that if he does not have work, he would like to go back to school. In 2010, he stated that "I finished high school and enrolled in my local community college ''.
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who is the longest running snl cast member | Saturday Night Live cast members - wikipedia
As of September 2017, the late night live variety series Saturday Night Live (SNL) has featured 150 cast members. The ensemble was originally referred to as the "Not Ready For Prime Time Players. ''
The list below includes both repertory and featured players past and present, but omits SNL writers and others who were not listed as cast members during the show 's credits. The dates given are those of the years they were part of the cast. The chart also shows whether the cast member has served as a guest host, appeared as the anchorperson of the "Weekend Update '' segment (by any of its titles), or has been the subject of their own "Best of '' home video collection. Many of the cast members were writers as well.
Lighter colors denote "featured players '' versus repertory cast members.
These are the cast members who have spent at least ten seasons on the show.
These cast members spent less than a full 20 - episode season on the show.
After 14 seasons, Hammond left as the show 's oldest active cast member, ending his tenure at 53 years old during his final season in 2009.
Portraying the sitting President of the United States is considered "about as high (...) an honor that can be bestowed upon a cast member. ''
Darrell Hammond had the longest tenure portraying a U.S. president, with Bill Clinton from 1995 -- 2001, and George W. Bush during 2003. Hammond also portrayed Richard Nixon in season 34, episode 12.
Michael McKean portrayed Bill Clinton during a brief period after Phil Hartman 's departure. There was also a sketch featuring Chris Farley, David Spade, Chris Elliott, Adam Sandler, and Tim Meadows auditioning for the role of Clinton. There was also a gag in a 2001 sketch with Tracy Morgan filling in for Will Ferrell as George W. Bush.
Another noteworthy presidential portrayal was that of Dan Aykroyd as former president Richard Nixon from 1975 -- 79.
Jim Carrey, while never having been an SNL cast member, portrayed Ronald Reagan in Funny or Die 's Presidential Reunion of SNL Presidents (which reunited Chase as Ford, Aykroyd as Carter, Carvey as George H.W. Bush, Hammond as Clinton, Ferrell as George W. Bush, and Armisen as Obama), because two of the actors who previously portrayed Reagan had died since and the other three had declined to appear in the reunion. Carrey did, however, audition to be a cast member for the 1980 -- 81 season; he hosted the show in May 1996, January 2011, and October 2014.
Donald Trump, having been a public figure before being president, was portrayed by several cast members over the years. He was portrayed by Phil Hartman (1988 -- 90), Darrell Hammond (1999 -- 11, 2015 -- 16), Jason Sudeikis (2012) and Taran Killam (2015).
The Primetime Emmy Awards are presented by the American Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. These are the cast members who won or were nominated for an Emmy for their work while in the cast.
As of May 2016, there are 33 SNL hosts who, at one point in their careers, were either a repertory or featured member of the SNL cast.
Although SNL is best known as the launchpad for many successful careers, nine former cast members have died before the age of 60. This has given rise to a superstition known as the "Saturday Night Live Curse ''.
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daddy's little girl song by the mills brothers | Daddy 's Little Girl - Wikipedia
"Daddy 's Little Girl '' is a classic song typically played at white weddings while a bride dances with her father. The song 's lyrics and music were written by Robert Burke and Horace Gerlach in 1906.
It was recorded by the Mills Brothers and British balladeer Steve Conway in 1950, and later by other artists, such as Al Martino on his 1967 Capitol Records release, Frank Fontaine on his 1963 ABC - Paramount single release, and Michael Bublé on his second album, the 2002 Canadian release, Dream.
And you 're Daddy 's Little Girl You 're the end of the rainbow My Pot of Gold You 're Daddy 's Little Girl to have and hold A precious gem is what you are You 're Mommy 's Bright and shining star.
You 're the spirit of Christmas My star on the tree You 're the Easter Bunny to Mommy and me.
You 're sugar You 're spice You 're everything nice and you 're Daddy 's Little Girl.
You 're the end of the rainbow My Pot of Gold You 're Daddy 's Little Girl to have and hold A precious gem is what you are You 're Mommy 's Bright and shining star.
You 're the spirit of Christmas My star on the tree You 're the Easter Bunny to Mommy and me You 're sugar You 're spice You 're everything nice and you 're Daddy 's Little Girl.
Little girl of mine, with eyes of shining blue, Little girl of mine, I love you, yes, I do; No one else could be so sweet, You have made my life complete:
Chorus: You 're the end of the rainbow, my pot o ' gold, You 're Daddy 's Little Girl to have and hold; A precious gem is what you are, You 're mommy 's bright and shining star;
You 're the spirit of Christmas, my star on the tree, You 're the Easter bunny to mommy and me; You 're sugar, you 're spice, you 're every thing nice, And you 're Daddy 's Little Girl.
Chorus
You 're the treasure I cherish, so sparkling and bright, You were touched by holy and beautiful light; Like angels that sing, a heavenly thing, And you 're Daddy 's Little Girl.
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who does carrie bradshaw end up with in sex and the city | Carrie Bradshaw - wikipedia
Caroline "Carrie '' Marie Bradshaw is a fictional character and lead character of the HBO romantic sitcom Sex and the City, as well as the CW series The Carrie Diaries, portrayed by actresses Sarah Jessica Parker and AnnaSophia Robb, respectively. She is a semi-autobiographical character created by Candace Bushnell, who published the book Sex and the City, based on her own columns in the New York Observer. On the HBO series, Bradshaw is a New York City newspaper columnist, fashionista, and later, freelance writer for Vogue and a published author. Her weekly column, "Sex and the City, '' provides the title, storylines, and narration for each episode.
When the series premiered, the character was praised by critics for being a positive example of an independent woman in the vein of Mary Tyler Moore. However, retrospective analysis of the show tends to place more emphasis on the character 's repeated and often unrepentant infidelities, with many critics instead viewing her as self - centered and narcissistic.
Carrie writes a weekly column called "Sex and the City '' for fictional newspaper, The New York Star. The column focuses on Carrie 's sexual escapades and those of her close friends, as well as musings about the relationships between men and women, dating, and New York. It provides Carrie with a certain amount of recognition in the city. People who read her column occasionally describe her as their icon. In the third season, her column is optioned for a film produced by Matthew McConaughey. In the fifth season, some of her columns are compiled into a book. At the end of season four, Carrie begins to write freelance articles for Vogue. Although she initially has trouble dealing with Enid (Candice Bergen), her abrasive, demanding editor at Vogue, she does find her feet and ends up befriending her.
Carrie is notoriously led by her emotions. She seeks acceptance (a door key, bathroom cabinet space) from Mr. Big and others (she obsesses over the review her book received from book critic Michiko Kakutani in The New York Times). "Just tell me I 'm the one '' she urges Mr. Big at the end of Season 1, worried about his refusal to introduce her to his mother. She often behaves in a selfish manner (as seen during her affair) but unless her self - involvement is pointed out by friends, she is apt to blame this on her tendency to get ' Carried Away ', a phrase coined by Mr. Big in Season 2. The result is a flawed but relatable character due to the self - deprecating humor with which she tackles stereotypical issues within male -- female relationships (commitment being the running theme).
Carrie is an on - off smoker and when she smokes, she is mostly seen with Marlboro Lights. She tries to quit in seasons 3 and 4 using the Nicotine patch while dating Aidan. She enjoys cocktails (particularly cosmopolitans -- her character 's fondness for them helped to popularize the drink). While Carrie is a realist about the difficulties of relationships, having experienced many bad ones throughout the course of the series, she is a romantic on an endless search for true love, and refuses to settle for, as she puts it, "anything less than butterflies. '' Because of this, she repeatedly expresses doubts that she is the type to get married and raise a family.
Carrie is a resident of the borough of Manhattan in New York City. She lives in a brownstone on the Upper East Side at the fictional house number of 245, on East 73rd Street, between Park and Madison. She lives in this apartment throughout the series, having bought it from Aidan in the fourth season, after Aidan had bought it and the apartment next - door for himself and Carrie during their engagement. In the initial episodes of the first season, Carrie 's apartment is seen to be above a coffee shop somewhere near the vicinity of Madison Avenue. By approximately the fourth episode, the usual facade of a series of brownstones adjacent to hers is adopted, and remains that way throughout the series. The first episode also features a different apartment from the one used for the next 93 episodes and the movies. In the real life, the building with the famous stairs is 66 Perry Street, N.Y.C (West Village, Manhattan).
Little is mentioned about Carrie 's life before the series. Carrie arrived in Manhattan on Tuesday, June 11, 1986 when she was approximately 21, given her age that is mentioned at other points in the series. She says in the movie that she 's lived in Manhattan for 20 years (although she states at age 35 that she had been living there for a decade). In season four, Carrie tells a photographer that she was so poor when she first moved to New York that she would purchase Vogue instead of dinner. It is mentioned that her father left her and her mother when she was five; no siblings are mentioned. It is also revealed that Carrie had an abortion in 1988 after a one - night stand with a waiter when she was 22.
She tells Charlotte that she lost her virginity in Seth Bateman 's smelly rec room on the ping pong table in eleventh grade. In Season 6 ("Boy Interrupted ''), Carrie meets up with another boyfriend from high school named Jeremy (David Duchovny). Carrie states that she never had sex with him because they were young and wanted to wait.
A TV series was made after the production of Sex and the City, called The Carrie Diaries which featured Carrie 's life as a teenager prior to her life in Sex and the City. It focused mainly on Carrie who lived with her father and younger sister, Dorrit. She had a few relationships, the main one being her on and off relationship with Sebastian Kydd. She started working at Interview, a magazine firm, juggling between her school and work life. The series was discontinued after Season 2 as it was said that it was not economically feasible although it got positive feedback from its audience.
Candace Bushnell, author of Sex and the City, recently released her new book, Summer and the City: A Carrie Diaries Novel as part of her young adult series that follows the Sex and the City characters as teenagers. This novel reveals that Carrie attended the prestigious Ivy League University, Brown, in the 1980s. It also reveals that she took summer classes at the New School. TV Guide described the young version of Carrie Bradshaw as "Even when she 's trying to play adult in the city with her fashion - forward style and ' grown - up ' conversations, she still exudes an aura that manages to be innocent, cute and self - confident at the same time. ''
Carrie has been described as someone who lives for fashion, and has confessed to buying Vogue instead of dinner.
A known shoe lover with a penchant for expensive designer shoes (notably Manolo Blahniks, but also Christian Louboutins and Jimmy Choos), Miranda once estimated that Carrie has spent over $40,000 on shoes. Her shoes seem to average at least $400 a pair (according to Miranda), and it is implied that she has at least 100 unique pairs. She frequently mixes kitschy vintage finds with high - end labels. It is mentioned that Barneys, Bergdorf Goodman, Bloomingdale 's, and Saks Fifth Avenue are among her favorite places to shop.
Carrie once agreed to model for a charity fashion show (featuring both "real people '' and models), on the condition that she could keep the outfit, a Dolce and Gabbana original. The plan backfired when Carrie 's dress was replaced by jeweled silk underwear. Carrie is also known to have worn Alexander McQueen, Anna Molinari, Balenciaga, Betsey Johnson, Bottega Veneta, Céline, Chanel, Chloé, Christian Dior, Christian Lacroix, Christian Louboutin, Diane von Fürstenberg, Fendi, Givenchy, Gucci, Heatherette, Helmut Lang, Hermès, Jean Paul Gaultier, Jeremy Scott, Judith Leiber, Jil Sander, Jimmy Choo, Louis Vuitton, Lanvin, Manolo Blahnik, Marc Jacobs, Marni, Missoni, Miu Miu, Moschino, Prada, Oscar de la Renta, Roberto Cavalli, Sonia Rykiel, Tom Ford, Yves Saint Laurent, Vera Wang, Valentino, Versace, Vivienne Westwood, among others.
Carrie 's incredible wardrobe appears to be unaffordable for a writer on a moderate income (at least until season 5, at which time she is given a book offer. By the time of the films she appears to be more affluent, though that may be because of her husband 's wealth). Indeed, many of the people around her comment that she can not afford her shopping addiction. Carrie occasionally maxes out credit cards, could not secure a loan on her own due to poor savings and a bad credit rating as a result of extensive shopping, and has admitted her "shoe needs '' have accounted for most of her spending. In one episode, she wryly comments that she might "literally be the woman who lived in her shoe ''. Carrie is particularly known for her addiction to shoes, calling it her "substance abuse problem '' in the episode "Power of Female Sex '' in Season One. Notable couture moments include an incident when she is mugged near West Broadway and the bandit makes off with her Fendi Baguette clutch and Manolo Blahnik pink suede strappy sandals, which she purchased "half off at a sample sale! '', adding that they are her favorite shoes.
In season 3 she chases after the Staten Island ferry and ends up missing it after slipping out of her shoe, yelling, "Wait, I lost my Choo! ''. In "A Woman 's Right To Shoes '' she unashamedly asks for reimbursement from a friend after a pair of Manolos are stolen at that friend 's party due to her friend 's insistence upon no shoes inside the house. Carrie notes the hypocrisy in the fact that the friend, who ' shoe shames ' her ("it was your choice to buy shoes that expensive '') is rewarded over the years with thousands of dollars worth of gifts for her life choices (baby showers, engagement presents, wedding gifts, etc.), whereas single women do not have their life choices celebrated ("Hallmark do n't make a ' congratulations - you - did n't - marry - the - wrong - guy card '! '') and so comes to the conclusion that it is okay to spend that much on oneself to make the single girl 's walk through life a little more fun.
Introduced in the first episode and closing the final episode, "Mr. Big '' (Chris Noth) is Carrie 's central love interest throughout the series and recurring romantic foil -- his continual romantic ambiguity and Carrie 's diffidence about confronting him over it highlight Carrie 's fears, insecurities, and emotional needs. Despite the turmoil in their relationship, Carrie and Big make continuous appearances in each other 's lives, which is the source of both joy and stress for Carrie.
"Big '' is introduced as a wealthy man who runs into Carrie on the street, helping her pick up a large number of condoms that fell out of her purse after it had been knocked from her hand. He later spots her at a party, and after waving to her at the beginning of the evening, he later gives her a ride home in his limo. Their relationship runs the length of the series. At the start, she is intimidated and awed by him, and immediately gives him the nickname "Mr. Big ''. However, eventually Carrie and Big share a friendly and often passionate intimacy, yet he remains (in producer Michael Patrick King 's words), "always slightly out of reach. '' Mr. Big 's name is never mentioned until the last episode of the final season, where it is revealed to be John via Carrie 's cell phone caller ID. His full name is finally uncovered in the first movie as John James Preston.
They break up for the first time due to Mr. Big 's inability to be emotionally intimate with Carrie. They reunite but split again when Big announces that he is moving to Paris because of work. When he returns to the United States, he and Carrie bump into each other unexpectedly in the Hamptons. Upon his return, Carrie discovers that he is engaged to a young woman named Natasha, who was working for Ralph Lauren in Paris. Unsurprisingly, Carrie struggles to come to terms with Big 's decision and moves on, beginning a relationship with Aidan Shaw. However, Carrie can not put Big behind her and they have an affair, which she confesses to Aidan moments before Charlotte 's wedding. Carrie and Big continue a close, sometimes sexual, always flirtatious yet tempestuous friendship until the final episode. Here we witness a romantic display of love and affection when Big whispers the sorely awaited words to Carrie -- "you 're the one. ''
At the start of the movie Sex and the City Carrie and Big, in a businesslike fashion, decide to marry. The wedding starts out somewhat simply with 75 guests and with Carrie choosing to wear a simple white skirt suit that she found in a vintage shop. However, after Vivenne Westwood gifts an expensive and exquisite wedding dress that Carrie wore in a Vogue modeling shoot featuring Carrie as a "40 year old bride, '' the wedding plans balloon into something much more elaborate and now with 200 guests. Leading up to their wedding day, Big becomes overwhelmed by the media attention and the number of guests, telling Carrie that he would have been happy with eloping to City Hall, that all he wanted was Carrie and that he 's embarrassed by the attention because it 's his third marriage. On the day of the ceremony, Big has a "freakout '' and leaves the wedding venue without even getting out of his limousine. When Carrie calls him and asks where he is, he states "I ca n't do this '' and Carrie leaves devastated. He immediately realizes his mistake and tells the limo driver to turn around but the damage is already done. Carrie, hurt and betrayed, blocks all communication, unknowingly ignoring his love letters and apologetic emails. Over the course of the next 7 or 8 months, Carrie reflects on what happened and realizes that she is partially to blame for the wedding fiasco, because she let the wedding "get bigger than Big. '' Finally, Carrie and Big unintentionally meet, come to terms with each other, reaffirm their feelings and love, and privately marry at City Hall - the way Big had originally envisioned - with Carrie wearing the simple "label-less '' vintage suit she had initially chosen, along with the blue Manolo Blahniks that had played a big part in the two of them reuniting.
During the second movie, Carrie and Big 's passion has waned. Carrie begins to feel that their marriage has lost its "sparkle '' as Big enjoys spending nights eating in and watching TV. Carrie feels the urge to escape to her old apartment for two days to meet a writing deadline and enjoy some time to herself, and is surprised when Big picks her up for dinner, and feels the romance re-enter their marriage. Big then suggests to Carrie they spend two days a week apart, to enjoy their own time, which he feels is what is giving their marriage new life. Carrie, somewhat hurt and resistant, reluctantly agrees, and then travels to Abu Dhabi with Samantha, Charlotte and Miranda. While in Abu Dhabi, Carrie learns how important a marriage can be when her butler tells her how he is separated from his wife for months at a time, but when they see each other, nothing else matters. Carrie also reunites with her old flame, Aidan Shaw, whom she meets in a chance encounter at an Abu Dhabi market. Carrie feels distressed due to a bad review of her new book in the New Yorker, and meets Aidan for dinner. The two of them reconnect, and briefly kiss. Carrie immediately regrets it and asks her friends for advice on whether to tell Big. Samantha and Miranda both advise Carrie not to tell Big because it was a minor incident, but Carrie feels too guilty to let it slide and tells Big immediately. Big is hurt, and Carrie worries that Big will go from wanting two days off, to seven days off. Upon Carrie 's arrival back in New York, she is upset that Big does n't pick her up at the airport as originally planned, is n't home and has n't called. That night, he gets home and Carrie and Big talk about their marriage. Big tells Carrie to stop worrying that they will become a tired, boring old married couple, and they take new wedding vows for each other. Big forgives Carrie and gives her a black diamond ring (to make up for his unromantic marriage proposal - without a ring - 3 years earlier) to really show the world she 's off the market. As their marriage grows out of the "terrible twos '' Big and Carrie seem very happy and relaxed with each other. Now that they are both making an effort, and due to the ring Big gave her, they have their "sparkle '' back.
Manhattan furniture designer Aidan Shaw (John Corbett) is Carrie 's next serious boyfriend after the painful break - up with Mr. Big. Aidan is the opposite of Mr. Big, as he is a laid - back, low - key nature lover who is patient, straightforward, and somewhat traditional in his relationship with Carrie. Carrie met him through her friend Stanford Blatch when the two of them visited Aidan 's furniture store. They share an uncomplicated, loving relationship, which initially confuses Carrie, as she had become used to the stresses of dating Mr. Big. She begins to feel trapped and can not shake off Mr. Big 's presence in her life. Carrie and Aidan first break up when Carrie confesses, on Charlotte and Trey 's wedding day, that she had an affair with Mr. Big.
Later in the series, Carrie and Aidan get back together, move in together, and become engaged. However, the engagement is broken when Carrie discovers she is not ready to marry him, and he is not willing to wait for her. Further hurt is caused when Carrie realizes Aidan only wants to marry her because he still does n't trust her. Aidan hoped that by marrying Carrie, it would show the world she was his. During the sixth - season premiere, Carrie runs into Aidan on the street. She discovers that he has married a fellow furniture designer, Cathy, and has a son named Tate (played by Sarah Jessica Parker 's son). The two agree to meet for coffee; Carrie states in voiceover that "there are some dates you can not wait to keep, and there are some you both know you will never keep. '' In the film Sex and the City 2, a chance encounter between Aidan and Carrie in Abu Dhabi is a major plot point. While shopping at a local market with Miranda in Abu Dhabi, Carrie and Aidan encounter each other, they make a plan to catch up over dinner, where Aidan reveals he and Cathy are still married and have two more sons, Wyatt and Homer and in a moment of passion, share a brief kiss. Carrie becomes emotionally distraught over this and confesses the kiss to Big. After taking his time coming to terms with this revelation and understanding Carrie 's mistake was because of her domestic crisis of faith, he forgives her.
Following the end of her relationship with Aidan, Carrie begins to date Jack Berger (Ron Livingston), a novelist with a mixed degree of success. She meets him while discussing her upcoming book at her publisher 's (Amy Sedaris) office. That day, Carrie and Berger go for a walk, during which Carrie gets a strawberry milkshake from McDonald 's. Berger states to her, "How can anyone order strawberry after the age of eleven? '', and Carrie obviously likes his sense of humor. However, when she asks him to be her "Plus One '' at her party, he states he has a girlfriend. After an initially rocky start (in which Berger must break ties with his ex-girlfriend, Lauren), they form a rather playful relationship; one that initially seems to make Carrie very happy.
Berger is particularly notable for uttering the line, "He 's just not that into you, '' as a response to Miranda 's wondering why a recent date has not called her. The line inspired a book and later a film by Sex and the City writers.
As Carrie 's success begins to mount, and particularly after Berger 's second novel is not picked up for publication, the relationship deteriorates. Berger feels insecure about Carrie 's newfound success as a writer after her book goes international and she begins receiving high - sum royalties. This is made worse by Carrie 's thoughtless reaction to his first novel; her initial reaction -- that she loves the book -- is overshadowed by her simultaneous criticism of a minor detail about a lead character 's hair accessory (i.e., that a modern - day New York woman would not wear a "scrunchie '' while out and about).
Carrie and Berger fight frequently, culminating in a "break '' in their relationship. Berger returns, professing his love for Carrie, and stating that he wishes to try again. However, he ends up leaving later, in the middle of the night, breaking up with Carrie via a Post-it note which reads, "I 'm sorry, I ca n't. Do n't hate me. '' After this hasty departure, Berger is referenced in only one more episode -- after Carrie runs into his friends at a bar, she regrets leaving Berger an angry message (through his friends), stating that his break - up method was rude and pathetic.
Next, Carrie meets and begins a relationship with Aleksandr Petrovsky (rus. Aлeкcaндp Пeтpoвcкий; Mikhail Baryshnikov), in the sixth season. He is a rich, successful, and older Russian artist. Carrie enjoys the relationship, but problems arise when she discovers that he already has a daughter in her twenties, and he does n't want any more children. To ensure this, he has had a vasectomy. Carrie feels forced to choose between a long - term relationship with Petrovsky and the possibility of having children. She wonders if his love will be enough to compensate for the lack of children. She decides to stay in the relationship, despite mounting evidence that he will never be able to fully commit to her emotionally, as he is a very self - involved artist, and even at one point he claims that Carrie is "not his friend '', but his lover.
He asks Carrie to leave her job and life in New York and move with him to Paris, where he has a museum show. After some degree of convincing, she accepts, giving up her job, her apartment, and her friends. But she finds herself to be lonely, disappointed, and confused upon her arrival, waiting for hours to meet with him, while he forgets his dates with her. She does n't speak French well, and Petrovsky often leaves her alone in order to tend to his own career. His ex-wife warns Carrie that the relationship will be all about him. Meanwhile, Carrie has no friends there, but things start to look up when she meets some fans of her book, and she agrees to meet them at a cafe. However, a very anxious and panicking Alex begs her to accompany him to his museum show preview, and she agrees. But once there, he deserts her and seems to forget about her, and she realizes he does n't need her. She rushes to meet with the fans, but they have left and mangled her book in the wake of her standing them up. In the series finale, after an argument and Alex impulsively slaps her, Carrie leaves him after facing his emotional shortcomings and his inability to give her an appropriate amount of attention. While in the lobby of the hotel trying to secure a room of her own, she runs into Mr. Big, who runs to defend her against Aleksandr. He finally understands that she is "the one '' and pursued her to Paris with the encouragement of her friends. Carrie returns with Mr. Big to New York City.
Carrie shares her first kiss with Sebastian Kydd, a rich kid from town, at her swim club when she was 15. He later becomes her boyfriend, and they share an on - and - off relationship throughout the first season of The Carrie Diaries. They broke up due to being incompatible. During the second season of The Carrie Diaries, the two reignite their love for each other. Sebastian leaves to California with his father, but he and Carrie maintain a long distance relationship. When Sebastian returns to Manhattan, moving into Larissa 's old apartment, Carrie realizes his interests have changed. Sebastian remains busy with interests in starting a clothing line and it causes problems in the relationship. Sebastian wanted to move to California to pursue his dreams, but Carrie wanted to stay in Manhattan to work for Interview Magazine. Carrie decides to say yes to a full - time job offer at Interview but loses her chances at going to NYU. She is later fired because of a dispute between Larissa, and Andy. Carrie tries to attend NYU, but she is told it is too late. After hearing about Carrie 's situation, Sebastian decides to invite her to go live with him in Malibu where he will work on his clothing business. Carrie agrees to move until she later realizes she belongs in Manhattan. The two say their final goodbyes at Larrisa 's wedding.
Carrie 's second boyfriend. She starts dating George after meeting him at her internship at a law firm. She ends their relationship after he tries to force her to have sex in the back of a car. Throughout the relationship she still has feelings for Sebastian, using George to incite feelings of jealousy in Sebastian.
Carrie 's third boyfriend, appearing in Season 2 of The Carrie Diaries. Larissa, Carrie 's boss, wanted Carrie to get an interview with Weaver for Interview Magazine. Carrie attends a role play of Weaver 's piece. When she laughs during the funeral scene she is frowned at by her friend Bennet, but Adam Weaver later finds her after the show and is charmed by her understanding of the scene. Carrie and Weaver become close as Carrie tries to pry information out of him for Interview. She later drops the assignment and they start to date. In The Carrie diaries she loses her virginity to him. Carrie and Weaver start to have problems when Weaver begins critiquing her work. They get in a fight that ends their relationship, and Weaver accuses her for having feelings for Sebastian. After they break up over Carrie still being in love with Sebastian, Adam writes an article about Carrie as ' Mystery Girl ', in which rude and untrue things are said, although nobody knows that the ' Mystery Girl ' is Carrie. At the end of Season 2, he goes to her senior prom, apologizing for his behavior.
According to Candace Bushnell 's book, Summer and the City, Capote Duncan was Carrie 's classmate in The New School. At the beginning, Carrie hated him because of his arrogance but at the end of the book, it was said that he 's the person with whom Carrie lost her virginity. He appears briefly in the beginning of the TV series adaption.
In Summer and the City, Bernard Singer is a famous writer who Carrie has a brief relationship with, only to realise that Bernard does n't love Carrie and that she loves Capote Duncan.
Books:
Critical reception to Carrie tended to be positive during the show 's run and in the years immediately thereafter. In 2004, Carrie Bradshaw was listed as number 11 on Bravo 's 100 Greatest TV Characters. In 2009 The Guardian named Bradshaw as an icon of the decade, stating that "Carrie Bradshaw did as much to shift the culture around certain women 's issues as real - life female groundbreakers. '' In 2010, Carrie Bradshaw was listed as the 2nd in TV Guide 's list "25 Greatest TV Characters of All - Time ''. AOL ranked her the 41st Most Memorable Female TV Character. TV Guide named her the most fashionable TV character. Her relationship with Mr. Big was included in TV Guide 's list of the best TV couples of all time. Parker received two Emmy Awards, three Screen Actors Guild Awards, and four Golden Globe Awards for her performance.
In retrospective analysis of the show, critics have generally reassessed Carrie Bradshaw as an unsympathetic protagonist, despite the show 's portrayal of her as a positive figure. In 2013, Glamour magazine called Carrie "the worst '' character on the show, saying that "her brattiness and self - absorption eclipsed her redeeming qualities and even her awesome shoes. '' In a 2010 retrospective about the previous two decades in pop culture, ABC News named Carrie one of the ten worst characters of the past twenty years, calling her a "snippy, self - righteous Manhattan snob '' and citing the character 's actions in Sex and the City 2 as evidence that she was beyond personal growth or redemption. The New Yorker, looking back on the show a decade after it went off the air, felt that while the character began as a "happy, curious explorer, out companionably smoking with modellizers, '' from the second season on she "spun out, becoming anxious, obsessive, and, despite her charm, wildly self - centered. ''
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what is the star of david and what does it symbolize | Star of David - wikipedia
The Star of David (✡), known in Hebrew as the Shield of David or Magen David (Hebrew מָגֵן דָּוִד ; Biblical Hebrew Māḡēn Dāwīḏ (maːˈɣeːn daːˈwiːð), Tiberian (mɔˈɣen dɔˈvið), Modern Hebrew (maˈɡen daˈvid), Ashkenazi Hebrew and Yiddish Mogein Dovid (ˈmɔɡeɪn ˈdɔvid) or Mogen Dovid), is a generally recognized symbol of modern Jewish identity and Judaism. Its shape is that of a hexagram, the compound of two equilateral triangles. Unlike the menorah, the Lion of Judah, the shofar and the lulav, the Star of David was never a uniquely Jewish symbol, although it had been used in that way as a printer 's colophon since the sixteenth century.
During the 19th century the symbol began to proliferate among the Jewish communities of Eastern Europe, ultimately being used among the Jewish communities in the Pale of Settlement. A significant motivating factor, according to scholar Gershom Sholem, was the desire to represent Jewish religion and / or identity in the same manner the Christian cross identified that religion 's believers. The earliest Jewish usage of the symbol was inherited from medieval Arabic literature by Kabbalists for use in talismanic protective amulets (segulot) where it was known as a Seal of Solomon. The symbol was also used in Christian churches as a decorative motif many centuries before its first known use in a Jewish synagogue. Before the 19th century, official use in Jewish communities was generally known only in the region of today 's Czech Republic, Austria and possibly parts of Southern Germany, having begun in medieval Prague.
The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community, and later the broader Jewish community, after it was chosen as the central symbol on a flag at the First Zionist Congress in 1897.
The identification of the term "Star of David '' or "Shield of David '' with the hexagram shape dates to the 17th century. The term "Shield of David '' is also used in the Siddur (Jewish prayer book) as a title of the God of Israel.
The hexagram does appear occasionally in Jewish contexts since antiquity, apparently as a decorative motif. For example, in Israel, there is a stone bearing a hexagram from the arch of a 3rd -- 4th century synagogue in the Galilee. Originally, the hexagram may have been employed as an architectural ornament on synagogues, as it is, for example, on the cathedrals of Brandenburg and Stendal, and on the Marktkirche at Hanover. A hexagram in this form is found on the ancient synagogue at Capernaum. In the synagogues, perhaps, it was associated with the mezuzah.
The use of the hexagram in a Jewish context as a possibly meaningful symbol may occur as early as the 11th century, in the decoration of the carpet page of the famous Tanakh manuscript, the Leningrad Codex dated 1008. Similarly, the symbol illuminates a medieval Tanakh manuscript dated 1307 belonging to Rabbi Yosef bar Yehuda ben Marvas from Toledo, Spain. A Siddur dated 1512 from Prague displays a large hexagram on the cover with the phrase, "He will merit to bestow a bountiful gift on anyone who grasps the Shield of David. ''
A hexagram has been noted on a Jewish tombstone in Taranto, Apulia in Southern Italy, which may date as early as the third century CE. The Jews of Apulia were noted for their scholarship in Kabbalah, which has been connected to the use of the Star of David.
Medieval Kabbalistic grimoires show hexagrams among the tables of segulot, but without identifying them as "Shield of David ''.
In the Renaissance Period, in the 16th - century Land of Israel, the book Ets Khayim conveys the Kabbalah of Ha - Ari (Rabbi Isaac Luria) who arranges the traditional items on the seder plate for Passover into two triangles, where they explicitly correspond to Jewish mystical concepts. The six sfirot of the masculine Zer Anpin correspond to the six items on the seder plate, while the seventh sfira being the feminine Malkhut corresponds to the plate itself.
However, these seder - plate triangles are parallel, one above the other, and do not actually form a hexagram.
According to G.S. Oegema (1996)
Isaac Luria provided the hexagram with a further mystical meaning. In his book Etz Chayim he teaches that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram: above the three sefirot "Crown '', "Wisdom '', and "Insight '', below the other seven.
Similarly, M. Costa wrote that M. Gudemann and other researchers in the 1920s claimed that Isaac Luria was influential in turning the Star of David into a national Jewish emblem by teaching that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram. Gershom Scholem (1990) disagrees with this view, arguing that Isaac Luria talked about parallel triangles one beneath the other and not about the hexagram.
The Star of David at least since the 20th century remains associated with the number seven and thus with the Menorah, and popular accounts associate it with the six directions of space plus the center (under the influence of the description of space found in the Sefer Yetsira: Up, Down, East, West, South, North, and Center), or the Six Sefirot of the Male (Zeir Anpin) united with the Seventh Sefirot of the Female (Nukva). Some say that one triangle represents the ruling tribe of Judah and the other the former ruling tribe of Benjamin. It is also seen as a dalet and yud, the two letters assigned to Judah. There are 12 Vav, or "men, '' representing the 12 tribes or patriarchs of Israel.
In 1354, King of Bohemia Charles IV prescribed for the Jews of Prague a red flag with both David 's shield and Solomon 's seal, while the red flag with which the Jews met King Matthias of Hungary in the 15th century showed two pentagrams with two golden stars.
In 1460, the Jews of Ofen (Budapest, Hungary) received King Matthias Corvinus with a red flag on which were two Shields of David and two stars. In the first Hebrew prayer book, printed in Prague in 1512, a large hexagram appears on the cover. In the colophon is written: "Each man beneath his flag according to the house of their fathers... and he will merit to bestow a bountiful gift on anyone who grasps the Shield of David. '' In 1592, Mordechai Maizel was allowed to affix "a flag of King David, similar to that located on the Main Synagogue '' on his synagogue in Prague. Following the Battle of Prague (1648), the Jews of Prague were again granted a flag, in recognition in their contribution to the city 's defense. That flag showed a yellow hexagram on a red background, with a star placed in the center of the hexagram.
The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community, and later the broader Jewish community, after it was chosen to represent the First Zionist Congress in 1897.
A year before the congress, Herzl had written in his 1896 Der Judenstaat:
We have no flag, and we need one. If we desire to lead many men, we must raise a symbol above their heads. I would suggest a white flag, with seven golden stars. The white field symbolizes our pure new life; the stars are the seven golden hours of our working - day. For we shall march into the Promised Land carrying the badge of honor.
David Wolffsohn (1856 -- 1914), a businessman prominent in the early Zionist movement, was aware that the nascent Zionist movement had no official flag, and that the design proposed by Theodor Herzl was gaining no significant support, wrote:
At the behest of our leader Herzl, I came to Basle to make preparations for the Zionist Congress. Among many other problems that occupied me then was one that contained something of the essence of the Jewish problem. What flag would we hang in the Congress Hall? Then an idea struck me. We have a flag -- and it is blue and white. The talith (prayer shawl) with which we wrap ourselves when we pray: that is our symbol. Let us take this Talith from its bag and unroll it before the eyes of Israel and the eyes of all nations. So I ordered a blue and white flag with the Shield of David painted upon it. That is how the national flag, that flew over Congress Hall, came into being.
In the early 20th century, the symbol began to be used to express Jewish affiliations in sports. Hakoah Vienna was a Jewish sports club founded in Vienna, Austria, in 1909 whose teams competed with the Star of David on the chest of their uniforms, and won the 1925 Austrian League soccer championship. Similarly, The Philadelphia Sphas basketball team in Philadelphia (whose name was an acronym of its founding South Philadelphia Hebrew Association) wore a large Star of David on their jerseys to proudly proclaim their Jewish identity, as they competed in the first half of the 20th century.
In boxing, Benny "the Ghetto Wizard '' Leonard (who said he felt as though he was fighting for all Jews) fought with a Star of David embroidered on his trunks in the 1910s. World heavyweight boxing champion Max Baer fought with a Star of David on his trunks as well, notably, for the first time as he knocked out Nazi Germany hero Max Schmeling in 1933; Hitler never permitted Schmeling to fight a Jew again.
A Star of David, often yellow, was used by the Nazis during the Holocaust to identify Jews. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, there initially were different local decrees forcing Jews to wear distinct signs (e.g. in the General Government, a white armband with a blue Star of David; in the Warthegau, a yellow badge, in the form of a Star of David, on the left breast and on the back). If a Jew was found in public without the star, he could be severely punished. The requirement to wear the Star of David with the word Jude (German for Jew) was then extended to all Jews over the age of six in the Reich and in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (by a decree issued on September 1, 1941 and signed by Reinhard Heydrich) and was gradually introduced in other Nazi - occupied areas. Others, however, wore the Star of David as a symbol of defiance against Nazi antisemitism, as in the case of United States Army private Hal Baumgarten, who wore a Star of David emblazoned on his back during the 1944 invasion of Normandy.
The flag of Israel, depicting a blue Star of David on a white background, between two horizontal blue stripes was adopted on October 28, 1948, five months after the country 's establishment. The origins of the flag 's design date from the First Zionist Congress in 1897; the flag has subsequently been known as the "flag of Zion ''.
Many Modern Orthodox synagogues, and many synagogues of other Jewish movements, have the Israeli flag with the Star of David prominently displayed at the front of the synagogues near the Ark containing the Torah scrolls.
Magen David Adom (MDA) ("Red Star of David '' or, translated literally, "Red Shield of David '') is Israel 's only official emergency medical, disaster, ambulance service.
It has been an official member of the International Committee of the Red Cross since June 2006. According to the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Magen David Adom was boycotted by the International Committee of the Red Cross, which refused to grant the organization membership because "it was (...) argued that having an emblem used by only one country was contrary to the principles of universality. '' Other commentators said the ICRC did not recognize the medical and humanitarian use of this Jewish symbol, a Red Shield, alongside the Christian cross and the Muslim crescent.
Since 1948, the Star of David has carried the dual significance of representing both the state of Israel, and Jewish identity in general. In the United States especially, it continues to be used in the latter sense by a number of athletes.
In baseball, Jewish major leaguer Gabe Kapler had a Star of David tattooed on his left calf in 2000, with the words "strong - willed '' and "strong - minded '', major leaguer Mike "SuperJew '' Epstein drew a Star of David on his baseball glove, and major leaguer Ron Blomberg had a Star of David emblazoned in the knob of his bat which is on display at the Baseball Hall of Fame.
NBA basketball star Amar'e Stoudemire, who says he is spiritually and culturally Jewish, had a Star of David tattoo put on his left hand in 2010. NFL football defensive end Igor Olshansky has Star of David tattoos on each side of his neck, near his shoulders. Israeli golfer Laetitia Beck displays a blue - and - white magen david symbol on her golf apparel.
In boxing, Jewish light heavyweight world champion Mike "The Jewish Bomber '' Rossman fought with a Star of David embroidered on his boxing trunks, and also has a blue Star of David tattoo on the outside of his right calf.
Other boxers fought with Stars of David embroidered on their trunks include world lightweight champion, world light heavyweight boxing champion Battling Levinsky, Barney Ross (world champion as a lightweight, as a junior welterweight, and as a welterweight), world flyweight boxing champion Victor "Young '' Peres, world bantamweight champion Alphonse Halimi, and more recently World Boxing Association super welterweight champion Yuri Foreman, light welterweight champion Cletus Seldin, and light middleweight Boyd Melson. Welterweight Zachary "Kid Yamaka '' Wohlman has a tattoo of a Star of David across his stomach, and welterweight Dmitriy Salita even boxes under the nickname "Star of David ''.
Maccabi clubs still use the Star of David in their emblems.
The Jewish Encyclopedia cites a 12th - century Karaite document as the earliest Jewish literary source to mention a symbol called "Magen Dawid '' (without specifying its shape).
The name ' Shield of David ' was used by at least the 11th century as a title of the God of Israel, independent of the use of the symbol. The phrase occurs independently as a Divine title in the Siddur, the traditional Jewish prayer book, where it poetically refers to the Divine protection of ancient King David and the anticipated restoration of his dynastic house, perhaps based on Psalm 18, which is attributed to David, and in which God is compared to a shield (v. 31 and v. 36). The term occurs at the end of the "Samkhaynu / Gladden us '' blessing, which is recited after the reading of the Haftara portion on Saturday and holidays.
The earliest known text related to Judaism which mentions a sign called the "Shield of David '' is Eshkol Ha - Kofer by the Karaite Judah Hadassi, in the mid-12th century CE:
Seven names of angels precede the mezuzah: Michael, Gabriel, etc.... Tetragrammaton protect you! And likewise the sign, called the "Shield of David '', is placed beside the name of each angel.
This book is of Karaite, and not of Rabbinic Jewish origin, and it does not describe the shape of the sign in any way.
Star in the Schneider Synagogue, Istanbul
Star in the Ari Ashkenazi Synagogue, Safed
The Magen David Adom emblem
A synagogue in Karlsruhe, Germany, with the outline of a Star of David
A recruitment poster published in American Jewish magazines during WWI. Daughter of Zion (representing the Jewish people): Your Old New Land must have you! Join the Jewish regiment.
Roundel displayed on Israeli Air Force aircraft, 1948 - today
Stained glass Star of David
USVA headstone emblem 3
USVA headstone emblem 44
Morocco horse cover embroidery
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who is the freedom fighter is known as the father of the indian petroleum industry | History of the oil industry in India - wikipedia
The history of the Indian oil industry extends back to the period of the British Raj, at a time when petroleum first became a primary global energy source.
1866: Oil discovery at Nahorpung, Assam. Not explored. 1882: Big "Oil Seepage '' in Digboi during construction of Dibrugarh - Ledo Railway Line. The first oil production started in India in 1889 near the town of Digboi in the state of Assam. A Small thatched structure was erected and christened "Oil well no. 1 '' or "Discovery ''. This discovery came on the heels of industrial development. The Assam Railways and Trading Company (ARTC) had recently opened the area for trade by building a railway and later finding oil nearby. The first well was completed in 1890 and in 1893 first refinery started at Margharita, Assam. The Assam Oil Company was established in 1899 to oversee production. In 1901, Digboi Refinery was commissioned supplanting the earlier refinery at Margharita. At its peak during the Second World War the Digboi oil fields were producing 7,000 barrels per day.. In the year 1909, IBP (Indo Burmah Petroleum) was incorporated in Rangoon to explore oil wells that had been discovered in Burma and Assam.
Oil in colonial India was mostly exploited by a number of British companies with intricate alliances. Their output began to increase during the first and second world wars to support British troops and industries in the United Kingdom.
In 1928, Asiatic Petroleum Company (India) started cooperation with Burmah Oil Company. This alliance led to the formation of Burmah - Shell Oil Storage and Distributing Company of India Limited. Burmah - Shell began its operations with import and marketing of Kerosene. On 24th of January, 1976, the Burmah Sell was taken over by the Government of India to form Bharat Refineries Limited. On 1st August, 1977, it was renamed as Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited.
After India won independence in 1947, the new government moved to a Communist system, often termed as License Raj. In terms of economic policy this meant a far bigger role for the government and little or no role for the private sector. This resulted in a focus on centralized planning, heavily bureaucratic and inefficient system that meant a large public sector and economic protectionism.
The foreign companies continued to play a key role in the oil industry. Oil India Limited was still a joint venture involving the Indian government and the British owned Burmah Oil Company (presently, BP) whilst the Indo - Stanvac Petroleum project in West Bengal was between the Indian government and the American company SOCONY - Vacuum (presently, ExxonMobil). This changed in 1956 when the government adopted an industrial policy that placed oil as a "schedule A industry '' and put its future development in the hands of the state. In October 1959 an Act of Parliament was passed which gave the state owned Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) the powers to plan, organise, and implement programmes for the development of oil resources and the sale of petroleum products and also to perform plans sent down from central government.
In order to find the expertise necessary to reach these goals foreign experts from West Germany, Romania, the US, and the Soviet Union were brought in. The Soviet experts were the most influential and they drew up detailed plans for further oil exploration which were to form part of the second five - year plan. India thus adopted the Soviet model of economic development and the state continues to implement five - year plans as part of its drive towards modernity. The increased focus on exploration resulted in the discovery of several new oil fields most notably the off - shore Bombay High field which remains by a long margin India 's most productive well.
The process of economic liberalisation in India began in 1991 when India defaulted on her loans and asked for a $1.8 billion bailout from the IMF. This was a trickle - down effect of the culmination of the cold war era; marked by the 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union, India 's main trading partner. The bailout was done on the condition that the government initiate further reforms, thus paving the way for India 's emergence as a free market economy, which would open up its markets to western companies.
For the ONGC this meant being reorganised into a public limited company (it is now called for Oil and Natural Gas Corporation) and around 2 % of government held stocks were sold off. Despite this however the government still plays a pivotal role and ONGC is still responsible for 77 % of oil and 81 % of gas production while the Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) owns most of the refineries putting it within the top 20 oil companies in the world. The government also maintains subsidised prices. As a net importer of oil however India faces the problem of meeting the energy demands for its rapidly expanding population and economy and to this the ONGC has pursued drilling rights in Iran and Kazakhstan and has acquired shares in exploration ventures in Indonesia, Libya, Nigeria, and Sudan.
India 's choice of energy partners however, most notably Iran led to concerns radiating from the US. A key issue today is the proposed gas pipeline that will run from Turkmenistan to India through politically unstable Afghanistan and also through Pakistan. However, despite India 's strong economic links with Iran, India voted with the US when Iran 's nuclear program was discussed by the International Atomic Energy Agency although there are still very real differences between the two countries when it comes to dealing with Iran.
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who played dave in alvin and the chipmunks | Jason Lee (actor) - wikipedia
Jason Michael Lee (born April 25, 1970) is an American actor, producer and skateboarder. He is best known for his roles as Earl Hickey in the television comedy series My Name Is Earl, David Seville in the Alvin and the Chipmunks film franchise and the voice of Syndrome in The Incredibles. He is also known for his roles in Kevin Smith films such as Mallrats, Chasing Amy, Dogma, Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back, Jersey Girl, Clerks II and Cop Out. A skateboard enthusiast, Lee is the co-founder and co-owner of Stereo Skateboards, a company that manufactures skateboard decks.
Lee was born in Santa Ana, California on April 25, 1970. His father, Greg was a car dealership manager and his mother, Carol was a homemaker. Lee was raised in Huntington Beach and attended Ocean View High School.
Before he became an actor, Lee was known as a professional skateboarder in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In 1992, he co-founded Stereo Sound Agency, known as Stereo Skateboards, with fellow skater Chris "Dune '' Pastras. In 2003, after the company had been defunct for a few years, the pair successfully revived the company. As of October 2013, Lee and Pastras remain on the professional "Classics '' team roster.
Lee was featured in the skateboarding promotional video, Video Days, filmed for the skateboarding company "Blind Skateboards ''. In 2004, Lee 's skateboarding was featured in Way Out East!, a film produced by Stereo Skateboards.
In August 2012, Lee was also featured in a brief video on the skateboard website The Berrics entitled "Jason Lee decided to come to the park. ''
In August 2012, Lee participated in the 9th annual Stand - Up for Skateparks Event, at which he was co-chair with Tony Hawk. The event is held annually by the Tony Hawk Charitable Foundation and seeks to "help create free, quality public skateparks for youth in low - income communities. ''
In October that same year, a video was released by the Keep A Breast Foundation, featuring various skateboarding identities, including Lee, together with Pastras. The video, contributing to the Foundation 's aim to prevent and raise awareness of breast cancer, promotes the "I Love Boobies '' bracelet. It also features Clint Peterson (Stereo) and Giovanni Reda (WESC), who are both teammates of Lee.
Lee later worked with Tony Hawk when he lent his voice and likeness to Tony Hawk 's Project 8 to become a playable character. Lee then voiced Coach Frank, a character created during the development of Stereo, in Skate 3.
Professional skateboarder and owner of the Girl and Lakai Limited Footwear skateboard brands Mike Carroll has cited Lee as one of his skating influences.
After taking some minor acting roles in 1992 -- 1994 (including the music video for the Sonic Youth single "100 % '', a small part in Mi Vida Loca, and a bit part as a dance instructor on Chance and Things), Lee left professional skateboarding for a full - time acting career. His first major movie role was in Kevin Smith 's Mallrats, which became a cult hit. This started a friendship that subsequently led to appearances in many of Smith 's films, including Chasing Amy, Dogma, Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back, Clerks II, and Cop Out. Lee won an Independent Spirit Award for his role in Chasing Amy as Banky Edwards.
Lee graduated to leading man roles in Heartbreakers, Stealing Harvard, and A Guy Thing. He has had supporting roles in Vanilla Sky, Almost Famous, Dreamcatcher, Big Trouble, The Ballad of Jack and Rose, and Mumford, as well as a minor role in Enemy of the State. Lee also voiced Syndrome in The Incredibles and Jack - Jack Attack. He reprised the role as a "robot copy '' of Syndrome in Disney Presents Pixar 's The Incredibles in a Magic Kingdom Adventure. Lee is also the voice of Underdog in Underdog and portrays Dave Seville in the Alvin and the Chipmunks film franchise.
In 2005, Lee was offered the lead role in My Name Is Earl. According to interviews on the first - season DVD, he passed on the series twice before finally agreeing to read for the pilot. In the series, he stars as Earl Hickey. Lee received two Golden Globe nominations for Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series -- Musical or Comedy in 2006 and 2007, as well as a nomination for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series in 2006. After four seasons of My Name is Earl NBC cancelled the series.
On June 22, 2010, Memphis Beat premiered. In the series, Lee starred with Alfre Woodard and portrayed Dwight Hendricks. In October 2011, it was announced the series was not renewed for a third season. He also guest - starred in 2010 and 2013 episodes of Raising Hope, created by My Name is Earl creator and producer Greg Garcia.
As of December 2011, Lee appeared in Up All Night, but after its second season, it was officially cancelled on May 9, 2013. In June 2013, a fourth installment of the Alvin and the Chipmunks franchise was then announced by the 20th Century Fox studio and a release date of December 18, 2015; it was titled The Road Chip.
Lee 's latest projects are with Amazon Studios and The Hallmark Channel. With Amazon Studios, Lee is seen in the pilot of Cocked, where he plays the character of Grady Paxson, one of three men who run a gun manufacturing company. The show premiered on January 15, 2015 and also stars Brian Dennehy, Diora Baird, Dreama Walker, and Sam Trammell. On January 25, 2015, The Hallmark Channel premiered Away & Back, a Hallmark Hall of Fame film starring Lee along with Maggie Elizabeth Jones and Minka Kelly.
Lee began shooting photos regularly in the early 2000s, and became interested in instant photography. He recently released a photo book through Refueled Magazine. It consists of "184 pages of Polaroid & Fuji Instant Film photographs from 2006 - 2016. '' Printed in a limited edition run of 500 copies, the book sold out before shipping began.
Lee married actress and photographer Carmen Llywelyn in 1995; they divorced in 2001. Llywelyn later cited Lee 's commitment to Scientology as the principal cause for their separation. Llywelyn wrote that their relationship collapsed when she revealed to her talent manager and fellow Scientologist, Gay Ribisi (mother of actor Giovanni Ribisi), that she had read A Piece of Blue Sky, an anti-Scientology book. Two days after her conversation with Ribisi, Llywelyn received a one - paragraph "disconnection letter '' from Lee and was labeled a Suppressive Person. Later, Llywelyn made a claim against Scientology, calling it a "sinister cult '' 13 years after leaving it. According to her detailed experiences, she never had freedom to make a decision and she had to think about her identity after she left Scientology.
Following his divorce from Llywelyn, Lee became engaged to actress Beth Riesgraf. Together, they have a son, Pilot Inspektor. Lee states their son 's name was inspired by "He 's Simple, He 's Dumb, He 's the Pilot '' by rock band Grandaddy.
Lee met fashion model and actress Ceren Alkaç at a concert while on vacation in Britain. Alkaç was born in İzmir, and emigrated with her family from Turkey to Australia soon afterward. Following their initial meeting, the pair stayed in touch via email and texts, with Alkaç subsequently moving to the United States and starting a relationship with Lee. The couple married in California in July 2008; a month later, Alkac gave birth to a daughter named Casper. The couple had their second child, a son named Sonny, in 2012. In 2017, the couple welcomed their third child, a daughter named Alberta ' Birdy ' Lee. Their separation was rumored in December 2015, again allegedly due to Lee 's strong attachment to Scientology. This was later proven to be false. As of 2016, Lee no longer practices Scientology.
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the peculiar institution in southern vernacular was a reference to | The Peculiar Institution - wikipedia
The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante - Bellum South is a non-fiction book about slavery published in 1956, by academic Kenneth M. Stampp of the University of California, Berkeley and other universities. The book describes and analyzes multiple facets of slavery in the American South from the 17th through the mid-19th century, including demographics, lives of slaves and slaveholders, the Southern economy and labor systems, the Northern and abolitionist response, slave trading, and political issues of the time.
An interesting element of the book is how Stampp analyzes the standard view of historians such as Ulrich Phillips that many Southern slave owners were very kind to their slaves and provided well for them. While it was sometimes known for slaves to have lives as good as or better than those of poor Northern workers, Stampp exposes this behavior as a selfish strategy to ease the lives of some slaves in order to prevent dissent among the rest, or to prevent possible legal action for mistreatment of slaves, arguing that this treatment did little to convince slaves that their lives were acceptable, and that dissent and opposition were common, making slaves "a troublesome property ''.
Stampp 's main thrust was to counter the arguments of prior historians who had characterized slavery generally as a benign, paternalistic tradition, helpful in many ways to the slaves, which encouraged racial harmony in the Southern states. Stampp also characterizes some critics of slavery for claiming that "to the Negroes, slavery seemed natural; knowing no other life, they accepted it without giving the matter much thought. Not that slavery was a good thing, mind you -- but still, it probably hurt the Negroes less than the it did the whites. Indeed, the whites were really more enslaved than were the Negro slaves '' (429). Stampp condemns such an argument and likens it to pro-slavery arguments before the Civil War, which were "based on some obscure and baffling logic '' (429).
Stampp held that the national debate over the morality of slavery was the focal point of the U.S. Civil War, rather than states ' rights in rejection of the Slavery Amendment. Stampp wrote, "Prior to the Civil War southern slavery was America 's most profound and vexatious social problem. More than any other problem, slavery nagged at the public conscience; offering no easy solution... '' (vii). The book was for Stampp not only about 19th century history but a necessary examination for Americans in the 1950s because "it is an article of faith that knowledge of the past is a key to understanding the present, '' and "one must know what slavery meant to the Negro and how he reacted to it before one can comprehend his more recent tribulations '' (vii). Later work by other historians qualified certain of Stampp 's findings, but The Peculiar Institution remains a central text in the study of U.S. slavery.
The organization of The Peculiar Institution includes the following chapters:
In Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community? (1967), author Martin Luther King, Jr. quotes extensively from The Peculiar Institution. King describes Stampp 's "fascinating '' depiction of "the psychological indoctrination that was necessary from the master 's viewpoint to make a good slave. ''
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when did big air become an olympic sport | Snowboarding at the Winter Olympics - Wikipedia
Snowboarding is a sport at the Winter Olympic Games. It was first included in the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan. Snowboarding was one of five new sports or disciplines added to the Winter Olympic program between 1992 and 2002, and was the only one not to have been a previous medal or demonstration event. In 1998, four events, two for men and two for women, were held in two specialities: the giant slalom, a downhill event similar to giant slalom skiing; and the half - pipe, in which competitors perform tricks while going from one side of a semi-circular ditch to the other. Canadian Ross Rebagliati won the men 's giant slalom and became the first athlete to win a gold medal in snowboarding. Rebagliati was briefly stripped of his medal by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) after testing positive for marijuana. However, the IOC 's decision was reverted following an appeal from the Canadian Olympic Association. For the 2002 Winter Olympics, giant slalom was expanded to add head - to - head racing and was renamed parallel giant slalom. In 2006, a third event, the snowboard cross, was held for the first time. In this event, competitors race against each other down a course with jumps, beams and other obstacles. On July 11, 2011, the International Olympic Committee 's Executive Board approved the addition of Ski and Snowboard Slopestyle to the Winter Olympics roster of events, effective in 2014. The decision was announced via press conference from the IOC 's meeting in Durban, South Africa. A fifth event, parallel slalom, was added only for 2014. Big air was added for 2018.
Six athletes have won at least two medals. Shaun White of the United States is the only triple gold medalist. Philipp Schoch of Switzerland and Seth Wescott of the United States are the only double gold medalists. Karine Ruby of France and Americans Ross Powers and Danny Kass also won two medals. In the men 's half - pipe event, American snowboarders have collected six of nine possible medals, achieving a unique medal sweep in 2002. The United States won a total of 24 medals, more than any other nation. The Americans and the Swiss collected ten and seven gold medals respectively. As of the 2014 Winter Olympics, 90 medals (30 of each color) have been awarded since 1998, and have been won by snowboarders from 21 National Olympic Committees.
^ Note 1. Giant slalom in 1998; parallel giant slalom since 2002.
Updated after 2018 Winter Olympics.
Media related to Snowboarding at the Olympics at Wikimedia Commons
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who said a market is an area for potential exchange | Market (economics) - wikipedia
A market is one of the many varieties of systems, institutions, procedures, social relations and infrastructures whereby parties engage in exchange. While parties may exchange goods and services by barter, most markets rely on sellers offering their goods or services (including labor) in exchange for money from buyers. It can be said that a market is the process by which the prices of goods and services are established. Markets facilitate trade and enable the distribution and resource allocation in a society. Markets allow any trade - able item to be evaluated and priced. A market emerges more or less spontaneously or may be constructed deliberately by human interaction in order to enable the exchange of rights (cf. ownership) of services and goods. Markets generally supplant gift economies and are often held in place through rules and customs, such as a booth fee, competitive pricing, and source of goods for sale (local produce or stock registration).
Markets can differ by products (goods, services) or factors (labour and capital) sold, product differentiation, place in which exchanges are carried, buyers targeted, duration, selling process, government regulation, taxes, subsidies, minimum wages, price ceilings, legality of exchange, liquidity, intensity of speculation, size, concentration, exchange asymmetry, relative prices, volatility and geographic extension. The geographic boundaries of a market may vary considerably, for example the food market in a single building, the real estate market in a local city, the consumer market in an entire country, or the economy of an international trade bloc where the same rules apply throughout. Markets can also be worldwide, see for example the global diamond trade. National economies can also be classified as developed markets or developing markets.
In mainstream economics, the concept of a market is any structure that allows buyers and sellers to exchange any type of goods, services and information. The exchange of goods or services, with or without money, is a transaction. Market participants consist of all the buyers and sellers of a good who influence its price, which is a major topic of study of economics and has given rise to several theories and models concerning the basic market forces of supply and demand. A major topic of debate is how much a given market can be considered to be a "free market '', that is free from government intervention. Microeconomics traditionally focuses on the study of market structure and the efficiency of market equilibrium; when the latter (if it exists) is not efficient, then economists say that a market failure has occurred. However it is not always clear how the allocation of resources can be improved since there is always the possibility of government failure.
A market is one of the many varieties of systems, institutions, procedures, social relations and infrastructures whereby parties engage in exchange. While parties may exchange goods and services by barter, most markets rely on sellers offering their goods or services (including labor) in exchange for money from buyers. It can be said that a market is the process by which the prices of goods and services are established. Markets facilitate trade and enables the distribution and allocation of resources in a society. Markets allow any trade - able item to be evaluated and priced. A market sometimes emerges more or less spontaneously or may be constructed deliberately by human interaction in order to enable the exchange of rights (cf. ownership) of services and goods.
Markets of varying types can spontaneously arise whenever a party has interest in a good or service that some other party can provide. Hence there can be a market for cigarettes in correctional facilities, another for chewing gum in a playground, and yet another for contracts for the future delivery of a commodity. There can be black markets, where a good is exchanged illegally, for example markets for goods under a command economy despite pressure to repress them and virtual markets, such as eBay, in which buyers and sellers do not physically interact during negotiation. A market can be organized as an auction, as a private electronic market, as a commodity wholesale market, as a shopping center, as a complex institution such as a stock market and as an informal discussion between two individuals.
Markets vary in form, scale (volume and geographic reach), location and types of participants as well as the types of goods and services traded. The following is a non exhaustive list:
Financial markets facilitate the exchange of liquid assets. Most investors prefer investing in two markets:
There are also:
In economics, a market that runs under laissez - faire policies is called a free market, it is "free '' from the government, in the sense that the government makes no attempt to intervene through taxes, subsidies, minimum wages, price ceilings and so on. However, market prices may be distorted by a seller or sellers with monopoly power, or a buyer with monopsony power. Such price distortions can have an adverse effect on market participant 's welfare and reduce the efficiency of market outcomes. The relative level of organization and negotiating power of buyers and sellers also markedly affects the functioning of the market.
Markets are a system and systems have structure. The structure of a well - functioning market is defined by the theory of perfect competition. Well - functioning markets of the real world are never perfect, but basic structural characteristics can be approximated for real world markets, for example:
Markets where price negotiations meet equilibrium, but the equilibrium is not efficient are said to experience market failure. Market failures are often associated with time - inconsistent preferences, information asymmetries, non-perfectly competitive markets, principal -- agent problems, externalities, or public goods. Among the major negative externalities which can occur as a side effect of production and market exchange, are air pollution (side - effect of manufacturing and logistics) and environmental degradation (side - effect of farming and urbanization).
There exists a popular thought, especially among economists, that free markets would have a structure of a perfect competition. The logic behind this thought is that market failures are thought to be caused by other exogenic systems, and after removing those exogenic systems ("freeing '' the markets) the free markets could run without market failures. For a market to be competitive, there must be more than a single buyer or seller. It has been suggested that two people may trade, but it takes at least three persons to have a market, so that there is competition in at least one of its two sides. However, competitive markets -- as understood in formal economic theory -- rely on much larger numbers of both buyers and sellers. A market with a single seller and multiple buyers is a monopoly. A market with a single buyer and multiple sellers is a monopsony. These are "the polar opposites of perfect competition ''. As an argument against such a logic, there is a second view that suggests that the source of market failures is inside the market system itself, therefore the removal of other interfering systems would not result in markets with a structure of perfect competition. As an analogy, such an argument may suggest that capitalists do not want to enhance the structure of markets, just like a coach of a football team would influence the referees or would break the rules if he could while he is pursuing his target of winning the game. Thus according to this view, capitalists are not enhancing the balance of their team versus the team of consumer - workers, so the market system needs a "referee '' from outside that balances the game. In this second framework, the role of a "referee '' of the market system is usually to be given to a democratic government.
Disciplines such as sociology, economic history, economic geography and marketing developed novel understandings of markets studying actual existing markets made up of persons interacting in diverse ways in contrast to an abstract and all - encompassing concepts of "the market ''. The term "the market '' is generally used in two ways:
Microeconomics (from Greek prefix mikro - meaning "small '' and economics) is a branch of economics that studies the behavior of individuals and small impacting organizations in making decisions on the allocation of limited resources (see scarcity). On the other hand, macroeconomics (from the Greek prefix makro - meaning "large '' and economics) is a branch of economics dealing with the performance, structure, behavior and decision - making of an economy as a whole, rather than individual markets.
The modern field of microeconomics arose as an effort of neoclassical economics school of thought to put economic ideas into mathematical mode. It began in the 19th century debates surrounding the works of Antoine Augustine Cournot, William Stanley Jevons, Carl Menger and Léon Walras -- this period is usually denominated as the Marginal Revolution. A recurring theme of these debates was the contrast between the labor theory of value and the subjective theory of value, the former being associated with classical economists such as Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Karl Marx (Marx was a contemporary of the marginalists).
In his Principles of Economics (1890), Alfred Marshall presented a possible solution to this problem, using the supply and demand model. Marshall 's idea of solving the controversy was that the demand curve could be derived by aggregating individual consumer demand curves, which were themselves based on the consumer problem of maximizing utility. The supply curve could be derived by superimposing a representative firm supply curves for the factors of production and then market equilibrium would be given by the intersection of demand and supply curves. He also introduced the notion of different market periods: mainly long run and short run. This set of ideas gave way to what economists call perfect competition -- now found in the standard microeconomics texts -- even though Marshall himself was highly skeptical, it could be used as general model of all markets.
Opposed to the model of perfect competition, some models of imperfect competition were proposed:
William Baumol provided in his 1977 paper the current formal definition of a natural monopoly where "an industry in which multiform production is more costly than production by a monopoly ''. Baumol defined a contestable market in his 1982 paper as a market where "entry is absolutely free and exit absolutely costless '', freedom of entry in Stigler sense: the incumbent has no cost discrimination against entrants. He states that a contestable market will never have an economic profit greater than zero when in equilibrium and the equilibrium will also be efficient. According to Baumol, this equilibrium emerges endogenously due to the nature of contestable markets, that is the only industry structure that survives in the long run is the one which minimizes total costs. This is in contrast to the older theory of industry structure since not only industry structure is not exogenously given, but equilibrium is reached without add hoc hypothesis on the behavior of firms, say using reaction functions in a duopoly. He concludes the paper commenting that regulators that seek to impede entry and / or exit of firms would do better to not interfere if the market in question resembles a contestable market.
Around the 1970s the study of market failures came into focus with the study of information asymmetry. In particular, three authors emerged from this period: Akerlof, Spence and Stiglitz. Akerlof considered the problem of bad quality cars driving good quality cars out of the market in his classic "The Market for Lemons '' (1970) because of the presence of asymmetrical information between buyers and sellers. Michael Spence explained that signaling was fundamental in the labour market because since employers ca n't know beforehand which candidate is the most productive, a college degree becomes a signaling device that a firm uses to select new personnel.
C.B. Macpherson identifies an underlying model of the market underlying Anglo - American liberal democratic political economy and philosophy in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: persons are cast as self - interested individuals, who enter into contractual relations with other such individuals, concerning the exchange of goods or personal capacities cast as commodities, with the motive of maximizing pecuniary interest. The state and its governance systems are cast as outside of this framework. This model came to dominant economic thinking in the later nineteenth century, as economists such as Ricardo, Mill, Jevons, Walras and later neo-classical economics shifted from reference to geographically located marketplaces to an abstract "market ''. This tradition is continued in contemporary neoliberalism, where the market is held up as optimal for wealth creation and human freedom and the states ' role imagined as minimal, reduced to that of upholding and keeping stable property rights, contract and money supply. According to David Harvey, this allowed for boilerplate economic and institutional restructuring under structural adjustment and post-Communist reconstruction. Similar formalism occurs in a wide variety of social democratic and Marxist discourses that situate political action as antagonistic to the market. In particular, commodification theorists such as György Lukács insist that market relations necessarily lead to undue exploitation of labour and so need to be opposed in toto.
A central theme of empirical analyses is the variation and proliferation of types of markets since the rise of capitalism and global scale economies. The Regulation school stresses the ways in which developed capitalist countries have implemented varying degrees and types of environmental, economic and social regulation, taxation and public spending, fiscal policy and government provisioning of goods, all of which have transformed markets in uneven and geographical varied ways and created a variety of mixed economies.
Drawing on concepts of institutional variance and path dependence, varieties of capitalism theorists (such as Peter Hall and David Soskice) identify two dominant modes of economic ordering in the developed capitalist countries, "coordinated market economies '' such as Germany and Japan and an Anglo - American "liberal market economies ''. However, such approaches imply that the Anglo - American liberal market economies in fact operate in a matter close to the abstract notion of "the market ''. While Anglo - American countries have seen increasing introduction of neo-liberal forms of economic ordering, this has not led to simple convergence, but rather a variety of hybrid institutional orderings. Rather, a variety of new markets have emerged, such as for carbon trading or rights to pollute. In some cases, such as emerging markets for water, different forms of privatization of different aspects of previously state run infrastructure have created hybrid private - public formations and graded degrees of commodification, commercialization, and privatization.
The marketing management school, evolved in the late 1950s and early 1960s, is fundamentally linked with the marketing mix framework, a business tool used in marketing and by marketers. In his paper "The Concept of the Marketing Mix '', Neil H. Borden reconstructed the history of the term "marketing mix ''. He started teaching the term after an associate, James Culliton, described the role of the marketing manager in 1948 as a "mixer of ingredients ''; one who sometimes follows recipes prepared by others, sometimes prepares his own recipe as he goes along, sometimes adapts a recipe from immediately available ingredients, and at other times invents new ingredients no one else has tried. The marketer E. Jerome McCarthy proposed a four Ps classification (product, price, promotion, place) in 1960, which has since been used by marketers throughout the world. Robert F. Lauterborn proposed a four Cs classification (consumer, price, promotion, place) in 1990 which is a more consumer - oriented version of the four Ps that attempts to better fit the movement from mass marketing to niche marketing. Koichi Shimizu proposed a 7Cs Compass Model (corporation, commodity, cost, communication, channel, consumer, circumstances) to provide a more complete picture of the nature of marketing in 1981.
Businesses market their products / services to a specific segments of consumers. The defining factors of the markets are determined by demographics, interests and age / gender. A form of expansion is to enter a new market and sell / advertise to a different set of users.
A prominent entry - point for challenging the market model 's applicability concerns exchange transactions and the homo economicus assumption of self - interest maximization. As of 2012, a number of streams of economic sociological analysis of markets focus on the role of the social in transactions and on the ways transactions involve social networks and relations of trust, cooperation and other bonds. Economic geographers in turn draw attention to the ways exchange transactions occur against the backdrop of institutional, social and geographic processes, including class relations, uneven development and historically contingent path - dependencies. Pierre Bourdieu has suggested the market model is becoming self - realizing in virtue of its wide acceptance in national and international institutions through the 1990s.
Michel Callon 's concept of framing provides a useful schema: each economic act or transaction occurs against, incorporates and also re-performs a geographically and cultural specific complex of social histories, institutional arrangements, rules and connections. These network relations are simultaneously bracketed, so that persons and transactions may be disentangled from thick social bonds. The character of calculability is imposed upon agents as they come to work in markets and are "formatted '' as calculative agencies. Market exchanges contain a history of struggle and contestation that produced actors predisposed to exchange under certain sets of rules. Therefore, for Challon, market transactions can never be disembedded from social and geographic relations and there is no sense to talking of degrees of embeddedness and disembeddeness. An emerging theme is the interrelationship, inter-penetrability and variations of concepts of persons, commodities and modes of exchange under particular market formations. This is most pronounced in recent movement towards post-structuralist theorizing that draws on Michel Foucault and Actor Network Theory and stress relational aspects of person - hood, and dependence and integration into networks and practical systems. Commodity network approaches further both deconstruct and show alternatives to the market models concept of commodities.
In social systems theory (cf. Niklas Luhmann), markets are also conceptualized as inner environments of the economy. As horizon of all potential investment decisions the market represents the environment of the actually realized investment decisions. However, such inner environments can also be observed in further function systems of society like in political, scientific, religious or mass media systems.
A widespread trend in economic history and sociology is skeptical of the idea that it is possible to develop a theory to capture an essence or unifying thread to markets. For economic geographers, reference to regional, local, or commodity specific markets can serve to undermine assumptions of global integration and highlight geographic variations in the structures, institutions, histories, path dependencies, forms of interaction and modes of self - understanding of agents in different spheres of market exchange. Reference to actual markets can show capitalism not as a totalizing force or completely encompassing mode of economic activity, but rather as "a set of economic practices scattered over a landscape, rather than a systemic concentration of power ''.
Problematic for market formalism is the relationship between formal capitalist economic processes and a variety of alternative forms, ranging from semi-feudal and peasant economies widely operative in many developing economies, to informal markets, barter systems, worker cooperatives, or illegal trades that occur in most developed countries. Practices of incorporation of non-Western peoples into global markets in the nineteenth and twentieth century did not merely result in the quashing of former social economic institutions. Rather, various modes of articulation arose between transformed and hybridized local traditions and social practices and the emergent world economy. By their liberal nature, so called capitalist markets have almost always included a wide range of geographically situated economic practices that do not follow the market model. Economies are thus hybrids of market and non-market elements.
Helpful here is J.K. Gibson - Graham 's complex topology of the diversity of contemporary market economies describing different types of transactions, labour and economic agents. Transactions can occur in black markets (such as for marijuana) or be artificially protected (such as for patents). They can cover the sale of public goods under privatization schemes to co-operative exchanges and occur under varying degrees of monopoly power and state regulation. Likewise, there are a wide variety of economic agents, which engage in different types of transactions on different terms: one can not assume the practices of a religious kindergarten, multinational corporation, state enterprise, or community - based cooperative can be subsumed under the same logic of calculability. This emphasis on proliferation can also be contrasted with continuing scholarly attempts to show underlying cohesive and structural similarities to different markets. Gibson - Graham thus read a variety of alternative markets for fair trade and organic foods or those using local exchange trading system as not only contributing to proliferation, but also forging new modes of ethical exchange and economic subjectivities.
Economic anthropology is a scholarly field that attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cultural scope. It is practiced by anthropologists and has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics, of which it is highly critical.
Its origins as a sub-field of anthropology begin with the Polish - British founder of anthropology, Bronisław Malinowski, and his French compatriot, Marcel Mauss, on the nature of gift - giving exchange (or reciprocity) as an alternative to market exchange. Studies in economic anthropology for the most part are focused on exchange. Bronisław Malinowski 's path - breaking work, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922), addressed the question "why would men risk life and limb to travel across huge expanses of dangerous ocean to give away what appear to be worthless trinkets? ''. Malinowski carefully traced the network of exchanges of bracelets and necklaces across the Trobriand Islands and established that they were part of a system of exchange (the Kula ring). He stated that this exchange system was clearly linked to political authority. In the 1920s and later, Malinowski 's study became the subject of debate with the French anthropologist, Marcel Mauss, author of The Gift (Essai sur le don, 1925). Malinowski emphasized the exchange of goods between individuals and their non-altruistic motives for giving: they expected a return of equal or greater value (colloquially referred to as "Indian giving ''). In other words, reciprocity is an implicit part of gifting as no "free gift '' is given without expectation of reciprocity. In contrast, Mauss has emphasized that the gifts were not between individuals, but between representatives of larger collectivities. He argued these gifts were a "total prestation '' as they were not simple, alienable commodities to be bought and sold, but like the "Crown jewels '' embodied the reputation, history and sense of identity of a "corporate kin group '', such as a line of kings. Given the stakes, Mauss asked "why anyone would give them away? '' and his answer was an enigmatic concept, "the spirit of the gift ''. A good part of the confusion (and resulting debate) was due to a bad translation. Mauss appeared to be arguing that a return gift is given to keep the very relationship between givers alive; a failure to return a gift ends the relationship; and the promise of any future gifts. Based on an improved translate, Jonathan Parry has demonstrated that Mauss was arguing that the concept of a "pure gift '' given altruistically only emerges in societies with a well - developed market ideology.
Rather than emphasize how particular kinds of objects are either gifts or commodities to be traded in restricted spheres of exchange, Arjun Appadurai and others began to look at how objects flowed between these spheres of exchange. They shifted attention away from the character of the human relationships formed through exchange and placed it on "the social life of things '' instead. They examined the strategies by which an object could be "singularized '' (made unique, special, one - of - a-kind) and so withdrawn from the market. A marriage ceremony that transforms a purchased ring into an irreplaceable family heirloom is one example whereas the heirloom in turn makes a perfect gift.
Although arithmetic has been used since the beginning of civilization to set prices, it was not until the 19th century that more advanced mathematical tools began to be used to study markets in the form of social statistics. More recent techniques include business intelligence, data mining and marketing engineering.
Market size can be given in terms of the number of buyers and sellers in a particular market or in terms of the total exchange of money in the market, generally annually (per year). When given in terms of money, market size is often termed "market value '', but in a sense distinct from market value of individual products. For one and the same goods, there may be different (and generally increasing) market values at the production level, the wholesale level and the retail level. For example, the value of the global illicit drug market for the year 2003 was estimated by the United Nations to be US $13 billion at the production level, $94 billion at the wholesale level (taking seizures into account) and US $322 billion at the retail level (based on retail prices and taking seizures and other losses into account).
United States home sales (blue)
Book Sales in the United Kingdom
Size and growth of the legal outsourcing market
Global mobiles applications market size
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the place of india which does not have tropical evergreen forest is | Tropical rainforests of India - wikipedia
Tropical Rainforests of India, are found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats, which fringe the Arabian Sea, the coastline of peninsular India, and the greater Assam region in the north - east. Small remnants of rainforest are found in Odisha state. Semi-evergreen rainforest is more extensive than the evergreen formation partly because evergreen forests tend to degrade to semi-evergreen with human interference. There are substantial differences in both the flora and fauna between the three major rainforest regions.
The Western Ghats monsoon forests occur both on the western (coastal) margins of the ghats and on the eastern side where there is less rainfall. These forests contain several tree species of great commercial significance (e.g. Indian rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia), Malabar Kino (Pterocarpus marsupium), teak (Tectona grandis) and Indian laurel (Terminalia crenulata)), but they have now been cleared from many areas. In the rainforests, there is an enormous number of tree species; at least 60 percent of the trees of the upper canopy are of species which individually contribute not more than one percent of the total number. Clumps of bamboo occur along streams or in poorly drained hollows throughout the evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of south - west India, probably in areas once cleared for transporting agriculture.
The tropical vegetation of north - east India (which includes the states of Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya as well as the plain regions of Arunachal Pradesh) typically occurs at elevations up to 900 metres (3,000 ft). It embraces evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforests, moist deciduous monsoon forests, riparian forests, swamps and grasslands. Evergreen rainforests are found in the Assam Valley, the foothills of the eastern Himalayas and the lower parts of the Naga Hills, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Manipur, where the rain fall exceeds 2,300 mm (91 in) per annum. In the Assam Valley the giant Hollong (Dipterocarpus macrocarpus) and Shorea assamica occur singly, occasionally attaining a girth of up to 7 metres (23 ft) and a height of up to 50 metres (160 ft). The monsoon forests are mainly moist sal (Shorea robusta) forests, which occur widely in this region.
The Andaman and Nicobar islands have tropical evergreen rainforests and tropical semi-evergreen rainforests as well as tropical monsoon forests. The dominant species of Keruing wood is Dipterocarpus grandiflorus in hilly areas, while Dipterocarpus kerrii is dominant on some islands in the southern parts of the archipelago. The monsoon forests of the Andamans are dominated by the Andaman Redwood (Pterocarpus dalbergioides) and Terminalia spp.
Tropical forests in India 's east present a total contrast with the pine and coniferous woodland of the Western Himalayas. The natural cover of India varies with altitude; these evergreen forests are bounded with high alpine meadows nearer to the snowline and temperate forests of short stout trees at lower elevations. In the Himalayan foothills are deciduous trees, with shrubs, bamboo, ferns and grass.
India 's northern plains, the course of the holy rivers Ganges and Yamuna; the Thar Desert in the west; the Sundarbans, the marshy swamplands, in the delta of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, in the east; the Deccan Plateau, lying in the rain shadow of the hills and the Western Ghats with their dense; luxuriant forests -- all provide fascinating variations in habitats. These forests sustain 350 species of mammals, 2,100 kinds of birds (both local and migratory), nearly 350 species of reptile and countless insects.
The need for conservation of the environment and the forests has exercised the minds of Indian rulers from the earliest of times. In recent times, it was the administrators and princely rulers who demarcated and reserved forests as private preserves. Today many of the forested regions form the nucleus of India 's wildlife sanctuaries and parks. Still, increasing population, hunting and encroachments continues to threaten India 's forest lands.
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minimum age required to become the prime minister of india | Prime minister of India - Wikipedia
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The Prime Minister of India is the leader of the executive of the Government of India. The prime minister is also the chief adviser to the President of India and head of the Council of Ministers. They can be a member of any of the two houses of the Parliament of India -- the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of the States) -- but has to be a member of the political party or coalition, having a majority in the Lok Sabha.
The prime minister is the senior-most member of cabinet in the executive of government in a parliamentary system. The prime minister selects and can dismiss members of the cabinet; allocates posts to members within the government; and is the presiding member and chairperson of the cabinet.
The union cabinet headed by the prime minister is appointed by the President of India to assist the latter in the administration of the affairs of the executive. Union cabinet is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha as per Article 75 (3) of the Constitution of India. The prime minister has to enjoy the confidence of a majority in the Lok Sabha and shall resign if they are unable to prove majority when instructed by the president.
India follows a parliamentary system in which the prime minister is the presiding head of the government and chief of the executive of the government. In such systems, the head of state, or, the head of state 's official representative (i.e., the monarch, president, or governor - general) usually holds a purely ceremonial position and acts -- on most matters -- only on the advice of the prime minister.
The prime minister -- if they are not already -- shall become a member of parliament within six months of beginning his / her tenure. A prime minister is expected to work with other central ministers to ensure the passage of bills by the parliament.
Since 1947, there have been 14 different prime ministers. The first few decades after 1947 saw the Indian National Congress ' (INC) almost complete domination over the political map of India. India 's first prime minister -- Jawaharlal Nehru -- took oath on 15 August 1947. Nehru went on to serve as prime minister for 17 consecutive years, winning four general elections in the process. His tenure ended in May 1964, on his death. After the death of Nehru, Lal Bahadur Shastri -- a former home minister and a leader of the Congress party -- ascended to the position of prime minister. Shastri 's tenure saw the Indo - Pakistani War of 1965. Shashtri subsequently died of a reported heart attack in Tashkent, after signing the Tashkent Declaration.
After Shastri, Indira Gandhi -- Nehru 's daughter -- was elected as the country 's first woman prime minister. Indira 's first term in office lasted 11 years, in which she took steps such as nationalization of banks; end of allowances and political posts, which were received by members of the royal families of the erstwhile princely states of British India. In addition, events such as the Indo - Pakistani War of 1971; the establishment of a sovereign Bangladesh; accession of Sikkim to India, through a referendum in 1975; and India 's first nuclear test in Pokhran occurred during Indira 's first term. In 1975, President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed -- on Indira 's advice -- imposed a state of emergency, therefore, bestowing the government with the power to rule by decree, the period is known for human right violations.
After widespread protests, the emergency was lifted in 1977, and a general election was to be held. All of the political parties of the opposition -- after the conclusion of the emergency -- fought together against the Congress, under the umbrella of the Janata Party, in the general election of 1977, and were successful in defeating the Congress. Subsequently, Morarji Desai -- a former deputy prime minister -- became the first non-Congress prime minister of the country. The government of Prime Minister Desai was composed of groups with opposite ideologies, in which unity and coordination were difficult to maintain. Ultimately, after two and a half years as PM; on 28 July 1979, Morarji tendered his resignation to the president; and his government fell. Thereafter, Charan Singh -- a deputy prime minister in Desai 's cabinet -- with outside, conditional support from Congress, proved a majority in Lok Sabha and took oath as prime minister. However, Congress pulled its support shortly after, and Charan Singh had to resign; he had a tenure of 5 months, the shortest in the history of the office.
In 1980, after a three - year absence, the Congress returned to power with an absolute majority. Indira Gandhi was elected prime minister a second time. During her second tenure, Operation Blue Star -- an Indian Army operation inside the Golden Temple, the most sacred site in Sikhism -- was conducted, resulting in reportedly thousands of deaths. Subsequently, on 31 October 1984, Indira was shot dead by Satwant Singh and Beant Singh -- two of her bodyguards -- in the garden of her residence at 1, Safdarjung Road, New Delhi.
After Indira, the Rajiv Gandhi -- her eldest son and 40 years old at the time -- was sworn in on the evening of 31 October 1984, becoming the youngest person ever to hold the office of prime minister. Rajiv immediately called for a general election. In the subsequent general election, the Congress secured an absolute majority, winning 401 of 552 seats in the Lok Sabha, the maximum number received by any party in the history of India. Vishwanath Pratap Singh -- first finance minister and then later defence minister in Rajiv 's cabinet -- uncovered irregularities, in what became to be known as the Bofors scandal, during his stint at the Ministry of Defence; V.P. Singh was subsequently expelled from Congress and formed the Janata Dal and -- with the help of several anti-Congress parties -- also formed the National Front, a coalition of many political parties.
In the general election of 1989, the National Front -- with outside support from the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Left Front -- came to power. V.P. Singh was elected prime minister. During a tenure of less than a year, V.P. Singh and his government accepted the Mandal Commission 's recommendations. V.P. Singh 's tenure came to an end after he ordered the arrest of BJP leader Lal Krishna Advani, as a result, BJP withdrew its outside support to the government, V.P. Singh lost the subsequent vote - of - no - confidence 146 - 320 and had to resign. After V.P. Singh 's resignation, Chandra Shekhar -- home minister in V.P. Singh 's cabinet -- along with 64 members of parliament (MPs) floated the Samajwadi Janata Party (Rashtriya) (SJP (R)), and proved a majority in the Lok Sabha with support from Congress. But his premiership did not last long, Congress proceeded to withdraw its support; Chandra Shekhar 's government fell as a result, and new elections were announced.
In the general election of 1991, Congress -- under the leadership of P.V. Narasimha Rao -- formed a minority government; Rao became the first PM of South Indian origin. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, India was on the brink of bankruptcy, so, Rao took steps to liberalise the economy, and appointed Manmohan Singh -- an economist and a former governor of the Reserve Bank of India -- as finance minister. Rao and Manmohan then took various steps to liberalise the economy, these resulted in an unprecedented economic growth in India. His premiership, however, was also a witness to the demolition of the Babri Masjid, which resulted in the death of about 2,000 people. Rao, however, did complete five continuous years in office, becoming the first prime minister outside of the Nehru -- Gandhi family to do so.
After the end of Rao 's tenure in May 1996, the nation saw four prime ministers in a span of three years, viz., two tenures of Atal Bihari Vajpayee; one tenure of H.D. Deve Gowda from 1 June 1996 to 21 April 1997; and one tenure of I.K. Gujral from 21 April 1997 to 19 March 1998. The government of Prime Minister Vajpayee -- elected in 1998 -- took some concrete steps. In May 1998 -- after a month in power -- the government announced the conduct of five underground nuclear explosions in Pokhran. In response to these tests, many western countries, including the United States, imposed economic sanctions on India, but, due to the support received from Russia, France, the Gulf countries and some other nations, the sanctions -- were largely -- not considered successful. A few months later in response to the Indian nuclear tests, Pakistan also conducted nuclear tests. Given the deteriorating situation between the two countries, the governments tried to improve bilateral relations. In February 1999, the India and Pakistan signed the Lahore Declaration, in which the two countries announced their intention to annul mutual enmity, increase trade and use their nuclear capabilities for peaceful purposes. In May 1999, All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) withdrew from the ruling National Democratic Alliance (NDA) coalition; Vajpayee 's government -- hence -- became a caretaker one after losing a motion - of - no - confidence 269 - 270, this coincided with the Kargil War with Pakistan. In the subsequent October 1999 election, the BJP - led NDA and its affiliated parties secured a comfortable majority in the Lok Sabha, winning 299 of 543 seats in the lower house.
Vajpayee continued the process of economic liberalization during his reign, resulting in economic growth. In addition to the development of infrastructure and basic facilities, the government took several steps to improve the infrastructure of the country, such as, the National Highways Development Project (NHDP) and the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY; IAST: Pradhānamaṃtrī Grāma Saḍa़ka Yojanā; lit. Prime Minister Rural Road Scheme), for the development of roads. But during his reign, the 2002 Gujarat communal riots in the state of Gujarat took place; resulting in the death of about 2,000 deaths. Prime Minister Vajpayee 's tenure as prime minister came to an end in May 2004, making him the first non-Congress PM to complete a full five - year tenure.
In the 2004 election, the Congress emerged as the largest party in a hung parliament; Congress - led United Progressive Alliance (UPA) -- with outside support from the Left Front, the Samajwadi Party (SP) and Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) among others -- proved a majority in the Lok Sabha, and Manmohan Singh was elected prime minister; becoming the first Sikh prime minister of the nation. During his tenure, the country retained the economic momentum gained during Prime Minister Vajpayee 's tenure. Apart from this, the government succeeded in getting the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005, and the Right to Information Act, 2005 passed in the parliament. Further, the government strengthened India 's relations with nations like Afghanistan; Russia; and the United States, culminating with the ratification of India -- United States Civil Nuclear Agreement near the end of Manmohan 's first term. At the same time, the November 2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks also happened during Manmohan 's first term in office. In the general election of 2009, the mandate of UPA increased. Prime Minister Manmohan 's second term, however, was surrounded by accusations of high - level scandals and corruption. Manmohan resigned as prime minister on 17 May 2014, after Congress ' defeat in the 2014 general election.
In the general election of 2014, the BJP - led NDA got an absolute majority, winning 336 out of 543 Lok Sabha seats; the BJP itself became the first party since 1984 to get a majority in the Lok Sabha. Narendra Modi -- the Chief Minister of Gujarat -- was elected prime minister; becoming the first prime minister to have been born in an independent India.
The Constitution envisions a scheme of affairs in which the President of India is the head of state; in terms of Article 53 with office of the prime minister being the head of Council of Ministers to assist and advise the president in the discharge of his / her constitutional functions. To quote, Article 53, 74 and 75 provide as under;
The executive powers of the Union shall be vested in the president and shall be exercised either directly or through subordinate officers, in accordance with the Constitution.
There shall be a Council of Ministers with the prime minister at the head to aid and advise the president who shall, in the exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice.
The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.
Like most parliamentary democracies, the president 's duties are mostly ceremonial as long as the constitution and the rule of law is obeyed by the cabinet and the legislature. The Prime Minister of India is the head of government and has the responsibility for executive power. The president 's constitutional duty is to preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law per article 60. In the constitution of India, the prime minister is mentioned in only four of its articles (articles 74, 75, 78 and 366), however he / she plays a crucial role in the Government of India by enjoying majority in the Lok Sabha.
According to Article 84 of the Constitution of India, which sets the principle qualification for member of Parliament, and Article 75 of the Constitution of India, which sets the qualifications for the minister in the Union Council of Minister, and the argument that the position of prime minister has been described as primus inter pares (the first among equals), A prime minister must:
If however a candidate is elected as the prime minister they must vacate their post from any private or government company and may take up the post only on completion of their term.
The prime minister is required to make and subscribe in the presence of President of India before entering office, the oath of office and secrecy, as per the Third Schedule of the Constitution of India.
Oath of office:
I, < name >, do swear in the name of God / solemnly affirm that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India as by law established, that I will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India, that I will faithfully and conscientiously discharge my duties as prime minister for the Union and that I will do right to all manner of people in accordance with the Constitution and the law, without fear or favour, affection or ill - will.
Oath of secrecy:
I, < name >, do swear in the name of God / solemnly affirm that I will not directly or indirectly communicate or reveal to any person or persons any matter which shall be brought under my consideration or shall become known to me as prime minister for the Union except as may be required for the due discharge of my duties as such Minister.
The prime minister serves on ' the pleasure of the president ', hence, a prime minister may remain in office indefinitely, so long as the president has confidence in him / her. However, a prime minister must have the confidence of Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India.
However, the term of a prime minister can end before the end of a Lok Sabha 's term, if a simple majority of its members no longer have confidence in him / her, this is called a vote - of - no - confidence. Three prime ministers, I.K. Gujral, H.D. Deve Gowda and Atal Bihari Vajpayee have been voted out from office this way. In addition, a prime minister can also resign from office; Morarji Desai was the first prime minister to resign while in office.
Upon ceasing to possess the requisite qualifications to be a member of Parliament subject to the Representation of the People Act, 1951.
The prime minister leads the functioning and exercise of authority of the Government of India. The President of India -- subject to eligibility -- invites a person who is commanding support of majority members of Lok Sabha to form the Government of India -- also known as the central government or Union government -- at the national level and exercise its powers. In practice the prime minister nominates the members of their council of ministers to the president. They also work upon to decide a core group of ministers (known as the cabinet), as in charge of the important functions and ministries of the Government of India.
The prime minister is responsible for aiding and advising the president in distribution of work of the government to various ministries and offices and in terms of the Government of India (Allocation of Business) Rules, 1961. The coordinating work is generally allocated to the Cabinet Secretariat. While the work of the government is generally divided into various Ministries, the prime minister may retain certain portfolios if they are not allocated to any member of the cabinet.
The prime minister -- in consultation with the cabinet -- schedules and attends the sessions of the houses of parliament and is required to answer the question from the Members of Parliament to them as the in - charge of the portfolios in the capacity as Prime Minister of India.
Some specific ministries / department are not allocated to anyone in the cabinet but the prime minister themself. The prime minister is usually always in charge / head of:
The prime minister represents the country in various delegations, high level meetings and international organisations that require the attendance of the highest government office, and also addresses to the nation on various issues of national or other importance.
Per Article 78 of the constitution, the official communication between the union cabinet and the president are through the prime minister. Other wise constitution recognises the prime minister as a member of the union cabinet only outside the sphere of union cabinet.
The prime minister recommends to the president -- among others -- names for the appointment of:
As the chairperson of Appointments Committee of the Cabinet (ACC), the prime minister -- on the non-binding advice of the Cabinet Secretary of India led - Senior Selection Board (SSB) -- decides the postings of top civil servants, such as, secretaries, additional secretaries and joint secretaries in the Government of India. Further, in the same capacity, the PM decides the assignments of top military personnel such as the Chief of the Army Staff, Chief of the Air Staff, Chief of the Naval Staff and commanders of operational and training commands. In addition, the ACC also decides the posting of Indian Police Service officers -- the All India Service for policing, which staffs most of the higher level law enforcement positions at federal and state level -- in the Government of India.
Also, as the Minister of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions, the PM also exercises control over the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), the country 's premier civil service, which staffs most of the senior civil service positions; the Public Enterprises Selection Board (PESB); and the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), except for the selection of its director, who is chosen by a committee of: (a) the prime minister, as chairperson; (b) the leader of the opposition in Lok Sabha; (c) and the chief justice.
Unlike most other countries, the prime minister does not have much influence over the selection of judges, that is done by a collegium of judges consisting of the Chief Justice of India, four senior-most judges of the Supreme Court of India and the chief justice -- or the senior-most judge -- of the concerned state high court. The executive as a whole, however, has the right to send back a recommended name to the collegium for reconsideration, this, however, is not a full veto power, and the collegium can still put forward rejected name.
The prime minister acts as the leader of the house of the chamber of parliament -- generally the Lok Sabha -- he / she belongs to. In this role, the prime minister is tasked with representing the executive in the legislature, he / she is also expected to announce important legislation, and is further expected to respond to the opposition 's concerns. Article 85 of the Indian constitution confers the president with the power to convene and end extraordinary sessions of the parliament, this power, however, is exercised only on the advise of prime minister and his / her council, so, in practice, the prime minister does exercise some control over affairs of the parliament.
Article 75 of the Constitution of India confers the parliament with the power to decide the remuneration and other benefits of the prime minister and other ministers are to be decided by the Parliament. and is renewed from time to time. The original remuneration for prime minister and other ministers were specified in the Part B of the second schedule of the constitution, which was later removed by an amendment.
In 2010, the prime minister 's office reported that he / she does not receive a formal salary, but was only entitled to monthly allowances. That same year The Economist reported that, on a purchasing power parity basis, the prime minister received an equivalent of $4106 per year. As a percentage of the country 's per - capita GDP (Gross Domestic Product), this is the lowest of all countries The Economist surveyed.
The 7, Lok Kalyan Marg -- previously called the 7, Race Course Road -- in New Delhi, serves as the official place of residence for the Prime Minister of India. For ground travel, the prime minister uses a highly modified, armoured version of a Range Rover, while for air travel, Boeing 777 - 300ER s -- designated by the call sign Air India One (AI - 1 or AIC001), and maintained by the Indian Air Force -- are used. The Special Protection Group (SPG) is charged with protecting the sitting prime minister and his / her family.
The Prime Minister 's Office (PMO) acts as the principal workplace of the prime minister. The office is located at South Block, and is a 20 - room complex, and has the Cabinet Secretariat, the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of External Affairs adjacent to it. The office is headed by the Principal Secretary to the Prime Minister, generally a former civil servant either from the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) or the Indian Foreign Service (IFS).
Former prime ministers are entitled to a bungalow, former prime ministers are also entitled the same facilities as those given to a serving cabinet minister, this includes a fourteen - member secretarial staff, for a period of five years; reimbursement of office expenses; six domestic executive - class air tickets each year and; and security cover from the Special Protection Group. In addition, former prime ministers rank seventh on the Indian order of precedence, equivalent to chief minister s of states (within their respective states) and cabinet ministers As a former member of the parliament, the prime minister receives a minimum pension of ₹ 20,000 (US $310) per month, plus -- if he / she served as an MP for more than five years -- ₹ 15,000 (US $230) for every year served.
The prime minister acts as the presides over various funds.
The National Defence Fund (NDF) was set up the Indian government in 1962, in the aftermath of 1962 Sino - Indian War. The prime minister acts as chairperson of the fund 's executive committee, while, the ministers of defence, finance and home act as the members of the executive committee, the finance minister also acts the treasurer of the committee. The secretary of the fund 's executive committee is a joint secretary in the Prime Minister 's Office, dealing with the subject of NDF. The fund -- according to its website -- is "entirely dependent on voluntary contributions from the public and does not get any budgetary support. ''. Donations to the fund are 100 % tax - deductible under section 80G of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
The Prime Minister 's National Relief Fund (PMNRF) was set up by the first Prime Minister of India -- Jawaharlal Nehru -- in 1948, to assist displaced people from Pakistan. The fund, now, is primarily used to assist the families of those who are killed during natural disasters such as earthquakes, cyclones and flood and secondarily to reimburse medical expenses of people with chronic and deadly diseases. Donations to the PMNRF are 100 % tax - deductible under section 80G of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
The post of Deputy Prime Minister of India is not technically a constitutional post, nor is there any mention of it in an Act of the parliament. But historically, on various occasions, different governments have assigned one of their senior ministers as the ' deputy prime minister '. There is neither constitutional requirement for filling the post of deputy PM, nor does the post provide any kind of special powers. Typically, senior cabinet ministers like the finance minister or the home minister are appointed as deputy prime minister. The post is considered to be the senior most in the cabinet after the prime minister and represents the government in his / her absence. Generally, deputy prime ministers have been appointed to strengthen the coalition governments. The first holder of this post was Vallabhbhai Patel, who was also the home minister in Jawaharlal Nehru 's cabinet.
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how did the nile floods help farmers grow crops | Ancient Egyptian agriculture - wikipedia
The civilization of ancient Egypt was indebted to the Nile River and its dependable seasonal flooding. The river 's predictability and the fertile soil allowed the Egyptians to build an empire on the basis of great agricultural wealth. Egyptians are credited as being one of the first groups of people to practice agriculture on a large scale. This was possible because of the ingenuity of the Egyptians as they developed basin irrigation. Their farming practices allowed them to grow staple food crops, especially grains such as wheat and barley, and industrial crops, such as flax and papyrus.
The civilization of ancient Egypt developed in the arid climate of northern Africa. This region is distinguished by the Arabian and Libyan deserts, and the River Nile. The Nile is one of the longest rivers in the world, flowing northward from Lake Victoria and eventually emptying into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile has two main tributaries: the Blue Nile which originates in Ethiopia, and the White Nile that flows from Rwanda. While the White Nile is considered to be longer and easier to traverse, the Blue Nile actually carries about two thirds of the water volume of the river. The names of the tributaries derive from the color of the water that they carry. The tributaries come together in Khartoum and branches again when it reaches Egypt, forming the Nile delta.
The Egyptians took advantage of the natural cyclical flooding pattern of the Nile. Because this flooding happened fairly predictably, the Egyptians were able to develop their agricultural practices around it. The water levels of the river would rise in August and September, leaving the floodplain and delta submerged by 1.5 meters of water at the peak of flooding. This yearly flooding of the river is known as inundation. As the floodwaters receded in October, farmers were left with well watered and fertile soil in which to plant their crops. The soil left behind by the flooding is known as silt and was brought from Ethiopian Highlands by the Nile. Planting took place in October once the flooding was over, and crops were left to grow with minimal care until they ripened between the months of March and May. While the flooding of the Nile was much more predictable and calm than other rivers, such as the Tigris and Euphrates, it was not always perfect. High floodwaters were destructive and could destroy canals that were made for irrigation. Lack of flooding created a potentially greater issue because it left Egyptians suffering from famine.
To make best use of the waters of the Nile river, the Egyptians developed systems of irrigation. Irrigation allowed the Egyptians to use the Nile 's waters for a variety of purposes. Notably, irrigation granted them greater control over their agricultural practices. Flood waters were diverted away from certain areas, such as cities and gardens, to keep them from flooding. Irrigation was also used to provide drinking water to Egyptians. Despite the fact that irrigation was crucial to their agricultural success, there were no statewide regulations on water control. Rather, irrigation was the responsibility of local farmers. However, the earliest and most famous reference to irrigation in Egyptian archaeology has been found on the mace head of the Scorpion King, which has been roughly dated to about 3100 BC. The mace head depicts the king cutting into a ditch that is part of a grid of basin irrigation. The association of the high ranking king with irrigation highlights the importance of irrigation and agriculture to their society.
Egyptians developed and utilized a form of water management known as basin irrigation. This practice allowed them to control the rise and fall of the river to best suit their agricultural needs. A crisscross network of earthen walls was formed in a field of crops that would be flooded by the river. When the floods came, the water would be trapped in the basins formed by the walls. This grid would hold water longer than it would have naturally stayed, allowing the earth to become fully saturated for later planting. Once the soil was fully watered, the floodwater that remained in the basin would simply be drained to another basin that was in need of more water.
Orchards and gardens were also developed in addition to field planting in the floodplains. This horticulture generally took place further from the floodplain of the Nile, and as a result they required much more work. The perennial irrigation required by gardens forced growers to manually carry water from either a well or the Nile to water their garden crops. Additionally, while the Nile brought silt which naturally fertilized the valley, gardens had to be fertilized by pigeon manure. These gardens and orchards were generally used to grow vegetables, vines and fruit trees.
The Egyptians grew a variety of crops for consumption, including grains, vegetables and fruits. However, their diets revolved around several staple crops, especially cereals and barley. Barley was grown with the intent of later being fermented to make beer. Other major grains grown included einkorn wheat and emmer wheat, grown to make bread. Other staples for the majority of the population included beans, lentils, and later chickpeas and fava beans. Root crops, such as onions, garlic and radishes were grown, along with salad crops, such as lettuce and parsley.
Fruits were a common motif of Egyptian artwork, suggesting that their growth was also a major focus of agricultural efforts as the civilization 's agricultural technology developed. Unlike cereals and pulses, fruit required more demanding and complex agricultural techniques, including the use of irrigation systems, cloning, propagation and training. While the first fruits cultivated by the Egyptians were likely indigenous, such as the palm date and sorghum, more fruits were introduced as other cultural influences were introduced. Grapes and watermelon were found throughout predynastic Egyptian sites, as were the sycamore fig, dom palm and christ 's thorn. The carob, olive, apple and pomegranate were introduced to Egyptians during the New Kingdom. Later, during the Greco - Roman period peaches and pears were also introduced.
Egyptians relied on agriculture for more than just the production of food. They were creative in their use of plants, using them for medicine, as part of their religious practices, and in the production of clothing. Herbs perhaps had the most varied purposes; they were used in cooking, medicine, as cosmetics and in the process of embalming. Over 2000 different species of flowering or aromatic plants have been found in tombs. Papyrus was an extremely versatile crop that grew wild and was also cultivated. The roots of the plant were eaten as food, but it was primarily used as an industrial crop. The stem of the plant was used to make boats, mats and paper. Flax was another important industrial crop that had several uses. Its primary use was in the production of rope, and for linen which was the Egyptians ' principal material for making their clothing. Henna was grown for the production of dye.
In ancient Egypt religion was a highly important aspect of daily life. Many of the Egyptians ' religious observances were centered on their observations of the environment, the Nile and agriculture. They used religion as a way to explain natural phenomena, such as the cyclical flooding of the Nile and agricultural yields.
Although the Nile was directly responsible for either good or bad fortune experienced by the Egyptians, they did not worship the Nile itself. Rather, they thanked specific gods for any good fortune. They did not have a name for the river and simply referred to it as "River ''. The term "Nile '' is not of Egyptian origin.
The Egyptians personified the inundation with the creation of the god called Hapi. Despite the fact that inundation was crucial to their survival, Hapi was not considered to be a major god. He was depicted as an overweight figure who ironically made offerings of water and other products of abundance to pharaohs. A temple was never built specifically for Hapi, but he was worshipped as inundation began by making sacrifices and the singing of hymns.
The god Osiris was also closely associated with the Nile and the fertility of the land. During inundation festivals mud figures of Osiris were planted with barley.
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when did they stop making wooden golf clubs | Wood (golf) - wikipedia
A wood is a type of club used in the sport of golf. Woods have longer shafts and larger, rounder heads than other club types, and are used to hit the ball longer distances than other types.
Woods are so called because, traditionally, they had a club head that was made from hardwood, generally persimmon, but modern clubs have heads made from metal, for example titanium, or composite materials, such as carbon fiber. Some golf enthusiasts refer to these as "metals '' or "metal woods '' but this change in terminology is not strictly necessary, because while the material has changed, the style and intended use has not. The change to stronger materials has allowed the design of the modern woods to incorporate significantly larger heads than in the past. Because of the increase in club head size, in 2004, the USGA created a new stipulation for the size of the club head. The legal maximum volume displacement of any clubhead (by the rules of golf) is 460 cm (28.1 cu in)
Woods are numbered in ascending order starting with the driver, or 1 - wood, which has the lowest loft (usually between 9 and 13 degrees), and continuing with progressively higher lofts and numbers. Most modern woods are sold as individual clubs allowing the player to customize their club set, but matched sets of woods, especially as part of a complete club set, are readily available. Odd - numbered lofts are most common in players ' bags, though 2 - and 4 - woods are available in many model lines. The number of the club is mainly a reference for the player to easily identify the clubs; the actual loft angle of a particular number varies between manufacturers, and there is often some overlap of lofts (one 3 - wood might be higher - lofted than a 4 - wood of a different brand or model). Other identifiers have been utilized such as "strong '' and "plus '' to differentiate various lofts within a line of clubs.
Woods generally fall into two classes, drivers and fairway woods, with a traditional set of clubs including a driver and one or two fairway woods (usually numbered 3 and 5). Many modern sets tend to include hybrid clubs, which combine some of the characteristics of a wood and an iron, to replace the 5 wood and low - lofted irons.
A recent trend is to produce woods and hybrids that can be adjusted by the player to provide different lofts and other settings.
The 1 - wood, or driver, is the lowest - lofted, longest, and often lightest club in a player 's bag, and is meant to launch the ball the longest distance of any club. Originally, the driver was only slightly larger than any other wood and was designed to be used from the tee or the fairway, but with the advent of hollow metal clubhead construction, the driver has become highly specialized for use off the tee by incorporating an oversized head and a deep striking face to maximize the "sweet spot '' that gives the best results. It is possible to hit a modern driver off the fairway turf, but it requires a high degree of skill and a certain amount of luck regarding the lie of the ball. Certain 2 - woods are available with a similar deep - faced design but a higher loft, which can be used in situations when a player needs slightly less distance than their average drive, or must make a driver - distance shot from the fairway or rough. However, 2 - woods of any kind are uncommon, as a player in these situations will more often opt for the 3 - wood, and save the space in the bag for a less specialised club like a wedge or hybrid.
The driver has become the most expensive single club of the modern clubset, largely due to the high emphasis placed on a player 's drive distance; a longer drive gets the ball closer to the green in fewer strokes allowing for better chances of a birdie or eagle. While drivers are available as cheaply as $20, these are mainly marketed at junior players; the price range for drivers marketed to adult amateur players is generally between $130 -- $500, with custom - made clubs for high - end players and touring professionals costing thousands or even tens of thousands of dollars (in the case of prototype or preproduction clubs supplied by a sponsor club - maker). As a comparison, the upper end of the retail drivers, $500, is comparable to the price of an entire quality matched set of irons, and the next most expensive single clubs, the putter and the fairway woods, generally range from $100 -- $350.
With such high emphasis on drive distance and accuracy by players wanting to "play like the pros '', a large amount of customization is available in drivers in order to provide the club configuration that best matches the player 's specific swing mechanics. Club - makers generally provide for selection and / or customization of five things: the shaft flex, which determines how energy is stored and released during the player 's swing; the loft angle, which is a determinant of launch angle and backspin; the offset, which determines the angle the clubface will have to the ball at impact; the clubhead mass, which can "fine - tune '' the clubhead behaviour for a player 's swing tempo; and the centre of mass, which is also a factor in launch angle and backspin.
These customizations are typically grouped in certain common configurations. A player with a correct swing of average strength (clubhead speeds about 85 -- 100 mph at impact) will generally want a driver with a regular - flex shaft, 10.5 ° loft, a low offset (0 -- 2 °) towards a "closed '' face (angled toward the player), and a low centre of gravity. This has generally been shown to provide the best overall distance and flight behaviour from an average swing, and drivers with this configuration are widely available. Drivers with a low closed offset or no offset are often called "game improvement '' drivers or simply "regular '' drivers. Ladies and seniors typically have slower swing speeds (60 -- 85 mph), and so to maximise distance, it is important to increase "hang time '' so that the lower horizontal velocity at launch can carry the ball farther. These players generally benefit from a more flexible shaft and a higher loft angle; this combination "times '' the release of stored energy in the shaft to the slower swing, and the increased loft will launch the ball higher and increase backspin to improve flight time. The standard women 's driver has a 13 ° loft and "Lady '' - flex shaft, while senior men 's drivers average 11 ° and have an "intermediate '' - or "senior '' - flex shaft.
Players with problems slicing their drive shots (for a right - hander, a slice starts straight and curves to the right) may benefit from an additional closed offset of 3 -- 4 °, which will help square the clubface to the ball during the swing. This is typically referred to as a "max game improvement '' driver, sometimes as a "draw driver '' because a player with a correct swing using such a driver will draw their shots (for a right - hander, a "draw '' starts straight but curves left).
A player with a stronger - than - average swing (> 100 mph at impact) will typically want a stiff - flex shaft and a lower loft, around 9.5 °, which will respond better to the faster swing tempo and will launch the ball lower so the energy is spent sending the ball outward instead of keeping it in the air. The same player might also benefit from a "Tour driver '', which has a 1 -- 2 ° offset to "open '' the clubface (angle it away from the player), and a higher, further - rearward centre of mass. These changes can correct certain problems with a strong swing, such as torquing in the clubhead "closing '' it at impact causing draws, and the normally low and forward centre of gravity causing excessive backspin which can make drives "balloon ''; the shot will start low but curve upwards in flight, then "stall '' and drop onto the turf, reducing total distance. Most stiff driver shafts are marked usually X-Stiff or even more. These are commonly professional - level stiffnesses due the rarity of amateur players capable of hitting swing speeds over 110 mph, although these also occur sometimes.
The furthest shooting drivers of all are long - drive - clubs, which may have a 48 - inch shaft. This is the maximum legal shaft length in golf. Maximum length shafts are unpopular even in professional golf, due to the shot inconsistency and smaller error margin they provide.
Higher - number woods are generally known as fairway woods and, as their name suggests, are designed for shots from off the turf of the fairway that still require long distance, such as the second shot of a par - 5 or a long par - 4 hole. They have two important features: a higher loft to lift the ball out of the turf and over low obstacles like hills, and a shallower face height which allows a player to hit a ball from the ground using the exact center of the club, providing greater distance for such shots. These two design features enable players to hit fairway woods off the ground with greater ease than modern deep - faced drivers. Fairway woods are also useful off the tee depending on the hole; players may for instance wish to play their tee shot short (known as "laying up '') due to a dogleg or a hazard in range of their driver, and will opt instead for their 3 - wood. Fairway woods are typically made with a slightly shorter and stiffer shaft, a smaller clubhead and more loft than a driver or 2 - wood.
While the most common modern clubset includes only one fairway wood, the 3 - wood, woods are typically available from major brands in lofts up to a 9 - wood. A 4 - wood is sometimes seen instead of a 3 - wood (to fine - tune range differences between a player 's driver and fairway wood), while a 5 - wood is a common addition to the 3 - wood for players who prefer fairway woods to long irons for play through the green. 7 - woods are rarer in men 's clubs but more common in ladies ' and seniors ' sets, again as a substitute for lower - lofted irons which are difficult to hit well and whose low launch angle can be risky on a hilly or undulating fairway. Some custom clubmakers offer woods in lofts up to 55 ° (a "25 - wood '' equivalent to a sand wedge); these can be used to replace the entire standard set of irons with woods, for players who prefer the swing mechanics and behavior of woods to that of irons and wedges.
The head of a wood is roughly spherical in shape with a slightly bulging clubface and a generally flattened sole that slides over the ground without digging in during the swing. Traditional "wood '' clubheads were made of wood, hence the name; beech wood or ash were common prior to the twentieth century, and later persimmon or maple became preferable. Modern club heads are usually hollow steel, titanium or composite materials, and are sometimes called "metalwoods '' or more recently "fairway metals ''. Pinseeker Golf Corp. innovated the first stainless steel metalwood called the Bombshell in 1976. The design was somewhat untraditional and did not have the promotional success needed for profitable long term marketing - it was discontinued 3 years later. In 1979 Taylor Made produced a traditionally shaped stainless steel wood head called "Pittsburgh Persimmon '' which achieved market acceptance by the mid-1980s. Oversized heads made from aluminum appeared in the mid-1980s but were slow to catch on since their introduction was via independent component manufacturers and not the larger endorsement based club manufacturers. Very large size drivers (300 - 500cc) arrived with titanium metallurgy which meant reasonable ' headweights ' could be achieved with very large thin shelled but strong structures. By the mid-2000s, titanium heads could be made to 1000 cc (Golfsmith Inc made 1,000 cc (61.0 cu in) in the mid-2000s). Around this time the USGA decided to limit the size of driver heads to 460 cc (28.1 cu in) since the rule requiring heads to be of a traditional shape was being unduly stretched. However, during this period the club - making business needed some financial help, so the USGA relaxed the "traditional shape '' rule while enforcing the new 460cc limit, and new head shapes appeared, such as "torpedo '' and square / rectangular shapes, to attract the buying public to potentially game improving designs particularly regarding better mishit outcomes.
The typical loft for woods ranges from 7.5 to 31 degrees. Driver lofts generally center around 10.5 ° but the desired loft is very dependent upon the player 's swing speed (low swing speeds need higher lofts); men 's lofts vary between 8 and 11 degrees while women 's drivers are between 10 and 13 degrees, and seniors ' lofts trend toward the upper range by gender. The average 3 - wood has a 13 - 16 degree loft (typically 15 °) and the average 5 - wood has an 18 - 21 degree loft. Higher lofts than that overlap with irons in distance, but many players prefer high - number woods to low - number irons wherever they can be used as the wood is easier to hit than a "long iron ''. The loft of any given club number varies between manufacturers, model lines, and the target player.
The shaft length in woods varies from about 40 -- 48 inches (101.6 -- 121.9 cm), with the current standard length for the driver being 45 in (114.3 cm), formerly 43.5 in (110.5 cm). Graphite shafts are usually preferred for woods due to their light weight, which enables users to generate higher clubhead speeds and thus greater distance. The maximum legal length of a shaft by USGA and R&A rules is 48 in (121.9 cm), though some woods used in long drive contests have been made with shaft lengths up to 50 in (127.0 cm) long.
The face of woods is slightly bulged to counteract the gear effect when the ball hits the face off center. The gear effect causes the ball to spin from hits that are away from the center of the face. The spin contributes a tendency for the ball to have a curved flight path away from the target. The slight bulge of the wood club face tends to counteract the gear effect by slightly changing the direction of the ball to make the flight path of the ball end up closer to the target.
The shaft is the true engine of the wood. Widely overlooked, the proper shaft increases distance and accuracy, while a poor shaft can lead to inconsistent shots, slices, and reduced distance.
The oldest shafts for all golf clubs were made of Hickory wood. The shaft was whippy and light, but inconsistent in flex from club to club and quite fragile. Beginning in the 1920s, steel shafts started making an appearance, though the USGA and R&A did not allow their use in sanctioned tournaments until 1929. These shafts traded the lightness and flex of the wood shaft for vastly increased durability and consistency, and were the only type of shaft in general use on any club until the early 1990s. The modern "graphite '' shaft (technically a carbon - fiber composite material) currently in use today combines advantages of the two older types of shafts; it is lighter and more flexible than either steel or Hickory, while having similar durability as steel, at the cost of slightly reduced shot consistency due to increased torque (though this has vastly improved on recent generations of shafts). Graphite shafts gained widespread popularity in the mid-1990s; although the carbon - fiber composite technology had been available since the early 1970s, it was very expensive to produce and nearly impossible to mass - market. Advances in producing, forming and curing composite materials have made carbon fiber much cheaper, and now virtually all new woods, regardless of price, have graphite shafts.
Shaft flex has a very pronounced effect on the power and accuracy of a wood. Every wood is somewhere in between the two extremes of flex, from the extra whippy, to the extra stiff. Whippy shafts are used by those who have low swing speeds and stiff by those who have faster swing speeds. The flex of a shaft allows it to store energy from a player 's downswing, and release it as the head makes contact for increased club speed at impact. A shaft that is too stiff can not be flexed by the golfer during their downswing, which reduces club speed at impact. A shaft that is too whippy will retain some of its stored flex at contact, wasting energy.
Shaft torque is also a concern. Flex and torque are generally related; the more a club can flex, the more it can also twist around its axis (though this is not always the case). A shaft that can torque easily is less forgiving of off - center shots as it will allow the head to twist, causing pulls and pushes. Low - torque shafts resist twisting for more forgiving behavior, but tend to be stiffer and require more power for proper distance. The latest generation of driver shafts combine a flexible shaft with a stiff tip, giving the golfer the required flex to "whip '' into the ball while reducing clubhead twisting.
Wooden heads predominated until the late 1980s. They had evolved to include a metal sole and a metal or plastic faceplate. These wooden headed clubs were dense and heavy, and were generally much smaller than today 's clubheads. Their smaller surface area also made consistent contact more difficult, as the sweet spot of these clubs was considerably smaller than today 's models.
Gary Adams, founder of TaylorMade Golf, is considered the father of the modern metal wood. Adams began to market his club in the late 1970s, but it was nearly a decade until metal woods became more popular with most golfers. Callaway Golf is also largely responsible for the current design of metal woods; the original Big Bertha driver introduced players to the "oversize '' driver with a larger and deeper clubhead (at the time it was 190 cm (12 cu in) in volume), giving maximum club face and a deeper center of gravity. Callaway Golf continued to expand the size of the clubhead to increase these effects, resulting in the Bigger Bertha, the Great Big Bertha, and others in the line. The current incarnation of the Big Bertha driver is 460 cm (28 cu in), which is the maximum allowable clubhead volume according to USGA rules, though larger clubheads exist for long - drive contests and informal games.
Today, many metal wood clubfaces (and most driver clubfaces) are constructed out of titanium. Titanium has a higher strength to weight ratio than steel and has better corrosion resistance, so it is an ideal metal for golf club construction. Manufacturers can also make clubheads with greater volume, which increases the hitting area, and thinner faces, which reduces the weight.
Traditional woods had a very thick hosel, often wrapped with thin cord, which provided a very secure joint between shaft and head at the cost of a higher center of gravity. Modern metalwoods have largely done away with the hosel altogether, instead anchoring the shaft within the clubhead. This allows as much mass as possible to be contained in the clubhead, lowering the center of gravity.
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what is the largest village in the united states | Skokie, Illinois - wikipedia
Skokie (/ ˈskoʊki /; formerly Niles Center) is a village in Cook County, Illinois, United States, neighboring the City of Chicago 's northern border. Skokie lies approximately 15 miles north of Chicago 's downtown loop. Its name comes from a Potawatomi word for "marsh. '' For many years Skokie promoted itself as "The World 's Largest Village. '' Its population, according to the 2010 census, was 64,784. Skokie 's streets, like that of many suburbs, are largely a continuation of the Chicago street grid, and the village is served by the Chicago Transit Authority, further cementing its connection to the city.
Skokie was originally a German - Luxembourger farming community, but was later settled by a sizeable Jewish population, especially after World War II. At its peak in the mid-1960s, 58 % of the population was Jewish, the largest percentage of any Chicago suburb. In recent years, several synagogues and Jewish schools have closed. However, Skokie still has a very large Jewish population. It is home to the Illinois Holocaust Museum and Education Center, which opened in northwest Skokie in 2009.
Skokie has received national attention twice for court cases decided by the United States Supreme Court. In the mid-1970s, it was at the center of a case concerning the First Amendment right to assemble and the National Socialist Party of America, a neo-Nazi group. Skokie ultimately lost that case. In 2001, although Skokie was not a direct party to the case, a decision by the village regarding land use led the court to reduce the power of the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
According to the 2010 census, Skokie has a total area of 10.06 square miles (26.06 km), all land. The village is bordered by Evanston to the east, Chicago to the southeast and southwest, Lincolnwood to the south, Niles to the southwest, Morton Grove to the west, Glenview to the northwest, and Wilmette to the north.
The village 's street circulation is a standard street - grid pattern, with major east - west thoroughfare every half - mile: Old Orchard Road, Golf Road, Church Street, Dempster Street, Main Street, Oakton Street, Howard Street, and Touhy Avenue. The major north - south thoroughfares are Skokie Boulevard, Crawford Avenue, and McCormick Boulevard; the major diagonal streets are Lincoln Avenue, Niles Center Road, East Prairie Road and Gross Point Road.
Skokie 's north - south streets continue the street names and (house number) grid values of Chicago 's north - south streets -- with the notable exceptions of Cicero Avenue, which is renamed Skokie Boulevard in Skokie, and Chicago 's Pulaski Road retains its original Chicago City name, Crawford Avenue. The east - west streets continue Evanston 's street names, but with Chicago grid values, such that, Evanston 's Dempster Street is 8800 north, in Skokie addresses.
In 1888, the community was incorporated as Niles Centre. About 1910, the spelling was Americanized to "Niles Center ''. However, the name caused postal confusion with the neighboring village of Niles. A village - renaming campaign began in the 1930s. In a referendum on November 15, 1940, residents chose the Native American name "Skokie '' over the name "Devonshire. ''
During the real estate boom of the 1920s, large parcels were subdivided; many two - and three - flat apartment buildings were built, with the "Chicago '' - style bungalow a dominant architectural specimen. Large - scale development ended as a result of the Great Crash of 1929 and consequent Great Depression. It was not until the 1940s and the 1950s, when parents of the baby boom generation moved their families out of Chicago, that Skokie 's housing development began again. Consequently, the village developed commercially, an example being the Old Orchard Shopping Center, currently named Westfield Old Orchard.
During the night of November 27 -- 28, 1934, after a gunfight in nearby Barrington that left two FBI agents dead, two accomplices of notorious 25 - year - old bank - robber Baby Face Nelson (Lester Gillis) dumped his bullet - riddled body in a ditch along Niles Center Road adjoining the St. Peter Catholic Cemetery, a block north of Oakton Street in the town.
The first African - American family to move to Skokie arrived in 1961, and open - housing activists helped to integrate the suburb subsequently.
The name of the town was changed from "Niles Center '' to "Skokie '' by referendum in 1940. "Skokie '' had previously been used as the name for the marshland on which much of the town was built; the term "Skokie marsh '' was being used by local botanists, notably Henry Chandler Cowles, as early as 1901. Maps long named the Skokie marsh as Chewab Skokie, a probable derivation from Kitchi - wap choku, a Potawatomi term meaning "great marsh ''.
Virgil Vogel 's Indian Place Names in Illinois (Illinois State Historical Society, 1963) records the name Skokie as:
In Native Placenames of the United States (U. of Oklahoma Pr, 2004), William Bright lists Vogel 's Potawatomi derivation first, but adds reference to the Ojibwa term miishkooki ("marsh '') recorded in the Eastern Ojibwa - Chippewa - Ottawa Dictionary (Mouton, 1985), by Richard A. Rhodes.
The 1940 change of name may also have been influenced by James Foster Porter, a Chicago native, who had explored the "Skoki Valley '' in Banff National Park in Canada in 1911 and became captivated by the name. Porter supported the name "Skokie '' in the referendum when he returned to America.
Twice in its history, Skokie has been the focal point of cases before the United States Supreme Court. National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie, 432 U.S. 43 (1977), involved a First Amendment issue. Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County (SWANCC) v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 531 U.S. 159 (2001) touched upon the Commerce Clause.
In 1977 and 1978, Illinois Nazis of the National Socialist Party of America (derived from the American Nazi Party) attempted to demonstrate their political existence with a march in Skokie, far from their headquarters on Chicago 's south side. Originally, the NSPA had planned a political rally in Marquette Park in Chicago, however, the Chicago authorities thwarted these plans, first, by requiring the NSPA post an onerous public - safety - insurance bond, then, by banning all political demonstrations in Marquette Park.
Seeking another free - speech political venue, the NSPA chose to march on Skokie. Given the many Holocaust survivors living in Skokie, the village 's government thought the Nazi march would be politically provocative and socially disruptive, and refused the NSPA its permission to hold the event. The NSPA appealed that decision, and the American Civil Liberties Union interceded on their behalf, in the case of the National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie. An Illinois appeals court raised the injunction issued by a Cook County Circuit Court judge, ruling that the presence of the swastika, the Nazi emblem, would constitute deliberate provocation of the people of Skokie. However, the Court also ruled that Skokie 's attorneys had failed to prove that either the Nazi uniform or their printed materials, which it was alleged that the Nazis intended to distribute, would incite violence.
Moreover, because Chicago subsequently lifted its Marquette Park political demonstration ban, the NSPA ultimately held its rally in Chicago. The attempted Illinois Nazi march on Skokie was dramatized in the television movie, Skokie, in 1981. It was satirized in The Blues Brothers movie in 1980.
In 2001, Skokie 's decision to use an isolated wetland as a solid waste disposal site resulted in a lawsuit. Ultimately, the case went all the way to the United States Supreme Court, and resulted in an overturn of the federal migratory bird rule. See Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook Cty. v. Army Corps of Engineers for more information.
The Skokie Park District maintains public spaces and historical sites within its more than 240 acres (0.97 km) of parkland and in its ten facilities. The district is a recent winner of the national "Gold Medal for Excellence '' in parks and recreation management. Every May since 1991, the park district hosts the Skokie Festival of Cultures to celebrate the village 's diverse ethnic composition.
Westfield Old Orchard, an upscale shopping center, is one of the country 's first and is the third largest mall by total square footage in Illinois. One of two in the Chicago area of the popular burger chain "Shake Shack '' is located there.
Skokie has a sculpture garden that is situated between Dempster Street and Touhy Avenue on the east side of McCormick Boulevard. It was started in 1988 and now has over 70 sculptures. Three areas are toured in May through October of each year, on the last Sunday of the month with a presentation by a docent. Just north of the sculpture garden is a statue to Mahatma Gandhi with five of his famous quotations engraved around the base. This was dedicated on October 2, 2004.
In addition to municipally - managed public spaces, the village is also home to the North Shore Center for the Performing Arts, encompassing Centre East, Northlight Theatre and the Skokie Valley Symphony Orchestra. The facility celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2016.
The Illinois Holocaust Museum and Education Center opened in Skokie on April 19, 2009.
On October 7, 2008, the Skokie Public Library received the 2008 National Medal for Museum and Library Service from First Lady Laura Bush in a ceremony at the White House. The National Medal is awarded annually by the federal Institute of Museum and Library Services, the primary source of federal support for the nation 's 122,000 libraries and 17,500 museums, to five libraries and five museums. The library 's cultural programming and multilingual services were cited in the award presentation. Skokie Public Library is the first public library in Illinois to be awarded the medal.
Additionally, the Skokie Library also offers a bookmobile service that provides a mini-library around the community.
The village 's AAA bond rating attests to strong economic health via prudent fiscal management. In 2003, Skokie became the first municipality in the United States to achieve nationally accredited police, fire, and public works departments, and a Class - 1 fire department, per the Insurance Services Office (ISO) ratings. Likewise, in 2003 Money magazine named Skokie one of the 80 fastest - growing suburbs in the U.S.
Besides strong manufacturing and retail commerce bases, Skokie 's economy will add health sciences jobs; in 2003, Forest City Enterprises announced their re-development of the vacant Pfizer research laboratories, in downtown Skokie, as the Illinois Science + Technology Park, a 23 - acre (93,000 m) campus of research installations (2 - million ft. 2 (180,000 m2) of chemistry, genomics, toxicology laboratories, clean rooms, NMR suites, conference rooms, etc.). In 2006, NorthShore University HealthSystem announced installing their consolidated data center operations at the park, adding 500 jobs to the economy. Map maker Rand McNally, private label cooperative Topco and online grocer Peapod are also headquartered in Skokie.
According to the Village 's 2009 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the village are:
Per the census of 2000, the Village of Skokie was composed of 63,348 people who formed in 23,223 households containing 17,045 families. The village 's population density was 6,308.70 people per square mile (2,436.1 / km2) living in 23,702 housing units (average population density: 2,360.4 / square mile (911.5 / km2)). The village 's racial composition was: 65.6 % White, 4.51 % African American, 0.17 % Native American, 21.28 % Asian, 0.03 % Pacific Islander, 1.86 % from other races, 3.23 % from two or more races. The Hispanic and Latino population, of any race, made up 5.71 % of the village.
The 23,223 households comprise: 32.2 % with minority - age children (younger than 18 years), 60.5 % were cohabiting married couples, 9.9 % of households were headed by a woman (with no husband present), and 26.6 % were non-family cohabitants, 23.6 % were single - person households, and 13.6 % included an elder person (65 years of age or older). The average Skokie household size was 2.68 persons, and the average household family size was 3.20 persons.
Chronologically, Skokie 's age population comprises: 23.0 % of minority age (younger than 18 years); 7.0 % aged from 18 to 24 years; 25.0 % aged from 25 to 44, 25.5 % aged from 45 to 64, and 19.6 % aged 65 years and older. The median Villager 's age is 42 years; for every 100 women younger than 18 years, there were 90.1 men; for every 100 women age 18 and older, there were 85.2 men.
Financially, Skokie 's median household income was $57,375; the median family income was $68,253; a man 's median income was $44,869; a woman 's median income was $33,051. The per capita income is $27,136; 4.2 % of families and 5.4 % of the population are below the poverty line income, including 5.9 % of children under 18 and 5.3 % of elders aged 65 years and older.
As of the 2010 US Census, Skokie had a total of 64,784 people within its boundaries. The village 's racial composition was 60.27 % White, 7.26 % African American, 0.19 % Native American, 25.54 % Asian, 0.02 % Pacific Islander, 3.08 % some other race, and 3.65 % of mixed race. Hispanic and Latinos, of any race, made up 8.84 % of the total population. There is a large Jewish population in Skokie and many of the surrounding areas.
The Chicago Transit Authority 's Yellow Line terminates at the Dempster Street station in Skokie. Construction has been completed on a new Yellow Line train station at Oakton Street, to serve downtown Skokie and environs. It opened April 30, 2012. Additionally, the CTA is commissioning an Alternative Analysis Study on the extension of the Yellow Line terminal to Old Orchard Road for Federal Transit Administration New Start grants. The New Starts program allows federal funds to be used for capital projects provided all solutions for a given problem (i.e., enabling easy transportation for reverse commuters to Old Orchard Mall) is considered. The solution recommended by the CTA is the elevation of the Yellow Line north of Searle Parkway to a rebuilt Dempster Street station, then following abandoned Union Pacific Railroad tracks and the east side of the Edens Expressway to a new terminal south of Old Orchard Road. Currently this solution needs to undergo public commenting as well as FTA and CTA board approval to continue.
Although the Yellow Line is the fastest transportation to and from the city, the village also is served by CTA and Pace bus routes. However, Greyhound Bus service to the Dempster Street train station has been discontinued. For automobile transport, Interstate 94, the Edens Expressway, traverses western Skokie, with interchanges at Touhy Avenue, Dempster Street, and Old Orchard Road.
Major highways in Skokie include:
Interstate Highways Interstate 94
US Highways US 41
Illinois Highways Route 50 Route 58
A portion of the city is served by the Evanston / Skokie School District 65.
See the same map as middle schools.
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who were the voices of the california raisins | The California Raisins - wikipedia
1992 (Commercials) 1994 (Albums)
The California Raisins were a fictional rhythm and blues animated musical group as well as advertising and merchandising characters composed of anthropomorphized raisins. Lead vocals were sung by musician Buddy Miles. The California Raisins concept experienced high popularity in the mid-to - late 1980s principally through claymation TV commercials and animated specials, winning an Emmy Award and one nomination.
The concept was originally created for a 1986 commercial on behalf of the California Raisin Advisory Board when one of the writers, Seth Werner (at the time with the advertising firm Foote, Cone & Belding SF, and now with big) came up with an idea for the new raisin commercial, saying, "We have tried everything but dancing raisins singing ' I Heard It Through the Grapevine ' '' (the 1968 song popularized by Marvin Gaye). To their surprise, the commercial became wildly popular, paving the way for several future commercials -- one of which featured Ray Charles and another with a raisin caricature of Michael Jackson -- and opportunities through other media. The commercials were produced by Vinton Studios using their claymation technique, with character designs by Michael Brunsfeld. The following year, the Raisins appeared in the Emmy Award - winning A Claymation Christmas Celebration, singing the Christmas carol, "Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer '' (voiced by The Street Corner Singers).
The California Raisins released four studio albums on Priority Records between 1987 and 1988, and their signature song, "I Heard It Through the Grapevine, '' landed on the Billboard Hot 100. However, the Raisins would continue to make their strongest impression through animated endeavors.
The campaign was so popular, The California Raisins were the official mascots of Post Raisin Bran, appearing in commercials and on packaging.
On November 4, 1988, CBS aired a primetime special entitled Meet the Raisins!. The musical mockumentary was again created by Vinton Studios and was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award. It also provided the band members more personality and individual names: A.C., Beebop (drums), Stretch (bass), and Red (guitar / piano). A Saturday morning cartoon series, The California Raisin Show, debuted the following year but lasted merely 13 episodes. While cel animated by Murakami - Wolf - Swenson, it maintained Will Vinton 's creative direction. A sequel to the original CBS special aired in 1990 under the title The Raisins: Sold Out!: The California Raisins II. This special saw the Raisins hiring a new manager with the goal of making a comeback.
Many of the items created for the campaign have become part of the permanent collection of the Smithsonian Institution. Merchandise sales included toys and Raisins images on nearly every conceivable medium: lunch boxes, notebooks, clothing, posters, bedsheets, and even a Halloween costume just to name a few. A California Raisins Fan Club began in 1987 which included a Grapevine Gazette Newsletter and various memorabilia. Blackthorne Publishing also released a 6 - issue comic book series entitled The California Raisins 3 - D which included 3D glasses; these would later be re-released in the Ultimate Collection trade paperback.
Several California Raisins music albums were also released, featuring classic Motown and rock standards. These albums were included in the Smithsonian collection and were illustrated and art - directed by Helane Freeman, who later became famous for her work on Hannah Montana and The Suite Life of Zack & Cody, among other Disney programs.
Perhaps the most memorable piece of California Raisins merchandise, however, came in the form of small, non-poseable California Raisins figures. The Hardee 's restaurant chain offered these as part of a promotion for their Cinnamon ' N ' Raisin biscuits. Different collections were produced in 1987, 1988, 1991, and finally in 2001 (the latter adding Carls Jr. due to their late ' 90s acquisition of Hardee 's) for their new stylization. This latest incarnation can still be seen on the California Raisin Marketing Board website.
In the early 1990s, Capcom produced a video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System titled The California Raisins: The Grape Escape, in which the player controlled a California Raisin through five side - scrolling levels battling various evil fruit and vegetable characters that have stolen the Raisins ' music. The game was completed and several video game critics reviewed it, but it was never released on the open market.
Although popular with the public, the California Raisin campaign eventually failed because its production cost the raisin growers almost twice their earnings. CALRAB, the organization who made the campaign, was also closed on July 31, 1994 due to disagreements with raisin producers over the fairness of required payments to the organization.
On March 28, 1997 Entertainment Weekly published "The 50 Best Commercials of All Time '' as its cover story. The article ranked The California Raisins ' premiere advertisement, "Lunchbox, '' at # 15 with comments by ad agency executive Claude Jacques and described the Raisins as "The coolest wrinkled musicians this side of the Stones. ''
The vast amount of California Raisins merchandise has made for a substantial collectors ' market. It even led to an unauthorized collectibles guide published in 1998, cataloging the many items based on the clay characters.
In 2002, the Food Network program Unwrapped featured a segment on The California Raisins featuring interviews with Will Vinton, David Altschul, and Mark Gustafson of Vinton Studios. Concept illustrations of the Raisins were also featured as interviewees discussed the characters ' creation.
In The Simpsons episode "' Tis the Fifteenth Season '', The California Raisins were spoofed as The California Prunes, on a special entitled Christmas with the California Prunes. Lisa dismisses it as "offensive to both Christians and prunes. ''
An article published by AnimateClay.com in the late 2000s details the whereabouts of the original claymation sculptures used by Vinton Studios. The figures were kept in a box for several years and headed for the trash before being obtained by Webster Colcord, a former employee of Vinton. Several photos were taken providing a close look at the Raisins ' internal armatures and detailing their extremely poor condition, including the absence of the A.C. puppet 's head.
As of the 2010s, packages of Sun - Maid Natural California Raisins still modestly feature an updated California Raisin character. This figure is also included on CalRaisins.org.
In 2010, claymation versions of the California Raisins were featured in the special Christmas episode of It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, ' "A Very Sunny Christmas. ''
In 2014, the California Raisins made a cameo appearance in the RadioShack Super Bowl XLVIII commercial "The ' 80s Called ''.
In 2017, an episode of The Simpsons called "The Cad and the Hat '' included a couch gag segment featuring the California Raisins being killed by Homer.
In 2015, it was announced that a live - action / CGI reboot of the California Raisins would be produced, with president of The Actors Hall of Fame Foundation, Rusty Citron, as one of the people behind the project.
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what is the order of the heist society series | Heist Society - wikipedia
Heist Society is the sixth novel by author Ally Carter, and was published on February 9, 2010. This is her fourth novel for young adults, and her first young adult novel outside of her The New York Times bestselling Gallagher Girls series. The cover was released on October 21, 2009. Following on from the trend begun with her previous novel, Do n't Judge A Girl By Her Cover, Carter has been posting mini excerpts of the book on her blog and Twitter. Heist Society was optioned for film by Warner Bros. studios the studio is planning to age the characters from their teens to their twenties. Its sequel, Uncommon Criminals, was released June 21, 2011. The third book to the series Perfect Scoundrels was released on February 5, 2013.
Tired of her lifelong involvement in her family 's business of stealing, teenage thief Katarina Bishop enrolls herself in a prestigious boarding school. Then after a mere three months there, her friend, 16 - year - old billionaire W.W Hale V, arranges for her expulsion. After escorting her home, he informs her that five paintings have been stolen from the menacing Arturo Taccone and that her father is the prime suspect. Determined to save him by locating the real thief and stealing the paintings back, Kat gathers a team of larcenous friends to pull off the heist before the two - week deadline, only to discover that the works were stolen by world - renowned Visily Romani, a thief famous for reclaiming Nazi - spoils. By planning the theft of the Henley a museum in London, well known for its security, and by remaining one step ahead of interpol and the mobster on her tail, Kat negotiates complicated relationships in this action - packed heist story.
According to The Hollywood Reporter, Drew Barrymore will team up with Warner Bros. to produce -- and probably direct -- the book - to - big screen adaptation of "Heist Society ''. ' Barrymore joins Denise Di Novi and Di Novi Pictures ' Alison Greenspan as producers on the project, which Warners won last year in a multi-studio bidding war for the novel by Ally Carter. Screenwriter Shauna Cross is set to adapt. ' However, the rights expired, and now Elizabeth Banks ' studio Brownstone is set to produce, and Lionsgate are in talks to distribute the film.
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how many varieties of watermelon are grown in the us | Watermelon - wikipedia
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus var. lanatus) is a scrambling and trailing vine in the flowering plant family Cucurbitaceae. The species originated in southern Africa, with evidence of its cultivation in Ancient Egypt. It is grown in tropical and subtropical areas worldwide for its large edible fruit, also known as a watermelon, which is a special kind of berry with a hard rind and no internal division, botanically called a pepo. The sweet, juicy flesh is usually deep red to pink, with many black seeds, although seedless varieties have been cultivated. The fruit can be eaten raw or pickled and the rind is edible after cooking.
Considerable breeding effort has been put into disease - resistant varieties. Many cultivars are available that produce mature fruit within 100 days of planting the crop.
The watermelon is a large annual plant with long, weak, trailing or climbing stems which are five - angled (five - sided) and up to 3 m (10 ft) long. Young growth is densely woolly with yellowish - brown hairs which disappear as the plant ages. The leaves are large, coarse, hairy pinnately - lobed and alternate; they get stiff and rough when old. The plant has branching tendrils. The white to yellow flowers grow singly in the leaf axils and the corolla is white or yellow inside and greenish - yellow on the outside. The flowers are unisexual, with male and female flowers occurring on the same plant (monoecious). The male flowers predominate at the beginning of the season; the female flowers, which develop later, have inferior ovaries. The styles are united into a single column. The large fruit is a kind of modified berry called a pepo with a thick rind (exocarp) and fleshy center (mesocarp and endocarp). Wild plants have fruits up to 20 cm (8 in) in diameter, while cultivated varieties may exceed 60 cm (24 in). The rind of the fruit is mid - to dark green and usually mottled or striped, and the flesh, containing numerous pips spread throughout the inside, can be red or pink (most commonly), orange, yellow, green or white.
The watermelon is a flowering plant thought to have originated in southern Africa, where it is found growing wild. It reaches maximum genetic diversity there, with sweet, bland and bitter forms. In the 19th century, Alphonse de Candolle considered the watermelon to be indigenous to tropical Africa. Citrullus colocynthis is often considered to be a wild ancestor of the watermelon and is now found native in north and west Africa. However, it has been suggested on the basis of chloroplast DNA investigations that the cultivated and wild watermelon diverged independently from a common ancestor, possibly C. ecirrhosus from Namibia.
Evidence of its cultivation in the Nile Valley has been found from the second millennium BC onward. Watermelon seeds have been found at Twelfth Dynasty sites and in the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun.
In the 7th century, watermelons were being cultivated in India, and by the 10th century had reached China, which is today the world 's single largest watermelon producer. The Moors introduced the fruit into Spain and there is evidence of it being cultivated in Córdoba in 961 and also in Seville in 1158. It spread northwards through southern Europe, perhaps limited in its advance by summer temperatures being insufficient for good yields. The fruit had begun appearing in European herbals by 1600, and was widely planted in Europe in the 17th century as a minor garden crop.
European colonists and slaves from Africa introduced the watermelon to the New World. Spanish settlers were growing it in Florida in 1576, and it was being grown in Massachusetts by 1629, and by 1650 was being cultivated in Peru, Brazil and Panama, as well as in many British and Dutch colonies. Around the same time, Native Americans were cultivating the crop in the Mississippi valley and Florida. Watermelons were rapidly accepted in Hawaii and other Pacific islands when they were introduced there by explorers such as Captain James Cook.
Seedless watermelons were initially developed in 1939 by Japanese scientists who were able to create seedless triploid hybrids which remained rare initially because they did not have sufficient disease resistance. Seedless watermelons became more popular in the 21st century, rising to nearly 85 % of total watermelon sales in the United States in 2014.
Watermelons are tropical or subtropical plants and need temperatures higher than about 25 ° C (77 ° F) to thrive. On a garden scale, seeds are usually sown in pots under cover and transplanted into well - drained sandy loam with a pH between 5.5 and 7, and medium levels of nitrogen.
Major pests of the watermelon include aphids, fruit flies and root - knot nematodes. In conditions of high humidity, the plants are prone to plant diseases such as powdery mildew and mosaic virus. Some varieties often grown in Japan and other parts of the Far East are susceptible to fusarium wilt. Grafting such varieties onto disease - resistant rootstocks offers protection.
The US Department of Agriculture recommends using at least one beehive per acre (4,000 m per hive) for pollination of conventional, seeded varieties for commercial plantings. Seedless hybrids have sterile pollen. This requires planting pollinizer rows of varieties with viable pollen. Since the supply of viable pollen is reduced and pollination is much more critical in producing the seedless variety, the recommended number of hives per acre (pollinator density) increases to three hives per acre (1,300 m per hive). Watermelons have a longer growing period than other melons, and can often take 85 days or more from the time of transplanting for the fruit to mature.
Farmers of the Zentsuji region of Japan found a way to grow cubic watermelons by growing the fruits in metal and glass boxes and making them assume the shape of the receptacle. The cubic shape was originally designed to make the melons easier to stack and store, but cubic watermelons may be triple the price of normal ones, so appeal mainly to wealthy urban consumers. Pyramid - shaped watermelons have also been developed and any polyhedral shape may potentially be used.
The more than 1200 cultivars of watermelon range in weight from less than 1 kg to more than 90 kilograms (200 lb); the flesh can be red, pink, orange, yellow or white.
Charles Fredric Andrus, a horticulturist at the USDA Vegetable Breeding Laboratory in Charleston, South Carolina, set out to produce a disease - resistant and wilt - resistant watermelon. The result, in 1954, was "that gray melon from Charleston ''. Its oblong shape and hard rind made it easy to stack and ship. Its adaptability meant it could be grown over a wide geographical area. It produced high yields and was resistant to the most serious watermelon diseases: anthracnose and fusarium wilt.
Others were also working on disease - resistant varieties; J.M. Crall at the University of Florida produced "Jubilee '' in 1963 and C.V. Hall of Kansas State University produced "Crimson sweet '' the following year. These are no longer grown to any great extent, but their lineage has been further developed into hybrid varieties with higher yields, better flesh quality and attractive appearance. Another objective of plant breeders has been the elimination of the seeds which occur scattered throughout the flesh. This has been achieved through the use of triploid varieties, but these are sterile, and the cost of producing the seed by crossing a tetraploid parent with a normal diploid parent is high.
Today, farmers in approximately 44 states in the United States grow watermelon commercially. Georgia, Florida, Texas, California and Arizona are the United States ' largest watermelon producers. This now - common fruit is often large enough that groceries often sell half or quarter melons. Some smaller, spherical varieties of watermelon -- both red - and yellow - fleshed -- are sometimes called "icebox melons ''. The largest recorded fruit was grown in Tennessee in 2013 and weighed 159 kilograms (351 pounds).
In 2014, global production of watermelons was 111 million tonnes, with China alone accounting for 67 % of the total. Secondary producers each with less than 4 % of world production included Turkey, Iran, Brazil and Egypt.
Watermelons are a sweet, popular fruit of summer, usually consumed fresh in slices, diced in mixed fruit salads, or as juice. Watermelon juice can be blended with other fruit juices or made into wine.
The seeds have a nutty flavor and can be dried and roasted, or ground into flour. In China, the seeds are eaten at Chinese New Year celebrations. In Vietnamese culture, watermelon seeds are consumed during the Vietnamese New Year 's holiday, Tết, as a snack.
Watermelon rinds may be eaten, but most people avoid eating them due to their unappealing flavor. They are used for making pickles, sometimes eaten as a vegetable, stir - fried or stewed.
The Oklahoma State Senate passed a bill in 2007 declaring watermelon as the official state vegetable, with some controversy about whether it is a vegetable or a fruit.
Citrullis lanatus, variety caffer, grows wild in the Kalahari Desert, where it is known as tsamma. The fruits are used by the San people and wild animals for both water and nourishment, allowing survival on a diet of tsamma for six weeks.
Watermelon fruit is 91 % water, contains 6 % sugars, and is low in fat (table).
In a 100 gram serving, watermelon fruit supplies 30 calories and low amounts of essential nutrients (table). Only vitamin C is present in appreciable content at 10 % of the Daily Value (table). Watermelon pulp contains carotenoids, including lycopene.
The amino acid citrulline is produced in watermelon rind.
Watermelon cubes
Watermelons with black rind, India
Watermelon flowers
Watermelon leaf
Flower stems of male and female watermelon blossoms, showing ovary on the female
Watermelon plant close - up
Watermelon baller
Watermelon with yellow flesh
' Moon and stars ' watermelon cultivar
Watermelon and other fruit in Boris Kustodiev 's Merchant 's Wife
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what genre of music was popular in 1966 | 1966 in music - wikipedia
List of notable events in music that took place in the year 1966.
The following songs achieved the highest chart positions in the charts of 1966.
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
(Not all of these were necessarily released as singles.)
Whitburn, Joel. Billboard Top 10 Singles Charts 1955 -- 2000 (2001)
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which fossil find was located in olduvai gorge in tanzania | Olduvai Gorge - wikipedia
Olduvai Gorge, or Oldupai Gorge, in Tanzania is one of the most important paleoanthropological sites in the world; it has proven invaluable in furthering understanding of early human evolution. A steep - sided ravine in the Great Rift Valley that stretches across East Africa, it is about 48 km (30 mi) long, and is located in the eastern Serengeti Plains in the Arusha Region not far, about 45 kilometres (28 miles), from Laetoli, another important archaeological site of early human occupation. The British / Kenyan paleoanthropologist - archeologist team Mary and Louis Leakey established and developed the excavation and research programs at Olduvai Gorge which achieved great advances of human knowledge and world - renowned status.
Homo habilis, probably the first early human species, occupied Olduvai Gorge approximately 1.9 million years ago (mya); then came a contemporary australopithecine, Paranthropus boisei, 1.8 mya, then Homo erectus, 1.2 mya. Homo sapiens is dated to have occupied the site 17,000 years ago.
The site is significant in showing the increasing developmental and social complexities in the earliest humans, or hominins, largely as revealed in the production and use of stone tools. And prior to tools, the evidence of scavenging and hunting -- highlighted by the presence of gnaw marks that predate cut marks -- and of the ratio of meat versus plant material in the early hominin diet. The collecting of tools and animal remains in a central area is evidence of developing social interaction and communal activity. All these factors indicate increase in cognitive capacities at the beginning of the period of hominids transitioning to hominin -- that is, to human -- form and behavior.
German neurologist Wilhelm Kattwinkel traveled to Olduvai Gorge in 1911, where he observed many fossil bones of an extinct three - toed horse. Inspired by Kattwinkel 's discovery, German geologist Hans Reck led a team to Olduvai in 1913. There, he found hominin remains, but the start of World War I halted his research. In 1929, Louis Leakey visited Reck and viewed the Olduvai fossils; he became convinced that Olduvai Gorge held critical information on human origins, and he proceeded to mount an expedition there.
Louis and Mary Leakey are responsible for most of the excavations and discoveries of the hominin fossils in Olduvai Gorge. Their finds and research in East Africa and the prior work of Raymond Dart and Robert Broom in South Africa eventually convinced most paleoanthropologists that humans did indeed evolve in Africa. In 1959, at the Frida Leakey Korongo (FLK) site (named after Louis ' first wife), Mary Leakey found remains of the robust australopithecine Zinjanthropus boisei (now known as Paranthropus boisei) -- which she dubbed the "Nutcracker Man ''; its age, 1.75 million years, radically altered accepted ideas about the time scale of human evolution. In addition to an abundance of faunal remains the Leakeys found more than 2,000 stone tools and lithic flakes, most of which they classified as Oldowan (of Olduvai) tools. In 1960, the Leakeys ' son Jonathan found a jaw fragment that proved to be the first fossil specimen of Homo habilis.
Researchers have dated Olduvai Gorge layers with radiometric dating of the embedded artifacts, using potassium - argon and argon - argon methodology. Geologist Richard L. Hay studied the Olduvai Gorge and surrounding region between 1961 and 2002. His findings revealed that the site once contained a large lake, with shores covered by deposits of volcanic ash. Around 500,000 years ago, seismic activity diverted a nearby stream which proceeded to cut down through the sediments, revealing seven main layers in the walls of the gorge.
The name Olduvai is a misspelling of Oldupai Gorge, which was adopted as the official name in 2005. Oldupai is the Maasai word for the wild sisal plant Sansevieria ehrenbergii, which grows in the gorge.
Homo habilis occupied Olduvai from 1.9 mya. The australopithecine Paranthropus boisei was found to occupy the site from approximately 1.8 until 1.2 mya. Remains of Homo erectus have been dated at the site from 1.2 mya until 700,000 years ago. Homo sapiens came to occupy the gorge some 17,000 years ago.
In the 1930s, as Mary and Louis Leakey opted to search for stone tools in East Africa, many, if not most, scholars were skeptical that Africa was the place where humans evolved. The Leakeys soon turned the evidence that confirmed their intuition. They found stone tools in the lowest (oldest) geological beds (see below). These tools presented both shaped edges and sharp points; and lithic flakes -- struck off the core stone in the intentional shaping of those points and edges -- were found in copious amounts.
The Leakeys mapped locations where the tools were found and the sites where the unprocessed materials (stone cobbles) originated. They determined that some tools were found to have been transported up to nine miles from the place of origin, which suggested cognitive capacities to think and plan, and to execute, with abstract thought and purpose of mind. The Oldowan tools were found in the same stratum as the Australopithecus specimen, but the large number of other hominin fossils dating back to two mya complicated the discussion as to which species was, in fact, the toolmaker.
The first species found by the Leakeys, Zinjanthropus boisei or Australopithecus boisei (renamed and still debated as Paranthropus boisei), featured a sagittal crest and large molars, which attributes suggested the species engaged in heavy chewing, indicating a diet of tough plant material, including tubers, nuts, and seeds -- and possibly large quantities of grasses and sedges.
Conversely, the Leakeys ' 1960s finds presented different characteristics. The skull lacked of a sagittal crest and the braincase was much more rounded, suggesting it was not australopithecine. The larger braincase suggested a larger brain capacity than that of Australopithecus boisei. These important differences indicated a different species, which eventually was named Homo habilis. Its larger brain capacity and decreased teeth size pointed to Homo as the probable toolmaker.
The oldest tools at Olduvai, found at the lowest layer and classified as Oldowan, consists of pebbles chipped on one edge. Above this layer, and later in time, are the true hand - axe industries, the Chellean and the Acheulean. Higher still (and later still) are located Levallois artifacts, and finally the Stillbay implements. Oldowan tools in general are called "pebble tools '' because the blanks chosen by the stone knapper already resembled, in pebble form, the final product. Mary Leakey classified the Oldowan tools according to usage; she developed Oldowan A, B, and C categories, linking them to Modes 1, 2, and 3 assemblages classified according to mode of manufacture. Her work remains a foundation for assessing local, regional, and continental changes in stone tool - making during the early Pleistocene, and aids in assessing which hominins were responsible for the several changes in stone tool technology over time.
It is not known for sure which hominin species was first to create Oldowan tools. The emergence of tool culture has also been associated with the pre-Homo species Australopithecus garhi, and its flourishing is associated with the early species Homo habilis and Homo ergaster. Beginning 1.7 million years ago, early Homo erectus apparently inherited Oldowan technology and refined it into the Acheulean industry.
Oldowan tools occur in Beds I -- IV at Olduvai Gorge. Bed I, dated 1.85 to 1.7 mya, contains Oldowan tools and fossils of Paranthropus boisei and Homo habilis, as does Bed II, 1.7 to 1.2 mya. H. habilis gave way to Homo erectus at about 1.6 mya, but P. boisei persisted. Oldowan tools continue to Bed IV at 800,000 to 600,000 before present (BP). A significant change took place between Beds I and II at about 1.5 mya. Flake size increased, the length of bifacial edges (as opposed to single - face edges) occurred more frequently and their length increased, and signs of battering on other artifacts increased. Some likely implications of these factors, among others, are that after this pivotal time hominins used tools more frequently, became better at making tools, and transported tools more often.
Lava and quartz were used to make tools in Olduvai Gorge. Only in the period 1.65 to 1.53 ma was chert used, and it presents a significant difference in appearance among the assemblages of Olduvai Gorge.
Though substantial evidence of hunting and scavenging has been discovered at Olduvai Gorge, it is believed by archaeologists that hominins inhabiting the area between 1.9 and 1.7 mya spent the majority of their time gathering wild plant foods, such as berries, tubers and roots. The earliest hominins most likely did not rely on meat for the bulk of their nutrition. Speculation about the amount of meat in their diets is inferred from comparative studies with a close relative of early hominins: the modern chimpanzee. The chimpanzee 's diet in the wild consists of only about five percent as meat. And the diets of modern hunter - gatherers do not include a large amount of meat. That is, most of the calories in both groups ' diets came from plant sources. Thus, it can be assumed that early hominins had similar diet proportions, (see the middle - range theory or bridging arguments -- bridging arguments are used by archaeologists to explain past behaviors, and they include an underlying assumption of uniformitarianism.)
Much of the information about early hominins comes from tools and debris piles of lithic flakes from such sites as FLK - Zinjanthropus in Olduvai Gorge. Early hominins selected specific types of rocks that would break in a predictable manner when "worked '', and carried these rocks from deposits several miles away. Archaeologists such as Fiona Marshall fitted rock fragments back together like a puzzle. She states in her article "Life in Olduvai Gorge '' that early hominins, "knew the right angle to hit the cobble, or core, in order to successfully produce sharp - edged flakes... ''. She noted that selected flakes then were used to cut meat from animal carcasses, and shaped cobbles (called choppers) were used to extract marrow and to chop tough plant material.
Bone fragments of birds, fish, amphibians, and large mammals were found at the FLK - Zinj site, many of which were scarred with marks. These likely were made by hominins breaking open the bones for marrow, using tools to strip the meat, or by carnivores having gnawed the bones. Since several kinds of marks are present together, some archaeologists including Lewis Binford think that hominins scavenged the meat or marrow left over from carnivore kills. Others like Henry Bunn believe the hominins hunted and killed these animals, and carnivores later chewed the bones. This issue is still debated today, but archaeologist Pat Shipman provided evidence that scavenging was probably the more common practice; she published that the majority of carnivore teeth marks came before the cut marks. Another finding by Shipman at FLK - Zinj is that many of the wildebeest bones found there are over-represented by adult and male bones; and this may indicate that hominins were systematically hunting these animals as well as scavenging them. The issue of hunting versus gathering at Olduvai Gorge is still a controversial one.
The oldest object in the British Museum
The spot where the first P. boisei was discovered in Tanzania
Oldowan stone chopper
About 1.8 million years old
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who was most responsible for the second part of cell theory (that cells come from previous cells) | Cell theory - wikipedia
In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction. With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, also known as cell biology. Over a century later, many debates about cells began amongst scientists. Most of these debates involved the nature of cellular regeneration, and the idea of cells as a fundamental unit of life. Cell theory was eventually formulated in 1839. This is usually credited to Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. However, many other scientists like Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory.
The three tenets to the cell theory are as described below:
The first of these tenets is disputed, as non-cellular entities such as viruses are sometimes considered life - forms.
The discovery of the cell was made possible through the invention of the microscope. In the first century BC, Romans were able to make glass, discovering that objects appeared to be larger under the glass. In Italy during the 12th century, Salvino D'Armate made a piece of glass fit over one eye, allowing for a magnification effect to that eye. The expanded use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century probably led to wider spread use of simple microscopes (magnifying glasses) with limited magnification. Compound microscope, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image achieving much higher magnification, first appeared in Europe around 1620 In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope about six inches long with two convex lenses inside and examined specimens under reflected light for the observations in his book Micrographia. Hooke also used a simpler microscope with a single lens for examining specimens with directly transmitted light, because this allowed for a clearer image.
Extensive microscopic study was done by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a draper who took the interest in microscopes after seeing one while on an apprenticeship in Amsterdam in 1648. At some point in his life before 1668, he was able to learn how to grind lenses. This eventually led to Leeuwenhoek making his own unique microscope. His were a single lens simple microscope, rather than a compound microscope. This was because he was able to use a single lens that was a small glass sphere but allowed for a magnification of 270x. This was a large progression since the magnification before was only a maximum of 50x. After Leeuwenhoek, there was not much progress for the microscopes until the 1850s, two hundred years later. Carl Zeiss, a German engineer who manufactured microscopes, began to make changes to the lenses used. But the optical quality did not improve until the 1880s when he hired Otto Schott and eventually Ernst Abbe.
Optical microscopes can focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than optical wavelengths, once again, changing the possibilities in science.
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 ' observations ' in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope. One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells ''. This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ' a small room ' like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function. What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was observing. Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae '' were alive. His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color, found on leather. After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to observe "seeds '' that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in quantity. This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Since this was an old Aristotelian theory still accepted at the time, others did not reject it and was not disproved until Leeuwenhoek later discovers generation is achieved otherwise.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw these cells soon after Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could magnify objects almost 300-fold, or 270x. Under these microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile objects. In a letter to The Royal Society on October 9, 1676, he states that motility is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms. Over time, he wrote many more papers in which described many specific forms of microorganisms. Leeuwenhoek named these "animalcules, '' which included protozoa and other unicellular organisms, like bacteria. Though he did not have much formal education, he was able to identify the first accurate description of red blood cells and discovered bacteria after gaining interest in the sense of taste that resulted in Leeuwenhoek to observe the tongue of an ox, then leading him to study "pepper water '' in 1676. He also found for the first time the sperm cells of animals and humans. Once discovering these types of cells, Leeuwenhoek saw that the fertilization process requires the sperm cell to enter the egg cell. This put an end to the previous theory of spontaneous generation. After reading letters by Leeuwenhoek, Hooke was the first to confirm his observations that were thought to be unlikely by other contemporaries.
The cells in animal tissues were observed after plants were because the tissues were so fragile and susceptible to tearing, it was difficult for such thin slices to be prepared for studying. Biologists believed that there was a fundamental unit to life, but were unsure what this was. It would not be until over a hundred years later that this fundamental unit was connected to cellular structure and existence of cells in animals or plants. This conclusion was not made until Henri Dutrochet. Besides stating "the cell is the fundamental element of organization '', Dutrochet also claimed that cells were not just a structural unit, but also a physiological unit.
In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link were awarded the prize for "solving the problem of the nature of cells '', meaning they were the first to prove that cells had independent cell walls by the Königliche Societät der Wissenschaft (Royal Society of Science), Göttingen. Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and the fluid passed between them this way.
Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to two scientists: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden. While Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory, he is not as credited for his attributions toward it. In 1839, Schleiden suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of cells or the result of cells. He also suggested that cells were made by a crystallization process either within other cells or from the outside. However, this was not an original idea of Schleiden. He claimed this theory as his own, though Barthelemy Dumortier had stated it years before him. This crystallization process is no longer accepted with modern cell theory. In 1839, Theodor Schwann states that along with plants, animals are composed of cells or the product of cells in their structures. This was a major advancement in the field of biology since little was known about animal structure up to this point compared to plants. From these conclusions about plants and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory were postulated.
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells
2. The cell is the most basic unit of life
Schleiden 's theory of free cell formation through crystallization was refuted in the 1850s by Robert Remak, Rudolf Virchow, and Albert Kolliker. In 1855, Rudolf Virchow added the third tenet to cell theory. In Latin, this tenet states Omnis cellula e cellula. This translated to:
3. All cells arise only from pre-existing cells
However, the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarized Remak and did not give him credit. Remak published observations in 1852 on cell division, claiming Schleiden and Schawnn were incorrect about generation schemes. He instead said that binary fission, which was first introduced by Dumortier, was how reproduction of new animal cells were made. Once this tenet was added, the classical cell theory was complete.
The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:
The modern version of the cell theory includes the ideas that:
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a microscope. The first cell theory is credited to the work of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the 1830s. In this theory the internal contents of cells were called protoplasm and described as a jelly - like substance, sometimes called living jelly. At about the same time, colloidal chemistry began its development, and the concepts of bound water emerged. A colloid being something between a solution and a suspension, where Brownian motion is sufficient to prevent sedimentation. The idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. The term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it was n't until 1877, when the botanist Pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. In this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution. In 1889 Hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes. By measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit, the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume. He also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50 % in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells.
Two opposing concepts developed within the context of studies on osmosis, permeability, and electrical properties of cells. The first held that these properties all belonged to the plasma membrane whereas the other predominant view was that the protoplasm was responsible for these properties. The membrane theory developed as a succession of ad - hoc additions and changes to the theory to overcome experimental hurdles. Overton (a distant cousin of Charles Darwin) first proposed the concept of a lipid (oil) plasma membrane in 1899. The major weakness of the lipid membrane was the lack of an explanation of the high permeability to water, so Nathansohn (1904) proposed the mosaic theory. In this view, the membrane is not a pure lipid layer, but a mosaic of areas with lipid and areas with semipermeable gel. Ruhland refined the mosaic theory to include pores to allow additional passage of small molecules. Since membranes are generally less permeable to anions, Leonor Michaelis concluded that ions are adsorbed to the walls of the pores, changing the permeability of the pores to ions by electrostatic repulsion. Michaelis demonstrated the membrane potential (1926) and proposed that it was related to the distribution of ions across the membrane. Harvey and Danielli (1939) proposed a lipid bilayer membrane covered on each side with a layer of protein to account for measurements of surface tension. In 1941 Boyle & Conway showed that the membrane of frog muscle was permeable to both K+ and Cl -, but apparently not to Na+, so the idea of electrical charges in the pores was unnecessary since a single critical pore size would explain the permeability to K+, H+, and Cl - as well as the impermeability to Na+, Ca+, and Mg++. Over the same time period, it was shown (Procter & Wilson, 1916) that gels, which do not have a semipermeable membrane, would swell in dilute solutions. Loeb (1920) also studied gelatin extensively, with and without a membrane, showing that more of the properties attributed to the plasma membrane could be duplicated in gels without a membrane. In particular, he found that an electrical potential difference between the gelatin and the outside medium could be developed, based on the H+ concentration. Some criticisms of the membrane theory developed in the 1930s, based on observations such as the ability of some cells to swell and increase their surface area by a factor of 1000. A lipid layer can not stretch to that extent without becoming a patchwork (thereby losing its barrier properties. Such criticisms stimulated continued studies on protoplasm as the principal agent determining cell permeability properties. In 1938, Fischer and Suer proposed that water in the protoplasm is not free but in a chemically combined form -- the protoplasm represents a combination of protein, salt and water -- and demonstrated the basic similarity between swelling in living tissues and the swelling of gelatin and fibrin gels. Dimitri Nasonov (1944) viewed proteins as the central components responsible for many properties of the cell, including electrical properties. By the 1940s, the bulk phase theories were not as well developed as the membrane theories. In 1941, Brooks & Brooks published a monograph The Permeability of Living Cells, which rejects the bulk phase theories.
With the development of radioactive tracers, it was shown that cells are not impermeable to Na. This was difficult to explain with the membrane barrier theory, so the sodium pump was proposed to continually remove Na+ as it permeates cells. This drove the concept that cells are in a state of dynamic equilibrium, constantly using energy to maintain ion gradients. In 1935, Karl Lohmann discovered ATP and its role as a source of energy for cells, so the concept of a metabolically - driven sodium pump was proposed. The tremendous success of Hodgkin, Huxley, and Katz in the development of the membrane theory of cellular membrane potentials, with differential equations that modeled the phenomena correctly, provided even more support for the membrane pump hypothesis.
The modern view of the plasma membrane is of a fluid lipid bilayer that has protein components embedded within it. The structure of the membrane is now known in great detail, including 3D models of many of the hundreds of different proteins that are bound to the membrane. These major developments in cell physiology placed the membrane theory in a position of dominance and stimulated the imagination of most physiologists, who now apparently accept the theory as fact -- there are, however, a few dissenters. (citation needed)
In 1956, Afanasy S. Troshin published a book, The Problems of Cell Permeability, in Russian (1958 in German, 1961 in Chinese, 1966 in English) in which he found that permeability was of secondary importance in determination of the patterns of equilibrium between the cell and its environment. Troshin showed that cell water decreased in solutions of galactose or urea although these compounds did slowly permeate cells. Since the membrane theory requires an impermanent solute to sustain cell shrinkage, these experiments cast doubt on the theory. Others questioned whether the cell has enough energy to sustain the sodium / potassium pump. Such questions became even more urgent as dozens of new metabolic pumps were added as new chemical gradients were discovered.
In 1962, Gilbert Ling became the champion of the bulk phase theories and proposed his association - induction hypothesis of living cells.
Cells can be subdivided into the following subcategories:
Animals have evolved a greater diversity of cell types in a multicellular body (100 -- 150 different cell types), compared with 10 -- 20 in plants, fungi, and protoctista.
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game of thrones battle of the bastards music | Game of Thrones: Season 6 (Soundtrack) - wikipedia
The soundtrack album of the sixth season of HBO series Game of Thrones, titled Game of Thrones: Season 6, was released digitally on June 24, 2016, and later released on CD on July 29, 2016. The album reached No. 1 on the Billboard 's Soundtracks chart, and the track from the season finale "Light of the Seven '' reached No. 1 on Billboard 's Spotify Viral 50 chart. The "Light of the Seven '' is the first time piano is used in the music for Game of Thrones. The album was composed by Ramin Djawadi. The soundtrack has received favorable reviews and peaked at # 1 on the U.S. Soundtrack Albums chart and # 27 on the U.S. Billboard 200. It won an International Film Music Critics Association for "Best Original Score for a Television Series ''.
The soundtrack received positive reviews from critics.
Personnel adapted from the album liner notes.
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why is cherry vanilla ice cream called white house | Cherry ice cream - wikipedia
Cherry ice cream is a common ice cream flavor, prepared using typical ice cream ingredients and cherries. Various types of cherries and cherry cultivars are used. In the United States, where the flavor is especially popular, it has been mass - produced since at least 1917.
Cherry ice cream is a common ice cream flavor in the United States consisting of typical ice cream ingredients and cherries. Whole or sliced or chopped cherries are used, and cherry juice or cherry juice concentrate is sometimes used as an ingredient. Cherry extract and cherry pit oil have also been used as ingredients. Various cherry cultivars are used, such as black cherries, bing cherries and sour cherry cultivars. Maraschino cherries are also used. Cherry gelato has also been produced, and the dish can be prepared as a soft serve ice cream. Chocolate is sometimes used as an ingredient in cherry ice cream.
André Viard in Le Cuisinier Impérial, first published in 1806, gives a recipe for glace de cerises. Cherry ice cream has been produced in the United States since at least 1892. A version of the dish created in 1932 included bitter almond extract, which is used as an additive on sour cherries, and was described as providing the flavor of maraschino cherry to the sour cherries.
It has become a tradition for cherry ice cream to be served at the International Cherry Blossom Festival in Macon, Georgia.
Cherry ice cream has been mass - produced in the United States since at least 1917.
In 1987, ice cream manufacturer Ben & Jerry 's introduced the Cherry Garcia flavor of ice cream, which is a mass - produced cherry ice cream named after Jerry Garcia of the Grateful Dead.
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a flat utensil on which we food to eat | List of eating utensils - wikipedia
Humans in different cultures use a variety of tools to eat. This is a list of eating implements.
In some cultures, such as Ethiopian cuisine and Indian dining, breads or hands are used in place of utensils.
"Fun Dip '' is a type of candy in the United States, where a solid candy "dipping stick '' is used to convey flavored sugar to the eater 's mouth. The dipper is first licked to provide moisture, and then dredged through a small pouch with the flavored sugar, so that the sugar sticks to the dipping stick.
Some single - serve ice cream is sold with a flat wooden spade, often erroneously called a "spoon '', to lift the product to one 's mouth.
Prepackaged tuna salad or cracker snacks may contain a flat plastic spade for similar purposes.
Over time, these utensils were combined in various ways in attempts to make eating more convenient or to reduce the total number of utensils required.
Some utensils are useful only for specific foods.
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the incan civilization lasted from before it was conquered by the | Inca empire - Wikipedia
The Inca Empire (Quechua: Tawantinsuyu, lit. "The Four Regions ''), also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern - day Peru. The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572.
From 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. At its largest, the empire joined Peru, large parts of modern Ecuador, western and south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, north and central Chile and a small part of southwest Colombia into a state comparable to the historical empires of Eurasia. Its official language was Quechua. Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacred Huacas, but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti -- their sun god -- and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama. The Incas considered their king, the Sapa Inca, to be the "son of the sun. ''
The Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many features associated with civilization in the Old World. In the words of one scholar, "The Incas lacked the use of wheeled vehicles. They lacked animals to ride and draft animals that could pull wagons and plows... (They) lacked the knowledge of iron and steel... Above all, they lacked a system of writing... Despite these supposed handicaps, the Incas were still able to construct one of the greatest imperial states in human history ''.
Notable features of the Inca Empire include its monumental architecture, especially stonework, extensive road network reaching all corners of the empire, finely - woven textiles, use of knotted strings (quipu) for record keeping and communication, agricultural innovations in a difficult environment, and the organization and management fostered or imposed on its people and their labor.
The Incan economy has been described in contradictory ways by scholars: as "feudal, slave, socialist (here one may choose between socialist paradise or socialist tyranny) '' The Inca empire functioned largely without money and without markets. Instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. "Taxes '' consisted of a labor obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers (who theoretically owned all the means of production) reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food and drink in celebratory feasts for their subjects.
The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, "the four suyu ''. In Quechua, tawa is four and - ntin is a suffix naming a group, so that a tawantin is a quartet, a group of four things taken together, in this case representing the four suyu ("regions '' or "provinces '') whose corners met at the capital. The four suyu were: Chinchaysuyu (north), Antisuyu (east; the Amazon jungle), Qullasuyu (south) and Kuntisuyu (west). The name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu.
The term Inka means "ruler '' or "lord '' in Quechua and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family. The Incas were a very small percentage of the total population of the empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000, but ruling a population of around 10 million persons. The Spanish adopted the term (transliterated as Inca in Spanish) as an ethnic term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class. As such the name Imperio inca ("Inca Empire '') referred to the nation that they encountered and subsequently conquered.
The Inca Empire was the last chapter of thousands of years of Andean civilization. Andean civilization was one of five civilizations in the world deemed by scholars to be "pristine '', that is indigenous and not derivative from other civilizations.
The Inca Empire was preceded by two large - scale empires in the Andes: the Tiwanaku (c. 300 - 1100 AD), based around Lake Titicaca and the Wari or Huari (c. 600 - 1100 AD) centered near the present - day city of Ayacucho. The Wari occupied the Cuzco area for about 400 years. Thus, many of the characteristics of the Inca Empire derived from earlier multi-ethnic and expansive Andean cultures.
The Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Incan oral history tells an origin story of three caves. The center cave at Tampu T'uqu (Tambo Tocco) was named Qhapaq T'uqu ("principal niche '', also spelled Capac Tocco). The other caves were Maras T'uqu (Maras Tocco) and Sutiq T'uqu (Sutic Tocco). Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave. They were: Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Awqa (Ayar Auca) and Ayar Uchu; and Mama Ocllo, Mama Raua, Mama Huaco and Mama Qura (Mama Cora). Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans.
Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live. They traveled for a long time. On the way, Ayar Cachi boasted about his strength and power. His siblings tricked him into returning to the cave to get a sacred llama. When he went into the cave, they trapped him inside to get rid of him.
Ayar Uchu decided to stay on the top of the cave to look over the Inca people. The minute he proclaimed that, he turned to stone. They built a shrine around the stone and it became a sacred object. Ayar Auca grew tired of all this and decided to travel alone. Only Ayar Manco and his four sisters remained.
Finally, they reached Cusco. The staff sank into the ground. Before they arrived, Mama Ocllo had already borne Ayar Manco a child, Sinchi Roca. The people who were already living in Cusco fought hard to keep their land, but Mama Huaca was a good fighter. When the enemy attacked, she threw her bolas (several stones tied together that spun through the air when thrown) at a soldier (gualla) and killed him instantly. The other people became afraid and ran away.
After that, Ayar Manco became known as Manco Cápac, the founder of the Inca. It is said that he and his sisters built the first Inca homes in the valley with their own hands. When the time came, Manco Cápac turned to stone like his brothers before him. His son, Sinchi Roca, became the second emperor of the Inca.
Under the leadership of Manco Cápac, the Inca formed the small city - state Kingdom of Cusco (Quechua Qusqu ', Qosqo). In 1438, they began a far - reaching expansion under the command of Sapa Inca (paramount leader) Pachacuti - Cusi Yupanqui, whose name literally meant "earth - shaker ''. The name of Pachacuti was given to him after he conquered the Tribe of Chancas (modern Apurímac). During his reign, he and his son Tupac Yupanqui brought much of the Andes mountains (roughly modern Peru and Ecuador) under Inca control.
Pachacuti reorganized the kingdom of Cusco into the Tahuantinsuyu, which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders: Chinchasuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Kuntisuyu (SW) and Qullasuyu (SE). Pachacuti is thought to have built Machu Picchu, either as a family home or summer retreat, although it may have been an agricultural station.
Pachacuti sent spies to regions he wanted in his empire and they brought to him reports on political organization, military strength and wealth. He then sent messages to their leaders extolling the benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles and promising that they would be materially richer as his subjects.
Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a fait accompli and acquiesced peacefully. Refusal to accept Inca rule resulted in military conquest. Following conquest the local rulers were executed. The ruler 's children were brought to Cusco to learn about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate them into the Inca nobility and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire.
Traditionally the son of the Inca ruler led the army. Pachacuti 's son Túpac Inca Yupanqui began conquests to the north in 1463 and continued them as Inca ruler after Pachacuti 's death in 1471. Túpac Inca 's most important conquest was the Kingdom of Chimor, the Inca 's only serious rival for the Peruvian coast. Túpac Inca 's empire stretched north into modern - day Ecuador and Colombia.
Túpac Inca 's son Huayna Cápac added a small portion of land to the north in modern - day Ecuador and in parts of Peru. At its height, the Inca Empire included Peru and Bolivia, most of what is now Ecuador and a large portion of what is today Chile, north of the Maule River. The advance south halted after the Battle of the Maule where they met determined resistance from the Mapuche. The empire 's push into the Amazon Basin near the Chinchipe River was stopped by the Shuar in 1527. The empire extended into corners of Argentina and Colombia. However, most of the southern portion of the Inca empire, the portion denominated as Qullasuyu, was located in the Altiplano.
The Inca Empire was an amalgamation of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. The Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour. The following quote describes a method of taxation:
For as is well known to all, not a single village of the highlands or the plains failed to pay the tribute levied on it by those who were in charge of these matters. There were even provinces where, when the natives alleged that they were unable to pay their tribute, the Inca ordered that each inhabitant should be obliged to turn in every four months a large quill full of live lice, which was the Inca 's way of teaching and accustoming them to pay tribute.
Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro and his brothers explored south from what is today Panama, reaching Inca territory by 1526. It was clear that they had reached a wealthy land with prospects of great treasure, and after another expedition in 1529 Pizarro traveled to Spain and received royal approval to conquer the region and be its viceroy. This approval was received as detailed in the following quote: "In July 1529 the queen of Spain signed a charter allowing Pizarro to conquer the Incas. Pizarro was named governor and captain of all conquests in Peru, or New Castile, as the Spanish now called the land. ''
When they returned to Peru in 1532, a war of brothers between the sons of Huayna Capac, Huáscar and Atahualpa, and unrest among newly conquered territories weakened the empire. Perhaps more importantly, smallpox had spread from Central America. Pizarro did not have a formidable force. With just 168 men, one cannon, and 27 horses, he often talked his way out of potential confrontations that could have easily wiped out his party.
The Spanish horsemen, fully armored, had technological superiority over the Inca forces. The traditional mode of battle in the Andes was a kind of siege warfare where large numbers of usually reluctant draftees were sent to overwhelm opponents. The Spaniards developed one of the finest military machines in the premodern world, tactics learned in their centuries - long fight against Moorish kingdoms in Iberia. Along with their tactical and material superiority, the Spaniards acquired tens of thousands of native allies who sought to end the Inca control of their territories.
Their first engagement was the Battle of Puná, near present - day Guayaquil, Ecuador, on the Pacific Coast; Pizarro then founded the city of Piura in July 1532. Hernando de Soto was sent inland to explore the interior and returned with an invitation to meet the Inca, Atahualpa, who had defeated his brother in the civil war and was resting at Cajamarca with his army of 80,000 troops.
Pizarro and some of his men, most notably a friar named Vincente de Valverde, met with the Inca, who had brought only a small retinue. Through an interpreter Friar Vincente read the "Requerimiento '' that demanded that he and his empire accept the rule of King Charles I of Spain and convert to Christianity. Because of the language barrier and perhaps poor interpretation, Atahualpa became somewhat puzzled by the friar 's description of Christian faith and was said to have not fully understood the envoy 's intentions. After Atahualpa attempted further enquiry into the doctrines of the Christian faith, the Spanish became frustrated and impatient. They attacked the Inca 's retinue and captured Atahualpa as hostage.
Atahualpa offered the Spaniards enough gold to fill the room he was imprisoned in and twice that amount of silver. The Inca fulfilled this ransom, but Pizarro deceived them, refusing to release the Inca afterwards. During Atahualpa 's imprisonment Huáscar was assassinated elsewhere. The Spaniards maintained that this was at Atahualpa 's orders; this was used as one of the charges against Atahualpa when the Spaniards finally executed him, in August 1533.
The Spanish installed Atahualpa 's brother Manco Inca Yupanqui in power; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spanish while they fought to put down resistance in the north. Meanwhile, an associate of Pizarro, Diego de Almagro, attempted to claim Cusco. Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cusco in 1536, but the Spanish retook the city afterwards. Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of Vilcabamba and established the small Neo-Inca State, where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them. In 1572 the last Inca stronghold was conquered and the last ruler, Túpac Amaru, Manco 's son, was captured and executed. This ended resistance to the Spanish conquest under the political authority of the Inca state.
After the fall of the Inca Empire many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system, known as the vertical archipelago model of agriculture. Spanish colonial officials used the Inca mita corvée labor system for colonial aims, sometimes brutally. One member of each family was forced to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at Potosí. When a family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family was required to send a replacement.
The effects of smallpox on the Inca empire were even more devastating. Beginning in Colombia, smallpox spread rapidly before the Spanish invaders first arrived in the empire. The spread was probably aided by the efficient Inca road system. Within a few years smallpox claimed between 60 % and 94 % of the Inca population, with other waves of European disease weakening them further. Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Typhus (probably) in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, measles in 1618 -- all ravaged the Inca people.
The number of people inhabiting Tawantinsuyu at its peak is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 4 - 37 million. Most population estimates are in the range of 6 to 14 million. In spite of the fact that the Inca kept excellent census records using their quipus, knowledge of how to read them was lost as almost all of them were destroyed by the Spaniards.
Since the Inca Empire lacked a written language, the main form of communication and recording in the empire were quipus, ceramics and spoken Quechua, the language the Incas imposed upon the peoples within the empire. The plethora of civilizations in the Andean region provided for a general disunity that the Incas had to subdue in order to maintain control. While Quechua had been spoken in the Andean region, including central Peru, for several centuries prior to the expansion of the Inca civilization, the dialect of Quechua the Incas imposed was an adaptation from the Kingdom of Cusco (an early form of "Southern Quechua '' originally named Qhapaq Runasimi, or ' the great language of the people '), or what some historians define as the Cusco dialect.
The language imposed by the Incas diverted from its original phonetics as some societies formed their own regional varieties. The diversity of Quechua at that point and even today does not come directly from the Incas, who were just a part of the reason for Quechua 's diversity. The civilizations within the empire that had previously spoken Quechua kept their own variety distinct from the Quechua the Incas spread. Although these dialects of Quechua had a similar linguistic structure, they differed according to the region in which they were spoken.
Although most of the societies within the empire accepted Quechua, the Incas allowed several societies to keep their original languages, such as Aymara, which remains in use in contemporary Bolivia, where it is the primary indigenous language and in various regions surrounding Bolivia. The linguistic body of the Inca Empire was thus varied. The Inca 's impact outlasted their empire, as the Spanish continued the use of Quechua.
In the Incan Empire, the age of marriage differed for men and women. Men typically married at the age of 20, while women usually got married around 4 years earlier at the age of 16. Men who were highly ranked in society could have multiple wives, but those lower in the ranks could only take a single wife.
Marriage typically remained within similar social classes and resembled a more business - like agreement. Once married, the women were expected to cook, collect food and watch over the children and livestock. Girls and mothers would also work around the house to keep it orderly to please the public inspectors. These duties remained the same even after she became pregnant with the added responsibility of praying and making offerings to Kanopa, who was the god of pregnancy.
It was typical for marriages to begin on a trial basis with both men and women having a say in the longevity of the marriage. If the man felt that it would n't work out, or if the woman wanted to return to her parent 's home the marriage would end. Once the marriage was final, the only way the two could be divorced was if they did not have a child together.
The Inca called newborn infants wawa, a term that they also used for newborn animals. This term was used for all newborn beings without regard to their biological sex. Babies were not given human social status until they reached two or three years of age due to the high infant mortality rates. It was at this time that a ceremony was held called rutuchikuy in which the infant was given its first haircut, name and introduced to the extended family. Also in this ceremony, children advanced from the description of wawa to warma, a gender neutral term for a child who has not developed the language skill set. By the time children reached the age of seven, they had completed gender specific tasks and were referred to as gender specific terms, Thaski for girls and maqt'a for boys.
Inca myths were transmitted orally until early Spanish colonists recorded them; however, some scholars claim that they were recorded on quipus, Andean knotted string records.
The Inca believed in reincarnation. Death was a passage to the next world that was full of difficulties. The spirit of the dead, camaquen, would need to follow a long road and during the trip the assistance of a black dog that could see in the dark was required. Most Incas imagined the after world to be like that of the European notion of heaven, with flower - covered fields and snow - capped mountains.
It was important to the Inca that they not die as a result of burning or that the body of the deceased not be incinerated. Burning would cause their vital force to disappear and threaten their passage to the after world. Those who obeyed the Inca moral code -- ama suwa, ama llulla, ama quella (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy) -- "went to live in the Sun 's warmth while others spent their eternal days in the cold earth ''. The Inca nobility practiced cranial deformation. They wrapped tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns to shape their soft skulls into a more conical form, thus distinguishing the nobility from other social classes.
The Incas made human sacrifices. As many as 4,000 servants, court officials, favorites and concubines were killed upon the death of the Inca Huayna Capac in 1527. The Incas performed child sacrifices around important events, such as the death of the Sapa Inca or during a famine. These sacrifices were known as qhapaq hucha.
The Incas were polytheists who attempted to please many gods. These included:
The Inca Empire employed central planning. The Inca Empire traded with outside regions, although they did not operate a substantial internal market economy. While axe - monies were used along the northern coast, presumably by the provincial mindaláe trading class, most lived in a traditional economy in which households were required to pay taxes, usually in the form of the mit'a corvée labor, and military obligations, though barter (or trueque) was present in some areas. In return, the state provided security, food in times of hardship through the supply of emergency resources, agricultural projects (e.g. aqueducts and terraces) to increase productivity and occasional feasts. The economy rested on the material foundations of the vertical archipelago, a system of ecological complementarity in accessing resources and the cultural foundation of ayni, or reciprocal exchange.
The Sapa Inca was conceptualized as divine and was effectively head of the state religion. The Willaq Umu (or Chief Priest) was second to the emperor. Local religious traditions continued and in some cases such as the Oracle at Pachacamac on the Peruvian coast, were officially venerated. Following Pachacuti, the Sapa Inca claimed descent from Inti, who placed a high value on imperial blood; by the end of the empire, it was common to incestuously wed brother and sister. He was "son of the sun, '' and his people the intip churin, or "children of the sun, '' and both his right to rule and mission to conquer derived from his holy ancestor. The Sapa Inca also presided over ideologically important festivals, notably during the Inti Raymi, or "warriors ' cultivation, '' attended by soldiers, mummified rulers, nobles, clerics and the general population of Cusco beginning on the June solstice and culminating nine days later with the ritual breaking of the earth using a foot plow by the Inca. Moreover, Cusco was considered cosmologically central, loaded as it was with huacas and radiating ceque lines and geographic center of the Four Quarters; Inca Garcilaso de la Vega called it "the navel of the universe ''.
The Inca Empire was a federalist system consisting of a central government with the Inca at its head and four quarters, or suyu: Chinchay Suyu (NW), Anti Suyu (NE), Kunti Suyu (SW) and Qulla Suyu (SE). The four corners of these quarters met at the center, Cusco. These suyu were likely created around 1460 during the reign of Pachacuti before the empire reached its largest territorial extent. At the time the suyu were established they were roughly of equal size and only later changed their proportions as the empire expanded north and south along the Andes.
Cusco was likely not organized as a wamani, or province. Rather, it was probably somewhat akin to a modern federal district, like Washington, D.C. or Mexico City. The city sat at the center of the four suyu and served as the preeminent center of politics and religion. While Cusco was essentially governed by the Sapa Inca, his relatives and the royal panaqa lineages, each suyu was governed by an Apu, a term of esteem used for men of high status and for venerated mountains. Both Cusco as a district and the four suyu as administrative regions were grouped into upper hanan and lower hurin divisions. As the Inca did not have written records, it is impossible to exhaustively list the constituent wamani. However, colonial records allow us to reconstruct a partial list. There were likely more than 86 wamani, with more than 48 in the highlands and more than 38 on the coast.
The most populous suyu was Chinchaysuyu, which encompassed the former Chimu empire and much of the northern Andes. At its largest extent, it extended through much of modern Ecuador and into modern Colombia.
The largest suyu by area was Qullasuyu, named after the Aymara - speaking Qulla people. It encompassed the Bolivian Altiplano and much of the southern Andes, reaching Argentina and as far south as the Maipo or Maule river in Central Chile. Historian José Bengoa singled out Quillota as perhaps the foremost Inca settlement.
The second smallest suyu, Antisuyu, was northwest of Cusco in the high Andes. Its name is the root of the word "Andes. ''
Kuntisuyu was the smallest suyu, located along the southern coast of modern Peru, extending into the highlands towards Cusco.
The Inca state had no separate judiciary or codified laws. Customs, expectations and traditional local power holders governed behavior. The state had legal force, such as through tokoyrikoq (lit. "he who sees all ''), or inspectors. The highest such inspector, typically a blood relative to the Sapa Inca, acted independently of the conventional hierarchy, providing a point of view for the Sapa Inca free of bureaucratic influence.
Colonial sources are not entirely clear or in agreement about Inca government structure, such as exact duties and functions of government positions. But the basic structure can be broadly described. The top was the Sapa Inca. Below that may have been the Willaq Umu, literally the "priest who recounts '', the High Priest of the Sun. However, beneath the Sapa Inca also sat the Inkap rantin, who was a confidant and assistant to the Sapa Inca, perhaps similar to a Prime Minister. Starting with Topa Inca Yupanqui, a "Council of the Realm '' was composed of 16 nobles: 2 from hanan Cusco; 2 from hurin Cusco; 4 from Chinchaysuyu; 2 from Cuntisuyu; 4 from Collasuyu; and 2 from Antisuyu. This weighting of representation balanced the hanan and hurin divisions of the empire, both within Cusco and within the Quarters (hanan suyukuna and hurin suyukuna).
While provincial bureaucracy and government varied greatly, the basic organization was decimal. Taxpayers -- male heads of household of a certain age range -- were organized into corvée labor units (often doubling as military units) that formed the state 's muscle as part of mit'a service. Each unit of more than 100 tax - payers were headed by a kuraka, while smaller units were headed by a kamayuq, a lower, non-hereditary status. However, while kuraka status was hereditary and typically served for life, the position of a kuraka in the hierarchy was subject to change based on the privileges of superiors in the hierarchy; a pachaka kuraka could be appointed to the position by a waranqa kuraka. Furthermore, one kuraka in each decimal level could serve as the head of one of the nine groups at a lower level, so that a pachaka kuraka might also be a waranqa kuraka, in effect directly responsible for one unit of 100 tax - payers and less directly responsible for nine other such units.
Architecture was the most important of the Incan arts, with textiles reflecting architectural motifs. The most notable example is Machu Picchu, which was constructed by Inca engineers. The prime Inca structures were made of stone blocks that fit together so well that a knife could not be fitted through the stonework. These constructs have survived for centuries, with no use of mortar to sustain them.
This process was first used on a large scale by the Pucara (ca. 300 BC -- AD 300) peoples to the south in Lake Titicaca and later in the city of Tiwanaku (ca. AD 400 -- 1100) in present - day Bolivia. The rocks were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable, despite the ongoing challenge of earthquakes and volcanic activity.
Physical measures used by the Inca were based on human body parts. Units included fingers, the distance from thumb to forefinger, palms, cubits and wingspans. The most basic distance unit was thatkiy or thatki, or one pace. The next largest unit was reported by Cobo to be the topo or tupu, measuring 6,000 thatkiys, or about 7.7 km (4.8 mi); careful study has shown that a range of 4.0 to 6.3 km (2.5 to 3.9 mi) is likely. Next was the wamani, composed of 30 topos (roughly 232 km or 144 mi). To measure area, 25 by 50 wingspans were used, reckoned in topos (roughly 3,280 km or 1,270 sq mi). It seems likely that distance was often interpreted as one day 's walk; the distance between tambo way - stations varies widely in terms of distance, but far less in terms of time to walk that distance.
Inca calendars were strongly tied to astronomy. Inca astronomers understood equinoxes, solstices and zenith passages, along with the Venus cycle. They could not, however, predict eclipses. The Inca calendar was essentially lunisolar, as two calendars were maintained in parallel, one solar and one lunar. As 12 lunar months fall 11 days short of a full 365 - day solar year, those in charge of the calendar had to adjust every winter solstice. Each lunar month was marked with festivals and rituals. Apparently, the days of the week were not named and days were not grouped into weeks. Similarly, months were not grouped into seasons. Time during a day was not measured in hours or minutes, but in terms of how far the sun had travelled or in how long it had taken to perform a task.
The sophistication of Inca administration, calendrics and engineering required facility with numbers. Numerical information was stored in the knots of quipu strings, allowing for compact storage of large numbers. These numbers were stored in base - 10 digits, the same base used by the Quechua language and in administrative and military units. These numbers, stored in quipu, could be calculated on yupanas, grids with squares of positionally varying mathematical values, perhaps functioning as an abacus. Calculation was facilitated by moving piles of tokens, seeds or pebbles between compartments of the yupana. It is likely that Inca mathematics at least allowed division of integers into integers or fractions and multiplication of integers and fractions.
According to mid-17th - century Jesuit chronicler Bernabé Cobo, the Inca designated officials to perform accounting - related tasks. These officials were called quipo camayos. Study of khipu sample VA 42527 (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin) revealed that the numbers arranged in calendrically significant patterns were used for agricultural purposes in the "farm account books '' kept by the khipukamayuq (accountant or warehouse keeper) to facilitate the closing of accounting books.
Ceramics were painted using the polychrome technique portraying numerous motifs including animals, birds, waves, felines (popular in the Chavin culture) and geometric patterns found in the Nazca style of ceramics. In a culture without a written language, ceramics portrayed the basic scenes of everyday life, including the smelting of metals, relationships and scenes of tribal warfare. The most distinctive Inca ceramic objects are the Cusco bottles or "aryballos ''. Many of these pieces are on display in Lima in the Larco Archaeological Museum and the National Museum of Archaeology, Anthropology and History.
Almost all of the gold and silver work of the Incan empire was melted down by the conquistadors.
The Inca recorded information on assemblages of knotted strings, known as Quipu, although they can no longer be decoded. Originally it was thought that Quipu were used only as mnemonic devices or to record numerical data. Quipus are also believed to record history and literature.
The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They performed successful skull surgery, by cutting holes in the skull to alleviate fluid buildup and inflammation caused by head wounds. Many skull surgeries performed by Inca surgeons were successful. Survival rates were 80 -- 90 %, compared to about 30 % before Inca times.
The Incas revered the coca plant as sacred / magical. Its leaves were used in moderate amounts to lessen hunger and pain during work, but were mostly used for religious and health purposes. The Spaniards took advantage of the effects of chewing coca leaves. The Chasqui, messengers who ran throughout the empire to deliver messages, chewed coca leaves for extra energy. Coca leaves were also used as an anaesthetic during surgeries.
The Inca army was the most powerful at that time, because they could turn an ordinary villager or farmer into a soldier. Every male Inca had to take part in war at least once and to prepare for warfare again when needed. By the time the empire reached its largest size, every section of the empire contributed in setting up an army for war.
The Incas had no iron or steel and their weapons were not much more effective than those of their opponents. They went into battle with drums beating and trumpets blowing. Their armor included:
The Inca weaponry included:
Roads allowed quick movement (on foot) for the Inca army and shelters called tambo and storage silos called qullqas were built one day 's travelling distance from each other, so that an army on campaign could always be fed and rested. This can be seen in names of ruins such as Ollantay Tambo, or My Lord 's Storehouse. These were set up so the Inca and his entourage would always have supplies (and possibly shelter) ready as they traveled.
Chronicles and references from the 16th and 17th centuries support the idea of a banner. However, it represented the Inca (emperor), not the empire.
Francisco López de Jerez wrote in 1534:
... todos venían repartidos en sus escuadras con sus banderas y capitanes que los mandan, con tanto concierto como turcos. (... all of them came distributed into squads, with their flags and captains commanding them, as well - ordered as Turks.)
Chronicler Bernabé Cobo wrote:
The royal standard or banner was a small square flag, ten or twelve spans around, made of cotton or wool cloth, placed on the end of a long staff, stretched and stiff such that it did not wave in the air and on it each king painted his arms and emblems, for each one chose different ones, though the sign of the Incas was the rainbow and two parallel snakes along the width with the tassel as a crown, which each king used to add for a badge or blazon those preferred, like a lion, an eagle and other figures. (... el guión o estandarte real era una banderilla cuadrada y pequeña, de diez o doce palmos de ruedo, hecha de lienzo de algodón o de lana, iba puesta en el remate de una asta larga, tendida y tiesa, sin que ondease al aire, y en ella pintaba cada rey sus armas y divisas, porque cada uno las escogía diferentes, aunque las generales de los Incas eran el arco celeste y dos culebras tendidas a lo largo paralelas con la borda que le servía de corona, a las cuales solía añadir por divisa y blasón cada rey las que le parecía, como un león, un águila y otras figuras.) - Bernabé Cobo, Historia del Nuevo Mundo (1653)
Guaman Poma 's 1615 book, El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno, shows numerous line drawings of Inca flags. In his 1847 book A History of the Conquest of Peru, "William H. Prescott... says that in the Inca army each company had its particular banner and that the imperial standard, high above all, displayed the glittering device of the rainbow, the armorial ensign of the Incas. '' A 1917 world flags book says the Inca "heir - apparent... was entitled to display the royal standard of the rainbow in his military campaigns. ''
In modern times the rainbow flag has been wrongly associated with the Tawantinsuyu and displayed as a symbol of Inca heritage by some groups in Peru and Bolivia. The city of Cusco also flies the Rainbow Flag, but as an official flag of the city. The Peruvian president Alejandro Toledo (2001 -- 2006) flew the Rainbow Flag in Lima 's presidential palace. However, according to Peruvian historiography, the Inca Empire never had a flag. Peruvian historian María Rostworowski said, "I bet my life, the Inca never had that flag, it never existed, no chronicler mentioned it ''. Also, to the Peruvian newspaper El Comercio, the flag dates to the first decades of the 20th century, and even the Congress of the Republic of Peru has determined that flag is a fake by citing the conclusion of National Academy of Peruvian History:
"The official use of the wrongly called ' Tawantinsuyu flag ' is a mistake. In the Pre-Hispanic Andean World there did not exist the concept of a flag, it did not belong to their historic context ''. National Academy of Peruvian History
Andean civilization probably began c. 7600 BCE. Based in the highlands of Peru, an area now called the punas, the ancestors of the Incas probably began as a nomadic herding people. Adaptation to the altitude led to distinctive physical developments. Short and stocky, men averaged 1.57 m (5'2 ") and women 1.45 m (4'9 ''). Compared to other humans, the Incas had slower heart rates, almost one - third larger lung capacity, about 2 L (4 pints) more blood volume and double the amount of hemoglobin, which transfers oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. While the Conquistadors may have been slightly taller, the Inca had the advantage of coping with the extraordinary altitude.
Permanent habitations have been found as high as 5,300 m (17,400 ft) above sea level in the temperate zone of the high altiplanos. In the Lake Titikaka region, Tiwanaku is recognized by Andean scholars as one of the most important precursors to the Inca Empire, flourishing as the ritual and administrative capital of a major state power for approximately 500 years. Previous cultures left no written record, but their architecture, ceramics and state government were inherited by the Inca.
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when is episode 18 of andi mack coming out | List of Andi Mack episodes - Wikipedia
Andi Mack is an American family comedy - drama television series created by Terri Minsky that premiered on Disney Channel on April 7, 2017. The series stars Peyton Elizabeth Lee, Joshua Rush, Sofia Wylie, Asher Angel, Lilan Bowden, and Lauren Tom. It follows 13 - year - old Andi Mack and her best friends, Cyrus Goodman and Buffy Driscoll, as they attend middle school.
Andi Mack is the top - rated series on American television among girls overall and in its time period among all children ages 6 -- 14. It is the first series on Disney Channel to feature a gay middle school boy as a main character, which has drawn considerable media attention and was reported in the news as being "historic ''. The series has been nominated for and won awards for its coming out storyline, the introduction of which caused a ratings surge.
As Andi Mack celebrates her 13th birthday, she gets a surprise visit from her older sister, Bex, who announces she will be moving back in with their parents, Celia and Ham. Andi is thrilled about the news and wants to know what Bex has been up to. Bex shares a box of her memories with Andi, though before she does, Celia warns her about the secrets inside, which she wants to keep from Andi. When Bex later discovers Andi is smitten with a boy named Jonah Beck, she arranges to have Jonah give her a Frisbee lesson. Jonah realizes how skilled at Frisbee Andi becomes and asks her to join the Frisbee team at school, but as she decides whether to do so, she discovers he has a girlfriend named Amber. Feeling humiliated, Andi gets upset at Bex, who tells her it is okay not to be perfect. Andi feels better after Jonah texts her. Meanwhile, against Celia 's warning, Bex shows Andi a picture hidden deep inside the box which shows Andi as a baby and Bex holding her. Andi finds out the truth: her sister is actually her mother. This infuriates Celia and Ham, but they know they must come to terms with this revelation. After taking time to process this huge change in her life, Andi eventually becomes curious about who her father is, but Bex is not ready to tell her yet. It prompts Andi to take the box to see whether her father 's picture is inside it.
Andi tells her friends Cyrus and Buffy that she has joined the school frisbee team with Jonah, but has yet to tell them about the more important, life - changing discovery concerning her and Bex. While hanging with Andi in her shack, Cyrus and Buffy come across the picture of Bex with the newborn Andi, concluding Bex has a "secret baby '' but not knowing that baby is Andi. Meanwhile, Bex tries to fit in at dinner when Andi, Celia and Ham play a memory game during the meal. Andi tries to impress Jonah by giving him a bracelet she made, a gesture which upsets Amber as she sees the two together. Later, when Cyrus and Buffy keep harping about the secret baby, Andi reveals to them that she is the secret baby while also telling them that Amber is wearing the bracelet she gave to Jonah. Both Andi and Amber stare at each other for several minutes, diverting the attention away from the secret baby talk. Cyrus and Buffy eventually get back to Andi 's revelation and have some questions about it.
Guest stars: Stoney Westmoreland as Ham, Emily Skinner as Amber, Anson Bagley as Gus
Since the revelation that Bex is Andi 's mother, Celia still does not want Andi to call her by different grandmother names. After seeing Mrs. Devlin is the librarian at Andi 's school, and recalling that has not changed since she went there, Bex encourages Andi into watching scary movies, which Celia has kept Andi from experiencing. That evening, Andi watches a movie called Shhh!, with Bex there in case she gets too scared, though Bex ends up falling asleep. The movie indeed scares Andi so much, that the next day, she falls asleep in class and receives detention, which prevents her from attending her first Space Otters frisbee match with Jonah. Andi finds out detention is held in the library with Mrs. Devlin, whose "shhh '' to quiet her winds up re-triggering her frightened state from the movie. Meanwhile, Buffy joins the track and field relay team and her obsession with winning becomes costly. Later, as Bex goes through a box of things from her youth, and Andi learns more about her, Andi also stumbles across a picture of someone from Bex 's past whom she believes to be her father.
After Andi questions Bex about the identify of the man in the photo she found, Bex is hesitant and continues avoiding discussion about Andi 's father. Cyrus reveals the truth about Bex being Andi 's mother to his mother, who later spreads the word across town. Andi receives supportive comments from Jonah and other students at her school, while Celia has an even harder time coping with the relationship change after her neighbor calls her "grandma '', which leads her and Ham to take time away from home. In their absence, Bex persuades Andi to have her first party at the house. The party is attended by Andi 's schoolmates, Jonah, and even Amber. It turns sour when Amber wants to know who Andi 's real father is and asks Andi to reveal him to the guests, causing Andi to retreat to Andi Shack. As Bex starts talking to Andi, Cyrus warns them that Celia and Ham have returned, and the partygoers are told to leave.
After Ham sends Andi to bed, Bex tells him that Andi has been persistent with questions about her father. Ham tells Bex that the man who fathered Andi knows she exists, because he told him.
Bex is shocked that Ham informed Andi 's father about Andi, but Ham made it clear that he needed to know and Andi needs to know about him. When Andi later questions Ham about her father, however, she gets no information. Although Ham has given Bex the email address of Andi 's father, all that comes out of any communication is "hey ''.
Meanwhile, Jonah sets up Cyrus on a date with a girl named Iris, as part of a double date with Jonah and Amber. It goes sour when Cyrus gets sick on a carnival ride.
Buffy gets into trouble at school over her curly hair and is told by the vice principal to change it. This leads to her not hanging out with Andi, who starts asking questions after she sees Buffy and Bex talking at the Fringe. It boils over when Andi sees the two in the bathroom at home, but she finds out none of what is going on is about her. Buffy reveals to Andi that she messed up her hair while using a flatiron to straighten it and she went to Bex to have her hair fixed, since Buffy 's mother is overseas.
Andi later gives Bex a lesson on how to properly throw a frisbee. After Bex lets one fly, Andi goes to retrieve it and then sees Amber with a guy, but it is not Jonah.
Guest stars: Stoney Westmoreland as Ham, Emily Skinner as Amber, Molly Jackson as Iris
After Andi tells Jonah about seeing Amber with another guy, Jonah tells her he will be okay. When she later receives texts to see him at his school locker, Andi rushes to meet him but also confronts Amber, who actually texted her from Jonah 's phone and makes her out to be a liar. Hurt by Amber 's actions, Andi questions whether she should be talking to Jonah, even though he feels bad about what happened. She contemplates staying home from school and gets help from Cyrus and Buffy to make her sick.
Meanwhile, Celia sees Bex is becoming more responsible around the house and later notices her working at the Fringe. Celia also notices Brittany, whom Bex babysat years ago, is Bex 's boss.
While running track, Buffy meets a familiar face from Andi 's party, Marty, who informs her that she is the fastest female runner at school. She finds herself in competition with Marty, who has the school 's overall fastest time.
As Andi, Bex and Celia argue over Andi 's going to school, they hear the doorbell. Bex answers to find a man at the door; it is Bowie, Andi 's father. Bex introduces the two, informing them of their relationship, and they look at each other in surprise.
Bowie is excited to know his daughter Andi by spending the day with her, but Celia reminds them it is a school day. Bowie manages to get Andi excused from school, right after she learns from Cyrus and Buffy that Jonah and Amber have broken up, and Jonah approaches her with news she hopes is good. When Cyrus and Buffy later realize Andi is not around, they text her to ask where she is and what Jonah told her, but Andi is wondering as much about Jonah and asks her friends to find out. They end up meddling instead, with Cyrus convincing Jonah to follow his heart, despite his insecurities from the break - up, hoping it will lead him to Andi. Meanwhile, Bowie makes the most of his day with Andi, but when she worries about Jonah, Bowie drives her back to school. After she discovers Jonah and Amber have reconciled, she asks Cyrus and Buffy how this could happen, but the two keep silent about their involvement. Andi also tells them she spent the day with her father, while feeling guilty about cutting their day short, realizing he had only the one day, since he is a traveling musician. After Andi talks with Bex about Bowie and learns more about their relationship, the two discover Bowie in Andi 's shack.
Bowie decides to delay joining his 40 - city tour with the Renaissance Boys to be with Andi and Bex, but Celia allows him to stay at the Mack house for only two days. During his extended stay, Bowie meets Andi 's friends at school and her teammates on the Space Otters. He records a video with them in it and asks Andi about the boy she keeps talking about, but she feels uncomfortable about her father being around her all the time. On the other hand, Celia is having a change of heart about Bowie after he cooks one of her mother 's recipes. Bex and Bowie later have a serious talk at the place the two were last together before their split, with Bowie wanting to be in Andi and Bex 's lives more; Bex assures him that he is already a part of their lives. Meanwhile, Cyrus gets offended over a text from Jonah which called him "girly ''. Buffy works on making Cyrus more like a man, but when Cyrus later asks Jonah about the text, Jonah tells him that autocorrect messed up the text and he really meant to send "gnarly ''.
Bowie starts to realize he has overstayed his welcome after Andi catches him in her bedroom on her computer and wants him not to invade her privacy. When Bex looks at Andi 's computer, she sees the video that Bowie made and gets emotional. That prompts Andi to take a look as well and to talk with Bowie afterward, only to find him gone.
Andi misses Bowie, and Bex helps to cheer her up. The two buy a variety of vintage clothes, which Celia disapproves, causing her to start questioning Bex 's being back home. After enjoying quality time with Bex, Andi begins to wonder why her mother left home at the time of her birth, and while Bex does not reveal any details to Andi, things come out at home when Celia suggests that Bex move out.
Meanwhile, Andi is concerned after Jonah passes her in the hallway at school without saying anything. She talks to him to find things are still okay between them. She also offers to help him come up with something for Amber 's birthday, including how to express his emotions on her birthday card, but Andi is taken aback when Jonah thinks of her as a "pal '' instead of something more.
Buffy 's competitive nature hits a new low when she discovers one of her track shoes is missing and assumes Marty stole it. She retaliates by taking Marty 's shoes and inflicting water damage on them. As for the missing shoe, Cyrus reveals it was in his mother 's car, coming out of Buffy 's bag during one of her rides home with him.
The episode concludes with Andi and Bex moving into a new apartment.
Andi and Bex struggle with adjusting to their new home, and problems with the electricity and appliances are making matters worse. Andi has been removed from the home she has known for 13 years, and it is taking a toll, from issues about her laundry and the warm meals to her ability to work on her art. With her crafting supplies in the Andi Shack, she and Bex head back to the Mack house to retrieve them. Celia and Ham notice the two and are willing to welcome them back into their home, but Bex stands by her decision to move out, though she does apologize to Celia for taking Andi without giving her any notice. Ultimately, as Andi 's mother, Bex begins to realize what is best for Andi and allows her to go back to Celia and Ham. After Celia returns Andi to be in her new home with Bex, Andi starts to embrace Bex as her mother.
Meanwhile, Cyrus wonders where he stands with Iris, thinking their relationship is over. Intending to spend the day at a sporting event with her, Jonah and Amber, he winds up going with just Jonah after Buffy declines to be his date and the other girls think he has moved on.
A new principal, Dr. Metcalf, takes over at Andi 's school. He meets Andi, Cyrus and Buffy, and tells Andi her leggings violate the school 's dress code. Unaware at first about this dress code, the three eventually object to it when they see all the clothing prohibited. With Bex 's help, they stage a protest at the school, with the participating students wearing prison outfits. As this is also happening on picture day, Cyrus gets concerned over how he will look, but Buffy convinces him to go with what they are wearing. Jonah reminds Andi about the team picture for the Space Otters, but when she shows up, he does not see her in the team 's uniform and tells her to change into it. With Jonah so focused on the picture, Andi quickly realizes his indifference to her standing up to the dress code -- a fight she wins after negotiating with Dr. Metcalf about making the policy more reasonable. Andi and her friends later find out the school will redo picture day in light of the protest.
Andi and Jonah have a more serious talk about what has happened, leading her to quit the Space Otters. She stands up to Jonah, wanting him to stop asking her to do things for him. When Jonah asks if they are still friends, Andi responds, "Were we ever? ''
Guest star: Oliver Vaquer as Dr. Metcalf
Jonah is feeling down following Andi 's quitting the Space Otters and all but ignoring him after their talk. Even Amber can not cheer him up, with her friend Kip belittling the sport he loves. Cyrus encourages Jonah to talk to Andi, but when it appears Jonah will have a chance to do so in the school hallway, he notices Andi 's excitement about Bowie 's return instead. Jonah becomes so depressed that he cancels the Space Otters practice. This also leads to his unequivocal break - up with Amber.
Meanwhile, Buffy gives Marty a new pair of shoes, her way of apologizing for what she did to his old ones, though Marty has wanted her to actually say she is sorry. They set a time to race each other to resolve who is faster, but when they worry about how they will react to the result, they call the race off.
Andi discovers the reason Bowie came back is tied to Bex, whom he noticed in pictures across several stops on his tour with the Renaissance Boys. Andi arranges for her parents to have a romantic evening, and she also hears a song Bowie wrote for Bex. The next morning, Andi asks Bex how the evening went and hopes the two will get back together, but Bex tells Andi it is unlikely because Bowie 's unpredictability makes him inclined not to stay in one place. When Andi talks to Bowie, she realizes his feelings for Bex have changed little over the years, but Bowie agrees with what Bex told Andi. Still, there is hope when Andi sees Bowie unexpectedly take a ring out of one of the blazers he is trying on at a vintage store.
Guest stars: Emily Skinner as Amber, Trent Garrett as Bowie, Garren Stitt as Marty, CJ Strong as Kip
Andi talks to Bowie about proposing to Bex, while Cyrus introduces Iris as his girlfriend to Andi and Buffy, and Jonah invites Andi, Cyrus and Buffy to a pizza party for the Space Otters. At first, Andi does not want to go to the party, but later changes her mind after talking with Bex. Following the party, Jonah reveals to Andi that he broke up with Amber for good, though Andi had some idea prior to the party when he returned the bracelet she made for him. Andi gives Jonah back the bracelet and gets serious about being with him.
While Cyrus is somewhat happy about seeing Andi and Jonah together again, he reveals to Buffy that he is also unhappy because he has romantic feelings for Jonah.
Bowie comes over to Andi and Bex 's apartment with a pizza and, with Andi 's help, finally asks Bex to marry him. Bex 's response is simply "um... '', but Andi is hopeful she will eventually say yes. Later, while at work, Bex receives another pizza from Bowie, who is also hopeful she will accept his proposal.
As Andi and her friends discover Amber as a waitress at The Spoon, Andi tells Buffy about how that is making her uncomfortable but also how nervous she is around Jonah. Buffy thinks Andi is not ready for a serious relationship yet. While the two are talking, Jonah is with Amber outside, which further upsets Andi. Although Jonah says nothing is going on, Buffy warns him not to hurt Andi, causing him to leave the diner. Andi later talks to Jonah and wants their relationship to grow without Amber standing in the way.
After having some time to think about Bowie 's proposal, Bex reveals to Andi that she is not going to marry him.
Andi is disappointed about Bex saying no to Bowie 's marriage proposal and wants Bex to tell Bowie as soon as possible, as he is unaware. With the approach of the Chinese New Year, and Andi and Bex 's aunt Mei and cousin Ronald coming over to Celia 's house, the news will have to wait. Andi invites Jonah to the new year event, but his not understanding the customs puts Celia on edge, as well as the idea of Andi even having a boyfriend. Meanwhile, Celia wants to show Mei that she can successfully host a Chinese New Year feast and is quite appreciative of Bowie 's contributions for the occasion. After Bowie announces that he may have some good news to share, Celia uses the opportunity to make the event special, until Andi hints to Bowie what she already knows and announces to the rest that Bex and Bowie are not getting married. Bowie is saddened by this and leaves.
With track season over, Buffy decides to sign up to play basketball, though the school 's team consists only of men. After some practice with Marty, Buffy lets him know how confident she is of making the team, despite her actually being nervous. She feels she needs to outperform the men to secure a spot.
Andi continues to be upset that Bex let Bowie go, but when finding something to eat, she rediscovers that picture which Bex tore up, making her even more upset. She wants to know whether the person in that picture is the reason behind Bex 's decision not to marry Bowie.
Andi grows suspicious when Amber starts having a normal conversation with her. Jonah tells Andi that Amber just wants to be friends, but Andi thinks Amber has not gotten over Jonah. Andi, Cyrus and Buffy try another hangout place to avoid Amber at The Spoon.
Meanwhile, Buffy and Marty go through tryouts to make the basketball team, but Buffy gets annoyed by TJ, the team 's captain. Despite feeling she will not make the team because of him, Buffy shares the good news with Andi and Cyrus when she does. Marty fails to make the team but is happy for Buffy.
Cyrus and Iris spend an evening together at her house and watch a movie, but Cyrus becomes uncomfortable following a kiss with Iris and decides to leave.
Andi finds out more about the man in the picture Bex tore up, an ex-boyfriend named Gabriel. Bex has trouble letting him go and tells Andi he is the reason she is insecure about marrying anyone, including Bowie. Andi helps Bex find closure with Gabriel by placing his picture with those of her other ex-boyfriends in her box of memories, which leads to them taking out Bowie 's picture.
Guest stars: Emily Skinner as Amber, Garren Stitt as Marty, Molly Jackson as Iris, Luke Mullen as TJ
Celia informs Andi and Bex about a closet clean - out at the Mack house, which is on the anniversary of a day Bex wishes never happened -- the day she left 13 years earlier. Bex and Celia tell Andi completely different versions of the story behind that day. Bex eventually reveals that her leaving was tied to Andi 's first word as a baby, "mama '', directed at Celia. Upon hearing that, Andi feels regret that she caused Bex to leave. Bex tells Andi that her decision was for the best as she wanted her to be happy, and Celia is thankful for the sacrifice Bex made.
Meanwhile, Jonah teaches Cyrus how to skateboard, but Cyrus ' inability to control the skateboard leads to his going to the hospital. Buffy becomes a friend to her neighbor Millie through a community service project she is doing for school.
Later, Celia reveals to Bex that the clean - out was about more than their opportunity to reconcile about that day 13 years ago. She plans to sell the house and leaves it to Bex to tell Andi, news which will devastate her particularly because of Andi Shack. Bex delays mentioning it to Andi.
After overhearing part of a phone conversation Amber is having with her father, Andi decides to spend time with her by inviting her to a sleepover. Having warned Andi before about Amber by comparing her to a snake in one story, Buffy relays another story to Andi about a frog and a scorpion, and compares Amber to the scorpion -- leading to the term "snorpion ''. At the sleepover, Amber tells Andi that her father lost his job, which is why she is working at The Spoon. With Andi enjoying Amber 's company, the two decide to sneak out to an amusement park, where Amber convinces Andi to ride the ferris wheel. When Amber sees a call from Jonah on Andi 's phone, she becomes furious and leaves Andi stranded. This lands Andi in police custody, and Bex and Bowie are left to discipline her after they get home, though Andi ends up deciding her punishment when they can not come up with one. Meanwhile, Buffy is upset over her teammates not giving her the ball during a basketball game. When she confronts TJ about what she needs to do to change this, she realizes he simply does not want her on the team at all. Also, Bex is working toward her cosmetology certification. Her makeup skills also help Andi fool Amber by thinking that Andi injured herself trying to get down the ferris wheel.
Guest stars: Emily Skinner as Amber, Trent Garrett as Bowie, Luke Mullen as TJ
Andi is nervous about holding hands with Jonah at school, but just as she is about to, the principal, Dr. Metcalf, splits the students into two separate groups, with Andi and Cyrus in group A, and Buffy and Jonah in group B. When Andi figures out that her group has luxuries while Jonah 's group struggles over what they are dealt, she decides to switch groups and encourages the rest in her group to do the same, despite Dr. Metcalf 's order for the two groups to stay separate. After chaos ensues in the cafeteria over cookies, Dr. Metcalf ends his exercise, getting across to the students that what group they belong in does not give them any advantage or disadvantage. He also asks them how he decided what group they went to, and while Andi contends it was random, she realizes his selections were alphabetically based. The school day ends with Andi and Jonah both holding hands, though Jonah admits having sweaty palms like Andi. When Andi returns home, Bex finally tells her that Celia and Ham are selling the house. The news devastates Andi, prompting her to return to Andi Shack.
To help Andi take her mind off of Celia and Ham 's plans to sell the Mack house, Jonah asks her on a date by inviting her to a virtual reality arcade. Buffy is also invited, but she brings Marty with her so she does not feel like a third wheel, making the occasion a double date, even though the two are not really dating. During his virtual reality adventure, Jonah slips and gets hurt. When Jonah refuses Andi 's aid, she worries that he is upset with her after she briefly laughed at his mishap. Andi continues to worry and feels Jonah is avoiding her when she later gets no response to her texts. Despite Jonah denying that he is upset with her after she asked him twice, Andi turns to Bex, who tells her to ask a third time. Andi becomes frustrated waiting for Jonah at school, but when she finally has the chance, she trips and falls as she approaches him to ask the question again. Jonah briefly laughs but assures Andi that he is not upset with her. Meanwhile, Buffy feels comfortable being just friends with Marty but finds out he wants more in their relationship. Also, Cyrus asks Bex for her opinion about a screenplay he has written, but Bex 's hesitation to tell him the truth about the script has him setting his sights on making the movie.
Guest stars: Garren Stitt as Marty, Chelsea T. Zhang as Brittany
Andi decorates her shack with numerous paper cranes, hoping Celia and Ham will notice and change their mind about selling the house. While talking with Celia, Andi springs a deal of coming over to the house more often, news which delights Celia to the point of allowing Andi to choose her breakfast or dance to loud music. Celia even invites Andi to a tape tunnel exhibit which has her missing school and worrying Bex. When Ham finds out the true reason Andi has been spending more time at the house, he wonders why Celia did not fill him in, but when Bex comes up with a better idea to save Andi Shack, and Celia and Ham explain their plans of seeing the world, Andi begins to accept that selling the house may not be a bad idea. It turns out Celia and Ham need more time to decide where they will live, so they postpone selling the house.
Meanwhile, Buffy is asked by her math teacher to tutor a failing student. She bails when she discovers it is TJ, but as he is in jeopardy of being kicked off the basketball team, she will help him if, in return, he starts passing the ball to her during games. Also, Cyrus struggles with getting his chocolate chip muffin at school, but as another concession to Buffy, TJ gives Cyrus tips on claiming it.
After Andi, Bex and Celia have fun at a dance class Celia is taking, the three stop at The Spoon. Just as they are about to order some food, Andi sees Jonah enter the diner with a girl named Natalie.
Andi finds out from Jonah that Natalie heads the ultimate frisbee team for another school in town, but is wary after Jonah says that Natalie is "just a friend ''. Amber warns Andi that while she was dating Jonah, he used the same words to refer to Andi. Buffy and Cyrus spy on both Jonah and Natalie at a gathering with "Furious George '', one of the top ultimate discheads in the world, but can not find anything that would make the two more than just friends. Meanwhile, Andi and Jonah have plans to go on a school trip to a Grease singalong, which Buffy and Cyrus are also attending, but Andi learns Jonah has been asked to take part in a video with Natalie and "Furious George '', though Jonah says he can get out of it. Unsure whether he does, Andi races over to where the video is being shot, only to hear from Natalie that Jonah is going to the singalong, so she races back to catch the bus, which she almost misses.
Bex meets a woman named Miranda, who works at the same plant nursery Bowie does. When Miranda decides she wants to ask Bowie out and wonders how much Bex knows about him, Bex appears supportive, yet uncomfortable.
Guest stars: Emily Skinner as Amber, Trent Garrett as Bowie, Shelby Simmons as Natalie, Chloe Hurst as Miranda
While Andi and Bowie are having breakfast at The Spoon, Andi discovers from Bowie 's driver 's license that it is his birthday. Bowie does not want to make a big deal out of it, but Andi wants to throw him a huge surprise party at Celia and Ham 's place. She has Bex work out the details, while she attends a Renaissance Festival for most of the day with her friends. Bex sees Bowie at work and tries to get him to Celia and Ham 's for a "plant emergency '', but Bowie realizes she is trying to get him to the surprise party. Bex finds out the reason Bowie is not in a celebrating mood, as his father 's birthday was on the same day but he died three years ago. Despite this, Bex encourages Bowie to come to the party for Andi 's sake. He does and has a wonderful time, but he is greatly touched after Andi calls him "dad '' for the first time.
Meanwhile, Buffy shows Jonah her competitive side in arm wrestling, where he also matches quite well, and later at the Renaissance Festival, they square off in a medieval - style tug o ' war, which ends in a draw. Cyrus tries to tell Iris that he does not have any romantic feelings for her, with Iris figuring out he does not like her like a girlfriend; the two agree to just be friends.
While Andi, Bex and Bowie are playing miniature golf, Bowie receives a phone call and Andi wonders who he is talking to. Sensing the body language from both of her parents, Andi is sure Bowie is seeing someone and tries to get information about it. Eventually, she finds out Bowie is dating Miranda and wants to meet her, but Bowie says it is too soon. Andi later has second thoughts about seeing Miranda because it may be too much for her to have possibly another parent - figure. When Andi and Bex go miniature golfing again, by themselves, Andi spots Bowie with Miranda and a little girl, whom she deduces is Miranda 's daughter. Meanwhile, Cyrus is tapped by Dr. Metcalf to make an orientation video for new students of Jefferson Middle School and has Jonah film him, but Cyrus gets nervous in front of the camera. Also, Buffy 's tutoring TJ gets nowhere as she realizes he is having difficulty even with basic math.
Guest stars: Trent Garrett as Bowie, Luke Mullen as TJ, Chloe Hurst as Miranda, Eden Grace Redfield as Morgan
Andi notices Jonah is not wearing the bracelet she gave him because it is falling apart. She offers to fix it, but Jonah tells her "no rush ''. After Celia and Ham sense something is wrong with Andi, Celia has Andi consult the I Ching and discovers her hexagram is one of a serious nature; Andi is left to interpret what that means.
Bex receives her cosmetology certificate and delivers the speech at her graduation. Celia and Ham attend the ceremony, and while Bex is shocked they are there after telling Andi not to invite them, she is pleased when they say they are proud of her.
Cyrus prepares for his bar mitzvah and has Jonah look over his wardrobe of suits. TJ is desperate to get his math homework done ahead of a basketball game, by attempting to cheat when he asks Buffy to do it for him. At the basketball game, TJ continues his stubbornness of not passing the ball to Buffy, but when he finally does, Buffy gets a huge surprise from her mother, who is briefly home from a tour of duty and appears at the game.
After Andi fixes the bracelet, Jonah tells her that it represents the two being "boyfriend '' and "girlfriend '', and he does not want to wear it because he is not into labels. This devastates Andi, and after she reflects on what Jonah has done for her, she feels they were never together in the first place.
Andi continues to be troubled by Jonah when he avoids her during Cyrus ' bar mitzvah and party. Cyrus tells Andi that Jonah has not actually broken up with her, but she feels otherwise. Cyrus then tells Andi that he too has romantic feelings for Jonah, which previously only Buffy had known.
Later at the party, Andi, Cyrus and Buffy see a fortune teller and discover one thing about each of their futures. Buffy is the most disturbed about what she finds out and hopes it will not come true, about her mother being deployed again. After Buffy confirms her mother is home for a while, she returns to the fortune teller, who reminds her about the whole vision, which suggests she is moving.
Andi wonders about having a real boyfriend, and the fortune teller indicates she will, soon. Cyrus and Buffy think it is Jonah, but Andi is not ready to talk to him. She starts spending time with Walker, a caricature artist at the party who gives her a beautiful picture he has drawn of her. Jonah becomes jealous, not knowing who this guy is, and when he asks Cyrus and Buffy about him, they have no clue either. Andi and Jonah finally talk about what is going on, but after Andi says her feelings for him have changed, Jonah suffers a panic attack. After the party, Jonah comes over to Andi 's place and despite his opposition to labels, he asks her if she will be his girlfriend, to which she replies, "um... ''.
Meanwhile, Bowie works on discussing Miranda with both Andi and Bex. Despite his new relationship, he tells Andi, in writing he jotted down on a napkin during the party, that he could live without the "universe '', but not her.
Buffy discovers the fortune teller 's prediction has come true, with her mother, Pat, being assigned to work in Phoenix. Andi comes up with an idea that will allow Buffy to stay, by having her live with Celia and Ham. While Andi waits to inform Celia about this arrangement, Pat appears to be all right with Buffy being with her friends, except she does not want to miss her any more after all the time they have been apart. Buffy shares that feeling, making Andi and Cyrus realize that moving is for the best. The three plan to make the most of the remaining time they have together, before Buffy moves in 10 days. Meanwhile, Jonah tries to find the right gift for Andi, who does appreciate his thinking of her but is unimpressed by the gifts he comes up with. Bex attempts to reach out to Amber, who has been feeling like an outsider lately, with no friends; things go wrong when Bex gives Amber a makeover.
With a week to go until Buffy moves, Andi seeks to recreate the "perfect '' day that she, Buffy and Cyrus experienced years ago, which included their first alpine slide. They travel by bicycle to a cider and donut shop they all remember fondly and stop for a treat. Just as they are ready to head for the alpine slide, Buffy and Cyrus discover their bikes are missing. The three later try to get to the slide by police escort, which gets cut short. With Andi and Buffy leaving their stuff in the police car, the three end up completely stranded, and Cyrus ' phone, with an almost drained battery, is their only hope. They use it to call Bex, and although Andi indicates nothing wrong on their trip, Bex manages to find them and give them a ride back home. Meanwhile, Bowie finds out about Jonah 's panic attacks, but also realizes Jonah has a musical gift after giving him a guitar lesson.
Guest star: Trent Garrett as Bowie
A power outage at school means a day off for Andi and her friends. Bex sets up a "fort '' for Andi in their living room where the two can spend time together by themselves. The two try a BFF quiz from a magazine, and one of the questions frustrates Andi, who wants to know Bex 's biggest regret but gets no answer from her. Eventually, Bex reveals to Andi that she regrets not saying yes to Bowie 's marriage proposal. Andi wants Bex to relay that to Bowie, but Bex refuses to do so, pointing out that he has moved on. This leads to their first fight, with Andi becoming so hurt that she leaves home and asks Bowie if she can stay with him.
Meanwhile, Cyrus coaxes Buffy into playing a board game on their day off. Jonah joins in, and while the three get immersed into the game, Jonah is also becoming increasingly worried about Andi, who is not returning any of his texts. Cyrus and Buffy, who find out Jonah and Andi are truly together, try to assure him that Andi is dealing with something else for the day, because she has not texted them either.
When TJ becomes ineligible to play basketball due to his math grades, Cyrus gives him advice about his learning disability to allow him to play. This does not sit well with Buffy, who is starting to make a name for herself on the basketball team. When she discovers TJ told his math teacher about his disability, she becomes more suspicious about Cyrus ' motives. TJ 's actions end up costing Buffy her spot on the basketball team and her friendship with Cyrus.
Meanwhile, Andi gets a surprise phone call from someone not on her contacts list and finds out it is Walker. As the two spend time together at an art gallery, Walker asks for Andi 's help with artwork he is trying to create, and they develop a masterpiece. Bowie gets Jonah an appointment with a professional music teacher, but Jonah misses that appointment when he is sidetracked by the artwork both Andi and Walker did.
Guest stars: Trent Garrett as Bowie, Luke Mullen as TJ, Darius Marcell as Walker
When Andi and Bowie are about to head to Celia 's house, they see Miranda and her daughter Morgan. Since Miranda needs to do some errands, Andi and Bowie are willing to look after Morgan, and Andi gives her a look at Andi Shack. The girls do some crafting in there until Miranda comes to pick up Morgan, but after they leave, Andi discovers a special bracelet she is making for Bex is missing. She accuses Morgan of taking it after searching thoroughly and tells Bowie, who has a hard time believing her. It turns out Morgan did not take the bracelet, as Bowie finds it later, misplaced in Andi Shack. Though Andi apologizes to Morgan, she is convinced that Miranda is not right for Bowie.
Jonah holds a fundraiser breakfast for the Space Otters but struggles with the event because Gus forgot to send the invitations. Cyrus and Buffy eventually show up to help, but their continued fighting about their friendship threatens the fundraiser. As the two learn about Jonah 's recent panic attacks, they talk through what has happened, including when TJ first talked to Cyrus and wanted to be his friend, and they end their fighting.
Jonah tells Bowie that Andi may not like him anymore, so Bowie encourages him to sing at an open mic night at the Red Rooster and helps him to write the song. Andi, meanwhile, gets another call from Walker, who wants to see her again, but Andi tells him she needs to be with Buffy as her moving day draws near. Walker surprises Andi at The Spoon and also meets Cyrus and Buffy, drawing a picture of the three as Buffy 's going - away gift. While Andi enjoys spending time with Walker, she also thinks about Jonah, who later invites her, as well as Cyrus and Buffy, to the open mic night. When it comes time for Jonah to perform, he nervously struggles through his song until he looks at Andi. She reacts favorably to the song by kissing him.
Meanwhile, The Fringe suddenly picks up multiple positive reviews, all of which Bex discovers her mother is behind, as well as negative ones against the competition. When that backfires, Celia finds another way to get her daughter noticed, by buying The Fringe, which has been struggling financially.
On the last day before Buffy and her mother move to Phoenix, Andi and Cyrus are faced with saying goodbye. After Buffy makes a casual comment about bottling her memories with her friends in a time capsule, Andi and Cyrus decide they want to do that as a way to remember her. Despite her comment, Buffy is against the idea and feels disinclined to say goodbye to her friends. Andi and Cyrus work on building the capsule anyway, hoping Buffy will see it before she leaves the next morning. Jonah also contributes to it, adding a basketball signed by Buffy 's teammates, as well as her team jersey. When Andi, Cyrus and Jonah go to Buffy 's house that night to surprise her with the time capsule, they discover the Driscolls have already left, without a goodbye. Meanwhile, Ham is upset after finding out from Bex that Celia bought The Fringe, which leads Celia to opt out of the purchase.
Andi and Cyrus miss Buffy and try to cope by talking to her time capsule, since they are not hearing from her. Later, Andi invites Walker to her apartment, intending to tell him that she is seeing Jonah. Complicating matters is a pair of shoes Walker gives to her, which he designed from their earlier painting. Although Andi is not inclined to accept the shoes, she reluctantly does after Walker insists she keep them. When Jonah sees Andi wearing the shoes, he becomes upset, aware they came from Walker without her mentioning him by name. Andi worries over Jonah avoiding her afterward, and her anxiety is not eased by his being with Natalie. She wants to talk to Bex about her problem, but with Bex and Celia working on a redesign project for The Fringe, which becomes known as Cloud Ten, Andi feels left out with no one else to talk to. Despite things looking bleak, Andi gets a big surprise when she notices Buffy right outside her apartment. Meanwhile, TJ helps Cyrus deal with his inability to do somersaults.
With Buffy 's return, Andi and Cyrus find out she lives only one hour away from them, much closer than Phoenix, due to government budget cuts changing Pat 's assignment. Buffy appreciates her time capsule and wants to peek inside, but the lid is on tight. Andi informs her about the contents, including her basketball jersey and a ball signed by her teammates, which Andi mentions was Jonah 's idea. Jonah, meanwhile, tries out for the elite Ultimate team at school, with Cyrus there to support him, and to comfort him when he does not make the team. Cyrus later tells Buffy that he no longer has romantic feelings for Jonah, as his feelings have become those of friendship. That leads Buffy to reveal that she has romantic feelings for someone; when she wants to keep it from Andi, Cyrus immediately believes it is Jonah.
Andi works on a new bracelet for Jonah, and while she does, Bex reminds her about the old one, which she thought was discarded but discovers in a memory box Bex started for her. Andi gives Jonah the original bracelet back; they enter into a romantic relationship.
Ham informs Andi and Bex that he plans to travel overseas by himself, and while shocked by the news, the women understand he needs the adventure. He lets Celia know during a family dinner.
When Bowie discovers that Morgan is about leave Red Rooster with an unpaid music box, he questions Miranda 's handling of the situation. Miranda has Morgan return the item, but Bowie is disturbed over Miranda 's not reprimanding her daughter for stealing. In remembering the incident over Andi 's missing bracelet which she accused Morgan of taking from Andi Shack, Bowie was sure the bracelet had been misplaced but finds out Miranda planted it back in Andi Shack to cover her daughter 's theft. That leads Bowie to break up with Miranda, as he can no longer trust her -- and to apologize to Andi for not believing her.
Meanwhile, Cyrus notices Amber with one of his therapist parents for counseling, and while he promises to honor the doctor - patient confidentiality, Amber tests him to ensure she can trust him not to reveal any of her secrets. Andi is uncomfortable over Walker 's original drawing of her being on exhibit at an art festival, despite its first - place award, but seems relieved after Jonah and Walker 's first meeting, at the festival, turns out to be amicable. When Cyrus sees Buffy talking to Walker at the festival, her body language prompts him to think she is attracted to Walker instead of Jonah.
Andi, Bex and Celia are getting word out about the opening of Cloud Ten, formerly The Fringe. Jonah asks Andi on their first true date there, and they spend it at a place with a bunch of trampolines. Andi enjoys the date and asks Jonah on another one, but he declines because he is going to an eight - week camp to improve his Ultimate skills. The news comes as a shock to Andi, who finds out he is leaving the next day. After they say goodbye, she resigns to Andi Shack and finds Celia in there, who is dealing with Ham being away, so the two console each other.
With Andi out on her date with Jonah, Bex and Bowie spend time together, rekindling their relationship. Later, while seeing Bex asleep, Bowie tells her he loves her, unaware that she hears him. Bex tells Andi the next day that she is going to propose to Bowie.
Meanwhile, Cyrus is seeing animosity between Buffy and Amber, which he discovers after talking to them is superficial hatred, with neither actually holding a grudge against each other.
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what kind of speech does the first amendment protect commercial speech defamation | Commercial speech - wikipedia
In law, commercial speech is speech or writing on behalf of a business with the intent of earning a profit. It is economic in nature and usually attempts to persuade consumers to purchase the business 's product or service. The Supreme Court of the United States defines commercial speech as speech that "proposes a commercial transaction ''.
In the United States, commercial speech is "entitled to substantial First Amendment protection, albeit less than political, ideological, or artistic speech ''. In the 1980 case Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission, the U.S. Supreme Court developed a four - part test to determine whether commercial speech regulation violates the First Amendment:
Until the 1976 Supreme Court case Virginia State Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council, commercial speech in the United States was viewed as an "unprotected '' category of speech beyond the pale of First Amendment protection. Indeed, the idea of commercial speech was first introduced by the Supreme Court when it upheld Valentine v. Chrestensen in 1942, which ruled that commercial speech in public is not constitutionally protected. In upholding the regulation, the Supreme Court said, "We are... clear that the Constitution imposes... no restraint on government as respects purely commercial advertising ''. This ruling, however, would be overturned with Virginia State Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council (1976) and Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission (1980).
The Court has recognized that commercial speech does not fall outside the purview of the First Amendment and has afforded commercial speech a measure of First Amendment protection "commensurate '' with its position in relation to other constitutionally guaranteed expression. The Court has set forth a framework for analyzing commercial speech under intermediate scrutiny:
At the outset, we must determine whether the expression is protected by the First Amendment. For commercial speech to come within that provision, it at least must concern lawful activity and not be misleading. Next, we ask whether the asserted governmental interest is substantial. If both inquiries yield positive answers, we must determine whether the regulation directly advances the governmental interest asserted, and whether it is not more extensive than is necessary to serve that interest.
Members of the Supreme Court have expressed doubts about the Court 's differential treatment of commercial speech in relation to other types of speech. Justice Clarence Thomas replied, in 44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island (1996), that "I do not see a philosophical or historical basis for asserting that ' commercial ' speech is of ' lower value ' than ' noncommercial ' speech. '' Justice Thomas would apply strict scrutiny to regulations of commercial speech. Justice Antonin Scalia expressed "discomfort with the Central Hudson test, which seem (ed to him) to have nothing more than policy intuition to support it ''.
U.S. Court of Appeals judge Alex Kozinski criticized the 1942 Valentine v. Chrestensen ruling, stating that "the Supreme Court plucked the commercial speech doctrine out of thin air ''.
The European Court of Human Rights has held that commercial speech is protected under Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) on several occasions since the 1980s, but lacks a counterpart to the commercial speech doctrine that exists under U.S. law.
In Germany, the courts adopted a strict approach to advertising and commercial speech due to its emphasis on ensuring competition. For example, in Barthold v. Germany (1985), the European Court of Human Rights held that enjoining a veterinary surgeon for advocating for 24 - hour animal clinics (which did not exist at the time in Hamburg, Germany) violated his free expression rights. After the vet was quoted in a newspaper article, he was sued for violating the veterinary association 's rules of professional conduct, which barred vets from advertising, and he was injuncted from making similar statements in the future.
In the 1990 Markt Intern Verlag GmbH and Klaus Beermann v. Germany case -- described Europe 's "leading case concerning speech in commercial context '' -- the European Court of Human Rights concluded that there had been no violation of Article 10 when Germany 's Federal Court of Justice prohibited a publishing company from repeating statements that had been published in a specialist information bulletin criticizing the practices of another company. It noted that the prohibition did not exceed the "margin of appreciation which national authorities were allowed in laying down, in accordance with Article 10, § 2, formalities, conditions, restrictions or penalties on the exercise of freedom of expression ''.
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doctor who horror of fang rock part 1 | Horror of Fang Rock - Wikipedia
Horror of Fang Rock is the first serial of the 15th season of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who, which was first broadcast in four weekly parts on BBC1 from 3 to 24 September 1977.
The serial is set on the fictional English island of Fang Rock. In the serial, a shapeshifting alien scout called a Rutan arrives on Earth intending to use the planet as a strategic base in the Rutans ' war against the Sontarans.
On the way to show Brighton to Leela, the TARDIS lands on the island of Fang Rock off the south coast of England in the early 20th century. Noticing that the lighthouse is n't functioning properly, the Fourth Doctor decides to investigate, as well as to ask for directions, as the TARDIS seems to have got ' lost in the fog '. Upon arrival at the lighthouse, and after introducing themselves, the Doctor discovers the dead body of one of the keepers, Ben. The other two keepers, old superstitious Reuben and the keen young Vince Hawkins, report that a light fell from the sky near the island. They also explain the electricity flow to the lamp on the lighthouse has become erratic and the Doctor deduces something is feeding on the flow. Reuben does not help matters with his constant references to the mythical Beast of Fang Rock, which reputedly once terrorised the lighthouse. As the Doctor and Leela explore, something moves Ben 's body out of the lighthouse and onto the island, and they witness a curious electric crackling which seems to have killed fish nearby.
The loss of the electric light due to the unexplained draining of power from the generators causes a luxury yacht to crash on to Fang Rock. The four survivors are brought to the lighthouse: the bosun Harker; Colonel James Skinsale MP; the owner, Lord Palmerdale; and his highly strung secretary Adelaide Lessage. Over time it emerges Palmerdale has bought government secrets from Skinsale and was desperate to reach the stock exchange to make a killing -- hence the reason the ship was travelling at such a pace.
Harker and the Doctor retrieve Ben 's body and the Time Lord deduces it has been used as an anatomy lesson for an alien life form. He determines that their best protection is to secure the lighthouse to keep the creature out. Reuben then disappears for a time and then reappears a changed man, which the others put down to shock. But the pattern of death now speeds up. Palmerdale is killed in the lamp room by a glowing alien presence on the outside of the lighthouse, and then Harker is killed when Reuben corners him in the boiler room. From the alien light emanating from Reuben it is clear he has become possessed or transformed by the alien creature. The Doctor finds Harker 's body and then Reuben 's own -- the latter cold for some time -- which means the creature in Reuben 's form has chameleonic properties.
The creature then stalks down and kills the others in the lighthouse. Vince dies first, then Adelaide. With its presence now revealed, the alien sheds its disguise: revealing itself to be a Rutan, the hereditary enemies of the Sontarans, a green blob - like amphibious life form, whose scout ship crash landed in the sea and is trying to summon its mother ship. With the Rutans losing the war against the Sontarans, they plan to turn Earth into a base for its strategic position, which will allow them to launch a counterattack. However, once the Sontarans find the planet, it will become subject to a photonic bombardment, taking countless human lives. The lighthouse and Victorian - age technology provide little help in dealing with the Rutan; however, the Doctor modifies a weapon to destroy the alien, who was susceptible to high temperatures. The Doctor and Skinsale retrieve diamonds from Palmerdale 's body belt to use the weapon, but Skinsale is killed by the Rutan in the process. The Doctor uses the diamonds as a focus for the electric lighthouse beam to convert it into a high - energy laser by which he destroys the Rutan mother ship. Disobeying the Doctor, Leela watches the laser destroy the ship and is momentarily blinded, as a side effect the blinding flash turns Leela 's eyes from brown to blue. The Doctor quotes Wilfrid Wilson Gibson 's poem Flannan Isle as the two take their leave.
Working titles for this story included The Monster of Fang Rock and The Beast of Fang Rock. Horror of Fang Rock was a late replacement for the scripts Terrance Dicks had originally submitted, a vampire - based tale entitled The Vampire Mutations, which was cancelled close to production as it was feared it could detract from the BBC 's Count Dracula a high - profile adaptation of Bram Stoker 's classic novel Dracula, which was due for transmission close to when the serial would have aired. A re-written version did, however, eventually see production in 1980 as State of Decay, part of the eighteenth season of Doctor Who.
The serial is the only one of the original series to have been produced at BBC studios outside London. Engineering work at those studios meant that it was made at the Pebble Mill Studios of BBC Birmingham instead. According to the DVD commentary supplied by Louise Jameson, John Abbott and Terrance Dicks, a scene in part three was crucial to the behind - the - scenes relationship between Jameson and co-star Tom Baker. In one scene, he consistently came in ahead of his cue, thereby upstaging her. On the grounds that this move was "not what they had rehearsed '' she insisted on three successive retakes until he came in at the rehearsed time. This eventually won his respect. From that point forward, she claims their working relationship was much smoother.
Louise Jameson stops wearing her brown contacts at the end of this serial, with the sudden change in colour being explained as a pigment dispersal caused by looking directly into a bright explosion. As mentioned in more than one DVD commentary Jameson had found the contacts painful to wear, and made their removal a condition for her agreeing to play Leela for another season.
Alan Rowe had previously played Dr. Evans and provided the voice from Space Control in The Moonbase (1967) as well as Edward of Wessex in The Time Warrior (1973 -- 74) and later appeared as Garif in the serial Full Circle (1980). Ralph Watson had previously played Captain Knight in The Web of Fear (1968) as well as Ettis in The Monster of Peladon (1974). Colin Douglas had previously played Donald Bruce in The Enemy of the World (1967 -- 68).
Paul Cornell, Martin Day, and Keith Topping, wrote of the serial in The Discontinuity Guide (1995), "A masterpiece, designed to do nothing more than scare kids, which it does very efficiently. It 's a very good Leela story, too. '' In The Television Companion (1998), David J. Howe and Stephen James Walker were also positive, describing it as "a tightly constructed drama that succeeds because of, rather than in spite of, its confined setting and limited cast ''. They praised the sets, atmosphere, and most of the acting. In 2010, Mark Braxton of Radio Times called the serial "classy, cosy, autumnal Who '', with many pluses, including the good characterisation of Leela, the shock of the Doctor admitting he had done something wrong, and the characterisation of the lighthouse crew. The AV club 's Christopher Bahn was critical of the pacing of the end of the story and the "often unconvincing '' special effects but considered the serial to be despite some flaws "a classic base - under - siege chiller ''.
On 22 November 1987, a broadcast of Horror of Fang Rock by Chicago television station WTTW was interrupted for around 90 seconds by a pirate broadcast featuring an individual disguised as television character Max Headroom. The incident made national headlines and the people responsible were never identified.
A novelisation of this serial, written by Terrance Dicks, was published by Target Books in March 1978. According to the DVD commentary, this novelisation features his favourite cover.
Horror of Fang Rock was released on VHS in July 1998. It was released on Region 2 DVD in the United Kingdom on 17 January 2005, in Australia on Region 4 DVD on 7 April 2005, and in the United States on Region 1 DVD on 6 September 2005.
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2. how did the rate of weathering and erosion change after the evolution of land plants | Erosion - wikipedia
In earth science, erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth 's crust, and then transport it away to another location (not to be confused with weathering which involves no movement). This natural process is caused by the dynamic activity of erosive agents, that is, water, ice (glaciers), snow, air (wind), plants, animals, and humans. In accordance with these agents, erosion is sometimes divided into water erosion, glacial erosion, snow erosion, wind (aeolic) erosion, zoogenic erosion, and anthropogenic erosion. The particulate breakdown of rock or soil into clastic sediment is referred to as physical or mechanical erosion; this contrasts with chemical erosion, where soil or rock material is removed from an area by its dissolving into a solvent (typically water), followed by the flow away of that solution. Eroded sediment or solutes may be transported just a few millimetres, or for thousands of kilometres.
Natural rates of erosion are controlled by the action of geological weathering geomorphic drivers, such as rainfall; bedrock wear in rivers; coastal erosion by the sea and waves; glacial plucking, abrasion, and scour; areal flooding; wind abrasion; groundwater processes; and mass movement processes in steep landscapes like landslides and debris flows. The rates at which such processes act control how fast a surface is eroded. Typically, physical erosion proceeds fastest on steeply sloping surfaces, and rates may also be sensitive to some climatically - controlled properties including amounts of water supplied (e.g., by rain), storminess, wind speed, wave fetch, or atmospheric temperature (especially for some ice - related processes). Feedbacks are also possible between rates of erosion and the amount of eroded material that is already carried by, for example, a river or glacier. Processes of erosion that produce sediment or solutes from a place contrast with those of deposition, which control the arrival and emplacement of material at a new location.
While erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10 - 40 times the rate at which erosion is occurring globally. At well - known agriculture sites such as the Appalachian Mountains, intensive farming practices have caused erosion up to 100x the speed of the natural rate of erosion in the region. Excessive (or accelerated) erosion causes both "on - site '' and "off - site '' problems. On - site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and (on natural landscapes) ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient - rich upper soil layers. In some cases, the eventual end result is desertification. Off - site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of water bodies, as well as sediment - related damage to roads and houses. Water and wind erosion are the two primary causes of land degradation; combined, they are responsible for about 84 % of the global extent of degraded land, making excessive erosion one of the most significant environmental problems worldwide.
Intensive agriculture, deforestation, roads, anthropogenic climate change and urban sprawl are amongst the most significant human activities in regard to their effect on stimulating erosion. However, there are many prevention and remediation practices that can curtail or limit erosion of vulnerable soils.
Rainfall, and the surface runoff which may result from rainfall, produces four main types of soil erosion: splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion, and gully erosion. Splash erosion is generally seen as the first and least severe stage in the soil erosion process, which is followed by sheet erosion, then rill erosion and finally gully erosion (the most severe of the four).
In splash erosion, the impact of a falling raindrop creates a small crater in the soil, ejecting soil particles. The distance these soil particles travel can be as much as 0.6 m (two feet) vertically and 1.5 m (five feet) horizontally on level ground.
If the soil is saturated, or if the rainfall rate is greater than the rate at which water can infiltrate into the soil, surface runoff occurs. If the runoff has sufficient flow energy, it will transport loosened soil particles (sediment) down the slope. Sheet erosion is the transport of loosened soil particles by overland flow.
Rill erosion refers to the development of small, ephemeral concentrated flow paths which function as both sediment source and sediment delivery systems for erosion on hillslopes. Generally, where water erosion rates on disturbed upland areas are greatest, rills are active. Flow depths in rills are typically of the order of a few centimetres (about an inch) or less and along - channel slopes may be quite steep. This means that rills exhibit hydraulic physics very different from water flowing through the deeper, wider channels of streams and rivers.
Gully erosion occurs when runoff water accumulates and rapidly flows in narrow channels during or immediately after heavy rains or melting snow, removing soil to a considerable depth.
Valley or stream erosion occurs with continued water flow along a linear feature. The erosion is both downward, deepening the valley, and headward, extending the valley into the hillside, creating head cuts and steep banks. In the earliest stage of stream erosion, the erosive activity is dominantly vertical, the valleys have a typical V cross-section and the stream gradient is relatively steep. When some base level is reached, the erosive activity switches to lateral erosion, which widens the valley floor and creates a narrow floodplain. The stream gradient becomes nearly flat, and lateral deposition of sediments becomes important as the stream meanders across the valley floor. In all stages of stream erosion, by far the most erosion occurs during times of flood, when more and faster - moving water is available to carry a larger sediment load. In such processes, it is not the water alone that erodes: suspended abrasive particles, pebbles, and boulders can also act erosively as they traverse a surface, in a process known as traction.
Bank erosion is the wearing away of the banks of a stream or river. This is distinguished from changes on the bed of the watercourse, which is referred to as scour. Erosion and changes in the form of river banks may be measured by inserting metal rods into the bank and marking the position of the bank surface along the rods at different times.
Thermal erosion is the result of melting and weakening permafrost due to moving water. It can occur both along rivers and at the coast. Rapid river channel migration observed in the Lena River of Siberia is due to thermal erosion, as these portions of the banks are composed of permafrost - cemented non-cohesive materials. Much of this erosion occurs as the weakened banks fail in large slumps. Thermal erosion also affects the Arctic coast, where wave action and near - shore temperatures combine to undercut permafrost bluffs along the shoreline and cause them to fail. Annual erosion rates along a 100 - kilometre (62 - mile) segment of the Beaufort Sea shoreline averaged 5.6 metres (18 feet) per year from 1955 to 2002.
Most river erosion happens nearer to the mouth of a river. On a river bend the longest least sharp side has slower moving water. Here deposits build up. On the narrowest sharpest side of the bend there is faster moving water so this side tend to erode away mostly.
Shoreline erosion, which occurs on both exposed and sheltered coasts, primarily occurs through the action of currents and waves but sea level (tidal) change can also play a role.
Hydraulic action takes place when air in a joint is suddenly compressed by a wave closing the entrance of the joint. This then cracks it. Wave pounding is when the sheer energy of the wave hitting the cliff or rock breaks pieces off. Abrasion or corrasion is caused by waves launching seaload at the cliff. It is the most effective and rapid form of shoreline erosion (not to be confused with corrosion). Corrosion is the dissolving of rock by carbonic acid in sea water. Limestone cliffs are particularly vulnerable to this kind of erosion. Attrition is where particles / seaload carried by the waves are worn down as they hit each other and the cliffs. This then makes the material easier to wash away. The material ends up as shingle and sand. Another significant source of erosion, particularly on carbonate coastlines, is the boring, scraping and grinding of organisms, a process termed bioerosion.
Sediment is transported along the coast in the direction of the prevailing current (longshore drift). When the upcurrent amount of sediment is less than the amount being carried away, erosion occurs. When the upcurrent amount of sediment is greater, sand or gravel banks will tend to form as a result of deposition. These banks may slowly migrate along the coast in the direction of the longshore drift, alternately protecting and exposing parts of the coastline. Where there is a bend in the coastline, quite often a buildup of eroded material occurs forming a long narrow bank (a spit). Armoured beaches and submerged offshore sandbanks may also protect parts of a coastline from erosion. Over the years, as the shoals gradually shift, the erosion may be redirected to attack different parts of the shore.
Chemical erosion is the loss of matter in a landscape in the form of solutes. Chemical erosion is usually calculated from the solutes found in streams. Anders Rapp pioneered the study of chemical erosion in his work about Kärkevagge published in 1960.
Glaciers erode predominantly by three different processes: abrasion / scouring, plucking, and ice thrusting. In an abrasion process, debris in the basal ice scrapes along the bed, polishing and gouging the underlying rocks, similar to sandpaper on wood. Scientists have shown that, in addition to the role of temperature played in valley - deepening, other glaciological processes, such as erosion also control cross-valley variations. In a homogeneous bedrock erosion pattern, curved channel cross section beneath the ice is created. Though the glacier continues to incise vertically, the shape of the channel beneath the ice eventually remain constant, reaching a U-shaped parabolic steady - state shape as we now see in glaciated valleys. Scientists also provide numerical estimate of the time required for the ultimate formation of a steady - shaped U-shaped valley - approximately 100,000 years. In a weak bedrock (containing material more erodible than the surrounding rocks) erosion pattern, on the contrary, the amount of overdeepening is limited because ice velocities and erosion rates are reduced.
Glaciers can also cause pieces of bedrock to crack off in the process of plucking. In ice thrusting, the glacier freezes to its bed, then as it surges forward, it moves large sheets of frozen sediment at the base along with the glacier. This method produced some of the many thousands of lake basins that dot the edge of the Canadian Shield. Differences in the height of mountain ranges are not only being the result tectonic forces, such as rock uplift, but also local climate variations. Scientists use global analysis of topography to show that glacial erosion controls the maximum height of mountains, as the relief between mountain peaks and the snow line are generally confined to altitudes less than 1500 m. The erosion caused by glaciers worldwide erodes mountains so effectively that the term glacial buzzsaw has become widely used, which describes the limiting effect of glaciers on the height of mountain ranges. As mountains grow higher, they generally allow for more glacial activity (especially in the accumulation zone above the glacial equilibrium line altitude), which causes increased rates of erosion of the mountain, decreasing mass faster than isostatic rebound can add to the mountain. This provides a good example of a negative feedback loop. Ongoing research is showing that while glaciers tend to decrease mountain size, in some areas, glaciers can actually reduce the rate of erosion, acting as a glacial armour. Ice can not only erode mountains, but also protect them from erosion. Depending on glacier regime, even steep alpine lands can be preserved through time with the help of ice. Scientists have proved this theory by sampling eight summits of northwestern Svalbard using Be10 and Al26, showing that northwestern Svalbard transformed from a glacier - erosion state under relatively mild glacial maxima temperature, to a glacier - armour state occupied by cold - based, protective ice during much colder glacial maxima temperatures as the Quaternary ice age progressed.
These processes, combined with erosion and transport by the water network beneath the glacier, leave behind glacial landforms such as moraines, drumlins, ground moraine (till), kames, kame deltas, moulins, and glacial erratics in their wake, typically at the terminus or during glacier retreat.
The best - developed glacial valley morphology appears to be restricted to landscapes with low rock uplift rates (less than or equal to 2 mm per year) and high relief, leading to long - turnover times. Where rock uplift rates exceed 2 mm per year, glacial valley morphology has generally been significantly modified in postglacial time. Interplay of glacial erosion and tectonic forcing governs the morphologic impact of glaciations on active orogens, by both influencing their height, and by altering the patterns of erosion during subsequent glacial periods via a link between rock uplift and valley cross-sectional shape.
At extremely high flows, kolks, or vortices are formed by large volumes of rapidly rushing water. Kolks cause extreme local erosion, plucking bedrock and creating pothole - type geographical features called Rock - cut basins. Examples can be seen in the flood regions result from glacial Lake Missoula, which created the channeled scablands in the Columbia Basin region of eastern Washington.
Wind erosion is a major geomorphological force, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. It is also a major source of land degradation, evaporation, desertification, harmful airborne dust, and crop damage -- especially after being increased far above natural rates by human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture.
Wind erosion is of two primary varieties: deflation, where the wind picks up and carries away loose particles; and abrasion, where surfaces are worn down as they are struck by airborne particles carried by wind. Deflation is divided into three categories: (1) surface creep, where larger, heavier particles slide or roll along the ground; (2) saltation, where particles are lifted a short height into the air, and bounce and saltate across the surface of the soil; and (3) suspension, where very small and light particles are lifted into the air by the wind, and are often carried for long distances. Saltation is responsible for the majority (50 - 70 %) of wind erosion, followed by suspension (30 - 40 %), and then surface creep (5 - 25 %).
Wind erosion is much more severe in arid areas and during times of drought. For example, in the Great Plains, it is estimated that soil loss due to wind erosion can be as much as 6100 times greater in drought years than in wet years.
Mass movement is the downward and outward movement of rock and sediments on a sloped surface, mainly due to the force of gravity.
Mass movement is an important part of the erosional process, and is often the first stage in the breakdown and transport of weathered materials in mountainous areas. It moves material from higher elevations to lower elevations where other eroding agents such as streams and glaciers can then pick up the material and move it to even lower elevations. Mass - movement processes are always occurring continuously on all slopes; some mass - movement processes act very slowly; others occur very suddenly, often with disastrous results. Any perceptible down - slope movement of rock or sediment is often referred to in general terms as a landslide. However, landslides can be classified in a much more detailed way that reflects the mechanisms responsible for the movement and the velocity at which the movement occurs. One of the visible topographical manifestations of a very slow form of such activity is a scree slope.
Slumping happens on steep hillsides, occurring along distinct fracture zones, often within materials like clay that, once released, may move quite rapidly downhill. They will often show a spoon - shaped isostatic depression, in which the material has begun to slide downhill. In some cases, the slump is caused by water beneath the slope weakening it. In many cases it is simply the result of poor engineering along highways where it is a regular occurrence.
Surface creep is the slow movement of soil and rock debris by gravity which is usually not perceptible except through extended observation. However, the term can also describe the rolling of dislodged soil particles 0.5 to 1.0 mm (0.02 to 0.04 in) in diameter by wind along the soil surface.
The amount and intensity of precipitation is the main climatic factor governing soil erosion by water. The relationship is particularly strong if heavy rainfall occurs at times when, or in locations where, the soil 's surface is not well protected by vegetation. This might be during periods when agricultural activities leave the soil bare, or in semi-arid regions where vegetation is naturally sparse. Wind erosion requires strong winds, particularly during times of drought when vegetation is sparse and soil is dry (and so is more erodible). Other climatic factors such as average temperature and temperature range may also affect erosion, via their effects on vegetation and soil properties. In general, given similar vegetation and ecosystems, areas with more precipitation (especially high - intensity rainfall), more wind, or more storms are expected to have more erosion.
In some areas of the world (e.g. the mid-western USA), rainfall intensity is the primary determinant of erosivity (for a definition of erosivity check,) with higher intensity rainfall generally resulting in more soil erosion by water. The size and velocity of rain drops is also an important factor. Larger and higher - velocity rain drops have greater kinetic energy, and thus their impact will displace soil particles by larger distances than smaller, slower - moving rain drops.
In other regions of the world (e.g. western Europe), runoff and erosion result from relatively low intensities of stratiform rainfall falling onto previously saturated soil. In such situations, rainfall amount rather than intensity is the main factor determining the severity of soil erosion by water.
In Taiwan, where typhoon frequency increased significantly in the 21st century, a strong link has been drawn between the increase in storm frequency with an increase in sediment load in rivers and reservoirs, highlighting the impacts climate change can have on erosion.
Vegetation acts as an interface between the atmosphere and the soil. It increases the permeability of the soil to rainwater, thus decreasing runoff. It shelters the soil from winds, which results in decreased wind erosion, as well as advantageous changes in microclimate. The roots of the plants bind the soil together, and interweave with other roots, forming a more solid mass that is less susceptible to both water and wind erosion. The removal of vegetation increases the rate of surface erosion.
The topography of the land determines the velocity at which surface runoff will flow, which in turn determines the erosivity of the runoff. Longer, steeper slopes (especially those without adequate vegetative cover) are more susceptible to very high rates of erosion during heavy rains than shorter, less steep slopes. Steeper terrain is also more prone to mudslides, landslides, and other forms of gravitational erosion processes.
Tectonic processes control rates and distributions of erosion at the Earth 's surface. If tectonic action causes part of the Earth 's surface (e.g., a mountain range) to be raised or lowered relative to surrounding areas, this must necessarily change the gradient of the land surface. Because erosion rates are almost always sensitive to local slope (see above), this will change the rates of erosion in the uplifted area. Active tectonics also brings fresh, unweathered rock towards the surface, where it is exposed to the action of erosion.
However, erosion can also affect tectonic processes. The removal by erosion of large amounts of rock from a particular region, and its deposition elsewhere, can result in a lightening of the load on the lower crust and mantle. Because tectonic processes are driven by gradients in the stress field developed in the crust, this unloading can in turn cause tectonic or isostatic uplift in the region. In some cases, it has been hypothesised that these twin feedbacks can act to localise and enhance zones of very rapid exhumation of deep crustal rocks beneath places on the Earth 's surface with extremely high erosion rates, for example, beneath the extremely steep terrain of Nanga Parbat in the western Himalayas. Such a place has been called a "tectonic aneurysm ''.
Human land development, in forms including agricultural and urban development, is considered a significant factor in erosion and sediment transport. In Taiwan, increases in sediment load in the northern, central, and southern regions of the island can be tracked with the timeline of development for each region throughout the 20th century.
Mountain ranges are known to take many millions of years to erode to the degree they effectively cease to exist. Scholars Pitman and Golovchenko estimate that it takes probably more than 450 million years to erode a mountain mass similar to the Himalaya into an almost - flat peneplain if there are no major sea - level changes. Erosion of mountains massifs can create a pattern of equally high summits called summit accordance. It has been argued that extension during post-orogenic collapse is a more effective mechanism of lowering the height of orogenic mountains than erosion.
Examples of heavily eroded mountain ranges include the Timanides of Northern Russia. Erosion of this orogen has produced sediments that are now found in the East European Platform, including the Cambrian Sablya Formation near Lake Ladoga. Studies of these sediments indicate that it is likely that the erosion of the orogen began in the Cambrian and then intensified in the Ordovician.
If the rate of erosion is higher than the rate of soil formation the soils are being destroyed by erosion. Where soil is not destroyed by erosion, erosion can in some cases prevent the formation of soil features that form slowly. Inceptisols are common soils that form in areas of fast erosion.
While erosion of soils is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10 - 40 times the rate at which erosion is occurring globally. Excessive (or accelerated) erosion causes both "on - site '' and "off - site '' problems. On - site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and (on natural landscapes) ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient - rich upper soil layers. In some cases, the eventual end result is desertification. Off - site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of water bodies, as well as sediment - related damage to roads and houses. Water and wind erosion are the two primary causes of land degradation; combined, they are responsible for about 84 % of the global extent of degraded land, making excessive erosion one of the most significant environmental problems.
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who played the original fantine in les miserables | Les Misérables (musical) - wikipedia
Les Misérables (English: / leɪ ˌmɪzəˈrɑːb /; French pronunciation: (le mizeʁabl (ə))), colloquially known in English - speaking countries as Les Mis or Les Miz (/ leɪ ˈmɪz /), is a sung - through musical based on the five - part novel Les Misérables by French poet and novelist Victor Hugo. Premiering in Paris in 1980, it has music by Claude - Michel Schönberg and original French - language lyrics by Alain Boublil and Jean - Marc Natel, alongside an English - language libretto with accompanying English - language lyrics by Herbert Kretzmer. The London production has run continuously since October 1985, making it the longest - running musical in the West End and the second longest - running musical in the world after the original Off - Broadway run of The Fantasticks.
Set in early 19th - century France, it is the story of Jean Valjean, a French peasant, and his quest for redemption after serving nineteen years in jail for having stolen a loaf of bread for his sister 's starving child. Valjean decides to break his parole and start his life anew after a kindly bishop inspires him by a tremendous act of mercy, but he is relentlessly tracked down by a police inspector named Javert. Along the way, Valjean and a slew of characters are swept into a revolutionary period in France, where a group of young idealists make their last stand at a street barricade.
Originally released as a French - language concept album, the first musical - stage adaptation of Les Misérables was presented at the Palais des Sports in 1980. However, the production closed after three months when the booking contract expired.
In 1983, about six months after producer Cameron Mackintosh had opened Cats on Broadway, he received a copy of the French concept album from director Peter Farago. Farago had been impressed by the work and asked Mackintosh to produce an English - language version of the show. Initially reluctant, Mackintosh eventually agreed. Mackintosh, in conjunction with the Royal Shakespeare Company, assembled a production team to adapt the French musical for a British audience. After two years in development, the English - language version opened in London on 8 October 1985, by the Royal Shakespeare Company at the Barbican Centre, then the London home of the RSC. The success of the West End musical led to a Broadway production.
At the opening of the London production, critical reviews were negative. The Sunday Telegraph 's Francis King described the show as "a lurid Victorian melodrama produced with Victorian lavishness '' and Michael Ratcliffe in The Observer dubbed the show "a witless and synthetic entertainment '', while literary scholars condemned the project for converting classic literature into a musical. Public opinion differed: the box office received record orders. The three - month engagement sold out, and reviews improved. The London production has run continuously since October 1985: the second longest - running musical in the world after The Fantasticks, the second longest - running West End show after The Mousetrap, It is the longest - running musical in the West End followed by The Phantom of the Opera. In 2010, it played its ten - thousandth performance in London, at Queen 's Theatre. On 3 October 2010, the show celebrated its 25th anniversary with three productions running in London: the original production at the Queen 's Theatre; the 25th Anniversary touring production at its 1985 try - out venue, the Barbican Centre; and the 25th Anniversary concert at London 's O2 Arena.
The Broadway production opened 12 March 1987 and ran until 18 May 2003, closing after 6,680 performances. It is the fifth longest - running Broadway show in history and was the second - longest at the time. The show was nominated for 12 Tony Awards and won eight, including Best Musical and Best Original Score.
Subsequently, numerous tours and international and regional productions have been staged, as well as concert and broadcast productions. Several recordings have also been made. A Broadway revival opened in 2006 at the Broadhurst Theatre and closed in 2008, and a second Broadway revival opened in 2014 at the Imperial Theatre and closed in September 2016. The show was placed first in a BBC Radio 2 listener poll of Britain 's "Number One Essential Musicals '' in 2005, receiving more than forty percent of the votes. A film version directed by Tom Hooper was released at the end of 2012 to generally positive reviews as well as numerous awards nominations, winning three Academy Awards, three Golden Globe Awards and four British Academy Film Awards (BAFTA).
The musical 's emblem is a picture of the waif Cosette sweeping the Thénardiers ' inn (which occurs in the musical during "Castle on a Cloud ''), usually shown cropped to a head - and - shoulders portrait superimposed on the French flag. The image is based on an etching by Gustave Brion based on the drawing by Émile Bayard. It appeared in several of the novel 's earliest French - language editions.
In 1815, the prisoners work at hard labour ("Work Song ''). After 19 years in prison (five for stealing bread for his starving sister 's son and her family, and the rest for trying to escape), Jean Valjean, "prisoner 24601 '', is released on parole by the policeman Javert. By law, Valjean must display a yellow ticket - of - leave, which identifies him as an ex-convict ("On Parole ''). As a convict, Valjean is shunned wherever he goes and can not find regular work or lodging, but the Bishop of Digne offers him food and shelter. Desperate and embittered, Valjean steals the Bishop 's silver and flees. He is captured by the police, but rather than turn him in, the Bishop lies and tells the police that the silver was a gift, giving Valjean a pair of silver candlesticks in addition. The Bishop tells Valjean that he must use the silver "to become an honest man '' and that he has "bought (Valjean 's) soul for God '' ("Valjean Arrested, Valjean Forgiven ''). Ashamed and humbled by the Bishop 's kindness, Valjean resolves to redeem his sins ("Valjean 's Soliloquy '' / "What Have I Done? ''). He tears up his yellow ticket, breaking his parole but giving himself a chance to start a new life free from the stigma of his criminal past.
Eight years later, in 1823, Valjean has assumed a new identity as Monsieur Madeleine, a wealthy factory owner and mayor of Montreuil - sur - Mer. Fantine is a single mother working in his factory, trying to support her daughter Cosette, who is being raised by an innkeeper and his wife while Fantine labors in the city. Unbeknownst to Valjean, the factory foreman lusts after Fantine, and when she rejects his advances, he takes it out on the other workers, who resent her for it. One day, a coworker steals a letter about Cosette from Fantine, revealing to the other workers that Fantine has a child. A fight breaks out, and the foreman uses the incident as a pretense to fire Fantine ("At the End of the Day ''). Fantine reflects on her broken dreams and about Cosette 's father, who abandoned them both ("I Dreamed a Dream ''). Desperate for money, she sells her locket and hair, finally becoming a prostitute ("Lovely Ladies ''). When she fights back against an abusive customer, Bamatabois, Javert, now a police inspector stationed in Montreuil - sur - Mer, arrives to arrest her. But Valjean, passing by the scene, pities Fantine, and when he realizes she once worked for him and that she blames him for her misfortune, he is guilt - stricken. He orders Javert to release her and take her to a hospital ("Fantine 's Arrest '').
Soon afterwards, Valjean rescues a man pinned by a runaway cart ("The Runaway Cart ''). Javert, who has up until now not recognized Valjean, though he has pursued him as a fugitive all these years, witnesses the incident and becomes suspicious, remembering the incredible strength Valjean displayed in the work camp. But it turns out another man has been arrested, and is about to go to trial for breaking parole. The real Valjean realizes that this case of mistaken identity could free him forever, but he 's not willing to see an innocent man go to prison in his place and so confesses his identity to the court ("Who Am I? -- The Trial ''). At the hospital, a delirious Fantine dreams of Cosette. Valjean promises to find Cosette and protect her ("Come to Me '' / "Fantine 's Death ''). Relieved, Fantine succumbs to her illness and dies. Javert arrives to take Valjean back into custody, but Valjean asks Javert for time to fetch Cosette. Javert refuses, insisting that a criminal like Valjean can never change or do good. They struggle, but Valjean overpowers Javert and escapes ("The Confrontation '').
In Montfermeil, the duplicitous innkeepers, the Thénardiers, use Cosette as a servant while extorting money from Fantine by claiming that Cosette is seriously ill, all the while indulging their own daughter, Éponine. Cosette dreams of a life where she is not forced to work and is treated lovingly ("Castle on a Cloud ''). The Thénardiers cheat their customers and live a life of criminal depravity ("Master of the House ''). Valjean meets Cosette while she 's on an errand drawing water and offers the Thénardiers payment to adopt her ("The Bargain ''). The Thénardiers feign concern for Cosette and bargain with Valjean, who pays them 1,500 francs in the end. Valjean and Cosette leave for Paris ("The Waltz of Treachery '').
Nine years later, in 1832, Paris is in upheaval because of the impending death of General Lamarque, the only man in the government who shows mercy to the poor. Among those mingling in the streets are the student revolutionaries Marius Pontmercy and Enjolras, who contemplate the effect Lamarque 's death will have on the poor and desperate in Paris; the Thénardiers, who have since lost their inn and now run a street gang; their daughter Éponine, who is now grown and has fallen in love with Marius (who is oblivious to her affections); and the streetwise young urchin Gavroche, who knows everything that happens in the slums ("Look Down ''). The Thénardiers prepare to con some charitable visitors, who turn out to be Valjean and Cosette, who has grown into a beautiful young woman. While the gang bamboozles her father, Cosette runs into Marius, and the pair fall in love at first sight. Thénardier suddenly recognizes Valjean, but before they can finish the robbery, Javert, now an inspector stationed here in Paris, comes to the rescue ("The Robbery ''). Valjean and Cosette escape, and only later (when Thénardier tips him off) does Javert suspect who they were. Javert makes a vow to the stars (which represent his belief in a just and ordered universe where suffering is a punishment for sin) that he will find Valjean and recapture him ("Stars ''). Meanwhile, Marius persuades Éponine to help him find Cosette ("Éponine 's Errand '').
At a small café, Enjolras exhorts a group of idealistic students to prepare for revolution. Marius interrupts the serious atmosphere by fantasizing about his new - found love, much to the amusement of his compatriots, particularly the wine - loving Grantaire ("The ABC Café -- Red and Black ''). When Gavroche brings the news of General Lamarque 's death, the students realize that they can use the public 's dismay to incite their revolution and that their time has come ("Do You Hear the People Sing? ''). At Valjean 's house, Cosette thinks about her chance meeting with Marius and later confronts Valjean about the secrets he keeps about his and her own past ("Rue Plumet -- In My Life ''). Éponine leads Marius to Valjean 's house (despite being heartbroken that he has fallen in love with another), and he and Cosette meet again and confess their mutual love ("A Heart Full of Love ''). Thénardier and his gang arrive, intending to rob Valjean 's house, but Éponine stops them by screaming a warning ("The Attack on Rue Plumet ''). The scream alerts Valjean, who believes that the intruder was Javert. He tells Cosette that it 's time once again for them to go on the run.
On the eve of the 1832 Paris Uprising, Valjean prepares to go into exile; Cosette and Marius part in despair; Enjolras encourages all of Paris to join the revolution as he and the other students prepare for battle; Éponine acknowledges Marius will never love her; Marius is conflicted whether to follow Cosette or join the uprising; Javert reveals his plans to spy on the students; and the Thénardiers scheme to profit off the coming violence. Marius decides to stand with his friends, and all anticipate what the dawn will bring ("One Day More '').
As the students build a barricade to serve as their rally point, Javert, disguised as a rebel, volunteers to "spy '' on the government troops. Marius discovers that Éponine has disguised herself as a boy to join the rebels and sends her to deliver a farewell letter to Cosette. ("Building the Barricade -- Upon These Stones '') Valjean intercepts the letter and learns about Marius and Cosette 's romance. Éponine walks the streets of Paris alone, imagining that Marius is there with her, but laments that her love for Marius will never be reciprocated ("On My Own '').
The French army arrives at the barricade and demands that the students surrender ("At the Barricade -- Upon These Stones ''). Though Javert tells the students that the government will not attack that night ("Javert 's Arrival ''), Gavroche exposes him as a spy, and the students detain him ("Little People ''). Their plan is to spark a general uprising with their act of defiance, hoping that all the people of Paris will side with them and overwhelm the army. Éponine returns to find Marius but is shot by the soldiers crossing the barricade. As Marius holds her, she assures him that she feels no pain and reveals her love for him before dying in his arms ("A Little Fall of Rain ''). The students mourn this first loss of life at the barricades and resolve to fight in her name, and they carry her body away while Enjolras attempts to comfort Marius, who is heartbroken over Éponine 's death. Valjean arrives at the barricade, crossing the government lines, disguised as a soldier ("Night of Anguish ''), hoping that he might somehow protect Marius in the coming battle for Cosette 's sake. The rebels are suspicious of him at first, but when the army attacks, Valjean saves Enjolras by shooting at a sniper and scaring him off, and they accept him as one of them. In return, he asks Enjolras to be the one to execute the imprisoned Javert, which Enjolras grants. But as soon as Valjean and Javert are alone, Valjean frees Javert. Javert warns Valjean that he will not give up his pursuit and rejects what he perceives as a bargain for Valjean 's freedom. Valjean says there are no conditions to his release, and holds no ill - will toward Javert for doing his duty. ("The First Attack '').
The students settle down for the night and reminisce about the past while also expressing anxiety about the battle to come. Enjolras tells the other students to stay awake in case the enemy strikes unexpectedly in the night, but he tells Marius to get some sleep, knowing Marius is still much too devastated over losing Éponine to stay awake. Grantaire gets angry and asks the students if they fear to die as Marius wonders if Cosette will remember him if he dies. ("Drink with Me ''). As Marius sleeps, Valjean prays to God to protect Marius, even at the cost of his own life ("Bring Him Home ''). As dawn approaches, Enjolras realizes that the people of Paris have not risen up with them, but resolves to fight on in spite of the impossible odds ("Dawn of Anguish ''). Their resolve is fired even further when the army kill Gavroche, who snuck out to collect ammunition from bodies on the other side of the barricade ("The Second Attack / Death of Gavroche ''). The army gives a final warning, but the rebels fight to the last man with Enjolras exhorting "Let others rise to take our place, until the Earth is free! ''. Everyone at the barricade is killed except Valjean and a gravely wounded Marius, who escape into the sewers ("The Final Battle ''). Javert returns to the barricade, searching for Valjean amongst the bodies, and finds the open sewer grating.
Valjean carries Marius through the sewers but collapses in exhaustion. While he is unconscious, Thénardier, who has been looting bodies ("Dog Eats Dog ''), comes upon them and takes a ring from the unconscious Marius, but flees when Valjean (whom he again recognizes) regains consciousness. When Valjean carries Marius to the sewer 's exit, he finds Javert waiting for him. Valjean begs Javert for one hour to bring Marius to a doctor, and Javert reluctantly agrees. Javert finds himself unable to reconcile Valjean 's merciful acts with his conception of Valjean as an irredeemable criminal. Refusing to compromise his principles but no longer able to hold them sacred, he finds himself torn between God and the law and commits suicide by throwing himself into the Seine ("Soliloquy -- Javert 's Suicide '').
In the wake of the failed revolution, women mourn the deaths of the students ("Turning '') and Marius, wounded but alive, despairs at the sacrifice of so many lives ("Empty Chairs at Empty Tables ''). As he wonders who saved his own life, Cosette comforts him, and they reaffirm their blossoming romance. Valjean realises that Cosette will not need him as a caretaker once she 's married and gives them his blessing ("Every Day ''). Valjean confesses to Marius that he is an escaped convict and must go away because his presence endangers Cosette ("Valjean 's Confession ''), making Marius promise never to tell Cosette. A few months later, Marius and Cosette marry ("Wedding Chorale ''). The Thénardiers crash the reception in disguise and attempt to blackmail Marius, telling him that Valjean is a murderer and that Thénardier saw him carrying a corpse in the sewers after the barricades fell. When Thénardier shows him the ring as proof, Marius realizes that it was Valjean who saved his life. The newlyweds leave to find Valjean (Marius pausing to give Thénardier a punch in the face). The Thénardiers are not discouraged, instead gloating that their craven practicality has saved their lives time and time again ("Beggars at the Feast '').
At a convent, Valjean awaits his death, having nothing left to live for. The spirit of Fantine appears to him and tells him that he has been forgiven and will soon be with God. Cosette and Marius arrive to find Valjean near death. Valjean thanks God for letting him live long enough to see Cosette again, and Marius thanks him for saving his life. ("Epilogue -- Valjean 's Death ''). Valjean gives Cosette a letter confessing his troubled past and the truth about her mother. As he dies, the spirits of Fantine and Éponine guide him to Heaven reminding him that "to love another person is to see the face of God. '' They are joined by the spirits of those who died at the barricades, who sing that in the next world, God lays low all tyranny and frees all oppressed people from their shackles ("Finale '').
original production: dramatic baritone Ab2 - B4
F2 - F # 4
A2 - E4
D3 - D4
F4 - Eb5
Gb3 - Eb5
E4 - D5
G # 3 - D5
G # 2 - G4
A2 - G4 (OR A3 - G5)
A2 - G # 4
A2 - Ab4
F3 - E5
Bb3 - C6
A2 - G4
A2 - G4
A2 - A4
A2 - G4
A2 - G4
A2 - G4
A2 - G4
A2 - G4
C4 - G4
French songwriter Alain Boublil had the idea to adapt Victor Hugo 's novel into a musical while at a performance of the musical Oliver! in London:
As soon as the Artful Dodger came onstage, Gavroche came to mind. It was like a blow to the solar plexus. I started seeing all the characters of Victor Hugo 's Les Misérables -- Valjean, Javert, Gavroche, Cosette, Marius, and Éponine -- in my mind 's eye, laughing, crying, and singing onstage.
He pitched the idea to French composer Claude - Michel Schönberg, and the two developed a rough synopsis. They worked up an analysis of each character 's mental and emotional state, as well as that of an audience. Schönberg then began to write the music, while Boublil began work on the text. According to Boublil, "... I could begin work on the words. This I did -- after myself deciding on the subject and title of every song -- in collaboration with my friend, poet Jean - Marc Natel. '' Two years later, a two - hour demo tape with Schönberg accompanying himself on the piano and singing every role was completed. An album of this collaboration was recorded at CTS Studios in Wembley and was released in 1980, selling 260,000 copies.
The concept album includes Maurice Barrier as Jean Valjean, Jacques Mercier as Javert, Rose Laurens as Fantine, Yvan Dautin as Thénardier, Marie - France Roussel as Mme. Thénardier, Richard Dewitte as Marius, Fabienne Guyon as Cosette, Marie - France Dufour as Éponine, Michel Sardou as Enjolras, Fabrice Bernard as Gavroche, Maryse Cédolin as Young Cosette, Claude - Michel Schönberg as Courfeyrac, Salvatore Adamo as Combeferre, Michel Delpech as Feuilly, Dominique Tirmont as M. Gillenormand, and Mireille as the hair buyer.
That year, in September 1980, a stage version directed by veteran French film director Robert Hossein was produced at the Palais des Sports in Paris. The show was a success, with 100 performances seen by over 500,000 people.
Most of the cast from the concept album performed in the production. The cast included Maurice Barrier as Valjean, Jean Vallée as Javert, Rose Laurens as Fantine, Maryse Cédolin and Sylvie Camacho and Priscilla Patron as Young Cosette, Marie - France Roussel as Mme. Thénardier, Yvan Dautin as M. Thénardier, Florence Davis and Fabrice Ploquin and Cyrille Dupont as Gavroche, Marianne Mille as Éponine, Gilles Buhlmann as Marius, Christian Ratellin as Enjolras, Fabienne Guyon as Cosette, René - Louis Baron as Combeferre, Dominique Tirmont as M. Gillenormand, Anne Forrez as Mlle. Gillenormand, and Claude Reva as the storyteller.
The English - language version, with lyrics by Herbert Kretzmer and additional material by James Fenton, was substantially expanded and reworked from a literal translation by Siobhan Bracke of the original Paris version, in particular adding a prologue to tell Jean Valjean 's backstory. Kretzmer 's work is not a direct "translation '' of the French, a term that Kretzmer refused to use. A third of the English lyrics were a "rough '' translation, another third were adapted from the French lyrics and the final third consisted of new material. The majority is performed in recitative style; the vocalists use natural speech delivery, not musical metrics.
The first production in English, produced by Cameron Mackintosh and adapted and directed by Trevor Nunn and John Caird, opened on 8 October 1985 (five years after the original production) at the Barbican Arts Centre, London. It was billed in the RSC Barbican Theatre programme as "The Royal Shakespeare Company presentation of the RSC / Cameron Mackintosh production '', and played to preview performances beginning on 28 September 1985.
The set was designed by John Napier, costumes by Andreane Neofitou and lighting by David Hersey. Musical supervision and orchestrations were by John Cameron, who had been involved with the show since Boublil and Schönberg hired him to orchestrate the original French concept album. Musical staging was by Kate Flatt with musical direction by Martin Koch.
The original London cast included Colm Wilkinson as Jean Valjean, Roger Allam as Javert, Ken Caswell as the Bishop of Digne, Patti LuPone as Fantine, Zoë Hart, Justine McIntyre, Jayne O'Mahony and Joanne Woodcock as Young Cosette, Danielle Akers, Gillian Brander and Juliette Caton as Young Éponine, Susan Jane Tanner as Madame Thénardier, Alun Armstrong as Thénardier, Frances Ruffelle as Éponine, Rebecca Caine as Cosette, Michael Ball as Marius, David Burt as Enjolras, with Ian Tucker, Oliver Spencer and Liza Hayden sharing the role of Gavroche.
On 4 December 1985, the show transferred to the Palace Theatre, London and moved again on 3 April 2004, to the much more intimate Queen 's Theatre, with some revisions of staging and where, as of August 2015, it was still playing. It celebrated its ten - thousandth performance on 5 January 2010. In October 2015, this West end version of the musical, celebrated its 30th anniversary. The co-production has generated valuable income for the Royal Shakespeare Company.
The musical opened as a pre-Broadway tryout at the Kennedy Center 's Opera House in Washington, D.C. on 27 December 1986. It ran for eight weeks through 14 February 1987.
The musical then premiered on Broadway on 12 March 1987 at The Broadway Theatre. Colm Wilkinson and Frances Ruffelle reprised their roles from the London production. The $4.5 million production had a more than $4 million advance sale prior to its New York opening.
The show underwent further tightening, namely with improved sewer lighting and the incorporation of the Javert suicide scene effect. Boublil explained: "The transfer from London to the United States has prompted further modifications. ' We are taking this opportunity to rethink and perfect, to rewrite some details which probably no one else will see, but which for us are still long nights of work, ' Mr. Boublil says. ' There are things that nobody had time to do in London, and here we have a wonderful opportunity to fix a few things. No one will notice, perhaps, but for us, it will make us so happy if we can better this show. We would like this to be the final version. ' '' Two songs were deleted -- the complete version of Gavroche 's song "Little People '' and the adult Cosette 's "I Saw Him Once ''. A short section at the beginning of "In My Life '' replaced "I Saw Him Once ''. The lyrics in Javert 's "Stars '' were changed. It now ended with the line, "This I swear by the stars! '', while the London production and cast recording ended with the repeated line, "Keeping watch in the night ''.
The original Broadway cast included Colm Wilkinson as Jean Valjean, David Bryant as Marius, Judy Kuhn as Cosette, Michael Maguire as Enjolras, Frances Ruffelle as Éponine, Braden Danner as Gavroche, Donna Vivino as Young Cosette, Jennifer Butt as Madame Thénardier, Leo Burmester as Thénardier, Randy Graff as Fantine, Terrence Mann as Javert, Chrissie McDonald as Young Éponine, and Norman Large as the Bishop of Digne.
Other members of the original Broadway cast included Kevin Marcum, Paul Harman, Anthony Crivello, John Dewar, Joseph Kolinski, Alex Santoriello, Jesse Corti, Susan Goodman, John Norman, Norman Large, Marcus Lovett, Steve Shocket, Cindy Benson, Marcie Shaw, Jane Bodle, Joanna Glushak, Ann Crumb, Kelli James, Gretchen Kingsley - Weihe, Chrissie McDonald. Michael Hinton was the original drummer and credited on the cast album.
The musical ran at the Broadway Theatre through 10 October 1990, when it moved to the Imperial Theatre. It was scheduled to close on 15 March 2003, but the closing was postponed by a surge in public interest. According to an article in The Scotsman, "Sales picked up last October, when Sir Cameron made the announcement that the show would be closing on March 15th... its closure postponed to May 18th because of an unexpected increase in business. '' After 6,680 performances in sixteen years, when it closed on 18 May 2003, it was the second - longest - running Broadway musical after Cats. It was surpassed by The Phantom of the Opera in 2006.
This Broadway production of Les Misérables and its advertising in New York City is a reoccurring theme in American Psycho. The reviewer for the Financial Times wrote that Les Misérables is "the book 's hilarious main cultural compass - point ''.
Only three years after the original run closed, Les Misérables began a return to Broadway on 9 November 2006 at the Broadhurst Theatre for a limited run that was subsequently made open - ended.
Using the set, costumes, performers, and other resources from the recently closed third US national touring production, the production was only slightly altered. Minor changes included colourful projections blended into its existing lighting design, and a proscenium that extended out into the first two boxes on either side of the stage.
Some cuts made to the show 's prologue during its original Broadway run were restored, lyrics for Gavroche 's death scene (known in the revival as "Ten Little Bullets '') cut during the development of the original London production were restored, and much of the show was re-orchestrated by Christopher Jahnke, introducing a snare and timpani - heavy sound played by a 14 - member band, a reduction of about 8 musicians from the original production 's 22 musician orchestration.
The original 2006 Broadway revival cast included Alexander Gemignani as Jean Valjean, Norm Lewis as Javert, Daphne Rubin - Vega as Fantine, Celia Keenan - Bolger as Éponine, Aaron Lazar as Enjolras, Adam Jacobs as Marius, Ali Ewoldt as Cosette, Gary Beach as Thénardier, Jenny Galloway as Madame Thénardier, Brian D'Addario and Jacob Levine and Skye Rainforth and Austyn Myers as Gavroche, James Chip Leonard as The Bishop of Digne, Drew Sarich as Grantaire, and Tess Adams and Kylie Liya Goldstein and Carly Rose Sonenclar as Young Cosette / Young Éponine.
Lea Salonga, who previously played the role of Éponine in the 10th Anniversary concert, replaced Rubin - Vega as Fantine beginning on 2 March 2007. Zach Rand replaced Jacob Levine as Gavroche on 15 March 2007. Ann Harada replaced Jenny Galloway as Mme. Thénardier on 24 April 2007. Ben Davis joined playing Javert, and Max von Essen playing Enjolras. Ben Crawford and Mandy Bruno joined the cast that day too, playing Brujon and Éponine respectively. On 23 July 2007, Sarich took over the role of Valjean, following Gemignani 's departure. On 5 September 2007, it was announced that John Owen - Jones (who was playing Valjean in London) was to join the Broadway cast. In return, Sarich would join the London cast in Owen - Jones ' place. Judy Kuhn, who originated the role of Cosette, returned to the show after twenty years as Fantine, succeeding Salonga.
The revival closed on 6 January 2008.
A sit down production played at the Princess of Wales Theatre in Toronto, Canada based on the 25th Anniversary touring production. Previews began on 27 September 2013 with the opening night on 9 October. The production closed on 2 February 2014. Co-directed by Lawrence Connor and James Powell, Laurence Olivier Award nominee, Ramin Karimloo, starred as Jean Valjean. He was joined by fellow West End star, Earl Carpenter, who reprised the role of Inspector Javert. Other cast members included Genevieve Leclerc as Fantine, Samantha Hill as Cosette, Melissa O'Neil as Éponine, Cliff Saunders as Monsieur Thenardier, Lisa Horner as Madame Thenardier, and Mark Uhre as Enjolras. The roles of young Cosette and young Éponine were shared by Ella Ballentine, Saara Chaudry and Madison Oldroyd. Gavroche was shared by David Gregory Black and Aiden GlennRead.
The show returned to Broadway in March 2014 at the Imperial Theatre with previews beginning 1 March 2014 and had an official opening on 23 March 2014. The creative team includes the direction of Laurence Connor and James Powell, the set design by Matt Kinley, costumes by Andreane Neofitou and Christine Rowlands, lighting by Paule Constable, sound by Mick Potter and projections by Fifty - Nine Productions. Cameron Mackintosh once again produced the show. On 22 October 2013, it was announced that Ramin Karimloo, Will Swenson, Caissie Levy, and Nikki M. James would be headlining the revival cast as Jean Valjean, Javert, Fantine, and Éponine respectively. Andy Mientus and Samantha Hill also star as Marius and Cosette respectively. Angeli Negron and McKayla Twiggs share the role of Young Cosette. On 30 August 2015, Karimloo ended his run of the show as was replaced by Alfie Boe. After Boe 's final performance on 28 February, the role of Valjean was played by John Owen - Jones beginning 1 March 2016 until the production closed on 4 September 2016, after 1,026 performances over two - and - a-half years. The revival recouped its entire initial investment and grossed $109 million. A North American tour is expected to launch in fall 2017.
The 2014 Broadway revival was nominated for 3 Tony Awards: Best Revival of a Musical, Best Leading Actor in a Musical for Karimloo, and Best Sound Design for Potter.
The show had three national touring companies of the original Broadway production in the US, all of which shared the Broadway producer and manager, creative teams, as well nearly identical sets, costumes, and lighting. While the touring production and the New York production were running simultaneously, the staff, cast members, crew, and musicians of the two productions interchanged often, which contributed to keeping both companies of the show in form. When the New York production closed in 2003, the Third National Tour continued for another three years, and enjoyed the influx of many members from the original and subsequent New York companies.
The First National Tour opened at Boston 's Shubert Theatre on 12 December 1987, and continued to play major cities until late 1991. The Second National Tour (called "The Fantine Company '') opened at Los Angeles ' Shubert Theatre on 1 June 1988. The production played for fourteen months then transferred to San Francisco 's Curran Theatre where it enjoyed a similar run. The Third National Tour of Les Misérables (called "The Marius Company '') was one of the longest running American touring musical productions. Opening on 28 November 1988, at the Tampa Bay Performing Arts Center in Florida, and closing on 23 July 2006, at the Fox Theatre in St. Louis, Missouri, the tour ran for seventeen years and 7,061 performances. The tour played in 145 cities in 43 states. The same touring company also frequently performed in Canada, made a 1994 diversion to Singapore, and another diversion in 2002 to be the first Western musical production to visit China, opening in Shanghai 's Grand Theatre for a three - week engagement.
All US productions (including Broadway and its revival) were visually identical in scale and design but the third national tour was notable for its portability without sacrificing the Broadway - caliber experience. Thanks to innovative touring techniques borrowed from the pop / rock concert industry, the 4.5 million dollar production was adaptable to smaller and larger venues and traveled complete in all of 8 semi tractor trailers. It was set up and ready to go in less than 24 hours and broken down and packed up in about 16 hours. This allowed it to reach many cities and venues in its acclaimed, original Broadway form.
The final company of the Third National Tour included Randal Keith as Valjean (Keith also played Valjean in the final company of the original Broadway engagement), Robert Hunt as Javert, Joan Almedilla as Fantine, Daniel Bogart as Marius, Norman Large (from Original Broadway Cast) as Monsieur Thénardier, Jennifer Butt (from Original Broadway Cast) as Madame Thénardier, Melissa Lyons as Éponine, Ali Ewoldt as Cosette, Victor Wallace as Enjolras, Meg Guzulescu and Rachel Schier alternating as Young Cosette and Young Éponine, and Austyn Myers and Anthony Skillman alternating as Gavroche.
The first tour of the UK and Ireland opened at the Palace Theatre, Manchester 14 April 1992 with Jeff Leyton (Jean Valjean), Philip Quast (Javert, later replaced by Michael McCarthy) Ria Jones (Fantine), Meredith Braun (Éponine), Mike Sterling (Marius, later replaced by Richard Burman), Tony Timberlake (Thénardier), Louise Plowright (Mdme Thénardier), Sarah Ryan (Cosette) and Daniel Coll (Enjolras). The production then moved on to the Point Theatre, Dublin, Ireland, opening 30 June 1993, and then to Playhouse, Edinburgh, Scotland, opening 23 September 1993.
In 1997 a second tour began at the Theatre Royal, Plymouth, running from 6 May until 14 June, the cast featured: Stig Rossen (Jean Valjean), Michael McCarthy (Javert), Julia Worsley (Fantine), Gemma Sandy (Éponine), Norman Bowman (Marius), Cameron Blakely (Thénardier), Cathy Breeze (Mdme Thénardier), Rebecca Vere (Cosette) and Mark O'Malley (Enjolras). The tour then continued as detailed in the table below:
A tour to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the show began performances on 12 December 2009, at the Wales Millennium Centre in Cardiff. Differences from the original production included a new set, new costumes, new direction and alterations to the original orchestrations. The tour also did not use a revolving stage and the scenery was inspired by the paintings of Victor Hugo. Locations have included Manchester, Norwich, Birmingham, Edinburgh, Bristol, Salford, and Southampton. The tour also played a special engagement in Paris. From September through October, the show returned to the Barbican Centre, London, site of the original 1985 production. The tour cast featured John Owen - Jones as Valjean, Earl Carpenter as Javert, Gareth Gates as Marius, Ashley Artus as Thénardier, Lynne Wilmot as Madame Thénardier, Madalena Alberto as Fantine, Rosalind James as Éponine, Jon Robyns as Enjolras, Katie Hall as Cosette (with Eliza Jones as Young Cosette), and David Lawrence as the Bishop of Digne. The tour ended 2 October 2010, at the Barbican.
In the fall of 2010, The tour moved to the US with a new company presented by Broadway Across America to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the show opening on Broadway. The tour had its opening on 19 November 2010 at the Paper Mill Playhouse in Millburn, New Jersey, running until 19 December 2010. This tour originally starred Lawrence Clayton as Valjean, Andrew Varela as Javert, Betsy Morgan as Fantine, Jenny Latimer as Cosette, Justin Scott Brown as Marius, Chasten Harmon as Éponine, Michael Kostroff as Thénardier, Shawna Hamic as Madame Thénardier, Jeremy Hays as Enjolras, Josh Caggiano and Ethan Paul Khusidman as Gavroche, Maya Jade Frank and Juliana Simone alternating as Young Cosette and Young Éponine. J. Mark McVey 's daughter, Kylie McVey was the understudy for Young Cosette and Young Éponine. Clayton left the tour in April 2011. Ron Sharpe later took over as Valjean until June 2011. J. Mark McVey was then Valjean (McVey previously played the role on Broadway), but McVey and his daughter left the tour on 1 April 2012. Peter Lockyer replaces him as Valjean. Betsy Morgan left the tour on 2 December 2012. She was replaced by Genevieve Leclerc. The tour ran until 11 August 2013, closing at the Smith Center for the Performing Arts in Las Vegas. The tour 's final cast included Peter Lockyer as Valjean, Andrew Varela as Javert, Genevieve Leclerc as Fantine, Lauren Wiley as Cosette, Devin Ilaw as Marius, Briana Carlson - Goodman as Éponine, Timothy Gulan as Thénardier, Shawna Hamic as Madame Thénardier, Jason Forbach as Enjolras, Ava Della Pietra and Erin Cearlock alternating as Little Cosette and Young Eponine, with Mia Sinclair Jenness as Little Girl, In 2011 it was reported that the tour is one of six US national Broadway tours that are grossing over $1,000,000 per week.
In mid 2013, a brand new Australian tour was announced, with Simon Gleeson as Valjean, Hayden Tee as Javert, Patrice Tipoki as Fantine, Trevor Ashley and Lara Mulcahy as the Thénardiers, Kerrie Anne Greenland as Éponine, Emily Langridge as Cosette, Euan Doidge as Marius and Chris Durling as Enjolras. The production premiered on 4 July at Her Majesty 's Theatre, Melbourne. Additional stops for the Australian tour included the Crown Theatre in Perth, the Capitol Theatre in Sydney, and the Lyric Theatre QPAC in Brisbane. The Australian revival production transferred to Manila, Philippines at in March 2016, becoming an international tour.
On 16 September 2015, it was announced that the Australian tour would launch its international tour in Manila, Philippines at the Theatre at Solaire from March 2016, and proceeded to the Esplanade Theatre in Singapore from May 2016. It then had its GCC premiere at the Dubai Opera in Dubai, United Arab Emirates from November 2016.
The Manila and Singapore productions featured Simon Gleeson as Valjean, Earl Carpenter as Javert, Helen Walsh as Madame Thénardier, Cameron Blakely as Thénardier, Kerrie Anne Greenland as Éponine, Emily Langridge as Cosette, Chris Durling as Enjolras, and Paul Wilkins as Marius. Rachelle Ann Go played the role of Fantine in the Manila production, and Patrice Tipoki returned the role in the Singapore production after her stint in the original London production. The Dubai production features John Owen - Jones as Valjean, Hayden Tee as Javert, Patrice Tipoki as Fantine, Peter Polycarpou as Thénardier, Jodie Prenger as Madame Thénardier, Carrie Hope Fletcher as Éponine, Alistair Brammer as Enjolras, Emily Langridge as Cosette, and Paul Wilkins as Marius.
On 8 October 1995, the show celebrated the tenth anniversary of the West End production with a concert at the Royal Albert Hall. This 10th Anniversary Concert was nearly "complete '', missing only a handful of scenes, including "The Death of Gavroche '', "The Robbery '' and the confrontation between Marius and the Thénardiers at the wedding feast. Sir Cameron Mackintosh hand - selected the cast, which became known as the Les Misérables Dream Cast, assembled from around the world, and engaged the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. The concert concluded with seventeen Valjeans from various international productions singing, "Do You Hear the People Sing? '' in their native languages. The concert cast included Colm Wilkinson as Jean Valjean, Philip Quast as Javert, Paul Monaghan as the Bishop of Digne, Ruthie Henshall as Fantine, Hannah Chick as Young Cosette, Jenny Galloway as Madame Thénardier, Alun Armstrong as Thénardier, Adam Searles as Gavroche, Michael Maguire as Enjolras, Michael Ball as Marius, Judy Kuhn as Cosette, Lea Salonga as Éponine, and Anthony Crivello as Grantaire. The concert was staged by Ken Caswell and conducted by David Charles Abell.
The 25th Anniversary Concert of the West End production was held at The O2 in North Greenwich, South East London, United Kingdom, on Sunday, 3 October 2010 at 1: 30 pm and 7: 00 pm.
It featured Alfie Boe as Jean Valjean, Norm Lewis as Javert, Lea Salonga as Fantine, Nick Jonas as Marius, Katie Hall as Cosette (in place of Camilla Kerslake, who was unable to attend), Jenny Galloway as Madame Thénardier, Ramin Karimloo as Enjolras, Samantha Barks as Éponine, Matt Lucas as Thénardier, Mia Jenkins as Young Cosette, Robert Madge as Gavroche and Earl Carpenter as the Bishop of Digne. Casts of the current London, international tour, original 1985 London, and several school productions took part, comprising an ensemble of three hundred performers and musicians. The concert was directed by Laurence Connor & James Powell and conducted by David Charles Abell.
The musical has also been performed in concert at Cardiff Castle and several venues in southern England, produced by Earl Carpenter Concerts. A concert version starring Jeff Leyton was also performed at the Odyssey Arena, Belfast. In 1989, a one - night concert performance was performed at SkyDome, Toronto, and the largest concert production attracted an audience of approximately 125,000 as part of the Australia Day celebrations in Sydney 's Domain Park. The Scandinavian concert tour, produced by Cameron Mackintosh in association with Noble Art, starred Danish musical icon Stig Rossen in the leading role and commemorated author Victor Hugo 's 200th birthday. Venues on the tour included the Stockholm Globe Arena, Oslo Spektrum, the Helsinki Hartwell Areena, and the Gothenburg Scandinavium, with audiences totalling over 150,000 for the complete tour.
In November 2004, to celebrate the centennial of the Entente Cordiale, the Queen invited the cast of Les Misérables in the West End to perform for French President Jacques Chirac at Windsor Castle. It was the first time the cast of a West End musical had performed at a Royal residence. The cast was the same as in the West End, supplemented by several guest singers and a choir of former performers. The part of Jean Valjean was played by Michael Ball -- the original 1985 London and 1995 Dream Cast Marius -- and the part of Javert was played by Michael McCarthy.
In February 2008, Les Misérables was performed at the Bournemouth International Centre, England with a cast of West End stars accompanied by the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra. In August 2008, a concert version, directed by Richard Jay - Alexander, was performed at the Hollywood Bowl. The cast included veteran Les Misérables star J. Mark McVey as Valjean, The Office star Melora Hardin as Fantine, Broadway star and Bowl veteran Brian Stokes Mitchell as Javert, Spring Awakening and Glee star Lea Michele as Éponine, Tony - winning Jersey Boys star John Lloyd Young as Marius, West End star Tom Lowe as Enjolras, Michael McCormick as Thénardier, Ruth Williamson as Madame Thénardier, Michele Maika as Cosette, Maddie Levy as Young Cosette, and Sage Ryan as Gavroche.
In September 2008, it was performed at the St John Loveridge Hall in Guernsey with a cast of West End performers -- the first time that it had been professionally performed on the Island where Victor Hugo wrote the novel. Former London Valjean Phil Cavill reprised his role alongside Les Misérables veteran Michael McCarthy as Javert. In March 2009, the Guernsey production was remounted at Fort Regent in Jersey; and in July 2009, the musical was performed in concert at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight.
The show has been produced in forty - two countries and translated into twenty - one languages: English, French (original and re-translated), German (Austria and Germany), Spanish (four versions: two from Spain, one version each from Argentina and Mexico), Japanese, Hebrew, Hungarian, Icelandic, Norwegian (Bokmål and Nynorsk), Polish, Swedish (in Sweden and in Finland), Dutch (Netherlands and Belgium), Danish, Finnish, Brazilian Portuguese, Estonian, Czech, Mauritian Creole, Basque, Catalan and Korean. Including singles and promos, there have been over seventy official recordings from worldwide productions.
The first full West End / Broadway production in Europe (mainland) was set up in Oslo, Norway at Det Norske Teatret and opened on 17 March 1988. The production was in Norwegian and starred Norwegian singer / actor Øystein Wiik as Jean Valjean, Paul Åge Johannessen as Javert, Øivind Blunck as Thénardier, Kari Gjærum as Fantine, Amund Enger as Enjolras and Guri Schanke as Éponine. The first Oslo production was hugely successful and some 10 % of Norway 's entire population saw the show in the first 6 months. Øystein Wiik went on to also star as Jean Valjean in the productions in Vienna and London in 1989 -- 1990.
Interestingly, the stage show, which had changed so significantly since its Parisian conception as a stadium concert in 1980, was only finally translated back into the language of Victor Hugo for its French World Première in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, in 1991. This production, which in fact boasted a cast that presented five shows a week in French and three a week in English, was a great success. It gave the producers a clear indication that Les Misérables was finally ready to go "home '', to Paris, later that same year.
In September 2008, a mini-tour produced by Atlanta 's Theater of the Stars played Eisenhower Hall at the United States Military Academy, in West Point, New York; the Filene Center at the Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts in Vienna, Virginia; Kansas City Starlight Theatre; and the Fox Theater in Atlanta. The show featured a new set of original pictures painted by Victor Hugo himself. Robert Evan played Valjean, returning to the role he played in the mid-nineties on Broadway. Also featured were Nikki Rene Daniels as Fantine and Robert Hunt as Javert, both reprising their roles from the Broadway revival. Fred Hanson directed the production. The creative team included Matt Kinley as Scenic Designer, Ken Billington as Lighting Designer, Peter Fitzgerald and Erich Bechtel as Sound Designers, Zachary Borovay as Projection Designer, and Dan Riddle as Musical Director and Conductor.
In 2008, the Signature Theatre in Arlington, Virginia staged a small venue "black box '' version of the play. Signature received Mackintosh 's special permission for the production: "One of the great pleasures of being involved with the creation of Les Misérables is seeing this marvelous musical being done in a completely different and original way. Having seen many shows brilliantly reimagined at Signature I have no doubt that Eric and his team will come up with a revolutionary new take on Les Miz unlike anything anyone has seen before. Viva la différence! '' The production officially opened on 14 December 2008 (after previews from 2 December), and ran through 22 February 2009 (extended from 25 January 2009).
A 2014 production at the Dallas Theater Center modernized the staging in a way rarely attempted in productions of this play, set visually in the modern - day United States rather than 1830s France. The concept was thought to be refreshing as a change from typical production styles and effective as a commentary on modern inequality. Though, much controversy surrounded their unauthorized depart from the authors ' libretto and score.
In Panama, Les Misérables was staged in 2014 in Spanish at the famed National Theatre of Panama for a short, sold out run, directed by Aaron Zebede.
The school edition cuts a considerable amount of material from the original show. It is divided into thirty scenes and, although no "critical '' scenes or songs have been removed, it runs 25 -- 30 minutes shorter than the "official '' version making the total running time about 2 ⁄ hours. A few subtle changes of vocal pitch have been made: "What Have I Done? '', Valjean 's Soliloquy, "Stars '' by Javert, "A Little Fall of Rain '' by Éponine and Marius, "Turning '', and "Castle on a Cloud '' lose a verse each. During "Fantine 's Arrest '' Bamatabois loses two verses. The song "Fantine 's Death / Confrontation '' is edited, and the counterpoint duel between Javert and Valjean is lost, as well as a verse by Fantine. "Dog Eats Dog '' by Thénardier is heavily truncated. "Beggars at the Feast '', is shortened, with Thénardier losing a verse, and the song before it, "Wedding Chorale '', is excluded entirely although the rest of the wedding remains in place. Also, the drinker 's introduction to "Master of the House '' is cut completely.
Although numerous films of the Les Misérables story have been made, no film adaptation of the stage musical was produced for many years. A film adaptation was in development at several times since the late 1980s. Alan Parker was reported to be connected to an adaptation at an early stage. In 1992 Mackintosh announced planning for a film to be directed by Bruce Beresford and co-produced by TriStar Pictures, but the project was later abandoned.
The 2010 DVD / Blu - ray release of Les Misérables: 25th Anniversary Concert included an announcement of revised plans for a film adaptation which was later confirmed by Mackintosh. Tom Hooper signed on in March 2011 to direct the Mackintosh - produced film from a screenplay by William Nicholson. In June 2011, Working Title Films and Mackintosh announced that the film would begin principal photography in early 2012 for a tentative December release date. The film was given its general US release on Christmas Day 2012. Principal cast members include Hugh Jackman as Jean Valjean, Russell Crowe as Javert, Anne Hathaway as Fantine, Amanda Seyfried as Cosette, Eddie Redmayne as Marius Pontmercy, Samantha Barks as Éponine, Aaron Tveit as Enjolras, and Sacha Baron Cohen and Helena Bonham Carter as the Thénardiers. Other notable actors who played roles in the film include Bertie Carvel as Bamatabois, Colm Wilkinson as the Bishop of Digne and Frances Ruffelle as a prostitute.
The following recordings of Les Misérables are available in English: the Original London Cast, the Original Broadway Cast, the Complete Symphonic Recording, the 10th Anniversary London Concert, The 25th Anniversary UK Tour Cast and The 25th Anniversary London Concert.
The Original London Cast recording was the first English language album of the musical. Recorded in 1985, when the show premiered, it is closest to the original French concept album. For example, "Stars '' appears before "Look Down '' and shortly after, the original version of "Little People '' plays, which was later incorporated into the revealing of Javert. It also features a song entitled "I Saw Him Once '', sung by Cosette, which was later incorporated into the first part of "In My Life ''. The album has sold 887,000 copies in the US.
The cast includes Colm Wilkinson as Valjean, Roger Allam as Javert, Patti LuPone as Fantine, Alun Armstrong as Thénardier, Susan Jane Tanner as Mme. Thénardier, Frances Ruffelle as Éponine, Ian Tucker as Gavroche, Michael Ball as Marius, David Burt as Enjolras, and Rebecca Caine as Cosette.
The Original Broadway Cast recording was produced in 1987. It included several changes to the songs that are still evident in today 's performances. As with its predecessor, it is incomplete, and leaves out songs or parts that are more important narratively than musically (e.g., "Fantine 's Arrest '', "The Runaway Cart '', "The Final Battle ''). The album has sold 1,596,000 copies in the US.
The cast includes Colm Wilkinson as Valjean, Terrence Mann as Javert, Randy Graff as Fantine, Leo Burmester as Thénardier, Jennifer Butt as Madame Thénardier, Frances Ruffelle as Éponine, Braden Danner as Gavroche, David Bryant as Marius, Judy Kuhn as Cosette, Michael Maguire as Enjolras, and Donna Vivino as Young Cosette.
Recorded in 1988 and released in 1989, the Complete Symphonic Recording features the entire score. (The Czech Revival Recording is the only other album, in any language, to feature the entire score; on the other hand, the four 2003 Japanese recordings feature the entire score after the cuts first made on Broadway at the end of 2000.) Cameron Mackintosh 's original plan was to use the Australian cast, but the scope was expanded to create an international cast featuring performers from the major performances of the musical. The cast was recorded in three different places.
The album, produced by David Caddick and conducted by Martin Koch, won the Best Musical Cast Show Album Grammy Award in 1991. The cast includes Gary Morris as Valjean, Philip Quast as Javert, Debra Byrne as Fantine, Gay Soper as Mme. Thénardier, Barry James as Thénardier, Kaho Shimada as Éponine, Michael Ball as Marius, Anthony Warlow as Enjolras, and Tracy Shayne as Cosette.
The 10th Anniversary recording was of a concert version of Les Misérables, performed at the Royal Albert Hall in October 1995, featuring full orchestra and choir. All the parts were sung live, giving the performance a different mood from other recordings. The score was recorded consecutively without pauses or multiple recordings. The concert 's encores are also included. As with the original recordings, however, they differed from the stage versions by excluding some songs (e.g., those vital to plot such as "Fantine 's Arrest '' and "The Runaway Cart '' were kept, while unnecessary or complex songs, such as "At the Barricade '', were left out).
The cast includes Colm Wilkinson as Valjean, Philip Quast as Javert, Ruthie Henshall as Fantine, Alun Armstrong as Thénardier, Jenny Galloway as Mme. Thénardier, Lea Salonga as Éponine, Adam Searles as Gavroche, Hannah Chick as Young Cosette, Michael Ball as Marius, Michael Maguire as Enjolras, Judy Kuhn as Cosette and Anthony Crivello as Grantaire.
A five - track album featuring members of the UK national tour was released in 1992 and includes "I Dreamed a Dream '' (Ria Jones); "Stars '' (Philip Quast); "On My Own '' (Meredith Braun); "Bring Him Home '' (Jeff Leyton); and "Empty Chairs at Empty Tables '' (Mike Sterling). The version of "Stars '' is the same as that on the Complete Symphonic Recording.
Recorded live at the Palace Theatre in Manchester, this recording was released to commemorate 25 years of Les Misérables in English. This recording featured new arrangements and reinspired orchestrations, and included John Owen - Jones as Valjean, Earl Carpenter as Javert, Madalena Alberto as Fantine, Ashley Artus as M. Thénardier, Lynne Wilmot as Mme. Thénardier, Gareth Gates as Marius, Katie Hall as Cosette, Jon Robyns as Enjolras, and Rosalind James as Éponine.
The 25th Anniversary Concert was recorded live at The O2 (London) on 3 October 2010 and is available on DVD in the UK while the Blu - ray was released worldwide. It was shown in select US theaters via NCM Fathom Events. The release for the DVD and Blu - ray in the United States was 22 February 2011 to promote the film adaptation. A CD single of the ' Valjean Quartet ' singing "Bring Him Home '' was also recorded and released, with proceeds going to the charity "Tickets For Troops ''. The cast included Alfie Boe as Jean Valjean, Norm Lewis as Javert, Nick Jonas as Marius, Samantha Barks as Éponine, Katie Hall as Cosette, Ramin Karimloo as Enjolras, Hadley Fraser as Grantaire, Lea Salonga as Fantine, Matt Lucas as Monsieur Thénardier and Jenny Galloway as Madame Thénardier.
There are also various non-English language cast albums of the musical.
Les Miserables Reviews Box Office Theatre Ltd. Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 12
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who was the first american to climb mount everest | Jim Whittaker - wikipedia
James W. Whittaker (born February 10, 1929), also known as Jim Whittaker, is an American mountaineer.
As a member of the American Mount Everest Expedition led by Norman Dyhrenfurth in 1963, he was the first American to reach the summit of Mount Everest. He summited on May 1, 1963, with the Sherpa Nawang Gombu (a nephew of Tenzing Norgay). They ran out of oxygen but managed to reach the summit. Once there, Whittaker planted a US flag at the top.
He is the twin brother of Lou Whittaker, a mountain guide who is often mistakenly credited with that achievement.
Whittaker graduated from West Seattle High School and Seattle University.
He was the first full - time employee of Recreational Equipment Inc. and was the company 's CEO in the 1960s. Now, Whittaker is chairman of the Board of Magellan Navigation, a company that produces handheld global positioning system (GPS) units.
In 1965 he guided Robert Kennedy up the newly named Mount Kennedy.
He led the Earth Day 20 International Peace Climb that brought together climbers from the United States, USSR, and China to summit Mount Everest. In addition to putting more than a dozen climbers on the summit, the expedition hauled off a large amount of trash left on the mountain by previous expeditions.
In 1999 Whittaker released his autobiography, A Life on the Edge: Memoirs of Everest and Beyond. His younger son, Leif Whittaker, published My Old Man and the Mountain: A Memoir in 2016, which relates the story of his own summit of Mount Everest, with his parents accompanying him on part of the journey, and with comparisons to his father 's Mount Everest experiences.
Whittaker and his wife, Dianne Roberts, live in Port Townsend, Washington. Their children are Josh and Leif Whittaker.
If you are n't living on the edge, you are taking up too much space.
You never conquer a mountain. Mountains ca n't be conquered; you conquer yourself.
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who plays 'bones father on tv show | Ryan O'Neal - wikipedia
Charles Patrick Ryan O'Neal (born April 20, 1941) is an American actor and former boxer. O'Neal trained as an amateur boxer before beginning his career in acting in 1960. In 1964, he landed the role of Rodney Harrington on the ABC nighttime soap opera Peyton Place. The series was an instant hit and boosted O'Neal's career. He later found success in films, most notably Love Story (1970), for which he received Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations as Best Actor, What 's Up, Doc? (1972), Paper Moon (1973), Stanley Kubrick 's Barry Lyndon (1975), and A Bridge Too Far (1977). Since 2007, he has had a recurring role in the TV series Bones as Max, the father of the series ' protagonist.
O'Neal was born in Los Angeles, California, the eldest son of actress Patricia Ruth Olga (née Callaghan; 1907 -- 2003) and novelist and screenwriter Charles O'Neal. His father was of English and Irish descent, while his mother was of paternal Irish and maternal Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry. His brother, Kevin, is an actor and screenwriter.
O'Neal attended University High School in Los Angeles, and trained there to become a Golden Gloves boxer. During the late 1950s, his father had a job writing on a television series called Citizen Soldier, and moved the family to Munich, where O'Neal attended Munich American High School.
O'Neal appeared in guest roles on series that included The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis, Leave It to Beaver, Bachelor Father, Westinghouse Playhouse, Perry Mason and Wagon Train. From 1962 to 1963, he was a regular on NBC 's Empire, another modern day western, where he played "Tal Garrett ''. Also, was in an episode of My Three Sons as Chug Williams in 1962.
In 1964 he was cast as Rodney Harrington in the prime time serial drama Peyton Place. The series was a big success, making national names of its cast including O'Neal. Several were offered movie roles, including Mia Farrow and Barbara Parkins.
Eventually O'Neal was cast in the lead of The Big Bounce (1969), based on an Elmore Leonard novel. Then he played an Olympic athlete in The Games (1970). Neither film was particularly successful.
The Games had been co written by Erich Segal, who recommended O'Neal for the lead in Love Story, based on Segal 's novel and script. A number of actors had turned down the role including Beau Bridges and Jon Voight before it was offered to O'Neal. His fee was $25,000; he had an offer that paid five times as much to appear in a Jerry Lewis film but O'Neal knew that Love Story was the better prospect and selected that instead. "I hope the young people like it, '' he said before the film came out. "I do n't want to go back to TV. I do n't want to go back to those NAB conventions. ''
In between the film 's production and release. O'Neal appeared in a TV movie written by Eric Ambler, Love Hate Love, which received good ratings. He also made a Western, Wild Rovers with William Holden for director Blake Edwards.
Love Story turned out to be a box office phenomenon. It made O'Neal a star and earned him a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Actor (although O'Neal was bitter he was never given a percentage of the profits, unlike co star Ali MacGraw).
Wild Rovers, badly cut by MGM, was considerably less popular, yet O'Neal was going to make another film for MGM, Deadly Honeymoon from a novel by Larry Block. However, O'Neal pulled out - Peter Bogdanovich later said MGM head Jim Aubrey was "cruel '' to O'Neal. (The film became Nightmare Honeymoon.) He was also wanted by director Nic Roeg to appear opposite Julie Christie in an adaptation of Out of Africa that was never made.
Instead O'Neal starred in What 's Up Doc? (1972) for Bogdanovich opposite Barbra Streisand. This was the third - highest - grossing film of 1972 and led to him receiving an offer to star in a movie for Stanley Kubrick, Barry Lyndon. While that was in pre production, O'Neal played a jewel thief in The Thief Who Came to Dinner (1972) opposite Jacqueline Bisset and Warren Oates. Then he was reunited with Bogdanovich for Paper Moon (1973) in which he starred opposite his daughter Tatum O'Neal. Tatum won an Oscar for her performance in a very popular movie and in 1973, Ryan O'Neal was voted by exhibitors as the second most popular star in the country, behind Clint Eastwood.
O'Neal spent over a year making Barry Lyndon (1975) for Kubrick. The resulting film was considered a commercial disappointment and had a mixed critical reception; it won O'Neal a Harvard Lampoon Award for the Worst Actor of 1975. Its reputation has risen in recent years but O'Neal says his career never recovered from the film 's reception. "Oh it 's all right but he (Kubrick) completely changed the picture during the year he spent editing it, '' said O'Neal.
O'Neal had been originally meant to star in Bogdanovich 's At Long Last Love but was replaced by Burt Reynolds. He made Nickelodeon (1976) with Reynolds, Bogdanovich and Tatum O'Neal, for a fee of $750,000. The film flopped at the box office.
He followed this with a small role in the all - star war film A Bridge Too Far (1977), playing General James Gavin. O'Neal's performance as a hardened general was much criticised, although O'Neal was only a year older than Gavin at the time of the events in the film. "Can I help it if I photograph like I 'm 16 and they gave me a helmet that was too big for my head? '' he later said. "At least I did my own parachute jump. '' The film performed poorly at the US box office but did well in Europe.
O'Neal initially turned down a reported $3 million to star in Oliver 's Story (1978), a sequel to Love Story. Instead he appeared in the car - chase film The Driver (1978), directed by Walter Hill, who had written The Thief Who Came to Dinner. This was a box office disappointment in the US but, like A Bridge Too Far, did better overseas. Hill later said he "was so pleased with Ryan in the movie and I was very disappointed that people did n't particularly give him any credit for what he did. To me, he 's the best he 's ever been. I can not imagine another actor. ''
O'Neal was meant to follow this with The Champ (1979), directed by Franco Zeffirelli, but decided to pull out after Zeffirelli refused to cast O'Neal's son Griffin opposite him. Instead he agreed to make Oliver 's Story after all once the script was rewritten. However the film was a flop at the box office.
"What I have to do now, seriously, is win a few hearts as an actor, '' he said in 1978. "The way Cary Grant did. I know I 've got a lot of winning to do. But I 'm young enough. I 'll get there... ''
Around this time, O'Neal was meant to star in The Bodyguard, from a Lawrence Kasdan script, opposite Diana Ross for director John Boorman. However the film fell over when Ross pulled out, and it would not be made until 1992, with Kevin Costner in O'Neal's old role. There was some talk he would appear in a film from Michelangelo Antonioni, Suffer or Die, but this did not eventuate.
O'Neal instead played a boxer in a comedy, The Main Event, reuniting him with Streisand. He received a fee of $1 million plus a percentage of the profits. The Main Event was a sizeable hit at the box office.
A 1980 profile of O'Neal described him:
O'Neal was looking to follow it as the lead in the film version of The Thorn Birds to be directed by Arthur Hiller but the book ended up being adapted as a mini series. Instead O'Neal made a British - financed thriller, Green Ice (1981), for the most money he had ever received up front. The movie had a troublesome production (the original director quit during filming) and flopped at the box office.
He had a cameo in Circle of Two, a film his daughter made with Richard Burton. O'Neal says Burton told him during filming he was "five years away from winning acceptance as a serious actor. On the other hand, my agent, Sue Mengers says I 'm right on the threshold. Split the difference, that 's two and a half years. One good picture, that 's all I need... ''
However, in the early 80s he focused on comedies. He received $2 million for the lead in So Fine. This was followed by Partners (1982), a farce written by Francis Veber in which O'Neal played a straight cop who goes undercover as one half of a gay couple. He then played a film director loosely based on Peter Bogdanovich in Irreconcilable Differences (1984); he received no upfront fee but got a percentage of the profits. It was a minor box office success.
A 1984 profile called him "the Billy Martin of Hollywood, whether it 's his love affair with Farrah Fawcett... his precocious actor daughter Tatum or fisticuffs with his son Griffin. He just ca n't seem to stay out of the news. '' O'Neal said he felt more like Rocky Marciano, "wondering why guys are always picking fights with me. If I 'm in a good picture, they 'll like me. If I 'm not they 'll hate me. Hey I 'm mad too when I do n't make good pictures. ''
O'Neal said too many of the roles he had played were "off the beaten path for me ''. In particular he regretted doing The Thief Who Came to Dinner, A Bridge Too Far, The Driver, So Fine, Partners and Green Ice. He blamed this in part on having to pay alimony and child support. He also said agent Sue Mengers encouraged him to constantly work.
"If I could get a good director to choose me for a picture, I was okay, '' he said. "But they stopped calling me in the mid-70s... I made a whole bunch of pictures that did n't make any money and people lost interest in me... Directors take me reluctantly. I feel I 'm lucky to be here in the first place and they know it too. I 'm a glamour boy, a Hollywood product. I have a TV background and they can point to the silly movies I 've made. ''
He tried something different playing a gambler in Fever Pitch (1985), the last movie for Richard Brooks. Even less conventional was Tough Guys Do n't Dance (1987) for director Norman Mailer. Both movies flopped at the box office.
O'Neal had a good supporting role in the romantic comedy Chances Are (1989). He returned to TV opposite his then - partner Farrah Fawcett in Small Sacrifices (1989).
He and Fawcett made a short - lived CBS series Good Sports (1991).
He had a good role in Faithful (1996) with Cher. It was directed by Paul Mazursky who later said of O'Neal:
He 's sweet as sugar, and he 's volatile. He 's got some of that Irish stuff in him, and he can blow up a bit. One day he was doing a scene, and I said, ' Bring it down a little bit, ' and Ryan said, ' I quit! You ca n't say "Bring it down '' to me that loud! ' I said, ' If you quit, I 'm going to break your nose. ' He started to cry. He 's sort of a big baby at times, but he 's a good guy, and he 's very talented. He 's had a strange career, but he was a monster star.
He is a recurring character on Fox 's Bones (2007 -- 2017; died in the hospital after a shootout saving his grandchildren).
In 2011, Ryan and Tatum attempted to restore their broken father / daughter relationship after 25 years. Their reunion and reconciliation process was captured in the Oprah Winfrey Network series, Ryan and Tatum: The O'Neals.
In 2016, O'Neal reunited with Love Story co-star Ali MacGraw in a staging of A.R. Gurney 's play Love Letters.
O'Neal said that in 2009 that he "made a tremendous amount of money on real estate, more than (he) deserve (s) ''.
O'Neal was in a long - term relationship with actress Farrah Fawcett from 1979 until 1997. They then reunited in 2001 and were together until her death in 2009. He was previously married to actresses Joanna Moore and Leigh Taylor - Young; both marriages ended in divorce. He has four children: Tatum O'Neal and Griffin O'Neal (with Moore), Patrick O'Neal (with Taylor - Young), and Redmond James Fawcett O'Neal (with Fawcett).
"I got married at 20, and I was not a real mature 20, '' said O'Neal. "My first child was born when I was 21. I was a man 's man; I did n't discover women until I was married, and then it was too late. '' O'Neal had custody of Tatum and Griffin due to his first wife 's drug and alcohol issues. He had romances with Ursula Andress, Bianca Jagger, Anouk Aimee, Jacqueline Bisset, Barbra Streisand, Diana Ross, and Anjelica Huston. In her 2014 memoir, Huston claimed that O'Neal physically abused her.
For several years, O'Neal was estranged from his elder three children. However, in 2011, Tatum reconciled with her father with a book and a television show. On August 4, O'Neal, Tatum, and Patrick attended Redmond 's court appearance on firearms and drug charges.
O'Neal has nine grandchildren: three from Tatum 's marriage to tennis player John McEnroe, four from both of Griffin 's marriages, and two from Patrick 's relationship with actress Rebecca De Mornay. He is a great - grandfather by Griffin.
In 2001, O'Neal was diagnosed with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). As of 2006, it was in remission. After struggling with leukemia, O'Neal was frequently seen at Fawcett 's side when she was battling cancer. He told People magazine, "It 's a love story. I just do n't know how to play this one. I wo n't know this world without her. Cancer is an insidious enemy. '' In April 2012, O'Neal revealed he had been diagnosed with stage IV prostate cancer. He reported that it had been detected early enough to give a prognosis of full recovery.
Based on various sources.
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where was the battle of cedar creek fought | Battle of Cedar Creek - wikipedia
The Battle of Cedar Creek, or Battle of Belle Grove, fought October 19, 1864, was the culminating battle of the Valley Campaigns of 1864 during the American Civil War. Confederate Lt. Gen. Jubal Early launched a surprise attack against the encamped army of Union Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan, across Cedar Creek, northeast of Strasburg, Virginia. During the morning fighting, seven Union infantry divisions were forced to fall back and lost numerous prisoners and cannons. Early failed to continue his attack north of Middletown, and Sheridan, dramatically riding to the battlefield from Winchester, was able to rally his troops to hold a new defensive line. A Union counterattack that afternoon routed Early 's army.
At the conclusion of this battle, the final Confederate invasion of the North was effectively ended. The Confederacy was never again able to threaten Washington, D.C. through the Shenandoah Valley, nor protect one of its key economic bases in Virginia. The stunning Union victory aided the reelection of Abraham Lincoln and won Sheridan lasting fame.
At the beginning of 1864, Ulysses S. Grant was promoted to lieutenant general and given command of all Union armies. He chose to make his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, although Maj. Gen. George G. Meade remained the actual commander of that army. He left Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Sherman and President Lincoln, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would bring an end to the war. Therefore, scorched earth tactics would be required in some important theaters. He devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the heart of the Confederacy from multiple directions: Grant, Meade, and Maj. Gen. Benjamin Butler against Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia near Richmond; Sherman to invade Georgia and capture Atlanta and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks to capture Mobile.
The final coordinated offensive was to be conducted by Maj. Gen. Franz Sigel through the Shenandoah Valley. During the Civil War, the Valley was one of the most important geographic features of Virginia. The watershed of the Shenandoah River passed between the Blue Ridge Mountains on the east and the Allegheny Mountains to the west, extending 165 miles (270 km) southwest from the Potomac River at Shepherdstown and Harpers Ferry, at an average width of 25 miles (40 km). By the conventions of local residents, the "upper Valley '' referred to the southwestern end, which had a generally higher elevation than the lower Valley to the northeast. Moving "up the Valley '' meant traveling southwest, for instance. Between the North and South Forks of the Shenandoah River, Massanutten Mountain soared 2,900 feet (900 m) and separated the Valley into two halves for about 50 miles (80 km), from Strasburg to Harrisonburg. During the 19th century, there was but a single road that crossed over the mountain, from New Market to Luray.
The Valley offered two strategic advantages to the Confederates. First, a Northern army invading Virginia could be subjected to Confederate flanking attacks pouring through the many wind gaps across the Blue Ridge. Second, the Valley offered a protected corridor that allowed Confederate armies to head north into Pennsylvania unimpeded, and a hard - surfaced road, the Valley Pike (current U.S. Route 11), allowed relatively swift movement -- this was the route taken by Lee to invade the North in the Gettysburg Campaign of 1863. In contrast, the orientation of the Valley offered little advantage to a Northern army headed toward Richmond. But denying the Valley to the Confederacy would be a significant blow. It was an agriculturally rich area -- the 2.5 million bushels of wheat produced in 1860, for example, accounted for about 19 % of the crop in the entire state and the Valley was also rich in livestock -- that was used to provision Virginia 's armies and the Confederate capital of Richmond. (Mark Grimsley, writing in The Hard Hand of War, argues that by 1864 Lee was receiving most of his supplies from the Deep South, so that the agricultural importance of the Valley has been overstated. The Union wanted to control it to close the invasion route to the North and to deny the use of its supplies to guerrillas operating in the area.) If the Federals could capture Staunton in the upper Valley, they would threaten the vital Virginia and Tennessee Railroad, which ran from Richmond to the Mississippi River.
Sigel, in command of the Department of West Virginia, had orders from Grant to move "up the Valley '' with 10,000 men to destroy the railroad center at Lynchburg. Sigel 's force was quickly intercepted by 4,000 Confederate troops under Maj. Gen. John C. Breckinridge, and defeated at the Battle of New Market on May 15. He retreated to Strasburg and was replaced by Maj. Gen. David Hunter. Hunter resumed the Union offensive and defeated Brig. Gen. William E. "Grumble '' Jones, who was killed in the Battle of Piedmont on June 6. Hunter occupied Staunton and joined with Brig. Gen. George Crook. His force of 20,000 men, ordered by Grant to live off the land, began a campaign of destruction.
Gen. Robert E. Lee, whose Army of Northern Virginia was being maneuvered by Grant into a siege around Richmond and Petersburg, was also concerned about Hunter 's advances in the Valley. He sent his Second Corps, now designated the Army of the Valley, under Jubal Early to sweep Union forces from the Valley and, if possible, to menace Washington, D.C., hoping to compel Grant to dilute his forces around Petersburg. Early was operating in the shadow of Thomas J. "Stonewall '' Jackson, whose 1862 Valley Campaign against superior forces was fabled in Confederate history.
Early got off to a good start. He drove down the Valley without opposition, bypassed Harpers Ferry, crossed the Potomac River, and advanced into Maryland. Grant dispatched a corps under Maj. Gen. Horatio G. Wright and other troops under Crook to reinforce Washington and pursue Early. Early defeated a smaller force under Maj. Gen. Lew Wallace in the Battle of Monocacy on July 9, but this battle delayed his progress enough to allow time for the reinforcement of the defenses of Washington. Early attempted some tentative attacks against Fort Stevens (July 11 -- 12) on the northern outskirts of Washington, but then withdrew to Virginia. A number of small battles ensued as the Union pursued, including the defeat of Crook at the Second Battle of Kernstown on July 24.
Grant decided that Early 's threat had to be eliminated, particularly in the wake of a cavalry raid that burned Chambersburg. He saw that Washington had to be heavily defended as long as Early was still on the loose. One problem was that Early 's moves cut through four federal departments. Grant considered unity of command to be essential and recommended George Meade for the position, but Lincoln vetoed that because Radicals had launched a major political attack on Meade. Grant 's next choice was a man aggressive enough to defeat Early: Philip Sheridan, the cavalry commander of the Army of the Potomac. Sheridan took command of all forces in West Virginia, western Maryland and the Middle Military Division responsible for operations around the Shenandoah Valley. His field army was called the Army of the Shenandoah. Sheridan initially started slowly, primarily because the impending presidential election of 1864 demanded a cautious approach, avoiding any disaster that might lead to the defeat of Abraham Lincoln.
After a month of maneuvering with a few small battles between Sheridan and Early, the Confederates became complacent about the threat. Robert E. Lee ordered Maj. Gen. Joseph B. Kershaw 's division to return to Richmond on September 16. Sheridan reacted immediately and struck Early with his entire force near Winchester, on September 19. The Battle of Opequon (the Third Battle of Winchester) was the largest of the campaign and Early sustained ruinous casualties. His army retreated to the south, taking up defensive positions on a long ridge called Fisher 's Hill. Although this position was theoretically nearly impregnable, Early lacked the manpower to hold the entire line in strength. Sheridan hit Early in a flanking attack on September 22, again routing the Confederates, who retreated to Waynesboro.
With Early damaged and pinned down, the Valley lay open to the Union. And because of Sherman 's capture of Atlanta, Lincoln 's re-election now seemed assured. Sheridan pulled back slowly down the Valley and conducted a scorched earth campaign that would foreshadow Sherman 's March to the Sea in November. The goal was to deny the Confederacy the means of feeding its armies in Virginia, and Sheridan 's army did so aggressively, burning crops, barns, mills, and factories. The operation, conducted primarily from September 26 to October 8, has been known to locals ever since as "the Burning '' or "Red October ''. It encompassed the area of Harrisonburg, Port Republic, Staunton and Waynesboro. Early was reinforced by the return of Kershaw 's division and the arrival of Maj. Gen. Thomas L. Rosser 's cavalry division. As Sheridan began to withdraw down the Valley and Early began to pursue, Union cavalry defeated Rosser at Tom 's Brook on October 9. The Union army encamped north of Cedar Creek, in parts of Frederick, Shenandoah and Warren counties.
Believing that Early could no longer muster attacks after more than a month of battling, Sheridan ordered the VI Corps under Maj. Gen. Horatio G. Wright to return to the Petersburg siege lines. However, Early 's troops arrived at Hupp 's Hill, just north of Strasburg, on October 13, deployed in battle formation, and began shelling Federal camps around Belle Grove plantation. Col. Joseph Thoburn 's Union division moved forward to silence the guns and engaged in a sharp fight with Kershaw 's division, resulting in 209 Union casualties, 182 Confederate. Sheridan recalled Wright 's corps, which by this time had reached Ashby 's Gap in the Blue Ridge Mountains. He departed on October 16 for a conference in Washington with Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, accompanied by his Cavalry Corps as far as Front Royal, intending that those two divisions would then raid the Virginia Central Railroad. However, Sheridan changed his plan when he was notified that Early was sending wig - wag signals implying that Lt. Gen. James Longstreet 's corps might join him from Petersburg. This was disinformation on Early 's part, hoping that it would induce the Federals to withdraw down the Valley, but instead Sheridan brought all of his forces back to the camps along Cedar Creek.
In a letter of October 12, 1864, Lee told Early, "You had better move against him and endeavor to crush him... I do not think Sheridan 's infantry or cavalry numerically as large as you suppose. '' Early examined the Union position behind Cedar Creek and found an opening. Expecting an attack across the open valley floor to the west, the Union left relied on natural obstacles for cover. Furthermore, Sheridan expected each of his subordinate commands to provide for its own security, using pickets deployed well forward of their camps. General Crook 's army was not accustomed to that practice and discounted Sheridan 's guidance, leaving the Union left more vulnerable. Early 's choice was either to retire from the area to replenish his dwindling supplies or to attack. He chose boldness and planned an assault on superior forces, using surprise to his advantage -- cross the North Fork of the Shenandoah River and Cedar Creek to attack the Union left, rolling up the line and defeating each part in detail.
On October 18, the eve of battle, Sheridan was spending the night in Winchester, on his way back from the Washington conference. Maj. Gen. Horatio G. Wright was in temporary command of the Army of the Shenandoah.
Sheridan 's Army of the Shenandoah consisted of 31,610 men (effectives) and 90 artillery pieces, organized as follows:
Early 's Army of the Valley consisted of 21,102 men (effectives) and more than 40 artillery pieces, organized as follows:
Early 's men began to form into three columns on the evening of October 18. Gordon 's column (the divisions of Ramseur, Pegram and Evans), with the farthest to march, departed just after it became dark, about 8 p.m. They stealthily followed a narrow path (a "pig path '') between the Shenandoah and the nose of Massanutten Mountain, previously scouted by Gordon and mapmaker, Maj. Jedediah Hotchkiss. The path required single file passage in places, and did not support the movement of artillery. The columns of Wharton and Kershaw departed at about 1 a.m. on October 19, and all three columns of infantry were in position by 3: 30 a.m. Rosser 's cavalry prepared to advance along the western side of the valley to attack in the vicinity of Cupp 's Ford. The 300 - man cavalry brigade of Col. William H. Payne, Rosser 's division, was assigned to lead Gordon 's men to the battle and then break off in an attempt to reach Belle Grove and capture General Sheridan from his headquarters. The Confederates were unaware that Sheridan was not present that morning. Lomax 's cavalry was to advance on the Front Royal -- Winchester Road to cut off any Union withdrawal in the area of Newtown (current Stephens City).
Surprise was virtually complete and most of the Army of West Virginia troops were caught unprepared in their camps. The Confederates ' quiet approach was aided by the presence of heavy fog. Kershaw 's Division attacked the trenches of Col. Joseph Thoburn 's division at 5 a.m. A few minutes later, Gordon 's column attacked the position of Col. Rutherford B. Hayes 's division. Crook 's division - sized "army '' was overwhelmed and many fled, half - dressed, in panic. A brigade under Col. Thomas Wildes was one of the more alert units, and it conducted a fighting withdrawal over 30 minutes to the Valley Pike. Heroic leadership by Capt. Henry A. du Pont, acting chief of Crook 's artillery, saved nine of his sixteen cannons while he kept them in action, stalling the Confederate advance, eventually establishing a rallying point for the Union north of Middletown. (Du Pont later received the Medal of Honor and a brevet promotion to lieutenant colonel in the regular army for his efforts.)
At the XIX Corps camps, General Emory reacted to the sounds of battle and Crook 's fleeing men entering his lines by reorienting his lines to face Gordon 's oncoming attack. In doing so, he removed a covering force that was protecting a bridge over Cedar Creek, allowing Wharton 's column to move forward unimpeded at 5: 40 a.m. Col. Wildes 's brigade of Crook 's army was ordered by Emory to stop its withdrawal, turn around, and attack the advancing Confederates to buy more time for reorienting the Union lines. General Wright accompanied Wildes and received a painful wound to his chin. The XIX Corps brigade of Col. Stephen Thomas made a similar gallant stand for over 30 minutes while McMillan 's division withdrew through the thin lines of Grover 's division. These actions around Belle Grove delayed the Confederates enough that most of the headquarters units and supply trains were able to withdraw to safety and the VI Corps could prepare a better defense on the high ground just northwest of the plantation.
The three divisions of the VI Corps were able to establish proper defensive lines. Kiefer 's division aligned itself with Cedar Creek, but as retreating XIX Corps soldiers flowed through, they were unable to hold their position and withdrew to just west of Meadow Brook. Elements of McMillan 's division and Merritt 's cavalry extended their line to the west. At approximately quarter after 7 in the morning, Kershaw 's Division hit the line hard, gradually forcing it back. Wheaton 's division, just to the north, was similarly forced back by Gordon 's continued attack. The two Union divisions eventually linked up about a mile to the northeast, joining with Getty 's division, which was pulling back from a fierce fight at the Middletown cemetery. Getty had originally marched his division toward the sound of battle, but when Wheaton withdrew, his men were unsupported. Briefly defending a slight rise south of Middletown, at 8 a.m. he moved his division to the town cemetery, on a hill to the west. For over an hour, Getty 's division defended this position against assaults from four Confederate divisions. Jubal Early assumed by the ferocity of the defense that he was fighting the entire VI Corps. He allowed himself to become distracted, which diluted the momentum of the overall Confederate attack. Directing all of his artillery to concentrate on the cemetery position for 30 minutes, he was able to dislodge Getty 's division, ordered to withdraw to the main Federal line, now being formed about a mile to the north, by temporary commander Brig. Gen. Lewis A. Grant. (The VI Corps ' temporary commander, Brig. Gen. James B. Ricketts, had been wounded and Getty assumed corps command.)
Sheridan was at Winchester at the start of the battle. At 6 a.m., pickets south of Winchester reported back that they heard the distant sounds of artillery. Not expecting any significant action from Early that day, Sheridan dismissed the report. As additional reports arrived, he assumed it was "Grover 's division banging away at the enemy simply to find out what he was up to '', but he ordered his horse, Rienzi, to be saddled and ate a quick breakfast. At 9 a.m. he departed with three staff officers, and soon he was joined by a 300 - man cavalry escort, and with them he rode aggressively to his command. He noticed that the sounds of battle were increasing in volume quickly, so he inferred that his army was retreating in his direction. At Newtown, he ordered a young officer from Crook 's staff, Capt. William McKinley (elected President 32 years later, in 1896), to set up a line that would intercept stragglers and send them back to the battlefield. He reached the battle about 10: 30 a.m. and began to rally his men to complete the defensive line north of Middletown that General Wright had begun to organize. His presence electrified the Union soldiers and he shouted, "Come on back, boys! Give ' em hell, God damn ' em! We 'll make coffee out of Cedar Creek tonight! ''
General Sheridan wrote in his official report an account of the famous ride:
(I) was unconscious of the true condition of affairs until about 9 o'clock, when having ridden through the town of Winchester, the sound of the artillery made a battle unmistakable, and on reaching Mill Creek, half a mile south of Winchester, the head of the fugitives appeared in sight, trains and men coming to the rear with appalling rapidity. I immediately gave directions to halt and park the trains at Mill Creek, and ordered the brigade at Winchester to stretch across the country and stop all stragglers. Taking twenty men from my escort, I pushed on to the front, leaving the balance under General Forsyth and Colonels Thom and Alexander to do what they could in stemming the torrent of fugitives. I am happy to say that hundreds of the men, when of reflection found they had not done themselves justice, came back with cheers... still none behaved more gallantly or exhibited greater courage than those who returned from the rear determined to reoccupy their lost camp.
Thomas Buchanan Read wrote a popular poem, Sheridan 's Ride, to commemorate Sheridan 's exploit. The general took notice of the widespread public acclaim by renaming his horse "Winchester ''. In 1908, Gutzon Borglum created an equestrian statue of Sheridan and Winchester riding to Cedar Creek, which stands in Sheridan Circle, Washington, D.C.
Fortunately for Sheridan, Early 's men were too occupied to take notice of the Union general 's dramatic arrival; they were hungry and exhausted and fell out of their ranks to pillage supplies from the Union camps. By 10 a.m., Jubal Early had developed a stunning Confederate victory, capturing 1,300 Union prisoners and 24 cannons, and driving seven infantry divisions off the field with a smaller force. But rather than exploiting his victory, Early ordered a halt in his offensive to reorganize, a decision for which he later received criticism from his surviving subordinates. John B. Gordon wrote years later, "My heart went into my boots. Visions of the fatal halt on the first day at Gettysburg, and of the whole day 's hesitation to permit an assault on Grant 's exposed flank on the 6th of May in The Wilderness rose before me. '' Early wrote to Robert E. Lee, "So many of our men had stopped in the camp to plunder (in which I am sorry to say that officers participated), the country was so open, and the enemy 's cavalry so strong, that I did not deem it prudent to press further, especially as Lomax had not come up. '' The two armies stood about a mile apart in lines perpendicular to the Valley Pike. At 1 p.m. Early gave a halfhearted order to Gordon to attack the Union line, but "not if he found the enemy 's line too strong to attack with success. '' Gordon 's division moved forward against the XIX Corps, with Kershaw and Ramseur ready to support them, but after firing a heavy volley into the Union line, they withdrew.
Sheridan 's boast about making coffee from Cedar Creek that evening meant that he was immediately contemplating a counterattack. He placed a cavalry division on each end of the line, which was made up of Wright 's VI Corps and Emory 's XIX Corps. Crook 's Army of West Virginia was in reserve. While his cavalry pressed both of Early 's flanks, Sheridan planned for the XIX Corps to execute a "left half - wheel '' to the southeast, pivoting on Getty 's VI Corps division, and driving the Confederates into the Pike. The main attack began at 4 p.m., meeting significant Confederate resistance north of Middletown for about an hour. Early 's left flank began to crumble and Custer 's cavalry raced into the Confederate rear. Many of the Confederate soldiers panicked as they envisioned their escape route across Cedar Creek being blocked by the Federal cavalrymen who had been so successful during the campaign. After the breakthrough on the Union right, Sheridan stepped up the pressure with an attack on Ramseur 's Division. General Ramseur was mortally wounded and his men joined the retreat. Although the Confederate artillery made a few delaying stands along the way, Early had lost control of his army.
The situation worsened for the Confederates when a small bridge on the Valley Pike collapsed, making it impossible to cross with wagons or artillery over "No Name Creek '' south of Strasburg. Early 's army was forced to abandon all of the captured Union guns and wagons from the morning attack, as well as most of their own. Sheridan 's pursuit ended at nightfall. The retreating Confederate soldiers gathered temporarily on Fisher 's Hill and then the army retired the following day to New Market.
Casualties for the Union totaled 5,665 (644 killed, 3,430 wounded, 1,591 missing). Confederate casualties are only estimates, about 2,910 (320 killed, 1,540 wounded, 1,050 missing). In addition to the mortal wounding of Confederate general Ramseur (who died at Belle Grove in the company of Union officers who were former colleagues and friends), two Union brigadier generals were killed at Cedar Creek: Daniel D. Bidwell and Charles R. Lowell, Jr.
The battle was a crushing defeat for the Confederates. They were never again able to threaten the northern states through the Shenandoah Valley, nor protect the economic base in the Valley. In fact, Early still had the problem of feeding his own army. The reelection of Abraham Lincoln was materially aided by this victory and Phil Sheridan earned lasting fame. Ulysses S. Grant ordered a 100 - gun salute be fired in his honor at Petersburg and he was rewarded with a promotion to major general in the regular army.
Jubal Early told Jed Hotchkiss that night that the "fatal halt '' occurred because, "the Yankees got whipped and we got scared ''. But he soon became bitter about his defeat, heaping blame on his soldiers. He wrote to Robert E. Lee, "but for their bad conduct I should have defeated Sheridan 's whole force. '' Three days after the battle he addressed his army: "Many of you, including some commissioned officers, yielded to a disgraceful propensity for plunder... Subsequently those who had remained at their post, seeing their ranks thinned by the absence of the plunderer... yielded to a needless panic and fled the field in confusion. ''
Early 's military career was effectively ended. His surviving units returned to the Army of Northern Virginia in Petersburg that December. He was left for the winter with a command of fewer than 3,000 men at Waynesboro. On March 2, 1865, Sheridan marched his command to join Grant in Petersburg and Custer 's cavalry division routed Early 's small command along the way. Early escaped with a small escort and spent the next two weeks running from Federal patrols before reporting to Lee 's headquarters. On March 30, Lee told him to go home.
Twelve Union enlisted men and nine officers received the Medal of Honor for their actions in the Battle of Cedar Creek. One of the officers was a captain of the 5th U.S. Artillery and future U.S. Senator, Henry A. du Pont.
More than 1,450 acres (5.9 km) of the Cedar Creek Battlefield are preserved as part of the Cedar Creek and Belle Grove National Historical Park, a partnership park, with much of the land owned by nonprofit preservation groups, including the National Trust for Historic Preservation, the Shenandoah Valley Battlefields Foundation, Belle Grove Plantation, the Potomac Conservancy, and the Cedar Creek Battlefield Foundation. In addition, nonprofit groups such as the Civil War Trust have contributed substantial funding toward protection of these lands.
In May 2008, the Frederick County Board of Supervisors voted to allow Carmeuse Lime and Stone to expand its existing operation on the Cedar Creek Battlefield. The vote permits Carmeuse to mine 394 acres (1.59 km) of core battlefield land at Cedar Creek. In response to this decision, an alliance of national and local preservation groups formed the Cedar Creek and Belle Grove Coalition to increase public awareness about the impact of the new mining on the battlefield, as well as to promote future preservation efforts at Cedar Creek.
The 1st Vermont Brigade 's actions in the battle are commemorated by a large wall - sized painting in the Cedar Creek Room on the second floor of the Vermont State House in Montpelier, entitled The Battle of Cedar Creek. The painting is by Julian Scott, a Vermont soldier awarded the Medal of Honor for valor. In 1997, proposed highway construction threatened a Virginia ridge where the 8th Vermont Regiment, commanded by Stephen Thomas, lost nearly two - thirds of its men in a heroic early morning stand. The proposal prompted the Vermont State Legislature to adopt a resolution stating that more Vermont units took part in this battle than in any other in the war and asking Virginia to prevent building on the ridge.
Limestone Mines at Cedar Creek
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how many episodes were in season 7 of blue bloods | Blue Bloods (season 7) - wikipedia
The seventh season of Blue Bloods, a police procedural drama series created by Robin Green and Mitchell Burgess, premiered on CBS on September 23, 2016. The season concluded on May 5, 2017.
Donnie Wahlberg (Danny Reagan), Bridget Moynahan (Erin Reagan), Will Estes (Jamie Reagan), and Len Cariou (Henry Reagan) are first credited. Amy Carlson (Linda Reagan) and Sami Gayle (Nicky Reagan - Boyle) are credited next, marking the third season they have been included in the opening credits. Tom Selleck (Frank Reagan) receives an "and '' billing at the close of the main title sequence.
Marisa Ramirez, as Danny 's partner Detective Maria Baez, and Vanessa Ray, as Jamie 's partner Eddie Janko, continue to receive "also starring '' billing for season 7. Appearing regularly and receiving "special guest star '' billing are Gregory Jbara as Deputy Commissioner of Public Information Garrett Moore, Robert Clohessy as Lt. Sidney Gormley, and Abigail Hawk as Detective Baker, Frank 's primary aide.
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what is the name of god's angels | List of angels in theology - wikipedia
This is a list of angels in theology, including both specific angels (e.g. Gabriel) and types of angels (e.g. Seraphim).
Note that some overlap is to be expected with the list of theological demons entry, since various traditions have different classifications for the spirits they mention.
Blessings / Guardian Angels
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who has the ability to add delete or reschedule a drug as more information becomes available | Controlled substances Act - wikipedia
The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) is the statute establishing federal U.S. drug policy under which the manufacture, importation, possession, use, and distribution of certain substances is regulated. It was passed by the 91st United States Congress as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 and signed into law by President Richard Nixon. The Act also served as the national implementing legislation for the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.
The legislation created five Schedules (classifications), with varying qualifications for a substance to be included in each. Two federal agencies, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), determine which substances are added to or removed from the various schedules, although the statute passed by Congress created the initial listing. Congress has sometimes scheduled other substances through legislation such as the Hillory J. Farias and Samantha Reid Date - Rape Prevention Act of 2000, which placed gamma hydroxybutyrate in Schedule I and sodium oxybate in Schedule III. Classification decisions are required to be made on criteria including potential for abuse (an undefined term), currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and international treaties.
The nation first outlawed addictive drugs in the early 1900s and the International Opium Convention helped lead international agreements regulating trade. The Food and Drugs Act of 1906 was the beginning of over 200 laws concerning public health and consumer protections. Others were the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (1938), and the Kefauver Harris Amendment of 1962.
In 1969, President Richard Nixon announced that the Attorney General, John N. Mitchell, was preparing a comprehensive new measure to more effectively meet the narcotic and dangerous drug problems at the federal level by combining all existing federal laws into a single new statute. With the help of White House Counsel head John Dean, the Executive Director of the Shafer Commission Michael Sonnenreich, and the Director of the BNDD John Ingersoll creating and writing the legislation, Mitchell was able to present Nixon with an exceptional bill.
The CSA not only combined existing federal drug laws and expanded their scope, but it also changed the nature of federal drug law policies and expanded Federal law enforcement pertaining to controlled substances. Title II, Part F of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 established the National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse -- known as the Shafer Commission after its chairman, Raymond P. Shafer -- to study cannabis abuse in the United States. During his presentation of the commission 's First Report to Congress, Sonnenreich and Shafer recommended the decriminalization of marijuana in small amounts, with Shafer stating,
(T) he criminal law is too harsh a tool to apply to personal possession even in the effort to discourage use. It implies an overwhelming indictment of the behavior which we believe is not appropriate. The actual and potential harm of use of the drug is not great enough to justify intrusion by the criminal law into private behavior, a step which our society takes only with the greatest reluctance.
Rufus King notes that this stratagem was similar to that used by Harry Anslinger when he consolidated the previous anti-drug treaties into the Single Convention and took the opportunity to add new provisions that otherwise might have been unpalatable to the international community. According to David T. Courtwright, "the Act was part of an omnibus reform package designed to rationalize, and in some respects to liberalize, American drug policy. '' (Courtwright noted that the Act became, not libertarian, but instead repressionistic to the point of tyrannical, in its intent.) It eliminated mandatory minimum sentences and provided support for drug treatment and research. King notes that the rehabilitation clauses were added as a compromise to Senator Jim Hughes, who favored a moderate approach. The bill, as introduced by Senator Everett Dirksen, ran to 91 pages. While it was being drafted, the Uniform Controlled Substances Act, to be passed by state legislatures, was also being drafted by the Department of Justice; it 's wording closely mirrored the Controlled Substances Act.
Since its enactment in 1970, the Act has been amended numerous times:
The Controlled Substances Act consists of 2 subchapters. Subchapter I defines Schedules I-V, lists chemicals used in the manufacture of controlled substances, and differentiates lawful and unlawful manufacturing, distribution, and possession of controlled substances, including possession of Schedule I drugs for personal use; this subchapter also specifies the dollar amounts of fines and durations of prison terms for violations. Subchapter II describes the laws for exportation and importation of controlled substances, again specifying fines and prison terms for violations.
The Drug Enforcement Administration was established in 1973, combining the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (BNDD) and Customs ' drug agents. Proceedings to add, delete, or change the schedule of a drug or other substance may be initiated by the DEA, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), or by petition from any interested party, including the manufacturer of a drug, a medical society or association, a pharmacy association, a public interest group concerned with drug abuse, a state or local government agency, or an individual citizen. When a petition is received by the DEA, the agency begins its own investigation of the drug.
The DEA also may begin an investigation of a drug at any time based upon information received from laboratories, state and local law enforcement and regulatory agencies, or other sources of information. Once the DEA has collected the necessary data, the Deputy Administrator of DEA, requests from HHS a scientific and medical evaluation and recommendation as to whether the drug or other substance should be controlled or removed from control. This request is sent to the Assistant Secretary of Health of HHS. Then, HHS solicits information from the Commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration and evaluations and recommendations from the National Institute on Drug Abuse and, on occasion, from the scientific and medical community at large. The Assistant Secretary, by authority of the Secretary, compiles the information and transmits back to the DEA a medical and scientific evaluation regarding the drug or other substance, a recommendation as to whether the drug should be controlled, and in what schedule it should be placed.
The HHS recommendation on scheduling is binding to the extent that if HHS recommends, based on its medical and scientific evaluation, that the substance not be controlled, then the DEA may not control the substance. Once the DEA has received the scientific and medical evaluation from HHS, the DEA Administrator evaluates all available data and makes a final decision whether to propose that a drug or other substance be controlled and into which schedule it should be placed. Under certain circumstances, the Government may temporarily schedule a drug without following the normal procedure. An example is when international treaties require control of a substance. In addition, 21 U.S.C. § 811 (h) allows the Attorney General to temporarily place a substance in Schedule I "to avoid an imminent hazard to the public safety ''. Thirty days ' notice is required before the order can be issued, and the scheduling expires after a year; however, the period may be extended six months if rulemaking proceedings to permanently schedule the drug are in progress. In any case, once these proceedings are complete, the temporary order is automatically vacated. Unlike ordinary scheduling proceedings, such temporary orders are not subject to judicial review.
The CSA also creates a closed system of distribution for those authorized to handle controlled substances. The cornerstone of this system is the registration of all those authorized by the DEA to handle controlled substances. All individuals and firms that are registered are required to maintain complete and accurate inventories and records of all transactions involving controlled substances, as well as security for the storage of controlled substances.
The Congressional findings in 21 USC § § 801 (7), 801a (2), and 801a (3) state that a major purpose of the CSA is to "enable the United States to meet all of its obligations '' under international treaties. The CSA bears many resemblances to these Conventions. Both the CSA and the treaties set out a system for classifying controlled substances in several Schedules in accordance with the binding scientific and medical findings of a public health authority. Under 21 U.S.C. § 811 of the CSA, that authority is the Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS). Under Article 3 of the Single Convention and Article 2 of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, the World Health Organization is that authority.
The domestic and international legal nature of these treaty obligations must be considered in light of the supremacy of the United States Constitution over treaties or acts and the equality of treaties and Congressional acts. In Reid v. Covert the Supreme Court of the United States addressed both these issues directly and clearly holding:
(N) o agreement with a foreign nation can confer power on the Congress, or on any other branch of Government, which is free from the restraints of the Constitution.
Article VI, the Supremacy Clause of the Constitution, declares:
"This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof, and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land;... ''
There is nothing in this language which intimates that treaties and laws enacted pursuant to them do not have to comply with the provisions of the Constitution. Nor is there anything in the debates which accompanied the drafting and ratification of the Constitution which even suggests such a result. These debates, as well as the history that surrounds the adoption of the treaty provision in Article VI, make it clear that the reason treaties were not limited to those made in "pursuance '' of the Constitution was so that agreements made by the United States under the Articles of Confederation, including the important peace treaties which concluded the Revolutionary War, would remain in effect. It would be manifestly contrary to the objectives of those who created the Constitution, as well as those who were responsible for the Bill of Rights -- let alone alien to our entire constitutional history and tradition -- to construe Article VI as permitting the United States to exercise power under an international agreement without observing constitutional prohibitions. In effect, such construction would permit amendment of that document in a manner not sanctioned by Article V. The prohibitions of the Constitution were designed to apply to all branches of the National Government, and they can not be nullified by the Executive or by the Executive and the Senate combined.
There is nothing new or unique about what we say here. This Court has regularly and uniformly recognized the supremacy of the Constitution over a treaty. For example, in Geofroy v. Riggs, 133 U.S. 258, 133 U.S. 267, it declared:
"The treaty power, as expressed in the Constitution, is in terms unlimited except by those restraints which are found in that instrument against the action of the government or of its departments, and those arising from the nature of the government itself and of that of the States. It would not be contended that it extends so far as to authorize what the Constitution forbids, or a change in the character of the government, or in that of one of the States, or a cession of any portion of the territory of the latter, without its consent. ''
This Court has repeatedly taken the position that an Act of Congress, which must comply with the Constitution, is on a full parity with a treaty, and that, when a statute which is subsequent in time is inconsistent with a treaty, the statute to the extent of conflict renders the treaty null. It would be completely anomalous to say that a treaty need not comply with the Constitution when such an agreement can be overridden by a statute that must conform to that instrument.
According to the Cato Institute, these treaties only bind (legally obligate) the United States to comply with them as long as that nation agrees to remain a state party to these treaties. The U.S. Congress and the President of the United States have the absolute sovereign right to withdraw from or abrogate at any time these two instruments, in accordance with said nation 's Constitution, at which point these treaties will cease to bind that nation in any way, shape, or form.
A provision for automatic compliance with treaty obligations is found at 21 U.S.C. § 811 (d), which also establishes mechanisms for amending international drug control regulations to correspond with HHS findings on scientific and medical issues. If control of a substance is mandated by the Single Convention, the Attorney General is required to "issue an order controlling such drug under the schedule he deems most appropriate to carry out such obligations, '' without regard to the normal scheduling procedure or the findings of the HHS Secretary. However, the Secretary has great influence over any drug scheduling proposal under the Single Convention, because 21 U.S.C. § 811 (d) (2) (B) requires the Secretary the power to "evaluate the proposal and furnish a recommendation to the Secretary of State which shall be binding on the representative of the United States in discussions and negotiations relating to the proposal. ''
Similarly, if the United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs adds or transfers a substance to a Schedule established by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, so that current U.S. regulations on the drug do not meet the treaty 's requirements, the Secretary is required to issue a recommendation on how the substance should be scheduled under the CSA. If the Secretary agrees with the Commission 's scheduling decision, he can recommend that the Attorney General initiate proceedings to reschedule the drug accordingly. If the HHS Secretary disagrees with the UN controls, however, the Attorney General must temporarily place the drug in Schedule IV or V (whichever meets the minimum requirements of the treaty) and exclude the substance from any regulations not mandated by the treaty, while the Secretary is required to request that the Secretary of State take action, through the Commission or the UN Economic and Social Council, to remove the drug from international control or transfer it to a different Schedule under the Convention. The temporary scheduling expires as soon as control is no longer needed to meet international treaty obligations.
This provision was invoked in 1984 to place Rohypnol (flunitrazepam) in Schedule IV. The drug did not then meet the Controlled Substances Act 's criteria for scheduling; however, control was required by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. In 1999, an FDA official explained to Congress:
Rohypnol is not approved or available for medical use in the United States, but it is temporarily controlled in Schedule IV pursuant to a treaty obligation under the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. At the time flunitrazepam was placed temporarily in Schedule IV (November 5, 1984), there was no evidence of abuse or trafficking of the drug in the United States.
The Cato Institute 's Handbook for Congress calls for repealing the CSA, an action that would likely bring the United States into conflict with international law, were the United States not to exercise its sovereign right to withdraw from and / or abrogate the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs and / or the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances prior to repealing the Controlled Substances Act. The exception would be if the U.S. were to claim that the treaty obligations violate the United States Constitution. Many articles in these treaties -- such as Article 35 and Article 36 of the Single Convention -- are prefaced with phrases such as "Having due regard to their constitutional, legal and administrative systems, the Parties shall... '' or "Subject to its constitutional limitations, each Party shall... '' According to former United Nations Drug Control Programme Chief of Demand Reduction Cindy Fazey, "This has been used by the USA not to implement part of article 3 of the 1988 Convention, which prevents inciting others to use narcotic or psychotropic drugs, on the basis that this would be in contravention of their constitutional amendment guaranteeing freedom of speech ''.
There are five different Schedules of controlled substances, numbered I -- V. The CSA describes the different Schedules based on three factors:
The following table gives a summary of the different Schedules.
Placing a drug or other substance in a certain Schedule or removing it from a certain Schedule is primarily based on 21 USC § § 801, 801a, 802, 811, 812, 813, and 814. Every schedule otherwise requires finding and specifying the "potential for abuse '' before a substance can be placed in that schedule. The specific classification of any given drug or other substance is usually a source of controversy, as is the purpose and effectiveness of the entire regulatory scheme.
The term "controlled substance '' means a drug or other substance, or immediate precursor, included in schedule I, II, III, IV, or V of part B of this subchapter. The term does not include distilled spirits, wine, malt beverages, or tobacco, as those terms are defined or used in subtitle E of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986.
Some have argued that this is an important exemption, since alcohol and tobacco are two of the most widely used drugs in the United States. Also of significance, the exclusion of alcohol includes wine which is sacramentally used by many major religious denominations in the United States.
Schedule I substances are described as those that have the following findings:
No prescriptions may be written for Schedule I substances, and such substances are subject to production quotas which the DEA imposes.
Under the DEA 's interpretation of the CSA, a drug does not necessarily have to have the same "high potential for abuse '' as heroin, for example, to merit placement in Schedule I:
(W) hen it comes to a drug that is currently listed in schedule I, if it is undisputed that such drug has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States and a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision, and it is further undisputed that the drug has at least some potential for abuse sufficient to warrant control under the CSA, the drug must remain in schedule I. In such circumstances, placement of the drug in schedules II through V would conflict with the CSA since such drug would not meet the criterion of "a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States. '' 21 USC 812 (b). (emphasis added)
Sentences for first - time, non-violent offenders convicted of trafficking in Schedule I drugs can easily turn into de facto life sentences when multiple sales are prosecuted in one proceeding. Sentences for violent offenders are much higher.
Drugs listed in this control schedule include:
Schedule II substances are those that have the following findings:
Except when dispensed directly to an ultimate user by a practitioner other than a pharmacist, no controlled substance in Schedule II, which is a prescription drug as determined under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (21 USC 301 et seq.), may be dispensed without the written prescription of a practitioner, except that in emergency situations, as prescribed by the Secretary by regulation after consultation with the Attorney General, such drug may be dispensed upon oral prescription in accordance with section 503 (b) of that Act (21 USC 353 (b)). With exceptions, an original prescription is always required even though faxing in a prescription in advance to a pharmacy by a prescriber is allowed. Prescriptions shall be retained in conformity with the requirements of section 827 of this title. No prescription for a controlled substance in schedule II may be refilled. Notably no emergency situation provisions exist outside the Controlled Substances Act 's "closed system '' although this closed system may be unavailable or nonfunctioning in the event of accidents in remote areas or disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes. Acts which would widely be considered morally imperative remain offenses subject to heavy penalties.
These drugs vary in potency: for example fentanyl is about 80 times as potent as morphine (heroin is roughly two times as potent). More significantly, they vary in nature. Pharmacology and CSA scheduling have a weak relationship.
Because refills of prescriptions for Schedule II substances are not allowed, it can be burdensome to both the practitioner and the patient if the substances are to be used on a long - term basis. To provide relief, in 2007, 21 C.F.R. 1306.12 was amended (at 72 FR 64921) to allow practitioners to write up to three prescriptions at once, to provide up to a 90 - day supply, specifying on each the earliest date on which it may be filled.
Drugs in this schedule include:
Schedule III substances are those that have the following findings:
Except when dispensed directly by a practitioner, other than a pharmacist, to an ultimate user, no controlled substance in schedule III or IV, which is a prescription drug as determined under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (21 USC 301 et seq.), may be dispensed without a written or oral prescription in conformity with section 503 (b) of that Act (21 USC 353 (b)). Such prescriptions may not be filled or refilled more than six months after the date thereof or be refilled more than five times after the date of the prescription unless renewed by the practitioner. A prescription for controlled substances in Schedules III, IV, and V issued by a practitioner, may be communicated either orally, in writing, or by facsimile to the pharmacist, and may be refilled if so authorized on the prescription or by call - in. Control of wholesale distribution is somewhat less stringent than Schedule II drugs. Provisions for emergency situations are less restrictive within the "closed system '' of the Controlled Substances Act than for Schedule II though no schedule has provisions to address circumstances where the closed system is unavailable, nonfunctioning or otherwise inadequate.
Drugs in this schedule include:
"Placement on schedules; findings required Schedule IV substances are those that have the following findings:
Control measures are similar to Schedule III. Prescriptions for Schedule IV drugs may be refilled up to five times within a six - month period. A prescription for controlled substances in Schedules III, IV, and V issued by a practitioner, may be communicated either orally, in writing, or by facsimile to the pharmacist, and may be refilled if so authorized on the prescription or by call - in.
Drugs in this schedule include:
Schedule V substances are those that have the following findings:
No controlled substance in schedule V which is a drug may be distributed or dispensed other than for a medical purpose. A prescription for controlled substances in Schedules III, IV, and V issued by a practitioner, may be communicated either orally, in writing, or by facsimile to the pharmacist, and may be refilled if so authorized on the prescription or by call - in.
Drugs in this schedule include:
The Controlled Substances Act also provides for federal regulation of precursors used to manufacture some of the controlled substances. The DEA list of chemicals is actually modified when the United States Attorney General determines that illegal manufacturing processes have changed.
In addition to the CSA, due to pseudoephedrine (PSE) and ephedrine being widely used in the manufacture of methamphetamine, the U.S. Congress passed the Methamphetamine Precursor Control Act which places restrictions on the sale of any medicine containing pseudoephedrine. That bill was then superseded by the Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005, which was passed as an amendment to the Patriot Act renewal and included wider and more comprehensive restrictions on the sale of PSE - containing products. This law requires customer signature of a "log - book '' and presentation of valid photo ID in order to purchase PSE - containing products from all retailers.
Additionally, the law restricts an individual to the retail purchase of no more than three packages or 3.6 grams of such product per day per purchase -- and no more than 9 grams in a single month. A violation of this statute constitutes a misdemeanor. Retailers now commonly require PSE - containing products to be sold behind the pharmacy or service counter. This affects many preparations which were previously available over-the - counter without restriction, such as Actifed and its generic equivalents.
There has been criticism against the schedule classifications of the listed drugs and substances in the CSA, citing undefined terms. Some criticism has arisen due to research that has found several substances on the list of Schedule I substances to have actual accepted medical uses and low abuse potential, despite the requirement for a Schedule I listing mandating that any substance so scheduled have both a high potential for abuse and no accepted medical use. One such example is the legalization of marijuana in some capacity in over 29 states.
Similar legislation outside of the United States:
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who sings i love you climax blues band | I Love You (Climax Blues Band song) - Wikipedia
"I Love You '' is a song recorded by the Climax Blues Band in 1980. It was their second - biggest hit (after 1976 's "Could n't Get It Right ''), entering the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in February 1981, peaking at # 12 in June, and spending 27 weeks on the chart. It ended up being the 20th biggest hit of 1981. On the Cash Box Top 100, "I Love You '' peaked for two weeks at number 9. The song also reached # 20 on the Adult Contemporary chart. The song was featured on their 1980 album, Flying the Flag.
The song was covered by American band Lazlo Bane for their 2007 album Guilty Pleasures.
It was also covered by the band Tesla for their 2011 acoustic album Twisted Wires & the Acoustic Sessions.
The song is featured at the end scene of the 2002 Robin Tunney indie - comedy film CHERISH.
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what country is the first to see a new day | New Year 's Eve - wikipedia
In the Gregorian calendar, New Year 's Eve (also known as Old Year 's Day or Saint Sylvester 's Day in many countries), the last day of the year, is on December 31 which is the seventh day of Christmastide. In many countries, New Year 's Eve is celebrated at evening social gatherings, where many people dance, eat, drink alcoholic beverages, and watch or light fireworks to mark the new year. Some Christians attend a watchnight service. The celebrations generally go on past midnight into New Year 's Day, January 1.
Samoa, Tonga and Kiritimati (Christmas Island), part of Kiribati, are the first places to welcome the New Year while American Samoa and Baker Island in the United States of America are among the last.
In Algeria, New Year 's Eve (French: Réveillon; Arabic: Ra 's al - ' Ām ) is usually celebrated with family and friends. In the largest cities, such as Algiers, Constantine, Annaba, Oran, Sétif and Béjaïa, there are large celebrations which may feature concerts, late - night partiying, firecrackers, fireworks at midnight and sparklers and shouts of "Bonne année! ''.
The Martyrs ' Memorial and the Grand - Post Place in Algiers are the main attraction for the majority of Algerians during the celebration; while some others prefer spending this special night outside the country, generally in Tunis or Paris.
At 8pm (AST), the President 's message of greetings to Algerians is read on TV. EPTV network airs a yearly New Year 's Eve entertainment show, variying its name, hosts and guests, which features sketches and musical performances. Popular films are also broadcast.
At home or at restaurants, a special type of pastry cake, called "la bûche '' is eaten, and black coffee or soda is drunk with it, few minutes before the New Year 's countdown.
On New Year 's Day (le jour de l'an), people, especially children, write their "New Year 's letter '' on decorated paper, called "Carte de bonne année '', to their parents and relatives, featuring their resolutions and wishes.
In Egypt the new year is celebrated with fireworks, fire crackers, smashing glass bottles or breaking things on the street also.
In Ghana, many people celebrate New Year 's Eve by going to Church; others go to nightclubs, pubs, or take to the street to celebrate. At midnight, fireworks are displayed across various cities of Ghana, especially in Accra and Tema.
In Morocco, New Year 's Eve (Arabic: رأس العام -- Rass l'aam -- "head of the year '' ) is celebrated in the company of family and friends. People get together to eat cake, dance, and laugh. Traditionally, people celebrate it at home, but some prefer to go to nightclubs. At midnight, fireworks are displayed across Ain Diab, in the corniche of Casablanca.
In Nigeria, the New Year 's Eve is often celebrated by going to Church; others go to nightclubs, and parties organised by individuals, communities or State government like the Lagos Countdown. The Lagos Countdown is an event in Nigeria, created to increase tourism and making Lagos a premium destination for business and leisure. The event kicks off in December and lasts till 1 January. It is attended by an average of 100,000 people. The event takes place at the Eko Atlantic city, beside the Barbeach attracting thousands of domestic and foreign tourists who are entertained every evening by different artists...
In South Sudan, people attend church services at many churches in Juba. The service begins at 9PM. At the stroke of midnight, people sing the famous carol, Hark! The Herald Angels Sing to mark the end and beginning of the year with a blessing. The service ends at 12: 30AM.
Traditional celebrations in Argentina include a family dinner of traditional dishes, including vitel tonné, asado, sandwiches de miga, piononos. Like dessert: turrón, mantecol and pan dulce.
Just before midnight, people flock to the streets to enjoy fireworks and light firecrackers. The fireworks can be seen in any terrace. The first day of the New Year is celebrated at midnight with cider or champagne. People wish each other a happy New Year, and sometimes share a toast with neighbours. Parties often continue until dawn.
The celebration is during the summer, like in many South American countries, so it 's normal to see many families in the New Year at tourist centers of the Argentine Atlantic coast (Mar del Plata, Necochea, Villa Gesell, Miramar, etc.).
The New Year (Portuguese: Ano Novo), is one of Brazil 's main holidays. It officially marks the beginning of the summer holidays, which last until Carnival. Brazilians traditionally have a copious meal with family or friends at home, in restaurants or private clubs, and consume alcoholic beverages. Champagne is traditionally drunk. Those spending New Year 's Eve at the beach usually dress in white, to bring good luck into the new year. Fireworks and eating grapes or lentils are customs associated with the holiday.
The beach at Copacabana in Rio de Janeiro is ranked among the top 10 New Year Fireworks display. The combination of live concerts, a spectacular fireworks display and millions of revelers combine to make the Copacabana 's New Year 's party one of the best in the world. In addition, the celebrations are broadcast on TV, the most famous being the Adues A Tudo Isso on Rede Globo.
In other regions, different events also take place. The most famous are on the edge of coastal cities, such as Copacabana. In the Northeast, in Fortaleza, the party is in Iracema Beach, and in Salvador, the change of year happens in a great music festival. In the South, the most famous festivities on the coast take place in Santa Catarina: on the Beira - mar Norte Avenue, in Florianópolis, and in the Central Beach of Balneário Camboriú. Other celebrations that stand out even from the sea are those of Manaus, in the northern state of Amazonas, and the Paulista Avenue, in São Paulo, the largest city in the country, and Ministries Esplanade, in the capital Brasília. The party attracts more than one million people. It features fireworks and live music shows.
The city of São Paulo hosts the Saint Silvester Marathon (Corrida de São Silvestre) which traverses streets between Paulista Avenue and the downtown area.
New Year traditions and celebrations in Canada vary regionally. New Year 's Eve (also called New Year 's Eve Day or Veille du Jour de l'An in French) is generally a social holiday. In many cities, such as Toronto, Ottawa and Niagara Falls in Ontario, Edmonton and Calgary in Alberta, Vancouver, British Columbia and Montreal, Quebec, there are large celebrations which may feature concerts, late - night partying, sporting events, and fireworks, with free public transit service during peak party times in most major cities. In some areas, such as in rural Quebec, people ice fish in the old days. Since 2000, the highlight of New Year 's Eve celebrations is in Montreal 's old port, which comes alive with concerts that take place and fireworks at midnight.
From 1956 to 1976, Guy Lombardo and his Royal Canadians serenaded Canada on the CBC, via a feed from CBS, from the ballroom of the Waldorf - Astoria Hotel on Park Avenue in New York City. After Lombardo 's death in 1977, the Royal Canadians continued on CBC and CBS until 1978.
In 1992, the sketch comedy troupe Royal Canadian Air Farce began airing its annual Year of the Farce special on CBC Television, which features sketches lampooning the major events and news stories of the year. While the original 1992 edition was a one - off special, Year of the Farce episodes continued as a regular feature of the Air Farce television series which ran from 1993 to 2008 -- airing its series finale on 31 December 2008. Following the finale of the television series, the original cast continued to participate in New Year 's Eve specials in the years following.
Similarly, the CBC 's French language network Ici Radio - Canada Télé airs its own yearly New Year 's Eve comedy special, Bye Bye. Unlike Year of the Farce, Bye Bye has been presented by various comedians; originally running from 1968 to 1998, it was revived in 2006 by the Québécois troupe Rock et Belles Oreilles. Its 2008 edition, hosted and co-produced by Québécois television personality Véronique Cloutier, became infamous for several sketches that many viewers perceived as offensive, including sketches making fun of English Canadians and then American president - elect Barack Obama.
New Year 's Eve is celebrated in Chile by the observation of traditional rituals, such as wearing yellow underwear and yellow clothing. It is said to restore vitality to your life. People who want to travel walk the streets with a suitcase in hand, others hold money in their hand or place coins at their door for good fortune in the new year. Celebrations include a family dinner with special dishes, usually lentils for good luck, and twelve grapes to symbolize wishes for each month of the coming year. Family celebrations usually last until midnight, then some continue partying with friends until dawn. In Chile 's capital Santiago, thousands of people gather at the Entel Tower to watch the countdown to midnight and a fireworks display.
There are several fireworks shows across the country. Over one million spectators attend the most popular, the "Año Nuevo en el Mar '', in Valparaiso. Since 2000, the sale of fireworks to individuals has been illegal, meaning fireworks can now only be observed at major displays.
Many people also travel to Easter Island, off Chile 's coast, to welcome the New Year.
In Colombia it is a traditional celebration. There are many traditions across the country. Included among these traditions are: a family dinner with special dishes, fireworks, popular music, wearing special or new clothes, eating empanadas and different parties. With each stroke of the clock until midnight, the families eat grapes.
In Costa Rica, families usually gather around 8 pm for parties that last until 1 or 2 am, the next day. There are several traditions among Costa Rican families, including eating 12 grapes representing 12 wishes for the new year, and running across the street with luggage to bring new trips and adventures in the upcoming year.
In El Salvador, New Year 's Eve is spent with families. Family parties start around 5: 00 pm, and last until 1: 00 to 3: 00 am, the following day. Families eat dinner together and sing traditional New Year 's Eve songs, such as "Cinco para las Doce ''. After the dinner, individuals light fireworks and continue partying outside. A radio station broadcasts a countdown to midnight. When the clock strikes midnight, fireworks are lit across the country. People start exchanging hugs and wishes for the new year.
A New Year 's Eve tradition in Ecuador is for men to dress haphazardly in drag (clowny looking make - up, cheap colorful wigs, very hairy legs in miniskirts) for New Year 's Eve representing the "widow '' of the year that has passed. The "widows '' then go to the streets and stop each car that passes on that particular street in order to parody some form of sexy dancing. Large crowds would gather around to watch and laugh at the entertainment and the drivers are forced to give the "widows '' some coins in order to obtain passage through the street.
There are also traditional family events and meals and modern celebrations such as hosting parties and going to nightclubs. People usually eat grapes and drink Champagne with close family members and friends.
The main event takes place at midnight where fireworks are lit along with thousands of life - size effigies called "Año Viejo ''. Most every local family creates the effigy from paper scraps, old clothes or purchases it altogether. They place just outside the front of their home. The effigy represents things you disliked from the previous year and are made to look like famous celebrities, politicians, public servants, cartoons, etc. They are burnt right at midnight to shed the old year and represent a new beginning. Some of the braver Ecuadorians jump through these burning effigies 12 times to represent a wish for every month.
In Guatemala, banks close on New Year 's Eve, and businesses close at noon. In the town of Antigua, people usually gather at the Santa Catalina Clock Arch to celebrate New Year 's Eve (Spanish: Fin del Año). In Guatemala City the celebrations are centered on Plaza Mayor. Firecrackers are lit starting at sundown, continuing without interruption into the night. Guatemalans wear new clothes for good fortune and eat a grape with each of the twelve chimes of the bell during the New Year countdown, while making a wish with each one.
The celebrations include religious themes which may be either Mayan or Catholic. Catholic celebrations are similar to those at Christmas. Gifts are left under the tree on Christmas morning by the Christ Child for the children, but parents and adults do not exchange gifts until New Year 's Day.
Mexicans celebrate New Year 's Eve, (Spanish: Vispera de Año Nuevo) by eating a grape with each of the twelve chimes of a clock 's bell during the midnight countdown, while making a wish with each one. Mexican families decorate homes and parties in colors that represent wishes for the upcoming year: red encourages an overall improvement of lifestyle and love, yellow encourages blessings of improved employment conditions, green for improved financial circumstances, and white for improved health. Mexican sweet bread is baked with a coin or charm hidden in the dough. When the bread is served, the recipient of the slice with the coin or charm is said to be blessed with good luck in the New Year. Another tradition is to make a list of all the bad or unhappy events over the past 12 months; before midnight, this list is thrown into a fire, symbolizing the removal of negative energy from the new year. At the same time, they are expressed for all the good things during the year that is ending so that they will continue in the new year.
Mexicans celebrate with a late - night dinner with their families, the traditional meal being turkey or pork loin. Afterwards many people attend parties outside the home, for example, in night clubs. In Mexico City there is a street festival on New Year 's Eve centered on the Zocalo, the city 's main square. Celebrations include firecrackers, fireworks and sparklers and shouts of "¡ Feliz Año Nuevo! ''
In Puerto Rico, New Year 's Eve is celebrated with friends and family. The Puerto Rico Convention Center in San Juan is the main attraction for Puerto Ricans during the celebration. It has Latin music and fireworks at midnight along with the signature song "Auld Lang Syne '' in Spanish.
During New Year 's Eve in Suriname, the Surinamese population goes into cities ' commercial districts to watch fireworks shows. This is a spectacle based on the famous red - firecracker - ribbons. The bigger stores invest in these firecrackers and display them in the streets. Every year the length of them is compared, and high praises are held for the company that has managed to import the largest ribbon. These celebrations start at 10 am and finish the next day. The day is usually filled with laughter, dance, music, and drinking. When the night starts, the big street parties are already at full capacity. The most popular fiesta is the one that is held at café ' t Vat in the main tourist district. The parties there stop between 10 and 11 pm after which the people go home to light their pagaras (red - firecracker - ribbons) at midnight. After midnight, the parties continue and the streets fill again until daybreak.
In Port of Spain the tradition is to celebrate in one 's yard with friends, family and neighbors, and eat and drink till sunrise. At midnight the city becomes festive with fireworks in every direction. The celebration only starts at midnight. Music is heard from all the houses and bars, nightclubs, street parties, Soca raves. The people are celebrating not only the new year but the beginning of the carnival season as well.
In the United States, New Year 's Eve is celebrated with formal parties and concerts, family - oriented activities, and large public events such as firework shows and "drops ''.
The most prominent celebration in the country is the "ball drop '' held in New York City 's Times Square. Inspired by the time balls that were formerly used as a time signal, at 11: 59 p.m. ET, an 11,875 - pound (5,386 kg), 12 - foot - diameter (3.7 m) ball covered in panels made of Waterford crystal, is lowered down a 70 feet (21 m) high pole on the roof of One Times Square, reaching the roof of the building 60 seconds later at midnight. The event has been held since 1907, and has seen an average attendance of 1,000,000 yearly. The popularity of the spectacle has inspired similar events outside of New York City, where objects that represent a region 's culture, geography, or history are raised or lowered in a similar fashion -- such as Atlanta 's Peach Drop, representing Georgia 's identity as the "Peach State '', and Brasstown, North Carolina 's lowering of a live opossum in a glass enclosure (an event which has historically attracted criticism from animal rights groups).
Radio and television broadcasts of festivities from New York City helped to ingrain them in American pop culture; beginning on the radio in 1928, and on CBS television from 1956 to 1976 with ball drop coverage, Guy Lombardo and his band, The Royal Canadians, presented an annual New Year 's Eve broadcast from the ballroom of New York 's Waldorf - Astoria Hotel. The specials were best known for the Royal Canadians ' signature performance of "Auld Lang Syne '' at midnight, which made the standard synonymous with the holiday. Following Lombardo 's death in 1977, the competing program New Year 's Rockin ' Eve (which premiered for 1973 on NBC before moving to its current home, ABC, for 1975), succeeded the Royal Canadians as the most - watched New Year 's Eve special on U.S. television. Its creator and host, Dick Clark, intended the program to be a modern and youthful alternative to Lombardo 's big band music, by showcasing performances by popular musicians as part of the broadcast. Including ABC 's special coverage of the year 2000, Clark would host New Year 's Eve coverage on ABC for 33 straight years. After suffering a stroke in December 2004 (resulting in Regis Philbin guest hosting for 2005), Clark retired as full - time host of the special for the 2006 edition, and was succeeded by Ryan Seacrest. Clark continued to make limited appearances on the special until his death in 2012.
Other notable celebrations include those on the Las Vegas Strip, where streets are closed to vehicle traffic on the evening of New Year 's Eve, and a fireworks show is held at midnight which spans across multiple buildings on the Strip. Los Angeles, a city long without a major public New Year celebration, held an inaugural gathering in Downtown 's newly completed Grand Park to celebrate the beginning of 2014. The event included food trucks, art installations, and culminating with a projection mapping show on the side of Los Angeles City Hall near midnight. The inaugural event drew over 25,000 spectators and participants. For 2016, Chicago introduced an event known as Chi - Town Rising, which ended in the year 2018. Alongside the festivities in Times Square, New York 's Central Park hosts a "Midnight Run '' event organized by the New York Road Runners, which culminates in a fireworks show and a race around the park that begins at midnight. Major theme parks may also hold New Year 's celebrations; Disney theme parks, such as Walt Disney World Resort in Florida and Disneyland in Anaheim, California, are traditionally the busiest during the days up to and including New Year 's Eve.
In the Roman Catholic Church, 1 January is a solemnity honoring the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Mother of Jesus; it is a Holy Day of Obligation in most countries (Australia being a notable exception), thus the Church requires the attendance of all Catholics in such countries for Mass that day. However a vigil Mass may be held on the evening before a Holy Day; thus it has become customary to celebrate Mass on the evening of New Year 's Eve. (New Year 's Eve is a feast day honoring Pope Sylvester I in the Roman Catholic calendar, but it is not widely recognized in the United States.)
Many Christian congregations have New Year 's Eve watchnight services. Some, especially Lutherans and Methodists and those in the African American community, have a tradition known as "Watch Night '', in which the faithful congregate in services continuing past midnight, giving thanks for the blessings of the outgoing year and praying for divine favor during the upcoming year. In the English - speaking world, Watch Night can be traced back to John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, who learned the custom from the Moravian Brethren who came to England in the 1730s. Moravian congregations still observe the Watch Night service on New Year 's Eve. Watch Night took on special significance to African Americans on New Year 's Eve 1862, as slaves anticipated the arrival of 1 January 1863, when Lincoln had announced he would sign the Emancipation Proclamation.
Radio specials give a countdown and announce the New Year. In Caracas, the bells of the Cathedral of Caracas ring twelve times. During these special programs, is a tradition to broadcast songs about the end of the year. It is a non-working holiday. Popular songs include "Viejo año '' ("Old year ''), by Gaita group Maracaibo 15, and "Cinco pa ' las 12 '' ("Five minutes before twelve ''), which was versioned by several popular singers including Nestor Zavarce, Nancy Ramos and José Luis Rodríguez El Puma. The unofficial hymn for the first minutes of the New Year is "Año Nuevo, Vida Nueva '' ("New Year, New Life ''), by the band Billo 's Caracas Boys. Many people play the national anthem in their houses.
Traditions include wearing yellow underwear, eating Pan de jamón, and 12 grapes with sparkling wine.
Special holiday programs are broadcast on Venezuelan television stations including Venevision.
The New Year celebrations take place in all around the country mostly in Dhaka, Chittagong, Sylhet, Rajshahi, Khulna, Barishal, Cox 's Bazar etc. The celebrations mostly take place at night. On this day, people go to the parties at club or hotels, beaches, at the crowdy roadsides and bridges where firecrackers are blast out in the sky at night. The roadsides and bridges are also lighted up by colourful lights at night. People do a get - together as well as enjoy with their families. That day, Cox 's Bazar becomes a popular tourist destination for both Bangladeshi and foreign tourists.
Music, songs and dances are organized in the auditoriums, hotels, beaches and as well as in the grounds which are shown live concert on T.V where many Dhallywood celebrities along with many personalities participate in the dance, music, songs and often drama to liven up the concert more. Sometimes often marriages and weddings take place in the clubs at night of 31 December so that the people can enjoy more. People also enjoy the New Year 's Eve with their families, relatives and friends in the ships and yachts specially in the sea while going to Saint Martin where DJs liven up their night through their music and songs.
The Muslims during the year 's last Jumma prayer of mosque permanently pray a Munajat (which is done all over the mosques of the country) so that Allah may bless them and the coming year can be fruitful. Hindus organize a Puja so that the coming year can be fruitful for them. The Christians go to the churches for a watch night service till midnight, praying for blessing in the coming new year as it is also part of the Christmastide season observances.
In China, although the celebrations of the Lunar New Year are not until a few weeks after the Gregorian New Year, celebrations of the Gregorian New Year are held in some areas, particularly in major cities. For example, celebrations with fireworks and rock concerts have taken place in Beijing 's Solana Blue Harbor Shopping Park, while cultural shows and other events are held at the city 's Millennium Monument, Temple of Heaven, Great Wall of China, Olympic Green, and the Summer Palace. Since 2011, a light and sound show has been held at The Bund in Shanghai, a few minutes before midnight.
In Hong Kong, many gather in shopping districts like Central, Causeway Bay and Tsim Sha Tsui. Beginning in 2008, a 60 - second numerical countdown to New Year 's, consisting of LED lights and pyrotechnic display effects, on the facade of Two International Finance Centre was launched, followed by a firework display, alongside an exhibition of the Symphony of Lights. For the arrival of 2013, the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre initiated the countdown, while the fireworks display and A Symphony of Lights show were extended to eight minutes.
Shopping malls are often major celebration venues. The Times Square shopping mall, for instance, holds their own celebration of the ball drop held at Times Square, New York City. There are also various district - wide celebrations.
In Central Asia, New Year 's Eve celebrations were inherited from Soviet traditions; thus they are similar to those of Russia. An example of such traditions would be the playing of the national anthem at midnight and the presidential address before it.
Most celebrations take place in the major metropolitan cities like Kochi, Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Chandigarh, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Pune, Ahmedabad. New Year is also celebrated in other cities and towns around the country like Agra, Bhubaneswar, Cuttack, Vadodara, etc., There are lots of shows, events, awards and parties organized all over India. Big and small celebrities and personalities perform as well as enjoy in these parties. Many Discos and Pubs organize big singers, DJs or local talent to liven up the night with their music and songs. Goa and Kerala are the most visited destination during New Year 's celebration both by Indian and foreign tourists.
Major events like live concerts and dances by Bollywood stars are also organized and attended mostly by youngsters. More often people like to celebrate the New Year Eve with their family. Hotels and resorts are also decked up in anticipation of tourist arrival and intense competition makes them entice the tourists with exciting New Year offers. Many people across the country also follow old traditions. The Hindu community organize Pujas for a fruitful year ahead and the Christian community often go to church for a watch night service till midnight praying for blessing in the coming new year.
New Year 's Eve celebrations in Medan (capital of North Sumatra) first Dunia Terbalik New Year Countdown Celebrations fireworks in Indonesia was part of the Fiesta Black Tea, named "Medan Pelita Harapan University down eve countdown. '' Apart from the Lippo Plaza Medan, the tallest building in Lippo Malls at the time on both sides of the CIMB Niaga Plaza. The event, which celebrated the arrival of 2018, attracted 400,000 spectators along both sides of the CIMB Niaga. The countdown was televised live coverage in Indonesia via digital high - definition on satellite transmission aired on RCTI HD 's Dunia Terbalik and main sponsor by Fiesta Black Tea inviting various national performances such as Dunia Terbalik All Star along with Dunia Terbalik, reaching more than 1.9 million television audiences. Over 200 local and overseas media covered the spectacular that generated publicity value of more than RP 1000 million was six officially opening ceremony to grand opening by Father of Albert Effendy Darmawan Effendy, Medan Pelita Harapan University Angelia Chairiana, Medan Pelita Harapan University Viona Valencia, President of the Republic of Indonesia Joko Widodo, CEO of MNC Group Hary Tanoesoedibjo and Governor of Jakarta Anies Baswedan in time for regional celebrated its first years of anniversary alongside fireworks, Mayor Dzulmi Eldin lit an "eternal flame ''.
In Japan, New Year 's Eve is used to prepare for and welcome Toshigami (年 神), the New Year 's god. People clean their home and prepare Kadomatsu or Shimenawa to welcome the god before New Year 's Eve. Buddhist temples ring their bells 108 times at midnight in the tradition Joya no Kane (除夜の鐘). The rings represent the 108 elements of bonō (煩悩), mental states that lead people to take unwholesome actions.
In most cities and urban areas across Japan, New Year 's Eve celebrations are usually accompanied by concerts, countdowns, fireworks and other events. In Tokyo, the two most crowded celebrations are held at the Shibuya crossing in Shibuya and the Zojoji Temple in Minato. People gather around the Zojoji Temple to release helium balloons with New Year 's wishes up in the sky and watch the lighting of Tokyo Tower and Tokyo Skytree with a year number displayed on the observatory at the stroke of midnight.
Three notable music - oriented television specials air near New Year 's Eve. Since 1951, NHK has traditionally broadcast Kōhaku Uta Gassen (Red and White Song Battle) on New Year 's Eve, a music competition where two teams of popular musicians (the red and white teams, which predominantly contain female and male performers respectively) perform songs, with the winning team determined by a panel of judges and viewer votes. The special is traditionally one of the most - watched television programs of the year in Japan. Although it did air on 31 December from 1959 to 2006, the Japan Record Awards ceremony, recognizing outstanding achievements in the Japanese music industry, is held annually on 30 December and is broadcast by TBS. Since 1996, artists from Johnny & Associates perform a special concert titled Johnny 's Countdown at the Tokyo Dome and is broadcast live by Fuji TV every 31 December.
There are two New Years celebrated in both North Korea and South Korea, which are Lunar New Year and Solar New Year. The Solar New Year are always celebrated on the first day of January while Lunar New Year varies. Sometimes there are some traits that both North and South Korea celebrate, while some traits are celebrated differently or only on one side.
In both Koreas, they call New Year 's Day 설날 (Seoll - Nal). They eat a special soup called 떡국 (Tteok - Guk) which is a hot soup with thin, flat rice cakes and most of the times, eggs are inserted. The Koreans believe that one would get to earn one age if you eat the soup on New Year 's Day. They say if one dares to not eat the soup on New Year 's Day, then he or she will lose luck.
Most cities and urban areas in both Koreas host New Year 's Eve gatherings. In South Korea, two of the biggest celebrations take place in Seoul: the ringing of Bosingak bell 33 times at midnight and fireworks display at Myeong - dong, and an LED laser light show and fireworks display at the Lotte World Tower in Songpa - gu. In Pyongyang, North Korea, the chimes of the clock at the Grand People 's Study House and fireworks display along Kim Il - sung Square, Juche Tower and the surrounding areas signal the start of the New Year. The celebration in Pyongyang, however, also marks the beginning of the North Korean calendar or the Juche Year, which is based on 15 April 1912, Kim Il - sung 's date of birth.
Ambang Tahun Baru, a celebration sponsored by the government was held at Merdeka Square, the field opposite the Sultan Abdul Samad Building in the Malaysian capital of Kuala Lumpur in the early days. The event was broadcast live on government as well as private TV stations at those times. Fireworks are displayed at the Petronas Towers.
There are New Year countdown parties in major cities such as George Town, Shah Alam and Kuching, typically organised by the private sector in these cities.
Mongolians began celebrating the Gregorian New Year in the Socialist period, with influence from the former Soviet Union. As a modern tradition, New Year 's Eve as well as New Year 's Day are public holidays, and are two of the biggest holidays of the year. They celebrate New Year 's Eve with their family. It is common, just like in the former Soviet Union, that the National Anthem of Mongolia is to be played at the midnight hour on television.
New Year 's Eve is usually celebrated with fireworks in big cities (e.g. Lahore, Karachi and Islamabad). Musical nights and concerts are also held.
Many Pakistani youngsters enjoy the type of celebrations held the world over. The elite and educated classes participate in night - long activities in urban and cosmopolitan cities like Karachi, Lahore, and the capital of Islamabad.
Families enjoy a traditional dish called Biryani.
In the Philippines, New Year 's Eve (Bisperas ng Bagong Taon) is a special non-working holiday. Filipinos usually celebrate New Year 's Eve in the company of family or close friends. Traditionally, most households host or attend a midnight feast called the Media Noche. Typical dishes included holiday fare, pancit (for long life) and hamón. Lechon (roasted pig), is usually prepared, as is barbecued food. Some refrain from serving chicken, as their scratching and pecking for food is unlucky, being an idiom for a hand - to - mouth existence.
Many opt to wear new, bright, or colourful clothes with circular patterns, such as polka dots, or display sweets and twelve round fruits as the centrepiece, in the belief that circles attract money and fortune and that candies represent a sweeter year ahead. Several customs must only be done at midnight: some throw about coins to increase wealth in the coming year, or jump to increase their height, while some follow the Spanish custom of eating twelve grapes, one for each month of the year. People also make loud noises by blowing on cardboard or plastic horns, called torotot, banging on pots and pans, playing loud music, blowing car horns, or by igniting firecrackers, in the belief that the din scares away bad luck and evil spirits. Bamboo cannons are also fired on the night in some places.
Urban areas usually host many New Year 's Eve parties and countdown celebrations hosted by the private sector with the help of the local government. These parties, which include balls hosted by hotels, usually display their own fireworks and are often very well - attended. Some popular locations for celebrations include the area along Manila Bay at Roxas Boulevard or Luneta Park in Manila, the intersection of Ayala and Makati Avenues in Makati City, Resorts World Manila and SM Mall of Asia in Pasay City, Quezon Memorial Circle in Diliman and Eastwood City in Libis, Quezon City, Bonifacio Global City in Taguig City, Entertainment City in Parañaque City, and the Philippine Arena at Ciudad de Victoria in Bocaue and Santa Maria, Bulacan.
The biggest New Year 's Eve celebration in Singapore takes place in the Marina Bay area. It is attended by 250,000 or more people. The party spans around the bay area starting from the Marina Bay floating Stadium to the Esplanade promenade, the Esplanade Bridge, Benjamin Sheares Bridge, Merlion Park, and the Padang at City Hall facing the Marina Bay. The celebrations are also visible from nearby hotels such as The Fullerton Hotel, Marina Mandarin, The Ritz - Carlton Millenia, Marina Bay Sands, offices located at Raffles Place, Marina Bay Financial Centre, Residential Apartments at The Sail @ Marina Bay, and from The Singapore Flyer. On the waterfront of Marina Bay, 20,000 inflatable "wishing spheres '' carrying 500,000 wishes written by Singaporeans form a visual arts display filled with brilliant colors beamed from the spotlights erected along the Esplanade promenade open area. Audiences are also entertained by a host of variety shows and concerts staged at the Marina Bay floating platform stage, featuring local and overseas artists. The shows are viewable by all at the bay and telecast live on various television channels in Republic of Singapore, as well as internationally all over Southeast Asia through Channel News Asia.
At one minute to midnight, the concert emcees initiate the final countdown together with the audience. When midnight arrives, fireworks are launched from the waters at Marina Bay, lighting up the whole bay against the backdrop of the Singapore skyline.
There are other countdown parties across Singapore; these include VivoCity and areas such as -
The most prominent New Year 's event in Taiwan is a major fireworks show launched from the Taipei 101 skyscraper in Taipei. In 2018, the show was enhanced by the installation of a new LED display system on the north face of the tower between its 35th and 90th floors, which can be used to display digital animation effects. This change countered a reduction in the number of firework shells launched during the show, as part of an effort to produce less pollution.
Aside from the traditional Thai New Year called Songkran (Thailand) (which falls on 13 April or 14 April), Thais also celebrate the arrival of the Gregorian New Year on 1 January with their families, relatives and friends, which includes a family dinner and following different customs. It is a public holiday. In most cities and urban areas across Thailand, New Year 's Eve celebrations are accompanied by countdowns, fireworks, concerts and other major events, notably, the CentralWorld Square at CentralWorld and the area along Chao Phraya River in Bangkok, and the Pattaya Beach in Pattaya, while public places such as hotels, pubs, restaurants and nightclubs, also host New Year 's Eve parties by offering food, entertainment and music to the guests, and they usually stay open until the next morning.
Preparations for New Year 's Eve in Albania start long before 31 December. It starts with the Christmas tree which in Albania is known as "New Year 's Tree '' or "New Year 's Pine ''. On this day, parents, children and relatives are gathered together to spend some remarkable moments all together. Having an abundant dinner with different kinds of delicious dishes is also a tradition. Part of the tradition is also watching a lot of comedy shows on that night, as the New Year should find people smiling and full of joy. The most amazing moment of the night is the last minute of The Old Year and the minute to come of the New Year. At 00: 00 everyone toasts and greets each other and a lot of fireworks brighten up the sky of the city. They wish each other a prosperous new year, full of happiness, joy, good health and lots of fortune. It is a tradition that at 00: 00 people call each other on the phone to greet one another or send SMS to all their friends. 31 December is the busiest day of an Albanian.
In Austria, New Year 's Eve is usually celebrated with friends and family. At exactly midnight, all radio and television programmes operated by ORF broadcast the sound of the Pummerin, the bell of St. Stephen 's Cathedral in Vienna, followed by the Donauwalzer ("The Blue Danube '') by Johann Strauss II. Many people dance to this at parties or in the street. Large crowds gather in the streets of Vienna, where the municipal government organises a series of stages where bands and orchestras play. Fireworks are set off by both municipal governments and individuals.
In Belgium, New Year 's Eve (Sint Sylvester Vooravond ("Saint Sylvester 's Eve '') or Oudjaar ("old year '')) is celebrated with family parties, called réveillons in the French speaking areas. On television, a stand - up comedian reviews the past year after which a musical or variety show signals midnight, when everyone kisses, exchanges good luck greetings, and toasts the New Year and absent relatives and friends with champagne. Many people light fireworks or go into the street to watch them. Most cities have their own fireworks display: the most famous is at Mont des Arts in Brussels. Cities, cafés and restaurants are crowded. Free bus services and special New Year 's Eve taxis (the Responsible Young Drivers) bring everyone home afterwards.
On 1 January (Nieuwjaarsdag in Dutch) children read their "New Year 's letter '' and give holiday greeting cards of decorated paper featuring golden cherubs and angels, colored roses and ribbon - tied garlands to parents and godparents, on decorated paper.
Belgian farmers also wish their animals a happy New Year.
New Year is widely celebrated in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Streets are decorated for New Year 's Eve and there is a fireworks show and concerts in all the larger cities. Restaurants, clubs, cafes and hotels are usually full of guests and they organize New Year 's Eve parties.
In Sarajevo, people gather in the Square of children of Sarajevo where a local rock band entertains them. Several trumpet and rock groups play until the early morning hours. At midnight there is a big fireworks show.
New Year 's Eve (Silvestr / Silvester) celebrations and traditions in Czech Republic and Slovakia are very similar. New Year 's Eve is the noisiest day of the year. People generally gather with friends at parties, in pubs, clubs, in the streets, or city squares to eat, drink, and celebrate the new year. Fireworks are a popular tradition; in large cities such as Bratislava, or Prague, the fireworks start before noon and steadily increase until midnight. In the first minutes after midnight, people toast with champagne, wish each other a happy new year, fortune and health, and go outside for the fireworks.
In both countries all major TV stations air entertainment shows before and after the midnight countdown, which is followed by the National anthem of each country. The Presidents of the republics gave their New Year speech in the morning - the new Czech President Miloš Zeman renewed the tradition of Christmas speeches. In recent years however the Czechoslovak national anthem is played at midnight, in honor of the shared history of both nations.
People in Denmark may go to parties or entertain guests at home. There is a special evening meal that concludes with Kransekage, a special dessert, along with champagne. Other traditional dishes are boiled cod, stewed kale and cured saddle of pork. However, expensive cuts of beef as well as sushi have become increasingly popular.
Two significant traditional events are broadcast on television and radio on 31 December: the monarch 's New Year message from Amalienborg Palace at 6pm and the Town Hall Clock in Copenhagen striking midnight. Thousands of people gather together in Rådhuspladsen (the Town Hall Square) and cheer. The Royal Guard parade in their red gala uniforms. The climax of the celebration is fireworks launched as the Town Hall Tower bells chime on the stroke of midnight. After the midnight, all radio & television stations plays: "Vær Velkommen Herrens År '' (Danish new year 's anthem), "Kong Kristian '' (Danish Royal Anthem), "Det er et Yndigt Land '' (Danish National Anthem).
To celebrate New Year 's Eve in Estonia, people decorate villages, visit friends and prepare lavish meals.
Some believe that people should eat seven, nine, or twelve times on New Year 's Eve. These are lucky numbers in Estonia; it is believed that for each meal consumed, the person gains the strength of that many men the following year. Meals should not be completely finished -- some food should be left for ancestors and spirits who visit the house on New Year 's Eve.
Traditional New Year food includes pork with sauerkraut or Estonian sauerkraut (mulgikapsad), baked potatoes and swedes with hog 's head, and white and blood sausage. Vegetarians can eat potato salad with navy beet and pâté. Gingerbread and marzipan are very popular for dessert. Traditional New Year drinks include beer and mead, but mulled wine and champagne have become modern favourites.
In Finland, New Year 's Eve is usually celebrated with family or friends. Late supper is served, often featuring wieners, Janssons frestelse, and potato salad. Some municipalities organize fireworks at midnight. Consumer fireworks are also very popular. A Finnish tradition is molybdomancy - to tell the fortunes of the New Year by melting "tin '' (actually lead) in a tiny pan on the stove and throwing it quickly in a bucket of cold water. The resulting blob of metal is analyzed, for example by interpreting shadows it casts by candlelight. These predictions are however never taken seriously.
The Finnish Broadcasting Company broadcasts the reception of the New Year at Helsinki Senate Square. Countdown to New Year is with the Helsinki Cathedral clock. In the afternoon programme, the German comedy sketch Dinner for One is shown every year. On the radio, just before midnight, the poem Hymyilevä Apollo (Smiling Apollo) by Eino Leino is read.
In France, New Year 's Eve (la Saint - Sylvestre) is usually celebrated with a feast, le Réveillon de la Saint - Sylvestre (Cap d'Any in Northern Catalonia). This feast customarily includes special dishes including foie gras, seafood such as oysters, and champagne. The celebration can be a simple, intimate dinner with friends and family or, une soirée dansante, a much fancier ball.
On New Year 's Day (le Jour de l'An) friends and family exchange New Year 's resolutions, kisses, and wishes. Some people eat ice cream.
The holiday period ends on 6 January with the celebration of Epiphany (Jour des Rois). A traditional type of flat pastry cake, la galette des rois, made of two sheets of puff pastry, filled with frangipane (almond paste) is eaten. The cake contains a fève, a small china doll; whomever finds it becomes king or queen and gets to wear a gold paper crown and choose his or her partner. This tradition can last up to two weeks.
In Germany, parties are common on New Year 's Eve. Fireworks are very popular, both with individuals and at large municipal displays. 31 December and the three days leading up to it are the only four days of the year on which fireworks may be sold in Germany. Every year Berlin hosts one of the largest New Year 's Eve celebrations in all of Europe, attended by over a million people. The focal point is the Brandenburg Gate, where midnight fireworks are centered. Germans toast the New Year with a glass of Sekt (German sparkling wine) or champagne. Molybdomancy (Bleigießen) is another German New Year 's Eve tradition, which involves telling fortunes by the shapes made by molten lead dropped into cold water. Other auspicious actions are to touch a chimney sweep or rub some ash on your forehead for good luck and health. Jam - filled doughnuts with and without liquor fillings are eaten. Finally a tiny marzipan pig is consumed for more good luck. In some northern regions of Germany (e.g. East Frisia) the making of Speckdicken is another tradition - people go door to door visiting their neighbors and partaking in this dish. It looks similar to a pancake, but the recipe calls for either dark molasses or dark syrup, with summer sausage and bacon in the center.
Another notable tradition is the British comedy sketch Dinner for One, which has traditionally been broadcast on German television on New Year 's Eve since 1972. The version traditionally broadcast on German television was originally recorded in 1963, and was occasionally used as filler programming by NDR due to popular demand; in 1972, Dinner for One received its traditional New Year 's Eve scheduling. The sketch, as well as its catchphrase "the same procedure as every year '', are well - known in German pop culture. Dinner for One is also broadcast on or around New Year 's Eve in other European countries, although it is, ironically, relatively unknown in the United Kingdom.
New Year 's Eve in Greece has many traditions. During the day, children sing the New Year 's carols to be given money or treats. Then, it is time to have family lunch or dinner. In the evening, people cook a pie named "King 's pie (Vassilopita locally) '', which is a cake flavored with almonds. Following tradition, they put a coin wrapped in aluminium foil inside the pie.
During the family dinner, the hostess puts some of her jewelry in a plate and serves it in the side of the table, as a symbol of the coming year 's prosperity. After the dinner is over, the dishes are not washed until the next day. The reason for that is that Saint Vassilis (Greek Santa Claus) is awaited during the New Year 's Eve and it is considered common courtesy to leave some food for the traveler who visits the house to bring the presents during the night.
When midnight arrives, the families count down and then they turn off all the lights and reopen their eyes to "enter the year with a new light ''. After the fireworks show, they cut the "Vassilopita '' and serve it. The person that gets the wrapped coin is the lucky person of the day and he is also blessed for the rest of the year. Gifts exchanges may follow.
New Year 's Eve (Szilveszter) in Hungary is celebrated with home parties and street parties, including a gathering in downtown Budapest. Fireworks and firecrackers are popular. Champagne, wine and traditional Hungarian New Year dishes -- frankfurter sausages with horseradish, lentil soup, fish, and roast pig -- are consumed. The national anthem is commonly sung at midnight.
In past centuries, some Hungarians believed that animals were able to speak on New Year 's Eve, and that onion skins sprinkled with salt could indicate a rainy month.
Hungarian Christian communities focus on celebrating Mass on both New Year 's Eve and New Year 's Day.
Fireworks are very popular in Iceland, particularly on New Year 's Eve. Iceland 's biggest New Year 's Eve events are usually in and around the capital, Reykjavík.
Áramótaskaupið ("The New Year 's comedy '') is an annual Icelandic television comedy special, which is an important part of the New Year for most. It focuses satirically on the past year, and shows little mercy for its victims, especially politicians, artists, prominent business people and activists.
New Year 's Eve (Oíche Chinn Bliana, Oíche na Coda Móire, or Oíche Chaille) celebrations in major cities are modest, with most people favouring small parties in the home for family and friends.
In Italy, New Year 's Eve (Vigilia di Capodanno or Notte di San Silvestro) is celebrated by the observation of traditional rituals, such as wearing red underwear. An ancient tradition in southern regions which is rarely followed today was disposing of old or unused items by dropping them from the window.
Dinner is traditionally eaten with relatives and friends. It often includes zampone or cotechino (a meal made with pig 's trotters or entrails), and lentils. At 20: 30, the President reads a television message of greetings to Italians.
At midnight, fireworks are displayed all across the country. Rarely followed today is the tradition that consist in eating lentil stew when bell tolls midnight, one spoonful per bell. This is supposed to bring good fortune; the round lentils represent coins.
New Year 's Eve is celebrated across Macedonia. New Year 's Day is celebrated by day - long fireworks shows. The day is celebrated together with family or friends at home or in restaurants, clubs, cafés and hotels. During the day - time celebration, children get gifts. Evening celebrations include food, music, and dancing to both traditional Macedonian folk music, and modern music. New Year 's Eve is celebrated on 31 December and also on 14 January according to the Macedonian Orthodox Calendar.
Malta organized its first New Year 's street party in 2009 in Floriana. The event was not highly advertised and proved controversial, due to the closing of an arterial street for the day. In 2010 there were the first national celebrations in St. George 's Square, Valletta Although professional fireworks are very popular in Malta, they are almost totally absent on New Year 's Eve. Usually the Maltese hit nightclubs and specific dance music parties to celebrate New Year 's Eve.
In Montenegro, New Year 's Eve celebrations are held in all large cities, usually accompanied by fireworks. It is usually celebrated with family or friends, at home or outside. Restaurants, clubs, cafés and hotels organize celebrations with food and music.
New Year 's Eve (Oud en Nieuw or Oudejaarsavond) in the Netherlands is usually celebrated as a cozy evening with family or friends, although many people attend big organized parties. Traditional snack foods are oliebollen (oil dumplings) and appelbeignets (apple slice fritters). On television, the main feature is the oudejaarsconference, a performance by one of the major Dutch cabaretiers (comparable to stand - up comedy, but more serious, generally including a satirical review of the year 's politics). Historically, in Reformed Protestant families, Psalm 90 is read, although this tradition is now fading away. At midnight, Glühwein (bishops wine) or champagne is drunk. Many people light their own fireworks. Towns do not organize a central fireworks display, except for Rotterdam where the national fireworks display can be seen near the Erasmus Bridge.
In Norway New Year 's Eve (Nyttårsaften) is the second biggest celebration of the year, after Christmas Eve. While Christmas Eve is a family celebration, New Year 's Eve is an opportunity to celebrate with friends.
Traditionally, there is first a feast, commonly consisting of stuffed, roast turkey with potatoes, sprouts, gravy and Waldorf salad. The accompanying beverage is traditionally beer (commonly either Christmas beer or lager beer). Dessert will often be vanilla pudding or rice cream, and there will be cakes and coffee later in the evening - commonly accompanied by a glass of cognac. Then, at close to 12 am on New Year 's Day, people will go outside to send up fireworks. Fireworks are only permitted to be sold to the general public on the days leading up to New Year 's Eve, and only to be launched that night.
Due to the general use of fireworks, more fires occur on New Year 's Eve than on any other day of the year in Norway. Accordingly, most Norwegian cities, and many towns, host a large, public fireworks display in order to discourage private use of fireworks in built - up areas. People will then congregate in a central square or similar to watch and celebrate.
In Poland New Year 's Eve (Sylwester) celebrations include both indoor and outdoor festivities. A large open - air concert is held in the Main Square in Kraków. 150,000 to 200,000 revelers celebrate the New Year with live music and a fireworks display over St. Mary 's Basilica. Similar festivities are held in other cities around Poland.
For those who do not wish to spend the New Year in the city, the mountains are a popular destination. Zakopane, located in the Carpathian Mountains, is the most popular Polish mountain resort in winter.
Also, New Year 's Eve (Sylwester) celebrations are in Katowice, near the Spodek arena. In Sławatycze, people tour the streets dressed up as bearded men.
In Portugal the New Year celebration is taken very seriously. The tradition is to drink champagne and eat twelve raisins - one for each month of the year, making a wish for each. Another Portuguese tradition is a special cake called Bolo - Rei (literally: King Cake). Bolo - Rei is a round cake with a large hole in the centre, resembling a crown covered with crystallised and dried fruit. It is baked from a soft, white dough, with raisins, various nuts and crystallised fruit. Inside is hidden the characteristic fava (broad bean). Tradition dictates that whoever finds the fava has to pay for the Bolo - Rei next year. Initially, a small prize (usually a small metal toy) was also included within the cake. However, the inclusion of the prize was forbidden by the European Union for safety reasons. The Portuguese brought the recipe of the Gateau des Rois from France in the second half of the 19th century. To this day, this recipe is a very well kept secret.
In Lisbon the New Year is celebrated with a grand concert. The New Year 's Concert is held at the CCB (Centro Cultural de Belém) on the evening of 1 January, featuring the prestigious Lisbon Metropolitan Orchestra.
Traditional celebrations of New Year 's Eve (Revelion) are the norm in Romania. Romanians follow centuries - old customs, rituals, and conventions. Children sing "Plugușorul '' and "Sorcova '', traditional carols that wish goodwill, happiness and success.
Parties are common in the evening. Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, Romanians have gathered in the University Square in Bucharest. Other significant parties occur in Piața Constituției. New Year 's Eve is also marked by a national all - night telecast on Romanian Television, which also celebrates its anniversary on this holiday, having opened its doors in the New Year 's Eve of 1956.
Most Russians celebrate New Year 's Eve with their families and close friends. The origin of this holiday in Russia derives from Christmas. Christmas was also a major holiday in Russia until it was banned, with all other religious holidays, by the Communist Party. To compensate for the absence of Christmas, New Year 's was celebrated as much as Christmas was, but without the religious aspect of the holiday and lot of a Christmas attributes were repurposed, such as Christmas tree, which became a New Year tree. Even after the fall of the Soviet Union, New Year 's is still celebrated in Russia and has become a Russian tradition. There is an old superstition that if the first visitor (especially an unexpected one) on 1 January is a male, the year will be good. People also try to start the new year without debts.
The celebration usually starts one or two hours before midnight. A common tradition is to "say farewell to the old year '' by remembering the most important events of the last twelve months. At five minutes to midnight most people watch the president 's New Year speech on TV and watch popular films or New Year TV shows before and after midnight. There is a tradition to listen to the Kremlin clock bell ringing twelve times on the radio or on TV, which is followed by the national anthem. During these twelve seconds people keep silence and make their secret wishes for the next year. After the clock strikes, they drink champagne and have rich dinner, watching TV concerts and having fun. Some people light fireworks outside and visit their friends and neighbors. As 30 and 31 December are working days, a lot of people also have parties at work (so - called "corporatives ''), though 31 December is mostly spent at home or with friends. Grandfather Frost and his granddaughter Snowmaiden bring presents on New Year 's Eve.
On 13 January, some of people celebrates "Old New Year '', according to the Julian calendar.
New Year 's Eve in Serbia is traditionally celebrated extensively. Indoors, families celebrate New Year 's Eve with an abundance of food. Serbs decorate trees, Novogodišnja jelka, at New Year 's Eve, rather than at Christmas Eve. Near, or after midnight, Santa Claus (Deda Mraz) visits houses and leaves presents under the tree, to be unpacked then or, if the family is asleep, to be discovered in the morning.
Serbian New Year 's celebrations take place in Belgrade, and several other major cities such as Novi Sad and Niš. As of mid-December, cities are extensively decorated and lit. The decorations remain until way into January due to the influence of the Julian calendar. Throughout the region, especially amongst former Yugoslav republics, Belgrade is the most popular destination for major parties.
On 13 January, a large part of the population celebrates "Serbian New Year '', according to the Julian calendar. Usually one concert is organized in front of either City Hall or the National Parliament in Belgrade, while fireworks are prepared by the Serbian Orthodox Church and fired from the Cathedral of Saint Sava, where people also gather. Other cities also organize such celebrations.
In Slovenia, New Year 's Eve is known as a Saint Sylvester 's Day (Silvestrovo). Streets are decorated for the whole December. In larger cities like Ljubljana, Maribor, Celje or Koper there are concerts, culture programm and countdown followed by fireworks. There is also special programme on the national TV. Tradition is, that family comes together and have a dinner. At midnight, people toast with champagne, wish each other a happy new year, fortune and health. People have already decorated the Christmas tree before Christmas and children are waiting for the third "Good man of December - Dedek Mraz. ''
Spanish New Year 's Eve (Nochevieja or Fin de Año) celebrations usually begin with a family dinner, traditionally including shrimp or prawns, and lamb or capon. The actual countdown is primarily followed from the clock on top of the Casa de Correos building in Puerta del Sol Square in Madrid. It is traditional to eat Twelve Grapes, one on each chime of the clock. This tradition has its origins in 1909, when grape growers in Alicante thought of it as a way to cut down on the large production surplus they had had that year. Nowadays, the tradition is followed by almost every Spaniard, and the twelve grapes have become synonymous with the New Year. After the clock has finished striking twelve, people greet each other and toast with sparkling wine such as cava or champagne, or with cider. The song "Un año más, '' by the Spanish group Mecano, is frequently played.
Earlier in the evening at around 20: 00, there is a 10k run called San Silvestre Vallecana, which starts on Paseo de la Castellana, next to Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, and ends at the Vallecas Stadium. Professional runners come to Madrid for this 10k.
After the family dinner and the grapes, many young people attend cotillones de nochevieja parties (named for the Spanish word cotillón, which refers to party supplies like confetti, party blowers, and party hats) at pubs, clubs, and similar places. Parties usually last until the next morning and range from small, personal celebrations at local bars to huge parties with guests numbering the thousands at hotel convention rooms. Early the next morning, party attendees usually gather to have the traditional winter breakfast of hot chocolate and fried pastry (chocolate con churros).
In Sweden, New Year 's Eve is usually celebrated with families or with friends. A few hours before and after midnight, people usually party and eat a special dinner, often three courses. New Year 's Eve is celebrated with large fireworks displays throughout the country, especially in the cities. People over the age of 18 are allowed to buy fireworks, which are sold by local stores or by private persons. While watching or lighting fireworks at midnight, people usually drink champagne.
In Switzerland, New Year 's Eve is typically celebrated at a residence with friends. There are no particular main dishes associated with the event, although sweets and desserts are usual. Each commune has its own government - arranged countdown in a public space, accompanied with formal fireworks shows in smaller cities.
In the countries that were formerly part of the Soviet Union, New Year 's has the same cultural significance as Christmas has in the United States, but without the religious connotations. Ukrainian families traditionally install spruce trees at home, the equivalent of a Christmas tree. Families gather to eat a large feast and reflect on the past year. They have a large celebration, make toasts, and make wishes for a happy New Year. Families give presents to their friends as well as informal acquaintances. As Ukrainians are traditionally a closely knit community, it is seen as a taboo to not give presents to those the family associates with. Children stay up until midnight, waiting for the New Year. During these celebrations many Ukrainians tune to special New Year shows, which have become a long - standing tradition for the Ukrainian TV. And just before midnight the President of Ukraine gives his New Year 's message to the nation, and when the clock strikes 12, the National Anthem Shche ne vmerla Ukraina is played in all TV and radio stations as well as in Independence Square in Kiev and other cities where holiday celebrations are held.
The first New year dish in Ukraine which associates with the New year for every Ukrainian person is the Olivier salad. It has become the main "character '' of many jokes and anecdotes. There are several versions about where the name Olivier comes from, but most people say that it appeared thanks to the French chef Olivier, who lived in the USSR in the 1960s and was the owner of a French restaurant in Moscow. He was the first one to cook this dish. Nowadays this salad is also called Russian, potato and meat salad.
New Year is often considered a "pre-celebration '' for Greek Catholics and Eastern Orthodox living in Eastern Europe, primarily in Ukraine, since Christmas is celebrated on 7 January.
The most prominent New Year 's celebration in England is that of Central London, where the arrival of midnight is greeted with the chimes of Big Ben. In recent years, a major fireworks display has also been held, with fireworks launched from the nearby London Eye Ferris wheel. On New Year 's Eve 2010, an estimated 250,000 people gathered to view an eight - minute fireworks display around and above the London Eye which was, for the first time, set to a musical soundtrack. The celebrations in London continued into 1 January, with the New Year 's Day Parade, held annually since 1987. The 2011 parade involved more than 10,000 musicians, cheerleaders and performers.
Other major New Year events are held in the cities of Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, and Newcastle.
In Scotland, New Year 's (Hogmanay) is celebrated with several different customs, such as First - Footing, which involves friends or family members going to each other 's houses with a gift of whisky and sometimes a lump of coal.
Edinburgh, the Scottish capital, hosts one of the world 's most famous New Year celebrations. The celebration is focused on a major street party along Princes Street. The cannon is fired at Edinburgh Castle at the stroke of midnight, followed by a large fireworks display. Edinburgh hosts a festival of four or five days, beginning on 28 December, and lasting until New Year 's Day or 2 January, which is also a bank holiday in Scotland.
Other cities across Scotland, such as Aberdeen, Glasgow and Stirling have large organised celebrations too, including fireworks at midnight.
BBC Scotland broadcast the celebrations in Edinburgh to a Scottish audience, with the celebrations also screened across the world. STV covers both worldwide New Year celebrations, and details of events happening around Scotland.
The Welsh tradition of giving gifts and money on New Year 's Day (Welsh: Calennig) is an ancient custom that survives in modern - day Wales, though nowadays it is now customary to give bread and cheese.
Thousands of people descend every year on Cardiff to enjoy live music, catering, ice - skating, funfairs and fireworks. Many of the celebrations take place at Cardiff Castle and Cardiff City Hall.
Every New Year 's Eve, the Nos Galan road race (Rasys Nos Galan), a 5 - kilometre (3.1 mi) running race, is held in Mountain Ash in the Cynon Valley, Rhondda Cynon Taf, South Wales. The race celebrates the life and achievements of Welsh runner Guto Nyth Brân.
Founded in 1958 by local runner Bernard Baldwin, it is run over the 5 kilometre route of Guto 's first competitive race. The main race starts with a church service at Llanwynno, and then a wreath is laid on Guto 's grave in Llanwynno graveyard. After lighting a torch, it is carried to the nearby town of Mountain Ash, where the main race takes place.
The race consists of a double circuit of the town centre, starting in Henry Street and ending in Oxford Street, by the commemorative statue of Guto. Traditionally, the race was timed to end at midnight, but in recent times it was rescheduled for the convenience of family entertainment, now concluding at around 9pm.
This has resulted in a growth in size and scale, and the proceedings now start with an afternoon of street entertainment, and fun run races for children, concluding with the church service, elite runners ' race and presentations.
New Year 's Eve (Sylvester) in Israel, is celebrated by parties, social get togethers, concerts, and dining out in major cities such as Jerusalem and Tel Aviv. Immigrants from the former USSR celebrate Novy God, the Russian version of the holiday.
In Lebanon and Syria, people celebrate New Year 's Eve with a dinner attended by family and friends. The dinner features traditional dishes such as tabouli, hummus, kibbi, and other Lebanese foods. These celebrations could also take place in restaurants and clubs. Game shows are also organized where people can try to win money. The countdown to New Year 's is broadcast through the leading TV channel and the celebrations usually continue until sunrise. Fireworks are lit throughout the night.
In Saudi Arabia, New Year 's is solely celebrated in private gatherings. As the Islamic calendar is the official civic calendar, the Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice -- Saudi Arabia 's religious police, has enforced a ban on public festivities of the Gregorian New Year. The organization can also fine shops for offering New Year 's - related products, and confiscate them. However, the organization does not go after individual citizens holding private celebrations.
In Dubai, United Arab Emirates, New Year 's fireworks are set off from Jumeirah Beach (including Burj Al Arab) and the world 's tallest building, Burj Khalifa. The New Year fireworks display at Burj Khalifa is among the world 's most expensive.
Numerous decorations and customs traditionally associated with Christmas and Bayrams are part of secular New Year 's Eve celebrations in Turkey. Homes and streets are lit in glittering lights. Small gifts are exchanged, and large family dinners are organized with family and friends, featuring a special turkey dish stuffed with a zante currant, pine nuts, pimiento and dill iç pilav, dolma, hot börek, baklava, and various other Turkish dishes, accompanied with rakı, Turkish wine, or boza, şerbet, salep, and Turkish tea or coffee. Even though Turkish people generally do not celebrate Christmas, decorating Christmas trees is a very popular tradition on New Year 's Eve in Turkey, and the Turks associate Santa Claus with New Year 's Eve.
Television and radio channels are known to continuously broadcast a variety of special New Year 's Eve programs, while municipalities all around the country organize fundraising events for the poor, in addition to celebratory public shows such as concerts and family - friendly events, as well as more traditional forms of entertainment such as the Karagöz and Hacivat shadow - theater, and even performances by the Mehter -- the Janissary Band that was founded during the days of the Ottoman Empire.
Public and private parties with large public attendances are organised in a number of cities and towns, particularly in the largest metropolitan areas such as Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, Adana, Bursa and Antalya, with the biggest celebrations taking place in Istanbul 's Taksim, Beyoğlu, Nişantaşı and Kadıköy districts and Ankara 's Kızılay Square, which generally feature dancing, concerts, laser and lightshows as well as the traditional countdown and fireworks display.
Each major city in Australia holds New Year 's Eve celebrations, usually accompanied by a fireworks display and other events. Gloucester Park, a racecourse in central Perth, is the largest and most recognized display in the Western Australian city. In Brisbane events are held at Southbank. At night, 50,000 people gather at sites around the Brisbane River to watch a fireworks display.
The largest celebration in Australia is held in its largest city: Sydney. Each year, the celebrations in Sydney are accompanied by a theme with two pyrotechnic shows: the 9: 00 pm Family Fireworks and the Midnight Fireworks. Centering on the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the fireworks are synchronized to a blend of popular music and a lighting display called the "Bridge Effect '', which displays various symbols and other images related to the current year 's theme, located on the bridge itself. The "Midnight Fireworks '' are regularly watched by approximately 1.5 -- 2 million people at Sydney Harbour. As one of the first major New Year 's celebrations globally each year, Sydney 's Midnight Fireworks are often broadcast throughout the world during the day of 31 December. In Melbourne, the city follows suit with Sydney having a 9: 30 Family Fireworks followed by the midnight fireworks. Celebrations are mostly centered on the Yarra River and Federation Square, as well as Docklands. Most of the firework shows in Melbourne are launched from boats along the river and from atop the city 's various skyscrapers.
Kiritimati (UTC + 14), part of Kiribati, is one of the first locations in the world to welcome the New Year. Other Kiribati islands follow at UTC + 13 and UTC + 12.
Gisborne, New Zealand -- 496.3 kilometres (308.4 mi) west of the International Date Line -- is the first major city to see the beginning of the new year. In New Zealand, cities celebrate with large street parties and fireworks displays. Local councils usually organise parties and street carnivals and fireworks displays.
In Auckland, the top of the Sky Tower -- the tallest freestanding structure tower in the Southern Hemisphere -- is the launch site for a fireworks show.
The New Zealand national cricket team have begun playing a one - day International cricket game in Queenstown during the day of New Year 's Eve.
Since changing the time zone from UTC - 11 to UTC + 13 in winter and UTC + 14 in summer (including new year), Samoa is the first country to receive the New Year as a whole, sharing it with some parts of Kiribati.
Music associated with New Year 's Eve comes in both classical and popular genres, and there is also Christmas song focus on the arrival of a new year during the Christmas and holiday season.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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