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when does a goal not count in hockey | Goal (ice hockey) - wikipedia
In ice hockey, a goal is scored when the puck entirely crosses the goal line between the two goal posts and below the goal crossbar. A goal awards one point to the team attacking the goal scored upon, regardless of which team the player who actually deflected the puck into the goal belongs to (see also own goal). Typically, a player on the team attempting to score shoots the puck with his / her stick towards the goal net opening, and a player on the opposing team called a goaltender tries to block the shot to prevent a goal from being scored against his / her team.
The term goal may also refer to the structure in which goals are scored. The ice hockey goal is rectangular in shape; the front frame of the goal is made of steel tube painted red (or another color depending on the league) and consists of two vertical goalposts and a horizontal crossbar. A net is attached to the back of the frame to catch pucks that enter the goal and also to prevent pucks from entering it from behind. The entire goal is considered an inbounds area of the playing surface, and it is legal to play the puck behind the goal. Under NHL rules, the opening of the goal is 72 inches (180 cm) wide by 48 inches (120 cm) tall, and the footprint of the goal is 44 inches (110 cm) deep.
The object of the game of ice hockey is to score more goals than the opposing team. Goaltenders and defencemen are concerned primarily with keeping the other team from scoring a goal, while forwards are primarily concerned with scoring goals on the other team. Forwards also have to be defensively responsible while defencemen need to press offensively, and it is not unknown for goalies to attempt to position the puck for a counterattack, or even attempt to shoot against an unguarded net.
For a goal to be scored, the puck must entirely cross the goal line between the posts and under the crossbar of the goal frame. A goal is not allowed under any of the following conditions:
Additionally, in many leagues, a goal does not count if a player from the attacking team has a skate or stick in the goal crease before the puck. The National Hockey League (NHL) abolished this rule starting in the 1999 - 2000 season after the disputed triple - overtime goal in the 1999 Stanley Cup Finals. Brett Hull of the Dallas Stars scored the series - clinching goal against the Buffalo Sabres. There are those who believe that video replay shows Hull 's skate in the crease prior to the puck.
Typically, the last player on the goal - scoring team to touch the puck before it goes into the net is credited with scoring that goal. Zero, one, or two other players on the goal - scoring team may also credited with an assist for helping their teammate to score the goal. If another player on the goal - scoring team touched the puck to help score the goal before the goal - scoring player touched it without an opposing player intervening (touching the puck in between), then that player gets an assist. If yet another player on the goal - scoring team also touched the puck before that without an opposing player intervening, then that player also gets an assist.
For a hockey player, a goal or an assist credited to him / her is also considered a point; thus the number of goals scored by that player plus the number of assists for him / her equals the number of points for that player. However, a rule says that only one point can be credited to any one player on a goal scored. This means one player can not be credited with a goal and an assist for the same goal scored; instead the player would only get credit for a goal and a different player may get credit for an assist, if applicable. It also means that one player can not be credited with two assists for the same goal scored; instead the player would only get credit for one assist and a different player may get credit for the other assist, if applicable.
Usually on a hockey team, forwards score the most goals and get the most points, although defensemen can score goals and often get assists. In professional play, goaltenders only occasionally get an assist, and only very rarely score a goal when the opposite net is empty (without a goaltender).
The number of goals scored is a closely watched statistic. Each year the Rocket Richard Trophy is presented to the NHL player to have scored the most goals. The trophy is named after Maurice Richard, the first player to score 50 goals in a season, at a time when the NHL regular season was only 50 games (compared to 82 today). The player to have scored the most goals in an NHL season is Wayne Gretzky. Gretzky is also the fastest to 50 goals; during his record - setting 1981 -- 82 season, in which he finished with 92 goals, he scored his 50th goal in the Edmonton Oilers ' 39th game of the season.
The overall amount of goal scoring is also closely watched. In recent years, goal scoring has decreased. Many believe the game is less entertaining because of this, and blame the change on the increasing size of goaltending equipment and the advent of defensive systems such as the neutral zone trap. Fans of defensive hockey counter by saying the high scoring of the 1980s was an anomaly, and this shift represents a return to the norm. For the 2004 - 05 American Hockey League season, four major rule changes were made that were intended to increase the scoring in games and make it more popular among casual fans:
The AHL rules were slightly modified and adopted in the NHL and ECHL for 2005 - 06, when the NHL returned after the lockout.
There are a number of different types of goals for which separate statistics are kept, but all count equally:
The goal judge is an official positioned off ice behind each goal for the specific purpose of indicating when the puck has crossed the goal line and entered the goal. For arenas so equipped, the goal judge turns on a red light behind the goal when he sees the puck cross the goal line. As in all matters, however, the referee retains final authority and can override the opinion of the goal judge.
If a hockey player is last to touch the puck before it enters his own team 's net -- which in soccer is called an own goal -- credit for the goal goes to the last player on the scoring team to have touched the puck.
Other phrases include a garbage goal, for a goal scored more as the result of luck or opportunism than skill, and a breakaway goal for a goal scored when a player has gotten behind the defenders to face the goaltender alone.
The two teammates of the scorer who last touched the puck before him, provided that no opponent touched it in between, are each credited with an assist. Assists and goals count equally to comprise a player 's statistical scoring total.
When a player scores three goals in a game it is known as a hat trick. If he scores his goals consecutively, it becomes known as a natural hat trick. A Gordie Howe hat trick occurs when a player scores a goal, gets an assist, and gets in a fight.
Any puck heading towards the net is counted as a shot. When the goalie prevents the shot from entering the net, he is credited with a save. Shots resulting in saves by the goaltender or goals scored are considered shots on goal (or shots on net). A shot which is blocked by an opposing player before it reaches the goalie is not considered a shot on net. Also, if the puck is deflected wide of the net by another player (regardless of team) it is not counted as a shot on net.
Ice hockey is one of the few sports along with box lacrosse or indoor soccer in which an air horn, car horn, train horn, foghorn, or siren is used to celebrate a goal. In every NHL arena, the horn blares after each home team goal. This has been a trend since the 1970s, when the Chicago Blackhawks installed one. The only exception to this rule is during the NHL All - Star Game, where the role of that sound is expanded to cover every goal scored, and that the horn only sounds once. The horns are different depending on the teams, some even have sound effects such as an alarm or the foghorn of a ship, or both combined, for the Washington Capitals and the Anaheim Ducks. Hockey fans have said that the loudest goal horn belongs to the Anaheim Ducks, who have a very loud fog horn with high bass, or the Philadelphia Flyers, who have a very loud ship 's signaling horn. Also, during the 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs, the Edmonton Oilers added a second set of horns to the original horn for the second round. The reason was for that the Oilers had sold out games and the noise level was so loud, that the original horn was getting drowned out by the crowd. The result was a very loud horn used for the rest of the playoffs.
Along with the horn, it is accompanied by a goal song. Most arenas play sections of the song where the crowd can "sing '' along or repeat. The two classic goal songs are "Kernkraft 400 '' by Zombie Nation (its "Sport Chant Stadium Remix '' arrangement is used by the Boston Bruins) and "Rock & Roll Part 2 '' by Gary Glitter (first used by the New Jersey Devils). Although, some teams have songs that are original to them, like the now - defunct Hartford Whalers ' famous "Brass Bonanza '', "Bro Hymn '' by Pennywise (originally used by Anaheim and later adopted by Philadelphia and NY Islanders), "Crowd Chant '' by Joe Satriani (originally used by Minnesota Wild and the Columbus Blue Jackets), "Chelsea Dagger '' by The Fratellis (Chicago), "Maria (I Like It Loud) '' by Scooter feat. Marc Acardipane and Dick Rules (originally used in Philadelphia), "Party Hard '' by Andrew W.K. (Pittsburgh), "Holiday '' by Green Day (originally used by San Jose, later by Vancouver), "Le But '' by Loco Locass (originally used by Montreal), "Howling for You '' by the Black Keys (Arizona), "I Like It, I Love It '' by Tim McGraw (Nashville), "When the Saints Go Marching In '' (St. Louis), and "Let Me Clear My Throat '' by DJ Kool (Buffalo). If the home team wins, the goal horn will also sound at the conclusion of the game, instead of the normal period end horn, with some exceptions, such as the Bruins using their normal period end siren after a win and then followed by "Dirty Water '' by The Standells.
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residence for tax purposes in jurisdictions) outside india | Tax residence - wikipedia
The criteria for residence for tax purposes vary considerably from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, and "residence '' can be different for other, non-tax purposes. For individuals, physical presence in a jurisdiction is the main test. Some jurisdictions also determine residency of an individual by reference to a variety of other factors, such as the ownership of a home or availability of accommodation, family, and financial interests. For companies, some jurisdictions determine the residence of a corporation based on its place of incorporation. Other jurisdictions determine the residence of a corporation by reference to its place of management. Some jurisdictions use both a place - of - incorporation test and a place - of - management test.
Domicile is, in common law jurisdictions, a different legal concept to residence, though the two may lead to the same result.
The criteria for residence in double taxation treaties may be different from those of domestic law. Residency in domestic law allows a country to create a tax claim based on the residence over a person, whereas in a double taxation treaty it has the effect of restricting such tax claim in order to avoid double taxation. Residency or citizenship taxation systems are typically linked with worldwide taxation, as opposed to territorial taxation. Therefore, it is particularly relevant when two countries simultaneously claim a person to be resident within their jurisdictio n.
Double taxation treaties generally follow the OECD Model Convention. Other relevant models are the UN Model Convention, in the case of treaties with developing countries and the US Model Convention, in the case of treaties negotiated by the United States.
The OECD Model Convention and the UN Model Convention are identical. They first provide for a definition of "resident of a Contracting State '':
1. For the purposes of this Convention, the term "resident of a Contracting State '' means any person who, under the laws of that State, is liable to tax therein by reason of his domicile, residence, place of management or any other criterion of a similar nature, and also includes that State and any political subdivision or local authority thereof. This term, however, does not include any person who is liable to tax in that State in respect only of income from sources in that State or capital situated therein.
The definition is followed by "tie - breaker '' rules for individuals and non-individuals, which result in the person being considered resident in only one of the countries:
2. Where by reason of the provisions of paragraph 1 an individual is a resident of both Contracting States, then his status shall be determined as follows:
3. Where by reason of the provisions of paragraph 1 a person other than an individual is a resident of both Contracting States, then it shall be deemed to be a resident only of the State in which its place of effective management is situated.
The US Model Convention is similar to the OECD and UN Model Convention with respect to residency of individuals. However, if non-individuals are considered to be residents of two countries, the default result is that they shall be considered resident of none for the purposes of claiming the benefits of the tax treaty. The countries will engage in mutual agreement procedures to reach a decision. Therefore, domestic taxation will continue as normal until an agreement is reached.
The Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) project developed by the OECD and endorsed by the G - 20 reached a critical milestone in October 2015, where final deliverables for 15 Actions were presented. Paragraph 48 of Action 6 's final deliverable indicated a new wording for the "tie - breaker '' relating to non-individuals, whereas it will no longer be automatically determined in the forthcoming revision of the model. According to the new wording, the "tie - breaker '' will depend entirely on mutual agreement between both countries:
3. Where by reason of the provisions of paragraph 1 a person other than an individual is a resident of both Contracting State, the competent authorities of the Contracting States shall endeavour to determine by mutual agreement the Contracting State of which such person shall be deemed to be a resident for the purposes of the Convention, having regard to its place of effective management, the place where it is incorporated or otherwise constituted and any other relevant factors. In the absence of such agreement, such person shall not be entitled to any relief or exemption form tax provided by this Convention except to the extent and in such manner as may be agreed upon by the competent authorities of the Contracting States.
Pending work on BEPS Action 15, concerning the development of a ' Multilateral Instrument to Modify Bilateral Tax Treaties ' may result on the amendment of a large number of existing treaties to reflect, particularly, the new wording in Action 6. There are currently a considerable number of counties involved in this instrument 's negotiation but it is still unclear what changes and what countries will agree to the changes. The work on the multilateral instrument will be concluded and open of signature in December 31, 2016.
A company is generally treated as resident in the United Kingdom for tax purposes if it is incorporated in the United Kingdom or, if the company is not incorporated in the United Kingdom, if its central management and control are exercised in the United Kingdom. "Central management and control '' refers to the highest level of oversight, usually as exercised by the board, rather than day - to - day management.
An individual who spends more than 183 days in the UK in a tax year is UK resident. Apart from that, there are no clear statutory guidelines. The question of whether someone is UK resident is a question of fact and degree, to be determined "on all the circumstances of the case. '' The vagueness of this test has often been criticised. Viscount Sumner said in Levene v IRC:
Similarly, the Codification Committee concluded:
More recently, the Chartered Institute of Taxation concluded:
The number of days present in the UK is not a decisive factor (unless the number of days exceeds 183 in a tax year). In one case a foreigner who spent 5 months in the UK was held not UK resident. In the view of HMRC someone who exceeds 90 days on a four - year average is UK resident, but considerable emphasis is given to the fact that someone who averages less than 90 days may also be UK resident.
Before 2009 / 10, the vagueness of the law did not seem to matter because HMRC published relatively clear guidelines in document IR20. That document has been withdrawn from 2009 / 10 and replaced with the much vaguer guidance in HMRC 6.
HMRC currently argue that they are not bound by the terms of IR20 for years prior to 2009 / 10. Whether that is correct is currently the subject of litigation. It is clear that HMRC are not in any way bound by the terms of HMRC 6, which contains a very full disclaimer.
All tax resident individuals are taxed on their worldwide income, regardless of the source. This would include salary, dividends, etc. earned from one 's limited company. Generally, individuals are deemed to be tax resident if they are physically present in Germany for more than six months in any one calendar year or for a consecutive period of six months over a calendar year - end. This ruling is applied retrospectively so presence in Germany from 1 March to 30 November, for example, would make one a German tax resident and therefore subject to German tax on the worldwide income for the entire period rather than just from the beginning of the seventh month.
An individual can also be deemed tax resident if they acquire an abode in Germany. This can include renting, as opposed to purchasing, a property but only if the duration of the lease is deemed to be more than temporary. For this reason, to avoid German tax residency, short - term (such as three months) should be taken out wherever possible.
Non-resident individuals are taxed on German - source income only. In the case of salary and benefits from your limited company, the source is German since the duties of the employment are being performed in Germany. However, dividends from your limited company (assuming this is not deemed to have a permanent establishment in Germany: see below) would be from a non-German source regardless of where the dividends are received. There is, therefore, scope for tax mitigation here if one does not become a German tax resident (although non-German taxes may also need to be considered).
In France, taxpayers are either "domiciled '' in France or are "non-resident ''. Domiciled individuals are subject to French tax on worldwide income, but non-residents are not taxed on foreign - source income. Many treaty exemptions may apply, however (e.g. foreign - source trading or rental income). Under Article 4B of the French Tax Code (Code Général des Impôts), an individual is resident in France for tax purposes if:
French courts have ruled that the principal place of physical presence test is only applicable where the "home '' test can not be applied. A "home '' is to be construed as the place where the taxpayer normally lives, without any regard being given to the taxpayer 's temporary stays in another country. As the "home '' test is concerned with where the taxpayer 's family ties are (i.e. where the spouse and children live), this test is highly unlikely to apply to single individuals. Consequently, the principal place of physical presence test should be viewed as primarily applicable to single individuals only.
"Principal place of physical presence '' covers a wider range of situations that a basic 183 - day rule would have. This is because the taxpayer 's physical presence in France in a given calendar year will be tested against his presence in another country. Perpetual travelers must therefore be able to demonstrate that they have resided in a foreign country for a longer period in the relevant calendar year.
In Russian Federation all tax resident individuals are taxed on their worldwide income, regardless of the source. Individuals are deemed to be tax residents if they are physically present in Russia for more than 183 days during consecutive period of 12 months. The period of presence in Russia is not interrupted in case individual is out of the country for less than six months for educational purposes or for medical treatment. Foreign servants and civil servants that were sent abroad for work purposes are deemed tax residents no matter how long they really are present in Russia.
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what new deal acts are still in effect today | New Deal - wikipedia
The New Deal was a series of federal programs, public work projects, financial reforms and regulations enacted in the United States during the 1930s in response to the Great Depression. Some of these federal programs included the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), the Civil Works Administration (CWA), the Farm Security Administration (FSA), the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA) and the Social Security Administration (SSA). These programs included support for farmers, the unemployed, youth and the elderly as well as new constraints and safeguards on the banking industry and changes to the monetary system. Most programs were enacted between 1933 -- 1938, though some were later. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as presidential executive orders, most during the first term of the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The programs focused on what historians refer to as the "3 Rs '': relief for the unemployed and poor, recovery of the economy back to normal levels and reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression. The New Deal produced a political realignment, making the Democratic Party the majority (as well as the party that held the White House for seven out of the nine presidential terms from 1933 -- 1969) with its base in liberal ideas, the South, traditional Democrats, big city machines and the newly empowered labor unions and ethnic minorities. The Republicans were split, with conservatives opposing the entire New Deal as an alleged enemy of business and growth and liberals accepting some of it and promising to make it more efficient. The realignment crystallized into the New Deal coalition that dominated most presidential elections into the 1960s while the opposing conservative coalition largely controlled Congress from 1939 -- 1964.
By 1936, the term "liberal '' typically was used for supporters of the New Deal and "conservative '' for its opponents. From 1934 to 1938, Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavors by a "pro-spender '' majority in Congress (drawn from two - party, competitive, non-machine, progressive and left party districts). In the 1938 midterm election, Roosevelt and his liberal supporters lost control of Congress to the bipartisan conservative coalition. Many historians distinguish between a "First New Deal '' (1933 -- 1934) and a "Second New Deal '' (1935 -- 1938), with the second one more liberal and more controversial.
The "First New Deal '' (1933 -- 1934) dealt with the pressing banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act and the 1933 Banking Act. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) provided $500 million ($9.45 billion today) for relief operations by states and cities, while the short - lived CWA gave locals money to operate make - work projects in 1933 -- 1934. The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted to prevent a repeated stock market crash. The controversial work of the National Recovery Administration (NRA) was also part of the First New Deal.
The "Second New Deal '' in 1935 -- 1938 included the Wagner Act to protect labor organizing, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) relief program (which made the federal government by far the largest single employer in the nation), the Social Security Act and new programs to aid tenant farmers and migrant workers. The final major items of New Deal legislation were the creation of the United States Housing Authority and the FSA, which both occurred in 1937; and the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which set maximum hours and minimum wages for most categories of workers. The FSA was also one of the oversight authorities of the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration, which administered relief efforts to Puerto Rican citizens affected by the Great Depression.
The economic downturn of 1937 -- 1938 and the bitter split between the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938. Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal conservative coalition. By 1942 -- 1943, they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and the CCC and blocked major liberal proposals. Nonetheless, Roosevelt turned his attention to the war effort and won reelection in 1940 -- 1944. Furthermore, the Supreme Court declared the NRA and the first version of the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) unconstitutional, but the AAA was rewritten and then upheld. Republican president Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953 -- 1961) left the New Deal largely intact, even expanding it in some areas. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson 's Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs, which Republican Richard Nixon generally retained. However, after 1974 the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support. The New Deal regulation of banking (Glass -- Steagall Act) lasted until it was suspended in the 1990s.
Several New Deal programs remain active and those operating under the original names include the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation (FCIC), the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).
From 1929 to 1933 manufacturing output decreased by one third. Prices fell by 20 %, causing deflation that made repaying debts much harder. Unemployment in the U.S. increased from 4 % to 25 %. Additionally, one - third of all employed persons were downgraded to working part - time on much smaller paychecks. In the aggregate, almost 50 % of the nation 's human work - power was going unused.
Before the New Deal, there was no insurance on deposits at banks. When thousands of banks closed, depositors lost their savings as at that time there was no national safety net, no public unemployment insurance and no Social Security. Relief for the poor was the responsibility of families, private charity and local governments, but as conditions worsened year by year demand skyrocketed and their combined resources increasingly fell far short of demand.
The depression had devastated the nation. As Roosevelt took the oath of office at noon on March 4, 1933, all state governors had authorized bank holidays or restricted withdrawals -- many Americans had little or no access to their bank accounts. Farm income had fallen by over 50 % since 1929. An estimated 844,000 non-farm mortgages had been foreclosed between 1930 -- 1933, out of five million in all. Political and business leaders feared revolution and anarchy. Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr., who remained wealthy during the Depression, stated years later that "in those days I felt and said I would be willing to part with half of what I had if I could be sure of keeping, under law and order, the other half ''.
The phrase "New Deal '' was coined by an adviser to Roosevelt, Stuart Chase, although the term was originally used by Mark Twain in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur 's Court.
Upon accepting the 1932 Democratic nomination for president, Roosevelt promised "a new deal for the American people ''.
Roosevelt entered office without a specific set of plans for dealing with the Great Depression -- so he improvised as Congress listened to a very wide variety of voices. Among Roosevelt 's more famous advisers was an informal "Brain Trust '', a group that tended to view pragmatic government intervention in the economy positively. His choice for Secretary of Labor, Frances Perkins, greatly influenced his initiatives. Her list of what her priorities would be if she took the job illustrates: "a forty - hour workweek, a minimum wage, worker 's compensation, unemployment compensation, a federal law banning child labor, direct federal aid for unemployment relief, Social Security, a revitalized public employment service and health insurance ''.
The New Deal policies drew from many different ideas proposed earlier in the 20th century. Assistant Attorney General Thurman Arnold led efforts that hearkened back to an anti-monopoly tradition rooted in American politics by figures such as Andrew Jackson and Thomas Jefferson. Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis, an influential adviser to many New Dealers, argued that "bigness '' (referring, presumably, to corporations) was a negative economic force, producing waste and inefficiency. However, the anti-monopoly group never had a major impact on New Deal policy. Other leaders such as Hugh S. Johnson of the NRA took ideas from the Woodrow Wilson Administration, advocating techniques used to mobilize the economy for World War I. They brought ideas and experience from the government controls and spending of 1917 -- 1918. Other New Deal planners revived experiments suggested in the 1920s, such as the TVA. The "First New Deal '' (1933 -- 1934) encompassed the proposals offered by a wide spectrum of groups (not included was the Socialist Party, whose influence was all but destroyed). This first phase of the New Deal was also characterized by fiscal conservatism (see Economy Act, below) and experimentation with several different, sometimes contradictory, cures for economic ills.
There were dozens of new agencies created by Roosevelt through Executive Orders. They are typically known by their alphabetical initials.
The American people were generally extremely dissatisfied with the crumbling economy, mass unemployment, declining wages and profits and especially Herbert Hoover 's policies such as the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act and the Revenue Act of 1932. Roosevelt entered office with enormous political capital. Americans of all political persuasions were demanding immediate action and Roosevelt responded with a remarkable series of new programs in the "first hundred days '' of the administration, in which he met with Congress for 100 days. During those 100 days of lawmaking, Congress granted every request Roosevelt asked and passed a few programs (such as the FDIC to insure bank accounts) that he opposed. Ever since, presidents have been judged against Roosevelt for what they accomplished in their first 100 days. Walter Lippmann famously noted:
At the end of February we were a congeries of disorderly panic - stricken mobs and factions. In the hundred days from March to June we became again an organized nation confident of our power to provide for our own security and to control our own destiny.
The economy had hit bottom in March 1933 and then started to expand. Economic indicators show the economy reached nadir in the first days of March, then began a steady, sharp upward recovery. Thus the Federal Reserve Index of Industrial Production sank to its lowest point of 52.8 in July 1932 (with 1935 -- 1939 = 100) and was practically unchanged at 54.3 in March 1933. However, by July 1933 it reached 85.5, a dramatic rebound of 57 % in four months. Recovery was steady and strong until 1937. Except for employment, the economy by 1937 surpassed the levels of the late 1920s. The Recession of 1937 was a temporary downturn. Private sector employment, especially in manufacturing, recovered to the level of the 1920s, but failed to advance further until the war. The U.S. population was 124,840,471 in 1932 and 128,824,829 in 1937, an increase of 3,984,468. The ratio of these numbers, times the number of jobs in 1932, means there was a need for 938,000 more 1937 jobs to maintain the same employment level.
The Economy Act, drafted by Budget Director Lewis Williams Douglas, was passed on March 14, 1933. The act proposed to balance the "regular '' (non-emergency) federal budget by cutting the salaries of government employees and cutting pensions to veterans by fifteen percent. It saved $500 million per year and reassured deficit hawks, such as Douglas, that the new President was fiscally conservative. Roosevelt argued there were two budgets: the "regular '' federal budget, which he balanced; and the emergency budget, which was needed to defeat the depression. It was imbalanced on a temporary basis.
Roosevelt initially favored balancing the budget, but soon found himself running spending deficits to fund his numerous programs. However, Douglas -- rejecting the distinction between a regular and emergency budget -- resigned in 1934 and became an outspoken critic of the New Deal. Roosevelt strenuously opposed the Bonus Bill that would give World War I veterans a cash bonus. Congress finally passed it over his veto in 1936 and the Treasury distributed $1.5 billion in cash as bonus welfare benefits to 4 million veterans just before the 1936 election.
New Dealers never accepted the Keynesian argument for government spending as a vehicle for recovery. Most economists of the era, along with Henry Morgenthau of the Treasury Department, rejected Keynesian solutions and favored balanced budgets.
At the beginning of the Great Depression, the economy was destabilized by bank failures followed by credit crunches. The initial reasons were substantial losses in investment banking, followed by bank runs. Bank runs occurred when a large number of customers withdrew their deposits because they believed the bank might become insolvent. As the bank run progressed, it generated a self - fulfilling prophecy: as more people withdrew their deposits, the likelihood of default increased and this encouraged further withdrawals.
Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz have argued that the drain of money out of the banking system caused the monetary supply to shrink, forcing the economy to likewise shrink. As credit and economic activity diminished, price deflation followed, causing further economic contraction with disastrous impact on banks. Between 1929 and 1933, 40 % of all banks (9,490 out of 23,697 banks) failed. Much of the Great Depression 's economic damage was caused directly by bank runs.
Herbert Hoover had already considered a bank holiday to prevent further bank runs, but rejected the idea because he was afraid to trip a panic. However, Roosevelt gave a radio address, held in the atmosphere of a Fireside Chat, in which he explained to the public in simple terms the causes of the banking crisis, what the government will do and how the population could help. He closed all the banks in the country and kept them all closed until he could pass new legislation.
On March 9, 1933, Roosevelt sent to Congress the Emergency Banking Act, drafted in large part by Hoover 's top advisors. The act was passed and signed into law the same day. It provided for a system of reopening sound banks under Treasury supervision, with federal loans available if needed. Three - quarters of the banks in the Federal Reserve System reopened within the next three days. Billions of dollars in hoarded currency and gold flowed back into them within a month, thus stabilizing the banking system. By the end of 1933, 4,004 small local banks were permanently closed and merged into larger banks. Their deposits totalled $3.6 billion: depositors lost a total of $540 million and eventually received on average 85 cents on the dollar of their deposits -- it is a common myth that they received nothing back.
The Glass -- Steagall Act limited commercial bank securities activities and affiliations between commercial banks and securities firms to regulate speculations. It also established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which insured deposits for up to $2,500, ending the risk of runs on banks. This banking reform offered unprecedented stability as while throughout the 1920s more than five hundred banks failed per year, it was less than ten banks per year after 1933.
Under the gold standard, the United States kept the dollar convertible to gold. The Federal Reserve would have had to execute an expansionary monetary policy to fight the deflation and to inject liquidity into the banking system to prevent it from crumbling -- but lower interest rates would have led to a gold outflow. Under the gold standards, price -- specie flow mechanism countries that lost gold, but nevertheless wanted to maintain the gold standard had to permit their money supply to decrease and the domestic price level to decline (deflation). As long as the Federal Reserve had to defend the gold parity of the Dollar it had to sit idle while the banking system crumbled.
In March and April in a series of laws and executive orders, the government suspended the gold standard. Roosevelt stopped the outflow of gold by forbidding the export of gold except under license from the Treasury. Anyone holding significant amounts of gold coinage was mandated to exchange it for the existing fixed price of U.S. dollars. The Treasury no longer paid out gold in exchange for dollars and gold would no longer be considered valid legal tender for debts in private and public contracts.
The dollar was allowed to float freely on foreign exchange markets with no guaranteed price in gold. With the passage of the Gold Reserve Act in 1934, the nominal price of gold was changed from $20.67 per troy ounce to $35. These measures enabled the Federal Reserve to increase the amount of money in circulation to the level the economy needed. Markets immediately responded well to the suspension in the hope that the decline in prices would finally end. In her essay "What ended the Great Depression? '' (1992), Christina Romer argued that this policy raised industrial production by 25 % until 1937 and by 50 % until 1942.
Before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, there was no regulation of securities at the federal level. Even firms whose securities were publicly traded published no regular reports or even worse rather misleading reports based on arbitrarily selected data. To avoid another Wall Street Crash, the Securities Act of 1933 was enacted. It required the disclosure of the balance sheet, profit and loss statement, the names and compensations of corporate officers, about firms whose securities were traded. Additionally those reports had to be verified by independent auditors. In 1934, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission was established to regulate the stock market and prevent corporate abuses relating to the sale of securities and corporate reporting.
In a measure that garnered substantial popular support for his New Deal, Roosevelt moved to put to rest one of the most divisive cultural issues of the 1920s. He signed the bill to legalize the manufacture and sale of alcohol, an interim measure pending the repeal of prohibition, for which a constitutional amendment of repeal (the 21st) was already in process. The repeal amendment was ratified later in 1933. States and cities gained additional new revenue and Roosevelt secured his popularity especially in the cities and ethnic areas by helping the beer start flowing.
Relief was the immediate effort to help the one - third of the population that was hardest hit by the depression. Relief was also aimed at providing temporary help to suffering and unemployed Americans.
To prime the pump and cut unemployment, the NIRA created the Public Works Administration (PWA), a major program of public works, which organized and provided funds for the building of useful works such as government buildings, airports, hospitals, schools, roads, bridges and dams. From 1933 to 1935 PWA spent $3.3 billion with private companies to build 34,599 projects, many of them quite large.
Under Roosevelt, many unemployed persons were put to work on a wide range of government financed public works projects, building bridges, airports, dams, post offices, courthouses and thousands of miles of road. Through reforestation and flood control, they reclaimed millions of hectares of soil from erosion and devastation. As noted by one authority, Roosevelt 's New Deal "was literally stamped on the American landscape ''.
The rural U.S. was a high priority for Roosevelt and his energetic Secretary of Agriculture, Henry A. Wallace. Roosevelt believed that full economic recovery depended upon the recovery of agriculture and raising farm prices was a major tool, even though it meant higher food prices for the poor living in cities.
Many rural people lived in severe poverty, especially in the South. Major programs addressed to their needs included the Resettlement Administration (RA), the Rural Electrification Administration (REA), rural welfare projects sponsored by the WPA, National Youth Administration (NYA), Forest Service and Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), including school lunches, building new schools, opening roads in remote areas, reforestation and purchase of marginal lands to enlarge national forests.
In 1933, the Roosevelt administration launched the Tennessee Valley Authority, a project involving dam construction planning on an unprecedented scale to curb flooding, generate electricity and modernize poor farms in the Tennessee Valley region of the Southern United States. Under the Farmers ' Relief Act of 1933, the government paid compensation to farmers who reduced output, thereby raising prices. As a result of this legislation, the average income of farmers almost doubled by 1937.
In the 1920s, farm production had increased dramatically thanks to mechanization, more potent insecticides and increased use of fertilizer. Due to an overproduction of agricultural products, farmers faced a severe and chronic agricultural depression throughout the 1920s. The Great Depression even worsened the agricultural crises and at the beginning of 1933 agricultural markets nearly faced collapse. Farm prices were so low that in Montana wheat was rotting in the fields because it could not be profitably harvested. In Oregon, sheep were slaughtered and left to the buzzards because meat prices were not sufficient to warrant transportation to markets.
Roosevelt was keenly interested in farm issues and believed that true prosperity would not return until farming was prosperous. Many different programs were directed at farmers. The first 100 days produced the Farm Security Act to raise farm incomes by raising the prices farmers received, which was achieved by reducing total farm output. The Agricultural Adjustment Act created the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) in May 1933. The act reflected the demands of leaders of major farm organizations (especially the Farm Bureau) and reflected debates among Roosevelt 's farm advisers such as Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace, M.L. Wilson, Rexford Tugwell and George Peek.
The AAA aimed to raise prices for commodities through artificial scarcity. The AAA used a system of domestic allotments, setting total output of corn, cotton, dairy products, hogs, rice, tobacco and wheat. The farmers themselves had a voice in the process of using government to benefit their incomes. The AAA paid land owners subsidies for leaving some of their land idle with funds provided by a new tax on food processing. To force up farm prices to the point of "parity, '' 10 million acres (40,000 km) of growing cotton was plowed up, bountiful crops were left to rot and six million piglets were killed and discarded.
The idea was to give farmers a "fair exchange value '' for their products in relation to the general economy ("parity level ''). Farm incomes and the income for the general population recovered fast since the beginning of 1933. Food prices remained still well below the 1929 peak. The AAA established an important and long - lasting federal role in the planning on the entire agricultural sector of the economy and was the first program on such a scale on behalf of the troubled agricultural economy. The original AAA did not provide for any sharecroppers or tenants or farm laborers who might become unemployed, but there were other New Deal programs especially for them.
A Gallup poll printed in the Washington Post revealed that a majority of the American public opposed the AAA. In 1936, the Supreme Court declared the AAA to be unconstitutional, stating that "a statutory plan to regulate and control agricultural production, (is) a matter beyond the powers delegated to the federal government ''. The AAA was replaced by a similar program that did win Court approval. Instead of paying farmers for letting fields lie barren, this program subsidized them for planting soil enriching crops such as alfalfa that would not be sold on the market. Federal regulation of agricultural production has been modified many times since then, but together with large subsidies is still in effect today.
The Farm Tenancy Act in 1937 was the last major New Deal legislation that concerned farming. In turn, it created the Farm Security Administration (FSA), which replaced the Resettlement Administration.
The Food Stamp Plan -- a major new welfare program for urban poor -- was established in 1939 to provide stamps to poor people who could use them to purchase food at retail outlets. The program ended during wartime prosperity in 1943, but was restored in 1961. It survived into the 21st century with little controversy because it was seen to benefit the urban poor, food producers, grocers and wholesalers as well as farmers, thus it gained support from both liberal and conservative Congressmen. In 2013, Tea Party activists in the House nonetheless tried to end the program, now known as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, while the Senate fought to preserve it.
Recovery was the effort in numerous programs to restore the economy to normal health. By most economic indicators, this was achieved by 1937 -- except for unemployment, which remained stubbornly high until World War II began. Recovery was designed to help the economy bounce back from depression. Economic historians led by Price Fishback have examined the impact of New Deal spending on improving health conditions in the 114 largest cities, 1929 -- 1937. They estimated that every additional $153,000 in relief spending (in 1935 dollars, or $1.95 million in year 2000 dollars) was associated with a reduction of one infant death, one suicide and 2.4 deaths from infectious disease.
From 1929 to 1933, the industrial economy had been suffering from a vicious cycle of deflation. Since 1931, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, the voice of the nation 's organized business, promoted an anti-deflationary scheme that would permit trade associations to cooperate in government - instigated cartels to stabilize prices within their industries. While existing antitrust laws clearly forbade such practices, organized business found a receptive ear in the Roosevelt Administration.
Roosevelt 's advisers believed that excessive competition and technical progress had led to overproduction and lowered wages and prices, which they believed lowered demand and employment (deflation). He argued that government economic planning was necessary to remedy this. New Deal economists argued that cut - throat competition had hurt many businesses and that with prices having fallen 20 % and more, "deflation '' exacerbated the burden of debt and would delay recovery. They rejected a strong move in Congress to limit the workweek to 30 hours. Instead their remedy, designed in cooperation with big business, was the NIRA. It included stimulus funds for the WPA to spend and sought to raise prices, give more bargaining power for unions (so the workers could purchase more) and reduce harmful competition.
At the center of the NIRA was the National Recovery Administration (NRA), headed by former General Hugh S. Johnson, who had been a senior economic official in World War I. Johnson called on every business establishment in the nation to accept a stopgap "blanket code '': a minimum wage of between 20 and 45 cents per hour, a maximum workweek of 35 -- 45 hours and the abolition of child labor. Johnson and Roosevelt contended that the "blanket code '' would raise consumer purchasing power and increase employment. To mobilize political support for the NRA, Johnson launched the "NRA Blue Eagle '' publicity campaign to boost what he called "industrial self - government ''. The NRA brought together leaders in each industry to design specific sets of codes for that industry -- the most important provisions were anti-deflationary floors below which no company would lower prices or wages and agreements on maintaining employment and production. In a remarkably short time, the NRA announced agreements from almost every major industry in the nation. By March 1934, industrial production was 45 % higher than in March 1933.
NRA Administrator Hugh Johnson was showing signs of mental breakdown due to the extreme pressure and workload of running the National Recovery Administration. After two meetings with Roosevelt and an abortive resignation attempt, Johnson resigned on September 24, 1934 and Roosevelt replaced the position of Administrator with a new National Industrial Recovery Board, of which Donald Richberg was named Executive Director.
On May 27, 1935, the NRA was found to be unconstitutional by a unanimous decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in the case of Schechter v. United States. After the end of the NRA, quotas in the oil industry were fixed by the Railroad Commission of Texas with Tom Connally 's federal Hot Oil Act of 1935, which guaranteed that illegal "hot oil '' would not be sold. By the time NRA ended in May 1935, well over 2 million employers accepted the new standards laid down by the NRA, which had introduced a minimum wage and an eight - hour workday, together with abolishing child labor. These standards were reintroduced by the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938.
The New Deal had an important impact in the housing field. The New Deal followed and increased President Hoover 's lead and seek measures. The New Deal sought to stimulate the private home building industry and increase the number of individuals who owned homes. The New Deal implemented two new housing agencies; Home Owners ' Loan Corporation (HOLC) and the Federal Housing Administration (FHA). HOLC set uniform national appraisal methods and simplified the mortgage process. The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) created national standards for home construction.
Reform was based on the assumption that the depression was caused by the inherent instability of the market and that government intervention was necessary to rationalize and stabilize the economy and to balance the interests of farmers, business and labor. Reforms targeted the causes of the depression and sought to prevent a crisis like it from happening again. In other words, financially rebuilding the U.S. while ensuring not to repeat history.
There is consensus amongst economic historians that protectionist policies, culminating in the Smoot - Hawley Act of 1930, worsened the Depression. Roosevelt already spoke against the act while campaigning for president during 1932. In 1934, the Reciprocal Tariff Act was drafted by Cordell Hull. It gave the president power to negotiate bilateral, reciprocal trade agreements with other countries. The act enabled Roosevelt to liberalize American trade policy around the globe and it is widely credited with ushering in the era of liberal trade policy that persists to this day.
A separate set of programs operated in Puerto Rico, headed by the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration. It promoted land reform and helped small farms, it set up farm cooperatives, promoted crop diversification and helped local industry. The Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration was directed by Juan Pablo Montoya Sr. from 1935 to 1937.
In the spring of 1935, responding to the setbacks in the Court, a new skepticism in Congress and the growing popular clamor for more dramatic action, the Administration proposed or endorsed several important new initiatives. Historians refer to them as the "Second New Deal '' and note that it was more liberal and more controversial than the "First New Deal '' of 1933 -- 1934.
Until 1935 there were just a dozen states that had old age insurance laws, but these programs were woefully underfunded and therefore almost worthless. Just one state (Wisconsin) had an insurance program. The United States was the only modern industrial country where people faced the Depression without any national system of social security. Even the work programs of the "First New Deal '' were just meant as immediate relief, destined to run less than a decade.
The most important program of 1935 and perhaps the New Deal as a whole was the Social Security Act, drafted by Frances Perkins. It established a permanent system of universal retirement pensions (Social Security), unemployment insurance and welfare benefits for the handicapped and needy children in families without a father present. It established the framework for the U.S. welfare system. Roosevelt insisted that it should be funded by payroll taxes rather than from the general fund -- he said: "We put those payroll contributions there so as to give the contributors a legal, moral, and political right to collect their pensions and unemployment benefits. With those taxes in there, no damn politician can ever scrap my social security program ''.
Compared to the social security systems in western European countries, the Social Security Act of 1935 was rather conservative, but for the first time the federal government took responsibility for the economic security of the aged, the temporarily unemployed, dependent children and the handicapped.
The National Labor Relations Act of 1935, also known as the Wagner Act, finally guaranteed workers the rights to collective bargaining through unions of their own choice. The Act also established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to facilitate wage agreements and to suppress the repeated labor disturbances. The Wagner Act did not compel employers to reach agreement with their employees, but it opened possibilities for American labor. The result was a tremendous growth of membership in the labor unions, especially in the mass - production sector, composing the American Federation of Labor. Labor thus became a major component of the New Deal political coalition.
The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 set maximum hours (44 per week) and minimum wages (25 cents per hour) for most categories of workers. Child labour of children under the age of 16 was forbidden, children under 18 years were forbidden to work in hazardous employment. As a result, the wages of 300,000 people were increased and the hours of 1.3 million were reduced. It was the last major New Deal legislation that Roosevelt succeeded in enacting into law before the conservative coalition of Republicans and conservative Democrats won control of Congress that year. While he could usually use the veto to restrain Congress, it could block any Roosevelt legislation it disliked.
Roosevelt nationalized unemployment relief through the Works Progress Administration (WPA), headed by close friend Harry Hopkins. Roosevelt had insisted that the projects had to be costly in terms of labor, long - term beneficial and the WPA was forbidden to compete with private enterprises -- therefore the workers had to be paid smaller wages. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) was created to return the unemployed to the work force. The WPA financed a variety of projects such as hospitals, schools and roads, and employed more than 8.5 million workers who built 650,000 miles of highways and roads, 125,000 public buildings as well as bridges, reservoirs, irrigation systems, parks, playgrounds and so on.
Prominent projects were the Lincoln Tunnel, the Triborough Bridge, the LaGuardia Airport, the Overseas Highway and the San Francisco -- Oakland Bay Bridge. The Rural Electrification Administration used co-ops to bring electricity to rural areas, many of which still operate. The National Youth Administration was another the semi-autonomous WPA program for youth. Its Texas director, Lyndon B. Johnson, later used the NYA as a model for some of his Great Society programs in the 1960s. The WPA was organized by states, but New York City had its own branch Federal One, which created jobs for writers, musicians, artists and theater personnel. It became a hunting ground for conservatives searching for communist employees.
The Federal Writers ' Project operated in every state, where it created a famous guide book -- it also catalogued local archives and hired many writers, including Margaret Walker, Zora Neale Hurston and Anzia Yezierska, to document folklore. Other writers interviewed elderly ex-slaves and recorded their stories. Under the Federal Theater Project, headed by charismatic Hallie Flanagan, actresses and actors, technicians, writers and directors put on stage productions. The tickets were inexpensive or sometimes free, making theater available to audiences unaccustomed to attending plays.
One Federal Art Project paid 162 trained woman artists on relief to paint murals or create statues for newly built post offices and courthouses. Many of these works of art can still be seen in public buildings around the country, along with murals sponsored by the Treasury Relief Art Project of the Treasury Department. During its existence, the Federal Theatre Project provided jobs for circus people, musicians, actors, artists and playwrights, together with increasing public appreciation of the arts.
In 1935, Roosevelt called for a tax program called the Wealth Tax Act (Revenue Act of 1935) to redistribute wealth. The bill imposed an income tax of 79 % on incomes over $5 million. Since that was an extraordinary high income in the 1930s, the highest tax rate actually covered just one individual -- John D. Rockefeller. The bill was expected to raise only about $250 million in additional funds, so revenue was not the primary goal. Morgenthau called it "more or less a campaign document ''. In a private conversation with Raymond Moley, Roosevelt admitted that the purpose of the bill was "stealing Huey Long 's thunder '' by making Long 's supporters his own. At the same time, it raised the bitterness of the rich who called Roosevelt "a traitor to his class '' and the wealth tax act a "soak the rich tax ''.
A tax called the undistributed profits tax was enacted in 1936. This time the primary purpose was revenue, since Congress had enacted the Adjusted Compensation Payment Act, calling for payments of $2 billion to World War I veterans. The bill established the persisting principle that retained corporate earnings could be taxed. Paid dividends were tax deductible by corporations. Its proponents intended the bill to replace all other corporation taxes -- believing this would stimulate corporations to distribute earnings and thus put more cash and spending power in the hands of individuals. In the end, Congress watered down the bill, setting the tax rates at 7 to 27 % and largely exempting small enterprises. Facing widespread and fierce criticism, the tax deduction of paid dividends was repealed in 1938.
The United States Housing Act of 1937 created the United States Housing Authority within the U.S. Department of the Interior. It was one of the last New Deal agencies created. The bill passed in 1937 with some Republican support to abolish slums.
When the Supreme Court started abolishing New Deal programs as unconstitutional, Roosevelt launched a surprise counter-attack in early 1937. He proposed adding five new justices, but conservative Democrats revolted, led by the Vice President. The Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937 failed -- it never reached a vote. Momentum in Congress and public opinion shifted to the right and very little new legislation was passed expanding the New Deal. However, retirements allowed Roosevelt to put supporters on the Court and it stopped killing New Deal programs.
The Roosevelt administration was under assault during Roosevelt 's second term, which presided over a new dip in the Great Depression in the fall of 1937 that continued until most of 1938. Production and profits declined sharply. Unemployment jumped from 14.3 % in May 1937 to 19.0 % in June 1938. The downturn was perhaps due to nothing more than the familiar rhythms of the business cycle, but until 1937 Roosevelt had claimed responsibility for the excellent economic performance. That backfired in the recession and the heated political atmosphere of 1937.
The U.S. reached full employment after entering World War II in December 1941. Under the special circumstances of war mobilization, massive war spending doubled the gross national product (GNP). Military Keynesianism brought full employment and federal contracts were cost - plus. Instead of competitive bidding to get lower prices, the government gave out contracts that promised to pay all the expenses plus a modest profit. Factories hired everyone they could find regardless of their lack of skills -- they simplified work tasks and trained the workers, with the federal government paying all the costs. Millions of farmers left marginal operations, students quit school and housewives joined the labor force.
The emphasis was for war supplies as soon as possible, regardless of cost and inefficiencies. Industry quickly absorbed the slack in the labor force and the tables turned such that employers needed to actively and aggressively recruit workers. As the military grew, new labor sources were needed to replace the 12 million men serving in the military. Propaganda campaigns started pleading for people to work in the war factories. The barriers for married women, the old, the unskilled -- and (in the North and West) the barriers for racial minorities -- were lowered.
In 1929, federal expenditures accounted for only 3 % of GNP. Between 1933 and 1939, federal expenditures tripled, but the national debt as a percent of GNP showed little change. Spending on the war effort quickly eclipsed spending on New Deal programs. In 1944, government spending on the war effort exceeded 40 % of GNP. The U.S. economy experienced dramatic growth during the Second World War mostly due to the deemphasis of free enterprise in favor of the imposition of strict controls on prices and wages. These controls shared broad support among labor and business, resulting in cooperation between the two groups and the U.S. government. This cooperation resulted in the government subsidizing business and labor through both direct and indirect methods.
Conservative domination of Congress during the war meant that all welfare projects and reforms had to have their approval, which was given when business supported the project. For example, the Coal Mines Inspection and Investigation Act of 1941 significantly reduced fatality rates in the coal - mining industry, saving workers ' lives and company money. In terms of welfare, the New Dealers wanted benefits for everyone according to need. However, conservatives proposed benefits based on national service -- especially tied to military service or working in war industries -- and their approach won out.
The Community Facilities Act of 1940 (the Lanham Act) provided federal funds to defense - impacted communities where the population had soared and local facilities were overwhelmed. It provided money for the building of housing for war workers as well as recreational facilities, water and sanitation plants, hospitals, day care centers and schools.
The Servicemen 's Dependents Allowance Act of 1942 provided family allowances for dependents of enlisted men. Emergency grants to states were authorized in 1942 for programs for day care for children of working mothers. In 1944, pensions were authorized for all physically or mentally helpless children of deceased veterans regardless of the age of the child at the date the claim was filed or at the time of the veteran 's death, provided the child was disabled at the age of sixteen and that the disability continued to the date of the claim. The Public Health Service Act, which was passed that same year, expanded federal - state public health programs and increased the annual amount for grants for public health services.
The Emergency Maternity and Infant Care Program (EMIC), introduced in March 1943 by the Children 's Bureau, provided free maternity care and medical treatment during an infant 's first year for the wives and children of military personnel in the four lowest enlisted pay grades. One out of seven births was covered during its operation. EMIC paid $127 million to state health departments to cover the care of 1.2 million new mothers and their babies. The average cost of EMIC maternity cases completed was $92.49 for medical and hospital care. A striking effect was the sudden rapid decline in home births as most mothers now had paid hospital maternity care.
Under the 1943 Disabled Veterans Rehabilitation Act, vocational rehabilitation services were offered to wounded World War II veterans and some 621,000 veterans would go on to receive assistance under this program. The G.I. Bill (Servicemen 's Readjustment Act of 1944) was a landmark piece of legislation, providing 16 million returning veterans with benefits such as housing, educational and unemployment assistance and played a major role in the postwar expansion of the American middle class.
In response to the March on Washington Movement led by A. Philip Randolph, Roosevelt promulgated Executive Order 8802 in June 1941, which established the President 's Committee on Fair Employment Practices (FEPC) "to receive and investigate complaints of discrimination '' so that "there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin ''.
A major result of the full employment at high wages was a sharp, long lasting decrease in the level of income inequality (Great Compression). The gap between rich and poor narrowed dramatically in the area of nutrition because food rationing and price controls provided a reasonably priced diet to everyone. White collar workers did not typically receive overtime and therefore the gap between white collar and blue collar income narrowed. Large families that had been poor during the 1930s had four or more wage earners and these families shot to the top one - third income bracket. Overtime provided large paychecks in war industries and average living standards rose steadily, with real wages rising by 44 % in the four years of war, while the percentage of families with an annual income of less than $2,000 fell from 75 % to 25 % of the population.
In 1941, 40 % of all American families lived on less than the $1,500 per year defined as necessary by the Works Progress Administration for a modest standard of living. The median income stood at $2,000 a year, while 8 million workers earnt below the legal minimum. From 1939 to 1944, wages and salaries more than doubled, with overtime pay and the expansion of jobs leading to a 70 % rise in average weekly earnings during the course of the war. Membership in organized labor increased by 50 % between 1941 and 1945 and because the War Labor Board sought labor - management peace, new workers were encouraged to participate in the existing labor organizations, thereby receiving all the benefits of union membership such as improved working conditions, better fringe benefits and higher wages. As noted by William H. Chafe, "with full employment, higher wages and social welfare benefits provided under government regulations, American workers experienced a level of well - being that, for many, had never occurred before ''.
As a result of the new prosperity, consumer expenditures rose by nearly 50 %, from $61.7 billion at the start of the war to $98.5 billion by 1944. Individual savings accounts climbed almost sevenfold during the course of the war. The share of total income held by the top 5 % of wage earners fell from 22 % to 17 % while the bottom 40 % increased their share of the economic pie. In addition, during the course of the war the proportion of the American population earning less than $3,000 (in 1968 dollars) fell by half.
Analysts agree the New Deal produced a new political coalition that sustained the Democratic Party as the majority party in national politics into the 1960s. A 2013 study found that "an average increase in New Deal relief and public works spending resulted in a 5.4 percentage point increase in the 1936 Democratic voting share and a smaller amount in 1940. The estimated persistence of this shift suggests that New Deal spending increased long - term Democratic support by 2 to 2.5 percentage points. Thus, it appears that Roosevelt 's early, decisive actions created long - lasting positive benefits for the Democratic party... The New Deal did play an important role in consolidating Democratic gains for at least two decades ''.
However, there is disagreement about whether it marked a permanent change in values. Cowie and Salvatore in 2008 argued that it was a response to Depression and did not mark a commitment to a welfare state because the U.S. has always been too individualistic. MacLean rejected the idea of a definitive political culture. She says they overemphasized individualism and ignored the enormous power that big capital wields, the Constitutional restraints on radicalism and the role of racism, antifeminism and homophobia. She warns that accepting Cowie and Salvatore 's argument that conservatism 's ascendancy is inevitable would dismay and discourage activists on the left. Klein responds that the New Deal did not die a natural death -- it was killed off in the 1970s by a business coalition mobilized by such groups as the Business Roundtable, the Chamber of Commerce, trade organizations, conservative think tanks and decades of sustained legal and political attacks.
Historians generally agree that during Roosevelt 's 12 years in office there was a dramatic increase in the power of the federal government as a whole. Roosevelt also established the presidency as the prominent center of authority within the federal government. Roosevelt created a large array of agencies protecting various groups of citizens -- workers, farmers and others -- who suffered from the crisis and thus enabled them to challenge the powers of the corporations. In this way, the Roosevelt administration generated a set of political ideas -- known as New Deal liberalism -- that remained a source of inspiration and controversy for decades. New Deal liberalism lay the foundation of a new consensus. Between 1940 and 1980, there was the liberal consensus about the prospects for the widespread distribution of prosperity within an expanding capitalist economy. Especially Harry S. Truman 's Fair Deal and in the 1960s Lyndon B. Johnson 's Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs.
The New Deal 's enduring appeal on voters fostered its acceptance by moderate and liberal Republicans.
As the first Republican President elected after Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953 -- 1961) built on the New Deal in a manner that embodied his thoughts on efficiency and cost - effectiveness. He sanctioned a major expansion of Social Security by a self - financed program. He supported such New Deal programs as the minimum wage and public housing -- he greatly expanded federal aid to education and built the Interstate Highway system primarily as defense programs (rather than jobs program). In a private letter, Eisenhower wrote:
Should any party attempt to abolish social security and eliminate labor laws and farm programs, you would not hear of that party again in our political history. There is a tiny splinter group of course, that believes you can do these things... Their number is negligible and they are stupid.
In 1964, Barry Goldwater, an unreconstructed anti-New Dealer, was the Republican presidential candidate on a platform that attacked the New Deal. The Democrats under Lyndon B. Johnson won a massive landslide and Johnson 's Great Society programs extended the New Deal. However, the supporters of Goldwater formed the New Right which helped to bring Ronald Reagan into the White House in the 1980 presidential election. Once an ardent supporter of the New Deal, Reagan turned against it, now viewing government as the problem rather than solution and as president moved the nation away from the New Deal model of government activism, shifting greater emphasis to the private sector.
A 2017 review study of the existing literature in the Journal of Economic Literature summarized the findings of the research as follows:
The studies find that public works and relief spending had state income multipliers of around one, increased consumption activity, attracted internal migration, reduced crime rates, and lowered several types of mortality. The farm programs typically aided large farm owners but eliminated opportunities for share croppers, tenants, and farm workers. The Home Owners ' Loan Corporation 's purchases and refinancing of troubled mortgages staved off drops in housing prices and home ownership rates at relatively low ex post cost to taxpayers. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation 's loans to banks and railroads appear to have had little positive impact, although the banks were aided when the RFC took ownership stakes.
Historians debating the New Deal have generally divided between liberals who support it, conservatives who oppose it and some New Left historians who complain it was too favorable to capitalism and did too little for minorities. There is consensus on only a few points, with most commentators favorable toward the CCC and hostile toward the NRA.
Consensus historians of the 1950s, such as Richard Hofstadter, according to Lary May:
Liberal historians argue that Roosevelt restored hope and self - respect to tens of millions of desperate people, built labor unions, upgraded the national infrastructure and saved capitalism in his first term when he could have destroyed it and easily nationalized the banks and the railroads. Historians generally agree that apart from building up labor unions, the New Deal did not substantially alter the distribution of power within American capitalism. "The New Deal brought about limited change in the nation 's power structure ''. The New Deal preserved democracy in the United States in a historic period of uncertainty and crises when in many other countries democracy failed.
The most common arguments can be summarized as follows:
Julian Zelizer (2000) has argued that fiscal conservatism was a key component of the New Deal. A fiscally conservative approach was supported by Wall Street and local investors and most of the business community -- mainstream academic economists believed in it as apparently did the majority of the public. Conservative southern Democrats, who favored balanced budgets and opposed new taxes, controlled Congress and its major committees. Even liberal Democrats at the time regarded balanced budgets as essential to economic stability in the long run, although they were more willing to accept short - term deficits. As Zelizer notes, public opinion polls consistently showed public opposition to deficits and debt. Throughout his terms, Roosevelt recruited fiscal conservatives to serve in his administration, most notably Lewis Douglas the Director of Budget in 1933 -- 1934; and Henry Morgenthau Jr., Secretary of the Treasury from 1934 to 1945. They defined policy in terms of budgetary cost and tax burdens rather than needs, rights, obligations, or political benefits. Personally, Roosevelt embraced their fiscal conservatism, but politically he realized that fiscal conservatism enjoyed a strong wide base of support among voters, leading Democrats and businessmen. On the other hand, there was enormous pressure to act and spending money on high visibility work programs with millions of paychecks a week.
Douglas proved too inflexible and he quit in 1934. Morgenthau made it his highest priority to stay close to Roosevelt, no matter what. Douglas 's position, like many of the Old Right, was grounded in a basic distrust of politicians and the deeply ingrained fear that government spending always involved a degree of patronage and corruption that offended his Progressive sense of efficiency. The Economy Act of 1933, passed early in the Hundred Days, was Douglas 's great achievement. It reduced federal expenditures by $500 million, to be achieved by reducing veterans ' payments and federal salaries. Douglas cut government spending through executive orders that cut the military budget by $125 million, $75 million from the Post Office, $12 million from Commerce, $75 million from government salaries and $100 million from staff layoffs. As Freidel concludes: "The economy program was not a minor aberration of the spring of 1933, or a hypocritical concession to delighted conservatives. Rather it was an integral part of Roosevelt 's overall New Deal ''.
Revenues were so low that borrowing was necessary (only the richest 3 % paid any income tax between 1926 and 1940). Douglas therefore hated the relief programs, which he said reduced business confidence, threatened the government 's future credit and had the "destructive psychological effects of making mendicants of self - respecting American citizens ''. Roosevelt was pulled toward greater spending by Hopkins and Ickes and as the 1936 election approached he decided to gain votes by attacking big business.
Morgenthau shifted with Roosevelt, but at all times tried to inject fiscal responsibility -- he deeply believed in balanced budgets, stable currency, reduction of the national debt and the need for more private investment. The Wagner Act met Morgenthau 's requirement because it strengthened the party 's political base and involved no new spending. In contrast to Douglas, Morgenthau accepted Roosevelt 's double budget as legitimate -- that is a balanced regular budget and an "emergency '' budget for agencies, like the WPA, PWA and CCC, that would be temporary until full recovery was at hand. He fought against the veterans ' bonus until Congress finally overrode Roosevelt 's veto and gave out $2.2 billion in 1936. His biggest success was the new Social Security program as he managed to reverse the proposals to fund it from general revenue and insisted it be funded by new taxes on employees. It was Morgenthau who insisted on excluding farm workers and domestic servants from Social Security because workers outside industry would not be paying their way.
While many Americans suffered economically during the Great Depression, African Americans also had to deal with social ills, such as racism, discrimination and segregation. Black workers were especially vulnerable to the economic downturn since most of them worked the most marginal jobs such as unskilled or service - oriented work, therefore they were the first to be discharged and additionally many employers preferred white workers. When jobs were scarce some employers even dismissed blacks to create jobs for whites. In the end there were three times more African American workers on public assistance or relief than white workers.
The WPA, NYA and CCC relief programs allocated 10 % of their budgets to blacks (who comprised about 10 % of the total population, and 20 % of the poor). They operated separate all - black units with the same pay and conditions as white units. Some leading white New Dealers, especially Eleanor Roosevelt, Harold Ickes and Aubrey Williams, worked to ensure blacks received at least 10 % of welfare assistance payments. However, these benefits were small in comparison to the economic and political advantages that whites received. Most unions excluded blacks from joining and enforcement of anti-discrimination laws in the South was virtually impossible, especially since most blacks worked in hospitality and agricultural sectors.
The New Deal programs put millions of Americans immediately back to work or at least helped them to survive. The programs were not specifically targeted to alleviate the much higher unemployment rate of blacks. Some aspects of the programs were even unfavorable to blacks. The Agricultural Adjustment Acts for example helped farmers which were predominantly white, but reduced the need of farmers to hire tenant farmers or sharecroppers which were predominantely black. While the AAA stipulated that a farmer had to share the payments with those who worked the land this policy was never enforced. The Farm Service Agency (FSA), a government relief agency for tenant farmers, created in 1937, made efforts to empower African Americans by appointing them to agency committees in the South. Senator James F. Byrnes of South Carolina raised opposition to the appointments because he stood for white farmers who were threatened by an agency that could organize and empower tenant farmers. Initially, the FSA stood behind their appointments, but after feeling national pressure FSA was forced to release the African Americans of their positions. The goals of the FSA were notoriously liberal and not cohesive with the southern voting elite. Some New Deal measures inadvertently discriminated against harmed blacks. Thousands of blacks were thrown out of work and replaced by whites on jobs where they were paid less than the NRA 's wage minimums because some white employers considered the NRA 's minimum wage "too much money for Negroes ''. By August 1933, blacks called the NRA the "Negro Removal Act ''. An NRA study found that the NIRA put 500,000 African Americans out of work.
However, since blacks felt the sting of the depression 's wrath even more severely than whites they welcomed any help. Until 1936 almost all African Americans (and many whites) shifted from the "Party of Lincoln '' to the Democratic Party. This was a sharp realignment from 1932, when most African Americans voted the Republican ticket. New Deal policies helped establish a political alliance between blacks and the Democratic Party that survives into the 21st century.
There was no attempt whatsoever to end segregation, or to increase black rights in the South. Roosevelt appointed an unprecedented number of blacks to second - level positions in his administration -- these appointees were collectively called the Black Cabinet.
The wartime Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) executive orders that forbade job discrimination against African Americans, women and ethnic groups was a major breakthrough that brought better jobs and pay to millions of minority Americans. Historians usually treat FEPC as part of the war effort and not part of the New Deal itself.
The New Deal was racially segregated as blacks and whites rarely worked alongside each other in New Deal programs. The largest relief program by far was the WPA -- it operated segregated units, as did its youth affiliate the NYA. Blacks were hired by the WPA as supervisors in the North, but of 10,000 WPA supervisors in the South only 11 were black. Historian Anthony Badger argues that "New Deal programs in the South routinely discriminated against blacks and perpetuated segregation ''. In its first few weeks of operation, CCC camps in the North were integrated. By July 1935, practically all the camps in the United States were segregated, and blacks were strictly limited in the supervisory roles they were assigned. Kinker and Smith argue that "even the most prominent racial liberals in the New Deal did not dare to criticize Jim Crow ''.
Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes was one of the Roosevelt Administration 's most prominent supporters of blacks and former president of the Chicago chapter of the NAACP. In 1937, when Senator Josiah Bailey Democrat of North Carolina accused him of trying to break down segregation laws Ickes wrote him to deny that:
The New Deal 's record came under attack by New Left historians in the 1960s for its pusillanimity in not attacking capitalism more vigorously, nor helping blacks achieve equality. The critics emphasize the absence of a philosophy of reform to explain the failure of New Dealers to attack fundamental social problems. They demonstrate the New Deal 's commitment to save capitalism and its refusal to strip away private property. They detect a remoteness from the people and indifference to participatory democracy and call instead for more emphasis on conflict and exploitation.
At first, the New Deal created programs primarily for men as it was assumed that the husband was the "breadwinner '' (the provider) and if they had jobs the whole families would benefit. It was the social norm for women to give up jobs when they married -- in many states there were laws that prevented both husband and wife holding regular jobs with the government. So too in the relief world, it was rare for both husband and wife to have a relief job on FERA or the WPA. This prevailing social norm of the breadwinner failed to take into account the numerous households headed by women, but it soon became clear that the government needed to help women as well.
Many women were employed on FERA projects run by the states with federal funds. The first New Deal program to directly assist women was the Works Progress Administration (WPA), begun in 1935. It hired single women, widows, or women with disabled or absent husbands. The WPA employed about 500,000 women and they were assigned mostly to unskilled jobs. 295,000 worked on sewing projects that made 300 million items of clothing and bedding to be given away to families on relief and to hospitals and orphanages. Women also were hired for the WPA 's school lunch program. Both men and women were hired for the small but highly publicized arts programs (such as music, theater and writing).
The Social Security program was designed to help retired workers and widows, but did not include domestic workers, farmers or farm laborers, the jobs most often held by blacks. However, Social Security was not a relief program and it was not designed for short - term needs, as very few people received benefits before 1942.
The New Deal expanded the role of the federal government, particularly to help the poor, the unemployed, youth, the elderly and stranded rural communities. The Hoover administration started the system of funding state relief programs, whereby the states hired people on relief. With the CCC in 1933 and the WPA in 1935, the federal government now became involved in directly hiring people on relief in granting direct relief or benefits. Total federal, state and local spending on relief rose from 3.9 % of GNP in 1929 to 6.4 % in 1932 and 9.7 % in 1934 -- the return of prosperity in 1944 lowered the rate to 4.1 %. In 1935 -- 1940, welfare spending accounted for 49 % of the federal, state and local government budgets. In his memoirs, Milton Friedman said that the New Deal relief programs were an appropriate response. He and his wife were not on relief, but they were employed by the WPA as statisticians. Friedman said that programs like the CCC and WPA were justified as temporary responses to an emergency. Friedman said that Roosevelt deserved considerable credit for relieving immediate distress and restoring confidence.
In a survey of economic historians conducted by Robert Whaples, Professor of Economics at Wake Forest University, anonymous questionnaires were sent to members of the Economic History Association. Members were asked to disagree, agree, or agree with provisos with the statement that read: "Taken as a whole, government policies of the New Deal served to lengthen and deepen the Great Depression ''. While only 6 % of economic historians who worked in the history department of their universities agreed with the statement, 27 % of those that work in the economics department agreed. Almost an identical percent of the two groups (21 % and 22 %) agreed with the statement "with provisos '' (a conditional stipulation) while 74 % of those who worked in the history department and 51 % in the economic department disagreed with the statement outright.
From 1933 to 1941, the economy expanded at an average rate of 7.7 % per year. Despite high economic growth, unemployment rates fell slowly.
John Maynard Keynes explained that situation as an underemployment equilibrium where skeptic business prospects prevent companies from hiring new employees. It was seen as a form of cyclical unemployment.
There are different assumptions as well. According to Richard L. Jensen, cyclical unemployment was a grave matter primarily until 1935. Between 1935 and 1941, structural unemployment became the bigger problem. Especially the unions successes in demanding higher wages pushed management into introducing new efficiency - oriented hiring standards. It ended inefficient labor such as child labor, casual unskilled work for subminimum wages and sweatshop conditions. In the long term, the shift to efficiency wages led to high productivity, high wages and a high standard of living, but it necessitated a well - educated, well - trained, hard - working labor force. It was not before war time brought full employment that the supply of unskilled labor (that caused structural unemployment) downsized.
At the beginning of the Great Depression, many economists traditionally argued against deficit spending. The fear was that government spending would "crowd out '' private investment and would thus not have any effect on the economy, a proposition known as the Treasury view, but Keynesian economics rejected that view. They argued that by spending vastly more money -- using fiscal policy -- the government could provide the needed stimulus through the multiplier effect. Without that stimulus, business simply would not hire more people, especially the low skilled and supposedly "untrainable '' men who had been unemployed for years and lost any job skill they once had. Keynes visited the White House in 1934 to urge President Roosevelt to increase deficit spending. Roosevelt afterwards complained that "he left a whole rigmarole of figures -- he must be a mathematician rather than a political economist ''.
The New Deal tried public works, farm subsidies and other devices to reduce unemployment, but Roosevelt never completely gave up trying to balance the budget. Between 1933 and 1941, the average federal budget deficit was 3 % per year. Roosevelt did not fully utilize deficit spending. The effects of federal public works spending were largely offset by Herbert Hoover 's large tax increase in 1932, whose full effects for the first time were felt in 1933 and it was undercut by spending cuts, especially the Economy Act. According to Keynesians like Paul Krugman, the New Deal therefore was not as successful in the short run as it was in the long run.
Following the Keynesian consensus (that lasted until the 1970s), the traditional view was that federal deficit spending associated with the war brought full - employment output while monetary policy was just aiding the process. In this view, the New Deal did not end the Great Depression, but halted the economic collapse and ameliorated the worst of the crises.
In recent years, more influential among economists has been the monetarist interpretation of Milton Friedman, which includes a full - scale monetary history of what he calls the "Great Contraction ''. Friedman concentrated on the failures before 1933 and points out that between 1929 and 1932 the Federal Reserve allowed the money supply to fall by a third which is seen as the major cause that turned a normal recession into a Great Depression. Friedman especially criticized the decisions of Hoover and the Federal Reserve not to save banks going bankrupt. Monetarists state that the banking and monetary reforms were a necessary and sufficient response to the crises. They reject the approach of Keynesian deficit spending.
You have to distinguish between two classes of New Deal policies. One class of New Deal policies was reform: wage and price control, the Blue Eagle, the national industrial recovery movement. I did not support those. The other part of the new deal policy was relief and recovery... providing relief for the unemployed, providing jobs for the unemployed, and motivating the economy to expand... an expansive monetary policy. Those parts of the New Deal I did support.
Ben Bernanke and Martin Parkinson declared in "Unemployment, Inflation, and Wages in the American Depression '' (1989) that "the New Deal is better characterized as having cleared the way for a natural recovery (for example, by ending deflation and rehabilitating the financial system) rather than as being the engine of recovery itself ''.
Challenging the traditional view, monetarists and New Keynesians like J. Bradford DeLong, Lawrence Summers and Christina Romer argued that recovery was essentially complete prior to 1942 and that monetary policy was the crucial source of pre-1942 recovery. The extraordinary growth in money supply beginning in 1933 lowered real interest rates and stimulated investment spending. According to Bernanke, there was also a debt - deflation effect of the depression which was clearly offset by a reflation through the growth in money supply. However, before 1992 scholars did not realize that the New Deal provided for a huge aggregate demand stimulus through a de facto easing of monetary policy. While Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz argued in A Monetary History of the United States (1963) that the Federal Reserve System had made no attempt to increase the quantity in high - powered money and thus failed to foster recovery, they somehow did not investigate the impact of the monetary policy of the New Deal. In 1992, Christina Romer explained in "What Ended the Great Depression? '' that the rapid growth in money supply beginning in 1933 can be traced back to a large unsterilized gold inflow to the U.S. which was partly due to political instability in Europe, but to a larger degree to the revaluation of gold through the Gold Reserve Act. The Roosevelt administration had chosen not to sterilize the gold inflow precisely because they hoped that the growth of money supply would stimulate the economy.
Replying to DeLong et al. in the Journal of Economic History, J.R. Vernon argues that deficit spending leading up to and during World War II still played a large part in the overall recovery, according to his study "half or more of the recovery occurred during 1941 and 1942 ''.
According to Peter Temin, Barry Wigmore, Gauti B. Eggertsson and Christina Romer, the biggest primary impact of the New Deal on the economy and the key to recovery and to end the Great Depression was brought about by a successful management of public expectations. The thesis is based on the observation that after years of deflation and a very severe recession important economic indicators turned positive just in March 1933 when Roosevelt took office. Consumer prices turned from deflation to a mild inflation, industrial production bottomed out in March 1933, investment doubled in 1933 with a turnaround in March 1933. There were no monetary forces to explain that turnaround. Money supply was still falling and short - term interest rates remained close to zero. Before March 1933, people expected a further deflation and recession so that even interest rates at zero did not stimulate investment. However, when Roosevelt announced major regime changes people began to expect inflation and an economic expansion. With those expectations, interest rates at zero began to stimulate investment just as they were expected to do. Roosevelt 's fiscal and monetary policy regime change helped to make his policy objectives credible. The expectation of higher future income and higher future inflation stimulated demand and investments. The analysis suggests that the elimination of the policy dogmas of the gold standard, a balanced budget in times of crises and small government led endogenously to a large shift in expectation that accounts for about 70 -- 80 percent of the recovery of output and prices from 1933 to 1937. If the regime change had not happened and the Hoover policy had continued, the economy would have continued its free - fall in 1933 and output would have been 30 percent lower in 1937 than in 1933.
Followers of the real business - cycle theory believe that the New Deal caused the depression to persist longer than it would otherwise have. Harold L. Cole and Lee E. Ohanian say Roosevelt 's policies prolonged the depression by seven years. According to their study, the "New Deal labor and industrial policies did not lift the economy out of the Depression '', but that the "New Deal policies are an important contributing factor to the persistence of the Great Depression ''. They claim that the New Deal "cartelization policies are a key factor behind the weak recovery ''. They say that the "abandonment of these policies coincided with the strong economic recovery of the 1940s ''. The study by Cole and Ohanian is based on a real business - cycle theory model. The underlying assumptions of this theory are subject to numerous criticisms and the theory is unable to posit any convincing explanations for the initial causes of the Great Depression. Laurence Seidman noted that according to the assumptions of Cole and Ohanian, the labor market clears instantaneously, which leads to the incredible conclusion that the surge in unemployment between 1929 and 1932 (before the New Deal) was in their opinion both optimal and solely based on voluntary unemployment. Additionally, Cole and Ohanian 's argument does not count workers employed through New Deal programs. Such programs built or renovated 2,500 hospitals, 45,000 schools, 13,000 parks and playgrounds, 7,800 bridges, 700,000 miles (1,100,000 km) of roads, 1,000 airfields and employed 50,000 teachers through programs that rebuilt the country 's entire rural school system.
Lowell E. Gallaway and Richard K. Vedder argue on the basis of libertarian theories that the Great Depression was caused by too high wages which they say had caused a loss of depositor confidence which caused the bank runs. They further conclude that the "Great Depression was very significantly prolonged in both its duration and its magnitude by the impact of New Deal programs ''. They suggest that without Social Security, work relief, unemployment insurance, mandatory minimum wages and without special government - granted privileges for labor unions, business would have hired more workers and the unemployment rate during the New Deal years would have been 6.7 % instead of 17.2 %. Amity Shlaes wrote that "from 1929 to 1940, from Hoover to Roosevelt, government intervention helped to make the Depression Great ''. Shlaes said that the NRA was misguided because it used price setting to fix monetary problems. According to Shlaes, Roosevelt 's experimentation frightened business into inaction and prevented recovery. Eric Rauchway showed that Shlaes tried to diminish the economic growth by referring to the unrepresentative Dow Jones Industrial Average. He continued that usually a historian or economist would have referred to the gross domestic product, which according to the Historical Statistics of the United States grew impressively by 9 % annually during Roosevelt 's first term and by 11 % annually after the short recession of 1937 -- 1938.
The economic reforms were mainly intended to rescue the capitalist system by providing a more rational framework in which it could operate. The banking system was made less vulnerable. The regulation of the stock market and the prevention of some corporate abuses relating to the sale of securities and corporate reporting addressed the worst excesses. Roosevelt allowed trade unions to take their place in labor relations and created the triangular partnership between employers, employees and government.
David M. Kennedy wrote that "the achievements of the New Deal years surely played a role in determining the degree and the duration of the postwar prosperity ''.
Paul Krugman stated that the institutions built by the New Deal remain the bedrock of the United States economic stability. Against the background of the 2007 -- 2012 global financial crisis, he explained that the financial crises would have been much worse if the New Deals Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation had not insured most bank deposits and older Americans would have felt much more insecure without Social Security. Libertarian economist Milton Friedman after 1960 attacked Social Security from a free market view stating that it had created welfare dependency.
The New Deal banking reform was weakened since the 1980s.
While it is essentially consensus among historians and academics that the New Deal brought about a large increase in the power of the federal government, there has been some scholarly debate concerning the results of this federal expansion. Historians like Arthur M. Schlesinger and James T. Patterson have argued that the augmentation of the federal government exacerbated tensions between the federal and state governments. However, contemporaries such as Ira Katznelson have suggested that due to certain conditions on the allocation of federal funds, namely that the individual states get to control them, the federal government managed to avoid any tension with states over their rights. This is a prominent debate concerning the historiography of federalism in the United States and -- as Schlesinger and Patterson have observed -- the New Deal marked an era when the federal - state power balance shifted further in favor of the federal government, which heightened tensions between the two levels of government in the United States.
Ira Katznelson has argued that although the federal government expanded its power and began providing welfare benefits on a scale previously unknown in the United States, it often allowed individual states to control the allocation of the funds provided for such welfare. This meant that the states controlled who had access to these funds, which in turn meant many Southern states were able to racially segregate -- or in some cases, like a number of counties in Georgia, completely exclude African - Americans -- the allocation of federal funds. This enabled these states to continue to relatively exercise their rights and also to preserve the institutionalization of the racist order of their societies. While Katznelson has conceded that the expansion of the federal government had the potential to lead to federal - state tension, he has argued it was avoided as these states managed to retain some control. As Katznelson has observed, "furthermore, they (state governments in the South) had to manage the strain that potentially might be placed on local practices by investing authority in federal bureaucracies... To guard against this outcome, they key mechanism deployed was a separation of the source of funding from decisions about how to spend the new monies ''.
However, Schlesinger has disputed Katznelson 's claim and has argued that the increase in the power of the federal government was perceived to come at the cost of states ' rights, thereby aggravating state governments, which exacerbated federal - state tensions. Schlesinger has utilized quotes from the time to highlight this point, Schlesinger has observed that "the actions of the New Deal, (Ogden L.) Mills said, "abolish the sovereignty of the States. They make of a government of limited powers one of unlimited authority over the lives of us all ''.
Moreover, Schlesinger has argued that this federal - state tension was not a one - way street and that the federal government became just as aggravated with the state governments as they did with it. State governments were often guilty of inhibiting or delaying federal policies. Whether through intentional methods, like sabotage, or unintentional ones, like simple administrative overload -- either way these problems aggravated the federal government and thus heightened federal - state tensions. As Schlesinger has also noted that "students of public administration have never taken sufficient account of the capacity of lower levels of government to sabotage or defy even a masterful President ''.
James T. Patterson has reiterated this argument, though he observes that this increased tension can be accounted for not just from a political perspective, but from an economic one too. Patterson has argued that the tension between the federal and state governments at least partly also resulted from the economic strain under which the states had been put by the federal government 's various policies and agencies. Some states were either simply unable to cope with the federal government 's demand and thus refused to work with them, or admonished the economic restraints and actively decided to sabotage federal policies. This was demonstrated, Patterson has noted, with the handling of federal relief money by Ohio governor, Martin L. Davey. The case in Ohio became so detrimental to the federal government that Harry Hopkins, supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, had to federalize Ohio relief. Although this argument differs somewhat from Schlesinger 's, the source of federal - state tension remained the growth of the federal government. As Patterson has asserted, "though the record of the FERA was remarkably good -- almost revolutionary -- in these respects it was inevitable, given the financial requirements imposed on deficit - ridden states, that friction would develop between governors and federal officials ''.
In this dispute it can be inferred that Katznelson and Schlesinger and Patterson have only disagreed on their inference of the historical evidence. While both parties have agreed that the federal government expanded and even that states had a degree of control over the allocation of federal funds, they have disputed the consequences of these claims. Katznelson has asserted that it created mutual acquiescence between the levels of government, while Schlesinger and Patterson have suggested that it provoked contempt for the state governments on the part of the federal government and vice versa, thus exacerbating their relations. In short, irrespective of the interpretation this era marked an important time in the historiography of federalism and also nevertheless provided some narrative on the legacy of federal - state relations.
Worldwide, the Great Depression had the most profound impact in the German Reich and the United States. In both countries the pressure to reform and the perception of the economic crisis were strikingly similar. When Hitler came to power he was faced with exactly the same task that faced Roosevelt, overcoming mass unemployment and the global Depression. The political responses to the crises were essentially different: while American democracy remained strong, Germany replaced democracy with fascism, a Nazi dictatorship.
The initial perception of the New Deal was mixed. On the one hand, the eyes of the world were upon the United States because many democrats in Europe and the United States saw in Roosevelt _́ s reform program a positive counterweight to the seductive powers of the two great alternative systems, communism and fascism. As the historian Isaiah Berlin wrote in 1955: "The only light in the darkness was the administration of Mr. Roosevelt and the New Deal in the United States ''.
By contrast, enemies of the New Deal sometimes called it "fascist '', but they meant very different things. Communists denounced the New Deal in 1933 and 1934 as fascist in the sense that it was under the control of big business. They dropped that line of thought when Stalin switched to the "Popular Front '' plan of cooperation with liberals.
In 1934, Roosevelt defended himself against those critics in a "fireside chat '':
(Some) will try to give you new and strange names for what we are doing. Sometimes they will call it ' Fascism ', sometimes ' Communism ', sometimes ' Regimentation ', sometimes ' Socialism '. But, in so doing, they are trying to make very complex and theoretical something that is really very simple and very practical... Plausible self - seekers and theoretical die - hards will tell you of the loss of individual liberty. Answer this question out of the facts of your own life. Have you lost any of your rights or liberty or constitutional freedom of action and choice?
After 1945, only few observers continued to see similarities and later on some scholars such as Kiran Klaus Patel, Heinrich August Winkler and John Garraty came to the conclusion that comparisons of the alternative systems do not have to end in an apology for Nazism since comparisons rely on the examination of both similarities and differences. Their preliminary studies on the origins of the fascist dictatorships and the American (reformed) democracy came to the conclusion that besides essential differences "the crises led to a limited degree of convergence '' on the level of economic and social policy. The most important cause was the growth of state interventionism since in the face of the catastrophic economic situation both societies no longer counted on the power of the market to heal itself.
John Garraty wrote that the National Recovery Administration (NRA) was based on economic experiments in Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, without establishing a totalitarian dictatorship. Contrary to that, historians such as Hawley have examined the origins of the NRA in detail, showing the main inspiration came from Senators Hugo Black and Robert F. Wagner and from American business leaders such as the Chamber of Commerce. The model for the NRA was Woodrow Wilson 's War Industries Board, in which Johnson had been involved too. Historians argue that direct comparisons between Fascism and New Deal are invalid since there is no distinctive form of fascist economic organization. Gerald Feldman wrote that fascism has not contributed anything to economic thought and had no original vision of a new economic order replacing capitalism. His argument correlates with Mason _́ s that economic factors alone are an insufficient approach to understand fascism and that decisions taken by fascists in power can not be explained within a logical economic framework. In economic terms, both ideas were within the general tendency of the 1930s to intervene in the free market capitalist economy, at the price of its laissez - faire character, "to protect the capitalist structure endangered by endogenous crises tendencies and processes of impaired self - regulation ''.
Stanley Payne, a historian of fascism, examined possible fascist influences in the United States by looking at the KKK and its offshoots and movements led by Father Coughlin and Huey Long. He concluded that "the various populist, nativist, and rightist movements in the United States during the 1920s and 1930s fell distinctly short of fascism ''. According to Kevin Passmore, lecturer in History at Cardiff University, the failure of fascism in the United States was due to the social policies of the New Deal that channelled anti-establishment populism into the left rather than the extreme right.
For decades, the New Deal was generally held in very high regard in the scholarship and the textbooks. That changed in the 1960s when New Left historians began a revisionist critique that said the New Deal was a bandaid for a patient that needed radical surgery to reform capitalism, put private property in its place and lift up workers, women and minorities. The New Left believed in participatory democracy and therefore rejected the autocratic machine politics typical of the big city Democratic organizations.
In the 1960s, New Left historians have been among the New Deal 's harsh critics. In a 1968 essay, Barton J. Bernstein compiled a chronicle of missed opportunities and inadequate responses to problems. The New Deal may have saved capitalism from itself, Bernstein charged, but it had failed to help -- and in many cases actually harmed -- those groups most in need of assistance. In The New Deal (1967), Paul K. Conkin similarly chastised the government of the 1930s for its weak policies toward marginal farmers, for its failure to institute sufficiently progressive tax reform, and its excessive generosity toward select business interests. In 1966, Howard Zinn criticized the New Deal for working actively to actually preserve the worst evils of capitalism.
By the 1970s, liberal historians were responding with a defense of the New Deal based on numerous local and microscopic studies. Praise increasingly focused on Eleanor Roosevelt, seen as a more appropriate crusading reformer than her husband. Since then, research on the New Deal has been less interested in the question of whether the New Deal was a "conservative '', "liberal '', or "revolutionary '' phenomenon than in the question of constraints within which it was operating.
In a series of articles, political sociologist Theda Skocpol has emphasized the issue of "state capacity '' as an often - crippling constraint. Ambitious reform ideas often failed, she argued, because of the absence of a government bureaucracy with significant strength and expertise to administer them. Other more recent works have stressed the political constraints that the New Deal encountered. Conservative skepticism about the efficacy of government was strong both in Congress and among many citizens. Thus some scholars have stressed that the New Deal was not just a product of its liberal backers, but also a product of the pressures of its conservative opponents.
During the New Deal the communists established a network of a dozen or so members working for the government. They were low level and had a minor influence on policies. Harold Ware led the largest group which worked in the Agriculture Adjustment Administration (AAA). Secretary of Agriculture Wallace got rid of them all in a famous purge in 1935. Ware died in 1935 and some individuals such as Alger Hiss moved to other government jobs. Other communists worked for the National Labor Relations Board, the National Youth Administration, the Works Progress Administration, the Federal Theater Project, the Treasury and the Department of State.
Since 1933, politicians and pundits have often called for a "new deal '' regarding an object -- that is, they demand a completely new, large - scale approach to a project. As Arthur A. Ekirch Jr. (1971) has shown, the New Deal stimulated utopianism in American political and social thought on a wide range of issues. In Canada, Conservative Prime Minister Richard B. Bennett in 1935 proposed a "new deal '' of regulation, taxation and social insurance that was a copy of the American program, but Bennett 's proposals were not enacted and he was defeated for reelection in October 1935. In accordance with the rise of the use of U.S. political phraseology in Britain, the Labour government of Tony Blair termed some of its employment programs "new deal '', in contrast to the Conservative Party 's promise of the "British Dream ''.
The Works Progress Administration subsidized artists, musicians, painters and writers on relief with a group of projects called Federal One. While the WPA program was by far the most widespread, it was preceded by three programs administered by the US Treasury which hired commercial artists at usual commissions to add murals and sculptures to federal buildings. The first of these efforts was the short - lived Public Works of Art Project, organized by Edward Bruce, an American businessman and artist. Bruce also led the Treasury Department 's Section of Painting and Sculpture (later renamed the Section of Fine Arts) and the Treasury Relief Art Project (TRAP). The Resettlement Administration (RA) and Farm Security Administration (FSA) had major photography programs. The New Deal arts programs emphasized regionalism, social realism, class conflict, proletarian interpretations and audience participation. The unstoppable collective powers of common man, contrasted to the failure of individualism, was a favorite theme.
Post Office murals and other public art, painted by artists in this time, can still be found at many locations around the U.S. The New Deal particularly helped American novelists. For journalists and the novelists who wrote non-fiction, the agencies and programs that the New Deal provided, allowed these writers to describe about what they really saw around the country.
Many writers chose to write about the New Deal and whether they were for or against it and if it was helping the country out. Some of these writers were Ruth McKenney, Edmund Wilson and Scott Fitzgerald. Another subject that was very popular for novelists was the condition of labor. They ranged from subjects on social protest to strikes.
Under the WPA, the Federal Theatre project flourished. Countless theatre productions around the country were staged. This allowed thousands of actors and directors to be employed, among them were Orson Welles, and John Huston.
The FSA photography project is most responsible for creating the image of the Depression in the U.S. Many of the images appeared in popular magazines. The photographers were under instruction from Washington as to what overall impression the New Deal wanted to give out. Director Roy Stryker 's agenda focused on his faith in social engineering, the poor conditions among cotton tenant farmers and the very poor conditions among migrant farm workers -- above all he was committed to social reform through New Deal intervention in people 's lives. Stryker demanded photographs that "related people to the land and vice versa '' because these photographs reinforced the RA 's position that poverty could be controlled by "changing land practices ''. Though Stryker did not dictate to his photographers how they should compose the shots, he did send them lists of desirable themes, such as "church '', "court day '', "barns ''.
Films of the late New Deal era such as Citizen Kane (1941) ridiculed so - called "great men '' while the heroism of the common man appeared in numerous movies, such as The Grapes of Wrath (1940). Thus in Frank Capra 's famous films, including Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939), Meet John Doe (1941) and It 's a Wonderful Life (1946), the common people come together to battle and overcome villains who are corrupt politicians controlled by very rich, greedy capitalists.
By contrast, there was also a smaller but influential stream of anti-New Deal art. Gutzon Borglum 's sculptures on Mount Rushmore emphasized great men in history (his designs had the approval of Calvin Coolidge). Gertrude Stein and Ernest Hemingway disliked the New Deal and celebrated the autonomy of perfected written work as opposed to the New Deal idea of writing as performative labor. The Southern Agrarians celebrated a premodern regionalism and opposed the TVA as a modernizing, disruptive force. Cass Gilbert, a conservative who believed architecture should reflect historic traditions and the established social order, designed the new Supreme Court building (1935). Its classical lines and small size contrasted sharply with the gargantuan modernistic federal buildings going up in the Washington Mall that he detested. Hollywood managed to synthesize liberal and conservative streams as in Busby Berkeley 's Gold Digger musicals, where the storylines exalt individual autonomy while the spectacular musical numbers show abstract populations of interchangeable dancers securely contained within patterns beyond their control.
The New Deal had many programs and new agencies, most of which were universally known by their initials. Most were abolished during World War II while others remain in operation today. They included the following:
"Most indexes worsened until the summer of 1932, which may be called the low point of the depression economically and psychologically ''. Economic indicators show the American economy reached nadir in summer 1932 to February 1933, then began recovering until the recession of 1937 -- 1938. Thus the Federal Reserve Industrial Production Index hit its low of 52.8 on July 1, 1932 and was practically unchanged at 54.3 on March 1, 1933, but by July 1, 1933 it reached 85.5 (with 1935 -- 39 = 100 and for comparison 2005 = 1,342). In Roosevelt 's 12 years in office, the economy had an 8.5 % compound annual growth of GDP, the highest growth rate in the history of any industrial country, but recovery was slow and by 1939 the gross domestic product (GDP) per adult was still 27 % below trend.
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where did the eagles play before the vet | History of the Philadelphia Eagles - wikipedia
The official NFL history of the Philadelphia Eagles begins in 1933. The Eagles ' history may be divided into eight distinct eras. In their history, the Eagles have appeared in the Super Bowl twice, but have never won. The Eagles have won three NFL Championships, the precursor to the Super Bowl, in four appearances.
The beginning era of the Eagles history, 1933 to 1939, was influenced by its owner, and then also coach, Bert Bell. After Bell ostensibly sold the team, to Alexis Thompson in 1940, the second era of the Eagles history was largely directed by their coach and future Hall of Famer, Greasy Neale.
In 1931, Philadelphia 's NFL franchise, the Frankford Yellow Jackets, who had won the NFL Championship in 1926, went bankrupt and ceased operations midway through the season. After more than a year searching for a suitable replacement, the NFL granted an expansion franchise to a syndicate headed by former University of Pennsylvania teammates Lud Wray and Bert Bell. Bell and Wray had previously played football together on the "Union Club '' squads, the Union Club of Phoenixville in 1920 and the Union Quakers of Philadelphia in 1921.
In exchange for an entry fee of $2,500, the Bell - Wray group was awarded the assets of the failed Yellow Jackets organization. Drawing inspiration from the insignia of the centerpiece of President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal, specifically the National Recovery Act 's "blue eagle, '' Bell and Wray named the new franchise the Philadelphia Eagles. Neither the Eagles nor the NFL officially regard the two franchises as the same, citing the aforementioned period of dormancy. The Eagles simply inherited the NFL rights to the Philadelphia area. Further, only a single player from the 1931 Yellow Jackets ended up with the 1933 Eagles.
The new team played its first game on October 15, 1933, against the New York Giants at the Polo Grounds in New York City. They lost the game 56 - 0. The Eagles struggled over the course of their first decade, never winning more than three games. For the most part, the Eagles ' rosters were composed of former Penn, Temple and Villanova players who put in a few years before going on to other things.
In 1935, Bell, by that point the team 's General Manager, proposed an annual college draft to equalize talent across the league. The draft was a revolutionary concept in professional sports. Having teams select players in inverse order of their finish in the standings, a practice still followed today, strove to increase fan interest by guaranteeing that even the worst teams would have the opportunity for annual infusions of the best college talent. Between 1927 (the year the NFL changed from a sprawling association to a narrower, major - market league) and 1934, a triopoly of three teams (the Chicago Bears, New York Giants and Green Bay Packers) had won all but one title since 1927 (the lone exception being the Providence Steam Roller of 1928).
Having finished last in the standings, the Eagles had the first pick in the 1936 draft, an opportunity they used to select University of Chicago 's Heisman Trophy - winning back, Jay Berwanger. They then traded his rights to the Chicago Bears. Berwanger, who had no interest in playing professional football, elected to go to medical school instead.
The Eagles ' first major recruiting success would come in 1939, with the signing of Texas Christian 's All - America quarterback, Davey O'Brien; O'Brien proceeded to shatter numerous existing single - season NFL passing records in his rookie season. That year, the Eagles participated in the first televised football game, against the Brooklyn Dodgers, at Ebbets Field in Brooklyn. They lost the game, 23 - 14).
The 1940s would prove a tumultuous and ultimately triumphant decade for the young club. In 1940, the team moved from Philadelphia Municipal Stadium to Shibe Park. Lud Wray 's half - interest in the team was purchased by Art Rooney, who had just sold the Pittsburgh Steelers to Alexis Thompson. Soon thereafter, Bell / Rooney and Thompson swapped franchises, but not teams. Bell / Rooney 's entire Eagles ' corporate organization, including most of the players, moved to Pittsburgh (The Steelers ' corporate name remained "Philadelphia Football Club, Inc. '' until 1945) and Thompson 's Steelers moved to Philadelphia, leaving only the team nicknames in their original cities. Since NFL franchises are territorial rights distinct from individual corporate entities, the NFL does not consider this a franchise move and considers the current Philadelphia Eagles as a single unbroken entity from 1933. (1)
After assuming ownership, Thompson promptly hired Greasy Neale as the team 's head coach. In its first years under Neale, the team continued to struggle. In 1943, when manpower shortages stemming from World War II made it impossible to fill the roster, the team temporarily merged with the Steelers to form a team popularly known as the "Steagles. '' The merger, never intended as a permanent arrangement, was dissolved at the end of the 1943 season. This season saw the team 's first winning season in its 11 - year history, with a finish of 5 - 4 - 1. In 1944, however, the Eagles finally experienced good fortune, as they made their finest draft pick to date: running back Steve Van Buren. At last, the team 's fortunes were about to change.
Led by Van Buren and Neale, the Eagles became a serious competitor for the first time. They had their first winning season as a separate team in 1944. After two more second - place finishes (in 1945 and 1946), the Eagles reached the NFL title game for the first time in 1947. Van Buren, end Pete Pihos, and Bosh Pritchard fought valiantly, but the young team fell to the Chicago Cardinals 28 - 21 at Chicago 's Comiskey Park. Undeterred, the young squad rebounded and returned to face the Cardinals once more in the 1948 championship. With home - field advantage (and a blinding snowstorm) on their side, the Eagles won their first NFL Championship 7 - 0. Due to the severity of the weather, few fans were on hand to witness the joyous occasion. That would not be the case the following season, however, when the Eagles returned to the NFL championship game for the third consecutive year and won in dominating fashion in front of a large crowd in Los Angeles, beating the Los Angeles Rams 14 - 0.
In Thompson 's final draft, Chuck Bednarik was selected as the first overall pick in the 1949 NFL Draft. An All - American lineman / linebacker from the University of Pennsylvania, Bednarik would go on to become one of the greatest and most beloved players in Eagles history. The 1949 season also saw the sale of the team by Thompson to a syndicate of 100 buyers, known as the "Happy Hundred '', each of whom paid a fee of $3,000 for their share of the team. While the leader of the "Happy Hundred '' was noted Philadelphia businessman James P. Clark, one unsung investor was Leonard Tose, a name that would eventually become very familiar to Eagles fans.
With the turn of the decade came another turn in team fortunes. The Eagles were slated to open the 1950 season against the AAFC champion Cleveland Browns, who had just (with the other AAFC franchises) joined the NFL. The Eagles were expected to make short work of the Browns, who were widely reckoned at the time as the dominant team in a lesser league. However, the Browns lit up the Eagles ' vaunted defense for 487 total yards, including 246 passing yards, in a 35 - 10 rout. The Eagles never really recovered, and finished 6 - 6.
Neale retired after the season and was replaced by Bo McMillin. Two games into the season, McMillin was forced to retire due to terminal stomach cancer. Wayne Millner finished out the season before being replaced by Jim Trimble. While the remnants of the great 1940s teams managed to stay competitive for the first few years of the decade, and while younger players like Bobby Walston and Sonny Jurgensen occasionally provided infusions of talent, the team lacked the stuff of true greatness for most of the 1950s. The Eagles considered trying to purchase Temple Stadium in 1952 when the team was unhappy with their lease at Shibe Park. Temple University claimed the property to have been appraised for $1 million and said they were uninterested in selling. In 1958, however, the franchise took key steps to improve, hiring Buck Shaw as Head Coach and acquiring Norm Van Brocklin in a trade with the Los Angeles Rams. That year also saw the team move from Connie Mack Stadium (formerly Shibe Park) to Franklin Field, and attendance doubled. The 1959 squad showed real flashes of talent, and finished in second place in the Eastern Division.
1960 remains the most celebrated year in Eagle history. Shaw, Van Brocklin and Chuck Bednarik (each in his last season before retirement) led a team more notable for its grit than its talent (one observer later quipped that the team had "nothing but a championship '') to its first division title since 1949. The team was aided by their two Pro Bowl receivers, WR Tommy McDonald (who would later pen a short autobiography titled "They Pay Me to Catch Footballs '') and TE Pete Retzlaff. On December 26, 1960, one of the coldest days in recorded Philadelphia history, the Eagles faced Vince Lombardi 's Green Bay Packers in the NFL title game and dealt the mighty Lombardi the sole championship game loss of his storied career. Bednarik lined up at center on offense and at linebacker on defense. Fittingly, the game ended as Bednarik tackled a struggling Jim Taylor and refused to allow him to stand until the last seconds had ticked away.
Flush with excitement from the 17 - 13 victory, with the talented Jurgensen poised to take the reins of the offense, the future looked promising. That promise, however, proved illusory.
In 1961, the Eagles finished just a half - game behind the New York Giants for first place in the Eastern Conference standings with a 10 - 4 record. Despite the on - the - field success, however, the franchise was in turmoil. Van Brocklin had come to Philadelphia and agreed to play through 1960 with the tacit understanding that, upon his retirement as a player, he would succeed Shaw as head coach. Ownership, however, opted to promote assistant Nick Skorich instead, and Van Brocklin quit the organization in a fit of pique, instead becoming head coach of the expansion Minnesota Vikings. In 1962, the bottom dropped out as the team was decimated by injury, managed only three wins and were embarrassed at home 49 - 0 by the Packers. The off - field chaos would continue through 1963, as the remaining 65 shareholders out of the original Happy Hundred sold the team to Jerry Wolman, a 36 - year - old millionaire Washington developer who outbid local bidders for the team, paying an unprecedented $5,505,000 for control of the club. In 1964, Wolman hired former Cardinals and Washington Redskins coach Joe Kuharich to a 15 - year contract.
Many people have heavily criticized Kuharich as a coach, as they say he wasted top - tier talent such as that of Jurgensen, Timmy Brown, Ollie Matson and Ben Hawkins and effectively ran the franchise into the ground. At Kuharich 's insistence, Jurgensen was traded to the Washington Redskins for Norm Snead in 1964: Jurgensen would go on to a Hall of Fame career while Snead, although serviceable, lacked the talent to lift the team out of mediocrity. By 1968, fans were in full revolt. Chants of "Joe must go '' echoed through the increasingly empty bleachers of Franklin Field. Adding insult to injury, the Eagles managed to eke out meaningless wins in two of the last three games of the season, costing the franchise the first pick in the draft, and with it the opportunity to add O.J. Simpson to the roster. (With the second pick, the Eagles chose Leroy Keyes, who played only four years in an Eagles uniform.) The last game of 1968, played on December 15, helped cement the rowdy reputation of Philadelphia fans when some of them booed and threw snowballs at an actor playing Santa Claus. By 1969, Wolman had lost most of his fortune and was bankrupt, leaving the franchise under the administration of a federal bankruptcy court. At the end of the bankruptcy proceedings, the Eagles were sold to Leonard Tose, the self - made trucking millionaire and original member of the Happy Hundred. Tose 's first official act was to fire Kuharich.
With an earned reputation as a fast - living high - flier, Tose infused the organization with some much - needed panache. Initially, however, he ran the team with more enthusiasm than ability, as was exemplified by his choice to replace Kuharich, the hapless Jerry Williams. Tose also selected former Eagles great Pete Retzlaff as General Manager.
In 1971, the Eagles moved from Franklin Field to brand - new Veterans Stadium. In its first season, the "Vet '' was widely acclaimed as a triumph of ultra-modern sports engineering, a consensus that would be short - lived. Equally short - lived was Williams 's tenure as head coach: after a 3 - 10 - 1 record in 1970 and three consecutive blowout losses to Cincinnati, Dallas and San Francisco to open the 1971 season, Williams was fired and replaced by assistant Ed Khayat, a defensive lineman on the Eagles ' 1960 NFL championship team. Williams and Khayat were hampered by Retzlaff 's decision to trade longtime starting quarterback Norm Snead to the Minnesota Vikings in early 1971, leaving the Eagles a choice between journeyman Pete Liske and the raw Rick Arrington.
Khayat lost his first two games, but won six of the final nine in 1971 thanks to the exploits of the defense, led by All - Pro safety Bill Bradley, who led the NFL in interceptions (11) and interception return yardage (248).
The team regressed in 1972, and Khayat was released after the Eagles finished 2 - 11 - 1. The two wins (both on the road) proved to be surprises, however. Philadelphia beat Kansas City (which had the best record in the AFC a year before) 21 - 20 and Houston 18 - 17 on six field goals by kicker Tom Dempsey. The latter game became known as the "Johnny Rodgers Bowl '', because the loser would finish with the worst record in the league and obtain the # 1 draft pick of 1973, which was then assumed to be Nebraska wingback Johnny Rodgers. The Oilers ultimately got the # 1 pick, which instead turned out to be University of Tampa defensive end John Matuszak (who would end up facing Philadelphia in the Super Bowl several years later). With the second pick, the Eagles selected USC tight end Charle Young.
Khayat was replaced by offensive guru Mike McCormick, who, aided by the skills of Roman Gabriel and towering young receiver Harold Carmichael, managed to infuse a bit of vitality into a previously moribund offense. New general manager Jim Murray also began to add talent on the defensive side of the line, most notably through the addition of future Pro Bowl linebacker Bill Bergey. Overall, however, the team was still mired in mediocrity. McCormick was fired after a 4 - 10 1975 season, and replaced by a college coach unknown to most Philadelphians. That coach would become one of the most beloved names in Philadelphia sports history: Dick Vermeil.
Vermeil faced numerous obstacles as he attempted to rejuvenate a franchise that had not seriously contended in well over a decade. Despite the team 's young talent and Gabriel 's occasional flashes of brilliance, the Eagles finished 1976 with the same result -- a 4 - 10 record -- as in 1975. 1977, however, saw the first seeds of hope begin to sprout. Rifle - armed quarterback Ron Jaworski was obtained by trade with the Los Angeles Rams in exchange for popular tight end Charlie Young. The defense, led by Bergey and defensive coordinator Marion Campbell, began earning a reputation as one of the hardest hitting in the league. By the next year, the Eagles had fully taken Vermeil 's enthusiastic attitude, and made the playoffs for the first time since 1960. Young running back Wilbert Montgomery became the first Eagle since Steve Van Buren to exceed 1,000 yards in a single season. (1978 also bore witness to one of the greatest, and unquestionably most surreal moment in Eagles history: "The Miracle at the Meadowlands, '' when Herman Edwards returned a late - game fumble by Giants ' quarterback Joe Pisarcik for a touchdown with 20 seconds left, resulting in a 19 - 17 Eagles victory - the Eagles would later edge into the playoffs that year with a 9 - 7 season.) By 1979, in which the Eagles tied for first place with an 11 - 5 record and Wilbert Montgomery shattered club rushing records with a total of 1,512 yards, the Eagles were poised to join the NFL elite.
In 1980, the team, led by coach Dick Vermeil, quarterback Ron Jaworski, running back Wilbert Montgomery, wide receiver Harold Carmichael, and linebacker Bill Bergey, dominated the NFC, facing its chief nemesis, the Dallas Cowboys, in the NFC Championship. The game was played in cold conditions in front of the Birds ' faithful fans at Veterans Stadium. Led by an incredible rushing performance from Montgomery, whose long cutback TD run in the first half is surely one of the most memorable plays in Eagles history, and a gutsy performance from fullback Leroy Harris, who scored the Eagles ' only other TD that day, the Birds earned a berth in Super Bowl XV with a 20 - 7 victory.
The Eagles traveled to New Orleans for Super Bowl XV and were heavy favorites to knock off the Oakland Raiders, who were merely a wild card team. Things did not go the Eagles ' way, beginning with the disastrous decision by Tose to bring comedian Don Rickles into the pregame locker room to lighten the mood. Jaworski 's first pass was intercepted by Rod Martin, setting up an Oakland touchdown. Later in the first quarter, a potential game - tying 40 - yard touchdown pass to Rodney Parker was nullified by an illegal motion penalty. The final score was 27 - 10. Veteran journeyman quarterback Jim Plunkett was named the game 's MVP. In a bizarre coincidence, Joe Kuharich died on the same day.
The Eagles got off to a great start in the 1981 season, winning their first six games. They eventually ended up 10 - 6 and earned a wild card berth. However, they were unable to repeat as NFC champs when they were knocked out in the wild card round by the New York Giants, 27 - 21. After the Eagles finished 3 - 6 in the strike - shortened 1982 season, Vermeil quit the team, citing "burnout. '' He was replaced by defensive coordinator Marion Campbell, aka "the Swamp Fox. '' Campbell had helped to popularize the "bend - do n't - break '' defensive strategy in the 1970s. Under Campbell, however, the team struggled, although his stewardship was notable in that it saw the arrival of all - time football greats Reggie White and Randall Cunningham. The 1983 - 85 seasons would see the Eagles go 5 - 11, 6 - 9 - 1, and 7 - 9, respectively.
Campbell 's reign of error ended in 1986, when Buddy Ryan was named head coach. Immediately infusing the team with his tough, hard - as - nails attitude, the Eagles quickly became known for their tough defense and tougher personalities. Ryan began rejuvenating the team by releasing several aging players, including Ron Jaworski. Randall Cunningham took his place, and despite a 5 - 10 - 1 season, he began showing considerable promise. 1987 saw another strike, reducing the season by one game. The substitutes who were filling in for the strikers turned in a poor performance, being crushed 41 - 22 by the Dallas Cowboys. After the strike ended, the regular Eagles team won a 37 - 20 revenge game against Dallas. The season record was 7 - 8, three games having been played by substitutes. The Eagles would reach the playoffs in 1988, but lost to the Chicago Bears 20 - 12 in what became known as the "Fog Bowl '', due to the weather conditions during the game.
The following two years would see playoff appearances as well, but the team could not make it past the first round. This failure was greatly frustrating to many Eagles fans, as the team was commonly acknowledged as among the most talented in the NFL. On offense, the Eagles were led by quarterback Cunningham, one of the most exciting players of his generation; tight end Keith Jackson; and running back Keith Byars. The defense is commonly acknowledged as among the greatest in league history, and as the best never to win a championship.
The two 1989 matches with Dallas were known as the Bounty Bowls. Both were won easily by the Eagles (the Cowboys finished 1 - 15 that year), and were marked by Ryan insulting new Cowboys coach Jimmy Johnson, putting a "bounty '' on their kicker, and for Eagles fans throwing snowballs on the season ender.
On November 12, 1990, during a Monday Night Football game at the Vet, the Eagles crushed the Washington Redskins by a score of 28 - 14, with the defense scoring three of the team 's four touchdowns. More lopsided than its score would indicate, the game quickly acquired the sobriquet "the Body Bag Game '', attesting to the physical damage inflicted by the tougher Eagles squad. The Eagles knocked out the starting Washington quarterback, and then seriously injured his replacement as well. Running back Brian Mitchell, who would later be signed by the Eagles, was forced to play quarterback for the Redskins. Unfortunately, the Redskins returned to Veterans stadium in the first round of the playoffs and defeated the Eagles 20 - 6, ending their season. Buddy Ryan was fired at the end of the season. Despite his tough talk, the Eagles failed to win a playoff game in the five years he had been head coach.
In 1991, the Eagles became the first NFL team since 1975 to rank first in the league in both rushing and passing yardage allowed, but competing in a strong division were unable to reach the playoffs despite a 10 - 6 record. Along with White, notable defensive stars included Jerome Brown, Clyde Simmons, Seth Joyner, Eric Allen, Wes Hopkins, and Andre Waters.
With Ryan 's firing by Norman Braman, Ryan 's former Offensive Coordinator, Rich Kotite, took the helm of the franchise. Although Cunningham suffered a season - ending ACL tear in the season opener, the Eagles still made a respectable showing, missing the playoffs on a tiebreaker. In 1992, Kotite led the Eagles back into the postseason with an 11 - 5 record. In the Wild Card Round, the Eagles soundly defeated the New Orleans Saints by a final score of 36 - 20. The Eagles were eliminated by Dallas in the next round (34 - 10). At the end of the season, DE Reggie White would leave the team through free agency. In the 1992 NFL Off - season, DT Jerome Brown died in a high - speed automobile crash on June 25. In 1993 and 1994, Kotite 's Eagles would fall apart after initially promising starts, and missed the playoffs in each season, going 8 - 8 and 7 - 9. By this point, Braman had become unpopular among most local fans and a polarizing presence in the front office. Under rising scrutiny and deflating optimism, he sold the team to current owner Jeffrey Lurie. Almost Lurie 's first act was to fire Kotite.
Lurie 's choice to replace Kotite was San Francisco 49ers Defensive Coordinator Ray Rhodes, who successfully lobbied 49ers star Ricky Watters to join the team as a free agent. In 1995, Rhodes 's first season, the Eagles got off to a slow start by losing 3 out their first 4 games: they subsequently rebounded, finishing with a 10 - 6 record and a playoff spot. In the Wild Card Round, the Eagles played at home and overwhelmed the Detroit Lions 58 - 37, with 31 of Philadelphia 's points coming in the second quarter alone. Despite this dominating performance, yet again, the Eagles were eliminated in the next round by the Cowboys (30 - 11). Ironically, this would be Randall Cunningham 's last game as an Eagle. Cunningham would score the only touchdown of the game and the last Eagles post season touchdown for six years.
1995 was perhaps most notable in that it signaled the end of Cunningham 's tenure as starting quarterback. Rhodes benched Cunningham in favor of Rodney Peete, leading to friction between the two. Before the benching, news reports circulated that Lurie and Rhodes tried to trade Cunningham to the Arizona Cardinals. However, no such trade was executed and Cunningham retired shortly after the season.
In 1996, the Eagles donned new uniforms featuring a darker shade of green. They got off to a good start, winning three of their first four games. However, a week - 5 Monday night game at Veterans Stadium against the hated Cowboys would witness a season - ending knee injury to Peete and the loss of the team 's momentum, and the transition to an offense led by Ty Detmer and Watters. While Detmer played well and Watters rushed for 1,411 yards, the season followed an all - too - familiar pattern: 10 - 6 record, and early elimination (a 14 - 0 shutout by the 49ers) in the playoffs. The continued early playoff exits led to fans and local media blaming the high priced free agent signings (Irving Fryar, Watters, Troy Vincent, and Guy McIntyre) for not stepping up in big games, most notably the postseason. Rhodes gradually deteriorated under the stress of the job, and players were beginning to grow tired of his brash demeanor and often autocratic coaching style. After an up - and - down 6 - 9 - 1 campaign in 1997, the bottom fell out in 1998. The Eagles suffered a 3 - 13 record -- the worst in franchise history. They were ranked dead last in numerous offensive statistics. Home game attendance was declining, a quarterback controversy was deteriorating an already rudderless locker room, and the players had all but tuned out the embattled coaching staff. Left with little choice after a disastrous season, fan revolt and sagging team morale, Lurie fired Rhodes.
Resurgence would come under the leadership of new head coach Andy Reid, who began by drafting Syracuse QB Donovan McNabb with the # 2 pick in the 1999 draft (the Eagles would have had the # 1 pick, but it was awarded to the rebooted Cleveland Browns). Despite clearing up roster space for new talent by releasing unpopular, aging veterans (such as Watters and Irving Fryar), Reid was still a virtual unknown at the time of his selection as head coach, and his appointment was met with considerable skepticism in Philadelphia. McNabb was also not considered a good choice to draft by Eagles fans. When he was drafted, many Eagles fans booed the selection, believing that the Eagles should draft Ricky Williams. The choices proved wise, however: with Reid leading the way and McNabb emerging as one of the game 's great players. However, 1999 was a rebuilding year and so the Eagles only won five games and game attendance was still looking stale as two home games were not sold out - resulting in local TV blackouts - while the other 6 were only sold out due to several small business owners purchasing the remainder of the unsold tickets to spare TV viewers. The Week 5 game, on Sunday, October 10, 1999, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, saw Dallas WR Michael Irvin suffer a career - ending spinal injury where Eagles fans stood up and cheered as he lay on the field. Even the TV commentators expressed their disgust at this behavior. The 2000 season saw the team go 11 - 5, reaching the playoffs as a wildcard which rejuvenated the fan base and optimism. After brushing aside the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 21 - 3, the Eagles moved to the second round of the playoffs, only to lose a 20 - 10 game against the Giants.
The 2000 regular season opener in Dallas (September 3), became known in NFL lore as the "Pickle Juice Game ''. Kickoff temperature in Texas Stadium was 109 degrees Fahrenheit and soared to nearly 120, making it the hottest game in league history, beating a previous record set during the 1997 Cowboys - Cardinals match in Arizona. The nickname came about because a certain Eagles trainer had been preparing for the projected high temperatures by having the players drink the juice from jars of dill pickles in order to retain body moisture and stave off cramps and heat exhaustion. The experiment proved a success as the Cowboys lost the game 44 - 14 and had multiple players benched for inability to handle the brutal temperatures (the Eagles had no players benched). The game also had significance because it marked the beginning of Philadelphia 's domination of the NFC East and the end of the Cowboys ' dominance.
After compiling an 11 - 5 record in 2001, the Eagles reached the playoffs again, this time at the top of their division. In a near - rerun of the previous year, they disposed of the Buccaneers in a 31 - 9 game. In the second round, the Eagles defeated the Bears 33 - 19 at Soldier Field. Reaching the NFC Championship game, they were unable to stop the St. Louis Rams, who defeated them 29 - 24
Despite injuries, McNabb led the Eagles to a 12 - 4 season in 2002. Once again, they reached the NFC Championship, but lost at home 27 - 10 to the eventual Super Bowl champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the last game at Veterans Stadium.
The 2003 team lost its first two games, both at their new home. In the opening game of the 2003 season, the Eagles were shut out 17 - 0 by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the first regular - season game ever played at Lincoln Financial Field. Once again, the team went 12 - 4 for the season. By reaching the conference championship game in the same year as this defeat, they became the first team in modern history to get that far in the postseason after having been shut out at home in its first game. They achieved that distinction despite getting only five touchdown catches all year from their wide receivers, which tied the league low since the regular - season schedule was lengthened to its present 16 games in 1978 (this record would be broken in 2004 when the New York Giants ' wide receivers caught only two touchdown passes). The Eagle receivers even went through both September and October without a TD catch -- the last time an NFL team had done that was in 1945.
The Eagles actively pursued premier wide receiver Terrell Owens, and acquired him in a controversial three - way deal with the Baltimore Ravens and the San Francisco 49ers, on March 16, 2004. Owens would often feud with McNabb, and was released by the Eagles after the 2005 season.
The 2004 season began with a bang as Owens caught three touchdown passes from McNabb in their season opener against the New York Giants. Owens would end up with exactly 1,200 receiving yards and 14 touchdown receptions, although his season ended prematurely with an ankle injury on December 19, 2005 against the Dallas Cowboys. Their 12 - 7 victory in this game gave them home field advantage throughout the conference playoffs for the third year in a row. (This distinction also includes a "bye '' in the first round (also known as the Wild Card Round) of the playoffs, which the top two teams in each conference receive.) The Eagles tied a record by clinching the NFC East division crown (their fourth straight such title) after only their eleventh game of the season, matching the mark set by the 1985 Chicago Bears and the 1997 San Francisco 49ers. Their final two regular - season games thus rendered meaningless, the Eagles sat out most of their first - string players in these games and lost them both, yet still finished with a 13 - 3 record, their best 16 - game season ever. McNabb had his finest season to date, passing for 3,875 yards and 31 touchdowns, with only eight interceptions. This made him the first quarterback in NFL history to throw 30 or more TD passes and fewer than 10 interceptions in a single regular season. They then began their playoff run with the Divisional round at home against the sixth - seeded Minnesota Vikings. The Eagles led from the start and never looked back, as McNabb led a very efficient passing attack (21 of 33 for 286 yards and 2 TDs), Brian Westbrook dominated on the ground with 70 rushing yards, and Freddie Mitchell performed very well on the receiving corps (5 receptions for 65 yards and a TD), as Philadelphia won 27 - 14, setting up their fourth - straight NFC Championship appearance.
The Eagles ' futility in Conference Championship games had become notorious. In 2002, the Eagles had fallen in the NFC Championship Game against the Rams in St. Louis, 29 - 24. In 2003, the Eagles hosted the Tampa Bay Buccaneers at Veterans Stadium and were widely viewed as the overwhelming favorites -- this view no doubt accentuated by the expected emotional boost that many anticipated would power the team, given that the game was to be the last at "the Vet. '' After a promising start, however, the game slipped away, and the ensuing 27 - 10 loss devastated a fan base that had already become too accustomed to disappointment. In 2004, a banged - up Eagles squad managed to overcome numerous injuries, particularly to its defense, to reach the NFC Championship for the third year in a row, only to suffer a heartbreaking 14 - 3 loss against the Carolina Panthers.
On January 23, 2005, the Eagles reached a fourth consecutive conference championship game (the first time this happened in the salary cap era of the NFL). At long last, the Eagles justified the hopes of their long - suffering fan base, defeating Michael Vick 's much - hyped Atlanta Falcons, 27 - 10, sending them to their first Super Bowl in 24 years. The victory sent the city of Philadelphia into wild celebrations.
With two Super Bowl wins under their belt, the defending champion New England Patriots were heavily favored. McNabb had a great game with 357 yards and three touchdowns, but he also threw three interceptions. Terell Owens returned despite his injury, and caught 122 yards on 9 catches. The game was a defensive struggle through the third quarter, but in the fourth, the Patriots took the lead, with the Eagles trailing ten points. The early game struggle left everyone exhausted, and for his best efforts, McNabb scored one touchdown, but could not get the team within field goal range on the final drive. He was picked off in the closing seconds of the game. The final score was 24 - 21, and the Patriots had won their third Super Bowl in four years.
The defending NFC Champions did not fare well the next year. The 2005 season began in a strange and erratic fashion with a 14 - 10 road loss to the Atlanta Falcons on Monday Night Football, a game in which Donovan McNabb suffered a chest bruise. In addition, Eagles linebacker Jeremiah Trotter was ejected prior to kick - off for getting involved in an altercation with Falcons cornerback Kevin Mathis. In the Week 2 home opener in Philadelphia, the Eagles defeated the San Francisco 49ers in a rout 42 - 3; however, McNabb was diagnosed with a sports hernia following the game. Weeks 3 and 4 saw the Eagles struggle somewhat but still manage to defeat the Oakland Raiders (23 - 20) and mount a stunning comeback from an 18 - point deficit to defeat the Kansas City Chiefs at Arrowhead Stadium (37 - 31). In week 5, the Eagles were manhandled by the Dallas Cowboys in Texas Stadium, losing by 23 points (33 - 10). Following a bye week, the Eagles pulled off a miraculous 20 - 17 win against the San Diego Chargers when cornerback Matt Ware returned a blocked field goal for a touchdown in the fourth quarter. Fans hoped the play would "wake up '' the Eagles and save the season similar to Brian Westbrook 's fourth quarter punt return against the New York Giants in 2003. However, in the next week, the Eagles were unable to stop the running and passing attack of the Denver Broncos, losing 49 - 21.
Week after week, Andy Reid had come under criticism for the Eagles ' lack of dedication to a running game and overworking an injured Donovan McNabb, who was on pace to break the records for all - time passing attempts and completions. The Eagles had also allowed themselves to get behind in the first quarters of games, only to end up fighting from behind in the remaining quarters. Some analysts speculated the Eagles ' problems were due to not finding replacements for former defensive linemen Corey Simon and Derrick Burgess, poor pass rush, poor special teams, and the contract disputes with Brian Westbrook and Terrell Owens, along with Owens ' virtually weekly controversies. They had also been hindered by injuries to McNabb, Correll Buckhalter, Todd Pinkston, Lito Sheppard, Dirk Johnson, and David Akers.
On November 4, 2005, on ESPN, Terrell Owens criticized the Eagles front office for not recognizing his 100th touchdown catch. He also agreed with Michael Irvin 's statement that the Eagles would be undefeated had Brett Favre been the quarterback. Despite Owens 's apology the next day to the front office (but not to McNabb), he was suspended indefinitely. There were also reports that he got into a fist fight with Hugh Douglas and challenged other players in the locker room which contributed to his suspension. At Andy Reid 's press conference after the Washington loss, he announced T.O. would no longer be playing this year for the Eagles due to conduct detrimental to the team.
Things only got worse for the Eagles. They lost a Sunday night match - up to their division rival, the Washington Redskins 17 - 10. Then, when they went home and played a rematch with their much - hated rival, the Cowboys, on Monday Night Football, a late game interception by Roy Williams sealed their doom. Not only did they lose 21 - 20, but the already suffering Donovan McNabb got shoved to the ground, worsening his sports hernia and ending his season.
On November 20, former Detroit quarterback Mike McMahon was named the Eagles starter. However, his wild gun passing did n't do much to phase the Giants, as the Eagles went down again 27 - 17. Then, on November 21 Donovan McNabb announced that he would undergo surgery for his sports hernia. The Eagles would finish the season without at least eight of their projected starters heading into the season, including Pinkston, Hank Fraley, Dirk Johnson, and Pro Bowlers McNabb, Brian Westbrook, Lito Sheppard, Tra Thomas, and the exiled Owens.
Their next - to - last win of the season came a week later against the injury - ravaged Green Bay Packers 19 - 14. At a home game on December 5, on Monday Night Football, the Eagles retired # 92, which had belonged to the late Reggie White. Unfortunately, they got shut out by the NFC West and eventful NFC champion Seattle Seahawks 42 - 0. Afterwards, they lost to the Giants at home 26 - 2. Their last win of the season came on the road against the St. Louis Rams 17 - 16. Then they lost their last two games of the season to the Arizona Cardinals on the road 27 - 21 and then at home to the wild card Washington Redskins 31 - 20. They ended their 2005 season at 6 - 10, which marked the first time since 1999 that the Eagles failed to make the playoffs.
After expectations of a return to the Super Bowl, it appeared the Eagles would have to retool in the 2006 off - season to make another run for the Vince Lombardi Trophy.
In 2006, the Eagles started off hot, beating the Houston Texans in Houston 24 - 10. And they kept the streak going, jumping to a 24 - 7 lead against the Giants before losing 30 - 24 in overtime. They won their next two games easily, beating the 49ers in San Francisco and then returning home to limit Brett Favre 's Packers to three field goals. The Birds ' 3 - 1 record set the stage for Terrell Owens ' return to Philadelphia.
Owens return to Philadelphia was being promoted by Fox as the "game of the year ''. The game had more at stake, because the winner would take the lead in the NFC East. Owens received boos and jokes about his accidental overdose from a sell - out crowd. Lito Sheppard 's game - winning interception for a touchdown sealed the game for the Eagles, 38 - 24.
McNabb 's season was already considered one of the finest in Eagles history and his career. After the win against Owens ' Cowboys, they faced the upstart New Orleans Saints, with critics claiming the winner would be the NFC favorite. The Eagles ended up losing 27 - 24 on a last second field goal. The next week at Tampa, the Eagles would once again lose on a last second field goal. This time the field goal was an improbable 62 yarder by Matt Bryant - the second longest in NFL History.
One week before their bye, the Eagles faced the Jacksonville Jaguars and failed to score a touchdown in a 13 - 6 loss. After their bye, they routed the Redskins, which not only kept Reid / McNabb perfect after the bye week, it put them back on track after three consecutive losses. The Birds were on a roll going into their match with Vince Young 's Titans, but were dominated throughout the game, losing 31 - 13. The bigger loss however was Donovan McNabb - injured for the second straight year.
With Donovan McNabb going down to injury, the Eagles called on Jeff Garcia to lead the team. The move was a highly unpopular one, because fans believed A.J. Feeley was their best bet. After falling to Peyton Manning 's Indianapolis Colts, the Eagles ' record stood at 5 - 6, and they did not appear to be in playoff contention.
However, Garcia led the team to an improbable five - game winning streak, which included a three - game NFC East road trip and a Christmas showdown in Dallas. The Eagles finished the season 10 - 6, but lost the tie - breaker to the Saints, meaning they would be the third seed.
The Eagles won their home wild card game against the Giants 23 - 20, on a David Akers ' field goal. The game officially sent Tiki Barber into retirement. Their divisional playoff game was a Week 6 rematch against the Saints. The Eagles lost by the same score as in the regular season: 27 - 24. Andy Reid made the controversial decision to punt with less than two minutes remaining.
2007 marked the Eagles ' 75th season. McNabb delivered average performances, and missed three games due to an injury. The team only achieved an 8 - 8 record and missed the playoffs.
The beginning of 2008 presented a good opportunity for the Eagles. Donovan McNabb got a good start to the season, Brian Westbrook ran for many touchdowns, and rookie receiver DeSean Jackson became an important figure in the Eagles ' passing game. However, the Eagles went against the 1 - 8 Bengals in Week 10 and McNabb played horribly, throwing consistent interceptions and leading the Eagles to a ten - point deficit at the half. Despite being able to score those ten points, the game went into overtime. A Bengals missed field goal led to Eagles ball, but McNabb 's ' Hail Mary ' was deflected with seconds left in overtime, and the game ended in a 13 - 13 tie, the first since 2002. McNabb then sparked controversy by admitting that he was unaware that an NFL game could end in a tie.
Against Baltimore, things were even worse. At halftime, due to bad performance, McNabb was benched. However, the Eagles needed him, and it would show. His backup, Kevin Kolb, managed to get the Eagles to the Baltimore two - yard line; he then threw an interception in the end zone that was returned by Ed Reed for a record 107 - yard touchdown.
By this time, it was obvious that the Eagles needed a good quarterback for the next week 's match - up against the Arizona Cardinals, who for the first time in several decades seemed poised to win their division. The game was scheduled for Thanksgiving night, and the decision was eventually made to start Donovan McNabb, but if he played like he did in the last couple of weeks, he would probably be benched for the season. But McNabb surprised everyone and lead the Eagles to what was perhaps one of the greatest games in franchise history, a 48 - 21 blowout in which McNabb threw for four touchdowns. The Eagles went on a three - game win streak following up the Cardinals victory with wins over the Giants and Browns. The Eagles then lost to a mediocre at best Redskins team, 10 - 3 and putting their post season prospects in serious doubt.
However, the Eagles were able to run over the Dallas Cowboys 44 - 6 on December 28, 2008 and advanced to the playoffs. The Eagles then defeated the Minnesota Vikings 26 - 14 in the first round of the playoffs on January 4, 2009. They defeated their division rival and the defending Super Bowl champions the New York Giants 23 - 11 in the NFC Divisional Round to advance to their fifth NFC Championship game in nine years. For the third time in a decade, an all - Pennsylvania Super Bowl seemed possible, as the Pittsburgh Steelers won the AFC Championship against the Baltimore Ravens. However, the Eagles lost 32 - 25 to the Arizona Cardinals.
In August, the team stirred up controversy by signing ex-Falcons quarterback Michael Vick, who had recently been released from prison for federal dogfighting charges. On the regular season opener against Carolina, McNabb sustained a broken rib and sat out the next two games, with Kevin Kolb taking his place as starter. Afterwards, Philadelphia endured a bad loss to New Orleans, but then beat Kansas City the following week. McNabb returned, and Vick also began playing (as he had been barred from the first two games). He got off to a slow start and was used sparingly for much of the season. After a 13 - 9 loss in Oakland, the Eagles defeated the Redskins 27 - 17 on Monday Night Football. During this game, running back Brian Westbrook suffered a severe concussion and was knocked unconscious. He returned to play in the Week 10 game against San Diego, but was felled by a second concussion. Afterwards, Philadelphia went on a five - game winning streak and clinching a playoff berth after defeating the Broncos in Week 16, which marked Brian Westbrook 's return to action after an absence of five weeks. However, the season ended with a whimper, as they were shut out by a resurgent Cowboys squad the following week. This put Dallas at the top of the NFC East and giving the Eagles a wild card spot. The two teams then had to play again the following week, but Philadelphia went down to defeat a second time, the score being 34 - 14.
On January 11, 2010, General Manager Tom Heckert was hired by the Cleveland Browns in the same role. He was replaced by Howie Roseman, who was promoted from Vice President of Player Personnel. On February 23, 2010 the Eagles released starting running back Brian Westbrook, Eagles ' all - time leader in yards from scrimmage with 9,785 yards.
A bigger surprise came on Easter Sunday, when the team traded quarterback Donovan McNabb to their division rival Washington Redskins for a second - round (37th overall) pick in the 2010 NFL Draft, and a third - or fourth - round pick in the 2011 NFL Draft. Kevin Kolb was named team 's starting quarterback.
The Kolb era did not begin on a positive note as the Eagles donned their throwback kelly green jerseys and hosted the Green Bay Packers in their opening game as both teams performed poorly in the first half, although that was partially because of weather conditions and damaged turf in Lincoln Financial Field. Kolb was thrown to the ground by Packers linebacker Clay Matthews and was forced to sit out the game after it was determined that he suffered a concussion. Five other Packers and Eagles players were also injured in the game. Michael Vick replaced Kolb, but the Packers ended up winning the game, 27 - 20, the Packers ' first win in Philadelphia since 1962 and their first - ever win on Lincoln Financial Field.
With Vick taking over as starter, the Eagles traveled and defeated the Detroit Lions 35 - 32 in week 2 with Vick 's impressive performance in the team 's offense. Although Kolb was presumed to be the starter after he recovered from injury, Andy Reid named Vick as the starting quarterback instead. The team then traveled to Jacksonville. Vick scored four touchdowns (three passing and one rushing) and no interceptions in a 28 - 3 rout of the Jaguars.
Week 4 saw the return of McNabb to Philadelphia. He was generally given a warm reception, and the Redskins got a touchdown early in the first quarter. After that, both offenses sputtered and the Eagles had to settle for two field goals. But things rapidly fell apart when Vick was injured late in the first quarter with chest and rib injuries he suffered when two Redskins defensive backs crushed him from both sides while running near to the endzone. Kolb was once again brought out as starter, but delivered an uninspired performance. He did manage a touchdown pass in the fourth quarter, but it was too little too late. A two - point conversion attempt after the touchdown failed, and Washington won 16 - 12. Afterward, Vick was diagnosed with cracked cartilage and forced to sit out at least one game.
With Kolb starting, the Eagles headed to San Francisco for a Sunday Night Football match against the 0 - 4 49ers. Kolb passed for 253 yards and one touchdown to lead his team to a 27 - 24 victory. Philadelphia won its first home game in week 6 by overpowering the Falcons 31 - 17. Kolb continued to improve, passing for 326 yards, three touchdown passes, and one interception. However, he was not able to sustain this momentum in the week 8 game against Tennessee, throwing two interceptions and only one touchdown. The Eagles lost 37 - 19 to enter their bye week at 3 - 3 and once again Vick was brought out as starter prior to hosting Indianapolis in week 10. This game proved an intense, highly physical contest as Vick scored two touchdowns (one passing and one rushing) and Philadelphia overcame stubborn resistance by the Colts to win 27 - 24. Afterwards, the Eagles headed to Washington, where, for the second year in a row, they faced the Redskins on Monday Night Football. Philadelphia quickly marched out to two touchdowns in the first quarter, putting them up at 14 - 0 within five minutes. By the second quarter, they had scored another two, leading by 28 points. Four more touchdowns followed in a 59 - 28 blowout of Washington. All in all, there were eight (four passing, three rushing, and one interception return), six of which were from Michael Vick, who had 333 passing and 80 rushing yards for one of the finest performances of his career.
For the third season in a row, the Eagles traveled to Chicago, a team that Michael Vick had a career 0 - 4 record against. This time would be no different as the Bears ' defense slowed him down to win 31 - 26. Vick also threw his first interception of the season. The Eagles rebounded with a Thursday game against Houston. Despite winning 34 - 24, Philadelphia 's defense turned in a relatively mediocre performance, which may have had to do with the fact that the team had played four games in a 17 - day stretch.
On Sunday Night in Week 15, the Eagles headed to Dallas for a game with their arch - rivals. However, the Cowboys were a considerably weaker team than when they defeated Philadelphia three times in 2009. Their QB Tony Romo was out of commission from an injury, they had had their head coach Wade Phillips fired halfway through the season, and they were barely clinging to life at 4 - 9. Michael Vick delivered an average performance, although one of the game 's highlights was a 90 - yard TD pass to DeSean Jackson. Although Andy Reid had gained a reputation as a pass - happy coach, the Eagles ' scoring was mainly based on run plays and long field goals. Despite a close game, they prevailed 30 - 27 and eliminated Dallas from playoff contention.
In Week 15, the Eagles beat New York in a shocking upset by overcoming a 21 - point deficit in the second half. In the closing seconds of the game, DeSean Jackson returned a punt 65 yards for a touchdown to win 38 - 31. This became known as the Miracle at the New Meadowlands. After locking up their first division title in four years, the Eagles played a surprisingly bad game against Minnesota and lost. The team lost a meaningless season ender against Dallas before preparing to host Green Bay again in the wild card round of the playoffs. Despite playing the Packers hard, Philadelphia 's first home playoff game since 2006 ended in defeat 21 - 16 as Vick threw a hail mary interception in the closing minute of the 4th quarter. Pro bowler David Akers, who had one of the best seasons ever by a kicker, also contributed to the loss having a rare poor game going 1 for 3, missing from 34 & 41 yards.
The off - season was marred by a lockout that began in March after the NFL 's collective bargaining agreement expired, making practices, trades, and free agency impossible. During the draft, the Eagles did comparatively little. After the lockout ended in July, the team embarked on a rash of high - profile FA signings, including Raiders CB Nnamdi Asomugha, Dolphins RB Ronnie Brown, Giants WR Steve Smith, Packers TE Donald Lee, Titans DE Jason Babin, Packers DT Cullen Jenkins, and Cardinals CB Dominique Rodgers - Cromartie. Meanwhile, Kevin Kolb, displeased at losing the starting QB job to Michael Vick in 2010, was traded to Arizona for Cromartie. Replacing him as 2nd - stringer was ex-Titans QB Vince Young. Vince Young made a lot of hype by calling Philadelphia the "Dream Team ''.
Although the Eagles won their 2011 opener in St. Louis, the Dream Team failed to deliver as Michael Vick fell victim to injuries and turnovers. The Eagles lost four straight games. With Vince Young taking over, Philadelphia beat the Washington Redskins at last in Week 6. In Week 8, Vick returned to help crush the Cowboys at home 34 - 7. After further losses to Chicago and Arizona, the Eagles beat the New York Giants and then fell to New England and Seattle before winning their final four matches and finishing 8 - 8.
The Eagles entered 2012 with strong hopes after winning their last 4 games of last season. When the team started 3 - 1, including a 24 - 23 victory over the eventual Super Bowl champion Baltimore Ravens, the fans were thinking playoffs, even Super Bowl. However, these hopes came to a crashing halt as the team lost their next 8 and 11 of their next 12 to finish 4 - 12, their worst record since 1998. The Eagles proceeded to fire Andy Reid, the longest - tenured and winningest coach in team history. Reid would later join the Kansas City Chiefs as head coach.
After the firing of Andy Reid, Chip Kelly was named head coach of the Philadelphia Eagles on January 16, 2013 after a successful four - year reign manning the sidelines at the University of Oregon. Kelly was known for his up tempo approach to football which helped him make the University of Oregon a premier college organization. Many questioned if his methods would work in the NFL, and was met with skepticism by the fans of Philadelphia.
In his first season in professional football, Kelly produced a 10 - 6 record and an NFC East championship, becoming just the second head coach in league history to win a division title in his first season in the NFL. Along the way, the Eagles set a plethora of team records, including points (442), total net yards (6,676), touchdowns (53), passing yards (4,406) and fewest turnovers (19). The Eagles also set an NFL record with 99 plays of 20 + yards and became the first team since the 1991 Buffalo Bills to lead the league in rushing while ranking last in time of possession. Individually, RB LeSean McCoy set the franchise record for rushing yards and scrimmage yards in a season in 2013, while QB Nick Foles had the 3rd best QB rating in NFL history in 2013. In 2014, QB Mark Sanchez set a team record with a 64.1 completion percentage.
After Chip Kelly, Doug Pederson was announced head coach on January 18 2016, his first NFL head coaching job. In his first season, he went 7 - 9 - 0, last in NFC East.
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i'd like to thank you on behalf of the group | Get Back - wikipedia
"Get Back '' is a song recorded by the Beatles and written by Paul McCartney (though credited to Lennon - McCartney), originally released as a single on 11 April 1969 and credited to "The Beatles with Billy Preston. '' A different mix of the song later became the closing track of Let It Be (1970), which was the Beatles ' last album released just after the group split. The single version was later issued on the compilation albums 1967 -- 1970, 20 Greatest Hits, Past Masters, and 1.
The single reached number one in the United Kingdom, the United States, Ireland, Canada, New Zealand, the Netherlands, Australia, France, West Germany, Mexico, Norway, Switzerland, Austria, and Belgium. It was the Beatles ' only single that credited another artist at their request. "Get Back '' was the Beatles ' first single release in true stereo in the US. In the UK, the Beatles ' singles remained monaural until the following release, "The Ballad of John and Yoko ''.
"Get Back '' is unusual in the Beatles ' canon in that almost every moment of the song 's evolution has been extensively documented, from its beginning as an offhand riff to its final mixing in several versions. Much of this documentation is in the form of illegal (but widely available) bootleg recordings, and is recounted in the book Get Back: The Unauthorized Chronicle of the Beatles ' Let It Be Disaster by Doug Sulpy and Ray Schweighardt.
The song 's melody grew out of some unstructured jamming on 7 January 1969 during rehearsal sessions on the sound stage at Twickenham Studios. Over the next few minutes, McCartney introduced some of the lyrics, reworking "Get back to the place you should be '' from fellow Beatle George Harrison 's "Sour Milk Sea '' into "Get back to where you once belonged ''. McCartney had played bass on Jackie Lomax 's recording of "Sour Milk Sea '' a few months earlier. On 9 January McCartney brought a more developed version of "Get Back '' to the group, with the "Sweet Loretta '' verse close to its finished version. For the press release to promote the "Get Back '' single, McCartney wrote, "We were sitting in the studio and we made it up out of thin air... we started to write words there and then... when we finished it, we recorded it at Apple Studios and made it into a song to roller - coast by. ''
At the beginning of the Let It Be version of the song, Lennon can be heard jokingly saying "Sweet Loretta Fart (often misheard as "fat '', due to Lennon 's pronunciation), she thought she was a cleaner, but she was a frying pan. '' The album version of the song also ends with Lennon famously quipping "I 'd like to say thank you on behalf of the group and ourselves, and I hope we passed the audition ''. (Originally he said that at the end of the rooftop concert, but Phil Spector edited it into the "Get Back '' song on the Let It Be album.)
In an interview in Playboy magazine in 1980, Lennon described "Get Back '' as "... a better version of ' Lady Madonna '. You know, a potboiler rewrite. '' Lennon also said that "there 's some underlying thing about Yoko in there '', saying that McCartney looked at Yoko Ono in the studio every time he sang "Get back to where you once belonged. ''
Around the time he was developing the lyrics to "Get Back '', McCartney satirised the "Rivers of Blood speech '' by former British Cabinet minister Enoch Powell in a brief jam that has become known as the "Commonwealth Song ''. The lyrics included a line "You 'd better get back to your Commonwealth homes ''. The group improvised various temporary lyrics for "Get Back '' leading to what has become known in Beatles ' folklore as the "No Pakistanis '' version. This version is more racially charged, and addresses attitudes toward immigrants in the United States and the United Kingdom: "... do n't need no Puerto Ricans living in the USA ''; and "do n't dig no Pakistanis taking all the people 's jobs ''.
On 23 January, the group (now in Apple Studios) tried to record the song properly; bootleg recordings preserve a conversation between McCartney and Harrison between takes discussing the song, and McCartney explaining the original "protest song '' concept. The recording captures the group deciding to drop the third verse largely because McCartney does not feel the verse is of high enough quality, although he likes the scanning of the word "Pakistani ''. Here the song solidifies in its two - verse, three - solo format.
Billy Preston joined the Beatles on keyboards from 22 January, having been recruited by Harrison partly with a view to deter bickering among the Beatles. The group with Preston playing Fender Rhodes electric piano recorded about ten takes on 23 January. On 27 January they made a concerted effort to perfect "Get Back '', recording about 14 takes. By this time the song had the addition of a false ending and reprise coda. After numerous takes the band jammed some old numbers and then returned to "Get Back '' one last time in an attempt to record the master take. This performance (Take 11) was considered to be the best yet -- it was musically tight and punchy without mistakes, though the song finishes without the restart. On the session tape, George Harrison comments "we missed that end ''; this is the version heard on the Let It Be... Naked album. On 28 January the group attempted to recapture the previous day 's performance and recorded several new takes each including the coda. Whilst these takes were good, they did not quite achieve the quality of the best take from the previous day. The line - up for the released versions of "Get Back '' was Paul McCartney, lead vocal and bass; John Lennon, lead guitar and backing vocal; George Harrison, rhythm guitar; Ringo Starr, drums; and Billy Preston, electric piano. Harrison, the usual lead guitarist, had temporarily quit the group on 10 January, so Lennon worked out the lead guitar.
The Beatles had EMI produce a mono remix of the track on 4 April, completed by Jeff Jarrett. The Beatles were unhappy with the mix and on 7 April McCartney and Glyn Johns worked at Olympic Studios to produce new remixes for the single release. They made an edited version using the best take of the main part of the song (take eleven) from 27 January and the ' best coda ' ending from 28 January. The edit is so precise that it appears to be a continuous take, achieving the ending the Beatles had desired all along. This was a divergence from the concept of straight live performance without studio trickery, but a relatively minor one, and avoids the somewhat abrupt ending of the version that is used on the Let It Be... Naked album.
The Beatles performed "Get Back '' (along with other songs from the album) as part of the Beatles ' rooftop performance, which took place on the roof of Apple Studios in Savile Row, London on 30 January 1969, an edited version of which was included in the Let It Be film. "Get Back '' was performed in full three times. During the third, which marked the end of the rooftop performance, the Beatles were interrupted by the police who had received complaints from office workers nearby. After the police spoke to Mal Evans, he turned off Lennon and Harrison 's amplifiers only for Harrison to switch them back on, insisting that they finish the song. It was during this period that McCartney ad - libbed, "You 've been playing on the roofs again, and that 's no good, and you know your Mummy does n't like that... she gets angry... she 's gon na have you arrested! Get back! '' The third rooftop performance of "Get Back '' is available on Anthology 3: the last song of the Beatles ' final live performance.
At the end of the last rooftop performance of "Get Back '', the audience applauds and McCartney says "Thanks, Mo '' in reply to Maureen Starkey 's cheering. Lennon adds: "I 'd like to say thank you on behalf of the group and ourselves and I hope we 've passed the audition ''. Spector used some of the talk preceding the master take of 27 January and edited on these comments to make the album version sound different from the single.
The stereo single version, and that of the b - side, "Do n't Let Me Down '', were the first Beatles ' recordings to feature Starr 's drum kit in true stereo, mixed across the left and right channels. This utilised the then - fairly new 8 - track recording technology and was a result of the growing popularity of stereo over mono. The only other Beatles ' track to employ this recording method was "The End '' on Abbey Road.
On 11 April 1969, Apple Records released "Get Back '' as a single in the UK, paired with "Do n't Let Me Down '' on the B - Side. The single began its 17 - week stay in the charts on 26 April at No. 1, a position it held for six weeks. It was the first Beatles single to enter the official UK singles chart at the top. In the US, "Get Back '' began its first of 12 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 chart the week ending 10 May. Two weeks after the song 's chart debut it hit No. 1, where it stayed for five weeks. "Get Back '' became the band 's 17th No. 1 song in Billboard, matching Elvis Presley 's previous record of 17 number ones.
In both the UK and US, the single was released by Apple, although EMI retained the rights to the song as part of their contract. It was the only Beatles ' single to include an accompanying artist 's name, crediting "Get Back / Do n't Let Me Down '' to "The Beatles with Billy Preston ''. Neither Apple nor Capitol Records created a picture sleeve for the single -- it was simply packaged in a sleeve stating "The Beatles on Apple ''. Apple launched a print ad campaign for the song concurrent with its release showing a photo of the band with the slogan The Beatles as Nature Intended, indicating that the sound of "Get Back '' harked to the group 's earlier days.
The single version of the song contains a chamber reverb effect throughout and a coda after a false ending, with the lyrics "Get back Loretta / Your mommy 's waiting for you / Wearing her high - heel shoes / And her low - neck sweater / Get back home, Loretta. '' This does not appear on the album version; the single version 's first LP appearance would come three years later on the 1967 -- 1970 compilation. This version also appeared in the albums 20 Greatest Hits, Past Masters and 1. It was also included in the original line - up of the proposed Get Back album that was scheduled to be released during the fall of 1969.
In the UK and Europe "Get Back / Do n't Let Me Down '' was the Beatles ' last single to be released in mono, but in the US the single was released in stereo. It was the Beatles ' first single to be released in true stereo instead of mono as part of the "stereo only '' movement gaining force in 1969. In both versions the lead guitar played by Lennon is in the left channel and the rhythm guitar played by Harrison is in the right channel. The single was also released in the experimental PocketDisc format by Americom in conjunction with Apple and Capitol in the late 1960s.
When Phil Spector came to remix "Get Back '' he wanted to make it seem different from the version released as the single, though both versions were the same take. The previous unreleased Get Back albums included elements of studio chatter to add to the live feel of the recordings. In this spirit, Spector included part of the studio chatter recorded immediately before a take recorded on 27 January, slightly crossfaded it onto the beginning of the same master take (recorded on January 28), and added McCartney and Lennon 's remarks after the close of the rooftop performance. This created the impression that the single and album versions are different takes. The single 's reverb effect was also omitted from this remix.
In 2003, "Get Back '' was re-released on the Let It Be... Naked album, remixed by independent producers with the sanction of the surviving ex-Beatles Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr, with John Lennon 's and George Harrison 's widows. The "naked '' version of "Get Back '' is ostensibly a cleaned up version of the single version albeit much shorter as there is a fade immediately before the final "whoo '' and coda. The single 's reverb effect was also omitted from this remix. Apple also prepared a specially - created music video of the Let It Be... Naked release of the song to promote that album in 2003. This video is edited together using stock footage of the band, along with Billy Preston, George Martin and others.
In 2006 a newly mixed version of "Get Back '' produced by George Martin and his son Giles was included on the album Love. This version incorporates elements of "A Hard Day 's Night '' (the intro chord), "A Day in the Life '' (the improvised orchestral crescendo), "The End '' (Ringo Starr 's drum solo, Paul McCartney 's second guitar solo, and John Lennon 's last guitar solo), and "Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band (Reprise) '' (Take 1 's drum count - off intro). However, there are several edits in this piece, including an extended intro, and the second verse is removed completely.
McCartney performed "Get Back '' on the Late Show with David Letterman on 15 July 2009. Letterman 's show was taped in the Ed Sullivan Theater, the same theatre that hosted the Beatles ' performances on The Ed Sullivan Show in 1964 and 1965. McCartney 's performance was not on the stage, however. Instead, he performed atop the theatre 's marquee overlooking Broadway. In the interview preceding the performance, Letterman asked McCartney if he had ever played on a marquee before. "I 've done a roof, '' McCartney replied, referring to the Beatles ' 1969 performance atop the Apple Corps building in London.
McCartney also performed the song as a kind of encore on Saturday Night Live on 11 December 2010. The performance was unusual for the show because McCartney had played the two standard songs that musical guests play, then had played a third song ("A Day in the Life ''). At the normal conclusion of the show, when host Paul Rudd thanked the cast, McCartney took the stage again for "Get Back '', the broadcast of which was partially cut off due to time constraints.
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when is the walking dead final season episode 2 coming | The Walking Dead: the Final Season - wikipedia
The Walking Dead: The Final Season (also known as The Walking Dead: Season Four) is an episodic adventure game developed by Telltale Games, and the fourth main game in their The Walking Dead video game series, based on Robert Kirkman 's comic book series of the same name.
The game represents the first major release by Telltale after a major restructuring; it was aimed to return to themes and elements from the first season, The game was expected to be the concluding story involving Clementine, taking place a few years after the events of The Walking Dead: A New Frontier. The game was anticipated to be released over four episodes, with the first episode released on August 14, 2018 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Nintendo Switch. However, due to the sudden near - closure of Telltale Games on September 21, 2018, the last two episodes will be overseen by Skybound Entertainment, Kirkman 's production company.
As with other games in The Walking Dead series, The Final Season is a graphic adventure game, where the player controls the protagonist Clementine as she struggles to survive in the wake of a zombie apocalypse. The player can move Clementine around the environment to examine items, initiate conversation trees with non-player characters, and progress in the game. Decisions made by the player can affect future episodes, and The Final Season can use previous saved games from The Walking Dead to bring a player 's choices from these games into The Final Season. Players that have not played previous seasons, or who may want to adjust choices made affecting Clementine 's character, will be able to use a web - based Story Builder tool to create a cloud - based save game that can be used to feed into the game. This also addresses issues with various save game limitations due to platform transitions over the course of the series (for example, previous saves from the Xbox 360 or PlayStation 3 from the first two seasons are not compatible with The Final Season).
In portions of the game, the player will be required to react to quick time events in action - driven scenes, such as escaping from a "walker '' (the name for zombies in the series). Failure to complete the events typically results in the death of Clementine or another key character, requiring the player to retry the event. The Final Season introduces more open - ended action sequences that give the player more control during the sequence.
Some years after the events of A New Frontier, Clementine has continued to raise AJ, recalling Lee 's own lessons he taught her. They drive along and stop at a train station to scavenge for food. Inside, they find a cellar with a well - stocked supply of food, but the door is rigged with a grenade, and the noise from the blast draws a walker horde. Whilst driving to escape, Clementine crashes the car, and as she blacks out, she sees someone grabbing AJ. Clementine awakens within the ruins of a schoolhouse. She meets Marlon, the leader of a group of teenagers from the school, and finds they have also been taking care of AJ while she recovered. Clementine and AJ meet the other kids, learning that they have been alone for some time after being abandoned by the school staff but have found ways to survive by hunting and fishing from nearby woods and using traps to ward off walkers outside the school grounds. As she gets to know the others and helps AJ learn appropriate social skills, Clementine learns about the loss of a set of twin sisters about a year prior that still troubles the children, particularly Tenn, the younger brother of the siblings.
Marlon warns Clementine they are running low on food, the safe area around the school becoming smaller over time, and has her help the next day with hunting and fishing. Neither effort secures enough food, and Clementine suggests returning to the train station to see what food supplies survived the grenade blast, despite the station being outside of the designated safe zone. Clementine and AJ enter the station to secure the food but are confronted by a man named Abel, who demands a ration of the food at gunpoint. After either complying with or subduing Abel, Clementine and the rest of the group make it back to the school, reporting on their encounter. That evening, through the pipe system in the school, Clementine hears two voices arguing, and finds Marlon and Brody, another resident, having a heated discussion in the cellar. Brody reveals to Clementine that Abel is part of a raider group that Marlon had traded the twins to in exchange for safety. Furious at the reveal, Marlon hits her with a flashlight giving her a deep head gash. Before she dies of brain trauma, Brody reveals to Clementine that Marlon also intends to trade her and AJ should the raiders return. In a state of panic, Marlon leaves Brody to turn and locks Clementine in the cellar. Clementine dispatches the re-animated Brody and escapes the cellar to find Marlon being held at gunpoint by AJ, drawing the attention of the rest of the group. Marlon takes the gun from AJ and tries to frame Clementine for Brody 's death in an attempt to get the group to turn on her. Clementine is able to convince the other children of Marlon 's wrongdoings, and eventually, Marlon surrenders. As the others discuss what to do with Marlon, he is shot and killed by AJ.
Despite Clementine and AJ 's attempts to make amends, the other children vote to have the pair evicted from the school. Outside, they run into Abel and another member of the raiders, who Clementine is shocked to find is Lilly, a woman who Lee and Kenny had forced out of their group after leaving Macon, Georgia. Despite her attempts to negotiate with Clementine to convince the other kids to give themselves over to her group, she refuses and they start to hunt her and AJ down, during which AJ is shot in the stomach. The pair are saved by James, a former member of the Whisperers, who reveals to them the raiders are forcibly recruiting people to fight in their war against a rival community. James tends to AJ 's wounds and accompanies them back to the school the next morning, before departing on his own. Despite some of the children 's resentment towards Clementine and AJ, they allow them back in so that AJ can have his wounds treated. Clementine warns them about Lilly and the raiders, and they make plans to prepare the school grounds for an attack.
Two weeks go by without the raiders ' incoming attack, putting everyone on edge. After playing a game of truth or dare to ease tensions, the children go to check on final preparations. The player can choose to have Clementine accompany Louis or Violet, and in either case, express romantic feelings for these characters. Soon after, the raiders arrive at the school, looking to capture more children. In the midst of the battle, Lilly inadvertently kills one of the kids, Mitch. Clementine gets into a fight with Abel that ends with them falling off a balcony, breaking Abel 's leg. After Clementine saves either Violet or Louis from being kidnapped, Lilly and the raiders escape, and the remaining children count their losses, which include Omar, Aasim, and whichever person Clementine did not save. They vow to get them back and as Abel is now their prisoner, they intend to interrogate him for the location of the raider camp.
The game is separated into four episodes, released every six weeks.
Announced during the July 2017 San Diego Comic Con, The Walking Dead: The Final Season, is scheduled to launch as a four - episode series on August 14, 2018 for Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One, with a Nintendo Switch version to launch later that year. Clementine will return as the lead character, voiced by Melissa Hutchinson, as Telltale found that fans of the series were not pleased with how little interactivity there was with Clementine in A New Frontier. Telltale wanted to have the final season call back to what fans had praised about the first season, and knew they needed to make Clementine the focus. With this direction, Telltale decided to make this the final season for The Walking Dead series so that they can create a satisfactory conclusion to Clementine 's story arc. For this purpose, Telltale brought back Gary Whitta, the writer for the first season and "400 Days '' content, to help close out Clementine 's story.
The story will follow from A New Frontier with Clementine having rescued AJ from the McCarroll Ranch, with a timeskip a few years ahead, where AJ is now a young boy. With diminishing resources amid the apocalypse, Clementine and AJ find the importance of staying with communities of vital importance, meeting other characters who have little memory of the time before the downfall of society. Clementine starts to teach AJ the essentials of survival as Lee had taught her during The Walking Dead: The First Season, as a way of paying Lee 's lessons forward. Telltale had initially considered writing a version of Clementine that had become more jaded, but found this was far too different from the established version of the character, and reworked her to be more sympathetic.
The final season will use the updated version of the Telltale Tool first introduced in Batman: The Telltale Series, along with improvements in the visual style to approach the style used in The Walking Dead comic. This included improved dynamic lightning, and a new rendering style Telltale called "Graphic Black '' to enforce the comic book rendering style. Some scenes will feature "unscripted '' zombies who may attack Clementine if the player is not careful, creating new freeform combat sequences, while other parts of the game will continue to use quick - time events as from previous games.
Due to course - corrections made at Telltale in 2017, The Walking Dead: The Final Season was primarily the only game the company released that year, cutting down from twenty episodes across multiple games in 2017 to only this season 's four in 2018. The game 's executive producer Brodie Andersen said that "We know we ran a little hot in previous years and were n't able to fully deliver the experiences we may have wanted to, so that was important to focus in on a polished quality experience players love. '' Because of the reduced product schedule, Telltale was able to establish firm release dates for all four episodes in the season, a first for any of Telltale 's episodic series. Andersen said that they were able to achieve this by starting from where they wanted The Final Season to end, and then building the narrative backwards from that, establishing four clear episodes for the series to work towards.
A free demo of the game, offering approximately the first twenty minutes of the first episode, meant to show off the new gameplay features added in this season, was released for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on July 31, 2018. Physical releases of The Final Season for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One are expected to be released on November 6, 2018; they will contain the first two episodes and a season pass code to download the final two episodes when they are normally released.
Despite the title The Final Season, Telltale originally did not rule out a possible future for The Walking Dead games; Creative Director Kent Mudle said that The Final Season title represented the end of Clementine 's journey from Telltale 's view, but could revisit the franchise through other characters.
On September 21, 2018, Telltale announced they were undergoing a "majority studio closure '', laying off nearly all staff and leaving only 25 to complete the studio 's remaining obligations. The state of The Final Season is unknown, though other planned studio projects were cancelled. The second episode was still released on September 25, 2018, but the fate of the remaining episodes is unknown. Telltale stated on September 24, 2018, that the studio has been approached by "multiple potential partners '' that want to help bring these two episodes to completion in some manner. Until they are able to figure out how the last two episodes will be played out, Telltale asked retailers and digital storefronts to pull sales of the game and the season pass.
During the 2018 New York Comic Con, Robert Kirkman announced that his production company, Skybound Entertainment, will help to bring the last two episodes to release. According to Skybound, they have acquired the rights of the game from Telltale, and will be working with former Telltale Games employees who worked on the series to finish off the episodes. Ian Howe, the CEO of Skybound Games, noted that there were logistical difficulties in this. Some of the Telltale team had already moved on to other jobs prior to the Skybound deal, and for those still looking for work, they are not expecting them to relocate from San Francisco (where Telltale was located) to Los Angeles (where Skybound is located), but do need to find them space that makes the completion of development possible. They further needed to account for the time that those seeking jobs would need. Howe stated that he fully expected that the third episode would be released before the end of 2018.
The Walking Dead: The Final Season received generally positive reviews, earning praise for its characterization, visuals, and upgraded gameplay mechanics, and is considered by many critics and fans to be a return to form for the series.
Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the Microsoft Windows version 76 / 100 based on 26 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 75 / 100 based on 14 reviews, the Xbox One version 70 / 100 based on 9 reviews, and the Nintendo Switch version 76 / 100 based on 5 reviews.
The second episode received mixed reviews. On Metacritic, PC version of the episode has a rating of 69 / 100, and PS4 version has a rating of 70 / 100.
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who files one of the 1040 series of tax forms | Form 1040 - wikipedia
Form 1040 (officially, the "U.S. Individual Income Tax Return '') is one of three IRS tax forms (see variants section for explanations of each) used for personal (individual) federal income tax returns filed with the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) by United States residents for tax purposes.
Income tax returns for individual calendar year taxpayers are due by Tax Day, which is usually April 15 of the next year, except when April 15 falls on a Saturday, Sunday, or a legal holiday. In those circumstances, the returns are due on the next business day. An automatic extension until October 15 to file Form 1040 can be obtained by filing Form 4868.
Form 1040 consists of two full pages (79 lines in total) not counting attachments. The first page collects information about the taxpayer (s), dependents, income items, and adjustments to income. In particular, the taxpayer specifies his / her filing status and personal exemptions on this page. The second page calculates the allowable deductions and credits, tax due given the income figure, and applies funds already withheld from wages or estimated payments made towards the tax liability. At the top of the first page is the presidential election campaign fund checkoff, which allows individuals to designate that the federal government give $3 of the tax it receives to the Presidential election campaign fund. The instructions booklet for Form 1040 is 104 pages as of 2014.
Altogether, over 147 million returns were filed for Form 1040 and its variants in the year 2014, 80 % of which were filed electronically.
Form 1040 (or a variant thereof) is the main tax form filed by individuals who are deemed residents of the United States for tax purposes. The corresponding main form filed by businesses is Form 1120, also called the U.S. Corporation Income Tax Return.
An individual is considered a resident of the United States for tax purposes if he or she is a citizen of the United States or a resident alien of the United States for tax purposes. An individual is a resident alien of the United States if he or she passes either the Substantial Presence Test or the Green Card Test, although there are also some other cases; individuals who have taxable income in the United States but fail the criteria for being resident aliens must file as nonresident aliens for tax purposes. While residents of the United States for tax purposes file Forms 1040, 1040A, or 1040EZ, nonresident aliens must file Form 1040NR or 1040NR - EZ. There is also a "dual status alien '' for aliens whose status changed during the year.
Resident aliens of the United States for tax purposes must generally file if their income crosses a threshold where their taxable income is likely to be positive, but there are many other cases where it may be legally desirable to file. For instance, even if not required, individuals can file a return in order to receive a refund on withheld income or to receive certain credits (e.g. earned income tax credit).
The form may be filed either by paper or online.
Paper filing is the universally accepted filing method. Form 1040, along with its variants, schedules, and instructions, can be downloaded as PDFs from the Internal Revenue Service website. Finalized versions of the forms for the tax year (which in the US is the same as the calendar year) are released near the end of January of the following year.
Paper forms can be filled and saved electronically using a compatible PDF reader, and then printed. This way, it is easy to keep electronic copies of one 's filled forms despite filing by paper. Alternatively, they can be printed out and filled by hand. A combination of the approaches may also be used, with some content filled in electronically and additional content written in by hand. As a general rule, where possible, it makes sense to fill electronically, but in some cases filling by hand may be necessary (for instance, if additional notes of explanation need to be added, or the font used for electronic filling is too large to fit the information in the space provided.
The only parts of the form that can not be filled electronically are the signature lines.
The paper Form 1040, along with all relevant schedules and additional forms, must be sent in a single packet by mail or courier to an IRS address determined by the US state the taxpayer is filing from and whether or not a payment is enclosed; the addresses for the three forms (1040, 1040A, 1040EZ) are identical.
The IRS accepts returns that are stapled or paperclipped together. However, any check or payment voucher, as well as accompanying Form 1040 - V, must not be stapled or paperclipped with the rest of the return, since payments are processed separately.
The IRS allows US residents for tax purposes to file electronically in three ways:
Many paid tax preparers are required to file individual tax returns electronically, and most tax compliance software file electronically on the taxpayer 's behalf. Even tax preparers who are not so required, must file Form 8948 if they choose paper filing, providing an explanation for why they are not filing electronically.
If one is not eligible for IRS Free File, it might cost hundreds of dollars to file electronically, whereas paper filing has no costs beyond those of printing and mailing. Furthermore, the available existing electronic filing options may not offer sufficient flexibility with respect to arranging one 's tax return, adding attachments, or putting written notes of explanation that can help preempt IRS questions. In addition, electronic filing makes one 's tax return more likely to be audited because it is already in a format accessible to the IRS, whereas of paper returns, only 40 % are transcribed, so that the remaining are not even in the running for being audited. For these reasons, law resource NOLO as well as Forbes argue that the more complicated one 's tax return, the better it is to file on paper. Filing electronically also exposes the taxpayer 's data to the risk of accidental loss or identity theft.
Form 1040 must be signed and dated in order to be considered valid. If filing jointly with a spouse, both must sign and date. If a return is submitted electronically, individuals must use either a Self - Select PIN or Practitioner PIN.
If an individual decides not to file a return, the IRS may (after it has sent several reminders) file a substitute return.
For filing the regular tax return, in addition to the standard Form 1040, there are also four variants: the 1040A, 1040EZ, 1040NR, and 1040X.
Form 1040 and 1040A use the same line numbering up to and including line 9. Form 1040EZ uses completely different line numbering. Line numbering is important to keep in mind since many state income tax returns reference line numbers on the 1040. Forms 1040A and EZ may only be used if a filer wants to take only the standard deduction: if a filer wants to itemize deductions then the 1040 must be used.
Forms 1040NR is used by taxpayers who are considered "non-resident aliens '' for tax purposes. Form 1040X is used to amend any of the 1040 series forms.
The 1040A (nicknamed the "short form '') is a shorter version of the standard Form 1040. It is limited to taxpayers with taxable income below $100,000 who take the standard deduction instead of itemizing deductions. The 1040 can always be used instead of the 1040A, but the 1040A can only be used when the restrictions apply.
The 1040EZ (officially called "Income Tax Return for Single and Joint Filers with No Dependents '', but nicknamed the "easy form '') is a simplified, six - section version of the 1040. Its use is limited to taxpayers with no dependents to claim, with taxable income below $100,000 who take the standard deduction instead of itemizing deductions. The 1040 or 1040A can always be used in place of the 1040EZ, but not the other way around.
The 1040X (officially, the "Amended U.S. Individual Tax Return '') is used to make corrections on Form 1040, Form 1040A, and Form 1040EZ tax returns that have been previously filed.
The 1040 - V (officially, the "Payment Voucher for Form 1040 '') is used as an optional payment voucher to be sent in along with a payment for any balance due on the "Amount you owe '' line of the 1040.
The form is entirely optional. The IRS will accept payment without the 1040V form. However including the 1040 - V allows the IRS to process payments more efficiently.
Form 1040 - V and any accompanying payment should be included in the same packet as the tax return, but should not be stapled or paperclipped along with the tax return, since it is processed separately.
Form 1040 has 14 attachments, called "schedules '', which may need to be filed depending on the taxpayer. For 2009 and 2010 there was an additional form, Schedule M, due to the "Making Work Pay '' provision of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 ("the stimulus '').
In addition to the listed schedules, there are dozens of other forms that may be required when filing a personal income tax return. Typically these will provide additional details for deductions taken or income earned that are listed either on form 1040 or its subsequent schedules.
In 2014 there were two additions to Form 1040 due to the implementation of the Affordable Care Act -- the premium tax credit and the individual mandate.
In most situations, other Internal Revenue Service or Social Security Administration forms such as Form W - 2 must be attached to the Form 1040, in addition to the Form 1040 schedules. There are over 100 other specialized forms that may need to be completed along with Schedules and the Form 1040. However, Form 1099 need not be attached if no tax was withheld. In general, employer - sent forms are used to substantiate claims of withholding, so only forms that involve withholding need to be attached.
For most individuals, withholding is the main way through which taxes are paid. However, income that is not subject to withholding must be estimated using Form 1040 - ES. (It may be possible to avoid filing Form 1040 - ES by increasing one 's withholding and instead filing a Form W - 4.)
Estimated payments can be made using the Electronic Federal Tax Payment System.
There is a three - year limit to when individuals can claim a tax refund. However, payments that are due must be paid immediately.
In addition it is possible to apply one 's refunds to next year 's taxes and also to change one 's mind later.
There is a penalty for not filing a tax return by April 15 that depends on whether the individual got a filing extension and the amount of unpaid taxes. However, since the maximum penalty is 25 % of unpaid taxes, if an individual has paid all their taxes, there is no penalty for not filing.
In addition to making sure that one pays one 's taxes for the year by Tax Day, it is also important to make sure that one has paid partial taxes throughout the tax year in the form of estimated tax payments of employer tax withholding. If one has not done so, then a tax penalty may be assessed. The minimum amount of estimated taxes that need to be paid to avoid penalties depends on a variety of factors, including one 's income in the tax year in question as well as one 's income in the previous year (in general, if one pays 90 % of the current year 's tax liability or 100 % of the previous year 's tax liability during the tax year, one is not subject to estimated tax penalty even if this year 's taxes are higher, but there are some caveats to that rule). Employer withholding is also treated differently from estimated tax payment, in that for the latter, the time of the year when the payment was made matters, whereas for the former, all that matters is how much has been withheld as of the end of the year (though there are other restrictions on how one can adjust one 's withholding pattern that need to be enforced by the employer).
When filing Form 1040, the penalty for failing to pay estimated taxes must be included on the form (on line 79) and included in the total on line 78 (if a net payment is due). The taxpayer is not required to compute other interest and penalties (such as penalty for late filing or late payment of taxes). If the taxpayer does choose to compute these, the computed penalty can be listed on the bottom margin of page 2 of the form, but should not be included on the amount due line (line 78).
Each state has separate tax codes in addition to federal taxes. Form 1040 is only used for federal taxes, and state taxes should be filed separately based off the individual state 's form. Some states do not have any income tax. Although state taxes are filed separately, many state tax returns will reference items from Form 1040. For example, California 's 540 Resident Income Tax form makes a reference to Form 1040 's line 37 in line 13.
Certain tax filing software, such as TurboTax, will simultaneously file state tax returns using information filled in on the 1040 form.
The Federal government allows individuals to deduct their state income tax or their state sales tax from their federal tax through Schedule A of Form 1040, but not both. In addition to deducting either income tax or sales tax, an individual can further deduct any state real estate taxes or private property taxes.
One argument used by tax protesters against the legitimacy of the 1040 Form is the OMB Control Number or the Paperwork Reduction Act argument. Tax protesters contend that Form 1040 does not contain an "OMB Control Number '' which is issued by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget under the Paperwork Reduction Act.
The relevant clauses of the Paperwork Reduction Act state that:
The Courts have responded to the OMB Control Number arguments with the following arguments. 1) Form 1040, U.S. Individual Income Tax Return has contained the OMB Control number since 1981. 2) As ruled in a number of cases, the absence of an OMB Control number does not eliminate the legal obligation to file or pay taxes.
Cases involving the OMB Control Number Argument include:
The United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit argues that the provisions on the Paperwork Reduction Act are not relevant as the act applies only to information requests made after December 31, 1981 and tax returns starting from 1981 contained an OMB Control Number.
The United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit rejected the convicted taxpayer 's OMB control number argument by stating "Finally, we have no doubt that the IRS has complied with the Paperwork Reduction Act. Form 1040 bears a control number from OMB, as do the other forms the IRS commonly distributes to taxpayers. That this number has been constant since 1981 does not imply that OMB has shirked its duty. ''
In this Case, IRS agents who had calculated Mr. Lawrence 's tax liability had made an error and it was discovered that Mr. Lawrence owed less taxes than originally determined. Lawrence asked the trial court to order the government to reimburse him for his legal fees, to which the trial court ruled against him. He appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, contending that the government 's conduct against him had been "vexatious, frivolous, or in bad faith. '' and also raising the OMB Control Number Argument.
The United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit rejected the OMB argument stating that
The first Form 1040 was published for use for the tax years 1913, 1914, and 1915. For 1913, taxes applied only from March 1 to December 31. The original Form 1040, available on the IRS website as well as elsewhere, is three pages and 31 lines long, with the first page focused on computing one 's income tax, the second page focused on more detailed documentation of one 's income and the third page describing deductions and including a signature area. There is an additional page of instructions. The main rules were:
Just over 350,000 forms were filed in 1914 and all were audited.
For 1916, Form 1040 was converted to an annual form (i.e., updated each year with the new tax year printed on the form). Initially, the IRS mailed tax booklets (Form 1040, instructions, and most common attachments) to all households. As alternative delivery methods (CPA / Attorneys, Internet forms) increased in popularity, the IRS sent fewer packets via mail. In 2009 this practice was discontinued.
With the Current Tax Payment Act of 1943, income tax withholding was introduced. The Individual Income Tax Act of 1944 created standard deductions on the 1040.
In 1954 the tax return deadline was changed to April 15.
Form 1040A was introduced in 1941 to simplify the filing process.
Form 1040EZ was introduced by the Internal Revenue Service for the 1982 tax year. The title of the 1982 form was "Income Tax Return for Single filers with no dependents. ''
Electronic filing was introduced in a limited form in 1986, with the passage of the Tax Reform Act of 1986, and starting 1992, taxpayers who owed money were allowed to file electronically. The Electronic Federal Tax Payment System, jointly managed by the IRS and Financial Management Service, started in 1996 and allowed people to make estimated payments.
The complexity and compliance burden of the form and its associated instructions have increased considerably since 1913. The National Taxpayers Union has documented the steady increase in complexity from a 34 - line form in 1935 to a 79 - line form in 2014, while Quartz created an animated GIF showing the gradual changes to the structure and complexity of the form. The NTU table is below:
The number of pages in the federal tax law grew from 400 in 1913 to over 72,000 in 2011. The increase in complexity can be attributed to an increase in the number and range of activities being taxed, an increase in the number of exemptions, credits, and deductions available, an increase in the subtlety of the rules governing taxation and the edge cases explicitly spelled out based on historical experience, and an increase in the base of taxpayers making it necessary to offer longer, more explicit instructions for less sophisticated taxpayers. As an example, whereas the initial versions of Form 1040 came only with a rate schedule included in the tax form itself, the IRS now publishes a complete tax table for taxable income up to $100,000 so that people can directly look up their tax liability from their taxable income without having to do complicated arithmetic calculations based on the rate schedule. The IRS still publishes its rate schedule so that people can quickly compute their approximate tax liability, and lets people with incomes of over $100,000 compute their taxes directly using the Tax Computation Worksheet.
In addition to an increase in the complexity of the form, the tax rates have also increased, though the increase in tax rates has not been steady (with huge upswings and downswings) in contrast with the steady increase in tax complexity.
For tax return preparation, Americans spent roughly 20 % of the amount collected in taxes (estimating the compliance costs and efficiency costs is difficult because neither the government nor taxpayers maintain regular accounts of these costs). As of 2013, there were more tax preparers in the US (1.2 million) than there were law enforcement officers (765 thousand) and firefighters (310,400) combined.
In 2008, 57.8 % of tax returns were filed with assistance from paid tax preparers, compared to about 20 % of taxpayers employing a paid preparer in the 1950s.
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why are there only nine episodes of fuller house season 3 | Fuller House (TV series) - wikipedia
Fuller House is an American sitcom created by Jeff Franklin that airs as a Netflix original series, and is a sequel to the 1987 -- 1995 television series Full House. It centers around D.J. Tanner - Fuller, a veterinarian and widowed mother of three sons, whose sister Stephanie and best friend Kimmy -- along with her teenage daughter -- live together at the Tanner 's childhood home in San Francisco, California. Most of the original series ensemble cast have reprised their roles on Fuller House, either as regular cast members or in guest appearances, with the exception of Mary - Kate and Ashley Olsen, who alternated the role of Michelle Tanner in Full House. The show is produced by Jeff Franklin Productions and Miller - Boyett Productions, in association with Warner Horizon Television.
Netflix ordered an initial 13 episodes which were released on February 26, 2016 worldwide. The third season is split into two parts, with the first half of nine episode being released on September 22, 2017, and the second half on December 22, 2017. While the first season reception was generally negative, the second and third seasons received mostly positive reviews.
Like the original series, the show is set in the same house in San Francisco, California. Recently widowed D.J. Tanner - Fuller is a veterinarian and the mother of three young boys. After the unexpected death of her husband, Tommy, who was following his hazardous duties as a firefighter, D.J. accepts the help of her sister Stephanie and best friend Kimmy to move in and take part in raising her three sons, 13 - year - old Jackson, 7 - year - old Max, and baby Tommy Jr. Kimmy 's teenage daughter Ramona also moves in.
In August 2014, reports circulated that Warner Bros. Television was considering a series reboot. John Stamos, who had an ownership stake in the show, headed up the attempt to get the series back into production. Creator Jeff Franklin returned as executive producer and showrunner with the collaboration of original executive producers Thomas L. Miller and Robert L. Boyett under their Miller - Boyett Productions label.
In April 2015, it was reported that Netflix was close to closing a deal to produce a 13 - episode sequel series tentatively titled Fuller House. A representative for Netflix said that the report was "just a rumor ''. In response to the report, Bure tweeted, "While you all ponder over whether the Fuller House show is true or is an April Fools joke, check out (link to her upcoming TV movie) '', and Stamos tweeted, "Believe none of what you hear, and only half of what you see. '' On April 20, he appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live!, confirming the spin - off series had been green - lit by Netflix. On April 21, Netflix confirmed the series was in development.
In a parallel to the original series, Fuller House focuses on D.J., who is a recently widowed mother of three boys, with her sister Stephanie and best friend Kimmy moving in to help raise the boys. The series starts off with a special episode featuring a Tanner family reunion. Filming of the series began in July 2015 and lasted until November 2015. In December 2015, the series ' release date was revealed as February 26, 2016. Later in the month, Carly Rae Jepsen revealed she and Butch Walker recreated the Full House theme song, "Everywhere You Look '' (which was originally performed by Jesse Frederick, who co-wrote the song with Bennett Salvay), for the series as its opening theme.
On March 2, 2016, the series was renewed for a second season, and production for the second season began on May 5, 2016. Thirteen new episodes were ordered and were released on December 9, 2016. On December 24, 2016, the series was renewed for a third season, to be released in 2017. and On December 31, 2016, it was confirmed that the season was given an 18 - episode order. Production for the third season began on March 18, 2017, and ended on September 2, 2017. It was announced on June 26, 2017 that the third season would be split into two parts, with the release of the first part on September 22, 2017 to consist of nine episodes. It was announced on November 13, 2017 that the second half, which will also feature nine episodes, will be released on December 22, 2017.
In addition to Cameron Bure, Sweetin, and Barber reprising their roles, the other main roles went to Michael Campion, Elias Harger, and Soni Bringas, as their children: Jackson and Max Fuller, and Ramona Gibbler, respectively. It was disclosed that John Stamos would have a recurring role as Jesse Katsopolis and would also be producing. Other original main cast members who would be reprising their roles periodically are Lori Loughlin as Becky Katsopolis, Bob Saget as Danny Tanner, and Dave Coulier as Joey Gladstone. Dylan and Blake Tuomy - Wilhoit also make an appearance reprising their roles as Nicky and Alex Katsopolis, respectively. On April 19, 2016, it was announced Ashley Liao, who plays Ramona 's best friend, had been upgraded to a series regular.
Additional cast members recurring regularly throughout the series include Juan Pablo Di Pace, playing Kimmy 's ex-husband, Fernando, and Scott Weinger, reprising the role of Steve Hale, D.J. 's high school boyfriend. Eva LaRue portrays Danny 's wife Teri, and Michael Sun Lee makes an appearance as the adult version of Nathan Nishiguchi 's character, Harry Takayama, who was Stephanie 's childhood friend.
Shortly after announcing the spin - off series, it was uncertain whether Mary - Kate and Ashley Olsen, who shared the role of Michelle Tanner, would choose to participate. The Olsen twins ultimately rejected the offer because Ashley has not acted in years with no intentions to restart, and Mary - Kate initially considered the part but later declined as it was not feasible with her fashion career at the time. Subsequently, the producers decided to have Michelle reside in New York City, where she is highly focused on her fashion enterprise. By January 2016, they asked the Olsen twins ' younger sister, Elizabeth, if she had any ambitions to take the part of Michelle, but she ultimately declined as well. Nonetheless, the producers are still prodding the Olsen twins to return and were confident that one of the twins would ultimately decide to reappear during the second season although this did not end up happening. In September 2016, it was announced that the character Nelson will re-appear on Fuller House, with the character recast to be portrayed by Hal Sparks, who replaces Nelson 's original portrayer, Jason Marsden.
The first season of Fuller House received generally negative reviews, with most noting the series was very derivative of its source material and was oriented toward fans of the original show. On Rotten Tomatoes, the series has a rating of 32 %, based on 41 reviews, with an average rating of 4.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "After the initial dose of nostalgia, Fuller House has little to offer to anyone except the original series ' most diehard fans. '' On Metacritic the series has an average score of 35 out of 100, based on 28 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''.
Dan Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter panned the show, calling it "a mawkish, grating, broadly played chip off the Full House block. '' He also added that "It 's doubtful that there will be a more painful 2016 TV episode than the Fuller House pilot, which takes an inexcusable 35 minutes to establish a plot that is just an inversion of the original Full House premise. '' David Weigand of the San Francisco Chronicle reacted similarly, writing: "The episodes are predictable because they 're unoriginal and the writing is painful. The canned laughter is perhaps the greatest reminder of the ' good old days '. If only all those recorded voices had something legitimate to laugh at. '' Maureen Ryan of Variety wrote that the show "continually goes to the well of having cute kids mug for the camera as they practically yell their lines, and just a little of its self - congratulatory, blaring obviousness goes a long way. ''
Some parents have complained that the reboot is not family friendly unlike its predecessor because it includes cursing and references to sex and drugs.
In a more positive review, Verne Gay from Newsday wrote that the show is like "Full House 2.0 '' and that while it has the "same premise, same vibe, mostly same cast '', it is "a winner, strictly for fans. ''
The second season saw more positive reviews. Jenny Varner of "IGN '' gave the season a mixed 6.5 / 10 score. She noted that "Fuller House Season 2 brings a fuller cast, a fuller plot, and a lot more cringe - worthy pop culture jokes. Love it or hate it, the staying power of this heartwarming Netflix staple is stronger than ever. ''
Warner Home Video released the first season of the series on DVD in Region 1 on February 28, 2017. The second season was released on DVD on December 12, 2017.
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who does a retail company sell products to | Retail - wikipedia
Retail is the process of selling consumer goods or services to customers through multiple channels of distribution to earn a profit. Retailers satisfy demand identified through a supply chain. The term "retailer '' is typically applied where a service provider fills the small orders of a large number of individuals, who are end - users, rather than large orders of a small number of wholesale, corporate or government clientele. Shopping generally refers to the act of buying products. Sometimes this is done to obtain final goods, including necessities such as food and clothing; sometimes it takes place as a recreational activity. Recreational shopping often involves window shopping and browsing: it does not always result in a purchase.
Retail markets and shops have a very ancient history, dating back to antiquity. Some of the earliest retailers were itinerant peddlers. Over the centuries, retail shops were transformed from little more than "rude booths '' to the sophisticated shopping malls of the modern era.
Most modern retailers typically make a variety of strategic level decisions including the type of store, the market to be served, the optimal product assortment, customer service, supporting services and the store 's overall market positioning. Once the strategic retail plan is in place, retailers devise the retail mix which includes product, price, place, promotion, personnel and presentation. In the digital age, an increasing number of retailers are seeking to reach broader markets by selling through multiple channels, including both bricks and mortar and online retailing. Digital technologies are also changing the way that consumers pay for goods and services. Retailing support services may also include the provision of credit, delivery services, advisory services, stylist services and a range of other supporting services.
Retail shops occur in a diverse range of types and in many different contexts -- from strip shopping centres in residential streets through to large, indoor shopping malls. Shopping streets may restrict traffic to pedestrians only. Sometimes a shopping street has a partial or full roof to create a more comfortable shopping environment -- protecting customers from various types of weather conditions such as extreme temperatures, winds or precipitation. Forms of non-shop retailing include online retailing (a type of electronic - commerce used for business - to - consumer (B2C) transactions) and mail order.
Retail comes from the Old French word tailler, which means "to cut off, clip, pare, divide '' in terms of tailoring (1365). It was first recorded as a noun with the meaning of a "sale in small quantities '' in 1433 (from the Middle French retail, "piece cut off, shred, scrap, paring ''). As in the French, the word, retail, in both Dutch and German, also refers to the sale of small quantities of items.
Retail refers to the activity of reselling. A retailer is any person or organisation is a reseller who sells goods or services directly to consumers or end - users. Some retailers may sell to business customers, and such sales are termed non-retail activity. In some jurisdictions or regions, legal definitions of retail specify that at least 80 percent of sales activity must be to end - users.
Retailing often occurs in retail stores or service establishments, but may also occur through direct selling such as through vending machines, door - to - door sales or electronic channels. Although the idea of retail is often associated with the purchase of goods, the term may be applied to service - providers that sell to consumers. Retail service providers include retail banking, tourism, insurance, private healthcare, private education, private security firms, legal firms, publishers, public transport and others. For example, a tourism provider might have a retail division that books travel and accommodation for consumers plus a wholesale division that purchases blocks of accommodation, hospitality, transport and sightseeing which are subsequently packaged into a holiday tour for sale to retail travel agents.
Some retailers badge their stores as "wholesale outlets '' offering "wholesale prices. '' While this practice may encourage consumers to imagine that they have access to lower prices, while being prepared to trade - off reduced prices for cramped in - store environments, in a strict legal sense, a store that sells the majority of its merchandise direct to consumers, is defined as a retailer rather than a wholesaler. Different jurisdictions set parameters for the ratio of consumer to business sales that define a retail business.
Retail markets have existed since ancient times. Archaeological evidence for trade, probably involving barter systems, dates back more than 10,000 years. As civilizations grew, barter was replaced with retail trade involving coinage. Selling and buying is thought to have emerged in Asia Minor (modern Turkey) in around the 7th millennium BCE. Gharipour points to evidence of primitive shops and trade centres in Sialk Hills in Kashan (6000 BCE), Catalk Huyuk in modern - day Turkey (7,500 -- 5,700 BCE), Jericho (2600 BCE) and Susa (4000 BCE). Open air, public markets were known in ancient Babylonia, Assyria, Phoenicia and Egypt. These markets typically occupied a place in the town 's centre. Surrounding the market, skilled artisans, such as metal - workers and leather workers, occupied permanent premises in alleys that led to the open market - place. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, but also prepared goods for sale on market days. In ancient Greece markets operated within the agora, an open space where, on market days, goods were displayed on mats or temporary stalls. In ancient Rome, trade took place in the forum. Rome had two forums; the Forum Romanum and Trajan 's Forum. The latter was a vast expanse, comprising multiple buildings with shops on four levels. The Roman forum was arguably the earliest example of a permanent retail shop - front. In antiquity, exchange involved direct selling via merchants or peddlers and bartering systems were commonplace.
The Phoenicians, noted for their seafaring skills, plied their ships across the Mediterranean, becoming a major trading power by the 9th century BCE. The Phoenicians imported and exported wood, textiles, glass and produce such as wine, oil, dried fruit and nuts. Their trading skills necessitated a network of colonies along the Mediterranean coast, stretching from modern day Crete through to Tangiers and onto Sardinia The Phoenicians not only traded in tangible goods, but were also instrumental in transporting culture. The Phoenician 's extensive trade networks necessitated considerable book - keeping and correspondence. In around 1500 BCE, the Phoenicians developed a consonantal alphabet which was much easier to learn that the complex scripts used in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Phoenician traders and merchants were largely responsible for spreading their alphabet around the region. Phoenician inscriptions have been found in archaeological sites at a number of former Phoenician cities and colonies around the Mediterranean, such as Byblos (in present - day Lebanon) and Carthage in North Africa.
In the Graeco - Roman world, the market primarily served the local peasantry. Local producers, who were generally poor, would sell small surpluses from their individual farming activities, purchase minor farm equipment and also buy a few luxuries for their homes. Major producers such as the great estates were sufficiently attractive for merchants to call directly at their farm - gates, obviating the producers ' need to attend local markets. The very wealthy landowners managed their own distribution, which may have involved exporting and importing. The nature of export markets in antiquity is well documented in ancient sources and archaeological case studies. The Romans preferred to purchase goods from specific places: oysters from Londinium, cinnamon from a specific mountain in Arabia, and these place - based preferences stimulated trade throughout Europe and the middle East. Markets were also important centres of social life.
The rise of retailing and marketing in England and Europe has been extensively studied, but less is known about developments elsewhere. Nevertheless, recent research suggests that China exhibited a rich history of early retail systems. From as early as 200 BCE, Chinese packaging and branding was used to signal family, place names and product quality, and the use of government imposed product branding was used between 600 and 900 CE. Eckhart and Bengtsson have argued that during the Song Dynasty (960 -- 1127), Chinese society developed a consumerist culture, where a high level of consumption was attainable for a wide variety of ordinary consumers rather than just the elite. The rise of a consumer culture led to the commercial investment in carefully managed company image, retail signage, symbolic brands, trademark protection and sophisticated brand concepts.
In Medieval England and Europe, relatively few permanent shops were to be found; instead customers walked into the tradesman 's workshops where they discussed purchasing options directly with tradesmen. In 13th century London, mercers and haberdashers were known to exist and grocers sold "miscellaneous small wares as well as spices and medicines '' but fish and other perishables were sold through markets, costermongers, hucksters, peddlers or other type of itinerant vendor.
In the more populous cities, a small number of shops were beginning to emerge by the 13th century. In Chester, a medieval covered shopping arcade represented a major innovation that attracted shoppers from many miles around. Known as "The Rows '' this medieval shopping arcade is believed to be the first of its kind in Europe. Fragments of Chester 's Medieval Row, which is believed to date to the mid-13th century, can still be found in Cheshire. In the 13th or 14th century, another arcade with several shops was recorded at Drapery Row in Winchester. The emergence of street names such as Drapery Row, Mercer 's Lane and Ironmonger Lane in the medieval period suggests that permanent shops were becoming more commonplace.
Medieval shops had little in common with their modern equivalent. As late as the 16th century, London 's shops were described as little more than "rude booths '' and their owners "bawled as loudly as the itinerants. '' Shopfronts typically had a front door with two wider openings on either side, each covered with shutters. The shutters were designed to open so that the top portion formed a canopy while the bottom was fitted with legs so that it could serve as a shopboard. Cox and Dannehl suggest that the Medieval shopper 's experience was very different. Glazed windows, which were rare during the medieval period, and did not become commonplace until the eighteenth century, meant that shop interiors were dark places. Outside the markets, goods were rarely out on display and the service counter was unknown. Shoppers had relatively few opportunities to inspect the merchandise prior to consumption. Many stores had openings onto the street from which they served customers.
Outside the major cities, most consumable purchases were made through markets or fairs. Markets were held daily in the more populous towns and cities or weekly in the more sparsely populated rural districts. Markets sold fresh produce; fruit, vegetables, baked goods, meat, poultry, fish and some ready to eat foodstuffs; while fairs operated on a periodic cycle and were almost always associated with a religious festival. Fairs sold non-perishables such as farm tools, homewares, furniture, rugs and ceramics. Market towns dotted the medieval European landscape while itinerant vendors supplied less populated areas or hard - to - reach districts. Peddlers and other itinerant vendors operated alongside other types of retail for centuries. The political philosopher, John Stuart Mill compared the convenience of markets / fairs to that of the itinerant peddlers:
Blintiff has investigated the early Medieval networks of market towns across Europe, and suggests that by the 12th century there was an upsurge in the number of market towns and the emergence of merchant circuits as traders bulked up surpluses from smaller regional, different day markets and resold them at the larger centralised market towns. Market - places appear to have emerged independently outside Europe. The Grand Bazaar in Istanbul is often cited as the world 's oldest continuously - operating market; its construction began in 1455. The Spanish conquistadors wrote glowingly of markets in the Americas. In the 15th century the Mexica (Aztec) market of Tlatelolco was the largest in all the Americas.
English market towns were regulated from a relatively early period. The English monarchs awarded a charter to local Lords to create markets and fairs for a town or village. This charter would grant the lords the right to take tolls and also afford some protection from rival markets. For example, once a chartered market was granted for specific market days, a nearby rival market could not open on the same days. Across the boroughs of England, a network of chartered markets sprang up between the 12th and 16th centuries, giving consumers reasonable choice in the markets they preferred to patronise. A study on the purchasing habits of the monks and other individuals in medieval England, suggests that consumers of the period were relatively discerning. Purchase decisions were based on purchase criteria such as consumers ' perceptions of the range, quality, and price of goods. This informed decisions about where to make their purchases and which markets were superior. Today, traders and showmen jealously guard the reputation of these historic market charters.
Braudel and Reynold have made a systematic study of these European market towns between the thirteenth and fifteenth century. Their investigation shows that in regional districts markets were held once or twice a week while daily markets were common in larger cities. Gradually over time, permanent shops with regular trading days began to supplant the periodic markets, while peddlers filled in the gaps in distribution. The physical market was characterised by transactional exchange and the economy was characterised by local trading. Braudel reports that, in 1600, goods travelled relatively short distances -- grain 5 -- 10 miles; cattle 40 -- 70 miles; wool and woollen cloth 20 -- 40 miles. Following the European age of discovery, goods were imported from afar -- calico cloth from India, porcelain, silk and tea from China, spices from India and South - East Asia and tobacco, sugar, rum and coffee from the New World.
English essayist, Joseph Addison, writing in 1711, described the exotic origin of produce available to English society in the following terms:
Luca Clerici has made a detailed study of Vicenza 's food market during the sixteenth century. He found that there were many different types of reseller operating out of the markets. For example, in the dairy trade, cheese and butter was sold by the members of two craft guilds (i.e., cheesemongers who were shopkeepers) and that of the so - called ' resellers ' (hucksters selling a wide range of foodstuffs), and by other sellers who were not enrolled in any guild. Cheesemongers ' shops were situated at the town hall and were very lucrative. Resellers and direct sellers increased the number of sellers, thus increasing competition, to the benefit of consumers. Direct sellers, who brought produce from the surrounding countryside, sold their wares through the central market place and priced their goods at considerably lower rates than cheesemongers.
By the 17th century, permanent shops with more regular trading hours were beginning to supplant markets and fairs as the main retail outlet. Provincial shopkeepers were active in almost every English market town. These shopkeepers sold general merchandise, much like a contemporary convenience store or a general store. For example, William Allen, a mercer in Tamworth who died in 1604, sold spices alongside furs and fabrics. William Stout of Lancaster retailed sugar, tobacco, nails and prunes at both his shop and at the central markets. His autobiography reveals that he spent most of his time preparing products for sale at the central market, which brought an influx of customers into town.
As the number of shops grew, they underwent a transformation. The trappings of a modern shop, which had been entirely absent from the sixteenth and early seventeenth century store, gradually made way for store interiors and shopfronts that are more familiar to modern shoppers. Prior to the eighteenth century, the typical retail store had no counter, display cases, chairs, mirrors, changing - rooms, etc. However, the opportunity for the customer to browse merchandise, touch and feel products began to be available, with retail innovations from the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Glazing was widely used from the early 18th - century. English commentators pointed to the speed at which glazing was installed, Daniel Defoe, writing in 1726, noted that "Never was there such painting and guildings, such sashings and looking - glasses as the shopkeepers as there is now. ''
Outside the major metropolitan cities, few stores could afford to serve one type of clientele exclusively. However, gradually retail shops introduced innovations that would allow them to separate wealthier customers from the "riff raff. '' One technique was to have a window opening out onto the street from which customers could be served. This allowed the sale of goods to the common people, without encouraging them to come inside. Another solution, that came into vogue from the late sixteenth century was to invite favoured customers into a back - room of the store, where goods were permanently on display. Yet another technique that emerged around the same time was to hold a showcase of goods in the shopkeeper 's private home for the benefit of wealthier clients. Samuel Pepys, for example, writing in 1660, describes being invited to the home of a retailer to view a wooden jack. The eighteenth century English entrepreneurs, Josiah Wedgewood and Matthew Boulton, both staged expansive showcases of their wares in their private residences or in rented halls.
Savitt has argued that by the eighteenth century, American merchants, who had been operating as importers and exporters, began to specialise in either wholesale or retail roles. They tended not to specialise in particular types of merchandise, often trading as general merchants, selling a diverse range of product types. These merchants were concentrated in the larger cities. They often provided high levels of credit financing for retail transactions.
By the late eighteenth century, grand shopping arcades began to emerge across Europe and in the Antipodes. A shopping arcade refers to a multiple - vendor space, operating under a covered roof. Typically, the roof was constructed of glass to allow for natural light and to reduce the need for candles or electric lighting. Some of the earliest examples of shopping arcade appeared in Paris, due its lack of pavement for pedestrians. Retailers, eager to attract window shoppers by providing a shopping environment away from the filthy streets, began to construct rudimentary arcades. Opening in 1771, the Coliseé, situated on the Champs Elysee, consisted of three arcades, each with ten shops, all running off a central ballroom. For Parisians, the location was seen as too remote and the arcade closed within two years of opening. Inspired by the souks of Arabia, the Galerie de Bois, a series of wooden shops linked the ends of the Palais Royal, opened in 1786 and became a central part of Parisian social life.
The architect, Bertrand Lemoine, described the period, 1786 to 1935, as l'Ère des passages couverts (the Arcade Era). In the European capitals, shopping arcades spread across the continent, reaching their heyday in the early 19th century: the Palais Royal in Paris (opened in 1784); Passage de Feydeau in Paris (opened in 1791) and Passage du Claire in 1799. London 's Piccadilly Arcade (opened in 1810); Paris 's Passage Colbert (1826) and Milan 's Galleria Vittorio Emanuele (1878). Designed to attract the genteel middle class, arcade retailers sold luxury goods at relatively high prices. However, prices were never a deterrent, as these new arcades came to be the place to shop and to be seen. Arcades offered shoppers the promise of an enclosed space away from the chaos that characterised the noisy, dirty streets; a warm, dry space away from the elements, and a safe - haven where people could socialise and spend their leisure time. As thousands of glass covered arcades spread across Europe, they became grander and more ornately decorated. By the mid nineteenth century, they had become prominent centres of fashion and social life. Promenading in these arcades became a popular nineteenth century pass - time for the emerging middle classes. The Illustrated Guide to Paris of 1852 summarized the appeal of arcades in the following description:
The Palais - Royal, which opened to Parisians in 1784 and became one of the most important marketplaces in Paris, is generally regarded as the earliest example in the grand shopping arcades. The Palais - Royal was a complex of gardens, shops and entertainment venues situated on the external perimeter of the grounds, under the original colonnades. The area boasted some 145 boutiques, cafés, salons, hair salons, bookshops, museums, and numerous refreshment kiosks as well as two theatres. The retail outlets specialised in luxury goods such as fine jewellery, furs, paintings and furniture designed to appeal to the wealthy elite. Retailers operating out of the Palais complex were among the first in Europe to abandon the system of bartering, and adopt fixed - prices thereby sparing their clientele the hassle of bartering. Stores were fitted with long glass exterior windows which allowed the emerging middle - classes to window shop and indulge in fantasies, even when they may not have been able to afford the high retail prices. Thus, the Palais - Royal became one of the first examples of a new style of shopping arcade, frequented by both the aristocracy and the middle classes. It developed a reputation as being a site of sophisticated conversation, revolving around the salons, cafés, and bookshops, but also became a place frequented by off - duty soldiers and was a favourite haunt of prostitutes, many of whom rented apartments in the building. London 's Burlington Arcade, which opened in 1819, positioned itself as an elegant and exclusive venue from the outset. Other notable nineteenth century grand arcades include the Galeries Royales Saint - Hubert in Brussels which was inaugurated in 1847, Istanbul 's Çiçek Pasajı opened in 1870 and Milan 's Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II first opened in 1877. Shopping arcades were the precursor to the modern shopping mall.
While the arcades were the province of the bourgeoisie, a new type of retail venture emerged to serve the needs of the working poor. John Stuart Mill wrote about the rise of the co-operative retail store, which he witnessed first - hand in the mid-nineteenth century. Stuart Mill locates these co-operative stores within a broader co-operative movement which was prominent in the industrial city of Manchester and in the counties of Yorkshire and Lancashire. He documents one of the early co-operative retail stores in Rochdale in Manchester, England, "In 1853, the Store purchased for £ 745, a warehouse (freehold) on the opposite side of the street, where they keep and retail their stores of flour, butcher 's meat, potatoes, and kindred articles. '' Stuart Mill also quoted a contemporary commentator who wrote of the benefits of the co-operative store:
Buyer and seller meet as friends; there is no overreaching on one side, and no suspicion on the other... These crowds of humble working men, who never knew before when they put good food in their mouths, whose every dinner was adulterated, whose shoes let in the water a month too soon, whose waistcoats shone with devil 's dust, and whose wives wore calico that would not wash, now buy in the markets like millionaires, and as far as pureness of food goes, live like lords.
The modern era of retailing is defined as the period from the industrial revolution to the 21st century. In major cities, the department store emerged in the mid to late 19th century, and permanently reshaped shopping habits, and redefined concepts of service and luxury. The term, "department store '' originated in America. In 19th century England, these stores were known as emporia or warehouse shops. A number of major department stores opened across the USA, Britain and Europe from the mid nineteenth century including; Harrod 's of London in 1834; Kendall 's in Manchester in 1836; Selfridges of London in 1909; Macy 's of New York in 1858; Bloomingdale 's in 1861; Sak 's in 1867; J.C. Penney in 1902; Le Bon Marché of France in 1852 and Galeries Lafayette of France in 1905. Other twentieth century innovations in retailing included chain stores, mail - order, multi-level marketing (pyramid selling or network marketing, c. 1920s), party plans (c. 1930s) and B2C e-commerce (cyber-peddling).
Many of the early department stores were more than just a retail emporium; rather they were venues where shoppers could spend their leisure time and be entertained. Some department stores offered reading rooms, art galleries and concerts. Most department stores had tea - rooms or dining rooms and offered treatment areas where ladies could indulge in a manicure. The fashion show, which originated in the US in around 1907, became a staple feature event for many department stores and celebrity appearances were also used to great effect. Themed events featured wares from foreign shores, exposing shoppers to the exotic cultures of the Orient and Middle - East.
During this period, retailers worked to develop modern retail marketing practices. Pioneering merchants who contributed to modern retail marketing and management methods include: A.T. Stewart, Potter Palmer, John Wanamaker, Montgomery Ward, Marshall Field, Richard Warren Sears, Rowland Macy, J.C. Penney, Fred Lazarus, brothers Edward and William Filene and Sam Walton.
Retail, using mail order, came of age during the mid-19th century. Although catalogue sales had been used since the 15th century, this method of retailing was confined to a few industries such as the sale of books and seeds. However, improvements in transport and postal services, led several entrepreneurs on either side of the Atlantic to experiment with catalogue sales. In 1861, Welsh draper Pryce Pryce - Jones sent catalogues to clients who could place orders for flannel clothing which was then despatched by post. This enabled Pryce - Jones to extend his client base across Europe. A decade later, the US retailer, Montgomery Ward also devised a catalogue sales and mail - order system. His first catalogue which was issued in August 1872 consisted of an 8 in × 12 in (20 cm × 30 cm) single - sheet price list, listing 163 items for sale with ordering instructions for which Ward had written the copy. He also devised the catch - phrase "satisfaction guaranteed or your money back '' which was implemented in 1875. By the 1890s, Sears and Roebuck were also using mail order with great success.
Edward Filene, a proponent of the scientific approach to retail management, developed the concept of the automatic bargain Basement. Although Filene 's basement was not the first ' bargain basement ' in the U.S., the principles of ' automatic mark - downs ' generated excitement and proved very profitable. Under Filene 's plan, merchandise had to be sold within 30 days or it was marked down; after a further 12 days, the merchandise was further reduced by 25 % and if still unsold after another 18 days, a further markdown of 25 % was applied. If the merchandise remained unsold after two months, it was given to charity. Filene was a pioneer in employee relations. He instituted a profit sharing program, a minimum wage for women, a 40 - hour work week, health clinics and paid vacations. He also played an important role in encouraging the Filene Cooperative Association, "perhaps the earliest American company union ''. Through this channel he engaged constructively with his employees in collective bargaining and arbitration processes.
In the post-war period, an American architect, Victor Gruen developed a concept for a shopping mall; a planned, self - contained shopping complex complete with an indoor plaza, statues, planting schemes, piped music, and car - parking. Gruen 's vision was to create a shopping atmosphere where people felt so comfortable, they would spend more time in the environment, thereby enhancing opportunities for purcahsing. The first of these malls opened at Northland Mall near Detroit in 1954. He went on to design some 50 such malls. Due to the success of the mall concept, Gruen was described as "the most influential architect of the twentieth century by a journalist in the New Yorker. ''
Throughout the twentieth century, a trend towards larger store footprints became discernible. The average size of a U.S. supermarket grew from 31,000 square feet (2,900 m) square feet in 1991 to 44,000 square feet (4,100 m) square feet in 2000. In 1963, Carrefour opened the first hypermarket in St Genevieve - de-Bois, near Paris, France. By the end of the twentieth century, stores were using labels such as "mega-stores '' and "warehouse '' stores to reflect their growing size. In Australia, for example, the popular hardware chain, Bunnings has shifted from smaller "home centres '' (retail floor space under 5,000 square metres (54,000 sq ft)) to "warehouse '' stores (retail floor space between 5,000 square metres (54,000 sq ft) and 21,000 square metres (230,000 sq ft)) in order to accommodate a wider range of goods and in response to population growth and changing consumer preferences. The upward trend of increasing retail space was not consistent across nations, and led in the early 21st century to a 2-fold difference in square footage per capita between the United States and Europe.
As the 21st century takes shape, some indications suggest that large retail stores have come under increasing pressure from online sales models and that reductions in store size are evident. Under such competition and other issues such as business debt, there has been a noted business disruption called the retail apocalypse in recent years which several retail businesses, especially in North America, are sharply reducing their number of stores, or going out of business entirely.
The distinction between "strategic '' and "managerial '' decision - making is commonly used to distinguish "two phases having different goals and based on different conceptual tools. Strategic planning concerns the choice of policies aiming at improving the competitive position of the firm, taking account of challenges and opportunities proposed by the competitive environment. On the other hand, managerial decision - making is focused on the implementation of specific targets. ''
In retailing, the strategic plan is designed to set out the vision and provide guidance for retail decision - makers and provide an outline of how the product and service mix will optimize customer satisfaction. As part of the strategic planning process, it is customary for strategic planners to carry out a detailed environmental scan which seeks to identify trends and opportunities in the competitive environment, market environment, economic environment and statutory - political environment. The retail strategy is normally devised or reviewed every 3 -- 5 years by the chief executive officer.
The strategic retail analysis typically includes following elements:
At the conclusion of the retail analysis, the retail marketers should have a clear idea of which groups of customers are to be the target of marketing activities. Research studies suggest that there is a strong relationship between a store 's positioning and the socio - economic status of customers. In addition, the retail strategy, including service quality, has a significant and positive association with customer loyalty. A marketing strategy effectively outlines all key aspects of firms ' targeted audience, demographics, preferences. In a highly competitive market, the retail strategy sets up long - term sustainability. It focuses on customer relationships, stressing the importance of added value, customer satisfaction and highlights how the store 's market positioning appeals to targeted groups of customers.
See also product management; promotion mix; marketing mix; price; servicescapes and retail design
Once the strategic plan is in place, retail managers turn to the more managerial aspects of planning. A retail mix is devised for the purpose of coordinating day - to - day tactical decisions. The retail marketing mix typically consists of six broad decision layers including product decisions, place decisions, promotion, price, personnel and presentation (also known as physical evidence). The retail mix is loosely based on the marketing mix, but has been expanded and modified in line with the unique needs of the retail context. A number of scholars have argued for the modified marketing mix with the inclusion of two new Ps, namely, Personnel and Presentation should be added to the marketing mix since these contribute to the customer 's unique retail experience and are the principal basis for retail differentiation. Yet other scholars argue that the Retail Format (i.e. retail formula) should be included. The modified retail marketing mix that is most commonly cited in text - books is often called the 6 Ps of retailing (see diagram at right).
See Product management
The primary product - related decisions facing the retailer are the product assortment (what product lines, how many lines and which brands to carry); the type of customer service (high contact through to self - service) and the availability of support services (e.g. credit terms, delivery services, after sales care). These decisions depend on careful analysis of the market, demand, competition as well as the retailer 's skills and expertise.
The term product assortment refers to the combination of both product breadth and depth. The main characteristics of a company 's product assortment are:
For a retailer, finding the right balance between breadth and depth can be a key to success. An average supermarket might carry 30,000 -- 60,000 different product lines (product length or assortment), but might carry up to 100 different types of toothpaste (product depth). Speciality retailers typically carry fewer product lines, perhaps as few as 20 lines, but will normally stock greater depth. Costco, for example, carries 5,000 different lines while Aldi carries just 1,400 lines per store.
Large assortments offer consumers many benefits, notably increased choice and the possibility that the consumer will be able to locate the ideal product. However, for the retailer, larger assortments incur costs in terms of record - keeping, managing inventory, pricing and risks associated with wastage due to spoiled, shopworn or unsold stock. Carrying more stock also exposes the retailer to higher risks in terms of slow - moving stock and lower sales per square foot of store space. On the other hand, reducing the number of product lines can generate cost savings through increased stock turnover by eliminating slow - moving lines, fewer stockouts, increased bargaining power with suppliers, reduced costs associated with wastage and carrying inventory, and higher sales per square foot which means more efficient space utilisation.
When determining the number of product lines to carry, the retailer must consider the store type, store 's physical storage capacity, the perishability of items, expected turnover rates for each line and the customer 's needs and expectations.
Customer service is the "sum of acts and elements that allow consumers to receive what they need or desire from (the) retail establishment. '' Retailers must decide whether to provide a full service outlet or minimal service outlet, such as no - service in the case of vending machines; self - service with only basic sales assistance or a full service operation as in many boutiques and speciality stores. In addition, the retailer needs to make decisions about sales support such as customer delivery and after sales customer care.
Retailing services may also include the provision of credit, delivery services, advisory services, exchange / return services, product demonstration, special orders, customer loyalty programs, limited - scale trial, advisory services and a range of other supporting services. Retail stores often seek to differentiate along customer service lines. For example, some department stores offer the services of a stylist; a fashion advisor, to assist customers selecting a fashionable wardrobe for the forthcoming season, while smaller boutiques may allow regular customers to take goods home on approval, enabling the customer to try out goods before making the final purchase. The variety of supporting services offered is known as the service type. At one end of the spectrum, self - service operators offer few basic support services. At the other end of the spectrum, full - service operators offer a broad range of highly personalised customer services to augment the retail experience.
When making decisions about customer service, the retailer must balance the customer 's desire for full - service against the customer 's willingness to pay for the cost of delivering supporting services. Self - service is a very cost efficient way of delivering services since the retailer harnesses the customers labour power to carry out many of the retail tasks. However, many customers appreciate full service and are willing to pay a premium for the benefits of full - service.
A sales assistant 's role typically includes greeting customers, providing product and service - related information, providing advice about products available from current stock, answering customer questions, finalising customer transactions and if necessary, providing follow - up service necessary to ensure customer satisfaction. For retail store owners, it is extremely important to train personnel with the requisite skills necessary to deliver excellent customer service. Such skills may include product knowledge, inventory management, handling cash and credit transactions, handling product exchange and returns, dealing with difficult customers and of course, a detailed knowledge of store policies. The provision of excellent customer service creates more opportunities to build enduring customer relationships with the potential to turn customers into sources of referral or retail advocates. In the long term, excellent customer service provides businesses with an ongoing reputation and may lead to a competitive advantage. Customer service is essential for several reasons. Firstly, customer service contributes to the customer 's overall retail experience. Secondly, evidence suggests that a retail organization which trains its employees in appropriate customer service benefits more than those who do not. Customer service training entails instructing personnel in the methods of servicing the customer that will benefit corporations and businesses. It is important to establish a bond amongst customers - employees known as Customer relationship management.
There are several ways the retailer can deliver services to consumers:
Place decisions are primarily concerned with consumer access and may involve location, space utilisation and operating hours.
Also see Site selection
Retail stores are typically located where market opportunities are optimal -- high traffic areas, central business districts. Selecting the right site can be a major success factor. When evaluating potential sites, retailers often carry out a trade area analysis; a detailed analysis designed to approximate the potential patronage area. Techniques used in trade area analysis include: Radial (ring) studies; Gravity models and Drive time analyses.
In addition, retailers may consider a range of both qualitative and quantitative factors to evaluate to potential sites under consideration:
A major retail trend has been the shift to multi-channel retailing. To counter the disruption caused by online retail, many bricks and mortar retailers have entered the online retail space, by setting up online catalogue sales and e-commerce websites. However, many retailers have noticed that consumers behave differently when shopping online. For instance, in terms of choice of online platform, shoppers tend to choose the online site of their preferred retailer initially, but as they gain more experience in online shopping, they become less loyal and more likely to switch to other retail sites. Online stores are usually available 24 hours a day, and many consumers in Western countries have Internet access both at work and at home.
See also Pricing Strategies
The broad pricing strategy is normally established in the company 's overall strategic plan. In the case of chain stores, the pricing strategy would be set by head office. Broadly, there are six approaches to pricing strategy mentioned in the marketing literature:
When decision - makers have determined the broad approach to pricing (i.e., the pricing strategy), they turn their attention to pricing tactics. Tactical pricing decisions are shorter term prices, designed to accomplish specific short - term goals. The tactical approach to pricing may vary from time to time, depending on a range of internal considerations (e.g. the need to clear surplus inventory) or external factors (e.g. a response to competitive pricing tactics). Accordingly, a number of different pricing tactics may be employed in the course of a single planning period or across a single year. Typically store managers have the necessary latitude to vary prices on individual lines provided that they operate within the parameters of the overall strategic approach.
Retailers must also plan for customer preferred payment modes -- e.g. cash, credit, lay - by, Electronic Funds Transfer at Point - of - Sale (EFTPOS). All payment options require some type of handling and attract costs. If credit is to be offered, then credit terms will need to be determined. If lay - by is offered, then the retailer will need to take into account the storage and handling requirements. If cash is the dominant mode of payment, the retailer will need to consider small change requirements, the number of cash floats required, wages costs associated with handling large volumes of cash and the provision of secure storage for change floats. Large retailers, handling significant volumes of cash, may need to hire security service firms to carry the day 's takings and deliver supplies of small change. A small, but increasing number of retailers are beginning to accept newer modes of payment including PayPal and Bitcoin. For example, Subway (US) recently announced that it would accept Bitcoin payments.
Pricing tactics that are commonly used in retail include:
Discount pricing is where the marketer or retailer offers a reduced price. Discounts in a variety of forms -- e.g. quantity discounts, loyalty rebates, seasonal discounts, periodic or random discounts etc.
Everyday low prices refers to the practice of maintaining a regular low price - low price -- in which consumers are not forced to wait for discounting or specials. This method is extensively used by supermarkets.
High - low pricing refers to the practice of offering goods at a high price for a period of time, followed by offering the same goods at a low price for a predetermined time. This practice is widely used by chain stores selling homewares. The main disadvantage of the high - low tactic is that consumers tend to become aware of the price cycles and time their purchases to coincide with a low - price cycle.
A loss leader is a product that has a price set below the operating margin. Loss leadering is widely used in supermarkets and budget - priced retail outlets where it is intended to generate store traffic. The low price is widely promoted and the store is prepared to take a small loss on an individual item, with an expectation that it will recoup that loss when customers purchase other higher priced - higher margin items. In service industries, loss leadering may refer to the practice of charging a reduced price on the first order as an inducement and with anticipation of charging higher prices on subsequent orders.
Price bundling (also known as product bundling) occurs where two or more products or services are priced as a package with a single price. There are several types of bundles: pure bundles where the goods can only be purchased as package or mixed bundles where the goods can be purchased individually or as a package. The prices of the bundle is typically less than when the two items are purchased separately. Price bundling is extensively used in the personal care sector to prices cosmetics and skincare.
Price lining is the use of a limited number of prices for all product offered by a business. Price lining is a tradition started in the old five and dime stores in which everything cost either 5 or 10 cents. In price lining, the price remains constant but quality or extent of product or service adjusted to reflect changes in cost. The underlying rationale of this tactic is that these amounts are seen as suitable price points for a whole range of products by prospective customers. It has the advantage of ease of administering, but the disadvantage of inflexibility, particularly in times of inflation or unstable prices. Price lining continues to be widely used in department stores where customers often note racks of garments or accessories priced at predetermined price points e.g. separate racks of men 's ties, where each rack is priced at $10, $20 and $40.
Promotional pricing is a temporary measure that involves setting prices at levels lower than normally charged for a good or service. Promotional pricing is sometimes a reaction to unforeseen circumstances, as when a downturn in demand leaves a company with excess stocks; or when competitive activity is making inroads into market share or profits.
Psychological pricing is a range of tactics designed to have a positive psychological impact. Price tags using the terminal digit "9 '', ($9.99, $19.99 or $199.99) can be used to signal price points and bring an item in at just under the consumer 's reservation price. Psychological pricing is widely used in a variety of retail settings.
Because patronage at a retail outlet varies, flexibility in scheduling is desirable. Employee scheduling software is sold, which, using known patterns of customer patronage, more or less reliably predicts the need for staffing for various functions at times of the year, day of the month or week, and time of day. Usually needs vary widely. Conforming staff utilization to staffing needs requires a flexible workforce which is available when needed but does not have to be paid when they are not, part - time workers; as of 2012 70 % of retail workers in the United States were part - time. This may result in financial problems for the workers, who while they are required to be available at all times if their work hours are to be maximized, may not have sufficient income to meet their family and other obligations.
Also see Personal selling
Retailers can employ different techniques to enhance sales volume and to improve the customer experience:
One of the unique aspects of retail promotions is that two brands are often involved; the store brand and the brands that make up the retailer 's product range. Retail promotions that focus on the store tend to be ' image ' oriented, raising awareness of the store and creating a positive attitude towards the store and its services. Retail promotions that focus on the product range, are designed to cultivate a positive attitude to the brands stocked by the store, in order to indirectly encourage favourable attitudes towards the store itself. Some retail advertising and promotion is partially or wholly funded by brands and this is known as co-operative (or co-op) advertising.
Retailers make extensive use of advertising via newspapers, television and radio to encourage store preference. In order to up - sell or cross-sell, retailers also use a variety of in - store sales promotional techniques such as product demonstrations, samples, point - of - purchase displays, free trial, events, promotional packaging and promotional pricing. In grocery retail, shelf wobblers, trolley advertisements, taste tests and recipe cards are also used. Many retailers also use loyalty programs to encourage repeat patronage.
See Merchandising; Servicescapes; Retail design
Presentation refers to the physical evidence that signals the retail image. Physical evidence may include a diverse range of elements -- the store itself including premises, offices, exterior facade and interior layout, websites, delivery vans, warehouses, staff uniforms.
The environment in which the retail service encounter occurs is sometimes known as the retail servicescape. The store environment consists of many elements such as smells, the physical environment (furnishings, layout and functionality), ambient conditions (lighting, temperature, noise) as well as signs, symbols and artifacts (e.g. sales promotions, shelf space, sample stations, visual communications). Collectively, these elements contribute to the perceived retail servicescape or the overall atmosphere and can influence both the customer 's cognitions, emotions and their behaviour within the retail space.
Retail designers pay close attention to the front of the store, which is known as the decompression zone. This is usually an open space in the entrance of the store to allow customers to adjust to their new environment. An open - plan floor design is effective in retail as it allows customers to see everything. In terms of the store 's exterior, the side of the road cars normally travel, determines the way stores direct customers. New Zealand retail stores, for instance, would direct customers to the left.
In order to maximise the number of selling opportunities, retailers generally want customers to spend more time in a retail store. However, this must be balanced against customer expectations surrounding convenience, access and realistic waiting times. The overall aim of designing a retail environment is to have customers enter the store, and explore the totality of the physical environment engaging in a variety of retail experiences -- from browsing through to sampling and ultimately to purchasing. The retail service environment plays an important role in affecting the customer 's perceptions of the retail experience.
The retail environment not only affects quality perceptions, but can also impact on the way that customers navigate their way through the retail space during the retail service encounter. Layout, directional signage, the placement of furniture, shelves and display space along with the store 's ambient conditions all affect patron 's passage through the retail service system. Layout refers to how equipment, shelves and other furnishings are placed and the relationship between them. In a retail setting, accessibility is an important aspect of layout. For example, the grid layout used by supermarkets with long aisles and gondolas at the end displaying premium merchandise or promotional items, minimises the time customers spend in the environment and makes productive use of available space. The gondola, so favoured by supermarkets, is an example of a retail design feature known as a merchandise outpost and which refers to special displays, typically at or near the end of an aisle, whose purpose is to stimulate impulse purchasing or to complement other products in the vicinity. For example, the meat cabinet at the supermarket might use a merchandise outpost to suggest a range of marinades or spice rubs to complement particular cuts of meat. As a generalisation, merchandise outposts are updated regularly so that they maintain a sense of novelty.
According to Ziethaml et al., layout affects how easy or difficult it is to navigate through a system. Signs and symbols provide cues for directional navigation and also inform about appropriate behaviour within a store. Functionality refers to extent to which the equipment and layout meet the goals of the customer. For instance, in the case of supermarkets, the customer 's goal may be to minimise the amount of time spent finding items and waiting at the check - out, while a customer in a retail mall may wish to spend more time exploring the range of stores and merchandise. With respect to functionality of layout, retail designers consider three key issues; circulation -- design for traffic - flow and that encourages customers to traverse the entire store; coordination -- design that combines goods and spaces in order to suggest customer needs and convenience -- design that arranges items to create a degree of comfort and access for both customers and employees.
The way that brands are displayed is also part of the overall retail design. Where a product is placed on the shelves has implications for purchase likelihood as a result of visibility and access. Products placed too high or too low on the shelves may not turn over as quickly as those placed at eye level. With respect to access, store designers are increasingly giving consideration to access for disabled and elderly customers.
Through sensory stimulation retailers can engage maximum emotional impact between a brand and its consumers by relating to both profiles; the goal and experience. Purchasing behaviour can be influenced through the physical evidence detected by the senses of touch, smell, sight, taste and sound. Supermarkets offer taste testers to heighten the sensory experience of brands. Coffee shops allow the aroma of coffee to waft into streets so that passers - by can appreciate the smell and perhaps be lured inside. Clothing garments are placed at arms ' reach, allowing customers to feel the different textures of clothing. Retailers understand that when customers interact with products or handle the merchandise, they are more likely to make a purchase.
Within the retail environment, different spaces may be designed for different purposes. Hard floors, such as wooden floors, used in public areas, contrast with carpeted fitting rooms, which are designed to create a sense of homeliness when trying on garments. Peter Alexander, retailer of sleep ware, is renowned for using scented candles in retail stores.
Ambient conditions, such as lighting, temperature and music, are also part of the overall retail environment. It is common for a retail store to play music that relates to their target market. Studies have found that "positively valenced music will stimulate more thoughts and feeling than negatively valenced music '', hence, positively valenced music will make the waiting time feel longer to the customer than negatively valenced music. In a retail store, for example, changing the background music to a quicker tempo may influence the consumer to move through the space at a quicker pace, thereby improving traffic flow. Evidence also suggests that playing music reduces the negative effects of waiting since it serves as a distraction. Jewellery stores like Michael Hill have dim lighting with a view to fostering a sense of intimacy.
The design of a retail store is critical when appealing to the intended market, as this is where first impressions are made. The overall servicescape can influence a consumer 's perception of the quality of the store, communicating value in visual and symbolic ways. Certain techniques are used to create a consumer brand experience, which in the long run drives store loyalty.
Two different strands of research have investigated shopper behaviour. One strand is primarily concerned with shopper motivations. Another stream of research seeks to segment shoppers according to common, shared characteristics. To some extent, these streams of research are inter-related, but each stream offers different types of insights into shopper behaviour.
Babin et al. carried out some of the earliest investigations into shopper motivations and identified two broad motives: utilitarian and hedonic. Utilitarian motivations are task - related and rational. For the shopper with utilitarian motives, purchasing is a work - related task that is to be accomplished in the most efficient and expedient manner. On the other hand, hedonic motives refer to pleasure. The shopper with hedonic motivations views shopping as a form of escapism where they are free to indulge fantasy and freedom. Hedonic shoppers are more involved in the shopping experience.
Many different shopper profiles can be identified. Retailers develop customised segmentation analyses for each unique outlet. However, it is possible to identify a number of broad shopper profiles. One of the most well - known and widely cited shopper typologies is that developed by Sproles and Kendal in the mid-1980s. Sproles and Kendall 's consumer typology has been shown to be relatively consistent across time and across cultures. Their typology is based on the consumer 's approach to making purchase decisions.
Some researchers have adapted Sproles and Kendall 's methodology for use in specific countries or cultural groups. Consumer decision styles are important for retailers and marketers because they describe behaviours that are relatively stable over time and for this reason, they are useful for market segmentation.
The retail format (also known as the retail formula) influences the consumer 's store choice and addresses the consumer 's expectations. At its most basic level, a retail format is a simple marketplace, that is; a location where goods and services are exchanged. In some parts of the world, the retail sector is still dominated by small family - run stores, but large retail chains are increasingly dominating the sector, because they can exert considerable buying power and pass on the savings in the form of lower prices. Many of these large retail chains also produce their own private labels which compete alongside manufacturer brands. Considerable consolidation of retail stores has changed the retail landscape, transferring power away from wholesalers and into the hands of the large retail chains.
In Britain and Europe, the retail sale of goods is designated as a service activity. The European Service Directive applies to all retail trade including periodic markets, street traders and peddlers.
Retail stores may be classified by the type of product carried:
Retailers carrying highly perishable foodstuffs such as meat, dairy and fresh produce typically require cold storage facilities. Consumers purchase food products on a very regular purchase cycle -- e.g. daily, weekly or monthly.
Softline retailers sell goods that are consumed after a single use, or have a limited life (typically under three years) in they are normally consumed. Soft goods include clothing, other fabrics, footwear, toiletries, cosmetics, medicines and stationery.
Grocery stores, including supermarkets and hypermarkets, along with convenience stores carry a mix of food products and consumable household items such as detergents, cleansers, personal hygiene products. Consumer consumables are collectively known as fast - moving - consumer goods (FMCG) and represent the lines most often carried by supermarkets, grocers and convenience stores. For consumers, these are regular purchases and for the retailer, these products represent high turnover product lines. Grocery stores and convenience stores carry similar lines, but a convenience store is often open at times that suit its clientele and may be located for ease of access.
Retailers selling consumer durables are sometimes known as hardline retailers -- automobiles, appliances, electronics, furniture, sporting goods, lumber, etc., and parts for them. Goods that do not quickly wear out and provide utility over time. For the consumer, these items often represent major purchase decisions. Consumers purchase durables over longer purchase decision cycles. For instance, the typical consumer might replace their family car every 5 years, and their home computer every 4 years.
Specialist retailers operate in many industries such as the arts e.g. green grocers, contemporary art galleries, bookstores, handicrafts, musical instruments, gift shops.
Types of retail outlet by product type
Furniture and homewares retailers are said to be hardline retailers. Pictured Furniture retailer in Hong Kong
Food retailer -- A Fruit shop in Naggar, Himachal Pradesh, India
Food retail includes charcuteries, butcheries, delicatessens, green groceries, provedores etc.
Kaaswereld, a specialist cheese store in the Netherlands
Stores that sell consumables are known as softline retailers
Stores that sell a mix of perishable and consumable goods to cater for household needs are known as grocery stores
A store that retails a mix of household needs and is open long hours is a convenience store
An art gallery is a specialist retailer
Types of retail outlet by marketing strategy include:
A shopping arcade refers to a group of retail outlets operating under a covered walkway. Arcades are similar to shopping malls, although they typically comprise a smaller number of outlets. Shopping arcades were the evolutionary precursor to the shopping mall, and were very fashionable in the late nineteenth century. Stylish men and women would promenade around the arcade, stopping to window shop, making purchases and also taking light refreshments in one of the arcade 's tea - rooms. Arcades offered fashionable men and women opportunities to ' be seen ' and to socialise in a relatively safe environment. Arcades continue to exist as a distinct type of retail outlet. Historic nineteenth century arcades have become popular tourist attractions in cities around the world. Amusement arcades, also known as penny arcades in the US, are more modern incarnation of the eighteenth and nineteenth century shopping arcade.
An anchor store (also known as draw tenant or anchor tenant) is a larger store with a good repututation used by shopping mall management to attract a certain volume of shoppers to a precinct.
The term, ' bazaar ' can have multiple meanings. It may refer to a Middle - Eastern market place while a ' penny bazaar ' refers to a retail outlet that specialises in inexpensive or discounted merchandise. In the United States a bazaar can mean a "rummage sale '' which describes a charity fundraising event held by a church or other community organization and in which either donated used goods are made available for sale.
A Boutique is a small store offering a select range of fashionable goods or accessories. The term, ' boutique ', in retail and services, appears to be taking on a broader meaning with popular references to retail goods and retail services such as boutique hotels, boutique beers (i.e. craft beers), boutique investments etc.
By supplying a wide assortment in a single category for lower prices a category killer retailer can "kill '' that category for other retailers. A category killer is a specialist store that dominates a given category. Toys "R '' Us, established in 1957, is thought to be the first category killer, dominating the children 's toys and games market. For a few categories, such as electronics, home hardware, office supplies and children 's toys, the products are displayed at the centre of the store and a sales person will be available to address customer queries and give suggestions when required. Rival retail stores are forced to reduce their prices if a category killer enters the market in a given geographic area. Examples of category killers include Toys "R '' Us and Australia 's Bunnings (hardware, DIY and outdoor supplies) and Officeworks (stationery and supplies for the home office and small office). Some category killers redefine the category. For example, Australia 's Bunnings began as a hardware outlet, but now supplies a broad range of goods for the home handyman or small tradesman, including kitchen cabinetry, craft supplies, gardening needs and outdoor furniture. Similarly Officeworks straddles the boundary between stationery supplies, office furniture and digital communications devices in its quest to provide for all the needs of the retail consumer and the small, home office.
Chain store is one of a series of stores owned by the same company and selling the same or similar merchandise. Chain stores aim to benefit from volume buying discounts and achieve cost savings through economies of scope (e.g. centralised warehousing, marketing, promotion and administration) and pass on the cost savings in the form of lower prices.
Concept stores are similar to speciality stores in that they are very small in size, and only stock a limited range of brands or a single brand. They are typically operated by the brand that controls them. Example: L'OCCITANE en Provence. The limited size and offering of L'OCCITANE's stores is too small to be considered a speciality store. However, a concept store goes beyond merely selling products, and instead offers an immersive customer experience built around the way that a brand fits with the customer 's lifestyle. Examples include Apple 's concept stores, Kit Kat 's concept store in Japan.
A co-operative store; also known as a co-op or coop, is a venture owned and operated by consumers to meet their social, economic and cultural needs.
A convenience store provides limited amount of merchandise at above average prices with a speedy checkout. This store is ideal for emergency and immediate purchase consumables as it often operates with extended hours, stocking every day.
Department stores are very large stores offering an extensive assortment of both "soft '' and "hard '' goods which often bear a resemblance to a collection of specialty stores. A retailer of such store carries a variety of categories and has a broad assortment of goods at moderate prices. They offer considerable customer service.
A destination store is one that customers will initiate a trip specifically to visit, sometimes over a large area. These stores are often used to "anchor '' a shopping mall or plaza, generating foot traffic, which is capitalized upon by smaller retailers.
Retailers that aim at one particular segment (e.g. high - end retailers focusing on wealthy individuals or niche market).
Discount stores tend to offer a wide array of products and services, but they compete mainly on price. They offer extensive assortments of merchandise at prices lower than other retailers and are designed to be affordable for the market served. In the past, retailers sold less fashion - oriented brands. However, in more recent years companies such as TJX Companies (Own T.J. Maxx and Marshalls) and Ross Stores are discount store operations increasingly offering fashion - oriented brands on a larger scale.
The customer can shop and order through the internet and the merchandise is dropped at the customer 's doorstep or an e-tailer. In some cases, e-retailers use drop shipping technique. They accept the payment for the product but the customer receives the product directly from the manufacturer or a wholesaler. This format is ideal for customers who do not want to travel to retail stores and are interested in home shopping.
A general merchandise retailer stocks a variety of products in considerable depth. The types of product offerings vary across this category. Department stores, convenience stores, hypermarkets and warehouse clubs are all examples of general merchandise retailers.
As the name implies, a give - away shop provides goods for free. There are several different models of give - away shop in popular use. One is where goods are free to any shopper; an alternative is that shoppers must provide a product before they can take a product and a third variation is where consumers have the option of taking goods for free or paying any amount that they can afford. For example, Australia 's restaurant group Lentil as Anything operates on a pay whatever you feel is right model.
Hawkers also known as a peddler, costermonger or street vendor; is a vendor of merchandise that is readily portable. Hawkers typically operate in public places such as streets, squares, public parks or gardens or near the entrances of high traffic venues such as zoos, music and entertainment venues. Hawkers are a relatively common sight across Asia.
A hypermarket (also known as hypermart) provides variety and huge volumes of exclusive merchandise at low margins. The operating cost is comparatively less than other retail formats; may be defined as "a combined supermarket and discount store, at least 200,000 square feet (19,000 m) or larger, that sells a wide variety of food and general merchandise at a low price. ''
A general store is a store that supplies the main needs of the local community and is often located in outback or rural areas with low population densities. In areas of very low population density, a general store may be the only retail outlet within hundreds of miles. The general store carries a very broad product assortment -- from foodstuffs and pharmaceuticals through to hardware and fuel. In addition, a general store may provide essential services such as postal services, banking services, news agency services and may also act as an agent for farm equipment and stock - food suppliers.
A mall has a range of retail shops at a single building or outlet, arranged on a single level or multiple levels. A shopping mall typically includes one or more anchor stores. The retail mix in a mall may include outlets such as food and entertainment, grocery, electronics, furniture, gifts and fashion. Malls provide 7 % of retail revenue in India, 10 % in Vietnam, 25 % in China, 28 % in Indonesia, 39 % in the Philippines, and 45 % in Thailand. Malls are typically managed by a central management / marketing authority which ensures that the mall attracts the right type of retailer and an appropriate retail mix.
A small retail outlet owned and operated by an individual or family. Focuses on a relatively limited and selective set of products.
A Pop - up retail store is a temporary retail space that opens for a short period of time, possibly opening to sell a specific run of merchandise or for a special occasion or holiday period. The key to the success of a pop - up is novelty in the merchandise.
retail market is defined as the retail sales of all products, packed and unpacked where the sale is to end users. Globally, different terms may be used to refer to a retail market. For instance, in the Middle East, a market place may be known as a bazaar or souq / souk
A market square is a city square where traders set up stalls and buyers browse the stores. This kind of market is very ancient, and countless such markets are still in operation around the whole world.
A speciality (AE: specialty) store has a narrow marketing focus -- either specializing on specific merchandise, such as toys, footwear, or clothing, or on a target audience, such as children, tourists, or plus - size women. Size of store varies -- some speciality stores might be retail giants such as Toys "R '' Us, Foot Locker, and The Body Shop, while others might be small, individual shops such as Nutters of Savile Row. Such stores, regardless of size, tend to have a greater depth of the specialist stock than general stores, and generally offer specialist product knowledge valued by the consumer. Pricing is usually not the priority when consumers are deciding upon a speciality store; factors such as branding image, selection choice, and purchasing assistance are seen as important. They differ from department stores and supermarkets which carry a wide range of merchandise.
A supermarket is a self - service store consisting mainly of grocery and limited products on non-food items. They may adopt a Hi - Lo or an EDLP strategy for pricing. The supermarkets can be anywhere between 20,000 square feet (1,900 m) and 40,000 square feet (3,700 m). Example: SPAR supermarket.
Variety stores offer extremely low - cost goods, with a vast array of selection. The downfall to this is that the items are not very high quality.
A vending machine is an automated piece of equipment wherein customers can drop the money in the machine which dispenses the customer 's selection. The vending machine is a pure self - service option. Machines may carry a phone number which customers can call in the event of a fault.
Some stores take a no frills approach, while others are "mid-range '' or "high end '', depending on what income level they target.
Warehouse clubs are membership - based retailers that usually sell a wide variety of merchandise, in which customers may buy large, wholesale quantities of the store 's products, which makes these clubs attractive to both bargain hunters and small business owners. The clubs are able to keep prices low due to the no - frills format of the stores. In addition, customers may be required to pay annual membership fees in order to shop.
Warehouse stores are retailers housed in warehouses, and offer low - cost, often high - quantity goods with minimal services, e.g. goods are piled on pallets or steel shelves.
Other types of retail store include:
Some shops sell second - hand goods. In the case of a nonprofit shop, the public donates goods to the shop to be sold. In give - away shops goods can be taken free.
Retailers can opt for a format as each provides different retail mix to its customers based on their customer demographics, lifestyle and purchase behaviour. A good format will lend a hand to display products well and entice the target customers to spawn sales.
To achieve and maintain a foothold in an existing market, a prospective retail establishment must overcome the following hurdles:
China is currently the largest retail market in the world.
Retail stores may or may not have competitors close enough to affect their pricing, product availability, and other operations. A 2006 survey found that only 38 % of retail stores in India believed they faced more than slight competition. Competition also affected less than half of retail stores in Kazakhstan, Bulgaria, and Azerbaijan. In all countries the main competition was domestic, not foreign.
Retail trade provides 9 % of all jobs in India and 14 % of GDP.
Between 1985 and 2018 there have been 46,755 mergers or acquisitions conducted globally in the retail sector (either acquirer or target from the retail industry). These deals cumulate to an overall known value of around 2.561 bil. USD. The three major Retail M&A waves took place in 2000, 2007 and lately in 2017. However the all - time high in terms of number of deals was in 2016 with more than 2,700 deals. In terms of added value 2007 set the record with 225 bil. USD.
Here is a list of the top ten largest deals (ranked by volume) in the Retail Industry:
The United States retail sector features the largest number of large, lucrative retailers in the world. A 2012 Deloitte report published in STORES magazine indicated that of the world 's top 250 largest retailers by retail sales revenue in fiscal year 2010, 32 % of those retailers were based in the United States, and those 32 % accounted for 41 % of the total retail sales revenue of the top 250.
Since 1951, the U.S. Census Bureau has published the Retail Sales report every month. It is a measure of consumer spending, an important indicator of the US GDP. Retail firms provide data on the dollar value of their retail sales and inventories. A sample of 12,000 firms is included in the final survey and 5,000 in the advanced one. The advanced estimated data is based on a subsample from the US CB complete retail & food services sample.
In 2011, the grocery market in six countries of Central Europe was worth nearly € 107bn, 2.8 % more than the previous year when expressed in local currencies. The increase was generated foremost by the discount stores and supermarket segments, and was driven by the skyrocketing prices of foodstuffs. This information is based on the latest PMR report entitled Grocery retail in Central Europe 2012
National accounts show a combined total of retail and wholesale trade, with hotels and restaurants. in 2012 the sector provides over a fifth of GDP in tourist - oriented island economies, as well as in other major countries such as Brazil, Pakistan, Russia, and Spain. In all four of the latter countries, this fraction is an increase over 1970, but there are other countries where the sector has declined since 1970, sometimes in absolute terms, where other sectors have replaced its role in the economy. In the United States the sector has declined from 19 % of GDP to 14 %, though it has risen in absolute terms from $4,500 to $7,400 per capita per year. In China the sector has grown from 7.3 % to 11.5 %, and in India even more, from 8.4 % to 18.7 %. Emarketer predicts China will have the largest retail market in the world in 2016.
In 2016, China became the largest retail market in the world.
Among retailers and retails chains a lot of consolidation has appeared over the last couple of decades. Between 1988 and 2010, worldwide 40,788 mergers & acquisitions with a total known value of 2.255 trillion USD have been announced. The largest transactions with involvement of retailers in / from the United States have been: the acquisition of Albertson 's Inc. for 17 bil. USD in 2006, the merger between Federated Department Stores Inc with May Department Stores valued at 16.5 bil. USD in 2005 -- now Macy 's, and the merger between Kmart Holding Corp and Sears Roebuck & Co with a value of 10.9 bil. USD in 2004.
Macy 's Herald Square, New York City
A French itinerant vendor depicted selling medicine from a stage
Goods displayed in the souq of Marrakech
Types of sales person:
Types of store or shop:
Influential thinkers in sales and retail:
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abbott and costello meet the keystone kops full movie | Abbott and Costello Meet the Keystone Kops - wikipedia
Abbott and Costello Meet the Keystone Kops is a 1955 film starring the comedy team of Abbott and Costello.
After the film was completed, Universal - International wanted to rename it Abbott and Costello in the Stunt Men, because they did not consider the "Keystone Kops '' to be relevant anymore. However, in October 1954, the studio relented and agreed to use the "Keystone Kops '' name.
Harry Pierce (Bud Abbott) and his friend, Willie Piper (Lou Costello), invest $5,000 in a motion picture studio. They are sold a deed to the Edison Studio by a con man, Joe Gorman (Fred Clark), who immediately leaves town with his girlfriend, Leota Van Cleef (Lynn Bari). The couple heads to Hollywood where he poses as a European director, Sergei Toumanoff, who plans to make a film starring Leota. Meanwhile, Harry and Willie pursue Gorman across the country in hopes of getting their money back after learning that the deed they purchased is worthless. They hop off a freight train near Los Angeles and stumble onto the set of the western film that Toumanoff happens to be directing. He is furious with the interruption, but the head of the movie studio, Mr. Snavely (Frank Wilcox), hires Harry and Willie because he is impressed with their "stunt work ''.
Toumanoff plots to dispose of Harry and Willie before they can learn his true identity, and he arranges for Willie to double for Leota during a dangerous airplane stunt. His cohort, Hinds (Maxie Rosenbloom), sabotages their parachute and arranges for live bullets to be fired from the other plane in the scene, but Harry and Willie manage to avoid harm. After viewing the film of the airplane stunt, Snavely decides that Harry and Willie would make a great comedy team, and assigns a visibly annoyed Toumanoff to direct them in a film. (Snavely is aware that Toumanoff is actually Gorman, and has arranged for everyone that has been swindled to get their money back if Toumanoff agrees, which he does). Gorman and Leota then go about robbing the studio safe of $75,000, but are discovered by Harry and Willie, who give chase. The studio 's Keystone Kops are asked by Harry and Willie, who believe they are real policemen, to assist in the chase. The Kops decide to play along, believing that they are on the same work team. The chase progresses onto the city streets before ending at an airport where the swindlers are finally captured. Unfortunately, the stolen money is blown away by the wind generated by the airplane 's propeller.
Lou Costello 's daughter Carole played the theater cashier at the beginning of the film, hence the in - joke:
Lou: You 're cute.
Cashier: You 're silly.
Lou: So is your old man.
Filming ran from June 7 through July 9, 1954, and included cameos by Costello 's daughter, Carole, as a theater cashier, Keystone Cops director Mack Sennett as himself, as well as three original Keystone Cops, Hank Mann, Heinie Conklin, and Herold Goodwin.
The scenes at the very beginning of the movie, where Costello 's character, Willie Piper, is watching the film Eliza and the Bloodhounds in a theater, featured stock footage from Universal 's 1927 silent version of Uncle Tom 's Cabin. However, Abbott & Costello Meet the Keystone Kops is set in 1910.
This film was released twice on DVD, on The Best of Abbott and Costello Volume Four, on October 4, 2005, and again on October 28, 2008 as part of Abbott and Costello: The Complete Universal Pictures Collection.
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who produced tyler the creator's new album | Tyler, the Creator - wikipedia
Tyler Gregory Okonma (born March 6, 1991), better known by his stage name Tyler, The Creator, is an American rapper, record producer, and music video director. Born in Ladera Heights, California, he rose to prominence as the leader and co-founder of the alternative hip hop collective Odd Future and has rapped on and produced songs for nearly every Odd Future release. Okonma creates all the artwork for the group 's releases and designs the group 's clothing and other merchandise as well.
After releasing his debut album Goblin under XL Recordings, in April 2011, he signed a joint venture deal for him and his label Odd Future Records, with RED Distribution and Sony Music Entertainment. Following that he released his second studio album Wolf, which was met with generally positive reviews and debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 selling 90,000 copies in its first week. He has his own clothing company, called Golf Wang, started in 2011, and a carnival, named Camp Flog Gnaw, hosted annually since 2012. He runs his own streaming service Golf Media; it contains original scripted series from Tyler himself and Camp Flog Gnaw streams there yearly.
Tyler Gregory Okonma was born on March 6, 1991 in Ladera Heights, California, the son of a Nigerian father and a mother of African - American and European - Canadian descent. He has said that he has never met his father, and spent his early life living in the communities of Ladera Heights and Hawthorne, California. At the age of seven, he would take the cover out of an album 's case and create covers for his own imaginary albums -- including a track list with song lengths -- before he could even make music. At the age of 14, he taught himself to play the piano. In his 12 years of schooling, he attended 12 different schools in the Los Angeles and Sacramento areas. He worked at FedEx for just under two weeks, and Starbucks for over two years.
On December 25, 2009, Tyler self - released his first mixtape, Bastard. The mixtape was eventually ranked 32nd on Pitchfork Media 's list of the Top Albums of 2010. On February 11, 2011, Tyler released the music video for "Yonkers, '' the first single from his first album, Goblin, which was released May 10, 2011. The video has received attention from several online media outlets. An extended version with a third verse can be purchased on iTunes.
After the release of "Yonkers '', Tyler announced that he had signed a one - album deal with XL Recordings. Tyler and fellow OF member Hodgy Beats made their television debut on February 16, 2011 when they performed "Sandwitches '' on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. On March 16, Tyler and Hodgy performed "Yonkers '' and "Sandwitches '' on the 2011 mtvU Woodie Awards, being joined by other members of Odd Future during "Sandwitches ''. Goblin was released on May 10, 2011. During an interview with Tyler for Interview, Waka Flocka Flame expressed his interest in collaborating with the Odd Future frontman to direct a music video for him.
Tyler first mentioned the album in early 2010 saying that he would have an album titled Wolf. In early 2011 he told fans through his Formspring account that his third album would be called Wolf and it was scheduled to be released in May 2012. The album will continue Tyler 's sessions with his fictional therapist, Dr. TC, as hinted by the title track on his mixtape, Bastard, in which Dr. TC says "this is the first of three sessions... '' Tyler 's second album Wolf, released on April 2, 2013, contains the instrumentals that Tyler has been making since the age of 15. In August 2011, Tyler said that the album will be more focused on beats and have less rapping.
During the time fans have been in waiting for Wolf, Tyler performed several guest verses for other artists, notably "Trouble on My Mind '' by GOOD Music artist Pusha T, "Martians vs. Goblins by Game (also featuring Lil Wayne), "I'ma Hata '' by DJ Drama (also featuring Waka Flocka Flame and D - Bo), the title track from fellow Odd Future member Domo Genesis ' collaboration album with The Alchemist, No Idols, and "Blossom & Burn '' by Trash Talk (also featuring Hodgy Beats). Tyler also co-produced the song "666 '' from MellowHype 's third album Numbers, which featured Mike G. Tyler won Best New Artist for "Yonkers '' at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards. In an interview with DJ Semtex, he confirmed that he will handle all the production on his upcoming album, except one song produced by Left Brain. This was how the production on Goblin was dealt with.
Tyler initially announced in early 2011, after Los Angeles hip hop collective Odd Future announced, that they will get their own TV show called Loiter Squad. It was n't until September 8, 2011 that the show was finally confirmed as a 15 - minute live action show composed of various sketches, man on the street segments, pranks and music made by OF. Dickhouse Productions, the production partnership that created Jackass, is scheduled to produce the show. The show premiered on March 25, 2012. Tyler has also directed music videos, acted in two roles, and also done work as a graphic artist.
On February 14, 2013, OFWGKTA uploaded a video to their YouTube account, which includes L - Boy skydiving and stating that Wolf will be released on April 2, 2013. The same day Tyler would reveal the three album covers via his Instagram. Through March and April Tyler will tour North America and Europe on the Wolf Tour. The first single from the album was released on February 14, 2013, titled "Domo23 '' along with the music video which features cameos from Domo Genesis, Earl Sweatshirt, Jasper Dolphin and Taco Bennett. On February 26, 2013, Tyler performed the songs "Domo23 '' and "Treehome95 '' on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon.
Wolf was released on April 2, 2013 by Odd Future Records and RED Distribution under Sony Music Entertainment. It featured guest appearances by Frank Ocean, Mike G, Domo Genesis, Earl Sweatshirt, Left Brain, Hodgy Beats, Pharrell, Casey Veggies and Erykah Badu. The album was produced solely by Tyler, The Creator, except for the final track "Lone ''. Along with the lead single "Domo23 '', music videos were filmed for "Bimmer '', "IFHY '' and "Jamba ''. Upon release the album was met with generally positive reviews and debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 selling 90,000 copies in its first week.
On January 31, 2014, Tyler was reported to be recording with Mac DeMarco.
On April 9, 2015, Tyler released a new song entitled "Fucking Young '' to the official OFWGKTA YouTube page along with a music video and short preview of another song entitled "Deathcamp ''. Tyler announced the same day that the songs will be featured on an upcoming album entitled Cherry Bomb due for release on April 13, 2015. Tyler announced via his Twitter account that the album is to feature Charlie Wilson, Chaz Bundick and Cole Alexander from Black Lips. Two days later, Tyler performed the songs "Fucking Young '' and "Deathcamp '' for the first time at Coachella music festival. During the set, Tyler notably criticized VIP members in the audience, of which many were celebrities, for their lack of enthusiasm.
Tyler 's third album Cherry Bomb was released digitally on April 13, 2015, through Tyler 's own label Odd Future Records, with physical copies of the album, featuring five different album covers, set to be released on April 28, 2015. The album features performances from notable artists such as Kanye West, Lil Wayne and Schoolboy Q. The album will be supported with a world tour through North America, Europe and Asia, beginning at Coachella music festival on April 11, 2015 and ending in Tokyo, Japan in September 2015. Tyler cancelled the Australian leg of his Cherry Bomb World Tour following a campaign by the grassroots organization Collective Shout against the portrayal of women in his music.
On August 26, 2015, Tyler revealed that he had been banned from visiting the UK for three to five years, which forced him to cancel a string of tour dates supporting the Cherry Bomb album including the Reading and Leeds Festivals. The reason for the ban comes from lyrics dating back to 2009, as well as the content on his first two albums, Goblin and Bastard. His manager Christian Clancy said they were informed of the ban via a letter from then - Home Secretary Theresa May. May cited lyrics from the album Bastard as the reason for the ban though Tyler had toured multiple times in the UK since its release in 2009. Tyler later claimed that he felt he had been treated "like a terrorist '' and implied that the ban was racially motivated, stating that "they did not like the fact that their children were idolising a black man ''.
On April 8, 2017, R&B artist Frank Ocean released a song titled "Biking '' on his Beats One radio station "blonded Radio '', which features both Tyler, the Creator and Jay Z, and eight days later it was announced Tyler would write, produce, and perform the theme song for scientist Bill Nye 's new show, Bill Nye Saves the World.
On June 28th, the trailer for Tyler 's newest TV show, Nuts + Bolts premiered. The show focuses on things Tyler the Creator finds interesting or is passionate about, and explains how they are created. The series premiered on August 3rd, 2017.
On June 29, 2017, Tyler released a song titled "Who Dat Boy '' featuring A $ AP Rocky on a new YouTube channel following many promotional countdown posts on his social media accounts. Later that night, he released the song on streaming services with a new song titled "911 / Mr. Lonely '' featuring Steve Lacy, Frank Ocean, and Anna of the North. On July 6, 2017, he announced the name, track - list and release date of his fourth album, Flower Boy, which was released on July 21, 2017.
Several singles were released following up to the album 's release date, including "Boredom '' and "I Ai n't Got Time! ''. The album was released over iTunes, Spotify, and other major music services at 9 P.M. PST on July 20, or Midnight EST on July 21.
On September 14th, 2017, Tyler the Creator announced his third TV show to date, The Jellies. It is an animated comedy and is scheduled to premiere on October 22nd, 2017.
Lyrics on the album Flower Boy led to speculation among the public and media that Tyler was coming out as gay on the album. The tracks in question were "Foreword '', "Garden Shed '', and "I Ai n't Got Time! '' Tyler further fuelled the discussion when he seemingly revealed in an interview with Koopz Tunes that he had a boyfriend when he was 15, saying "Open - minded now? I had a boyfriend when I was 15 in fucking Hawthorne, nigga, if that 's not open - minded, then I do n't know what the fuck that is '' He later claimed it was a figure of speech.
He has identified as an atheist and has had explicitly anti-religious lyrics in his music, especially on the albums Bastard and Goblin, but has said some things that suggest he is an agnostic as well.
Tyler has been criticized for his use of homophobic slurs, in particular, his frequent use of the epithet "faggot '' in his lyrics and on Twitter. He has denied accusations of homophobia, stating, "I 'm not homophobic. I just say faggot and use gay as an adjective to describe stupid shit, '' and, "I 'm not homophobic. I just think faggot hits and hurts people. '' However, he later said in an interview with MTV about the slurs, "Well, I have gay fans and they do n't really take it offensive, so I do n't know. If it offends you, it offends you. If you call me a nigger, I really do n't care, but that 's just me, personally. Some people might take it the other way; I personally do n't give a shit. '' Despite making several remarks that have been taken as homophobic, Tyler, The Creator was among the first to openly support fellow Odd Future member Frank Ocean after publicly revealing a past relationship with another young man.
Tyler has also been criticized for his graphic depictions of violence against women and his allegedly misogynistic lyrics. Brent DiCrescenzo of Time Out Chicago writes that rape is a "predominant theme '' of Goblin and Hermione Hoby of The Guardian writes that Tyler 's "rape and murder fantasies (are) graphic enough to send the vomit rising along with the bile. '' The Fader tallied 68 uses of the term "bitch '' over Goblin 's 73 minutes. Responding to Canadian indie pop duo Tegan and Sara 's criticism of his lyrics, Tyler tweeted: "If Tegan and Sara need some hard dick, hit me up! ''
A series of three commercials for Mountain Dew directed by Tyler created controversy in May 2013, accused of using "racial stereotypes '' and "making light of violence against women ''. In the spots an energy drink - loving goat character called "Felicia the Goat '' is consecutively being "scapegoated '' in a diner, in prison and on the road. During the 60 - second ad in prison, a battered white woman on crutches examines a police line - up consisting of several African American men and one goat, while the goat antagonizes the woman. Syracuse professor and social critic Boyce Watkins stated that the ad was "arguably the most racist commercial in history ''. PepsiCo pulled the ad and apologized. Tyler released a statement claiming that the ad was not meant to "spark a controversy about race '' and that "it was simply an, again, admittedly absurd story that was never meant to be taken seriously. ''
On March 15, 2014, Tyler was arrested for inciting a riot after having shouted to fans to push their way past security guards at a sold - out show at the South by Southwest music festival.
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who killed bruce wayne's parents in gotham show | Joe Chill - wikipedia
Joe Chill is a fictional character appearing in comic books published by DC Comics, commonly in association with the superhero Batman. Created by Bill Finger and Bob Kane, the character first appeared in Detective Comics # 33 (November 1939).
In Batman 's origin story, Joe Chill is the Gotham City mugger who murders young Bruce Wayne 's parents, Dr. Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne. The murder traumatizes Bruce, and he swears to avenge their deaths by fighting crime as the vigilante Batman.
Joe Chill first appears in Detective Comics # 33 and was created by Bill Finger and Bob Kane.
Not much is known about Chill except that he is, in most versions of Batman, a petty mugger who kills Bruce 's parents Thomas and Martha while trying to take their money and jewelry. When he demands Martha 's necklace, Thomas moves to protect his wife and Chill kills him; he then kills Martha when she screams for help (in later versions up to the 1970s, Martha dies from a heart attack brought on from the shock of seeing her husband murdered). Chill panics and runs away when Bruce begins crying and calling for help -- but not before the boy memorizes his features. In at least three versions of the Batman mythos, the Waynes ' killer is never identified.
Batman 's origin story is first established in a sequence of panels in Detective Comics # 33 (November 1939) that is later reproduced in the comic book Batman # 1 (Spring 1940), but the mugger is not given a name until Batman # 47 (June -- July 1948). In that issue, Batman discovers that Joe Chill, the small - time crime boss he is investigating, is none other than the man who killed his parents. Batman confronts him with the knowledge that Chill killed Thomas and Martha Wayne. Chill, believing there is no way Batman could know this, accuses him of bluffing, but Batman reveals his secret identity quoting "I 'm the son of the man you murdered. I 'm Bruce Wayne. '' Terrified, Chill flees and seeks protection from his henchmen. Once his henchmen learn that Chill 's actions led to the hated Batman 's existence, however, they turn on their boss and gun him down before realizing how priceless his knowledge of Batman 's true identity is. Before the dying Chill has a chance to reveal Batman 's identity, the Dark Knight intervenes and knocks out the goons so they will never hear what Chill has to say. Chill expires in Batman 's arms, acknowledging that the Dark Knight got his revenge after all. Len Wein and John Byrne add a one - panel coda in their retelling of this scene in the first issue of The Untold Legend of the Batman. Batman stands over Chill 's body and says "No, Chill -- The Batman did n't finish you... It was Bruce Wayne! ''
In Detective Comics # 235 (1956), Batman learns that Chill was not a mere mugger, but actually a hitman who murdered the Waynes on orders from a mob boss named Lew Moxon. Batman also deduced that was why he himself was left unharmed by Chill: so he would unwittingly support Moxon 's alibi that he had nothing to do with a robbery that became a felony murder.
In The Brave and the Bold # 79 (Sep. 1968), Joe Chill is revealed to have a brother named Max who is also a criminal. Max Chill is suspected of having murdered Boston Brand (AKA Deadman), though the suspicion proves erroneous. Max is killed when a stack of slot machines falls onto him.
In Batman # 208 (Jan. / Feb. 1969), it is revealed that both Joe and Max had changed their name to Chill from Chilton and that their mother is Alice Chilton was the housekeeper to Bruce Wayne 's uncle Philip Wayne. Philip became guardian of Bruce after his parents ' deaths. As he was often away on business, Mrs. Chilton played the primary parental role in the boy 's life. As an adult, Bruce continues to visit the elderly woman, whom he still calls "Ma Chilton ''. He is unaware of her connection with Joe and Max Chill. For her part, Mrs. Chilton knows Bruce is secretly Batman and is proud of him. She is also aware that her sons died fighting him as she still mourns their deaths. (Perhaps because they were both domestic servants, Alfred, the adult Bruce 's butler, was secretly aware of Mrs. Chilton 's connection, but he kept that information from Bruce. He once mused that "in her own way, that dear woman more than made up for her son 's heinous crime. '')
In the 1987 storyline "Batman: Year Two '', Chill played a key role. Several Gotham City crime bosses pool their resources to deal with a vigilante called the Reaper, and Chill is hired to take him out. When Batman proposes an alliance it is agreed that he and Chill will work together -- something Batman finds repugnant, but which he nevertheless justifies to himself as necessary to tackle the Reaper. He vows to kill Chill afterwards. Chill is also commissioned to kill Batman after the Reaper has been disposed of. During a major confrontation, the crime bosses are all killed in a battle at a warehouse, in which the Reaper seemingly also perishes. Chill reasons that he now no longer needs to fulfill his contract, but Batman takes him to "Crime Alley '', the scene of his parents ' murder. There he confronts Chill and reveals his identity. Batman has Chill at gunpoint, but the Reaper appears and guns Chill down. It is left ambiguous as to whether or not Batman would have actually pulled the trigger.
In the 1991 sequel to "Year Two '', Batman: Full Circle, Chill 's son Joe Chill, Jr. assumes the identity of the Reaper in order to seek revenge for his father 's death. He attempts to drive Batman insane by using hallucinogenic drugs in conjunction with a faked video of the Waynes ' murder to trigger Batman 's survivor 's guilt over his parents ' death. After the intervention of Robin, Batman frees himself from the drug - induced haze. After the new Reaper is defeated, Batman learns to let go of his hatred of Chill.
In Detective Comics # 678, a "Zero Hour '' crossover story, Batman finds himself in an alternate timeline where he was the mugger 's victim, not his parents. Investigating the crime, he discovers that Chill, at least in this timeline, did not commit the murder. Once he returns to his proper time, Bruce Wayne is plagued with doubt. He wonders if it is possible that he never actually caught or confronted his parents ' killer. He also wonders if that makes any difference regarding his crimefighting career. Ultimately, he concludes that it does not.
In 2006, Infinite Crisis # 6 reestablished that Chill murdered Thomas and Martha Wayne, and that he was later arrested on that same night for their murder.
In the 2008 Grant Morrison story "Joe Chill in Hell '' (featured in Batman # 673), Chill is reinterpreted as a mid-level crime boss who builds the Land, Sea, Air Transport company from the ground up (most likely through illegal means). He blames his crimes, including murdering the Waynes, on class warfare. In this story, Batman has visited and frightened Chill every night for a month. Chill is living as a shut - in, but his guards never see or catch Batman during the visits. On his final visit, Batman gives Chill the gun he used to kill the Waynes. There is one bullet left within it. Chill finally realizes who Batman is and fears what his fellow gangsters would do to him if they found out. It is hinted that he commits suicide. Considering the issue consists of Bruce 's flashbacks and hallucinations from an experiment he undergoes during his early career, however, it is left ambiguous whether the events of the issue are real.
In 2009 's Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? by Neil Gaiman, Joe Chill is seen as the bartender attending Batman 's funeral (the funeral itself being a near death experience). Batman, who is observing the event as well as Catwoman, note that Joe Chill should be dead. Chill notes that he was there at the birth of Batman and it is only fitting he should be there to witness the end.
In The New 52, the 2011 reboot DC Comics ' continuity, an 18 - year - old Bruce Wayne tracks Chill down and holds him at gunpoint, demanding to know who hired him to kill his parents. Chill responds that he just wanted Martha Wayne 's pearls so he could buy alcohol and that he did n't even know who the Waynes were until the next day. Enraged that his parents died for nothing, Bruce prepares to kill Chill, but relents at the last minute when he realizes that his father would not have wanted that. After sparing Chill 's life, Bruce Wayne leaves Gotham City.
In Frank Miller 's 1986 limited series Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, Bruce Wayne finally resolves his feelings towards Chill (who is not named). While about to be mugged by street punks, Bruce initially fantasizes that the two amateur criminals are Chill, so he can take out his rage on them. They leave him alone, however, after realizing he would have fought them where he quoted "Look at him. He 's into it. '' "No fun when they 're into it. '' Bruce realizes that Chill had not killed his parents for killing 's sake, as the two punks wanted to do to him, and thus was not truly evil. "All he wanted was money, '' he thinks to himself. "He was sick and guilty over what he did. I was naïve enough to think him the lowest sort of man. ''
In the comics featuring the Crime Syndicate of America, it is revealed that on the Syndicate 's alternate Earth that Joe Chill is a friend of Dr. Thomas Wayne. One night, a police officer wants to bring the elder Wayne in for questioning. When he refuses, the police officer opens fire. This Earth 's version of Bruce Wayne and his mother are killed. Chill comes out of the alley to discover the dead bodies and the Waynes ' younger son Thomas Wayne Jr., leaves with him.
In the alternate universe of Flashpoint, Joe Chill shoots and kills the young Bruce Wayne, and Thomas Wayne seeks to kill him and avenge his son. He locates Chill and attempts to inject him with a drug, but instead beats him to death. Afterwards, Thomas puts Chill 's gun in a trophy display in the Batcave.
Joe Chill is featured in many Elseworld titles, including Superman: Speeding Bullets, Citizen Wayne, Batman: In Darkest Knight, Batman: Holy Terror, Batman in Arkham, JLA: Destiny, and Dark Knight Dynasty.
Joe Chill is featured in the comic book continuation of the television series Smallville. He worked as an Intergang contact before being killed by Mr. Freeze.
Joe Chill appears in The Batman Adventures # 17, which is set in the continuity of Batman: The Animated Series and its DCAU spinoffs. In a story by Ty Templeton entitled "Fear Itself '', Chill is shown to have spent his whole life as a career criminal since the night he murdered Bruce 's parents. The story begins with Chill being released from prison after finishing a sentence for an unrelated crime, and it is apparent that he has been living in fear since that fateful night. Chill is convinced that Bruce Wayne, now one of the most powerful men on the planet, is biding his time to exact revenge. Chill 's paranoia is so severe that he begins to see Bruce 's face everywhere around him, even on other people. His paranoia goes into overdrive when he discovers that the retired detective who originally worked on the Wayne case has finally discovered evidence to reveal his guilt. Chill tracks the retired detective to his apartment and attempts to kill him, but Batman intervenes, unaware of who Chill is. In a brief scuffle Chill manages to unmask Batman, revealing the visage of Bruce Wayne. Terrified, Chill falls off a balcony, and Batman jumps after him in an attempt to save his life. Batman nearly catches Chill, who pushes him away and falls to his death. Batman is left at the end of the story wondering who the mysterious man was and why he would rather die than accept his help. In Batman Beyond, Bruce has found out that Joe Chill was the one who murdered his family.
In Batman Beyond Unlimited, set in the DC Animated Universe, Chill is revealed to have a brother. Chill 's grandnephew eventually has a child of his own, Jake. In the continuity, Jake Chill is a former security guard at Wayne - Powers, working under Derek Powers ' "Quiet Squad. '' Having killed Warren McGinnis under Mr. Fixx 's orders, Jake repeats his great - granduncle 's history with the Waynes and indirectly creates another Batman. Though no one has discovered his involvement with McGinnis ' murder, Jake Chill is wracked with guilt and decides to become a vigilante to redeem his family 's sins. Jake takes the name Vigilante, modified the uniform he got from his former employer as his costume, and works with Batman to stop a riot led by the Jokerz. He is eventually killed in the "Mark of the Phantasm '' storyline, where he suffers a seizure after being injected with Joker Toxin and inhaling the Phantasm 's fear gas. Though Terry lashed out at Jake after discovering Jake killed his father, he ultimately respected Jake as a hero and did n't think that Jake deserved to die the way he did.
In Andrew Vachss ' novel Batman: The Ultimate Evil, Chill (who is never seen) is revealed to have killed Bruce Wayne 's parents on the orders of an international ring of pedophiles. They wanted to silence Bruce 's mother Martha, who was investigating a network of sexual slavery and child pornography.
On the alternate world of Earth - Two as part of The New 52, Joe Chill is a hired assassin who shoots Thomas and Martha Wayne. Chill is later killed when Thomas Wayne (who had survived the shooting) crushes his skull in retaliation for Martha 's death.
In the prequel comic to Justice League: Gods and Monsters, Joe Chill is the right - hand man of Lew Moxon. When Batman corners them during a meeting with the other crimelords, killed Lew Moxon and drank Joe ' Chill 's blood. Upon becoming a vampire, Joe Chill later kills Lew Moxon 's wife Angela. Batman avenged her death by killing the vampire Joe Chill with an axe.
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who plays berlin in the life of david gale | The Life of David Gale - wikipedia
The Life of David Gale is a 2003 American drama film directed by Alan Parker (in his final film as a director) and written by Charles Randolph. The film is an international co-production, between the United States, Germany and the United Kingdom.
Kevin Spacey played the eponymous character, a college professor and longtime activist against capital punishment who is sentenced to death for killing a fellow capital punishment opponent. Kate Winslet and Laura Linney co-star.
David Gale is a professor who is a prisoner on death row in Texas. With only a few days until his execution, his lawyer negotiates a half million - dollar fee to tell his story to Bitsey Bloom, a journalist from a major news magazine. She is known for her ability to keep secrets and protect her sources. He tells her the story of how he ended up on death row, revealed to the audience through a series of lengthy flashbacks.
Gale is head of the philosophy department at the University of Texas and an active member of DeathWatch, an advocacy group campaigning against capital punishment. At a graduation party, he encounters Berlin, an attractive graduate student who had been expelled from the school. When Gale gets drunk at the party, she seduces him and gets him to have sex with her. She then falsely accuses Gale of rape. The next day, he loses a televised debate with the Governor of Texas when he is unable to point to an example of a demonstrably innocent man being executed during that governor 's term. After losing the debate, Gale is arrested and charged with rape. While the rape charge against Gale is later dropped, the damage had already been done, and his family, marriage, university career and reputation are all destroyed.
Constance Harraway, a fellow DeathWatch activist, is a close friend of Gale who consoles him after his life falls apart, and the pair have sex. However, the next day, Harraway is discovered raped and murdered, suffocated by a plastic bag taped over her head. An autopsy reveals that she had been forced to swallow the key to the handcuffs used to restrain her, a psychological torture technique used by the Securitate under the communist regime of Nicolae Ceauşescu, which Gale and Harraway had both protested against. The physical evidence at the crime scene points to Gale, who is convicted of rape and murder and is sentenced to death.
In the present, Bloom investigates the case in between her visits with Gale. She comes to believe that the apparent evidence against Gale does not add up. She is tailed several times in her car by a person who turns out to be Dusty Wright, the alleged one - time lover and colleague of Harraway, who she suspects was the real killer. Wright slips evidence to Bloom that suggests Gale has been "framed '', implying that the actual murderer videotaped the crime. Bloom pursues this lead until she finds a tape revealing that Harraway, who was suffering from terminal leukemia, had committed an elaborate suicide made to look like murder. Wright is seen on the videotape, acting as her accomplice, implying that they framed Gale as part of a plan to discredit the death penalty by conspiring to execute an innocent person, and subsequently releasing evidence of the actual circumstances.
Once Bloom and her aide find this evidence, only hours remain until Gale 's scheduled execution. She tries to give the tape to the authorities in time to stop the execution. She arrives at the Huntsville Unit just as the warden announces that it has been carried out. The tape is subsequently released, causing a media and political uproar over the execution of an innocent man. Later, Wright receives the fee that Bloom 's magazine agreed to pay for the interview, and delivers it to Gale 's ex-wife in Spain, along with a postcard from Berlin in San Francisco apologizing, all but confessing that the rape accusation that derailed Gale 's life and career was false. His ex-wife looks distraught, knowing Gale told the truth and that she effectively stole their child away from him.
Much later still, a videotape labelled "Off the Record '' is delivered to Bloom. This tape picks up at the point where Wright confirmed that Harraway was dead. It continues to show him stepping aside to allow Gale, also present and party to the suicide, to caress the body of his lover, deliberately leaving his fingerprints on the plastic bag in the process. He then stands up and ends the recording, leaving Bloom stunned with the truth that the couple deliberately sacrificed themselves to discredit capital punishment as capable of causing the execution of an innocent man.
The Life of David Gale was shot in multiple places, including Huntsville, Texas, Sam Houston State University, The University of Texas at Austin, Garrison Hall, KLRU - TV, Metro Espresso Bar (now Cafe Medici), 2222 Guadalupe St, Cain and Abel 's Bar at Austin, Gumbo 's Louisiana Style Cafe and Plaça Reial, Barcelona.
The Life of David Gale received overwhelmingly negative reviews from critics and has a rating of 19 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 156 reviews with an average score of 4.2 out of 10. The consensus states "Instead of offering a convincing argument against the death penalty, this implausible, convoluted thriller pounds the viewer over the head with its message. '' The film also has a score of 31 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 36 reviews indicating ' Generally unfavorable reviews. '
Chicago Sun - Times critic Roger Ebert gave the film a rare zero stars and stated in his review "I am sure the filmmakers believe their film is against the death penalty. I believe it supports it and hopes to discredit the opponents of the penalty as unprincipled fraudsters. Spacey and Parker are honorable men... The last shot made me want to throw something at the screen -- maybe Spacey and Parker. '' Ebert 's co-host Richard Roeper, however, did not hesitate to give the film a "thumbs up ''.
The soundtrack (composed by Alex and Jake Parker) has been used in various film trailers, specifically the tracks "The Life of David Gale '' and "Almost Martyrs ''. The score has been used in the trailers for World Trade Center, Munich, In the Valley of Elah, Milk, The Artist and The Iron Lady.
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who played the role of shahid khan in gangs of wasseypur | Gangs of Wasseypur -- Part 1 - wikipedia
Gangs of Wasseypur -- Part 1 (stylised as Gangs of वासेपुर) is a 2012 Indian crime film, produced and directed by Anurag Kashyap, and written by Kashyap and Zeishan Quadri. It is the first installment of the Gangs of Wasseypur series, centered on the coal mafia of Dhanbad, Jharkhand, and the underlying power struggles, politics and vengeance between three crime families. Part 1 features ensemble cast with Manoj Bajpayee, Nawazuddin Siddiqui, Richa Chadda, Huma Qureshi, Tigmanshu Dhulia and Pankaj Tripathi in the major roles. Its story spans from the early 1940s to the mid-1990s. Both parts were originally shot as a single film measuring a total of 319 minutes and screened at the 2012 Cannes Directors ' Fortnight but since no Indian theatre would volunteer to screen a five plus hour film, it was divided into two parts (160 minutes and 159 minutes respectively) for the Indian market.
The film received an A certification from the Indian Censor Board. The film 's soundtrack is heavily influenced by traditional Indian folk songs.
Part 1 was released on 22 June 2012 in more than 1000 theatre screens across India. It was released on 25 July in France and on 28 June in the Middle East but was banned in Kuwait and Qatar. Gangs of Wasseypur was screened at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2013. Gangs of Wasseypur has won four nominations, including best film and best director, at the 55th Asia - Pacific Film Festival.
The combined film won the Best Audiography, Re-recordist's of the Final Mixed Track (Alok De, Sinoy Joseph and Shreejesh Nair) and Special Mention for acting (Nawazuddin Siddiqui) at the 60th National Film Awards. The film collected four Filmfare Awards, including Best Film (Critics) and Best Actress (Critics), at the 58th Filmfare Awards
Although not a huge hit by any financial standard, the meagre combined budget of ₹ 18.5 cr allowed the 2 films to be commercially successful, with net domestic earnings of ₹ 50.81 cr (of the 2 parts combined). It is considered by many as a modern cult film.
A gang of heavily armed men scour and finally narrow down on a house in Wasseypur. They surround the house and unleash a wave of bullets and grenades on it with the intention of killing the family inside it. After heavy firing on the house, they retreat from the crime scene in a vehicle, convinced they have killed everyone within. The leader of the gang then calls J.P. Singh on his cell phone and reports that the family has been successfully executed but he is double crossed by JP Singh as a fire fight erupts between them and a police check post blocking their escape route. The scene cuts abruptly for a prologue by the narrator, Nasir.
Nasir 's narration describes the history and nature of Wasseypur. During the British Raj, Wasseypur and Dhanbad were located in the Bengal region. After India gained its independence in 1947, they were carved out of Bengal and redistricted into the state of Bihar in 1956. In 2000, Wasseypur and Dhanbad were redistricted for a second time into the newly formed state of Jharkhand where they remain. The village has been historically dominated by the Qureshi Muslims, a sub-caste of animal butchers who are feared by the non-Qureshi Muslims living there and Dhanbad by extension.
During British colonial rule, the British had seized the farm lands of Dhanbad for coal which began the business of coal mining in Dhanbad. The region was a hotbed of the local faceless dacoit Sultana Qureshi who robbed British trains in the night and thus held some patriotic value for the locals.
Shahid Khan (Jaideep Ahlawat), a Pathan, takes advantage of the mysteriousness of the faceless dacoit Sultana, a Qureshi, by impersonating his identity to rob British ferry trains. The Qureshi clans eventually find out and order the banishment of Shahid Khan and his family from Wasseypur. They settle down in Dhanbad where Shahid begins work as a labourer in a coal mine. He is unable to be at his wife 's side during childbirth, and she dies. The enraged Shahid kills the coal mine 's muscleman who had denied him leave on that day. In 1947, independent India begins to assert its authority over itself. The British coal mines are sold to Indian industrialists and Ramadhir Singh (Tigmanshu Dhulia) receives a few coal mines in the Dhanbad region. He hires Shahid Khan as the new muscleman of one of the coal mines. Shahid terrorises the local population to seize their lands and extract compliance.
On a rainy day, Ramadhir Singh overhears Shahid 's ambitions of taking over the coal mines from him. Singh tricks Shahid into traveling to Varanasi for business but instead has him murdered by an assassin named Yadav Ji (Harish Khanna). Nasir (Piyush Mishra), Shahid 's cousin, finds Ramadhir 's umbrella with his initials near the door and concludes that Ramadhir eavesdropped on their conversation. He flees from the house with Shahid 's son Sardar in the nick of time as Ehsaan Qureshi (Vipin Sharma), another associate of Ramadhir Singh and a member of the Wasseypur Qureshi clan, shows up to kill them but is too late. An unsuccessful Ehsaan lies to Singh that Shahid 's family has been murdered, burnt, and buried. Under the care of Nasir, Sardar grows up along with Nasir 's nephew Asgar (Jameel Khan). Sardar learns the truth about his father 's death, upon which he shaves his head and vows not to grow his hair until he has avenged his father 's murder.
The coal mines are nationalised. A mature Sardar Khan (Manoj Bajpai) and his kin start hijacking Ramadhir 's coal trucks mid-transit. Ramadhir Singh suspects S.P. Sinha, a Coal India official, to be behind the hijackings and has him murdered. After Sinha 's murder, Ramadhir 's reputation for ruthlessness grows, and he becomes feared in Dhanbad.
Sardar marries Nagma Khatoon (Richa Chadda). The pregnant Khatoon confronts Sardar Khan and a prostitute inside a brothel and chases him away. Later, Nagma gives birth to Danish Khan but gets pregnant immediately afterwards. Unable to have sex with a pregnant Nagma, Sardar confesses his sexual frustrations with his kin. At dinner, Nagma gives her consent to Sardar to sleep with other women but with the condition that he wo n't bring them home or dishonour the family name.
Sardar, Asgar and Nasir start working for J.P. Singh (Satya Anand), Ramadhir Singh 's son. They misuse their employment by secretly selling the company petrol in the black market. Later, they rob a petrol pump and a train bogey belonging to the Singh family. They usurp Singh 's land, which forces the two families to confront each other for talks. The meeting ends in a scuffle, but Ramadhir Singh realizes that Sardar Khan is in fact the son of Shahid Khan who he had murdered in the late 1940s. Sardar and Asghar are jailed for assaulting J.P. Singh during the meeting.
Sardar and Asgar escape from jail. While hiding in Wasseypur, Sardar marries a Bengali Hindu woman named Durga (Reema Sen). Asgar informs Nagma that Sardar has taken a second wife, leaving Nagma helpless. Meanwhile, Wasseypur has merged with Dhanbad and the Qureshi clan continues to terrorise the non-Qureshi Muslims. The locals then approach Sardar Khan for help as he was well known for standing up to Ramadhir Singh. During Muharram, both Shias and Sunnis are out mourning, including the Qureshi clan. Sardar uses the opportunity to launch a major bomb attack on many Qureshi shops and houses. When word spreads about Sardar 's raids, his reputation grows and he commands more fear than the Qureshi clan.
Eventually, Sardar returns home to Nagma and she gets pregnant again. Sardar tries to initiate sex with a pregnant Nagma but she refuses, which prompts an angry Sardar to leave. He goes to stay with his second wife, Durga, and she gives birth to his son, Definite Khan. Ramadhir Singh, noticing that Sardar has abandoned his first family, tries to reach out to Nagma through Danish by giving him money. An enraged Nagma beats Danish for taking the money while she breaks down in front of Nasir. A thirsty Faizal wakes up in the middle of the night to find Nagma and Nasir about to have sex. Angry, he storms out of the house and becomes a stoner, permanently seen with his chillum. Nasir reveals that the desires were never consummated, but Faizal and Nasir never see eye to eye again.
Sensing Sardar 's increasing clout, Ramadhir calls his old associate Ehsaan Qureshi who brokers a meeting between Sultan Qureshi and Ramadhir Singh where the two decide to become allies against their common enemy, Sardar. Sultan asks Ramadhir for modern automatic weapons which the latter promises to give.
Sardar becomes the most feared man in Wasseypur and shifts his business to stealing iron ore. Danish Khan joins the family business. A failed attack from Sultan Qureshi leaves Danish with a minor injury and causes reconciliation between Sardar and Nagma. Sardar finds Ramadhir and warns him of terrible consequences if anything ever happens to his family.
A mature Faizal (Nawazuddin Siddiqui) is seriously affected by Bollywood movies as he starts behaving, talking and dressing like Bollywood characters. Sardar sends Faizal to Varanasi to buy guns, but Faizal is caught by the police and jailed. Upon release, he kills the gun seller Yadav, who unbeknownst to Faizal was the nameless assassin who had killed Shahid Khan (Faizal 's grandfather) and who had implicated Faizal to police earlier. Meanwhile, Sardar seizes a lake belonging to a local temple and charges commission on fish sellers who make a catch in that lake. An uneasy peace is maintained between the Qureshi and Khan families when Danish Khan marries Shama Parveen, the sister of Sultan Qureshi. At the same time, Faizal begins romancing Mohsina Hamid (Huma Qureshi), another kin of Sultan.
Faizal reveals to a friend that his father Sardar would be travelling without security the next day. Late that night, while Faizal is still asleep, his friend calls up the Qureshis and tells them that Sardar 's bodyguards would n't be with him the next day. The next morning, Sardar leaves home alone and reaches Durga 's house where he gives her her expense allowance. Once Sardar leaves, Durga also calls up the Qureshis and tells them that he has just left her house. The Qureshi men follow Sardar 's car, and when the latter stops at a petrol pump to refuel they start shooting as Sardar ducks in the car for cover. The Qureshi men put several close rounds through the car window ensuring a precise & unmistakable hit, after which they escape. A shocked Sardar opens the car door and stands up to reveal multiple bullet wounds, with one bullet embedded in his head. He steps out with his gun drawn trying to locate the shooters but he eventually collapses to his death on a ferry cycle.
Anurag Kashyap said he had wanted to make a film on Bihar with the name Bihar for some time but for various reasons it did n't take off. In 2008 he met Zeishan Quadri (the writer of Gangs of Wasseypur) who told him about Wasseypur 's story. He found it unreal to believe that mafia activity and gang war existed at such high level. Zeishan narrated enough stories but what really attracted him was not gang war but the entire story of emergence of mafia. According to him to tell the story through a few families is what interested him but that also meant a longer reel. "We all know mafia exists but what they do, how they operate, why they do we do n't know and that is something which forms the basis of the film ''.
According to Bajpayee, the role of Sardar Khan is the most negative role he has done till date. His motivation for doing this role came from the fact that there was "something new '' with the character of Sardar Khan.
Piyush Mishra and Tigmanshu Dhulia were given the discretion to decide who, among them, would perform the roles of Nasir and Ramadhir. Mishra chose the role of Nasir and Dhulia portrayed Ramadhir Singh.
Chadda revealed in an interview that this role helped her bag 11 film roles.
This is Huma Qureshi 's first film, and she characterised this as her "dream debut ''. Qureshi landed this role after director Anurag Kashyap spotted her in a Samsung commercial he was directing.
During filming in Varanasi in December 2010, film 's chief assistant director Sohil Shah was killed on shoot while performing one of the stunt shot scene which was an accident. The Movie has been dedicated to Sohil Shah as is seen in the opening titles. The film finished production in late March 2011, with Anurag Kashyap moving on to direct his next film immediately due to that accident. Major portions of the film were shot at villages near Bihar. Shooting of film also took place in Chunar. Anurag Kashyap, who co-produced the film with Sunil Bohra, has said that it is his most expensive film and he reportedly had to spend ₹ 15 crore on paying the actors. Both parts of Gangs of Wasseypur together cost just ₹ 18.4 cr to make. Anurag Kashyap, the director of film tweeted -- "450 million as reported in the media is false. ''
The filming style adopted by Anurag Kashyap in Gangs of Wasseypur bears a striking similarity to the styles of Nurul Hasan Pulak and Sam Peckinpah. The scenes are short in length, several in number and often a series of montages take the story forward. Anurag Kashyap never has to resort to extraneous elements like stylised entries, editing patterns or camera motions to add to the effect because the story has an intrinsic impact of its own. However the film does n't fall short of any technical finesse. There 's unabashed blood, gore and abuse wherever the scene demands. Lines like "Tum sahi ho, woh marad hai, '' ("You are right, he is male '') said in resigned agreement to a wronged wife stand out for their cruel truths of rural life. Kashyap 's use of occasional bursts of music and comedy to punctuate the slowly augmenting tension at different junctures is highly reminiscent of Spaghetti Westerns. Kashyap 's use of dark humour to judiciously propagate violence bears an uncanny similarity to Quentin Tarantino 's style of movie - making. Absorbing styles as diverse as those of old - school Italo - American mafia classics a la Coppola, Scorsese and Leone, as well as David Michod 's taut crime thriller "Animal Kingdom, '' Kashyap never lets his influences override the distinct Indian color. The pacing is machine - gun relentless, sweeping incoherence and repetitiveness under the carpet as it barrels forward with hypnotic speed.
BP Sinha, one of the most respected labour leaders, yet also considered the Godfather of Dhanbad Mafia. The character of S.P. Sinha is vaguely based on him.
Surajdeo Singh, MLA and the first Coal Mafia Don of Dhanbad. The Character of Ramadhir Singh in Gangs of Wasseypur is based on him. He actually got his mentor, BP Sinha murdered to become the undisputed Mafia King.
The movie chronicles the journey of the saga associated with coal mines. It portrays the gang lords of Wasseypur like Shafi Khan, Faheem Khan and Shabir Alam. The film has also been inspired from the story of Jharkhand politician BP Sinha, Suryadev Singh, Binod Singh, Sakeldeo Singh, and Ramadhir Singh, who was convicted of murder. Rajeev Masand of CNN - IBN calls the movie, a gang warfare and notes that "On the surface, Gangs of Wasseypur is a revenge saga, a tableau of vengeance between generations of gangsters. Scratch that surface and you 'll discover more than just a grim portrait ". '' While some of the critics noted that the film, is a powerful political film, which underlines the party politics system (at that time) allowing the growth of illegal coal trading and mafias in the region (Bihar) and their use as a political tool, thus making the allotment of coal blocks, one of the most powerful expressions of controlling power in the region. Despite its grim theme, the film also has an inherent sense of humour that comes quite naturally to it from its series of events. The scene where Reema Sen is charmed by Manoj Bajpai over her daily chores or the one where Nawazuddin goes on a formal date with Huma Qureshi are outrageously hilarious. The household politics is one of the many subplots rendering layers to the story. You realise Sardar 's family is emerging into a Corleone set - up of sorts. His sons - the brooding Danish and the doped - out Faizal (Nawazuddin Siddiqui) from Nagma, and the enigmatic Definite Khan (Zeishan Quadri) from Durga - will become key players in this revenge story. Violent as his screenplay is, Kashyap reveals wit while narrating his tale. Ample black comedy is used to imagine the gang war milieu. The humour lets us relate to the intrinsic irreverent nature of men who live by the gun. Character development can best justify the length of Part 1.
Music of Gangs of Wasseypur was launched on 23 May. The film which is in two parts, has a whopping 25 songs. Music for the album is composed by Sneha Khanwalkar and Piyush Mishra. Lyrics for the album are written by Varun Grover and Piyush Mishra.
Raja Sen of Rediff gave a 5 star rating to the soundtrack calling it a "A strikingly flavourful and headily authentic collection of quirky music ''. Purva Desai of Times of India said "The music is brilliant and this album deserves all the praises. '' Shivi Reflections in her favourable review wrote that "Gangs of Wasseypur is a soundtrack which should be acknowledged for its experimentation and uniqueness. ''
Sneha Khanwalkar had been nominated for various awards for the music of the 2 parts, including the prestigious Best Music Director award at the 58th Filmfare Awards.
The marketing of Gangs of Wasseypur was noted for its uniqueness. Gamucha, a thin traditional East Indian towel was taken to Cannes, the Gangs of Wasseypur team danced on the streets wearing red gamchhas, after the Cannes Film Festival and has been making public appearances in them ever since. While most music launches in India happen with a big party in a 5 - star banquet hall in a Delhi or Mumbai, and formal announcements before the press, the music of this film, was launched in Patna.
In another effective way of building the world of Wasseypur for the audience, a fictitious newspaper was made available online which was named Wasseypur Patrika.
In keeping with the language and setup of the film, wall paintings instead of posters, reading Goli Nahi Marenge, Keh Ke Lenge -- Gangs of Wasseypur were painted on walls across 20 cities.
Gangs of Wasseypur mementos -- The Gangs of Wasseypur team has made a memento consisting of bullets of different era. While all sorts of weapons have been used in the film, this is the best thing one could give as memento.
Bikas Bhagat of Zee News gave the movie 4 stars out of 5, concluding that "So if you want to experience an all new wave of cinema in Bollywood, Gangs of Wasseypur is your movie. It has some real quirky moments which I 'll leave for you to explore in the film. Watch it for its sheer cinematic pleasure! ''
Subhash K. Jha of IANS gave the movie 4 out of 5 stars, saying that "Brutal, brilliant, dark, sinister, terrifying in its violence and yet savagely funny in the way human life is disregarded Gangs of Wasseypur is one helluva romp into the raw and rugged heartland. Not to be missed. '' Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the movie 3.5 stars out of 5, saying that "On the whole, Gangs of Wasseypur symbolizes the fearless new Indian cinema that shatters the clichés and conventional formulas, something which Anurag Kashyap has come to be acknowledged for. It has all the trappings of an entertainer, but with a difference. The film prides itself with substance that connects with enthusiasts of new - age cinema. But, I wish to restate, one needs to have a really strong belly to soak up to a film like Gangs of Wasseypur. Also, this striking movie - watching experience comes with a colossal length and duration. The reactions, therefore, would be in extremes. Gangs of Wasseypur is for that segment of spectators who seek pleasure in watching forceful, hard - hitting and gritty movies. ''
Rajeev Masand of CNN - IBN gave the movie 3.5 stars out of 5, concluding that "Bolstered by its riveting performances and its thrilling plot dynamics, this is a gripping film that seizes your full attention. I 'm going with three - and - a-half out of five for Anurag Kashyap 's Gangs of Wasseypur. Despite its occasionally indulgent narrative, this bullet - ridden saga is worthy of a repeat viewing, if only to catch all its nuances. Do n't miss it. '' Mansha Rastogi of Now Running gave the movie 3.5 stars out of 5, commenting that "Gangs of Wasseypur works like an explosive leaving you wanting for more. Gangs of Wasseypur -- Part 2 will definitely be a film eagerly awaited! Devour part one in the meantime! ''
Madhureeta Mukherjee of Times of India gave the movie 3.5 stars out of 5, saying that "Director Anurag Kashyap, in his trademark style of story - telling -- realistic, with strong characters, over-the - top sequences, and unadulterated local flavour (crude maa - behen gaalis galore), gruesome bloody violence and raw humour -- interestingly spins this twisted tale. This first of a two - part film, is ambitious indeed; showing promise of brilliance in parts, but not bullet - proof to flaws. With a runtime this long, meandering side tracks and random sub-plots, countless characters, documentary - style narrative backed with black and white montages from actual history, it loses blood in the second half because of the Director 's over - (self) indulgence. So, hold on to your guns, gamchas and ' womaniyas '. ''
Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV gave the movie 3.5 stars out of 5, concluding that "It may not be for the faint - hearted and the prissy. Gangs of Wasseypur is a heavyweight knockout punch. You 're down for the count! '' Blessy Chettiar of DNA gave the movie 3.5 stars out of 5, commenting that "Even though there 's so much going for Part 1, there 's something always amiss, something that leaves you underwhelmed after all those expectations. May be it 's a hope of a dashing Part 2. Let 's wait and watch. ''
Kunal Guha of Yahoo! gave the movie 3 stars out of 5, concluding that "Considering the amount of blood spilled in this film, it could 've just been called ' Gangs of Sauce - e-pur '. Hot and sweet and different. ' Bata deejiyega sabko! ' '' Roshni Devi of Koimoi gave the movie 3 stars out of 5, saying that "Gangs of Wasseypur is a very good movie that gets bogged down by the endless characters and length of the movie. If you love those hinterland mafia movies, this is definitely for you. ''
On the contrary, Raja Sen of Rediff gave the movie 2.5 stars out of 5, concluding that "It is the excess that suffocates all the magic, originality dying out for lack of room to breathe. Kashyap gets flavour, setting and character right, but the lack of economy cripples the film. There is a lot of gunfire, but like the fine actors populating its sets, Wasseypur fires too many blanks. ''
Mayank Shekhar of theW14.com says, "Most movies have a definite beginning (starting point), middle (turning point) and end (high point), or what playwrights call the three - act structure in a script. There does n't seem to be one here, at least on the face of it. The genre it comes closest to then is an epic, spelt with a capital E, along the lines of say Francis Ford Coppola 's Godfather trilogy, or this film 's immediate inspiration Martin Scorsese 's Gangs of New York (2002). And, of course, it is like all mythologies are supposed to be. You enjoy them for the parts rather than caring merely for the hero 's final goal. If it was n't a film, this would 've been a stylised graphic novel. But you would 've missed a memorable background score and striking sound design. ''
The film met positive international reviews. Deborah Young of The Hollywood Reporter called the film "an extraordinary ride through Bollywood 's spectacular, over-the - top filmmaking ''. Referring to the violence and pace of the film she says "Gangs of Wasseypur puts Tarantino in a corner with its cool command of cinematically - inspired and referenced violence, ironic characters and breathless pace ''.
Maggie Lee of Variety notes Kashyap never lets his diverse influences of old - school Italo - American mafia classics a la Coppola, Scorsese and Leone, as well as David Michod 's taut crime thriller "Animal Kingdom, override the distinct Indian color. Calling the film "the love child of Bollywood and Hollywood, '' she felt the film was "by turns pulverizing and poetic in its depiction of violence. '' Lee Marshall of Screen International writes "the script alternates engagingly between scenes of sometimes stomach - churning violence and moments of domestic comedy, made more tasty by hard - boiled lines of dialogue like "in Wasseypur even the pigeons fly with one wing, because they need the other to cover their arse ''. He describes song lyrics "as if mouthed by a Greek chorus of street punks '' commenting sarcastically on what 's happening onscreen.
Gangs of Wasseypur collected ₹ 12.25 cr in first four days. Gangs of Wasseypur collected ₹ 10cr net approx over its first weekend. The collections were good all over. Both instalments of the film were made at a production cost of ₹ 18.5 cr and with ₹ 17.5 cr as the total first week collection of the first part, film has successfully recovered the total production cost minus promotion cost. Gangs of Wasseypur held up week two but with low collections. The second week was around ₹ 7 crore nett. Gangs of Wasseypur -- Part 1 has earned ₹ 27.52 cr in India, as of 27 July 2012 and the film was finally declared as a hit.
The success party for the film was held at Escobar in Bandra, Mumbai on Thursday, 5 July, late evening.
The film mainly draws its story from the real life gang wars that took place in the region of Dhanbad, Jharkhand. There are several differences in the film which contradict actual documented events most notability the character of Faizal Khan (based on Faheem Khan) who dies in the climax. Faheem Khan is currently in jail in Hazaribagh and has been sentenced to life imprisonment. In the film, Sardar Khan marries the Bengali girl but in real life, the woman was kept as a mistress. Most of the gang wars were between the gangs of Wasseypur, not with the Singhs, who had been instrumental in instigating these wars, but never participated in them. There was no character akin to Shahid Khan.
Another scene in the movie, where a Muslim girl is kidnapped by Singh 's men, has been portrayed conversely. In real life, the victim was a local Hindu girl and the kidnappers were a few goons from Wasseypur. The members of the Singh family ultimately had to threaten the entire Wasseypur community to return the girl in 24 hours. The girl was eventually returned as the Singhs were regarded in the village with might and fear.
The character of Ramadhir Singh is based on Surajdeo Singh. In the film 's climax, Singh is brutally killed by Faizal but in real life, Singh died of natural causes in June 1991.
Fazloo 's character is based on Sabir Alam. In the film, Fazloo is killed and dismembered by Faizal Khan. In real life, Sabir Alam and Faheem Khan were childhood friends turned enemies. Sabir was awarded life sentence in 2007 for the murder of Faheem Khan 's mother and aunt, is out on bail in Wasseypur.
The mafia 's downfall in Dhanbad did n't come from gang wars but rather it came from the differences between Kunti Singh, the widow of Surajdeo Singh, and his three brothers -- Baccha Singh, Rajan Singh and Ram Dhani Singh -- which gave others an opportunity to make space for themselves.
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when did the amityville horror movie come out | The Amityville Horror (1979 film) - wikipedia
The Amityville Horror is a 1979 American supernatural horror film directed by Stuart Rosenberg, based on Jay Anson 's 1977 book of the same name. It stars James Brolin and Margot Kidder as a young couple who purchase a home they come to find haunted by combative supernatural forces. The story is based on the alleged experiences of the Lutz family who bought a new home on 112 Ocean Avenue in Amityville, New York, a house where a mass murder had been committed the year before. It is the first film based on the Amityville horror.
Upon its release in the summer of 1979, The Amityville Horror was a major commercial success for American International Pictures, grossing over USD $80 million in the United States and going on to become one of the highest - grossing independent films of all time. It received mostly negative reviews from critics, though the film has been contemporarily noted by film scholars as a classic of the horror genre.
The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Score by composer Lalo Schifrin and Kidder also earned a Saturn Award nomination for Best Actress. A remake was produced in 2005.
In the early morning hours of November 13, 1974, Ronald DeFeo Jr. murders his entire family with a shotgun at their home in Amityville, New York.
One year later, George and Kathy Lutz, a young married couple, move into the property. George appears not to be strong of faith, but Kathy is a Catholic in name at least. She has three children from her prior marriage: Greg, Matt, and Amy. The couple turn to Father Delaney to bless the home, but Delaney encounters troubles in trying to bless the home, including a room full of flies, out of season; violent stomach sickness; and later, blisters on his palm when trying to make a phone call to Kathy at their home. As he continues to help the Lutz Family, Delaney experiences more strange events (his car brakes and steering malfunction) and frustrations (lack of support by his superiors in the diocese). He ultimately appears to lose faith, becoming blind and having a breakdown.
Kathy 's aunt, a nun, comes by the house one afternoon, but becomes violently ill. George begins to be more sullen and angry over perceived cold in the house, and obsesses with splitting logs and keeping the fireplace stoked. Before Kathy 's brother 's engagement party one night, $1,500 to be used for the caterer inexplicably goes missing in the house. Meanwhile, the babysitter watching Amy for the evening is locked inside a bedroom closet by an unseen force. Further unexplained incidents occur in succession: One of the two boys suffers a crushed hand when a sash window falls on it and Amy has an imaginary friend, Jody, who seems to be of a malevolent nature. Kathy catches a glimpse of two red, swine - like eyes outside the daughter 's second - story bedroom window. Even the family dog obsesses over a secret room in the basement.
George 's land surveying business begins to suffer with his lack of attendance and his partner grows concerned. His business partner 's wife, very sensitive to the paranormal, is both repulsed and intrigued by the things she feels when at the house. Throughout the strange incidents, Kathy observes George 's persistent waking up at 3: 15 a.m., feeling he must go check on the boathouse. She also has nightmares in which she is given details about the killings of the home 's prior family. Research at the library and county records office suggest that the house is built atop a Shinnecock burial ground and that a known Satanic worshipper named John Ketchum had once lived on the land. She also discovers the news clippings about the DeFeo murders and notices Ronald DeFeo 's striking resemblance to George.
Finally, the paranormal events culminate one stormy night and drive the family to flee, abandoning their home and belongings. The final titles reads: "George and Kathleen Lutz and their family never reclaimed their house or their personal belongings. Today they live in another state. ''
Producer Samuel Z. Arkoff purchased the rights to the Anson novel by Jay Anson, which was a commercial success upon its publication in 1977. Anson himself wrote a screenplay based on his work, but the script was rejected by Arkoff, and screenwriter Sandor Stern was assigned to write an entirely new script. Initially, the film had been conceived as a made - for - television film.
Brolin was hesitant when first offered the role of George Lutz. At the time of his casting, the script was unfinished, and so Brolin obtained a copy of Anson 's novel to read. Brolin started the book and read until two o'clock in the morning. He had hung up a pair of his pants in the room earlier and during an especially tense passage of the book, the pants fell to the floor. Brolin jumped from his chair in fright. It was then that Brolin decided to do the film, convinced that the material would make an effective film.
Kidder was cast in the role of Kathy Lutz after her breakthrough performance as Lois Lane in Superman the year prior.
The on - location scenes of The Amityville Horror were filmed at a private residence in Toms River, New Jersey, which had been converted to look like the 112 Ocean Avenue home after authorities in Amityville denied permission for filming on the actual location. Exterior scenes were also filmed in Toms River and Point Pleasant Beach. Local police and ambulance workers would play extras in the film, while the Toms River Volunteer Fire Company was used to provide the rain during several scenes. Indoor shots were filmed at the MGM studio lot in Los Angeles, California.
The film shoot was widely publicized in national media when the studio attempted to concoct stories of "unusual '' occurrences on the set (not dissimilar from what was claimed to have occurred during the filming of The Exorcist). According to Brolin, he and Kidder were both asked by the studio and the press, "' Is there weird stuff going on? '... and we were looking for stuff now. We 'd have liked to tell them, ' Oh yeah, you would n't believe the stuff that happened yesterday -- my lunch fell off the table in my lap. ' ''
Lalo Schifrin 's musical score was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Score, but lost out to the score for A Little Romance by Georges Delerue. It is sometimes claimed that this score was the one rejected in 1973 for The Exorcist, but Schifrin has denied this in interviews.
In promotion for the film 's premiere, stars James Brolin and Margot Kidder visited the actual home at 112 Ocean Avenue, accompanied by the press. Brolin would later reflect that the actual home was much more "condensed '' than the location where the film was shot. Both Brolin and Kidder were skeptics of the claims made in the book; "I did n't buy that this really had happened, '' Kidder would say in a 2005 interview. During the press junkets promoting the film, when asked whether she believed the Lutzes ' claims, Kidder purportedly turned to the producers, who responded: "We 'll never tell. ''
The Amityville Horror premiered in the United States on July 27, 1979. It was one of the most successful films produced by an independent studio at the time and was the most profitable AIP release since The Born Losers (1968). The film grossed a total of $86,432,520 at the U.S. box office and was the second - highest - grossing film of 1979 in the United States alone. It was the highest - grossing independent film of all time until 1990, when it was surpassed by Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles.
Though a commercial success, the film received generally negative reviews from critics such as Leonard Maltin and Roger Ebert, the latter describing it as "dreary and terminally depressing ''. Based on 28 reviews, the film has a 29 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes with the consensus: "Dull and disappointing, the best that can be said for The Amityville Horror is that it set a low bar for its many sequels and remakes. '' The film resulted in several lawsuits.
In a 2012 retrospective on the film, historian James F. Broderick praised it, writing: "Director Stuart Rosenberg crafted an effective horror movie that succeeds largely because the performers take the over-the - top material seriously... The film is taut, tense, and filled with the bizarre, unsettling events chronicled in the book. '' In a 2013 assessment, John Kenneth Muir called The Amityville Horror a "blunt and effective horror film, '' also noting author Stephen King 's analysis of the film 's subtext revolving around financial turmoil among the family: "If one follows King 's lead, it 's easy to contextualize The Amityville Horror as a financial nightmare... Similarly, the movie 's dialogue constantly references financial matters. "Bills have to be paid, '' says one character. "The IRS is calling, '' warns another. ' They 'll nickel and dime you to death '' is a mantra not just about the bill collectors, perhaps, but a warning about the demons in the house. ''
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who owns the property in a life estate | Life estate - wikipedia
In common law and statutory law, a life estate is the ownership of land for the duration of a person 's life. In legal terms it is an estate in real property that ends at death when ownership of the property may revert to the original owner, or it may pass to another person. The owner of a life estate is called a "life tenant ''.
In the combined jurisdiction of England and Wales since 1925 a freehold estate intended to be ' held ' as a life interest takes effect only as an interest enjoyed in equity, specifically as an interest in possession trust. The other type of land ownership is leasehold and although most long leases are for a period of between 99 and 999 years ' leases for life ' will be interpreted in often unpredictable ways as either as a licence or a lease.
The ownership of a life estate is of limited duration because it ends at the death of a person. Its owner is the life tenant (typically also the ' measuring life ') and it carries with it right to enjoy certain benefits of ownership of the property, chiefly income derived from rent or other uses of the property and the right of occupation, during his or her possession. Because a life estate ceases to exist at the death of the measuring person 's life, the life tenant, a temporary owner, may short - term let but can not sell, give or bequeath the property indefinitely (including assuming it could pass to heirs (intestate) or creating a purported document leaving it to devisees (testate).
A life estate pur autre vie (Law French, "for the life of another '') is held for the rest of the lifetime of a person who does not hold the estate. This form of life estate arises where a life tenant has disposed of the property, assuming such a disposal does not trigger any special forfeiture under the life interest instrument. It also arises where the grantor chooses to make the measuring life that of someone other than the life tenant 's life. A life estate pur autre vie is most commonly created in one of two circumstances.
A clear distinction should be made with an estate for (a) term of years, interpreted as lease or licence.
At death, assuming no mis - dealings to certain innocent purchasers, the property involved in a life estate falls into the ownership of the remainderman (pl. remaindermen) or reverts to its grantor (all of which confusingly can be called ' reversions ' and ' reversioners '). There is a small market for reversions in real estate, which necessitates a buyer to carry out enhanced documentary due diligence and physical checks.
A land owner of an estate can not give a "greater interest '' in the estate than he or she owns. That is, a life estate owner can not give complete and indefinite ownership (fee simple) to another person because the life tenant 's ownership in the property ends when the person who is the measuring life dies. For instance, if Ashley conveyed to Bob for the life of Bob, and Bob conveys a life estate to another person, Charlie, for Charlie 's life (an embedded life estate), then Charlie 's life estate interest would last only until Charlie or Bob dies. Charlie 's life interest or pur autre vie interest (interest for the life of another, whichever has applied) and most often the remaining rights of ownership in the property (the ' reversionary interest ') devolve to the persons under the terms of the will / rules of intestacy / declaration of trust / trust deed (UK) or will / rules of intestacy / ' grant or deed of life interest ' (or similar) (U.S.) in remainder or revert to the original grantee, depending on terms of Ashley. Such a life estate in the U.S. can also be conveyed for the life of the grantor, such as "A conveys X to B until A dies '' and in the UK by trust transferring upon trust or assigning rather than conveying X.
If a life tenant purports to transfer the underlying ' reversionary ' interest, which a life tenant never has, this constitutes an actionable breach of trust for damages and may constitute criminal fraud however may not entitle the ultimate reversioner (or substituted beneficiaries) to be able to obtain a court declaration that the property is their own if that property is in the hands of an innocent purchaser for value without notice (bona fide purchaser).
Financial and physical responsibility falls to the life tenant under the legal doctrine of waste, which prohibits life tenants from damaging or devaluing the asset. In short, as the life tenant 's ownership is temporary, failing to maintain or reasonably protect the asset resulting in its diminution in value, or indeed, destruction constitutes a cause of action for the reversioner.
A further limitation is the rule against perpetuities in many states and countries which prohibits long - running pre-19th - century style successions of life tenancies and may result in the premature and compensation - entitling termination of such successive life interests. In England and Wales this is fixed at one lifetime, or 80 years whichever is longer.
Selling property while keeping a life estate is commonly known in France as "viager '' where it is used more often than elsewhere, most famously in the case of Jeanne Calment the longest lived human ever recorded.
In the United States, a life estate is typically used as a tool of an estate planning. A life estate can avoid probate and ensure that an intended heir will receive title to real property. For example, Al owns a home and desires that Bill inherit it after Al 's death. Al can effectuate that desire by transferring title to the home to Bill and retaining a life estate in the home. Al keeps a life estate and Bill receives a vested fee simple remainder. As soon as Al dies, the life estate interest merges with Bill 's remainder, and Bill has a fee simple title. Such a transfer risks the small risk of a fraud on the part of beneficiary Bill if he could easily show in a particular jurisdiction an unfettered fee simple, selling the estate prematurely to an innocent purchaser such as when Al is on vacation but makes the use of a will unnecessary and eliminates the need to probate the asset. A second disadvantage to the grantor is that provision for any remainderman (or men) (party C) is irrevocable without the remainderman 's consent. "Beneficiary deeds '' have been statutorily created in some states to address this issue.
The intestacy laws of certain American states, such as Arkansas, Delaware, and Rhode Island limit the surviving spouse 's rights (inheritance) to the deceased spouse 's real estate to a life estate. Louisiana applying an itemised (civil law) code has alike default provisions for succession, called usufruct.
The intestacy laws of England and Wales from 1 October 2014 provide for £ 250,000 (or the whole non-joint estate if less) and 50 % of any excess to the spouse, remainder to adult children. This abolished the remaining 50 % being enjoyed as a life interest which had applied from the 1920s.
The surviving spouse (and rarely, others) benefit from survivorship of any joint property.
The arrangement in the first paragraph would in the UK be interpreted as an interest in possession trust and is usually avoided as for inheritance tax is considered ' reservation of benefit ' requiring fully backdated sums of annual income tax on whatever market rent ought to have been paid to the legal owner, in England and Wales for continued enjoyment of the asset.
Life estates are measured either by the life of the property recipient, or by the life of some other person (pur autre vie).
Life estates in real estate are still created today. The life estate is more commonly used in trust instruments, typically in an attempt to minimize the effect of the inheritance tax or other taxes on transfers of wealth. A prospective reduction in tax for the creator (' settlor ') often follows if the settlor has parted with all current and future interest. However many tax codes transfer the burden of estate taxes to the holder of the interest in possession (life tenant) and may treat that person or the remaindermen as owning a second / surplus property.
Formally where a system is derived from English law, the law divides into common law and equitable law -- at their cores the formal title and further overarching rules (especially as to trust interests such as this). The latter can not usually defeat a claim to title from a bona fide purchaser for value without notice, as such a person has reasonably researched the ownership position based upon the legal title (common law) position. As the owner of a legal interest, in the US, further embedded or legal interests consistent with the form of ownership can be created from life estates.
Accordingly, due to their potential versatility and complexity in the U.S., common law seldom recognizes a life estate in personal property (tangible items and livestock other than land including buildings) but such interests are recognized at equity where of adequate form -- statutes and regulations impose formalities on the creation of lifetime interests in personalty.
Since 1925 registered titles in England and Wales preferably should, but mostly do not, reveal an ' interest for life ', ' life estate ' or ' life tenancy ' in the form of a restriction on the register. Instead the registered legal owner may hold various degrees of leasehold or freehold interest, but usually absolute interest. This provides a reliable ' mirror of title ' which can only be subjected to a very few overriding interests. A maxim of equity is ' Where equities are equal, the law will prevail '. Equity defers to the position at law of a bona fide purchaser for value without notice (including any tenant or mortgagee), and as ' equity will not suffer a wrong to be without remedy, ' where there is such, will be limited to in personam remedies against the settlor or life tenant where it confirms life estates, upon trust, to have been validly created:
Life tenants are never recorded as proprietors at the Land Registry as they are temporary, equitable owners and are not entitled to have the a transfer of the land effected. If the proprietor has died, executors of the will, administrators or beneficiaries all have the right to apply for the standard form A restriction and are encouraged by the official guidance to do so.
If a lease is for more than seven years, the lease must be registered. Most long leases are for a period of between 99 and 999 years, and ' leases for life ' will be interpreted either as a licence or a lease.
In most Torrens Title jurisdictions a life tenant has, like in UK and US, the right to possession and enjoyment of the property, but once the tenant dies the property will return to the remainderman. The main difference is that, the life estate will be registered by the Registrar general of that jurisdiction, and will appear on the registered title. This has the effect of making them one of the 9 types of recognised interest in land, and one of the four that confirm possession. The registration process in Torrens title systems usually confers indefeasibility on the life estate.
A holder of a life estate can alienate his rights, but they will still expire on his death, regardless of who he alienates it to. At that point, that buyer will have to forfeit the land.
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what type of economy does french guiana have | Economy of French Guiana - Wikipedia
The economy of French Guiana is tied closely to that of France through subsidies and imports. Besides the French space center at Kourou, fishing and forestry are the most important economic activities. The large reserves of tropical hardwoods, not fully exploited, support an expanding sawmill industry which provides sawn logs for export. Cultivation of crops is limited to the coastal area, where the population is largely concentrated; rice and manioc are the major crops. French Guiana is heavily dependent on imports of food and energy. Unemployment is a serious problem, particularly among younger workers.
GDP: real exchange rates - US $3.52 billion (in 2006)
GDP - real growth rate: 6.4 % (in 2006)
GDP - per capita: real exchange rates - US $17,336 (in 2006)
GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: NA % industry: NA % services: NA % spaceflight and other related activities: 16 %
Population below poverty line: NA %
Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10 %: NA % highest 10 %: Na %
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1 % (2002)
Labor force: 58.800 (1997)
Labor force - by occupation: services, government, and commerce 60, 6 %, industry 21, 2 %, agriculture 18, 2 % (1980)
Unemployment rate: 19, 2 % (2001 est.)
Budget: revenues: $135, 5 million expenditures: $135, 5 million, including capital expenditures of $105 million (1996)
Industries: construction, space exploration, shrimp processing, forestry products, rum, gold mining
Industrial production growth rate: NA %
Electricity - production: 465, 2 GWh (2003)
Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100 % hydro: 0 % nuclear: 0 % other: 0 % (1998)
Electricity - consumption: 432, 6 GWh (2003)
Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2003)
Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (2003)
Agriculture - products: rice, manioc (tapioca), sugar, cocoa, vegetables, bananas; cattle, pigs, poultry
Exports: US $1,501 million (in 2006)
Exports - commodities: satellites, shrimp, timber, gold, rum, rosewood essence, clothing
Exports - partners: France 62 %, Switzerland 7 %, United States 2 % (2004)
Imports: US $1,693 million (in 2006)
Imports - commodities: food (grains, processed meat), machinery and transport equipment, fuels and chemicals
Imports - partners: France 63 %, United States, Trinidad and Tobago, Italy (2004)
Debt - external: $800, 3 million (1988)
Economic aid - recipient: $ NA
Currency: 1 euro (currency sign: €; banking code: EUR) = 100 cent
Exchange rates: See: Euro # Euro exchange rate
Fiscal year: calendar year
"The economic accounts of Guyana in 2006: first results '' (PDF). Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 14.
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who was in the second star is born | A Star is Born (1976 film) - Wikipedia
A Star Is Born is a 1976 American musical romantic drama film about a young singer (Barbra Streisand) who meets and falls in love with an established rock and roll star (Kris Kristofferson), only to find her career ascending while his goes into decline.
The film is a remake of the 1937 original drama starring Janet Gaynor and Fredric March, which had also been adapted in 1954 as a musical starring Judy Garland and James Mason. The story was subsequently adapted in 2018 starring Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper.
John Norman Howard, a famous and self - destructive singer / songwriter rock star, arrives late for a concert. He is drunk, sings a couple of songs, and walks off stage. John 's entourage, including his manager Brian, takes him to a bar where Esther Hoffman is singing. One of John 's fans find him there and starts a fight. Esther grabs John and helps him escape out a back door.
They go to Esther 's, but she invites him to come back for breakfast. Over breakfast, she agrees to go to a concert with him. After arriving by helicopter, John rides a motorbike around the stage, snags a cable and crashes off the front of the stage. John is taken away by ambulance and his entourage leave in the helicopter forgetting Esther.
Afterwards, John is resting at home by his pool. A radio DJ, Bebe Jesus, hovers over the pool in a helicopter and invites John to his studio. John gets angry and shoots at the helicopter. Bebe Jesus then threatens to never play John 's songs. Later, John goes to the radio station with a case of whiskey to make peace with Bebe Jesus. The disk jockey does not accept John 's apology and calls John an alcoholic over the air. Esther happens to be at the radio station at the same time, taping a commercial, John takes Esther to his mansion and writes her name on the wall with a can of spray paint. There, they make love, have a bath together, and he listens to her playing his piano. She thinks no one would be able to sing to the tune she has written, but he makes up with some lyrics and starts singing.
At his next concert, John gets Esther on stage to sing. Although the audience boos when she starts to sing, she wins them over. Later, she tells John she wants them to get married. John replies that he 's no good for her, but she persists, and they marry. John takes Esther to a plot of land he has out west where they build a simple house. She wants a tour co-starring with him, but he thinks she should do the tour on her own. Esther 's career takes off, eclipsing his.
John returns to the studio thinking of restarting his career. His band tells him they have gone on without him. At home alone, John begins to write a new song. As he records it, he is interrupted by the phone. Someone asks for Esther and wants to know whether he is her secretary.
At the Grammy Awards, Esther wins for best female performance. While she is giving her acceptance speech, John arrives drunk and makes a scene. Later, Esther tries to talk Brian into giving John a last chance. John is writing songs again but in a different way. Brian calls on John and likes the new songs, but suggests John release some of his old hits along with the new songs. However, John wants to go with the new work only, so he turns down the offer.
Back at his LA mansion, John finds Quentin, a magazine writer, swimming half - naked in his swimming pool. She says she would do anything to get an exclusive interview with Esther. When Esther arrives soon after, she finds them in bed together. Quentin tries to interview Esther, but John tells Quentin to get out. Esther and John end up going back to their small home out west where they have been happiest. One morning, John drives to the airport to get Brian. He puts on some of Esther 's songs, drives recklessly, and is killed in an accident. Afterwards, back at the LA mansion, Esther hears John 's voice calling out for someone to answer the phone. But she discovers it 's just a tape of the old songwriting session during which the phone had interrupted his singing.
At Esther 's next concert, the audience raises candles as tribute to her lost husband. She sings one of John 's songs but begins it as a ballad and ends it as a rock song.
Directed by Frank Pierson, the film updates the original story and screenplay of William A. Wellman and Robert Carson with additional contributions by Pierson, John Gregory Dunne and Joan Didion. It also features Gary Busey and Sally Kirkland. Venetta Fields and Clydie King perform as Streisand 's backing vocalists "The Oreos ''. Kristofferson 's then - wife Rita Coolidge and Tony Orlando appear briefly as themselves.
The earlier films had portrayed the behind - the - scenes world of Hollywood filmmaking. However, this version adapted the story to the music business. For example, the 1937 and 1954 films each portrayed the lead female character winning an Academy Award, while the 1976 and 2018 versions depicted the heroine winning a Grammy Award instead.
A Star Is Born was co-produced by Streisand and her then - partner Jon Peters for Barwood Films and Warner Brothers, with Peters as the main producer and Streisand as executive. Among actors considered for the male lead were Neil Diamond and Marlon Brando. Streisand and Peters wanted Elvis Presley for the role: they met with Elvis and discussed the film, and he was interested in taking the part, thinking it would revive his film career. Elvis ' manager, Colonel Tom Parker, insisted Elvis have top billing and asked for a substantial sum of money for the role, even though he had not had an acting role since 1969, and people were unsure what kind of box office draw he would be. This effectively ended Elvis 's involvement with the project. Parker also did not want to have Elvis portrayed as having a show business career in decline. This, in fact, was far from the truth, with Elvis playing to packed auditoriums wherever he toured in the States. Diamond, who knew Streisand and had attended high school with her at Erasmus Hall High School in Brooklyn, was also seriously considered but had to decline due to his extensive concert commitments, and Kristofferson got the part of John Norman Howard.
Kristofferson denied modelling his character on Jim Morrison: "That 's a good idea but it 's not true. I do n't think I ever met Morrison. A lot of people said we looked alike -- shirts off, beards -- but that washed - up rock star was more about me. ''
The film cost around $6 million to produce. Its soundtrack album was also an international success, reaching number 1 in many countries and selling nearly 15 million copies worldwide. It featured the ballad "Evergreen (Love Theme from A Star Is Born) '', which became one of the biggest hits of Streisand 's career, spending three weeks at number one in the United States, and peaking at number three in the United Kingdom.
The filming locations included many in Arizona such as downtown Tucson, Tucson Community Center, Sonoita and Tempe.
The clothing of Streisand 's character 's (Esther Hoffman Howard) was from Streisand 's own closet. The actual credit reads: "Miss Streisand 's clothes from... her closet ''.
The film was choreographed by David Winters of West Side Story fame, who worked closely with Streisand to perfect the movie 's dancing sequences.
The film grossed $80 million at the U.S. box office, making it the 3rd highest grossing picture of 1976.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an approval rating of 35 % based on 23 reviews, with an average rating of 5.2 / 10. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 58 out of 100 based on 8 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Roger Ebert gave the film two and a half stars out of four, writing in his review, "There is, to begin with, no denying Barbra Streisand 's enormous talent. At the end of "A Star Is Born '' the camera stays on her for one unbroken shot of seven or eight minutes, and she sings her heart out, and we concede that she 's one of the great stars of the movies, one of the elemental presences... I thought Miss Streisand was distractingly miscast in the role, and yet I forgave her everything when she sang. '' Paul Mavis, reviewing Warner 's 2006 disc release of A Star is Born for DVD Talk, wrote, "There is something of value in A Star is Born -- one thing -- and that 's Kris Kristofferson 's amazingly adept, heartfelt performance as the doomed rock star, self - destructing despite the love of an up - and - coming singer (Streisand). There 's not a wrong note in his performance. Unfortunately, the remainder of A Star is Born is an unmitigated disaster that has the megalomaniac fingerprints of Barbra Streisand and her hairdresser / producer boyfriend, Jon Peters, all over it. '' Conversely, Vincent Canby, in his review in The New York Times, says Kristofferson "walks through the film looking very bored. ''
The film won the Academy Award for Best Original Song for "Evergreen '' with the award shared by its songwriters, Streisand and Paul Williams, and was also nominated in the categories of Best Cinematography (Robert Surtees), Best Sound (Robert Knudson, Dan Wallin, Robert Glass and Tom Overton) and Original Song Score (Roger Kellaway).
It won five Golden Globe Awards for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy, Best Actress -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy (Streisand), Best Actor -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy (Kristofferson), Best Original Score (Paul Williams and Kenny Ascher) and Best Original Song, (Streisand and Williams for "Evergreen ''). The film 's music score and theme song also won ASCAP Film and Television Music Awards for Most Performed Feature Film Standards and nominated BAFTA Awards for Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music and Best Sound Track, Grammy Award for Best Album of Original Score written for a Motion Picture or Television Special
In the two previous versions, Gaynor and Garland were each depicted on screen as winning an Oscar, yet neither won for their film in real life (though Gaynor had won an Oscar before, as had Streisand and Garland had won a Juvenile Oscar). In this film, Streisand is instead depicted as winning a Grammy, and, in real life, the film 's song "Evergreen '' won her both a Grammy (for Song of the Year) and an Oscar.
According to at least one Streisand biography, unhappy with a few of Frank Pierson 's scenes, Streisand later directed them herself (a claim also made for 1979 's The Main Event), adding to the rumors that she and Pierson clashed constantly during production.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
A Star Is Born was the second remake of the original 1937 drama, the prior being the 1954 musical starring Judy Garland and James Mason. The story was also adapted as the 2013 Bollywood film Aashiqui 2. Bradley Cooper later starred, directed, and co-produced a 2018 retelling, with Lady Gaga co-starring and composing new music for the film.
In 2006, the Region 1 DVD was released in North America in Dolby Digital 5.1 sound with extras including a full - length commentary by Barbra Streisand, 16 minutes of never before seen and additional footage and the original wardrobe test. In 2007 the Region 2 DVD with the same extras was released in Germany. In 2008 the Region 4 DVD was released in Australia, the content of which appears to be the same as the Region 1 edition. The DVD has yet to be released in any other region.
Warner Bros. released the film worldwide on the Blu - ray format on February 6, 2013.
The soundtrack album to the film was released by Columbia Records in 1976.
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who was the first viking king of england | Cnut the great - wikipedia
Cnut the Great (Old English: Cnut se Micela, Old Norse: Knútr inn ríki c. 995 -- 12 November 1035), also known as Canute, whose father was Sweyn Forkbeard (which gave him the patronym Sweynsson, Old Norse: Sveinsson) -- was King of Denmark, England and Norway; together often referred to as the North Sea Empire. Yet after the deaths of his heirs within a decade of his own, and the Norman conquest of England in 1066, this legacy was lost. He is popularly invoked in the context of the legend of King Canute and the tide, which usually misrepresents him as a deluded monarch believing he has supernatural powers, contrary to the original legend which portrays a wise king who rebuked his courtiers for their fawning behaviour.
As a Danish prince, Cnut won the throne of England in 1016 in the wake of centuries of Viking activity in northwestern Europe. His latter accession to the Danish throne in 1018 brought the crowns of England and Denmark together. Cnut sought to keep this power - base by uniting Danes and English under cultural bonds of wealth and custom, as well as through sheer brutality. After a decade of conflict with opponents in Scandinavia, Cnut claimed the crown of Norway in Trondheim in 1028. The Swedish city Sigtuna was held by Cnut (he had coins struck there that called him king, but there is no narrative record of his occupation).
Dominion of England lent the Danes an important link to the maritime zone between the islands of Great Britain and Ireland, where Cnut, like his father before him, had a strong interest and wielded much influence among the Norse -- Gaels. Cnut 's possession of England 's dioceses and the continental Diocese of Denmark -- with a claim laid upon it by the Holy Roman Empire 's Archdiocese of Hamburg - Bremen -- was a source of great prestige and leverage within the Catholic Church and among the magnates of Christendom (gaining notable concessions such as one on the price of the pallium of his bishops, though they still had to travel to obtain the pallium, as well as on the tolls his people had to pay on the way to Rome). After his 1026 victory against Norway and Sweden, and on his way back from Rome where he attended the coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor, Cnut, in a letter written for the benefit of his subjects, deemed himself "King of all England and Denmark and the Norwegians and of some of the Swedes ''. The Anglo - Saxon kings used the title "king of the English ''. Cnut was ealles Engla landes cyning -- "king of all England ''. Medieval historian Norman Cantor called him "the most effective king in Anglo - Saxon history ''.
Cnut was a son of the Danish prince Sweyn Forkbeard, who was the son and heir to King Harald Bluetooth and thus came from a line of Scandinavian rulers central to the unification of Denmark. Neither the place nor the date of his birth are known. Harthacnut I of Denmark was the semi-legendary founder of the Danish royal house at the beginning of the 10th century, and his son, Gorm the Old, became the first in the official line (the ' Old ' in his name indicates this). Harald Bluetooth, Gorm 's son and Cnut 's grandfather, was the Danish king at the time of the Christianization of Denmark; he became the first Scandinavian king to accept Christianity.
The Chronicon of Thietmar of Merseburg and the Encomium Emmae report Cnut 's mother as having been a daughter of Mieszko I of Poland. Norse sources of the High Middle Ages, most prominently Heimskringla by Snorri Sturluson, also give a Polish princess as Cnut 's mother, whom they call Gunhild and a daughter of Burislav, the king of Vindland. Since in the Norse sagas the king of Vindland is always Burislav, this is reconcilable with the assumption that her father was Mieszko (not his son Bolesław). Adam of Bremen in Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum is unique in equating Cnut 's mother (for whom he also produces no name) with the former queen of Sweden, wife of Eric the Victorious and by this marriage mother of Olof Skötkonung. To complicate the matter, Heimskringla and other sagas also have Sweyn marrying Eric 's widow, but she is distinctly another person in these texts, named Sigrid the Haughty, whom Sweyn only marries after Gunhild, the Slavic princess who bore Cnut, has died. Different theories regarding the number and ancestry of Sweyn 's wives (or wife) have been advanced (see Sigrid the Haughty and Gunhild). But since Adam is the only source to equate the identity of Cnut 's and Olof Skötkonung 's mother, this is often seen as an error on Adam 's part, and it is often assumed that Sweyn had two wives, the first being Cnut 's mother, and the second being the former Queen of Sweden. Cnut 's brother Harald was the first - born and crown prince.
Some hint of Cnut 's childhood can be found in the Flateyjarbók, a 13th - century source that says he was taught his soldiery by the chieftain Thorkell the Tall, brother to Sigurd, Jarl of mythical Jomsborg, and the legendary Joms, at their Viking stronghold on the island of Wollin, off the coast of Pomerania. His date of birth, like his mother 's name, is unknown. Contemporary works such as the Chronicon and the Encomium Emmae, do not mention this. Even so, in a Knútsdrápa by the skald Óttarr svarti, there is a statement that Cnut was "of no great age '' when he first went to war. It also mentions a battle identifiable with Sweyn Forkbeard 's invasion of England and attack on the city of Norwich, in 1003 / 04, after the St. Brice 's Day massacre of Danes by the English, in 1002. If Cnut indeed accompanied this expedition, his birthdate may be near 990, or even 980. If not, and if the skald 's poetic verse references another assault, such as Forkbeard 's conquest of England in 1013 / 14, it may even suggest a birth date nearer 1000. There is a passage of the Encomiast (as the author of the Encomium Emmae is known) with a reference to the force Cnut led in his English conquest of 1015 / 16. Here (see below) it says all the Vikings were of "mature age '' under Cnut "the king ''.
A description of Cnut appears in the 13th - century Knýtlinga saga:
Knut was exceptionally tall and strong, and the handsomest of men, all except for his nose, that was thin, high - set, and rather hooked. He had a fair complexion none - the-less, and a fine, thick head of hair. His eyes were better than those of other men, both the handsomer and the keener of their sight.
Hardly anything is known for sure of Cnut 's life until the year he was part of a Scandinavian force under his father, King Sweyn, in his invasion of England in summer 1013. It was the climax to a succession of Viking raids spread over a number of decades. Following their landing in the Humber the kingdom fell to the Vikings quickly, and near the end of the year King Æthelred fled to Normandy, leaving Sweyn Forkbeard in possession of England. In the winter, Forkbeard was in the process of consolidating his kingship, with Cnut left in charge of the fleet and the base of the army at Gainsborough.
On the death of Sweyn Forkbeard after a few months as king, on Candlemas (Sunday 3 February 1014), Harald succeeded him as King of Denmark, while the Vikings and the people of the Danelaw immediately elected Cnut as king in England. However, the English nobility took a different view, and the Witenagemot recalled Æthelred from Normandy. The restored king swiftly led an army against Cnut, who fled with his army to Denmark, along the way mutilating the hostages they had taken and abandoning them on the beach at Sandwich. Cnut went to Harald and supposedly made the suggestion they might have a joint kingship, although this found no favour with his brother. Harald is thought to have offered Cnut command of his forces for another invasion of England, on the condition he did not continue to press his claim. In any case, Cnut succeeded in assembling a large fleet with which to launch another invasion.
Among the allies of Denmark was Bolesław I the Brave, the Duke of Poland (later crowned king) and a relative to the Danish royal house. He lent some Polish troops, likely to have been a pledge made to Cnut and Harald when, in the winter, they "went amongst the Wends '' to fetch their mother back to the Danish court. She had been sent away by their father after the death of the Swedish king Eric the Victorious in 995, and his marriage to Sigrid the Haughty, the Swedish queen mother. This wedlock formed a strong alliance between the successor to the throne of Sweden, Olof Skötkonung, and the rulers of Denmark, his in - laws. Swedes were certainly among the allies in the English conquest. Another in - law to the Danish royal house, Eiríkr Hákonarson, was Trondejarl (Earl of Lade) and the co-ruler of Norway, with his brother Sweyn Haakonsson -- Norway having been under Danish sovereignty since the Battle of Svolder, in 999. Eiríkr 's participation in the invasion left his son Hakon to rule Norway, with Sweyn.
In the summer of 1015, Cnut 's fleet set sail for England with a Danish army of perhaps 10,000 in 200 longships. Cnut was at the head of an array of Vikings from all over Scandinavia. The invasion force was to engage in often close and grisly warfare with the English for the next fourteen months. Practically all of the battles were fought against the eldest son of Æthelred, Edmund Ironside.
According to the Peterborough Chronicle manuscript, one of the major witnesses of the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle, early in September 1015 "(Cnut) came into Sandwich, and straightway sailed around Kent to Wessex, until he came to the mouth of the Frome, and harried in Dorset and Wiltshire and Somerset '', beginning a campaign of an intensity not seen since the days of Alfred the Great. A passage from Emma 's Encomium provides a picture of Cnut 's fleet:
(T) here were there so many kinds of shields, that you could have believed that troops of all nations were present... Gold shone on the prows, silver also flashed on the variously shaped ships... For who could look upon the lions of the foe, terrible with the brightness of gold, who upon the men of metal, menacing with golden face,... who upon the bulls on the ships threatening death, their horns shining with gold, without feeling any fear for the king of such a force? Furthermore, in this great expedition there was present no slave, no man freed from slavery, no low - born man, no man weakened by age; for all were noble, all strong with the might of mature age, all sufficiently fit for any type of fighting, all of such great fleetness, that they scorned the speed of horsemen.
Wessex, long ruled by the dynasty of Alfred and Æthelred, submitted to Cnut late in 1015, as it had to his father two years earlier. At this point Eadric Streona, the Ealdorman of Mercia, deserted Æthelred together with 40 ships and their crews and joined forces with Cnut. Another defector was Thorkell the Tall, a Jomsviking chief who had fought against the Viking invasion of Sweyn Forkbeard, with a pledge of allegiance to the English in 1012 -- some explanation for this shift of allegiance may be found in a stanza of the Jómsvíkinga saga that mentions two attacks against Jomsborg 's mercenaries while they were in England, with a man known as Henninge, a brother of Thorkell, among their casualties. If the Flateyjarbók is correct that this man was Cnut 's childhood mentor, it explains his acceptance of his allegiance -- with Jomvikings ultimately in the service of Jomsborg. The 40 ships Eadric came with, often thought to be of the Danelaw were probably Thorkell 's.
Early in 1016, the Vikings crossed the Thames and harried Warwickshire, while Edmund Ironside 's attempts at opposition seem to have come to nothing -- the chronicler says the English army disbanded because the king and the citizenry of London were not present. The mid-winter assault by Cnut devastated its way northwards across eastern Mercia. Another summons of the army brought the Englishmen together, and they were met this time by the king, although "it came to nothing as so often before '', and Æthelred returned to London with fears of betrayal. Edmund then went north to join Uhtred the Earl of Northumbria and together they harried Staffordshire, Shropshire and Cheshire in western Mercia, possibly targeting the estates of Eadric Streona. Cnut 's occupation of Northumbria meant Uhtred returned home to submit himself to Cnut, who seems to have sent a Northumbrian rival, Thurbrand the Hold, to massacre Uhtred and his retinue. Eiríkr Hákonarson, most likely with another force of Scandinavians, came to support Cnut at this point, and the veteran Norwegian jarl was put in charge of Northumbria.
Prince Edmund remained in London, still unsubdued behind its walls, and was elected king after the death of Æthelred on 23 April 1016.
Cnut returned southward and the Danish army evidently divided, some dealing with Edmund, who had broken out of London before Cnut 's encirclement of the city was complete and gone to gather an army in Wessex, the traditional heartland of the English monarchy -- some besieging London -- with the construction of dikes on the northern and southern flanks and a channel dug across the banks of the Thames to the south of the city for the longships to cut off communications up - river.
There was a battle fought at Penselwood in Somerset -- with a hill in Selwood Forest as the likely location -- and a subsequent battle at Sherston, in Wiltshire, which was fought over two days but left neither side victorious.
Edmund was able to temporarily relieve London, driving the enemy away and defeating them after crossing the Thames at Brentford. Suffering heavy losses, he withdrew to Wessex to gather fresh troops, and the Danes again brought London under siege, but after another unsuccessful assault they withdrew into Kent under attack by the English, with a battle fought at Otford. At this point Eadric Streona went over to King Edmund, and Cnut set sail northwards across the Thames estuary to Essex, and went from the landing of the ships up the River Orwell to ravage Mercia.
On 18 October 1016, the Danes were engaged by Edmund 's army as they retired towards their ships, leading to the Battle of Assandun, fought at either Ashingdon, in south - east, or Ashdon, in north - west Essex. In the ensuing struggle, Eadric Streona, whose return to the English side had perhaps only been a ruse, withdrew his forces from the fray, bringing about a decisive English defeat. Edmund fled westwards, and Cnut pursued him into Gloucestershire, with another battle probably fought near the Forest of Dean, for Edmund had an alliance with some of the Welsh.
On an island near Deerhurst, Cnut and Edmund, who had been wounded, met to negotiate terms of peace. It was agreed that all of England north of the Thames was to be the domain of the Danish prince, while all to the south was kept by the English king, along with London. Accession to the reign of the entire realm was set to pass to Cnut upon Edmund 's death. Edmund died on 30 November, within weeks of the arrangement. Some sources claim Edmund was murdered, although the circumstances of his death are unknown. The West Saxons now accepted Cnut as king of all of England, and he was crowned by Lyfing, Archbishop of Canterbury, in London in 1017.
Cnut ruled England for nearly two decades. The protection he lent against Viking raiders -- many of them under his command -- restored the prosperity that had been increasingly impaired since the resumption of Viking attacks in the 980s. In turn the English helped him to establish control over the majority of Scandinavia, too.
As Danish King of England, Cnut was quick to eliminate any prospective challenge from the survivors of the mighty Wessex dynasty. The first year of his reign was marked by the executions of a number of English noblemen whom he considered suspect. Æthelred 's son Eadwig Ætheling fled from England but was killed on Cnut 's orders. Edmund Ironside 's sons likewise fled abroad. Æthelred 's sons by Emma of Normandy went under the protection of their relatives in the Norman duchy.
In July 1017, Cnut wed queen Emma, the widow of Æthelred and daughter of Richard I, Duke of Normandy. Later he was to proclaim Harthacnut, his son by Emma, to be his heir; while Svein Knutsson and Harold Harefoot, his two sons from his marriage to Ælfgifu of Northampton, his handfast wife, were kept on the sidelines in the running to the throne.
In 1018, having collected a Danegeld amounting to the colossal sum of £ 72,000 levied nationwide, with an additional £ 10,500 extracted from London, Cnut paid off his army and sent most of them home. He retained 40 ships and their crews as a standing force in England. An annual tax called heregeld (army payment) was collected through the same system Æthelred had instituted in 1012 to reward Scandinavians in his service.
Cnut built on the existing English trend for multiple shires to be grouped together under a single ealdorman, thusly dividing the country into four large administrative units whose geographical extent was based on the largest and most durable of the separate kingdoms that had preceded the unification of England. The officials responsible for these provinces were designated earls, a title of Scandinavian origin already in localised use in England, which now everywhere replaced that of ealdorman. Wessex was initially kept under Cnut 's personal control, while Northumbria went to Erik of Hlathir, East Anglia to Thorkell the Tall, and Mercia remained in the hands of Eadric Streona.
This initial distribution of power was short - lived. The chronically treacherous Eadric was executed within a year of Cnut 's accession. Mercia passed to one of the leading families of the region, probably first to Leofwine, ealdorman of the Hwicce under Æthelred, but certainly soon to his son Leofric. In 1021 Thorkel also fell from favour and was outlawed. Following the death of Erik in the 1020s, he was succeeded as Earl of Northumbria by Siward, whose grandmother, Estrid (married to Úlfr Thorgilsson), was Cnut 's sister. Bernicia, the northern part of Northumbria, was theoretically part of Erik and Siward 's earldom, but throughout Cnut 's reign it effectively remained under the control of the English dynasty based at Bamburgh, which had dominated the area at least since the early 10th century. They served as junior Earls of Bernicia under the titular authority of the Earl of Northumbria. By the 1030s Cnut 's direct administration of Wessex had come to an end, with the establishment of an earldom under Godwin, an Englishman from a powerful Sussex family. In general, after initial reliance on his Scandinavian followers in the first years of his reign, Cnut allowed those Anglo - Saxon families of the existing English nobility who had earned his trust to assume rulership of his Earldoms.
At the Battle of Nesjar, in 1016, Olaf Haraldsson won the kingdom of Norway from the Danes. It was at some time after Eirkr left for England, and on the death of Svein while retreating to Sweden, maybe intent on returning to Norway with reinforcements, that Erikr 's son Hakon went to join his father and support Cnut in England, too.
Cnut 's brother Harald may have been at Cnut 's coronation, in 1016, returning to Denmark as its king, with part of the fleet, at some point thereafter. It is only certain, though, that there was an entry of his name, alongside Cnut 's, in confraternity with Christ Church, Canterbury, in 1018. This is not conclusive, though, for the entry may have been made in Harald 's absence, perhaps by the hand of Cnut himself, which means that, while it is usually thought that Harald died in 1018, it is unsure whether he was still alive at this point. Entry of his brother 's name in the Canterbury codex may have been Cnut 's attempt to make his vengeance for Harald 's murder good with the Church. This may have been just a gesture for a soul to be under the protection of God. There is evidence Cnut was in battle with pirates in 1018, with his destruction of the crews of thirty ships, although it is unknown if this was off the English or Danish shores. He himself mentions troubles in his 1019 letter (to England, from Denmark), written as the King of England and Denmark. These events can be seen, with plausibility, to be in connection with the death of Harald. Cnut says he dealt with dissenters to ensure Denmark was free to assist England:
King Cnut greets in friendship his archbishop and his diocesan bishops and Earl Thurkil and all his earls... ecclesiastic and lay, in England... I inform you that I will be a gracious lord and a faithfull observer of God 's rights and just secular law. (He exhorts his ealdormen to assist the bishops in the maintenance of) God 's rights... and the benefit of the people.
If anyone, ecclesiastic or layman, Dane or Englishman, is so presumptuous as to defy God 's law and my royal authority or the secular laws, and he will not make amends and desist according to the direction of my bishops, I then pray, and also command, Earl Thurkil, if he can, to cause the evil - doer to do right. And if he can not, then it is my will that with the power of us both he shall destroy him in the land or drive him out of the land, whether he be of high or low rank. And it is my will that all the nation, ecclesiastical and lay, shall steadfastly observe Edgar 's laws, which all men have chosen and sworn at Oxford.
Since I did not spare my money, as long as hostility was threatening you, I with God 's help have put an end to it. Then I was informed that greater danger was approaching us than we liked at all; and then I went myself with the men who accompanied me to Denmark, from where the greatest injury had come to us, and with God 's help I have made it so that never henceforth shall hostility reach you from there as long as you support me rightly and my life lasts. Now I thank Almighty God for his help and his mercy, that I have settled the great dangers which were approaching us that we need fear no danger to us from there; but we may rekon on full help and deliverance, if we need it.
Cnut was generally remembered as a wise and successful king of England, although this view may in part be attributable to his good treatment of the Church, keeper of the historic record. Accordingly, we hear of him, even today, as a religious man (see below), despite the fact that he was in an arguably sinful relationship, with two wives, and the harsh treatment he dealt his fellow Christian opponents.
Under his reign, Cnut brought together the English and Danish kingdoms, and the Scandinavic and Saxon peoples saw a period of dominance across Scandinavia, as well as within the British Isles. His campaigns abroad meant the tables of Viking supremacy were stacked in favour of the English, turning the prows of the longships towards Scandinavia. He reinstated the Laws of King Edgar to allow for the constitution of a Danelaw, and for the activity of Scandinavians at large. He also reinstituted the extant laws with a series of proclamations to assuage common grievances brought to his attention, including: On Inheritance in case of Intestacy, and On Heriots and Reliefs. He also strengthened the currency, initiating a series of coins of equal weight to those being used in Denmark and other parts of Scandinavia.
Harald II died in 1018, and Cnut went to Denmark to affirm his succession to the Danish crown as Cnut II, stating his intention to avert attacks against England in a letter in 1019 (see above). It seems there were Danes in opposition to him, and an attack he carried out on the Wends of Pomerania may have had something to do with this. In this expedition, at least one of Cnut 's Englishmen, Godwin, apparently won the king 's trust after a night - time raid he personally led against a Wendish encampment.
His hold on the Danish throne presumably stable, Cnut was back in England in 1020. He appointed Ulf Jarl, the husband of his sister Estrid Svendsdatter, as regent of Denmark, further entrusting him with his young son by Queen Emma, Harthacnut, whom he had made the crown prince of his kingdom. The banishment of Thorkell the Tall in 1021 may be seen in relation to the attack on the Wends. With the death of Olof Skötkonung in 1022, and the succession to the Swedish throne of his son Anund Jacob bringing Sweden into alliance with Norway, there was cause for a demonstration of Danish strength in the Baltic. Jomsborg, the legendary stronghold of the Jomsvikings (thought to be on an island off the coast of Pomerania), was probably the target of Cnut 's expedition. Successful, after this clear display of Cnut 's intentions to dominate Scandinavian affairs, it seems that Thorkell reconciled with Cnut in 1023.
When, in spite of this, the Norwegian king Olaf Haraldsson and Anund Jakob took advantage of Cnut 's commitment to England and began to launch attacks against Denmark, Ulf gave the Danish freemen cause to accept Harthacnut, still a child, as king. This was a ruse on Ulf 's part since his role as caretaker of Harthacnut gave him the reign of the kingdom. Upon news of these events, Cnut set sail for Denmark to restore himself and to deal with Ulf, who then got back in line. In a battle known as the Battle of the Helgeå, Cnut and his men fought the Norwegians and Swedes at the mouth of the river Helgea, probably in 1026, and the apparent victory left Cnut as the dominant leader in Scandinavia. Ulf the usurper 's realignment and participation in the battle did not, in the end, earn him Cnut 's forgiveness. Some sources state that the brothers - in - law were playing chess at a banquet in Roskilde when an argument arose between them, and the next day, Christmas 1026, one of Cnut 's housecarls killed the jarl with his blessing, in Trinity Church, the predecessor to Roskilde Cathedral.
His enemies in Scandinavia subdued, and apparently at his leisure, Cnut was able to accept an invitation to witness the accession of the Holy Roman Emperor Conrad II. He left his affairs in the north and went from Denmark to the coronation at Easter 1027 in Rome -- a pilgrimage to the heart of Christendom being of considerable prestige for rulers of Europe in the Middle Ages. On the return journey he wrote his letter of 1027, like his letter of 1019, informing his subjects in England of his intentions from abroad and proclaiming himself "king of all England and Denmark and the Norwegians and of some of the Swedes ''.
Consistent with his role as a Christian king, Cnut says he went to Rome to repent for his sins, to pray for redemption and the security of his subjects, and to negotiate with the Pope for a reduction in the costs of the pallium for English archbishops, and for a resolution to the competition between the archdioceses of Canterbury and Hamburg - Bremen for superiority over the Danish dioceses. He also sought to improve the conditions for pilgrims, as well as merchants, on the road to Rome. In his own words:
... I spoke with the Emperor himself and the Lord Pope and the princes there about the needs of all people of my entire realm, both English and Danes, that a juster law and securer peace might be granted to them on the road to Rome and that they should not be straitened by so many barriers along the road, and harassed by unjust tolls; and the Emperor agreed and likewise King Robert who governs most of these same toll gates. And all the magnates confirmed by edict that my people, both merchants, and the others who travel to make their devotions, might go to Rome and return without being afflicted by barriers and toll collectors, in firm peace and secure in a just law.
"Robert '' in Cnut 's text is probably a clerical error for Rudolph, the last ruler of an independent Kingdom of Burgundy. Hence, the solemn word of the Pope, the Emperor and Rudolph was given with the witness of four archbishops, twenty bishops, and "innumerable multitudes of dukes and nobles '', suggesting it was before the ceremonies were completed. Cnut without doubt threw himself into his role with zest. His image as a just Christian king, statesman and diplomat and crusader against unjustness, seems rooted in reality, as well as one he sought to project.
A good illustration of his status within Europe is the fact that Cnut and the King of Burgundy went alongside the emperor in the imperial procession and stood shoulder - to - shoulder with him on the same pedestal. Cnut and the emperor, in accord with various sources, took to one another 's company like brothers, for they were of a similar age. Conrad gave Cnut lands in the Mark of Schleswig -- the land - bridge between the Scandinavian kingdoms and the continent -- as a token of their treaty of friendship. Centuries of conflict in this area between the Danes and the Germans led to construction of the Danevirke, from Schleswig, on the Schlei, an inlet of the Baltic Sea, to the North Sea.
Cnut 's visit to Rome was a triumph. In the verse of Knútsdrápa, Sigvatr Þórðarson praises Cnut, his king, as being "dear to the Emperor, close to Peter ''. In the days of Christendom, a king seen to be in favour with God could expect to be ruler over a happy kingdom. He was surely in a stronger position, not only with the Church and the people, but also in the alliance with his southern rivals he was able to conclude his conflicts with his rivals in the north. His letter not only tells his countrymen of his achievements in Rome, but also of his ambitions within the Scandinavian world at his arrival home:
... I, as I wish to be made known to you, returning by the same route that I took out, am going to Denmark to arrange peace and a firm treaty, in the counsel of all the Danes, with those races and people who would have deprived us of life and rule if they could, but they could not, God destroying their strength. May he preserve us by his bounteous compassion in rule and honour and henceforth scatter and bring to nothing the power and might of all our enemies! And finally, when peace has been arranged with our surrounding peoples and all our kingdom here in the east has been properly ordered and pacified, so that we have no war to fear on any side or the hostility of individuals, I intend to come to England as early this summer as I can to attend to the equipping of a fleet.
Cnut was to return to Denmark from Rome, arrange for its security, and afterwards sail to England.
In his 1027 letter, Cnut refers to himself as king of "the Norwegians, and of some of the Swedes '' -- his victory over Swedes suggests Helgea to be the river in Uppland and not the one in eastern Scania -- while the king of Sweden appears to have been made a renegade. Cnut also stated his intention of proceeding to Denmark to secure peace between the kingdoms of Scandinavia, which fits the account of John of Worcester that in 1027 Cnut heard some Norwegians were discontented and sent them sums of gold and silver to gain their support in his claim on the throne.
In 1028, after his return from Rome through Denmark, Cnut set off from England to Norway, and the city of Trondheim, with a fleet of fifty ships. Olaf Haraldsson stood down, unable to put up any fight, as his nobles were against him for his tendency to flay their wives for sorcery. Cnut was crowned king, now of England, Denmark and Norway as well as part of Sweden. He entrusted the Earldom of Lade to the former line of earls, in Håkon Eiriksson, with Eiríkr Hákonarson probably dead by this time. Hakon was possibly the Earl of Northumbria after Erik as well.
Hakon, a member of a family with a long tradition of hostility towards the independent Norwegian kings, and a relative of Cnut 's, was already in lordship over the Isles with the earldom of Worcester, possibly from 1016 to 1017. The sea - lanes through the Irish Sea and the Hebrides led to Orkney and Norway, and were central to Cnut 's ambitions for dominance of Scandinavia and the British Isles. Hakon was meant to be Cnut 's lieutenant in this strategic chain, and the final component was his installation as the king 's deputy in Norway, after the expulsion of Olaf Haraldsson in 1028. Unfortunately, he was drowned in a shipwreck in the Pentland Firth (between the Orkneys and the mainland coast) either late 1029 or early 1030.
Upon the death of Hakon, Olaf Haraldsson returned to Norway, with Swedes in his army. He died at the hands of his own people, at the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030. Cnut 's subsequent attempt to rule Norway without the key support of the Trondejarls, through Ælfgifu of Northampton, and his eldest son by her, Sweyn Knutsson, was not a success. The period is known as Aelfgifu 's Time in Norway, with heavy taxation, a rebellion, and the restoration of the former Norwegian dynasty under Saint Olaf 's illegitimate son Magnus the Good.
In 1014, while Cnut was preparing his re-invasion of England, the Battle of Clontarf pitted an array of armies laid out on the fields before the walls of Dublin. Máel Mórda, king of Leinster, and Sigtrygg Silkbeard, ruler of the Norse - Gaelic kingdom of Dublin, had sent out emissaries to all the Viking kingdoms to request assistance in their rebellion against Brian Bóruma, the High King of Ireland. Sigurd the Stout, the Earl of Orkney, was offered command of all the Norse forces, while the High King had sought assistance from the Albanaich, who were led by Domhnall Mac Eiminn Mac Cainnich, Mormaer of Ce (Marr & Buchan). The Leinster - Norse alliance was defeated, and both commanders, Sigurd and Máel Mórda, were killed. Brian, his son, his grandson, and the Mormaer Domhnall were slain as well. Sigtrygg 's alliance was broken, although he was left alive, and the high - kingship of Ireland went back to the Uí Néill, again under Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill.
There was a brief period of freedom in the Irish Sea zone for the Vikings of Dublin, with a political vacuum felt throughout the entire Western Maritime Zone of the North Atlantic Archipelago. Prominent among those who stood to fill the void was Cnut, "whose leadership of the Scandinavian world gave him a unique influence over the western colonies and whose control of their commercial arteries gave an economic edge to political domination ''. Coinage struck by the king in Dublin, Silkbeard, bearing Cnut 's quatrefoil type -- in issue c. 1017 -- 25 -- sporadically replacing the legend with one bearing his own name and styling him as ruler either ' of Dublin ' or ' among the Irish ' provides evidence of Cnut 's influence. Further evidence is the entry of one Sihtric dux in three of Cnut 's charters.
In one of his verses, Cnut 's court poet Sigvatr Þórðarson recounts that famous princes brought their heads to Cnut and bought peace. This verse mentions Olaf Haraldsson in the past tense, his death at the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030. It was therefore at some point after this and the consolidation of Norway that Cnut went to Scotland with an army, and the navy in the Irish Sea, in 1031, to receive, without bloodshed, the submission of three Scottish kings: Maelcolm, Maelbeth and Iehmarc. One of these kings, Iehmarc, may be one Echmarcach mac Ragnaill, an Uí Ímair chieftain and the ruler of a sea - kingdom of the Irish Sea, with Galloway among his domains.
Furtherly, a Lausavísa attributable to the skald Óttarr svarti greets the ruler of the Danes, Irish, English and Island - dwellers -- use of Irish here being likely to mean the Gall Ghaedil kingdoms rather than the Gaelic kingdoms. It "brings to mind Sweyn Forkbeard 's putative activities in the Irish Sea and Adam of Bremen 's story of his stay with a rex Scothorum (? king of the Irish) (&) can also be linked to... Iehmarc, who submitted in 1031 (&) could be relevant to Cnut 's relations with the Irish ''.
Cnut 's actions as a conqueror and his ruthless treatment of the overthrown dynasty had made him uneasy with the Church. He was already a Christian before he was king -- being named Lambert at his baptism -- although the Christianization of Scandinavia was not at all complete. His open relationship with a concubine, Ælfgifu of Northampton, his handfast wife, whom he kept as his northern queen when he wed Emma of Normandy (confusingly also Ælfgifu in Old English), who was kept in the south with an estate in Exeter, was another conflict with Church teaching. In an effort to reconcile himself with his churchmen, Cnut repaired all the English churches and monasteries that were victims of Viking plunder and refilled their coffers. He also built new churches and was an earnest patron of monastic communities. His homeland of Denmark was a Christian nation on the rise, and the desire to enhance the religion was still fresh. As an example, the first stone church recorded to have been built in Scandinavia was in Roskilde, c. 1027, and its patron was Cnut 's sister Estrid.
It is difficult to ascertain whether Cnut 's attitude towards the Church derived from deep religious devotion or was merely a means to reinforce his regime 's hold on the people. There is evidence of respect for the pagan religion in his praise poetry, which he was happy enough for his skalds to embellish in Norse mythology, while other Viking leaders were insistent on the rigid observation of the Christian line, like St Olaf. Yet he also displays the desire for a respectable Christian nationhood within Europe. In 1018, some sources suggest he was at Canterbury on the return of its Archbishop Lyfing from Rome, to receive letters of exhortation from the Pope. If this chronology is correct, he probably went from Canterbury to the Witan at Oxford, with Archbishop Wulfstan of York in attendance, to record the event.
His ecumenical gifts were widespread and often exuberant. Commonly held land was given, along with exemption from taxes as well as relics. Christ Church was probably given rights at the important port of Sandwich as well as tax exemption, with confirmation in the placement of their charters on the altar, while it got the relics of St Ælfheah, at the displeasure of the people of London. Another see in the king 's favour was Winchester, second only to the Canterbury see in terms of wealth. New Minster 's Liber Vitae records Cnut as a benefactor of the monastery, and the Winchester Cross, with 500 marks of silver and 30 marks of gold, as well as relics of various saints was given to it. Old Minster was the recipient of a shrine for the relics of St Birinus and the probable confirmation of its privileges. The monastery at Evesham, with its Abbot Ælfweard purportedly a relative of the king through Ælfgifu the Lady (probably Ælfgifu of Northampton, rather than Queen Emma, also known as Ælfgifu), got the relics of St Wigstan. Such generosity towards his subjects, which his skalds called destroying treasure, was popular with the English. Yet it is important to remember that not all Englishmen were in his favour, and the burden of taxation was widely felt. His attitude towards London 's see was clearly not benign. The monasteries at Ely and Glastonbury were apparently not on good terms either.
Other gifts were also given to his neighbours. Among these was one to Chartres, of which its bishop wrote: "When we saw the gift that you sent us, we were amazed at your knowledge as well as your faith... since you, whom we had heard to be a pagan prince, we now know to be not only a Christian, but also a most generous donor to God 's churches and servants ''. He is known to have sent a psalter and sacramentary made in Peterborough (famous for its illustrations) to Cologne, and a book written in gold, among other gifts, to William the Great of Aquitaine. This golden book was apparently to support Aquitanian claims of St Martial, patron saint of Aquitaine, as an apostle. Of some consequence, its recipient was an avid artisan, scholar and devout Christian, and the Abbey of Saint - Martial was a great library and scriptorium, second only to the one at Cluny. It is likely that Cnut 's gifts were well beyond anything we can now know.
Cnut 's journey to Rome in 1027 is another sign of his dedication to the Christian religion. It may be that he went to attend the coronation of Conrad II in order to improve relations between the two powers, yet he had previously made a vow to seek the favour of St Peter, the keeper of the keys to the heavenly kingdom. While in Rome, Cnut made an agreement with the Pope to reduce the fees paid by the English archbishops to receive their pallium. He also arranged that travellers from his realm not be straightened by unjust tolls and that they should be safeguarded on their way to and from Rome. Some evidence exists for a second journey in 1030.
Cnut died on 12 November 1035. In Denmark he was succeeded by Harthacnut, reigning as Cnut III, although with a war in Scandinavia against Magnus I of Norway, Harthacnut was "forsaken (by the English) because he was too long in Denmark '', and his mother Queen Emma, previously resident at Winchester with some of her son 's housecarls, was made to flee to Bruges in Flanders, under pressure from supporters of Cnut 's other son, after Svein, by Ælfgifu of Northampton: Harold Harefoot -- regent in England 1035 -- 37 -- who went on to claim the English throne in 1037, reigning until his death in 1040. Eventual peace in Scandinavia left Harthacnut free to claim the throne himself in 1040 and to regain for his mother her place. He brought the crowns of Denmark and England together again until his death in 1042. Denmark fell into a period of disorder with a power struggle between the pretender to the throne Sweyn Estridsson, son of Ulf, and the Norwegian king, until the death of Magnus in 1047. The inheritance of England was briefly to return to its Anglo - Saxon lineage.
The house of Wessex reigned again as Edward the Confessor was brought out of exile in Normandy and made a treaty with Harthacnut, his half - brother. As in his treaty with Magnus, it was decreed that the throne would go to Edward if Harthacnut died with no legitimate male heir. In 1042, Harthacnut died, and Edward was king. His reign secured Norman influence at Court thereafter, and the ambitions of its dukes finally found fruition in 1066 with William the Conqueror 's invasion of England and crowning, fifty years after Cnut was crowned in 1017.
If the sons of Cnut had not died within a decade of his death, and if his only known daughter Cunigund, who was to marry Conrad II 's son Henry III eight months after his death, had not died in Italy before she became empress consort, Cnut 's reign might well have been the foundation for a complete political union between England and Scandinavia, a North Sea Empire with blood ties to the Holy Roman Empire.
Cnut died at Shaftesbury in Dorset and was buried in the Old Minster, Winchester. With the events of 1066 the new regime of Normandy was keen to signal its arrival with an ambitious programme of grandiose cathedrals and castles throughout the High Middle Ages. Winchester Cathedral was built on the old Anglo - Saxon site and the previous burials, including Cnut 's, were set in mortuary chests there. During the English Civil War in the 17th century, plundering Roundhead soldiers scattered the bones of Cnut on the floor and they were spread amongst the various other chests, notably those of William Rufus. After the restoration of the monarchy, the bones were collected and replaced in their chests, although somewhat out of order.
The Old Norse catalogue of skalds known as Skáldatal lists eight skalds who were active at Cnut 's court. Four of them, namely Sigvatr Þórðarson, Óttarr svarti, Þórarinn loftunga and Hallvarðr háreksblesi, composed verses in honour of Cnut which have survived in some form, while no such thing is apparent from the four other skalds Bersi Torfuson, Arnórr Þórðarson jarlaskáld (known from other works), Steinn Skaptason and Óðarkeptr (unknown). It was these skalds who first referred to his greatness with emphasis on his generosity to the church and military achievements. The principal works for Cnut are the three Knútsdrápur by Sigvatr Þórðarson, Óttarr svarti and Hallvarðr háreksblesi, and the Höfuðlausn and Tøgdrápa by Þórarinn loftunga. Cnut also features in two other contemporary skaldic poems, namely Þórðr Kolbeinsson 's Eiríksdrápa and the anonymous Liðsmannaflokkr.
Cnut 's skalds emphasise the parallelism between Cnut 's rule of his earthly kingdom and God 's rule of Heaven. This is particularly apparent in their refrains. Thus the refrain of Þórarinn 's Höfuðlausn translates to "Cnut protects the land as the guardian of Byzantium (God) (does) Heaven '' and the refrain of Hallvarðr 's Knútsdrápa translates to "Cnut protects the land as the Lord of all (does) the splendid hall of the mountains (Heaven) ''. Despite the Christian message, the poets also make use of traditional pagan references and this is particularly true of Hallvarðr. As an example, one of his half - stanzas translates to "The Freyr of the noise of weapons (warrior) has also cast under him Norway; the battle - server (warrior) diminishes the hunger of the valcyrie 's hawks (ravens). '' The skald here refers to Cnut as "Freyr of battle '', a kenning using the name of the pagan god Freyr. References of this sort were avoided by poets composing for the contemporary kings of Norway but Cnut seems to have had a more relaxed attitude towards pagan literary allusions.
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chief of staff of the armed forces of liberia | Armed Forces of Liberia - wikipedia
The Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL) are the armed forces of the Republic of Liberia. Tracing its origins to a militia that was formed by the first black colonists in what is now Liberia, it was founded as the Liberian Frontier Force in 1908, and retitled in 1956. For almost all of its history, the AFL has received considerable materiel and training assistance from the United States. For most of the 1941 -- 89 period, training was largely provided by U.S. advisers, though this assistance has not prevented the same generally low levels of effectiveness common to most of the armed forces in the developing world.
For most of the Cold War, the AFL saw little action, apart from a reinforced company group which was sent to ONUC in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the 1960s. This changed with the advent of the First Liberian Civil War in 1989. The AFL became entangled in the conflict, which lasted from 1989 to 1996 -- 97, and then the Second Liberian Civil War, which lasted from 1999 to 2003.
As of 2014, the AFL consists of two infantry battalions, a Service Support Company, a Military Police Company, a Logistics Command, and the Liberian National Coast Guard. For several years after the war, a Nigerian Army officer served as head of the armed forces.
The New National Defense Act of 2008 was approved on August 21, 2008. It repeals the National Defense Act of 1956, the Coast Guard Act of 1959, and the Liberian Navy Act of 1986. The duties and functions of the AFL are officially stated as follows:
The modern Armed Forces of Liberia grew out of a militia that was formed by the first black colonists from the United States. The militia was first formed when in August 1822 an attack was feared on Cape Mesurado (where Monrovia now is) and the agent of the settlements directed the mobilization of all "able - bodied males into a militia and declared martial law. '' By 1846, the size of the militia had grown to two regiments. Following independence in 1847, the militia continued to serve as the country 's defense force. In 1900, Liberian men between the ages of sixteen and fifty were considered liable for service in the militia. The militia also had a navy consisting of two small gunboats. In the 1850s, the Liberian president requested naval support from the British government to transport Liberian troops to the Gallinas territory to punish Liberians there who persisted in slave trafficking.
On February 6, 1908, the militia was established on a permanent basis as the 500 - strong Liberian Frontier Force (LFF). The LFF 's original mission was "to patrol the border in the Hinterland (against British and French territorial ambitions) and to prevent disorders. '' The LFF was initially placed under the command of a British major, who was quickly replaced after he complained the Force was not being properly paid.
In 1912, the United States established military ties with Liberia by sending some five black American officers to help reorganize the force. The LFF in its early years was frequently recruited by inducing men from the interior forcibly. When dispatched to the interior to quell tribal unrest, units often lived off the areas that they were pacifying, as a form of communal punishment. The Force 's officers were drawn from either the coastal aristocracy or tribal elites.
Liberia joined the Allies in both World War I and World War II. The only troops dispatched overseas were a few individuals to France during World War I, and Liberian volunteers under the command of the United States during World War II. During World War II, U.S. involvement in the country increased greatly. To guarantee a steady supply of rubber from the world 's largest rubber plantation, operated at Harbel by the Firestone Company since 1926, the US government built roads throughout the country, created an international airport (known as Robertsfield), and transformed the capital by building a deep water port (the Freeport of Monrovia). During the war, funding provided by the United States allowed an increase in the Force 's strength to around 1,500. The armed forces came to rely almost exclusively on American assistance in terms of training, with non-US training "tend (ing) to be brief and uninspired (with little) accomplished other than some desultory close - order drill. ''
As a result of American arms sales, by the 1920s Liberian forces were equipped with the American Krag and Peabody rifles, as well as German Mausers.
U.S. forces also established an officer candidate school during the later part of the war, using instructors selected from the American troops in the country. The school conducted two courses and graduated nearly 300 new officers. Just under twenty years later in 1964, the group still made up over 50 % of the officer corps of the AFL.
From 1945 to 1964, the officers appointed were nearly all college graduates. From 1951, there was a US military mission based in Liberia to assist in training the AFL. A Reserve Officers ' Training Corps was established in 1956 with units at the University of Liberia in Monrovia and the Booker Washington Institute in Kakata. By 1978 the program had been redesignated the Army Student Training Program (ASTP) and had a total of 46 students at the University of Liberia, the Booker Washington Institute, and three smaller institutions. However it was not until the late 1960s that the Tubman Military Academy was established in Todee District, upper Montserrado County, as an officer training facility.
The LFF was renamed as the Armed Forces of Liberia under the Amended National Defense Law of 1956, though other sources say 1962, which appears to have been the date the land force became the Liberian National Guard. From this period, Liberia 's armed forces consisted of the Liberian National Guard, the Liberian Militia, whose ostensible structure is depicted below, and the Liberian Coast Guard. Until 1980, by law every able - bodied male between the ages of 16 and 45 years was to serve in the militia, though this stipulation was not enforced.
In 1957, Armed Forces Day was designated. Speaking in 2012, the Jonathan B.B. Hart, the Bishop of the Espicopal Church of Liberia recalled that on Jan 26, 1957, the Liberian Legislature set aside Armed Forces Day as Feb 11, 1957, "the day we remembered the mutiny that was started in 1909. '' The bishop said that in 1909, "the army was put together under the name Frontier Force and one year after, it was established that it should be called the Liberian Frontier Force but with a foreign commander. He recalled how the Sierra Leoneans were sent to Liberia to take over the army by the British government because it had given Liberia a loan. ''... "The Sierra Leonean commanders took orders from the British government and not the President of Liberia, then Arthur Barclay. When they began to misbehave, the army was turned over to a Liberian who refused. It was during that time that some soldiers took to the streets in demand of salary arrears, so soldiers getting in the streets... in demand of salary is not new. ''
At the start of the 1960s, Liberia dispatched troops, including a movement control unit, to support ONUC during the Congo Crisis, and were airlifted into the Congo by the United States Air Force. The Liberian troops were initially in Équateur province. In 1961, during their first combat action in country, 300 Liberian troops repelled an attack by 5,000 Baluba tribesmen and their European officers.
The National Guard was not a high status force: "It was a skeleton brigade of soldiers who were predominantly from the lower economic and social stratum of society. They were poorly paid, and had less than decent facilities for accommodation and care. '' Despite this, a Liberian company, designated the Reinforced Security Company, was contributed to the United Nations Operation in the Congo in the early 1960s. Six rotations were made. The 1964 US Army Area Handbook described the company 's actions as "... After a poor start, the performance of the contingent improved steadily; the last company, which returned home in May 1963, had performed creditably and, by its conduct and appearance, gave the impression of being a well - trained and disciplined military organization. ''
Liebenow writes that the head of the National Guard was arrested, along with others, in February 1963, to forestall an alleged coup, and that Tubman had announced that following the labour strikes of 1966, a foreign power had attempted to bribe army officers to stage a coup. In addition, Albert T. White, Commanding Officer of the LNG, was ' rusticated ' by Tubman to become the Superindendent of Grand Gedeh in 1966, though he was later ' rehabilitated '.
In 1964 the US Army Area Handbook described the National Guard as 3,000 strong with a headquarters company, the Executive Mansion Guard Battalion in Monrovia, three infantry battalions and one engineer battalion (which was newly formed at Camp Naama in 1962 and only had one company organized). The three infantry battalions were the 1st Infantry Battalion, at Camp Schiefflin, situated on the airport road between Monrovia and Roberts International Airport, the 2nd Infantry Battalion, HQ at Barclay Training Center (BTC), Monrovia, and the 3rd Infantry Battalion, HQ at Baworobo, Maryland County.
By 1978, the LNG Brigade had been established and the Brigade was described as comprising a Headquarters and Headquarters Company at the Barclay Training Center, Monrovia, the Executive Mansion Guard Battalion on Capitol Hill, Monrovia, the Engineer Battalion and the First Field Artillery Battalion (both at Camp Jackson, Naama) two tactical combat battalions (the First Infantry Battalion, at Schiefflin and the Second Infantry Battalion which in the intervening period had moved from the BTC to Camp Tolbert, Todee) and three non-tactical battalions, tasked with providing guard services to government officials, tax collection, and ' other non-military duties '.
The Third Infantry Battalion covered Montserrado, Grand Cape Mount, and Grand Bassa counties from BTC. The Fourth Infantry Battalion covered Grand Gedeh, Sinoe County and Maryland counties from Camp Whisnant, Zwedru. The Fifth Infantry Battalion was at Gbarnga.
Other field units of the brigade were the Armoured Unit, at Camp Ram Rod, Paynesward City (possibly Paynesville), Monrovia), and the Bella Yella Special Detachment, Camp Bella Yella, Lofa. The Service Support Battalion was located at BTC, and comprised the Medical Company, the Brigade Band, the Brigade Special Unit (a parade unit) and the Military Police Unit. Also at BTC was the Logistical Command, consisting of a depot, arsenal (whose location had been declared unsafe), the AFL Quartermaster Corps, and the AFL Transportation Company. Strength was reported to be 4,822 in 1978.
Two Divisional Headquarters
While militia service was compulsory by law for all eligible males, the law was only enforced in a lax manner. From the mid-1960s, and in its later years, members of the militia met only quarterly for sparsely attended drill practice. Estimates of men enrolled over the years vary. The 1964 US Army Area Handbook said that "some 20,000 men are estimated to be enrolled. '' The IISS estimated militia numbers at 5,000 in 1967 and 6,000 in 1970.
By the early 1970s the militia reported a strength of some 4,000 poorly trained and ill - equipped men. The 1978 Annual Report of the Liberian Ministry of National Defense said that "The various militia regiments, in accordance with the law, held quarterly parades... Furthermore, the entire Regiments were out in full strength during burial occasions. '' By the time it was disbanded in 1980, the militia was considered to be completely ineffective as a military force.
The armed forces ' third arm, the Liberian National Coast Guard, was established in 1959. Throughout the Tubman period the coastguard was little more than a few sometimes unserviceable patrol craft manned by ill - trained personnel, though its training improved in the 1980s to the point where it was considered the best trained of the armed services.
From 1952 onwards, Chiefs of Staff of the AFL included Major General Alexander Harper (1952 -- 54), Lieutenant General Abraham Jackson (1954 -- 60), Albert T. White (1964 -- 65), Lieutenant General George T. Washington (late 1960s), Lieutenant General Henry Johnson (1970 -- 74), Lieutenant General Franklin Smith, and Lieutenant General Henry Dubar (1980 -- 1990).
When William Tolbert replaced the long - serving William Tubman as President in 1971, he retired more than 400 aging soldiers. Sawyer comments that "retired soldiers were replaced by young recruits from urban areas, many of whom were then poorly trained at the Tubman Military Academy. This development dramatically changed the character of the military in Liberia. '' (Samuel Doe was among this group.) Amos Sawyer also comments that "recruitment of such individuals for the military was part of Tolbert 's efforts to replace aging, illiterate soldiers with younger, literate men who were capable of absorbing technical and professional training. ''
The AFL became involved in politics when seventeen soldiers launched a coup on April 12, 1980. The group was made up of Master Sergeant Samuel Doe, two staff sergeants, four sergeants, eight corporals, and two privates. They found President Tolbert sleeping in his office in the Executive Mansion and there they killed him. While then - Sergeant Thomas Quiwonkpa led the plotters, it was the group led by Samuel Doe that found Tolbert in his office, and it was Doe, as a master sergeant the highest ranking of the group, who went on the radio the next day to announce the overthrow of the long - entrenched True Whig Party government.
Doe became Head of State and co-chair of the new People 's Redemption Council government. Quiwonkpa became commander of the army and the other co-chair of the PRC. (In the aftermath of the coup, the title of LNG Brigade commanding general was confusingly changed to commanding general of the AFL, reporting to the chief of staff, and it was this position that Quiwonkpa inherited.)
Henry Dubar (who had helped recruit Doe personally years before) was promoted in one leap from captain to lieutenant general as Chief of Staff. From 1980 onward, Doe 's systematic promotion of ethnic Krahn to sensitive posts in the government and military, began to drive deepening divisions within the AFL, among others with Quiwonkpa 's Gio tribe, and to hamper morale.
"... Military discipline was an early casualty of the coup. The revolt had been an enlisted men 's affair, and one of the first instructions broadcast over the radio had ordered soldiers not to obey their officers. Over four years later, according to observers, the reluctance of most officers to impose discipline had combined with the unwillingness of more than a few enlisted men to accept it. ''
The launch of Doe 's coup meant that Major William Jarbo, another soldier with political ambitions who was said to have excellent connections to U.S. security officials, had had his takeover plans forestalled. He tried to escape abroad but was hunted down and killed by the new government. The junta started to split in 1983, with Doe telling Quiwonkpa that he was planning to move Quiwonkpa from command of the army to a position as secretary - general of the People 's Redemption Council. Unhappy with this proposed change, Quiwonkpa fled into exile in late 1983, along with his aide - de-camp Prince Johnson.
In 1984 the AFL included the Liberian National Guard (LNG) Brigade and related units (6,300 men), and the Liberian National Coast Guard (about 450 men). The brigade, formed between 1964 and 1978, was based at the Barclay Training Center (BTC) in Monrovia, and was composed of six infantry battalions, a military engineer battalion (which circa 1974 under the command of Colonel Robert M. Blamo completed an airstrip at Belefania Town), a field artillery battalion (the First Field Artillery Battalion, reportedly at Camp Naama in Bong County) and a support battalion.
Three of the infantry units -- the First Infantry Battalion, stationed at Camp Schieffelin, the Second Infantry Battalion at Camp Todee in northern Montserrado County, and the Sixth Infantry Battalion at Bomi Hills -- were tactical elements designed to operate against hostile forces. The other battalions, the Third Infantry Battalion based at the Barclay Training Centre in Monrovia, the Fourth Infantry Battalion at Zwedru in Grand Gedeh County, and the Fifth Infantry Battalion at Gbarnga in Bong County served mostly as providers of personnel for non-military duties. Soldiers in these units were used extensively as policemen, customs and immigration officials, and as tax collectors.
In the aftermath of the rigged elections of 1985, which Doe manipulated to solidify his power, Quiwonkpa returned from his U.S. exile to enter Liberia from Sierra Leone. On November 12, 1985 he entered Monrovia with a group of dissident soldiers, took over the national Liberia Broadcasting System radio station and announced that the ' National Patriotic Forces of Liberia ' had seized power. Adekeye says that Quiwonkpa erred in ' fail (ing) to establish control over the country 's communications system and resisted a frontal attack on the Executive Mansion. '
These mistakes allowed Doe the time to rally the Krahn - dominated Executive Mansion Guard and 1st Infantry Battalion from Camp Schiefflin to reestablished control. Quiwonkpa was captured, killed, and mutilated, his body being dismembered and parts eaten. In the aftermath of the attempted coup, purges took place in Monrovia and in Nimba County, Quiwonkpa 's home, against those who had rejoiced after the coup announcement. As many as 1,500 people may have been killed. The AFL was purged of Gio soldiers.
Under Samuel Doe the Coast Guard was retitled the Liberian Navy in 1986 through the passage of The Liberian Navy Act of 1986. The Aviation Unit was founded in 1970 with the delivery of three Cessna U-17C light aircraft. An Aviation Unit aircraft crashed at Spriggs - Payne in 1984. In 1985 it operated three fixed - wing aircraft from Spriggs Payne Airport in Monrovia, including Cessna 172s. Their duties included reconnaissance and transport of light cargo and VIPs. The Aviation Unit was expanded in the 1980s with the delivery of more Cessna aircraft: three 172s, a 206, 207 and two single engined turboprop 208s.
The Liberian Air Force was established from the Aviation Unit by an Act of Legislature on August 12, 1987. Its statutory responsibilities were to: protect and defend the air space of the Republic of Liberia; protect lives and properties; provide air mobility for military and civil personnel; assist in search and rescue operations; undertake emergency operations; conduct reconnaissance patrols; participate in joint military operations and perform other duties as may be designated by the Ministry of Defense. The LAF was to be headed by a colonel in his capacity as Assistant Chief of Defense Staff for the Air Force and was mandated to do the following: to train personnel and develop doctrine; advise the Chief of Staff of the AFL on matters relating to the Air Force. In 1989 two refurbished DHC - 4 Caribou, a single Piper Aztec light twin and three IAI Arava STOL twins were delivered.
Charles Taylor invaded the country at Butuo in Nimba County on Christmas Eve 1989 with a force of around 150 men, initiating the First Liberian Civil War. Doe responded by sending two AFL battalions to Nimba in December 1989 -- January 1990, under then - Colonel Hezekiah Bowen. The Liberian government forces assumed that most of the Mano and Gio peoples in the Nimba region were supporting the rebels. They thus acted in a very brutal and scorched - earth fashion which quickly alienated the local people. Taylor 's support rose rapidly, as the Mano and Gio flocked to his National Patriotic Front of Liberia seeking revenge. Many government soldiers deserted, some to join the NPFL. The inability of the AFL to make any headway was one of the reasons why Doe changed his field commander in the area five times in the first six months of the war.
Field commanders apparently included Brigadier General Edward Smith. (1) By May 1990 the AFL had been forced back to Gbarnga, still under the control of Bowen 's troops, but they lost the town to a NPFL assault by the end of May 1990, at which time the NPFL also captured Buchanan on the coast. The NPFL had now gathered an estimated 10,000 fighters while the AFL, splintering, could only summon 2,000.
The revolt reached Monrovia by July 1990, and General Dubar left the country for exile in the United States. In place of Dubar, Brigadier General Charles Julu, former commander of the Executive Mansion Guard Battalion, was appointed Chief of Staff. Two Liberian Coast Guard vessels were sunk in the battles for the city. The NPFL had been distributing weapons to Gio civilians after it arrived in Nimba, where many were very interested in taking their revenge on the government after Doe had punished Nimba country for its support of Quiwonkpa in 1983 and 1985.
By July 1990 the government began to distribute weapons to civilians in turn, to Krahn and Mandingo who wished to protect themselves. These hastily enlisted civilians became known as ' 1990 soldiers. ' A ' 1990 soldier ' which the President had personally picked, Tailey Yonbu, led a massacre of refugees, mostly Gio and Mandingo civilians, on the night of July 29 / 30, 1990 at St. Peter 's Lutheran Church in Sinkor, Monrovia. Some 600 were killed. Because of the previous ethnic purges carried out by Doe 's forces, the conflict took on characteristics of an ethnic pogrom.
In August 1990 the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) despatched a peacekeeping force, ECOMOG, to Liberia. The force arrived at the Freeport of Monrovia on August 24, 1990, landing from Nigerian and Ghanaian vessels. By the time ECOMOG arrived, Prince Johnson 's INPFL and Taylor 's NPFL were fighting on the outside bounds of the port. A series of peacemaking conferences in regional capitals followed. There were meetings in Bamako in November 1990, Lome in January 1991, and Yamoussoukro in June -- October 1991. The first seven peace conferences, including the Yamoussoukro I - IV processes and the Carter Center negotiation leading to the Cotonou Accords, failed due to lack of agreement between the warring factions. The NPFL launched an assault on Monrovia in 1992, which they named ' Operation Octopus. ' The civil war lasted until the Abuja Accords of August 1996.
The AFL was confined to an enclave around the capital during the conflict, and did not play a significant part in the fighting. Elections in July 1997 finally brought Taylor to power. Under the accords, which led to a break in fighting in 1996 and the Liberian general election, 1997, ECOMOG was to retrain a new national army based on fair ethnic and geographical representation. Yet Taylor denied ECOMOG any role in the restructuring of the AFL, and the force eventually left Liberia by the end of 1998.
During the 1990 -- 99 period, Chiefs of Staff included Lieutenant Colonel Davis S. Brapoh, Lieutenant General Hezekiah Bowen (later Minister of Defense), Lieutenant General A.M.V. Doumuyah, and Lieutenant General Kalilu Abe Kromah, appointed during the interim rule of the Council of State in 1996, who was chief of staff from May 1996 to April 1997. Following Kromah, Lieutenant General Prince C. Johnson was appointed, who died in October 1999 following a car accident.
Shortly after the induction of Taylor as elected president of Liberia in August 1997, the Ministry of National Defense determined that the strength of the AFL had risen during the war from 6,500 to 14,981 service members. To begin demobilization, the AFL Chief of Staff published Special Orders No. 1 on January 1, 1998, demobilizing and retiring 2,250 personnel. The demobilization process was delayed and badly managed, and only on April 22, 1998 did payments began to be issued to the demobilizing personnel, without prior explanation of what exactly the payments represented.
Demonstrations and protests by the demobilized personnel eventually led to a riot in which three died on May 5, 1998. As a result, Taylor authorised the formation of a commission to submit recommendations on how the AFL should be reorganized. The commission, led by Blamoh Nelson, Director of the Cabinet, submitted its report on December 17, 1998, recommending a 6,000 - strong armed forces (5,160 Army, 600 Navy, and 240 Air Force) but the proposal was never implemented.
Instead Taylor ran down the Armed Forces, letting go 2,400 -- 2,600 former personnel, many of whom were Krahn brought in by former President Doe, in December 1997 -- January 1998, and building up instead the Anti-Terrorist Unit (ATU), the Special Operations Division of the Liberian National Police, and the Special Security Service. On November 19, 1999, Taylor named General Kpenkpah Konah as the new Chief of Staff of the AFL (where he would stay until 2006) and John Tarnue as head of the army. Tarnue was later implicated in a land dispute in 1999, while acting as AFL commander.
The International Crisis Group writes that the AFL was reduced practically to the point of non-existence by Fall 2001, by which time a total of 4,000 personnel had been retired. The Second Liberian Civil War, originated in clashes in April 1999 but was not a major threat to Taylor until 2000 -- 01. However, on the government side the AFL played only a minor role; irregular ex National Patriotic Front of Liberia militias backed by more privileged Taylor partisans such as the Anti-Terrorist Unit saw most of the fighting.
As a result of the Civil War, all aircraft, equipment, materiel, and facilities belonging to the Liberian Air Force were badly damaged, rendering the force inoperable. During the Civil War the Taylor government made a variety of different air support arrangements; a seemingly inoperable Mil Mi - 2 and Mil Mi - 8, one in Anti-Terrorist Unit markings, could be seen at Spriggs Payne Airport in central Monrovia in mid-2005, apparently a hangover from the war. Meanwhile, during the Taylor era, the Navy consisted of a couple of small patrol craft. However, on shore, both late 1990s and 2005 sources indicate the Navy included the 2nd Naval District, Buchanan, the 3rd Naval District, Greenville, and the 4th Naval District, Harper.
Part 4 (Articles VI and VII) of the August 2003 Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) which ended the Second Liberian Civil War addressed security sector reform. It declared that future recruits for the new AFL would be screened for their fitness for service as well as prior human rights violations, that the new force would be ethnically balanced and without political bias, and that the new force 's mission would be to defend national sovereignty and "in extremis '' respond to natural disasters.
By March 1, 2005, over a year after the war ended, the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) had disarmed and demobilized 103,018 people who claimed to have fought for former president Charles Taylor or the two rebel groups, Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) or the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL). That year most former AFL elements were concentrated at Camp Schiefflin. The previous AFL personnel, including those of the Navy and Air Force, were slowly retired with pensions obtained by the MND and international partners from a number of international donors.
In 2005, the United States provided funding for DynCorp International and Pacific Architects & Engineers, private military contractors, to train a new 4,000 - man Liberian military. DynCorp was made responsible for individual training and PA&E unit training. In June -- July 2005 the projected force strength was reduced to 2000 men. DynCorp and the U.S. Embassy scrutinized the personnel for the new armed forces thoroughly. Recruits had to pass a literacy test, an aptitude test, a drug test and an HIV test, and their names and faces were put on posters which are distributed to try to make sure none have a history of war crimes or other human rights violations. A new batch of 500 screened personnel started to arrive at the Camp Ware base at VOA Careysburg, inland from Monrovia, for initial training in early November 2007, joining 608 others who had graduated earlier.
The Minister of Defense that President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf appointed in early 2006, Brownie Samukai, had a good public reputation.
There appears to be some lack of coordination, at least according to the Wall Street Journal, between the Ministry of National Defense and DynCorp, who is training the new army. The newspaper said in an August 2007 report:
Mr. Samukai also complains that he feels sidelined from the formation of an army that, as defense minister, he is supposed to oversee. Neither the State Department nor DynCorp will let him see the company 's contract, for instance. And the U.S. insists that instead of talking directly to DynCorp managers, he go through Major Wyatt (chief of the Office of Defense Cooperation at the U.S. Embassy in Monrovia) on all matters related to the training.
Whether well regarded or not, Samukai has been accused of misusing his power; there have been allegations that he has ordered soldiers to manhandle other senior Liberian government officials -- the Comptroller General of the Ministry of Finance in August 2008.
On January 11, 2008 a total 485 soldiers graduated from Initial Entry Training class 08 - 01. The addition of this third class of soldiers, consisting of 468 men and 17 women, raised the total strength of the AFL from 639 to 1,124. As the new Liberian force developed, UNMIL started winding down its initially 15,000 strong peacekeeping mission; by 2008 the force had been reduced to 11,000.
In the interim buildup period, President Johnson - Sirleaf decided that a Nigerian officer would act as the Command Officer - In - Charge of the new armed forces. Major General Suraj Alao Abdurrahman succeeded the previous incumbent, Lieutenant General Luka Yusuf, in early June 2007; Lieutenant General Yusuf had been posted home to Nigeria to become Chief of Army Staff.
Luka had succeeded the previous Liberian Chief of Staff, Kpenkpa Y. Konah, in 2006. In mid-July 2008, five reinstated AFL officers returned from the Nigerian Armed Forces Command and Staff College after training there. These officers include Lt Cols. Sekou S. Sheriff, Boakai B. Kamara, Aaron T. Johnson, Daniel K. Moore and Major Andrew J. Wleh. Subsequently, Aaron T. Johnson was promoted to colonel and confirmed by the Liberian Senate as Deputy Chief of Staff of the AFL, immediately subordinate to General Abdurrahman. A number of the current senior AFL officers have been drawn from the ranks of the previous 1993 -- 94 Interim Government of National Unity paramilitary police force, the ' Black Berets. '
Facility reconstruction has not been limited to VOA / Camp Ware and Schiefflin / EBK. The Chinese Government offered in 2006 to rebuild Camp Tubman in Gbarnga, and the new facility was opened in April 2009. There is also a plan to rebuild Camp Todee in Todee District, upper Montserrado. The Barclay Training Center (BTC) was handed back to the Government of Liberia on July 31, 2009 at a ceremony attended by the Minister for National Defense and the United States Ambassador after four years of management by DynCorp.
In October 2009 a State Partnership Program relationship was begun between the AFL and the U.S. state of Michigan 's Michigan National Guard. Of the other large number of security agencies, plans exist as of mid-2008 at least to dissolve the Ministry of National Security, the National Bureau of Investigation and the Drug Enforcement Agency. The 2009 -- 2010 budget appears to indicate however that this consolidation has not taken place.
In 2013, the AFL deployed a platoon as part of the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali, marking the first time that the AFL had operated abroad since the United Nations Operation in the Congo in the early 1960s. Initially under Nigerian command, the AFL platoon came under Togo Contingent Command when Nigeria withdrew from the mission. Despite some initial logistical problems the platoon performed admirably, performing patrols and VIP escort duties. The national deployment has now seen a number of rotations:
From February 2017 the Mali deployment was increased to a 75 strong ' company '.
May 3, 2017, saw the first Liberian soldier killed on deployment with the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali. Corporal Sheriff Ousmane was killed when a rebel group fired mortars into a UN base near Timbuktu. Seven other Liberians were wounded in the bombardment, three seriously so, together with a Swedish peacekeeper.
The Liberian ground forces currently consist of two infantry battalions and supporting units. The 1st Battalion, 23rd Infantry Brigade, was formed on August 29, 2008, at the Barclay Training Center in Monrovia, and the 2nd Battalion, 23rd Infantry Brigade in December that year. Both battalions are currently based at the former Camp Schiefflin, which has now been renamed the Edward Binyah Kesselly Barracks, often known simply as ' EBK Barracks. '
As a result of the concentration of troops at EBK, the camp is overcrowded, and disturbances among the soldiers have occurred. As of mid-2009, the Ministry of Defense is attempting to alleviate the problem by relocating some personnel to Camp Tubman in Gbarnga.
The two battalions and supporting units went through training and preparation for an assessment exercise, a modified US Army Readiness Training Evaluation Program (ARTEP), which was held in late 2009. When declared operational, the 23rd Infantry Brigade was planned to be commanded by a colonel with a headquarters of 113 personnel. Supporting units were to include a band platoon (40 members), engineer company (220 strong), Brigade Training Unit (162 strong, now retitled the Armed Forces Training Command, located at Camp Ware under Major Wleh), and a military police company (105 strong). The force operates according to slightly modified United States Army practices, and uses U.S. doctrine.
"... The first battalion started the United States Army Training and Evaluation Programme, which it will complete in September (2009), while the second battalion will complete the programme in December (2009). At that time, the United States contractors currently training and equipping the force will hand over to the Ministry of National Defense, which will assume responsibility for training and standing up the new army. The United States has indicated that it plans to assign as many as 60 United States serving military personnel to continue mentoring the Armed Forces of Liberia, beginning in January 2010. ''
As of December 2010, a Logistics Command is being established within the AFL, taking the same name as a pre-Civil War AFL formation.
Colonel Eric Wayma Dennis was appointed Deputy Chief of Staff on 11 February 2013 and served in that position until his death, of natural causes, on 8 August 2016. Dennis was a pre-Civil War officer who rejoined in 2006 and re-rose to the rank of colonel. Dennis replaced Col. Daniel Moore as Deputy Chief of Staff. Lt. Col. Prince Charles Johnson III was promoted to Brig. Gen. and appointed Deputy Chief of Staff on 14 November 2016.
The Coast Guard was reactivated on the 53rd Armed Forces Day on February 11, 2010, with an initial strength of 40 personnel who had been trained in the United States. A United States Coast Guard officer is now serving at the U.S. Embassy in Monrovia supporting efforts to reestablish the Liberian Coast Guard.
A detachment from SeaBee Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 7, based at Naval Station Rota, Spain, constructed a United States Africa Command - funded boat ramp and concrete perimeter wall for the Coast Guard, which was handed over in December 2010. In February 2011, the United States turned over two donated USCG Defender class boats to the Coast Guard.
The Liberian Air Force was formally dissolved in 2005 as part of the armed forces demobilization programme, though it had effectively ceased to exist during the civil war. For many years only the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) operated military aircraft in Liberia - Mi - 8 transport and Mi - 24 attack helicopters from Roberts International Airport with several subsidiary locations. Ahead of its anticipated closure of UNMIL operations in March 2018, these aircraft are leaving the country.
The ranks and insignia of the Armed Forces of Liberia are based on those of the United States Department of Defense, and are laid out in the Liberian Defense Act of 2008.
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who played lord humungus in the road warrior | Kjell Nilsson (actor) - Wikipedia
Kjell Nilsson (born December 19, 1949) is a Swedish olympic - class weight lifter and actor. His best known role is his 1981 portrayal of "The Humungus '', the leader of the marauding wasteland gang in Mad Max 2.
Nilsson was a former olympic - class weight lifter who was born in Gothenburg, Sweden. He moved to Australia in 1980 to train Swedish athletes for the Moscow Olympics. In Australia, he met actress Kate Ferguson, and they married in Sweden. She persuaded him to return to Australia and to look for work in the Australian film industry.
In the 1981 post-apocalyptic science fiction action film Mad Max 2 (also known as Mad Max: The Road Warrior), he played the main antagonist "Lord Humungus '', the leader of a gang of marauders that besiege a settler compound in the Australian wastelands. He leads a rag - tag band of biker - berserkers, and he gives speeches to the settlers exhorting them to surrender, while utilizing psychological warfare. Time magazine 's Richard Corliss stated that in Nilsson 's portrayal, "malevolence courses through his huge pectorals, (and) pulses visibly under his bald, sutured scalp. ''
A year later, he appeared in The Pirate Movie (1982), a musical and comedy film directed by Ken Annakin and starring Christopher Atkins and Kristy McNichol. In 1984, he had a role in the TV movie Man of Letters, and in 1987, he played the role of a nurse in The Edge of Power.
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islands of ma-i with which china established maritime commerce | Ma - i - wikipedia
Neolithic age
Iron age
Events / Artifacts
(by geography from North to South)
Legendary
Events / Artifacts
American colonial period
Ma - i or Maidh (also spelled Ma'I, Mai, Ma - yi or Mayi; Baybayin: ᜋᜁ; Chinese: 麻 逸; Pe̍h - ōe - jī: má it) was an ancient sovereign state located in what is now the Philippines, notable in Philippine historiography for being the first place in the Philippines ever to be mentioned in any foreign account.
Its existence was first documented in 971 AD, in the Song Dynasty documents known as the History of Song, and it was also mentioned in the 10th century records of the Sultanate of Brunei. Based on these and other mentions until the early 14th century, contemporary scholars believe Ma - i was located either in Bay, Laguna or on the island of Mindoro.
For many years, scholars believed that Ma - i was likely to have been on the island of Mindoro within the Municipality of Bulalacao as there is an old settlement there named Mait. But recent scholarship casts doubt on this theory, arguing that historical descriptions better match Bay, Laguna (whose name is pronounced Ba - i), which once occupied a large territory on the eastern coasts of Laguna de Bay.
Both sites have names which sound similar to Ma - i. The pre-colonial name of Mindoro was "Ma - it '', whereas historical variants of the name of Bay, Laguna include "Bae '', "Bai '', and "Vahi ''.
An earlier theory, put forward in 1914 by Craig 1914 and asserted by local historians, also suggested Malolos, Bulacan as a potential site of Ma - i.
The Chinese and Bruneian records both describe trade relations with Ma - i.
Ma - i is first mentioned in Volume 186 of official history of the Song Dynasty, which lists Ma - i among the southern sea nations with whom Chinese merchants traded in the year 971 AD (the fourth year of Kai Bao of Song). The document describes the government 's efforts to regulate and tax this "luxurious '' trade. Historian W.H. Scott describes this entry as "the first positive reference to political states in or near the Philippines. ''
In 1980, historian Robert Nicholl argued that the nation of "Maidh '', referred to in the tenth century records of the Sultanate of Brunei, refer to Ma - i, although Scott does not recognize this as a positive identification.
Later references to Ma - i, all describing trade, include:
The majority of these sources only mention Ma - i briefly, either affirming that Ma - i was one of the nations conducting trade in the "south seas '' area, or repeating hearsay about the supposed location of Ma - i. W.H. Scott notes that of the documents describing Ma - i, only the Zu Fan Zhi (1225 AD) and the Daoyi Zhilüe (1349 AD) provide substantial details. Filipino Chinese historian Bon Juan Go, in turn, notes that only the Wenxian Tongkao and Volumes 186 and 489 of the History of Song provide definitive dates.
Because all of these are Chinese Imperial documents, historiographers have to consider the Sinocentric nature of the sources whenever conducting their analysis.
Villanueva 2009 notes:
These tenth to fifteenth century tributary records provide significant information on the Chinese perceptions of how Philippine local polities were governed, the political landscape of the time, and the trade goods offered and desired by Philippine polities. Chinese travellers ' accounts from the early second millenium AD are considered rich sources of information on the political economy of the early polities. However, they are heavily biased because of the traditional worldview of the Chinese Empire as the center of the universe, where all non-Chinese people are considered to be "barbarians '' (Junker 1998). The context of these Chinese sources about the nature of Philippine polities must be analyzed carefully.
In 1225, the Zhu Fan Zhi noted that "the country of Ma - i is to the north of Borneo '' and added that few pirates reach these shores. It also noted that "the people of Ma - i live in large villages (literally "settlements of more than a thousand households '') on the opposite banks of a stream. ''
The 1349 document Daoyi Zhilüe also noted that the settlement of Ma - i consisted of houses arranged on the two banks of a stream. It also noted that "its mountain range is flat and broad '', "the fields are fertile, '' and "the climate is rather hot. ''
Because all the documents describing Ma - I were primarily concerned with trade, this is the most documented aspect of Ma - I culture.
Both the Song Dynasty records (specifically the Zhu Fan Zhi), and Yuan Dynasty records (specifically the Daoyi Zhilüe) describe the local products as "kapok cotton, yellow bees - wax, tortoise shell, medicinal betel nuts and cloth of various patterns. '' (The 1225 Zhu Fan Zhi lists "yuta cloth '' while the 1349 Daoyi Zhilüe lists "cloth of various patterns. '')
The Zhu Fan Zhi notes that in exchange, the locals accepted products such as "porcelain, trade gold, iron pots, lead, colored glass beads, and iron needles. '' The Daoyi Zhilüe later lists "caldrons, pieces of iron, red cloth or taffetas of various color stripes, ivory, and "tint or the like '' '' as accepted items of exchange.
The Zhu Fan Zhi notes that Ma - I 's official plaza is its official venue for barter and trade, and note that officials have to be presented with white parasols as gifts:
"When trading ships enter the harbor, they stop in front of the official plaza, for the official plaza is that country 's place for barter and trade and once the ship is registered, they mix freely. Since the local officials make a habit of using white umbrellas, the merchants must present them as gifts. ''
The Zhu Fan Zhi further describes the process of transaction as follows:
The method of transacting business is for the savage traders to come all in a crowd and immediately transfer the merchandise into baskets and go off with it. If at first they ca n't tell who they are, gradually they come to know those who remove the goods so in the end nothing is actually lost. The savage traders then take the goods around to the other islands for barter and generally do n't start coming back until September or October to repay the ship 's merchants with what they have got. Indeed, there are some who do n't come back even then, so ships trading with Mai are the last to reach home.
The Daoyi Zhilüe similarly describes it:
"After agreeing on prices, the barbarian traders carry off the goods for bartering the native products and bring these products back to the Chinese in the amount agreed on. The Chinese vessels ' traders (Filipinos) are trustworthy. They never fail to keep the agreement of their bargains. ''
The discovery of small gold ingots (referred to by modern numismatists as Piloncitos), presumed to have been used as currency and "stamped with what looks like the pre-Spanish Baybayin character ' ma ' '', have led some historians such as Ambeth Ocampo theorize that the writing may be a reference to Ma - i, although numerous other interpretations have also been suggested.
While documents did not definitively describe the religious beliefs of the people of Ma - i, the Zhu Fan Zhi did note the presence of unspecified religious artifacts in Mayi, supposedly as of 1225 AD:
"There are metal images of unknown origin scattered about in the tangled wilds. ''
Contemporary historiographers do not draw conclusions about the religion of Ma - i 's residents based on this text. In his book "Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History '', W.H. Scott notes that a literal translation of the Zhu Fan Zhi text describes "metal buddhas. '' However, he and Chinese Scholar I - hsiung Ju translate this in 1968 as "metal images '' to correct for the linguistic bias of the text.
In his seminal 1984 book "Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History '', Scott particularly questioned whether the presence of these images reflect actual beliefs by the people of Ma - i:
"The people in Ma - I sound like newcomers (to this port) since they do n't know where those metal statues in the jungle come from. ''
Earlier writers, including Jose Rizal and Ferdinand Blumentritt, accepted the "buddhist connection '' more readily. For example, in supporting Blumentritt 's proposition that Ma - i was somewhere on Luzon Island, Rizal cites the Zhu Fan Zhi 's use of the word "Buddhas '' as evidence:
"The gentleness of Tagalog customs that the first Spaniards found, very lfferent from those of other provinces of the same race and in Luzon itself, can very well be the effect of Buddhism "(There are copper Buddha 's images). ''
The Chinese records made no specific note of the solid food the people of Ma - i ate, but the Daoyi Zhilüe did describe their process for making alcoholic beverages:
"The people boil seawater to make salt and ferment treacle (molasses) to make liquor. ''
The Zhu Fan Zhi describes the people of Ma - i as covering themselves "with a cloth like a sheet or hide their bodies with a loin cloth. '' And the Daoyi Zhilüe, written a century later, describes the clothing and coiffure of the people of Ma - i, saying "In their customs they esteem the quality of chastity and uprightness. Both men and women do up their hair in a mallet - like tress. They wear a blue cotton shirt. ''
In 1349, the Daoyi Zhilüe also made observations of funerary practices, describing them thus:
When any woman is burying her husband, she shaves her hair and fasts for seven days, lying beside her dead husband. Most of them nearly die. If after seven days they are not dead, their relatives urge them to eat. Should they get quite well they cherish their chastity by not marrylng again during their whole lives. There are some even, who, when the body of their dead husband is burning, get into the funeral pyre and die.
At the burial of a great chief, two or three thousand (sic. could be twenty or thlrty) male or female slaves are put to death for burying with him.
Scott 1989 notes that Ma - i 's relationship with Song and Yuan Dynasty was defined by trade, not by diplomacy:
Ma - i never sent a tribute mission to China and probably never needed to: it flourished during the Sung Dynasty when the imperial government was encouraging Chinese merchants to carry their goods abroad in their own ships. ''
The nature of Ma - i 's relationship with Brunei is less clear because of scant documentation, but there is no indication of any relationship other than possible trade.
The Zhu Fan Zhi mentions a number of territories in its account of Ma - i, saying:
"San - hsu, Pai - p'u - yen, P'u - li - lu, Li - yin - tung, Liu - hsin, Li - han, etc., are all the same sort of place as Ma - i ''
Contemporary scholars believe that these are the Baipuyan (Babuyan Islands), Bajinong (Busuanga), Liyin (Lingayen) and Lihan (present day Malolos City). Malolos is a coastal town and one of the ancient settlement around Manila Bay near Tondo.
While the phrase "subordinates '' has sometimes been interpreted to mean that these places are territories of Ma - I, Scott clarifies that:
"The text says, not that these places belong to Ma - i, but they are of Ma - i 's ' shu ', a word that means type or class as a noun, and subordinate (e.g. shu kuo, tributary state ''), as an adjective, being used elsewhere in the Chu Fan Chih in these two senses ''
No mentions of the country of Ma - i have been found after 1349 (or 1339 depending on the source). However, historians generally believe that Ma - i continued to exist under a different name. Early theories for the location of Ma - i include locations in Central Luzon, or the Southern Tagalog area. Many 20th Century Scholars came to accept the idea that Ma - i was located on the island of Mindoro, based on the name of Mait, a place on the island. However, this has been questioned on the basis of physical evidence and an analysis of Chinese orthography, and Bay (pronounced "Ba - i '' or "Ba - e '' by locals) has once again been suggested as a likely location of Ma - i.
The idea that Ma - i was located somewhere in the Tagalog region was proposed early on by scholars such as Blumentritt and Rizal. Eventually, though, it became popular during the middle and late 20th century to believe that it had become "Mait '', a place now located in Mindoro.
In 2004, Chinese Filipino scholar Bon Juan Go questioned this common belief, citing the lack of physical evidence for a large, prosperous settlement on the island of Mindoro. He suggested that Chinese orthogoraphy equally allows for the possibility that Ma - i became Bay, Laguna, whose name is pronounced "Ba - eh '' by locals. He notes that Bay is also a match for the physical characteristics of Ma - i, and that numerous artifacts found in the area (including the nearby towns of Victoria Pila and Lumban, Laguna) suggest the presence of a prosperous pre-colonial settlement. Grace P. Odal - Devora notes that this region was the place of the taga - ilaya, whereas the taga - laud who settled downstream on the banks of the Pasig River.
Go suggests that Ma - i, as Ba - e, became less important as the riverine settlements of Namayan, Tondo, and Maynila rose to power, but also noted that Ba - i still nonetheless served as the capital for the province of Laguna de Bay, which would later be split into the provinces of Laguna and Morong (modern day Rizal Province, including coastal towns now administered by the National Capital Region).
Philippine historians of the middle and late 20th century widely believed Ma - i could be equated with "Mait '', a place now located in Mindoro. Writing in 1984, Scott says "there is no reason to doubt that Mai - or "Ma - yit '' - is Mindoro, for Mait was the old name of the island when the Spaniards arrived, and that name is still known to its hill tribes and Fishermen. ''
This has been contested in contemporary scholarship, but textbooks containing this assumption are still widely in use.
If, even though it had disappeared from historical writings, Ma - i really was located in Mindoro and it continued to exist until 1500, some believe by it would have been affected by the raids conducted by the Sultanate of Brunei around the year 1498 - 99, which included a series of raids against the Kingdom of Taytay in Palawan and the island of Mindoro.
If Ma - i continued to exist until the 1570s, then it must have been affected by the arrival of the Spanish conquerors. As described in an anonymous account translated in Blair and Robertson 's The Philippine Islands, 1493 -- 1898, Miguel López de Legazpi sent Captain Martin de Goiti and Juan de Salcedo on an expedition to Mindoro in May 1570, to counteract Muslim pirates based on the island who were attacking their new headquarters on nearby Panay Island. Legazpi himself would arrive on Mindoro the next year, 1571. The Spanish conquered and burned two square forts on Lubang Island, each with earthen embankments 2 meters high and a surrounding moat two and a half fathoms wide. Each fort, moreover, had 10 to 12 lantakas, not counting several smaller guns. After destroying these Muslim forts, they despoiled the town of Mamburao while they were at Mindoro.
Whatever happened to Ma - i between the last time it was mentioned by documents at the end of the Tang Dynasty in the 1300s and the beginning of Philippines Spanish in the 1570s, both Mindoro and Bay eventually became part of the Philippine Islands under the dominion of Spain.
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what is the length of belize barrier reef | Belize Barrier Reef - wikipedia
The Belize Barrier Reef is a series of coral reefs straddling the coast of Belize, roughly 300 meters (980 ft) offshore in the north and 40 kilometers (25 mi) in the south within the country limits. The Belize Barrier Reef is a 300 - kilometer (190 mi) long section of the 900 - kilometer (560 mi) Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System, which is continuous from Cancún on the north - eastern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula through the Riviera Maya and up to Honduras, making it the second largest coral reef system in the world after the Great Barrier Reef in Australia. It is Belize 's top tourist destination, popular for scuba diving and snorkeling and attracting almost half of its 260,000 visitors. It is also vital to the country 's fishing industry.
Charles Darwin described it as "the most remarkable reef in the West Indies '' in 1842.
In addition to its barrier reef, it also boasts three distinct Caribbean atolls: Turneffe Atoll, Glover 's Reef and Lighthouse Reef. Lighthouse Reef is the most easterly diving area in Belize, it is home to the Great Blue Hole, made famous by Jacques Cousteau in 1970; Turneffe Atoll lies directly to the east of Belize City and is the nearest of the atolls to the capital. These different reefs provide diverse scuba diving opportunities that include walls, pinnacles and reef flats that are located throughout an enormous area of sea.
The Belize Barrier Reef is home to a large diversity of plants and animals:
With 90 % of the reef still needing to be researched, it is estimated that only 10 % of all species have been discovered.
A large portion of the reef is protected by the Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System, which includes seven marine reserves, 450 cayes, and three atolls. It totals 960 square kilometres (370 sq mi) in area, including:
In 1996 the Reserve System was designated a World Heritage Site due to its vulnerability and the fact that it contains the most important and significant natural habitats for in - situ conservation of biological diversity (according to criteria VII, IX, and X).
Belize became the first country in the world to completely ban bottom trawling in December 2010. In December 2015, Belize banned offshore oil drilling within 1 km of the Barrier Reef.
Despite these protective measures, the reef remains under threat from oceanic pollution as well as uncontrolled tourism, shipping, and fishing. Other threats include hurricanes, along with global warming and the resulting increase in ocean temperatures, which causes coral bleaching. It is claimed by scientists that over 40 % of Belize 's coral reef has been damaged since 1998.
The Belize Barrier Reef has been affected by mass - bleaching events. The first mass bleaching occurred in 1995, with an estimated mortality of 10 percent of coral colonies, according to a report by the Coastal Zone Management Institute in Belize. A second mass - bleaching event occurred, when Hurricane Mitch struck in 1998. Biologists observed a 48 percent reduction in live coral cover across the Belize reef system.
Usually, it is hard to distinguish whether the reason for coral bleaching is human activities or natural reasons such as storms or bacterial fluctuations. But in the case of the Belize Barrier Reef, many factors which make the distinction difficult do not apply. Human population in this area is much more sparse than the corresponding areas near other coral reefs, so the human activity and pollution are much lower compared to other coral reefs and the Belize reef system is in a much more enclosed area.
When coral bleaching occurs, a large part of the coral dies, and the remaining part of the ecosystem begins the process of repairing the damage. But the chances of recovery are low, as corals that are bleached become much more vulnerable to disease. Disease often kills more corals than the bleaching event itself. With continuous bleaching, the coral reef will have little to no chance of recovery.
Green sea turtle with remora fish on its back
Close Up view of the Reef
Barrier Reef Aerial
Snorkeling the Belize Barrier Reef
Fan corals of the Belize Barrier Reef
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where is the train station located in rome airport | Fiumicino Aeroporto railway station - wikipedia
Fiumicino Aeroporto railway station, or Fiumicino Airport railway station (Italian: Stazione di Fiumicino Aeroporto), is sited within the Leonardo da Vinci - Fiumicino Airport (Italian: Aeroporto Leonardo da Vinci di Fiumicino) (IATA code: FCO) in Fiumicino, Lazio, central Italy. Opened in 1990, the station is the southwestern terminus of the Rome -- Fiumicino railway.
The airport and station are also known as Rome - Fiumicino Airport (Italian: Aeroporto di Roma - Fiumicino), because the airport is the main airport for Rome.
The station is managed by Rete Ferroviaria Italiana (RFI). Train services are operated by Trenitalia. Each company is a subsidiary of Ferrovie dello Stato (FS), Italy 's state - owned rail company. RFI classifies the station as category "Gold ''.
Fiumicino Aeroporto railway station is situated at Via Generale Felice Santini 11 - 14, directly opposite Terminal 1.
The station has a passenger building and train hall that houses the platforms and ticket machines.
It is equipped with three platforms, all of them for passenger service.
The Leonardo Express is a first class only non stop service linking Fiumicino Aeroporto with Roma Termini railway station in just over 30 minutes. It operates every 30 minutes from early morning until late evening.
Frequent regional trains link Fiumicino Aeroporto with destinations in Latium north of Rome, including Fara Sabina, Poggio Mirteto and Orte (terminus station for this line)). The station is also the terminus of the Ferrovie regionali del Lazio FR1 commuter service from Orte. These trains stop at all the stations along the way, including important Roman Stations as Roma Trastevere, Roma Ostiense and Roma Tiburtina. While from last two it is possible to commute to the Linea B subway line, in Roma Trastevere the Tram 8 (with one terminus at Largo di Torre Argentina) provides a fast connection with Trastevere and the heart of the city center.
During business hours on workdays a train every 15 minutes arrives to Fara Sabina: of these, a train every 30 minutes reaches Poggio Mirteto, and from this station a train every hour arrives to Orte.
The station is also served by direct Frecciargento services to destinations such as Florence, Bologna and Venice. However, it is not possible to run Frecciarossa to Fiumicino Airport because of the short platforms, though there are plans to construct a dedicated high - speed line to the airport. (1)
Media related to Fiumicino Aeroporto railway station at Wikimedia Commons
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who played maximum matches for india in all international formats of cricket | Player of the match awards (cricket) - wikipedia
In sport of cricket, a Man of the Match or Player of the Match and Player of the Series award is given to the outstanding player, almost always the one who makes the most impact, in a particular match or series. The term was originally used more often in cricket before being adopted by other sports. This can be a player from either team, usually the winning team.
In cricket, the man of the match award became a regular feature in Test matches in the mid 1980s. The man of the match title is usually awarded to the player whose contribution is seen as the most critical in winning the game. However, there have been many instances when the performance of the losing team 's player has earned him the award.
In Test matches, Jacques Kallis holds the record for the highest number of awards won, with 23 in 166 matches played, which is then followed by Muttiah Muralitharan with 19 awards.
In ODIs, Sachin Tendulkar holds the record for the highest number of man of the match titles, with 62 awards in 463 matches played. Tendulkar is followed by Sanath Jayasuriya, who, along with Ricky Ponting, also holds the record for the maximum number of Man of the Match titles as captain.
In Twenty20 Internationals, Shahid Afridi top ranked with 11 awards, followed by Virat Kohli with 10 awards.
Last updated: 1 March 2017
Last updated: 1 March 2017
Last updated: 1 March 2017
Note: Players in bold are still active in international cricket.
Last updated: 2 September 2017
Note: Players in bold are still active in international cricket.
Last updated: 2 September 2017
Few instances in international cricket has been witnessed the sharing of awards. This sharing sometimes awarded to two players of the same side or players with the two sides, who had better clinical performances towards the opponent. In these occasions, the commentators and other awards given authorities held on to share the awards, without giving the award to the player of the winning team. Test cricket has witnessed rare instances when a joint award for man of the match or man of the series has been announced. However, in ODIs and Twenty20 this phenomenon is usually seen when the member of the losing team is the highest scorer, such as when Charles Coventry (194) and Tamim Iqbal (154) shared the award when Zimbabwe lost the match. In another interesting match held on 3 April 1996, the whole team from New Zealand was awarded the Men of the Match award by adjudicator Basil Butcher who pronounced it a team performance. It was the first instance when a whole team was awarded it.
Only three occasions, one in test cricket and two in ODI cricket has been recorded, where whole team was awarded with man of the match by considering their team performances, rather than individual performances.
In Test cricket, South Africa has been awarded Team man of the match award, in the West Indies tour in 1998 / 99 season. The match was won by South Africa by 351 runs and whole 11 players awarded the man of the match award.
In ODI cricket, New Zealand team has been awarded man of the match award for their team performances to 4 run victory against the West Indies on 3 April 1996. On 1 September 1996, Pakistan team has been awarded man of the match for their team performance against England for their 2 wicket win.
Joint awards are sometimes given to two players, either from the same team or one from each team. As of 2017, there have been 14 instances where two players from the same team were given the Man of the Match award in Test cricket.
Until 2017, there have been 26 instances where one player from each team was given the Man of the Match award in Test cricket.
There was one rare instance where three players were given the man of the match award in Test cricket. This happened between New Zealand and Sri Lanka in February 1991 at Hamilton.
In one occasion in international cricket, man of the match was given to a non-player, specifically to the ground staff. In the third Test match between South Africa and New Zealand on 8 December 2000 at Johannesburg, the fifth day was delayed due to rain. However, with the help of the ground staff, managed by Chris Scott, the Head Groundsman, the play continued and the match ended in a draw.
As of 2018, there have been 16 instances where two players from the same team were given the Man of the Match award in ODI cricket.
Until 2018, there have been 15 instances where one player from each team was given the Man of the Match award in ODI cricket.
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who is the best selling artist of the 21st century | List of best - selling albums of the 2000s (century) - wikipedia
This is a list of the best - selling albums of the 2000s, based on IFPI certification and Nielsen SoundScan sales tracking. The criteria are that the album must have been published (including self - publishing by the artist), and the album must have shipped at least 10 million units starting from January 1, 2000.
Units sold include physical copies and digital downloads.
The charts of the best - selling albums by year in the world are compiled by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry annually since 2001. These charts are published in their two annual reports, the Digital Music Report and the Recording Industry in Numbers. Both the Digital Music Report and the Recording Industry in Numbers were replaced in 2016 by the Global Music Report.
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where did the renaissance take place in italy | Italian Renaissance - wikipedia
Transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern era
Timeline
The Italian Renaissance (Italian: Rinascimento (rinaʃʃiˈmento)) was the earliest manifestation of the general European Renaissance, a period of great cultural change and achievement that began in Italy during the 14th century (Trecento) and lasted until the 17th century (Seicento), marking the transition between Medieval and Modern Europe. The French word renaissance (Rinascimento in Italian) means "Rebirth '' and defines the period as one of renewed interest in the culture of classical antiquity after the centuries labeled the Dark Ages by Renaissance humanists, as well as an era of economic revival after the Black Death of 1348. The Renaissance author Giorgio Vasari used the term "Rebirth '' in his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects but the concept became widespread only in the 19th century, after the works of scholars such as Jules Michelet and Jacob Burckhardt.
The European Renaissance began in Tuscany (Central Italy), and centred in the city of Florence. Florence, one of the several city - states of the peninsula, rose to economic prominence by providing credit for European monarchs and laying down the groundwork for capitalism and banking. The Renaissance later spread to Venice, heart of a mediterranean empire and in control of the trade routes with the east since the end of the crusades and the voyages of Marco Polo, where the remains of ancient Greek culture were brought together and provided humanist scholars with new texts. Finally the Renaissance had a significant effect on the Papal States and Rome, largely rebuilt by Humanist and Renaissance popes (such as Alexander VI and Julius II), who were frequently involved in Italian politics, in arbitrating disputes between competing colonial powers and in opposing the Reformation.
The Italian Renaissance is best known for its achievements in painting, architecture, sculpture, literature, music, philosophy, science and exploration. Italy became the recognized European leader in all these areas by the late 15th century, during the Peace of Lodi (1454 - 1494) agreed between Italian states. The Italian Renaissance peaked in the mid-16th century as domestic disputes and foreign invasions plunged the region into the turmoil of the Italian Wars (1494 - 1559). Following this conflict, smaller Italian states lost their independence and entered a period known as "foreign domination ''. However, the ideas and ideals of the Italian Renaissance endured and spread into the rest of Europe, setting off the Northern Renaissance. Italian explorers from the maritime republics served under the auspices of European monarchs, ushering the Age of discovery. The most famous among them are Cristopher Columbus who served for Spain, Giovanni da Verrazzano for France, Amerigo Vespucci for Portugal, and John Cabot for England. Italian universities attracted polymaths and scholars such as Copernicus, Vesalius, Galileo and Torricelli, playing a key role in the scientific revolution. Various events and dates of the 17th century, such as the conclusion of the European Wars of Religion in 1648, have been proposed for the end of the Renaissance.
Accounts of Renaissance literature usually begin with the three great poets of the 14th century: Dante Alighieri (Divine Comedy), Petrarch (Canzoniere) and Boccaccio (Decameron). Famous vernacular poets of the Renaissance include the renaissance epic authors Luigi Pulci (author of Morgante), Matteo Maria Boiardo (Orlando Innamorato), Ludovico Ariosto (Orlando Furioso) and Torquato Tasso (Jerusalem Delivered). 15th century writers such as the poet Poliziano and the Platonist philosopher Marsilio Ficino made extensive translations from both Latin and Greek. In the early 16th century, Castiglione laid out his vision of the ideal gentleman and lady in The Book of the Courtier, while Machiavelli cast a jaundiced eye on "la verità effettuale della cosa '' -- the actual truth of things -- in The Prince, composed, in humanistic style, chiefly of parallel ancient and modern examples of Virtù. Historians of the period include Machiavelli himself, his friend and critic Francesco Guicciardini and Giovanni Botero (The Reason of State). The Aldine Press, founded by the printer Aldo Manuzio, active in Venice, developed Italic type and portable printed books that could be carried in one 's pocket, as well as being the first to publish editions of books in Ancient Greek. Venice also became the birthplace of the Commedia dell'Arte.
Italian Renaissance art exercised a dominant influence on subsequent European painting and sculpture for centuries afterwards, with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Donatello, Giotto di Bondone, Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Piero della Francesca, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli, and Titian. The same is true for architecture, as practiced by Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Andrea Palladio, and Bramante. Their works include, to name only a few, the Florence Cathedral, St. Peter 's Basilica in Rome, and the Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini, as well as several private residences. The musical era of the Italian Renaissance was defined by the Roman School and later by the Venetian School and the birth of Opera in Florence. In philosophy, thinkers such as Galileo, Machiavelli, Giordano Bruno and Pico della Mirandola, emphasized naturalism and humanism, thus rejecting dogma and scholasticism.
By the Late Middle Ages (circa 1300 onward), Latium, the former heartland of the Roman Empire, and southern Italy were generally poorer than the North. Rome was a city of ancient ruins, and the Papal States were loosely administered, and vulnerable to external interference such as that of France, and later Spain. The Papacy was affronted when the Avignon Papacy was created in southern France as a consequence of pressure from King Philip the Fair of France. In the south, Sicily had for some time been under foreign domination, by the Arabs and then the Normans. Sicily had prospered for 150 years during the Emirate of Sicily and later for two centuries during the Norman Kingdom and the Hohenstaufen Kingdom, but had declined by the late Middle Ages.
In contrast, Northern and Central Italy had become far more prosperous, and it has been calculated that the region was among the richest of Europe. The Crusades had built lasting trade links to the Levant, and the Fourth Crusade had done much to destroy the Byzantine Roman Empire as a commercial rival to the Venetians and Genoese. The main trade routes from the east passed through the Byzantine Empire or the Arab lands and onward to the ports of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. Luxury goods bought in the Levant, such as spices, dyes, and silks were imported to Italy and then resold throughout Europe. Moreover, the inland city - states profited from the rich agricultural land of the Po valley. From France, Germany, and the Low Countries, through the medium of the Champagne fairs, land and river trade routes brought goods such as wool, wheat, and precious metals into the region. The extensive trade that stretched from Egypt to the Baltic generated substantial surpluses that allowed significant investment in mining and agriculture. Thus, while northern Italy was not richer in resources than many other parts of Europe, the level of development, stimulated by trade, allowed it to prosper. In particular, Florence became one of the wealthiest of the cities of Northern Italy, mainly due to its woolen textile production, developed under the supervision of its dominant trade guild, the Arte della Lana. Wool was imported from Northern Europe (and in the 16th century from Spain) and together with dyes from the east were used to make high quality textiles.
The Italian trade routes that covered the Mediterranean and beyond were also major conduits of culture and knowledge. The recovery of lost Greek classics (and, to a lesser extent, Arab advancements on them) following the Crusader conquest of the Byzantine heartlands, revitalized medieval philosophy in the Renaissance of the 12th century, just as the refugee Byzantine scholars who migrated to Italy during and following the Ottomans conquest of the Byzantines between the 12th and 15th centuries were important in sparking the new linguistic studies of the Renaissance, in newly created academies in Florence and Venice. Humanist scholars searched monastic libraries for ancient manuscripts and recovered Tacitus and other Latin authors. The rediscovery of Vitruvius meant that the architectural principles of Antiquity could be observed once more, and Renaissance artists were encouraged, in the atmosphere of humanist optimism, to excel the achievements of the Ancients, like Apelles, of whom they read.
In the 13th century, much of Europe experienced strong economic growth. The trade routes of the Italian states linked with those of established Mediterranean ports and eventually the Hanseatic League of the Baltic and northern regions of Europe to create a network economy in Europe for the first time since the 4th century. The city - states of Italy expanded greatly during this period and grew in power to become de facto fully independent of the Holy Roman Empire; apart from the Kingdom of Naples, outside powers kept their armies out of Italy. During this period, the modern commercial infrastructure developed, with double - entry book - keeping, joint stock companies, an international banking system, a systematized foreign exchange market, insurance, and government debt. Florence became the centre of this financial industry and the gold florin became the main currency of international trade.
The new mercantile governing class, who gained their position through financial skill, adapted to their purposes the feudal aristocratic model that had dominated Europe in the Middle Ages. A feature of the High Middle Ages in Northern Italy was the rise of the urban communes which had broken from the control by bishops and local counts. In much of the region, the landed nobility was poorer than the urban patriarchs in the High Medieval money economy whose inflationary rise left land - holding aristocrats impoverished. The increase in trade during the early Renaissance enhanced these characteristics. The decline of feudalism and the rise of cities influenced each other; for example, the demand for luxury goods led to an increase in trade, which led to greater numbers of tradesmen becoming wealthy, who, in turn, demanded more luxury goods. This atmosphere of assumed luxury of the time created a need for the creation of visual symbols of wealth, an important way to show a family 's affluence and taste.
This change also gave the merchants almost complete control of the governments of the Italian city - states, again enhancing trade. One of the most important effects of this political control was security. Those that grew extremely wealthy in a feudal state ran constant risk of running afoul of the monarchy and having their lands confiscated, as famously occurred to Jacques Coeur in France. The northern states also kept many medieval laws that severely hampered commerce, such as those against usury, and prohibitions on trading with non-Christians. In the city - states of Italy, these laws were repealed or rewritten.
The 14th century saw a series of catastrophes that caused the European economy to go into recession. The Medieval Warm Period was ending as the transition to the Little Ice Age began. This change in climate saw agricultural output decline significantly, leading to repeated famines, exacerbated by the rapid population growth of the earlier era. The Hundred Years ' War between England and France disrupted trade throughout northwest Europe, most notably when, in 1345, King Edward III of England repudiated his debts, contributing to the collapse of the two largest Florentine banks, those of the Bardi and Peruzzi. In the east, war was also disrupting trade routes, as the Ottoman Empire began to expand throughout the region. Most devastating, though, was the Black Death that decimated the populations of the densely populated cities of Northern Italy and returned at intervals thereafter. Florence, for instance, which had a pre-plague population of 45,000 decreased over the next 47 years by 25 -- 50 %. Widespread disorder followed, including a revolt of Florentine textile workers, the ciompi, in 1378.
It was during this period of instability that the Renaissance authors such as Dante and Petrarch lived, and the first stirrings of Renaissance art were to be seen, notably in the realism of Giotto. Paradoxically, some of these disasters would help establish the Renaissance. The Black Death wiped out a third of Europe 's population. The resulting labour shortage increased wages and the reduced population was therefore much wealthier, better fed, and, significantly, had more surplus money to spend on luxury goods. As incidences of the plague began to decline in the early 15th century, Europe 's devastated population once again began to grow. The new demand for products and services also helped create a growing class of bankers, merchants, and skilled artisans. The horrors of the Black Death and the seeming inability of the Church to provide relief would contribute to a decline of church influence. Additionally, the collapse of the Bardi and Peruzzi banks would open the way for the Medici to rise to prominence in Florence. Roberto Sabatino Lopez argues that the economic collapse was a crucial cause of the Renaissance. According to this view, in a more prosperous era, businessmen would have quickly reinvested their earnings in order to make more money in a climate favourable to investment. However, in the leaner years of the 14th century, the wealthy found few promising investment opportunities for their earnings and instead chose to spend more on culture and art.
Another popular explanation for the Italian Renaissance is the thesis, first advanced by historian Hans Baron, that states that the primary impetus of the early Renaissance was the long - running series of wars between Florence and Milan. By the late 14th century, Milan had become a centralized monarchy under the control of the Visconti family. Giangaleazzo Visconti, who ruled the city from 1378 to 1402, was renowned both for his cruelty and for his abilities, and set about building an empire in Northern Italy. He launched a long series of wars, with Milan steadily conquering neighbouring states and defeating the various coalitions led by Florence that sought in vain to halt the advance. This culminated in the 1402 siege of Florence, when it looked as though the city was doomed to fall, before Giangaleazzo suddenly died and his empire collapsed.
Baron 's thesis suggests that during these long wars, the leading figures of Florence rallied the people by presenting the war as one between the free republic and a despotic monarchy, between the ideals of the Greek and Roman Republics and those of the Roman Empire and Medieval kingdoms. For Baron, the most important figure in crafting this ideology was Leonardo Bruni. This time of crisis in Florence was the period when the most influential figures of the early Renaissance were coming of age, such as Ghiberti, Donatello, Masolino, and Brunelleschi. Inculcated with this republican ideology they later went on to advocate republican ideas that were to have an enormous impact on the Renaissance.
Northern Italy and upper Central Italy were divided into a number of warring city - states, the most powerful being Milan, Florence, Pisa, Siena, Genoa, Ferrara, Mantua, Verona and Venice. High Medieval Northern Italy was further divided by the long - running battle for supremacy between the forces of the Papacy and of the Holy Roman Empire: each city aligned itself with one faction or the other, yet was divided internally between the two warring parties, Guelfs and Ghibellines. Warfare between the states was common, invasion from outside Italy confined to intermittent sorties of Holy Roman Emperors. Renaissance politics developed from this background. Since the 13th century, as armies became primarily composed of mercenaries, prosperous city - states could field considerable forces, despite their low populations. In the course of the 15th century, the most powerful city - states annexed their smaller neighbors. Florence took Pisa in 1406, Venice captured Padua and Verona, while the Duchy of Milan annexed a number of nearby areas including Pavia and Parma.
The first part of the Renaissance saw almost constant warfare on land and sea as the city - states vied for preeminence. On land, these wars were primarily fought by armies of mercenaries known as condottieri, bands of soldiers drawn from around Europe, but especially Germany and Switzerland, led largely by Italian captains. The mercenaries were not willing to risk their lives unduly, and war became one largely of sieges and maneuvering, occasioning few pitched battles. It was also in the interest of mercenaries on both sides to prolong any conflict, to continue their employment. Mercenaries were also a constant threat to their employers; if not paid, they often turned on their patron. If it became obvious that a state was entirely dependent on mercenaries, the temptation was great for the mercenaries to take over the running of it themselves -- this occurred on a number of occasions.
At sea, Italian city - states sent many fleets out to do battle. The main contenders were Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, but after a long conflict the Genoese succeeded in reducing Pisa. Venice proved to be a more powerful adversary, and with the decline of Genoese power during the 15th century Venice became pre-eminent on the seas. In response to threats from the landward side, from the early 15th century Venice developed an increased interest in controlling the terrafirma as the Venetian Renaissance opened.
On land, decades of fighting saw Florence, Milan and Venice emerge as the dominant players, and these three powers finally set aside their differences and agreed to the Peace of Lodi in 1454, which saw relative calm brought to the region for the first time in centuries. This peace would hold for the next forty years, and Venice 's unquestioned hegemony over the sea also led to unprecedented peace for much of the rest of the 15th century. In the beginning of the 15th century, adventurer and traders such as Niccolò Da Conti (1395 -- 1469) traveled as far as Southeast Asia and back, bringing fresh knowledge on the state of the world, presaging further European voyages of exploration in the years to come.
Until the late 14th century, prior to the Medici, Florence 's leading family were the House of Albizzi. In 1293 the Ordinances of Justice were enacted which effectively became the constitution of the republic of Florence throughout the Italian Renaissance. The city 's numerous luxurious palazzi were becoming surrounded by townhouses, built by the ever prospering merchant class. In 1298, one of the leading banking families of Europe, the Bonsignoris, were bankrupted and so the city of Siena lost her status as the banking center of Europe to Florence.
The main challengers of the Albizzi family were the Medicis, first under Giovanni de ' Medici, later under his son Cosimo di Giovanni de ' Medici. The Medici controlled the Medici bank -- then Europe 's largest bank -- and an array of other enterprises in Florence and elsewhere. In 1433, the Albizzi managed to have Cosimo exiled. The next year, however, saw a pro-Medici Signoria elected and Cosimo returned. The Medici became the town 's leading family, a position they would hold for the next three centuries. Florence remained a republic until 1537, traditionally marking the end of the High Renaissance in Florence, but the instruments of republican government were firmly under the control of the Medici and their allies, save during the intervals after 1494 and 1527. Cosimo and Lorenzo rarely held official posts, but were the unquestioned leaders.
Cosimo de ' Medici was highly popular among the citizenry, mainly for bringing an era of stability and prosperity to the town. One of his most important accomplishments was negotiating the Peace of Lodi with Francesco Sforza ending the decades of war with Milan and bringing stability to much of Northern Italy. Cosimo was also an important patron of the arts, directly and indirectly, by the influential example he set.
Cosimo was succeeded by his sickly son Piero de ' Medici, who died after five years in charge of the city. In 1469 the reins of power passed to Cosimo 's twenty - one - year - old grandson Lorenzo, who would become known as "Lorenzo the Magnificent. '' Lorenzo was the first of the family to be educated from an early age in the humanist tradition and is best known as one of the Renaissance 's most important patrons of the arts. Under Lorenzo, the Medici rule was formalized with the creation of a new Council of Seventy, which Lorenzo headed. The republican institutions continued, but they lost all power. Lorenzo was less successful than his illustrious forebears in business, and the Medici commercial empire was slowly eroded. Lorenzo continued the alliance with Milan, but relations with the papacy soured, and in 1478, Papal agents allied with the Pazzi family in an attempt to assassinate Lorenzo. Although the plot failed, Lorenzo 's young brother, Giuliano, was killed, and the failed assassination led to a war with the Papacy and was used as justification to further centralize power in Lorenzo 's hands.
Renaissance ideals first spread from Florence to the neighbouring states of Tuscany such as Siena and Lucca. The Tuscan culture soon became the model for all the states of Northern Italy, and the Tuscan variety of Italian came to predominate throughout the region, especially in literature. In 1447 Francesco Sforza came to power in Milan and rapidly transformed that still medieval city into a major centre of art and learning that drew Leone Battista Alberti. Venice, one of the wealthiest cities due to its control of the Adriatic Sea, also became a centre for Renaissance culture, especially architecture. Smaller courts brought Renaissance patronage to lesser cities, which developed their characteristic arts: Ferrara, Mantua under the Gonzaga, and Urbino under Federico da Montefeltro. In Naples, the Renaissance was ushered in under the patronage of Alfonso I who conquered Naples in 1443 and encouraged artists like Francesco Laurana and Antonello da Messina and writers like the poet Jacopo Sannazaro and the humanist scholar Angelo Poliziano.
In 1417 the Papacy returned to Rome, but that once imperial city remained poor and largely in ruins through the first years of the Renaissance. The great transformation began under Pope Nicholas V, who became pontiff in 1447. He launched a dramatic rebuilding effort that would eventually see much of the city renewed. The humanist scholar Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini became Pope Pius II in 1458. As the papacy fell under the control of the wealthy families, such as the Medici and the Borgias the spirit of Renaissance art and philosophy came to dominate the Vatican. Pope Sixtus IV continued Nicholas ' work, most famously ordering the construction of the Sistine Chapel. The popes also became increasingly secular rulers as the Papal States were forged into a centralized power by a series of "warrior popes ''.
The nature of the Renaissance also changed in the late 15th century. The Renaissance ideal was fully adopted by the ruling classes and the aristocracy. In the early Renaissance artists were seen as craftsmen with little prestige or recognition. By the later Renaissance the top figures wielded great influence and could charge great fees. A flourishing trade in Renaissance art developed. While in the early Renaissance many of the leading artists were of lower - or middle - class origins, increasingly they became aristocrats.
As a cultural movement, the Italian Renaissance affected only a small part of the population. Italy was the most urbanized region of Europe, but three quarters of the people were still rural peasants. For this section of the population, life remained essentially unchanged from the Middle Ages. Classic feudalism had never been prominent in Northern Italy, and most peasants worked on private farms or as sharecroppers. Some scholars see a trend towards refeudalization in the later Renaissance as the urban elites turned themselves into landed aristocrats.
The situation differed in the cities. These were dominated by a commercial elite; as exclusive as the aristocracy of any Medieval kingdom. This group became the main patrons of and audience for Renaissance culture. Below them there was a large class of artisans and guild members who lived comfortable lives and had significant power in the republican governments. This was in sharp contrast to the rest of Europe where artisans were firmly in the lower class. Literate and educated, this group did participate in the Renaissance culture. The largest section of the urban population was the urban poor of semi-skilled workers and the unemployed. Like the peasants, the Renaissance had little effect on them. Historians debate how easy it was to move between these groups during the Italian Renaissance. Examples of individuals who rose from humble beginnings can be instanced, but Burke notes two major studies in this area that have found that the data do not clearly demonstrate an increase in social mobility. Most historians feel that early in the Renaissance social mobility was quite high, but that it faded over the course of the 15th century. Inequality in society was very high. An upper - class figure would control hundreds of times more income than a servant or labourer. Some historians see this unequal distribution of wealth as important to the Renaissance, as art patronage relies on the very wealthy.
The Renaissance was not a period of great social or economic change, only of cultural and ideological development. It only touched a small fraction of the population, and in modern times this has led many historians, such as any that follow historical materialism, to reduce the importance of the Renaissance in human history. These historians tend to think in terms of "Early Modern Europe '' instead. Roger Osborne argues that "The Renaissance is a difficult concept for historians because the history of Europe quite suddenly turns into a history of Italian painting, sculpture and architecture. ''
The end of the Renaissance is as imprecisely marked as its starting point. For many, the rise to power in Florence of the austere monk Girolamo Savonarola in 1494 - 1498 marks the end of the city 's flourishing; for others, the triumphant return of the Medici marks the beginning of the late phase in the arts called Mannerism. Other accounts trace the end of the Italian Renaissance to the French invasions of the early 16th century and the subsequent conflict between France and Spanish rulers for control of Italian territory. Savonarola rode to power on a widespread backlash over the secularism and indulgence of the Renaissance -- his brief rule saw many works of art destroyed in the "Bonfire of the Vanities '' in the centre of Florence. With the Medici returned to power, now as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, the counter movement in the church continued. In 1542 the Sacred Congregation of the Inquisition was formed and a few years later the Index Librorum Prohibitorum banned a wide array of Renaissance works of literature, which marks the end of the illuminated manuscript together with Giulio Clovio, who is considered the greatest illuminator of the Italian High Renaissance, and arguably the last very notable artist in the long tradition of the illuminated manuscript, before some modern revivals.
Equally important was the end of stability with a series of foreign invasions of Italy known as the Italian Wars that would continue for several decades. These began with the 1494 invasion by France that wreaked widespread devastation on Northern Italy and ended the independence of many of the city - states. Most damaging was the May 6, 1527, Spanish and German troops ' sacking Rome that for two decades all but ended the role of the Papacy as the largest patron of Renaissance art and architecture.
While the Italian Renaissance was fading, the Northern Renaissance adopted many of its ideals and transformed its styles. A number of Italy 's greatest artists chose to emigrate. The most notable example was Leonardo da Vinci who left for France in 1516, but teams of lesser artists invited to transform the Château de Fontainebleau created the school of Fontainebleau that infused the style of the Italian Renaissance in France. From Fontainebleau, the new styles, transformed by Mannerism, brought the Renaissance to Antwerp and thence throughout Northern Europe.
This spread north was also representative of a larger trend. No longer was the Mediterranean Europe 's most important trade route. In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India, and from that date the primary route of goods from the Orient was through the Atlantic ports of Lisbon, Seville, Nantes, Bristol, and London.
The thirteenth - century Italian literary revolution helped set the stage for the Renaissance. Prior to the Renaissance, the Italian language was not the literary language in Italy. It was only in the 13th century that Italian authors began writing in their native language rather than Latin, French, or Provençal. The 1250s saw a major change in Italian poetry as the Dolce Stil Novo (Sweet New Style, which emphasized Platonic rather than courtly love) came into its own, pioneered by poets like Guittone d'Arezzo and Guido Guinizelli. Especially in poetry, major changes in Italian literature had been taking place decades before the Renaissance truly began.
With the printing of books initiated in Venice by Aldus Manutius, an increasing number of works began to be published in the Italian language in addition to the flood of Latin and Greek texts that constituted the mainstream of the Italian Renaissance. The source for these works expanded beyond works of theology and towards the pre-Christian eras of Imperial Rome and Ancient Greece. This is not to say that no religious works were published in this period: Dante Alighieri 's The Divine Comedy reflects a distinctly medieval world view. Christianity remained a major influence for artists and authors, with the classics coming into their own as a second primary influence.
In the early Italian Renaissance, much of the focus was on translating and studying classic works from Latin and Greek. Renaissance authors were not content to rest on the laurels of ancient authors, however. Many authors attempted to integrate the methods and styles of the ancient Greeks into their own works. Among the most emulated Romans are Cicero, Horace, Sallust, and Virgil. Among the Greeks, Aristotle, Homer, and Plato were now being read in the original for the first time since the 4th century, though Greek compositions were few.
The literature and poetry of the Renaissance was largely influenced by the developing science and philosophy. The humanist Francesco Petrarch, a key figure in the renewed sense of scholarship, was also an accomplished poet, publishing several important works of poetry. He wrote poetry in Latin, notably the Punic War epic Africa, but is today remembered for his works in the Italian vernacular, especially the Canzoniere, a collection of love sonnets dedicated to his unrequited love Laura. He was the foremost writer of sonnets in Italian, and translations of his work into English by Thomas Wyatt established the sonnet form in that country, where it was employed by William Shakespeare and countless other poets.
Petrarch 's disciple, Giovanni Boccaccio, became a major author in his own right. His major work was the Decameron, a collection of 100 stories told by ten storytellers who have fled to the outskirts of Florence to escape the black plague over ten nights. The Decameron in particular and Boccaccio 's work in general were a major source of inspiration and plots for many English authors in the Renaissance, including Geoffrey Chaucer and William Shakespeare.
Aside from Christianity, classical antiquity, and scholarship, a fourth influence on Renaissance literature was politics. The political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli 's most famous works are Discourses on Livy, Florentine Histories and finally The Prince, which has become so well known in Western society that the term "Machiavellian '' has come to refer to the realpolitik advocated by the book. However, what is ordinarily called "Machiavellianism '' is a simplified textbook view of this single work rather than an accurate term for his philosophy. Further, it is not at all clear that Machiavelli himself was the apologist for immorality as whom he is often portrayed: the basic problem is the apparent contradiction between the monarchism of The Prince and the republicanism of the Discourses. Regardless, along with many other Renaissance works, The Prince remains a relevant and influential work of literature today.
One role of Petrarch is as the founder of a new method of scholarship, Renaissance Humanism.
Petrarch encouraged the study of the Latin classics and carried his copy of Homer about, at a loss to find someone to teach him to read Greek. An essential step in the humanist education being propounded by scholars like Pico della Mirandola was the hunting down of lost or forgotten manuscripts that were known only by reputation. These endeavors were greatly aided by the wealth of Italian patricians, merchant - princes and despots, who would spend substantial sums building libraries. Discovering the past had become fashionable and it was a passionate affair pervading the upper reaches of society. I go, said Cyriac of Ancona, I go to awake the dead. As the Greek works were acquired, manuscripts found, libraries and museums formed, the age of the printing press was dawning. The works of Antiquity were translated from Greek and Latin into the contemporary modern languages throughout Europe, finding a receptive middle - class audience, which might be, like Shakespeare, "with little Latin and less Greek ''.
While concern for philosophy, art and literature all increased greatly in the Renaissance the period is usually seen as one of scientific backwardness. The reverence for classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe. Humanism stressed that nature came to be viewed as an animate spiritual creation that was not governed by laws or mathematics. At the same time philosophy lost much of its rigour as the rules of logic and deduction were seen as secondary to intuition and emotion.
According to some recent scholarship, the ' father of modern science ' is Leonardo da Vinci whose experiments and clear scientific method earn him this title, Italian universities such as Padua, Bologna and Pisa were scientific centres of renown and with many northern European students, the science of the Renaissance moved to Northern Europe and flourished there, with such figures as Copernicus, Francis Bacon, and Descartes. Galileo, a contemporary of Bacon and Descartes, made an immense contribution to scientific thought and experimentation, paving the way for the scientific revolution that later flourished in Northern Europe. Bodies were also stolen from gallows and examined by many like Vesalius, a professor of anatomy. This allowed them to create accurate skeleton models and correct previously believed theories. For example, many thought that the human jawbone was made up of two bones, as they had seen this on animals. However through examining human corpses they were able to understand that humans actually have only one.
In painting, the false dawn of Giotto 's Trecento realism, his fully three - dimensional figures occupying a rational space, and his humanist interest in expressing the individual personality rather than the iconic images, was followed by a retreat into conservative late Gothic conventions.
The Italian Renaissance in painting began anew, in Florence and Tuscany, with the frescoes of Masaccio, then the panel paintings and frescos of Piero della Francesca and Paolo Uccello which began to enhance the realism of their work by using new techniques in perspective, thus representing three dimensions in two - dimensional art more authentically. Piero della Francesca wrote treatises on scientific perspective. The creation of credible space allowed artists to also focus on the accurate representation of the human body and on naturalistic landscapes. Masaccio 's figures have a plasticity unknown up to that point in time. Compared to the flatness of Gothic painting, his pictures were revolutionary. Around 1459 San Zeno Altarpiece (Mantegna), it was probably the first good example of Renaissance painting in Northern Italy a model for all Verona 's painters, for example Girolamo dai Libri. At the turn of the 16th century, especially in Northern Italy, artists also began to use new techniques in the manipulation of light and darkness, such as the tone contrast evident in many of Titian 's portraits and the development of sfumato and chiaroscuro by Leonardo da Vinci and Giorgione. The period also saw the first secular (non-religious) themes. There has been much debate as to the degree of secularism in the Renaissance, which had been emphasized by early 20th - century writers like Jacob Burckhardt, based on, among other things, the presence of a relatively small number of mythological paintings. Those of Botticelli, notably The Birth of Venus and Primavera, are now among the best known, although he was deeply religious (becoming a follower of Savonarola) and the great majority of his output was of traditional religious paintings or portraits.
In sculpture, Donatello 's (1386 -- 1466) study of classical sculpture led to his development of classicizing positions (such as the contrapposto pose) and subject matter (like the unsupported nude -- his second sculpture of David was the first free - standing bronze nude created in Europe since the Roman Empire.) The progress made by Donatello was influential on all who followed; perhaps the greatest of whom is Michelangelo, whose David of 1500 is also a male nude study; more naturalistic than Donatello 's and with greater emotional intensity. Both sculptures are standing in contrapposto, their weight shifted to one leg.
The period known as the High Renaissance represents the culmination of the goals of the earlier period, namely the accurate representation of figures in space rendered with credible motion and in an appropriately decorous style. The most famous painters from this phase are Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. Their images are among the most widely known works of art in the world. Leonardo 's Last Supper, Raphael 's The School of Athens and Michelangelo 's Sistine Chapel Ceiling are the masterpieces of the period.
High Renaissance painting evolved into Mannerism, especially in Florence. Mannerist artists, who consciously rebelled against the principles of High Renaissance, tend to represent elongated figures in illogical spaces. Modern scholarship has recognized the capacity of Mannerist art to convey strong (often religious) emotion where the High Renaissance failed to do so. Some of the main artists of this period are Pontormo, Bronzino, Rosso Fiorentino, Parmigianino and Raphael 's pupil Giulio Romano.
In Florence, the Renaissance style was introduced with a revolutionary but incomplete monument in Rimini by Leone Battista Alberti. Some of the earliest buildings showing Renaissance characteristics are Filippo Brunelleschi 's church of San Lorenzo and the Pazzi Chapel. The interior of Santo Spirito expresses a new sense of light, clarity and spaciousness, which is typical of the early Italian Renaissance. Its architecture reflects the philosophy of Humanism, the enlightenment and clarity of mind as opposed to the darkness and spirituality of the Middle Ages. The revival of classical antiquity can best be illustrated by the Palazzo Rucellai. Here the pilasters follow the superposition of classical orders, with Doric capitals on the ground floor, Ionic capitals on the piano nobile and Corinthian capitals on the uppermost floor.
In Mantua, Leone Battista Alberti ushered in the new antique style, though his culminating work, Sant'Andrea, was not begun until 1472, after the architect 's death.
The High Renaissance, as we call the style today, was introduced to Rome with Donato Bramante 's Tempietto at San Pietro in Montorio (1502) and his original centrally planned St. Peter 's Basilica (1506), which was the most notable architectural commission of the era, influenced by almost all notable Renaissance artists, including Michelangelo and Giacomo della Porta. The beginning of the late Renaissance in 1550 was marked by the development of a new column order by Andrea Palladio. Colossal columns that were two or more stories tall decorated the facades.
In Italy during the 14th century there was an explosion of musical activity that corresponded in scope and level of innovation to the activity in the other arts. Although musicologists typically group the music of the Trecento (music of the 14th century) with the late medieval period, it included features which align with the early Renaissance in important ways: an increasing emphasis on secular sources, styles and forms; a spreading of culture away from ecclesiastical institutions to the nobility, and even to the common people; and a quick development of entirely new techniques. The principal forms were the Trecento madrigal, the caccia, and the ballata. Overall, the musical style of the period is sometimes labelled as the "Italian ars nova. '' From the early 15th century to the middle of the 16th century, the center of innovation in sacred music was in the Low Countries, and a flood of talented composers came to Italy from this region. Many of them sang in either the papal choir in Rome or the choirs at the numerous chapels of the aristocracy, in Rome, Venice, Florence, Milan, Ferrara and elsewhere; and they brought their polyphonic style with them, influencing many native Italian composers during their stay.
The predominant forms of church music during the period were the mass and the motet. By far the most famous composer of church music in 16th century Italy was Palestrina, the most prominent member of the Roman School, whose style of smooth, emotionally cool polyphony was to become the defining sound of the late 16th century, at least for generations of 19th - and 20th century musicologists. Other Italian composers of the late 16th century focused on composing the main secular form of the era, the madrigal: and for almost a hundred years these secular songs for multiple singers were distributed all over Europe. Composers of madrigals included Jacques Arcadelt, at the beginning of the age, Cipriano de Rore, in the middle of the century, and Luca Marenzio, Philippe de Monte, Carlo Gesualdo, and Claudio Monteverdi at the end of the era. Italy was also a centre of innovation in instrumental music. By the early 16th century keyboard improvisation came to be greatly valued, and numerous composers of virtuoso keyboard music appeared. Many familiar instruments were invented and perfected in late Renaissance Italy, such as the violin, the earliest forms of which came into use in the 1550s.
By the late 16th century Italy was the musical centre of Europe. Almost all of the innovations which were to define the transition to the Baroque period originated in northern Italy in the last few decades of the century. In Venice, the polychoral productions of the Venetian School, and associated instrumental music, moved north into Germany; in Florence, the Florentine Camerata developed monody, the important precursor to opera, which itself first appeared around 1600; and the avant - garde, manneristic style of the Ferrara school, which migrated to Naples and elsewhere through the music of Carlo Gesualdo, was to be the final statement of the polyphonic vocal music of the Renaissance.
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how many twin peaks episodes in season 3 | Twin Peaks (2017 TV series) - wikipedia
Twin Peaks, also known as Twin Peaks: The Return, is an American mystery drama television series created by Mark Frost and David Lynch. It is a continuation of the 1990 -- 91 ABC series of the same name. The limited series consists of 18 episodes and premiered on Showtime on May 21, 2017, following a world premiere on May 19, 2017, at The Theatre at Ace Hotel. The series was developed and written by Lynch and Frost over several years and directed by Lynch. An ensemble of returning and new cast members appear, led by original star Kyle MacLachlan.
Set 25 years after the original Twin Peaks, the series focuses on a number of storylines, many of which are connected through association with FBI Special Agent Dale Cooper (MacLachlan). It takes place in a variety of locations in addition to the fictional Washington town of Twin Peaks, including Las Vegas and South Dakota. Showtime president David Nevins stated that "the core of (the series) is Agent Cooper 's odyssey back to Twin Peaks ''. It has garnered praise from critics for its unconventional narrative, visual style, and performances, and Showtime reported that the series led to a record number of subscriptions to their streaming service.
The first series of Twin Peaks, an American serial drama television series created by Mark Frost and David Lynch, premiered on April 8, 1990, on ABC. It was one of the top - rated series of 1990, but declining ratings led to its cancellation in 1991 after its second season. In subsequent years, Twin Peaks has often been listed among the greatest television dramas of all time. A prequel film directed by Lynch, Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me, was released in 1992. Lynch planned two more films that would have concluded the series ' narrative, but in 2001 stated that Twin Peaks was as "dead as a doornail. ''
In 2007, artist Matt Haley began work on a graphic novel continuation, which he hoped would be included in the "Complete Mystery '' DVD box set. Twin Peaks producer Robert Engels agreed to help write it on the condition that Lynch and Frost approved the project; Haley said: "(Engels) and I had a number of discussions about what the story would be. I was keen to use whatever notes they had for the proposed third season. I really wanted this to be a literal ' third season ' of the show. '' Paramount Home Entertainment agreed to package it with the box set, also on the condition that Lynch and Frost approved. Though Frost approved the project, Lynch vetoed it, stating that he respected the effort but did not want to continue the story of Twin Peaks.
In 2013, rumors that Twin Peaks would return were dismissed by Lynch 's daughter Jennifer Lynch (author of The Secret Diary of Laura Palmer) as well as by Frost. Cast member Ray Wise recounted what Lynch had said to him about a possible continuation: "Well, Ray, you know, the town is still there. And I suppose it 's possible that we could revisit it. Of course, (your character is) already dead... but we could maybe work around that. ''
In January 2014, a casting call for a "Twin Peaks promo '', directed by Lynch, was revealed to be the filming of a featurette for the Twin Peaks: The Complete Mystery Blu - ray set. In September 2014, Lynch answered a question about Twin Peaks at the Lucca Film Festival by saying it was a "tricky question '', and that "there 's always a possibility... and you just have to wait and see. ''
On October 6, 2014, Showtime announced that it would air a nine - episode miniseries written by Lynch and Frost and directed by Lynch. Frost emphasized that the new episodes were not a remake or reboot but a continuation of the series. The episodes are set in the present day, and the passage of 25 years is an important element in the plot. As to whether the miniseries would become an ongoing series, Frost said: "If we have a great time doing it and everybody loves it and they decide there 's room for more, I could see it going that way. ''
In March 2015, Lynch expressed doubts about the production due to "complications ''. Showtime confirmed the series was moving forward, stating: "Nothing is going on that 's any more than any preproduction process with David Lynch. Everything is moving forward and everybody is crazy thrilled and excited. '' In April 2015, Lynch said he would not direct the nine episodes due to budget constraints. He and Showtime came to an agreement, with Lynch confirming on May 15, 2015, that he would direct, and that there would be more episodes than the originally announced nine. At a Twin Peaks panel in Seattle, cast members Sherilyn Fenn and Sheryl Lee said that the new series would consist of 18 episodes and Angelo Badalamenti would return as composer.
On January 12, 2015, Kyle MacLachlan was confirmed to return to the series. In October 2015, it was confirmed that Michael Ontkean, who portrayed Sheriff Harry S. Truman and has since retired from acting, would not return for the revival. In October 2015, it was reported that the role of town sheriff would be filled by Robert Forster, later confirmed as playing Frank Truman, brother of Harry. Forster had been cast as Harry in the 1990 pilot, but was replaced by Ontkean due to scheduling issues. Also in October, David Duchovny teased his return as Agent Denise Bryson. In November 2015, it was reported that Miguel Ferrer would reprise his role as Albert Rosenfield and that Richard Beymer and David Patrick Kelly would return as Benjamin Horne and Jerry Horne respectively. In December 2015, Alicia Witt confirmed she would reprise her role as Gersten Hayward. Michael J. Anderson was asked to reprise his role as The Man from Another Place, but declined.
Russ Tamblyn underwent open - heart surgery in late 2014 and was still recovering in 2015. Lynch and Frost were still hoping Tamblyn would join the cast for the new season, which was later confirmed. On September 28, 2015, Catherine E. Coulson, who reprised her role of the Log Lady in the new series, died of cancer. She filmed her final scene four days before her death.
The series ' first teaser trailer, released in December 2015, confirmed the involvement of Michael Horse (Tommy "Hawk '' Hill). In January 2016, it was reported that Sherilyn Fenn would reprise her role as Audrey Horne in a "major presence. '' In February 2016, it was reported that Lynch would reprise his role as Gordon Cole. Frequent Lynch collaborator Laura Dern was cast in a "top - secret pivotal role '', which eventually proved to be Diane, the previously unseen character to whom Cooper frequently dictated taped messages during the show 's original run. In April 2016, a complete cast list was released, featuring 217 actors, with actors returning from the earlier series marked with asterisks. Mary Reber, who plays Alice Tremond in the finale, is the actual owner of the house used for the Palmer residence.
David Bowie was asked to make a cameo appearance as FBI Agent Phillip Jeffries, his character from Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me. As Bowie 's health was declining, his lawyer told Lynch that he was unavailable. Before his death in January 2016, Bowie gave the production permission to reuse old footage featuring him; however, he was unhappy with the accent he had used in the film, and requested that he be dubbed over by an authentic Louisiana actor, leading to the casting of Nathan Frizzell as the voice of Jeffries. In January and February 2017, respectively, cast members Miguel Ferrer and Warren Frost died, but both appear in the new series. Harry Dean Stanton, who reprised his role as Carl Rodd, died in September 2017, less than two weeks after the last episode of the series aired.
In July 2015, Frost suggested that the series would premiere in 2017 rather than 2016, as originally planned. The series began filming in September 2015, and Showtime president David Nevins said, "I 'm hoping we make 2016. It 's not clear. It 's ultimately going to be in (series co-creators David Lynch and Mark Frost 's) control. '' Nevins also stated, "I do n't know (how many episodes there will be). They 're going to decide, I expect it to be more than nine, but it 's open - ended. I know what the shooting schedule is and then we 'll have him cut into it however many episodes it feels best at. '' In January 2016, Nevins confirmed that the series would premiere in the first half of 2017. The series was shot continuously from a single, long shooting script before being edited into episodes. Filming was completed by April 2016.
Twin Peaks
Government
Las Vegas
South Dakota
Supernatural
Michael J. Anderson did not reprise his role as The Man from Another Place, who instead appears as a treelike computer - generated effect and is voiced by an uncredited actor. When asked who provided the voice for the CGI character, Executive Producer Sabrina Sutherland replied, "Unfortunately, I think this question should remain a mystery and not be answered. ''
Other
The soundtrack contains new and reused compositions from Angelo Badalamenti as well as dark ambient music and sound design by Dean Hurley and David Lynch (including some from The Air Is on Fire) and unreleased music from Lynch and Badalamenti 's 1990s project Thought Gang, two tracks of which previously appeared in Fire Walk with Me. Hurley 's contributions were released on the album Anthology Resource Vol. 1: △ △ on August 6, 2017, by Sacred Bones Records. Several tracks from Johnny Jewel 's album Windswept also appear throughout. Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima by Krzysztof Penderecki appears in key scenes.
Two soundtracks were released on September 8, 2017, by Rhino Records: Twin Peaks: Music from the Limited Event Series and Twin Peaks: Limited Event Series Original Soundtrack.
Additionally, multiple episodes contain musical performances at the Roadhouse. Lynch hand - picked several of the bands, including Nine Inch Nails, Sharon Van Etten, and Eddie Vedder.
Other music, mostly played diegetically includes:
Beethoven 's Moonlight Sonata and "Last Call '' by David Lynch are played slowed down significantly.
Twin Peaks premiered on Showtime on May 21, 2017, with a two - hour episode. After the airing, the premiere and an additional two episodes became available online, and the series aired in weekly increments from that point onwards (at Lynch 's insistence). Overall, the series consists of 18 episodes. It concluded on September 3, 2017, with a two - part finale.
In the United Kingdom, Sky Atlantic simulcast the first two episodes beginning at 2: 00 am British Summer Time on May 22, 2017, and the next two episodes were released on Sky UK 's on - demand service after the premiere. In the Nordic countries, the series is broadcast on HBO Nordic, with the two - hour premiere airing on May 22, and subsequent episodes being made available the day after its U.S. airing. In Canada, the series is available on CraveTV and The Movie Network, and debuted simultaneously with the U.S. broadcast. In Australia, episodes of the series are available to stream on Stan the same day as the original U.S. broadcast. Two episodes were screened at the 2017 Cannes Film Festival. In Japan, the series airs on the satellite television network Wowow, which also aired the original series.
The first two episodes garnered positive reviews from critics. On Metacritic, Twin Peaks has a score of 74 out of 100 based on 26 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 94 % rating with an average score of 7.75 out of 10 based on 71 reviews. The site 's critical consensus is, "Surreal, suspenseful, and visually stunning, this new Twin Peaks is an auteurist triumph for David Lynch. ''
Sonia Saraiya of Variety wrote "Twin Peaks: The Return is weird and creepy and slow. But it is interesting. The show is very stubbornly itself -- not quite film and not quite TV, rejecting both standard storytelling and standard forms. It 's not especially fun to watch and it can be quite disturbing. But there is never a sense that you are watching something devoid of vision or intention. Lynch 's vision is so total and absolute that he can get away with what would n't be otherwise acceptable. ''
The Hollywood Reporter 's Daniel Fienberg commented that "The thing that struck me most immediately about the premiere is how relatively cogent it was, with a clear emphasis on ' relatively '. What premiered on Sunday was as accessibly scary, disturbing and audaciously funny as many of the best parts of the original Twin Peaks, and nowhere near as hallucinatory and subtextually distilled as the prequel film Fire Walk With Me. '' Fienberg also wrote about the series ' format: "It 's obvious this Twin Peaks is going to be an 18 - hour unit. There was no discernible separation between hours and if credits had n't rolled, the second hour could probably just as easily have flowed into the third. This is n't episodic TV. It 's another thing. ''
In her "A '' grade review, Emily L. Stephens of The A.V. Club wrote regarding its possible reception from critics and viewers: "This two - part premiere is going to be wildly difficult for any two people to agree upon, in part because a viewer 's assessment of the revival will depend upon what they hoped for. If you were looking forward to a return of the sometimes campy, sometimes cozy humor of the original two seasons of Twin Peaks, this premiere could come as a shock. If you were anticipating that once jolting, now familiar blend of genres, this is... not that. '' She called the two - part premiere "pure Lynchian horror ''.
At the 2017 Cannes Film Festival, Lynch screened the two - hour premiere of the series and received a five - minute standing ovation from the crowd.
Sean T. Collins of Rolling Stone called the series "one of the most groundbreaking TV series ever '', praising its original, complex story lines and the performances of its cast, particularly Kyle MacLachlan. Matt Zoller Seitz of Vulture wrote that the show was "the most original and disturbing to hit TV drama since The Sopranos ''. In his season review for IGN, Matt Fowler noted that Twin Peaks "came back as a true artistic force that challenged just about every storytelling convention we know '' and scored it an 8.8 out of 10. Additionally, Sight & Sound and Cahiers du cinéma magazines named Twin Peaks: The Return respectively as the 2nd and the best "film '' of the year, with Sight & Sound placing it behind only the psychological horror film Get Out. Twin Peaks is ranked as the second best TV series of 2017, according to Metacritic 's list which tallies "best of '' lists from various major TV critics and publications.
The two - hour premiere on May 21, 2017, received 506,000 viewers on Showtime, which Deadline.com called "soft for such a strongly promoted prestige project ''. Ratings increased to 626,000 after the encore broadcasts that night and the premiere also had over 450,000 viewers via streaming and on - demand.
Viewership for the premiere increased to 804,000 in Live + 3 ratings, and it had a viewership of 1.7 million across streaming and on - demand platforms. Showtime announced that the weekend of the Twin Peaks premiere had the most signups to their streaming service ever. Prior to the finale, the series was averaging 2 million weekly viewers, when including time - shifting, encores and streaming. Showtime president David Nevins said that Twin Peaks "has exceeded expectations '' from a financial perspective.
For the 75th Golden Globe Awards, Kyle MacLachlan is nominated for Best Performance in a Miniseries or Television Film.
The series was released on Blu - ray and DVD on December 5, 2017, and includes more than six hours of behind - the - scenes content.
Both David Lynch and Mark Frost have expressed interest in making another season of Twin Peaks, but Lynch has noted that such a project will not immediately follow The Return, given that it took them four and a half years to write and film the third season.
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who played miko on the facts of life | The Facts of Life (TV series) - wikipedia
The Facts of Life is an American sitcom and a spin - off of Diff'rent Strokes that originally aired on NBC from August 24, 1979, to May 7, 1988, making it one of the longest - running sitcoms of the 1980s. The series focuses on Edna Garrett (Charlotte Rae) as she becomes a housemother (and after the second season, a dietitian as well) at the fictional Eastland School, an all - female boarding school in Peekskill, New York.
A spin - off of Diff'rent Strokes, the series featured the Drummonds ' former housekeeper, Edna Garrett (Charlotte Rae) becoming the housemother of a dormitory at Eastland School, a private all - girls school. The girls in her care included spoiled rich girl Blair Warner (Lisa Whelchel); the youngest, gossipy Dorothy "Tootie '' Ramsey (Kim Fields); and impressionable Natalie Green (Mindy Cohn).
The pilot for the show originally aired as the last episode of Diff'rent Strokes ' first season and was called "The Girls ' School (aka Garrett 's Girls). '' The plotline for the pilot had Kimberly Drummond (Dana Plato) requesting that Mrs. Garrett help her sew costumes for a student play at East Lake School for Girls, the school Kimberly attended in upstate New York, as her dorm 's housemother had recently quit. Mrs. Garrett agrees to help, puts on a successful play, and also solves a problem for Nancy. Mrs. Garrett is asked to stay on as the new housemother but states she would rather remain working for the Drummonds at the end of the pilot.
Following the pilot, the name of the school was changed to Eastland and characters were replaced, with Natalie, Cindy (Julie Anne Haddock), and Mr. Bradley becoming part of the main group featured. Although Kimberly Drummond is featured as a student at East Lake, her character did not cross over to the spinoff series with Mrs. Garrett.
In the show 's first season, episodes focus on the troubles of seven girls, with the action usually set in a large, wood - paneled common room of a girls ' dormitory. Also appearing was the school 's headmaster, Mr. Steven Bradley (John Lawlor), and Ms. Emily Mahoney (Jenny O'Hara), an Eastland teacher who was dropped after the first four episodes. Early episodes of the show typically revolve around a central morality - based or "lesson teaching '' theme. The show 's pilot episode plot included a story line in which Blair Warner insinuates that her schoolmate Cindy Webster is a lesbian because she is a tomboy and frequently shows affection for other girls. Other season one episodes deal with issues including drug use, sex, eating disorders, parental relationships, and peer pressure.
The producers felt that there were too many characters given the limitations of the half - hour sitcom format, and that the plot lines should be more focused to give the remaining girls more room for character development. Four of the original actresses -- Julie Anne Haddock (Cindy), Julie Piekarski (Sue Ann), Felice Schachter (Nancy), and Molly Ringwald (Molly) -- were written out of the show (although the four did make periodic guest appearances in the second and third seasons, and all but Molly Ringwald appeared in one "reunion '' episode in the eighth season). Mr. Bradley 's character was also dropped and replaced with a generally unseen headmaster named Mr. Harris. (Mr. Harris actually appeared in an early second - season episode, "Gossip '', played by Kenneth Mars) and Mr. Parker for the rest of the series. In addition to being housemother to the remaining girls, Mrs. Garrett became the school dietitian as the second season began. Jo Polniaczek (Nancy McKeon), a new student originally from the Bronx, arrived at Eastland on scholarship. A run - in with the law forced the four to be separated from the other girls and work in the cafeteria, living together in a spare room next to Mrs. Garrett 's bedroom.
The season two premiere of the retooled series saw an immediate ratings increase. By its third season (1981 -- 82), Facts of Life had become NBC 's # 1 comedy and # 2 overall NBC program, beating out its predecessor, Diff'rent Strokes, for the first time.
In 1983, Jo and Blair graduated Eastland Academy in the highly anticipated season four finale "Graduation '' (which placed # 5 for the week). To keep the four girls under one roof, the hour - long season five premiere "Brave New World '' saw Mrs. Garrett go into business for herself and open a gourmet food venture named Edna 's Edibles (it placed # 9 in the weekly ratings). The four girls would come to live and work with Mrs. Garrett in this new refreshed space.
In September 1985, NBC moved the seventh season of the series to its burgeoning Saturday night lineup at 8: 30 p.m., as a lead - in for the new series The Golden Girls at 9: 00 p.m. In an attempt to refresh the "ratings work horse '' and increase ratings, George Clooney was added to the regular cast and Mrs. Garrett 's store was gutted by fire in the season seven premiere "Out of the Fire ''. The follow - up episodes "Into the Frying Pan '' and "Grand Opening '' had the girls band together to rebuild the store with a pop culture - influenced gift shop, called Over Our Heads. The changes proved successful as all 3 episodes placed in the top 10 ratings each week. By the end of the season, TV Guide reported, "Facts ' success has been so unexpected that scions of Hollywood are still taken aback by it... Facts has in fact been among NBC 's top - ranked comedies for the past five years. It finished twenty - third overall for the 1985 -- 1986 season, handily winning its time slot against its most frequent competitors, Airwolf and Benson. Lisa Whelchel stated, ' We 're easily overlooked because we 've never been a huge hit; we just sort of snuck in there. ' ''
Charlotte Rae initially reduced her role in seasons six and seven, and later decided to leave the series altogether, believing she had done all she could do with her character and desired to move on to other projects. In season eight 's heavily promoted one - hour premiere, "Out of Peekskill '' Mrs. Garrett married the man of her dreams and joined him in Africa while he worked for the Peace Corps. Mrs. Garrett convinces her sister, Beverly Ann Stickle (Cloris Leachman), to take over the shop and look after the girls. Beverly Ann later legally adopted Over Our Heads worker Andy Moffett (Mackenzie Astin) in the episode "A Boy About the House ''. Describing the new changes to The Facts of Life Brandon Tartikoff, NBC Entertainment President, said he "was surprised that The Facts of Life performed well this season, as, with a major cast change and all, I thought it might not perform as it had in the past. Facts has been renewed for next season. ''
In the ninth and final season, the series aired on NBC 's Saturday night lineup at 8: 00 p.m. NBC still had confidence in the series, making it the 8: 00 p.m. anchor, kicking off the network 's second - highest rated night (next to Thursdays). For February sweeps, the writers created a controversial storyline in this season for the episode titled "The First Time '', in which Natalie became the first of the girls to lose her virginity. Lisa Whelchel refused this particular storyline that would have made her character, not Natalie, the first among the four young women in the show to lose her virginity. Having become a Christian when she was 10, Whelchel refused because of her Christian convictions. Whelchel appeared in every episode, but asked to be written out of "The First Time ''. The episode ran a parental advisory before starting, and placed 22nd in the ratings for the week.
With the show still comfortably winning its timeslot, NBC made plans to renew The Facts of Life for a tenth season, but two castmates -- Mindy Cohn and Nancy McKeon -- chose to leave at the conclusion of season nine.
A key recurring character was Geri Tyler (Geri Jewell), Blair 's cousin who has cerebral palsy. Other recurring characters included the judgment - impaired Miko Wakamatsu (Lauren Tom), the delivery boy Roy (Loren Lester) who was enamored with Jo, the royal princess Alexandra (Heather McAdam) and the snobbish Boots St. Clair (Jami Gertz). Shoplifter Kelly (Pamela Segall) was billed as a regular during the fifth season. Other guest roles included the boyfriends of the girls; Jo 's parents, played by Alex Rocco and Claire Malis; Blair 's parents, played by Nicolas Coster and Marj Dusay (Blair 's mother was played by Pam Huntington in one episode during the first season); Tootie 's parents, played by Kim Fields ' real - life mother, actress Chip Fields, and Robert Hooks; and Natalie 's parents, played by Norman Burton and Mitzi Hoag. (Natalie 's grandmother was played by Molly Picon, and appeared in two episodes.) Hugh Gillin appeared in four episodes as Howard. Officer Ziaukus was played by Larry Wilmore, and appeared in 2 episodes. A 1984 episode was built around Natalie coming to terms with the sudden death of her father. Characters from Diff'rent Strokes also appeared in some episodes of both season one and season two. Shawnte Northcutte from The New Mickey Mouse Club appeared as Madge in the 1980 episode "Who Am I? ''. Other recurring characters included Tootie 's boyfriend Jeff Williams (Todd Hollowell), Blair 's boyfriend Cliff (Woody Brown), and Mr. Charles Parker (Roger Perry), who served as headmaster of Eastland following Lawlor 's exit from the show.
Celebrities who made guest appearances on the show included Helen Hunt, Zsa Zsa Gabor, Jermaine Jackson, Eve Plumb, Jean Smart, John Astin, Bobby Rydell, Fabian, Dick Van Patten, Penelope Ann Miller, Doug Savant, Dennis Haysbert, Lois Nettleton, Richard Moll, David Spade, Richard Grieco, Juliette Lewis, Seth Green, Mayim Bialik, Deborah Harmon, Irene Tedrow, El DeBarge, Joyce Bulifant, Stacey Q, and Anne Jackson.
The Facts of Life was one of the first television shows to feature a person with cerebral palsy as a recurring character. Indeed, actress Geri Jewell was the first person with a disability to have a regular role on a prime time series. In an interview as part of an episode of E! True Hollywood Story, Jewell stated that she believed her character "cousin Geri '' was going to continue as a recurring character on the show during the sixth season, but the producers offered her only one episode for the season because viewers would immediately assume that any episode with cousin Geri would be a "very special episode ''. Jewell stated that she stopped appearing on the show for that reason.
Another issue during the show 's early seasons concerned the stars ' appearances. Lisa Whelchel has stated in various interviews, including on E! True Hollywood Story, that the cast spent a lot of time on set doing nothing, so the natural inclination for many of them was to eat, as food was readily available all over the set. This noticeably affected the girls ' appearances, leading Joan Rivers to dub them "The Fats of Life '' during the cast 's appearance at the Emmy Awards; the producers eventually restricted what the actors could eat while on set, and in an April 2011 interview, Lisa Whelchel stated that the producers sent her to various weight loss programs in an effort to help her lose weight.
Mindy Cohn, in the E! True Hollywood Story, stated that the situation was the opposite for her. She had been losing weight during this period due to an interest in dancing, and the producers asked her to stop because much of her character 's identity hinged on the fact that she was overweight. Cohn said the producers compromised with her regarding her weight by dressing her in baggy clothing to make her appear heavier than she was.
The Facts of Life was originally not a ratings winner on Friday nights in its summer debut in 1979 or in its second tryout in the spring of 1980. It ranked 74th out of 79 shows on the air in the year - end Nielsen ratings, and was NBC 's lowest - rated series.
The show was put on hiatus and extensively retooled in preparation for season two. In November 1980, season two of The Facts of Life premiered in a Wednesday 9: 30 p.m. time slot, where it immediately flourished, peaking in January 1981 with a 27.4 rating and 41 share; it ranked # 4 for the week. The program became NBC 's fourth highest - rated scripted series, after Little House on the Prairie, Diff'rent Strokes, and CHiPs.
By the third season, the series moved time slots to 9: 00 p.m. Wednesdays, and soon became NBC 's highest - rated comedy series, and NBC 's # 2 overall series, after Real People. For its seventh season, it moved to Saturdays at 8: 30 p.m., to bolster the premiering series The Golden Girls at 9: 00 p.m. in the newly formed Saturday night comedy block.
At the start of the eighth season, the series was moved back a half - hour to the toughest time slot on television -- Saturday at 8: 00 p.m., which brought the ratings down from its season seven high. Still, the series easily won its time slot, and garnering high numbers in the coveted teen and 18 -- 49 demographics. One of the highest rated season eight episodes saw the original season one cast return for a mini reunion. Titled "The Little Chill '', it placed # 19 for the week with a 18.2 rating and 31 share.
In the article "Ratings Top with Teens '' appearing in the January 19, 1988 edition of USA Today, The Facts of Life was ranked as one of the top 10 shows in a survey of 2,200 American teenagers.
The various attempts at spin - offs were backdoor pilots, which were shown as episodes of The Facts of Life.
The Facts of Life was produced first by T.A.T. Communications Company, later known as Embassy Television (Norman Lear 's production companies), and then as Embassy Communications, and Columbia Pictures Television (through ELP Communications) on January -- May 1988 episodes of the series. Sony Pictures Television currently owns the distribution rights to the sitcom.
From 1979 to 1982, the show was produced at Metromedia Square in Los Angeles, California. In 1982, production moved to Universal City Studios and then to Sunset Gower Studios in 1985.
The show 's theme was composed by Al Burton, Gloria Loring, and her then - husband, Alan Thicke. The well - known opening lyric "You take the good, you take the bad... '' came later as the first season lyrics, some of them performed by Rae, and the original cast, differed from those that followed, later sung by Loring. The original lyrics eventually shifted to the closing credits before being dropped entirely. Burton, Loring, and Thicke had previously composed the theme to Diff'rent Strokes, which was sung by Thicke.
The Facts of Life Goes to Paris, a two - hour TV movie in which Mrs. Garrett and the girls travel to France, aired September 25, 1982. It scored 18.1 / 31 in the Nielsen Ratings. The movie was later added to the U.S. syndication package, broken up into four half - hour episodes; however, the original cut of the film appears on the 2010 Season four DVD set. The television movie was directed by Asaad Kelada.
The Facts of Life Down Under, another two - hour TV movie, aired Sunday February 15, 1987 placing a strong # 13 for the week garnering 21.4 / 32. This was strategic counterprogramming by NBC, which placed the movie against the conclusion of ABC 's highly publicized mini-series Amerika.
The Telemovie was also syndicated as four half - hour episodes in later U.S. airings.
On November 18, 2001, The Facts of Life Reunion aired on ABC, in which Mrs. Garrett and the girls are reunited in Peekskill, New York, for the Thanksgiving holiday. It airs sporadically in the U.S. on ABC Family. Nancy McKeon does not appear in this movie. Her character is explained as being on assignment as a police officer.
NBC aired daytime reruns of The Facts of Life from December 13, 1982 until June 7, 1985 at 10: 00 AM (and later 12: 00 noon) on the daytime schedule. Episodes aired on various television stations from September 15, 1986 to September 10, 1993, then aired on the USA Network on and off from September 13, 1993 to September 11, 1998. In August 1994, the network celebrated the show 's 15 - year anniversary with a day - long marathon of 14 episodes featuring new interviews with Rae, Whelchel, and Cohn.
Episodes aired on Nick at Nite from September 4, 2000 to June 28, 2001, although the network did not air certain episodes that contained highly mature content during prime time (including the first - season episode "Dope ''), instead opting to air episodes with more serious topics at late night / early morning times. TV Land aired 48 hours of The Facts of Life episodes on its "Fandemonium Marathon Weekend '' on November 17 -- 19, 2001.
The Hallmark Channel aired The Facts of Life from July 1 to November 1, 2002. Episodes were available on Comcast 's Video - On - Demand service from August 8, 2005 to July 31, 2006 and again from the August 6, 2007 until Tube Time 's shutdown date on December 31, 2009.
On July 16, 2008 full episodes and short "minisodes '' of The Facts of Life became available online via Hulu.
On March 12, 2012, Teen Nick added the series to their morning line - up; however, the series ' addition to the channel was short - lived, as it left the schedule on April 3, 2012. The series premiered on The Hub on April 2, 2012, where it played through the end of March 2013. Currently the series airs on FamilyNet and Logo TV. Beginning August 21, 2017 the series will air on MeTV.
On April 21 and 22, 2001, Columbia House released The Facts of Life: The Collector 's Edition, a 10 - volume "Best of '' the series on VHS (40 episodes in all). With the advent shortly thereafter of TV on DVD and Columbia House 's eventual move from the direct marketing model of exclusive series, the tapes were discontinued.
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the first two seasons on DVD in Region 1 on May 9, 2006 with new interviews with most of the cast, including first season regulars Felice Schachter and Julie Anne Haddock. To promote the DVD 's release, McKeon, Whelchel, and Cohn appeared together on various TV shows such as Entertainment Tonight, Today Show and CNN Showbiz to reminisce about their time on the show and talk about their lives presently; unfortunately, Fields was unable to take part due to other commitments. The third season was released on October 24, 2006. This release failed to match the success of the first and second seasons, sales-wise.
The first and second seasons were also released in Region 4 on March 7, 2007.
In 2010, Shout! Factory acquired the rights to the series and released the fourth season on Region 1 DVD on May 4, 2010. Special features include The Facts of Life Goes To Paris, a made - for - TV - movie (which originally aired a few days prior to the fourth season debut) and a "Know The Facts: Trivia Game. '' They have subsequently released seasons five through nine on DVD.
Mill Creek Entertainment re-released the first and second seasons on DVD on May 20, 2014. It is unknown as to whether or not Mill Creek will release any further seasons.
On January 13, 2015, Shout! Factory released The Facts of Life -- The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1. The 26 - disc set contains all 201 episodes of the series as well as the two made - for - TV films (The Facts of Life Goes to Paris and The Facts of Life Down Under) and other bonus features including an all - new cast reunion. The Facts of Life Reunion film is not included in this collection and is yet to be released on DVD.
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what is twilight life and death book about | Life and Death: Twilight Reimagined - wikipedia
Life and Death: Twilight Reimagined (stylized as life and death: TWILIGHT REIMAGINED) (2015) is a young adult vampire - romance novel by author Stephenie Meyer. It is a reboot of the first book in the Twilight series, and introduces seventeen - year - old Beaufort Swan, who moves from Phoenix, Arizona to Forks, Washington. He is endangered after falling in love with Edythe Cullen, a vampire.
Mirroring the plot of Twilight, Life and Death: Twilight Reimagined follows 17 - year - old Beaufort Swan as he leaves the sunny environment of Phoenix, Arizona where he has spent most of his life with his mother, Renée Dwyer, to the gloomy town of Forks, Washington to spend the rest of his high school career with his estranged father, police chief Charlie Swan.
As Beau walks into the class, a fan blows his scent towards Edythe Cullen. Beau sits next to Edythe in biology class on his first day of school, but she seems repulsed by him, hurting his feelings in the process. She disappears for a few days, but warms up to Beau upon his return; their newfound relationship is interrupted after Beau is nearly crushed by a van in the school parking lot. Edythe saves Beau, stopping the van with only her hand.
Even though Beau never had many friends in Phoenix, he quickly attracts attention at his new school, and is quickly befriended by several students. Much to his dismay, several girls in the school compete for Beau 's attention.
During a trip to La Push, Beau tricks a family friend, Julie Black of the Quileute tribe, into telling him the local tribal legends and he finds out why, although the Cullens have lived in Forks for two years, they have never really been accepted by the townsfolk. Julie mentions the Cullens, and says that most of the reservation believes that they are vampires, though she does n't think so. During a trip to Port Angeles, Edythe rescues him again, this time from a band of gangsters intent on killing him. Beau asks her if what Julie said about her family is true. Edythe admits that she and her family are vampires, but says that she and her family only drink animal blood to keep themselves from turning into the monsters, unlike other vampires.
Edythe and Beau 's relationship grows over time and they fall in love. Their foremost problem is that to Edythe, Beau 's scent is a hundred times more potent than any other human 's, making Edythe struggle to resist her desire to kill him. However, despite this, they manage to stay together safely for a time.
The seemingly perfect state of their relationship is thrown into chaos when another vampire coven sweeps into Forks and Joss, a sadistic tracker vampire, decides that she wants to hunt Beau for sport. Edythe 's family plan to distract the tracker by splitting up Beau and Edythe, and Beau is sent to hide in a hotel in Phoenix. Beau then gets a phone call from Joss in which she says that she has his mother, and Beau is forced to give himself up to Joss at an old ballet studio near his mother 's house. Upon meeting her, Beau discovers his mother was n't at the dance studio and was safe all along. Joss attacks Beau, but Edythe, along with the rest of the Cullen family, rescue Beau before Joss can kill him. Unfortunately, the venom has spread too far into his system, and Beau becomes a vampire.
Sometime after Beau 's transformation, the Quileute wolves confront the Cullens, believing they were responsible. Beau and the Cullens manage to convince the wolves to believe the truth after a brief talk with tribal elder Bonnie Black. When the wind blows Bonnie 's scent to Beau, he manages to stay in control of himself, much to Edythe and Carine 's surprise.
Life and Death: Twilight Reimagined received mixed reviews.
Common Sense Media gave it a 3 out of 5 and said, "This reimagined Twilight with swapped genders (Bella is Beau, Edward is Edyth) and most of the same content will primarily interest Twi - hards and anyone in a gender studies class. ''
The Yorker gave it a negative review, saying that the "stench of a quick money - making scheme was quite potent. ''
Books: A True Story gave it a 4 out of 5 stars even after calling the book "copied down '' from Twilight.
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where is the little league world series played at | Little League World Series - wikipedia
The Little League Baseball World Series is an annual baseball tournament in the eastern United States for children aged 11 to 13 years old. Originally called the National Little League Tournament, it was later renamed for the World Series in Major League Baseball. The Series was first held 70 years ago in 1947 and is held every August in South Williamsport, Pennsylvania. (Although the postal address of the organization is in Williamsport, the Series itself is played at Howard J. Lamade Stadium and Volunteer Stadium at the Little League headquarters complex in South Williamsport.)
Initially, only teams from the US competed in the Series but it has since become a worldwide tournament. The tournament has gained popular renown, especially in the United States, where games from the Series and even from regional tournaments are broadcast on ESPN. In 2006, the age limit was changed to include players who turn 13 after April 30 of the same year, rather than after July 31, as had previously been the case. As the Series takes place in August, many of the players will have already turned 13 before the Series starts. In 2014 Little League originally voted to change the age cut off from April 30th to December 31st. However, this caused outrage by parents because the players born between May 1 and August 31, 2005 would have lost their 12 year old season because they would be considered to be 13 years old even though they have not reached their 13th birthday. Effective November, 2015, a new implementation plan was established, which "grandfathers '' players born between May 1 and August 31, 2005 as 12 - year - olds for the 2018 seasons, using the current April 30 age determination date for the 2018 season. Beginning with 2019, a new determination date of August 31 will be used, which will ban 13 year old players from participating in the Series. Thus, players would have to have their 13th birthday after August 31st.
While the Little League Baseball World Series is frequently referred to as just the Little League World Series, it is actually one of twelve tournaments sponsored by Little League International, in twelve different locations. Each of them brings community teams from different Little League International regions around the world together in baseball (five age divisions), girls ' softball (four age divisions), and boys ' softball (three divisions). The tournament structure described here is that used for the Little League Baseball World Series. The structure used for the other World Series is similar, but with different regions.
In the summer months leading up to the Little League World Series, held each year in August, Little Leagues around the world select an All - Star team made up of players from its league. It is these All - Star teams that compete in district, sectional and / or divisional, and regional tournaments, hoping to advance to Williamsport for the Little League World Series. How many games a team has to play varies from region to region. In the United States, the tournaments at the lowest (district) level lack nationwide standardization. Some use pool play or double elimination, while others use single elimination.
In the United States, the fate of district winners varies widely from state to state. In some larger states such as Pennsylvania, New York, and California, the district winners advance to one of many sectional tournaments. The winners of each sectional tournament then advance to a state or divisional tournament, the latter only being held in Texas and California and are similar to the state tournaments held in less densely populated states. Most smaller states lack competition at the sectional level and go straight from district to state tournaments. A handful of states are composed of only one district, and the district champion is the automatic state champion.
With 4 exceptions, every state as well as the District of Columbia crowns a state champion, and sends that team to represent it to one of eight regional tournaments. The exceptions involve California, Texas, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Because of their large geographic and population sizes, California and Texas send two representatives to their regional tournament; Northern California and Southern California in the West region tournament and Texas East and Texas West (whose areas encompass more than the geographical areas of East Texas and West Texas, splitting roughly along the I - 35 / I - 37 corridor) compete in the Southwest region tournament. Conversely, North Dakota has only one city (Fargo) that operates Little League -- sponsored competitions; the Dakotas have one district spanning the two states, and its winner becomes the joint champion and advances to the Midwest region tournament.
The state champions (as well as the Northern California, Southern California, Texas East, Texas West, and Dakotas champions) compete in one of eight different regional tournaments. Each regional tournament winner then advances to the Little League World Series. See (4) for a comprehensive breakdown of current and historical US regional tournament locations, participants and results.
Other countries and regions pick their own way of crowning a champion. Little League Canada holds tournaments at the provincial and divisional level to field six champions (five provincial and one divisional) at the national tournament: Alberta, Ontario, Quebec, British Columbia, Saskatchewan, and the Atlantic Provinces. The host site of the national tournament varies from year to year, and the host team gets an automatic berth as the seventh team. The tournament is played as a round robin and uses the page playoff format. The winner of the national tournament earns the right to represent Canada at the Little League World Series.
The Little League World Series consists of 16 teams -- 8 from the United States, and 8 from other countries. Prior to 2001 there were eight teams in the LLWS: four U.S. teams (Central, South, East, and West) and four international (Canada, Latin America, Europe, and the Far East). It should be noted that in 1975 there were only four teams in the LLWS, all from the United States. The international teams returned in 1976. Starting in 1976, two brackets were established, with the four U.S. regions competing in the U.S. bracket and the four non-U.S. regions competing in the International bracket. The U.S. national champion and the International champion then compete for the World Series title.
In 2001, the number of regions was doubled to 16, from which the 16 regional champions continued to be divided into the two brackets: 8 in the United States Bracket and 8 in the International Bracket. From 2001 to 2009, however, each team was then randomly assigned to one of two "pools '' in their respective bracket. In the opening days of the tournament, the teams competed round - robin within their own pool. The top two teams in each pool advanced to the semifinal of their bracket, where the first place team from one pool competed against the second place team from the other. The respective winners advanced to play in either the United States or International Final. The U.S. champion and the International champion advanced to compete in the Little League World Series Championship Game.
On April 14, 2010, Little League announced that starting in 2010, round robin play would be replaced by a double - elimination bracket in each pool. The winners of each pool would advance to single elimination US and International Championship games, and the winners of those games would advance to the World Championship game. Every team would play a minimum of three games: the four teams that lost their first two games would cross over and play U.S. vs. International games.
On June 16, 2011, it was announced that the double - elimination format had been modified. The pools were eliminated, with the eight U.S. teams continuing to compete in one bracket and the eight International teams in another bracket. The tournament remains double - elimination until the U.S. and International Championship games, where it becomes single - elimination. (That is, if the team that advances through the winner 's bracket loses the championship game they are eliminated and the teams do not play a rubber game.) Each team still plays a minimum of three games, playing a "crossover '' (U.S. vs. International) consolation game if eliminated after their second game.
The eight regional tournament winners which compete in the United States Bracket of the Little League World Series, as well as the states those regional champions could possibly hail from are as follows:
The eight divisions which compete in the International Bracket are as follows:
The eight divisions which compete in the United States bracket represent 96 % of the players in Little League with over 2.2 million players while the eight divisions in the International bracket represent 4 % of the Little League or less than 130 thousand players.
Prior to 2008, instead of two separate geographic regions, Europe, the Middle East, and Africa held two coterminous regions:
The Transatlantic and EMEA regions were geographically identical. Leagues from the Transatlantic region generally consisted of children and other dependents of American expatriates, typically Armed Forces personnel, international organization members, and oil company workers (such as the team representing the Saudi Aramco Residential Camp in Dhahran, which advanced to the World Series 19 times through 2007, including all the tournaments from 2001 through 2007). The leagues within the "EMEA '' region consisted of players native to the league 's own country. Representative teams for the Trans - Atlantic region had to have at least 51 % nationals of Canada, the U.S. or Japan, while teams for the EMEA region could have no more than three players from those three countries.
Teams in the reorganized Europe and MEA regions did not have nationality restrictions, as evidenced by the 2009 series. In that year, both regions were won by teams made up primarily of children of American expatriates. Europe was represented by a team from Ramstein Air Base, a United States Air Force base in Germany, while MEA was represented for the second time in its two - year existence by the team from the Saudi Aramco camp.
On August 29, 2012, Little League announced a significant realignment of the international regions, which took effect in 2013:
Two venues host World Series games: Howard J. Lamade Stadium and Little League Volunteer Stadium. Lamade Stadium has hosted games since 1959, and added lights in 1992. Volunteer Stadium opened in 2001 when the field expanded to 16 teams. Prior to 1959, the Little League World Series was held at Original Little League on West Fourth Street in Williamsport.
Both fields have symmetrical fences, with a distance of 68.6 m (225 feet) from home plate to each of the outfield positions. That distance had been 62.5 m (205 feet) before 2006.
Admission to all LLWS games is free for all spectators. However, stadium seats for the championship game are distributed in a random drawing of all interested parties due to high demand. Some early round games, mostly games with Pennsylvania teams, will use first - come, first - served admission if a big crowd is to be expected. Lamade Stadium has a berm beyond the fences that has allowed the facility to hold up to 45,000 spectators.
The first broadcast of the Little League World Series on television was on ABC Sports (now ESPN on ABC) in 1963. For years, only the championship game was televised. Since the late 1980s, when the tournament was reorganized, both the U.S. and international championships, the "semifinals '', have been shown. As the years passed, more telecasts were added on ABC, ESPN, and ESPN2. In 2006, 28 of the 36 games were televised on the three networks.
The 2006 world championship game was to be the last telecast on ABC Sports before ESPN 's complete takeover of the sports division and name change. However, the final was postponed one day because of rain and was shown by ESPN2.
In January 2007, it was announced that ESPN, ESPN2, and ABC had extended their contract with the Little League organization through 2014. That year, every game of the LLWS was scheduled to be televised for the first time, with all but one game live on ESPN, ESPN2, or ABC. (The other game was to be available online at ESPN3 60, then shown on ESPN2 the next day.) In addition, a number of games were to be shown in high - definition on ESPN, ESPN2, and ABC. The championship games in all other divisions, as well as the semifinals and finals of the Little League Softball World Series, was scheduled for either ESPN, ESPN2 or ESPNU.
In June 2011, it was announced that ESPN would add 17 games to its schedule on ESPN 3D.
Coverage of the qualifying games has increased in the US recently: as of 2014, all regional group games (with the exception of the Southwest and New England regions) are streamed online via the ESPN3 platform, with the semifinals joining the finals on an ESPN network. The aforementioned Southwest and New England regional games are aired in full on the Longhorn Network (itself owned by ESPN) and NESN, respectively. The increased level of participation, competition, and publicity of the Little League World Series in recent years has established a trend in the opposite direction of most other preteen sports.
Most LLWS games are broadcast live on local radio station WRAK 1400AM, which is owned by Clear Channel. The radio broadcasts are also streamed online at the LLWS page at littleleague.org.
Each of the other eleven divisions of Little League Baseball has its own World Series format (including three in boys ' softball).
Coordinates: 41 ° 14 ′ N 76 ° 59 ′ W / 41.23 ° N 76.98 ° W / 41.23; - 76.98
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how long is the aircraft carrier in halifax | USS Dwight D. Eisenhower - Wikipedia
USS Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN - 69) ("Ike '') is a nuclear - powered aircraft carrier currently in service with the United States Navy. Commissioned in 1977, the ship is the second of the ten Nimitz - class aircraft carriers currently in service, and is the first ship named after the 34th President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower. The vessel was initially named simply as USS Eisenhower, much like the lead ship of the class, Nimitz, but the name was changed to its present form on 25 May 1970. The carrier, like all others of her class, was constructed at Newport News Shipbuilding Company in Virginia, with the same design as the lead ship, although the ship has been overhauled twice to bring her up to the standards of those constructed more recently.
Since commissioning, Dwight D. Eisenhower has participated in deployments including Operation Eagle Claw during the Iran hostage crisis in 1980, as well as the Gulf War in the 1990s, and more recently in support of U.S. military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan.
On 29 June 1970, Newport News Shipbuilding of Newport News, Virginia was awarded the contract for construction. On 30 June 1975, her designation was changed from CVAN - 69 to CVN - 69.
She was laid down as hull number 599 on 15 August 1970 at Newport News shipyard at a cost of $679 million ($4.5 billion in 2016 dollars), launched 11 October 1975 after christening by Mamie Doud - Eisenhower, and commissioned 18 October 1977, Captain William E. Ramsey in command. Since her commissioning, Dwight D. Eisenhower has had 16 Commanding Officers. Her first Command Master Chief was AGCM Robert Franklin Frazier.
On commissioning, she replaced the aging World War II -- era carrier USS Franklin D. Roosevelt in the fleet.
Dwight D. Eisenhower was initially assigned to the United States Atlantic Fleet, and, after receiving over a year of training, the ship was visited by President Jimmy Carter with his wife Rosalynn Carter, Secretary of Defense Harold Brown and his National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzeziński. In January 1979, she sailed for her first deployment to the Mediterranean Sea. During this deployment, while off the coast of Israel, Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin visited Dwight D. Eisenhower, The carrier returned to Norfolk Naval Station in July of the same year.
Under the command of her second Commanding Officer, Captain James H. Mauldin, her second deployment occurred in 1980, when she was dispatched by President Carter to the Indian Ocean, in response to the Iran hostage crisis. She relieved Nimitz three days after the Iranian hostage rescue attempt. To help maintain morale, Capt. Mauldin allowed the men aboard to participate in "Flight Deck Olympics ''. The Navy also authorized a special ration of beer, consisting of six cans per man, which was dispensed over a two - month period.
Dwight D. Eisenhower returned to the Mediterranean Sea for her third deployment, under the command of her third Captain E. W. Clexton, Jr., from 5 January -- 13 July 1982. During this deployment, 11 passengers and crew were lost when Mamie, her onboard logistics aircraft, crashed near Souda Bay, Crete, on 2 April. She also participated in the 24 June evacuation of the U.S. Embassy staff from Beirut, Lebanon, as that country descended into civil war.
Ike embarked on her fourth deployment from 27 April -- 2 December 1983. In addition to several major exercises with NATO, Egyptian and U.S. Air Force personnel and assets, she came under direct threat of destruction as Libyan strongman Muammar al - Qadhafi vowed to turn the Gulf of Sidra into a "red gulf of blood '' should the ship enter the zone claimed by Libya. Further tensions between Libya, Chad, Sudan and Egypt forced Ike to be ordered to the disputed area. Between 2 and 5 August, the ship 's Combat Air Patrol intercepted two MiG - 23 Flogger and two Dassault - Breguet Mirage V aircraft headed toward the carrier in separate engagements. The Libyan aircraft immediately turned back toward their bases, ending both incidents. Diplomatic measures deflated the crisis days later. On 26 August, Ike sailed within sight of the embattled city of Beirut, Lebanon. The ship launched reconnaissance sorties in support of the U.S. Marines and other international peacekeepers coming under attack ashore. After 93 days at sea since her previous port visit, Ike visited Italy on 21 October. She once again had to make speed toward Beirut on the 26th because of suicide attacks that killed nearly 300 American and French troops on 23 October. Ike would remain on station until relieved by the Independence and John F. Kennedy in mid November.
In May / June 1984, for the 40th anniversary of D - Day, "Ike '' was deployed to Normandy, France and Portsmouth, England. The port visit in England included a visit from Queen Elizabeth II.
After her fifth deployment Dwight D. Eisenhower went into Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock in October 1985 for a major overhaul. The 18 - month yard period included the addition of the Close - in Weapons System, NATO Sea Sparrow Missile System, Naval Tactical Data System, anti-submarine warfare module, communications upgrades and rehabilitation of 1,831 berths in 25 compartments. She re-entered the fleet in April 1987. On 29 February 1988, the ship started her sixth deployment to the Mediterranean. While returning to Norfolk, on 29 August 1988, she collided with an anchored Spanish coal ship while entering the harbor to dock at Norfolk Naval Station when wind and currents pushed the carrier off course, although damage was minor to both ships.
Dwight D. Eisenhower entered Norfolk Naval Shipyard (Portsmouth, Virginia) in September 1988; she returned to the fleet in April 1989.
In 1990, Dwight D. Eisenhower completed her seventh Mediterranean deployment. The deployment became a commemorative event in the worldwide "Dwight D. Eisenhower Centennial '', celebrating the 100th anniversary of the late president 's birth. During D - Day anniversary ceremonies off the coast of Normandy, President Eisenhower 's son John Eisenhower and D - Day veterans embarked in the ship, while Carrier Air Wing Seven conducted a memorial flyover of the American cemetery at Omaha Beach in Normandy, France.
In response to Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait, Dwight D. Eisenhower became the first carrier to conduct sustained operations in the Red Sea, and only the second nuclear - powered aircraft carrier ever to transit the Suez Canal. Ike served as a ready striking force in the event Iraq invaded Saudi Arabia, and participated in maritime interception operations in support of a United Nations embargo against Iraq.
After completion of an extensive shipyard period and work ups, the carrier deployed 26 September 1991 to the Persian Gulf to continue multi-national operations with coalition forces in support of Operation Desert Storm. Ike returned to Norfolk on 2 April 1992, and, on 12 January 1993, entered Norfolk Naval Shipyard for overhaul and conversion, returning to the fleet 12 November 1993.
In September 1994, Dwight D. Eisenhower and elements of the U.S. 10th Mountain Division first tested the concept of adaptive force packaging. The division 's soldiers and equipment were loaded on board, and the ship 's Army / Navy team headed for Port - au - Prince to lead Operation Uphold Democracy, the U.S. - led effort to restore the elected government of Haiti.
One month later, in October 1994, Dwight D. Eisenhower departed for a six - month deployment which included flying missions in support of Operation Southern Watch and Operation Deny Flight. This deployment marked the first time that women had deployed as crew members of a U.S. Navy combatant. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Carrier Air Wing 3, and the Commander, Cruiser - Destroyer Group 8 staff team included more than 400 women. The integration of women caused some negative headlines for the Navy. During the deployment, 15 women serving aboard had to be reassigned ashore because of pregnancy, earning the ship the nickname The Love Boat. There was also a case of a sailor who filmed himself having sex with a female.
In April 1995, the game show Wheel of Fortune taped two weeks of episodes on the ship 's hangar deck.
Dwight D. Eisenhower returned to Newport News Shipbuilding on 17 July 1995 for a complex 18 - month overhaul completed on 27 January 1997. Among other things, they installed a new Advanced combat direction system. The ship departed on her 10th deployment on 10 June 1998 and returned in December. In February 1999, she returned to the Norfolk Navy Shipyard for a six - month refitting and returned to the fleet in June. Upon completion in June 1999, she returned to full duty in the fleet.
From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository
Deploying in February 2000 and returning that August on the "Millennium Cruise '', for the first time Ike 's embarked aircraft dropped ordnance in combat while enforcing Operation Southern Watch 's No - Fly Zone over Iraq.
On 3 October 2006 with Carrier Air Wing 7 (CVW - 7), Dwight D. Eisenhower returned to sea as the flagship of Rear Admiral Allen G. Myers, commanding Carrier Strike Group 8. CSG - 8 also includes the guided - missile cruiser Anzio, guided - missile destroyers Ramage and Mason, and the fast - attack submarine Newport News. She visited Naples, Italy, and then Limassol, Cyprus, for three days in October 2006 before departing to the east. She entered the Persian Gulf in December 2006.
On 8 January 2007, a U.S. AC - 130 gunship based out of Djibouti was dispatched to target Al - Qaeda operatives located in Somalia. Eisenhower "was deployed in the Indian Ocean to provide air cover for the operation and, if needed, to evacuate downed airmen and other casualties ''. It joined other US and allied vessels from Bahrain - based Combined Task Force 150 The US spokesperson did not say what particular ships comprised the cordon, but the task force includes vessels from Canada, France, Germany, Pakistan, the UK and the US. US ships of Combined Task Force 150 include the Arleigh Burke - class destroyer Ramage and the Ticonderoga - class cruiser Bunker Hill. The aim of the patrols is to "... stop SICC leaders or foreign militant supporters escaping '' Somalia.
In March 2007, following the Iranian seizure of Royal Navy personnel, Dwight D. Eisenhower began battle group exercises off the Iranian coastline. The following month in April, the ship was relieved by Nimitz.
On 4 October 2008 Dwight D. Eisenhower Petty Officer 2nd Class Robert Lemar Robinson was killed on the ship during training exercises off the coast of North Carolina. The sailor was killed after being struck by an airplane at 8: 15 p.m. on the carrier 's flight deck.
On 21 February 2009, Dwight D. Eisenhower deployed for the Arabian Sea and environs rotating into the forward - deployed forces there. She served as the flagship of Carrier Strike Group 8 commanded by Rear Admiral Kurt W. Tidd. Also embarked were Carrier Air Wing 7 and the staff of Commander, Destroyer Squadron 28. Other ships of Strike Group 8 were Bainbridge, Halyburton, Scranton, Vicksburg, and Gettysburg. In addition to supporting Operations Iraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom, the strike group conducted maritime security operations including anti-piracy operations. On 16 May, Dwight D. Eisenhower became the first Nimitz - class carrier to dock pierside in Manama, Bahrain. The last carrier to moor pierside in Bahrain was Rendova in 1948. On 30 July 2009, the Dwight D. Eisenhower returned to Naval Station Norfolk after almost a six - month deployment.
On 2 January 2010, Dwight D. Eisenhower again deployed to the Middle East, the U.S. 5th and 6th Fleet areas of operations. She served as the flagship of Dwight D. Eisenhower Carrier Strike Group commanded by Rear Admiral Philip S. Davidson. While in theater, the strike group provided security cooperation, forward naval presence, maritime security, and crisis response. In addition to the Ike, the strike group was made up of Carrier Air Wing 7; Commander, Destroyer Squadron 28; the guided - missile cruiser Hué City; and guided - missile destroyers McFaul, Carney, and Farragut. On 28 July 2010, the Ike returned to her homeport in Norfolk.
The ship was placed in a planned incremental availability at Norfolk Naval Shipyard through June 2011.
On 22 February 2013, IKE and Strike Group 8 departed for another Mediterranean and Mid-East deployment. After pulling into Marseille, France in early March the German Sachsen - class frigate Hamburg became the first to fully integrate into an American Strike group. Hamburg was commanded by Cmdr. Ralf Kuchler and stayed with the strike while it operated with the 5th fleet. On 6 August the ship began an ammunition offload in preparation for an upcoming docked planned incremental availability (DPIA) at Norfolk Naval Shipyard.
On 26 August 2014, the ship was moved to Berth 42 - 43 from Dry Dock # 8 at Norfolk Naval Shipyard, and as of 4 February 2015, the DPIA was four months behind schedule, with the ship planned to remain in the yard until at least April, 2015.
On 3 September 2015, the ship went back to sea.
In June 2016, Eisenhower and its Carrier Strike Group entered the ATLANTIC OCEAN (NNS) -- USS Dwight D. Eisenhower Carrier Strike Group (Ike CSG) entered the U.S. 6th Fleet area of operations June 8 in support of U.S. national security interests in Europe. On 22 November 2016, Military Times reported that since June 2016 - when the ship entered the Persian Gulf after launching strikes from the eastern Mediterranean - the carrier 's Captain, Paul Spedero, said sorties from the Eisenhower have dropped nearly 1,100 bombs on ISIS targets in Iraq and Syria. Ike returned to homeport Norfolk December 30.
Dwight D. Eisenhower is currently scheduled to be eventually replaced around 2029 by the Gerald R. Ford class USS Enterprise (CVN - 80). The exact date of the ship 's inactivation and decommissioning will likely depend on Defense Department funding considerations.
Dwight D. Eisenhower has earned a number of awards, including the Battle "E '' in 1979, 1980, 1981, 1985, 1990, 1998, 1999, 2006 and 2012 as the most battle efficient carrier in the Atlantic Fleet. In 1999, she won the Marjorie Sterrett Battleship Fund Award for the Atlantic Fleet.
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walk the earth my 17 year vow of silence | John Francis (environmentalist) - wikipedia
John Francis (born 1946) is an American environmentalist nicknamed the planetwalker. Born in Philadelphia, the son of a West Indian immigrant, he moved to Marin County, California as a young man. After witnessing the devastation caused by the 1971 San Francisco Bay oil spill, he stopped riding in motorized vehicles, a vow which lasted 22 years from 1972 until 1994. From 1973 until 1990, he also spent 17 years voluntarily silent. During this time he earned a Ph. D. in land management and traveled extensively, walking across the entire width of the lower 48 states of the USA as well as walking to South America.
On January 17, 1971, two oil tankers owned by Standard Oil Company, the Arizona Standard and Oregon Standard, collided in San Francisco Bay, creating an enormous oil spill 840,000 gallons. After seeing the damage caused, John Francis joked with a friend about never riding in a car again. The following year, a neighbor of Francis ' died suddenly. Faced with a new sense of the uncertainty of life, Francis decided to act immediately and for the next 22 years refused to ride in motorized vehicles. Francis describes himself as having had an over-inflated sense of self - importance at this time, and says that he initially expected other people to follow his example and also forgo automobiles and other powered vehicles.
As Francis traveled about on foot, people would sometimes stop to talk about what he was doing, and he often found himself arguing with them, as well as with friends and acquaintances, about his decision to go on foot. On his birthday in 1973, Francis decided to stop speaking as a gift to his community, to not argue for one day and instead listen to what others had to say. He found this so valuable that he continued to be silent the next day. This continued and he ended up not speaking for 17 years, with the exception of a phone call to his mother after 10 years of silence. During this time, he communicated by writing and gestures, and also expressed himself by playing the banjo. He ended his vow of silence on Earth Day in 1990. The following day, while in Washington, D.C. he was struck by a car. He managed to convince the ambulance crew to allow him to walk to the hospital.
While he was silent, he completed three college degrees, culminating in a Ph. D. in Land Management from the University of Wisconsin -- Madison. He walked to Ashland, Oregon to enroll in Southern Oregon University, and completed a B.A. there in a two - year program. Next, he walked to the state of Washington and built a boat, contacting the University of Montana and informing them that he 'd like to enroll in a master 's degree program in about two years. He walked and sailed to Montana, and completed his degree there. With little money, he audited classes but professors tracked his grades, and when funds became available to pay for the classes he had taken, they were put on his transcript for credit. As is common with graduate students, Francis taught classes while studying for his master 's degree.
Francis then walked to Wisconsin, where he took up his doctoral studies, focusing on the effects of oil spills. During his studies, the Exxon Valdez disaster occurred, which brought attention to his research. After completing his degree, he walked to Washington D.C.
In 1994, Francis decided he could be a more effective environmentalist if he began to again use motorized transportation. At the border of Venezuela and Brazil, he boarded a bus.
Francis has been employed by the United States Coast Guard to work on legislation relating to management of oil spills. In 1991 he was named a United Nations Environmental Program Goodwill ambassador. In 2009 he was in Australia, walking the Great Ocean Road for a film being made by Tourism Victoria.
He is the author of Planetwalker: How to Change Your World One Step at a Time. He lives in Point Reyes Station, California with his wife and two sons.
His life story was optioned by Universal Studios in 2006 for a movie release, with rumor of Will Smith expressing interest to play the role of John Francis.
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nightwish while your lips are still red album | While Your Lips Are Still Red - wikipedia
"While Your Lips Are Still Red '' is a 2007 song written by Tuomas Holopainen and Marco Hietala of the Finnish metal quintet Nightwish. It was performed by Holopainen, Hietala, and Jukka Nevalainen for the Finnish film Lieksa!, which was written and directed by renowned Finnish director Markku Pölönen; the film premiered in Finland in September 2007. The song is included on Nightwish 's "Amaranth '' single, which was released on 22 August 2007 as the second single of their sixth studio album, Dark Passion Play. It was also released on their live / compilation EP Made in Hong Kong (And in Various Other Places) in 2009.
"While Your Lips Are Still Red '' is not an official Nightwish track, but Holopainen has stated that he is not comfortable with releasing any material under his own name. The Nightwish website clearly states that the song was written by Tuomas Holopainen and features him on keyboards, Marco Hietala on vocals and Jukka Nevalainen on drums. The song does not include guitars or female vocals. The videoclip accredits the song to Holopainen and Hietala, leaving out Nevalainen, who was not involved in the songwriting. The whispering in the background is done by Tuomas Holopainen.
The song has been played on concerts in various occasions, while guitarist Emppu Vuorinen and former vocalist Anette Olzon were backstage. More recent performances have also featured Floor Jansen with additional vocals, and Troy Donockley with a guitar solo played with an EBow in place of the prominent violin sound from the studio version. These include a performance at London 's Wembley Arena in 2015 that was released on the band 's 2016 live album Vehicle of Spirit.
The official music video of the song contains clips from the film Lieksa!, Hietala singing, and Holopainen walking behind him. The video was released on YouTube on 14 June 2007. On 26 March 2015 it was reuploaded.
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issues contributing to the outbreak of world war i | Causes of World war I - wikipedia
The causes of World War I remain controversial and debated questions. The war began in the Balkans in late July 1914 and ended in November 1918, leaving 17 million dead and 20 million wounded.
Scholars looking at the long - term seek to explain why two rival sets of powers -- Germany and Austria - Hungary on the one hand, and Russia, France, and Great Britain on the other -- had come into conflict by 1914. They look at such factors as political, territorial and economic conflicts, militarism, a complex web of alliances and alignments, imperialism, the growth of nationalism, and the power vacuum created by the decline of the Ottoman Empire. Other important long - term or structural factors that are often studied include unresolved territorial disputes, the perceived breakdown of the balance of power in Europe, convoluted and fragmented governance, the arms races of the previous decades, and military planning.
Scholars doing short - term analysis focused on summer 1914 ask if the conflict could have been stopped, or whether it was out of control. The immediate causes lay in decisions made by statesmen and generals during the July Crisis of 1914. This crisis was triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria by an ethnic Serb who had been supported by a nationalist organization in Serbia. The crisis escalated as the conflict between Austria - Hungary and Serbia came to involve Russia, Germany, France, and ultimately Belgium and Great Britain. Other factors that came into play during the diplomatic crisis that preceded the war included misperceptions of intent (e.g., the German belief that Britain would remain neutral), fatalism that war was inevitable, and the speed of the crisis, which was exacerbated by delays and misunderstandings in diplomatic communications.
The crisis followed a series of diplomatic clashes among the Great Powers (Italy, France, Germany, Britain, Austria - Hungary and Russia) over European and colonial issues in the decades before 1914 that had left tensions high. In turn these public clashes can be traced to changes in the balance of power in Europe since 1867.
Consensus on the origins of the war remains elusive since historians disagree on key factors, and place differing emphasis on a variety of factors. This is compounded by changing historical arguments over time, particularly the delayed availability of classified historical archives. The deepest distinction among historians is between those who focus on the actions of Germany and Austria - Hungary as key and those who focus on a wider group of actors. Secondary fault lines exist between those who believe that Germany deliberately planned a European war, those who believe that the war was ultimately unplanned but still caused principally by Germany and Austria - Hungary taking risks, and those who believe that either all or some of the other powers, namely Russia, France, Serbia and Great Britain, played a more significant role in causing the war than has been traditionally suggested.
To understand the long term origins of the war in 1914 it is essential to understand how the powers formed into two competing sets sharing common aims and enemies. These two sets became, by August 1914, Germany and Austria - Hungary on the one hand and Russia, France, Serbia and Great Britain on the other.
In 1887 German and Russian alignment was secured by means of a secret Reinsurance Treaty arranged by Otto von Bismarck. However, in 1890 the treaty was allowed to lapse in favor of the Dual Alliance (1879) between Germany and Austria - Hungary. In response Russia secured the Franco - Russian Alliance in 1892, which was to last until 1917.
Some of the distant origins of World War I can be seen in the results and consequences of the Franco - Prussian War in 1870 -- 71 and the concurrent Unification of Germany. Germany had won decisively and established a powerful Empire, while France fell into chaos and military decline for years. A legacy of animosity grew between France and Germany following the German annexation of Alsace - Lorraine. The annexation caused widespread resentment in France, giving rise to the desire for revenge, known as revanchism. French sentiments wanted to avenge military and territorial losses and the displacement of France as the pre-eminent continental military power. Bismarck was wary of French desire for revenge; he achieved peace by isolating France and balancing the ambitions of Austria - Hungary and Russia in the Balkans. During his later years he tried to placate the French by encouraging their overseas expansion. However, anti-German sentiment remained.
France eventually recovered from its defeat, paid its war indemnity, and rebuilt its military strength again. But it was smaller than Germany in terms of population and industry, and thus felt insecure next to its more powerful neighbor.
After Bismarck 's removal in 1890, French efforts to isolate Germany became successful. With the formation of the Triple Entente, Germany began to feel encircled. Foreign minister Delcassé, especially, went to great pains to woo Russia and Great Britain. Key markers were the Franco - Russian Alliance of 1894, the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Great Britain, and finally the Anglo - Russian Entente in 1907 which became the Triple Entente. This formal alliance with Russia, and informal alignment with Britain, against Germany and Austria eventually led Russia and Britain to enter World War I as France 's Allies.
Britain abandoned the policy of holding aloof from the continental powers, so called "Splendid Isolation '', in the 1900s after being isolated during the Boer War. Britain concluded agreements, limited to colonial affairs, with her two major colonial rivals, the Entente Cordiale with France in 1904 and the Anglo - Russian Entente of 1907. Some historians see Britain 's alignment as principally a reaction to an assertive German foreign policy and the buildup of its navy from 1898 which led to the Anglo - German naval arms race. Other scholars, most notably Niall Ferguson, argue that Britain chose France and Russia over Germany because Germany was too weak an ally to provide an effective counterbalance to the other powers and could not provide Britain with the imperial security achieved by the entente agreements. In the words of British diplomat Arthur Nicolson it was "far more disadvantageous to us to have an unfriendly France and Russia than an unfriendly Germany ''. Ferguson argues that the British Government rejected German alliance overtures "not because Germany began to pose a threat to Britain, but, on the contrary because they realized she did not pose a threat ''. The impact of the Triple Entente was therefore twofold, to improve British relations with France and her ally Russia and to demote the importance to Britain of good relations with Germany. It was "not that antagonism toward Germany caused its isolation, but rather that the new system itself channeled and intensified hostility towards the German Empire ''.
The Triple Entente between Britain, France and Russia is often compared to the Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria -- Hungary and Italy, but historians caution against the comparison. The Entente, in contrast to the Triple Alliance or the Franco - Russian Alliance, was not an alliance of mutual defence and Britain therefore felt free to make her own foreign policy decisions in 1914. As British Foreign Office Official Eyre Crowe minuted: "The fundamental fact of course is that the Entente is not an alliance. For purposes of ultimate emergencies it may be found to have no substance at all. For the Entente is nothing more than a frame of mind, a view of general policy which is shared by the governments of two countries, but which may be, or become, so vague as to lose all content. ''
A series of diplomatic incidents between 1905 and 1914 heightened tensions between the Great Powers and reinforced the existing alignments, beginning with the First Moroccan Crisis.
The First Moroccan Crisis (also known as the Tangier Crisis) was an international crisis between March 1905 and May 1906 over the status of Morocco. The crisis worsened German relations with both France and the United Kingdom, and helped ensure the success of the new Anglo - French Entente Cordiale. In the words of historian Christopher Clark "The Anglo - French Entente was strengthened rather than weakened by the German challenge to France in Morocco ''.
In 1908 Austria - Hungary announced its annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, dual provinces in the Balkan region of Europe formerly under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Though Bosnia and Herzegovina were still nominally under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire in 1908, Austria - Hungary had administered the provinces since the Congress of Berlin in 1878, when the great powers of Europe awarded it the right to occupy the two provinces, with the legal title to remain with Turkey. The announcement in October 1908 of Austria - Hungary 's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina upset the fragile balance of power in the Balkans, enraging Serbia and pan-Slavic nationalists throughout Europe. Though weakened Russia was forced to submit, to its humiliation, its foreign office still viewed Austria - Hungary 's actions as overly aggressive and threatening. Russia 's response was to encourage pro-Russian, anti-Austrian sentiment in Serbia and other Balkan provinces, provoking Austrian fears of Slavic expansionism in the region.
Imperial rivalries pushed France, Germany and Britain to compete for control of Morocco, leading to a short - lived war scare in 1911. In the end France established of a protectorate over Morocco that increased European tensions. The Agadir Crisis was the international tension sparked by the deployment of a substantial force of French troops in the interior of Morocco in April 1911. Germany reacted by sending the gunboat SMS Panther to the Moroccan port of Agadir on 1 July 1911. The main result was deeper suspicion between London and Berlin, and closer military ties between London and Paris.
Rather than scaring Britain into turning toward Germany, increased fear and hostility drew Britain closer to France. British backing of France during the crisis reinforced the Entente between the two countries (and with Russia as well), increasing Anglo - German estrangement, deepening the divisions which would culminate 1914. In terms of internal British jousting, the crisis was part of a five - year struggle inside the British cabinet between Radical isolationists and Liberal Party imperialist interventionists. The interventionists sought to use the Triple Entente to contain German expansion. The Radicals obtained an agreement for official cabinet approval of all initiatives that might lead to war. However the interventionists were joined by the two leading Radicals, David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill. Lloyd 's famous "Mansion House speech '' of 21 July 1911 angered the Germans and encouraged the French. By 1914 the interventionists and Radicals had agreed to share responsibility for decisions culminating in the declaration of war, and so the decision was almost unanimous.
Significantly for the events of August 1914, the crisis led British Foreign Secretary Edward Grey and France to make a secret naval agreement where the Royal Navy promised to protect the northern coast of France from German attack, while France concentrated her fleet in the western Mediterranean and agreed to protect British interests there. France was thus able to guard her communications with her North African colonies, and Britain to concentrate more force in home waters to oppose the German High Seas Fleet. The Cabinet was not informed of this agreement until August 1914. Meanwhile, the episode strengthened the hand of Admiral Tirpitz who is calling for a greatly increased Navy, and obtained it in 1912.
In the Italo - Turkish War or Turco - Italian War Italy defeated the Ottoman Empire in North Africa in 1911 - 12. Italy easily captured the important coastal cities but its army failed to advance far into the interior. Italy captured the Ottoman Tripolitania Vilayet (province), of which the most notable sub-provinces (sanjaks) were Fezzan, Cyrenaica, and Tripoli itself. These territories together formed what became known as Italian Libya. The main significance for the First World War was that this war made it clear that no Great Power appeared to wish to support the Ottoman Empire any longer and this paved the way for the Balkan Wars. Christopher Clark stated: "Italy launched a war of conquest on an African province of the Ottoman Empire, triggering a chain of opportunistic assaults on Ottoman territories across the Balkans. The system of geographical balances that had enabled local conflicts to be contained was swept away. ''
The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the Balkan Peninsula in south - eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. Four Balkan states defeated the Ottoman Empire in the first war; one of the four, Bulgaria, was defeated in the second war. The Ottoman Empire lost nearly all of its holdings in Europe. Austria - Hungary, although not a combatant, was weakened as a much - enlarged Serbia pushed for union of the South Slavic peoples.
The Balkan Wars in 1912 -- 1913 increased international tension between the Russian Empire and Austria - Hungary. It also led to a strengthening of Serbia and a weakening of the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria, who might otherwise have kept Serbia under control, thus disrupting the balance of power in Europe in favor of Russia.
Russia initially agreed to avoid territorial changes, but later in 1912 supported Serbia 's demand for an Albanian port. The London Conference of 1912 -- 13 agreed to create an independent Albania; however both Serbia and Montenegro refused to comply. After an Austrian, and then an international, naval demonstration in early 1912 and Russia 's withdrawal of support, Serbia backed down. Montenegro was not as compliant and on May 2, the Austrian council of ministers met and decided to give Montenegro a last chance to comply and, if it would not, then to resort to military action. However, seeing the Austrian military preparations, the Montenegrins requested the ultimatum be delayed and complied.
The Serbian government, having failed to get Albania, now demanded that the other spoils of the First Balkan War be reapportioned and Russia failed to pressure Serbia to back down. Serbia and Greece allied against Bulgaria, which responded with a preemptive strike against their forces, beginning the Second Balkan War. The Bulgarian army crumbled quickly when Turkey and Romania joined the war.
The Balkan Wars strained the German / Austro - Hungarian alliance. The attitude of the German government to Austrian requests of support against Serbia was initially both divided and inconsistent. After the German Imperial War Council of 8 December 1912, it was clear that Germany was not ready to support Austria - Hungary in a war against Serbia and her likely allies.
In addition, German diplomacy before, during, and after the Second Balkan War was pro-Greek and pro-Romanian and in opposition to Austria - Hungary 's increasingly pro-Bulgarian views. The result was tremendous damage to Austro - German relations. Austrian foreign minister Leopold von Berchtold remarked to German ambassador Heinrich von Tschirschky in July 1913 that "Austria - Hungary might as well belong ' to the other grouping ' for all the good Berlin had been ''.
In September 1913, it was learned that Serbia was moving into Albania and Russia was doing nothing to restrain it, while the Serbian government would not guarantee to respect Albania 's territorial integrity and suggested there would be some frontier modifications. In October 1913, the council of ministers decided to send Serbia a warning followed by an ultimatum: that Germany and Italy be notified of some action and asked for support, and that spies be sent to report if there was an actual withdrawal. Serbia responded to the warning with defiance and the Ultimatum was dispatched on October 17 and received the following day. It demanded that Serbia evacuate Albanian territory within eight days. Serbia complied, and the Kaiser made a congratulatory visit to Vienna to try to fix some of the damage done earlier in the year.
By this time, Russia had mostly recovered from its defeat in the Russo - Japanese War, and the calculations of Germany and Austria were driven by a fear that Russia would eventually become too strong to be challenged. Their conclusion was that any war with Russia had to occur within the next few years in order to have any chance of success.
The original Franco - Russian alliance was formed to protect both France and Russia from a German attack. In the event of such an attack both states would mobilize in tandem, placing Germany under the threat of a two - front war. However, there were limits placed on the alliance so that it was essentially defensive in character.
Throughout the 1890s and the 1900s the French and the Russians made clear the limits of the alliance did not extend to provocations caused by the others ' adventurous foreign policy. For example, Russia warned France that the alliance would not operate if the French provoked the Germans in North Africa. Equally, the French insisted to the Russians that they should not use the alliance to provoke Austria - Hungary or Germany in the Balkans, and that France did not recognise in the Balkans a vital strategic interest for France or for Russia.
In the last 18 to 24 months before the outbreak of the war, this changed. At the end of 1911 and particularly during the Balkans wars themselves in 1912 -- 13, the French view changed. France now accepted the importance of the Balkans to Russia. Moreover, France clearly stated that if, as a result of a conflict in the Balkans, war were to break out between Austria - Hungary and Serbia, France would stand by Russia. Thus the Franco - Russian alliance changed in character, and by a consequence of that Serbia became a security salient for Russia and France. As they bought into the future scenario of a war of Balkan inception, regardless of who started such a war, the alliance would respond nonetheless. It would view this conflict as a casus foederis: as a trigger for the alliance. Christopher Clark described this change as "a very important development in the pre-war system which made the events of 1914 possible ''.
This was a crisis caused by the appointment of a German officer, Liman von Sanders to command the Turkish First Army Corps guarding Constantinople, and the subsequent Russian objections. The "Liman von Sanders Affair, '' began on November 10, 1913, when the Russian foreign minister, Sergei Sazonov, instructed the Russian ambassador in Berlin, Sergei Sverbeev, to tell the Germans that the von Sanders mission, would be regarded by Russia as an "openly hostile act. '' In addition to threatening Russia 's foreign trade, half of which flowed through the Turkish straits, the mission raised the possibility of a German - led Turkish assault on Russia 's Black Sea ports and imperilled Russian plans for expansion in eastern Anatolia.
Liman 's appointment brought a storm of protest from Russia, who suspected German designs on the Ottoman capital. A compromise arrangement was subsequently agreed whereby Liman was appointed to the rather less senior (and less influential) position of Inspector General in January 1914.
Historians caution that, taken together, the preceding crisis should not be seen as an argument that a European war was inevitable in 1914.
Significantly, the Anglo - German Naval Race was over by 1912. In April 1913, Britain and Germany signed an agreement over the African territories of the Portuguese empire which was expected to collapse imminently. Moreover, the Russians were threatening British interests in Persia and India to the extent that in 1914, there were signs that the British were cooling in their relations with Russia and that an understanding with Germany might be useful. The British were "deeply annoyed by St Petersburg 's failure to observe the terms of the agreement struck in 1907 and began to feel an arrangement of some kind with Germany might serve as a useful corrective. ''
British Diplomat Arthur Nicolson wrote in May 1914, "Since I have been at the Foreign Office I have not seen such calm waters. ''
On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to the Austro - Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were shot dead, by two gun shots in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, one of a group of six assassins (five Serbs and one Bosniak) coordinated by Danilo Ilić, a Bosnian Serb and a member of the Black Hand secret society.
The assassination is significant because it was perceived by Austria - Hungary as an existential challenge to her and in her view provided a casus belli with Serbia. The Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph was aged 84, so the assassination of his heir, so soon before he was likely to hand over the crown, was seen as a direct challenge to Austrian polity. Many ministers in Austria, especially Berchtold, argue this act must be avenged. Moreover, the Archduke, who had been a decisive voice for peace in the previous years, had now been removed from the discussions. The assassination triggered the July Crisis, which turned a local conflict into a European, and then a worldwide, war.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir apparent to the Austrian throne, sent deep shockwaves through Austrian elites, and the murder has been described as a "9 / 11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna. ''
Although they were not personally close, the Emperor Franz Joseph was profoundly shocked and upset. It quickly emerged that three leading members of the assassination squad had spent long periods of time in Belgrade, had only recently crossed the border from Serbia, and were carrying weapons and bombs of Serbian manufacture. They were secretly sponsored by the Black Hand, whose objectives included the liberation of all Bosnian Slavs from Austrian rule, and masterminded by the Head of Serbian Military intelligence, Apis.
Two days after the assassination, Foreign Minister Berchtold and the Emperor agreed that the "policy of patience '' with Serbia was at an end. Austria feared that if she displayed weakness, their neighbours to the South and East would be emboldened, whereas war with Serbia would put to an end the problems the dual monarchy had experienced with Serbia. Chief of Staff Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf stated of Serbia: '' If you have a poisonous adder at your heel, you stamp on its head, you do n't wait for the bite. ''
There was also a feeling that the moral effects of military action would breathe new life into the exhausted structures of the Habsburg monarchy, restoring it to the vigour and virility of an imagined past, and that Serbia must be dealt with before it became too powerful to defeat militarily. The principal voices for peace in previous years included Franz Ferdinand himself. His removal not only provided the casus belli but removed one of the most prominent doves from policymaking.
Since taking on Serbia involved the risk of war with Russia, Vienna sought the views of Berlin. The Germans provided their unconditional support for war with Serbia, the so - called "Blank Cheque. '' Buoyed up by German support the Austrians began drawing up an ultimatum, giving the Serbs forty - eight hours to respond to ten demands. The Austrians hoped that the ultimatum would be rejected in order to provide the pretext for war with a neighbour they considered to be impossibly turbulent.
Samuel R. Williamson, Jr. has emphasized the role of Austria - Hungary in starting the war. Convinced Serbian nationalism and Russian Balkan ambitions were disintegrating the Empire, Austria - Hungary hoped for a limited war against Serbia and that strong German support would force Russia to keep out of the war and weaken its Balkan prestige.
At this stage in the crisis the possibility of determined Russian support for Serbia, and its attendant risks, was never properly weighed up. The Austrians remained fixated on Serbia but did not decide on their precise objectives other than war.
Nevertheless, having decided upon war with German support, Austria was slow to act publicly, and did not deliver the ultimatum until July 23, some three weeks after the assassinations on 28 June. Thus Austria lost the reflex sympathies attendant to the Sarajevo murders and gave the further impression to the Entente powers that Austria was merely using the assassinations as a pretext for aggression.
On July 6 Germany provided its unconditional support to its ally Austria - Hungary in its quarrel with Serbia -- the so - called "blank cheque ''. In response to a request for support, Vienna was told the Kaiser 's position was that, if Austria - Hungary "recognised the necessity of taking military measures against Serbia he would deplore our not taking advantage of the present moment which is so favourable to us... we might in this case, as in all others, rely upon German support ''
The thinking was as Austria - Hungary was Germany 's only ally, if its prestige was not restored then its position in the Balkans might be irreparably damaged, encouraging further irredentism by Serbia and Romania. A quick war against Serbia would not only eliminate her, but also probably lead to further diplomatic gains vis a vis Bulgaria and Romania. A Serbian defeat would also be a defeat for Russia and reduce her influence in the Balkans.
The benefits were clear but there were risks, namely that Russia would intervene and this would lead to a continental war. However, this was thought even more unlikely since the Russians had not yet finished their French - funded rearmament programme scheduled for completion in 1917. Moreover, they did not believe that Russia, as an absolute monarchy, would support regicides, and more broadly "the mood across Europe was so anti-Serbian that even Russia would not intervene. '' Personal factors also weighed heavily and the German Kaiser was close to the murdered Franz Ferdinand and was affected by his death, to the extent that German counsels of restraint vis a vis Serbia in 1913 changed to an aggressive stance.
On the other hand, the military thought that if Russia did intervene then St Petersburg clearly desired war and now would be a better time to fight, when Germany had a guaranteed ally in Austria - Hungary, Russia was not ready and Europe was sympathetic to them. On balance, at this point in the crisis, the Germans anticipated that their support would mean the war would be a localised affair between Austria - Hungary and Serbia. This would be particularly true if Austria moved quickly, "while the other European powers were still disgusted over the assassinations and therefore likely to be sympathetic to any action Austria - Hungary took ''.
French President Raymond Poincaré arrived in St. Petersburg for a state visit on 20 July and departed on 23 July. Due to the breaking of the Austrian codes, Russia and France were aware of the impending Austrian ultimatum and their meetings were centrally concerned with the crisis unfolding in central Europe.
The French and the Russians agreed their alliance extended to supporting Serbia against Austria, confirming the already established policy behind the Balkan inception scenario. As Christopher Clark notes "Poincare had come to preach the gospel of firmness and his words had fallen on ready ears. Firmness in this context meant an intransigent opposition to any Austrian measure against Serbia. At no point do the sources suggest that Poincare or his Russian interlocutors gave any thought whatsoever to what measures Austria - Hungary might legitimately be entitled to take in the aftermath of the assassinations ''.
On 21 July, the Russian Foreign Minister warned the German ambassador to Russia that "Russia would not be able to tolerate Austria - Hungary 's using threatening language to Serbia or taking military measures. '' The leaders in Berlin discounted this threat of war. German foreign minister Gottlieb von Jagow noted "there is certain to be some blustering in St. Petersburg. '' German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann - Hollweg told his assistant that Britain and France did not realize that Germany would go to war if Russia mobilized. He thought London saw a German "bluff '' and was responding with a "counterbluff. '' Political scientist James Fearon argues from this episode that the Germans believed Russia were expressing greater verbal support for Serbia than they would actually provide, in order to pressure Germany and Austria - Hungary to accept some Russian demands in negotiation. Meanwhile, Berlin was downplaying its actual strong support for Vienna so as to not appear the aggressor, for that would alienate German socialists.
On 23 July, Austria - Hungary, following their own enquiry into the assassinations, sends an ultimatum to Serbia, containing their demands, giving forty - eight hours to comply.
On 24 -- 25 July the Russian Council of Ministers met, and in response to the crisis and despite the fact that she had no alliance with Serbia, agreed to a secret partial mobilisation of over one million men of the Russian Army and the Baltic and Black Sea Fleets. It is worth stressing, since this is a cause of some confusion in general narratives of the war, that this was done prior to the Serbian rejection of the ultimatum, the Austrian declaration of war on 28 July or any military measures taken by Germany. As a diplomatic move this had limited value since the Russians did not make this mobilisation public until 28 July.
The arguments used to support this move in the Council of Ministers were:
In addition Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Sazonov believed that war was inevitable and refused to acknowledge that Austria - Hungary had a right to counter measures in the face of Serbian irredentism. On the contrary, Sazonov had aligned himself with the irredentism, and expected the collapse of the Austro - Hungarian empire. Crucially, the French had provided their clear support for their Russian allies for a robust response in their recent state visit just days before. Also in the background was Russian anxiety of the future of the Turkish straits -- "where Russian control of the Balkans would place St Petersburg in a far better position to prevent unwanted intrusions on the Bosphorus ''
The policy was intended to be a mobilisation against Austria - Hungary only. However, due to Russian incompetence, the Russians realised by 29 July that partial mobilisation was not militarily possible, and as it would interfere with general mobilisation, only full mobilisation could prevent the entire operation being botched. The Russians therefore moved to full mobilisation on 30 July.
Christopher Clark stated "It would be difficult to overstate the historical importance of the meetings of 24 and 25 July '' and "In taking these steps, (Russian Foreign Minister) Sazonov and his colleagues escalated the crisis and greatly increased the likelihood of a general European war. For one thing, Russian pre-mobilization altered the political chemistry in Serbia, making it unthinkable that the Belgrade government, which had originally given serious consideration to accepting the ultimatum, would back down in the face of Austrian pressure. It heightened the domestic pressure on the Russian administration... it sounded alarm bells in Austria - Hungary. Most importantly of all, these measures drastically raised the pressure on Germany, which had so far abstained from military preparations and was still counting on the localisation of the Austro - Serbian conflict. ''
Serbia initially considered accepting all the terms of the Austrian ultimatum before news from Russia of pre mobilisation measures stiffened their resolve.
The Serbs drafted their reply to the ultimatum in such a way as to give the impression of making significant concessions but, as Christopher Clark states "In reality, then, this was a highly perfumed rejection on most points ''. In response to the rejection of the ultimatum, Austria immediately broke off diplomatic relations on 25 July and declared war on 28 July.
On July 29, 1914, the Tsar ordered full mobilization, then changed his mind after receiving a telegram from Kaiser Wilhelm. Partial mobilization was ordered instead. The next day, the Tsar 's foreign minister, Sergey Sazonov once more persuaded Nicholas of the need for general mobilization, and the order was issued that day, July 30
Christopher Clark states: "The Russian general mobilisation was one of the most momentous decisions of the July crisis. This was the first of the general mobilisations. It came at the moment when the German government had not yet even declared the State of Impending War ''
Why did Russia do this?
On 28 July, Germany learned through its spy network that Russia had implemented partial mobilisation and its "Period Preparatory to War ''. The Germans assumed that Russia had, after all, decided upon war and that her mobilisation put Germany in danger. This was doubly so because German war plans, the so - called Schlieffen Plan, relied upon Germany to mobilise speedily enough to defeat France first (by attacking largely through neutral Belgium) before turning to defeat the slower - moving Russians.
Christopher Clarke states: "German efforts at mediation -- which suggested that Austria should "Halt in Belgrade '' and use the occupation of the Serbian capital to ensure its terms were met -- were rendered futile by the speed of Russian preparations, which threatened to force the Germans to take counter -- measures before mediation could begin to take effect ''
Thus, in response to Russian mobilisation, Germany ordered the state of Imminent Danger of War (SIDW) on 31 July, and when the Russian government refused to rescind its mobilisation order, Germany mobilised and declared war on Russia on 1 August. Given the Franco - Russian alliance, countermeasures by France were, correctly, assumed to be inevitable and Germany therefore declared war on France on 3 August 1914.
Following the German invasion of neutral Belgium, Britain issued an ultimatum to Germany on 2 August that she must withdraw or face war. The Germans did not comply and Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914.
Britain 's reasons for declaring war were complex. The ostensible reason given was that Britain was required to safeguard Belgium 's neutrality under the Treaty of London 1839. The German invasion of Belgium was, therefore, the casus belli and, importantly, legitimized and galvanized popular support for the war.
Strategic risk posed by German control of the Belgian and ultimately French coast was considered unacceptable. German guarantees of post-war behavior were cast into doubt by her blasé treatment of Belgian neutrality. However, the Treaty of London of 1839 had not committed Britain on her own to safeguard Belgium 's neutrality. Moreover, naval war planning demonstrated that Britain herself would have violated Belgian neutrality by blockading her ports (to prevent imported goods passing to Germany) in the event of war with Germany.
Rather Britain 's relationship with her Entente partners, both France and Russia, were equally significant factors. Edward Grey argued that the secret naval agreements with France (although they had not been approved by the Cabinet) created a moral obligation vis a vis Britain and France.
What is more, in the event that Britain abandoned its Entente friends, it was feared that if Germany won the war, or the Entente won without British support, then, either way, Britain would be left without any friends. This would have left both Britain and her Empire vulnerable to attack.
British Foreign office mandarin Eyre Crowe stated:
"Should the war come, and England stand aside, one of two things must happen. (a) Either Germany and Austria win, crush France and humiliate Russia. What will be the position of a friendless England? (b) Or France and Russia win. What would be their attitude towards England? What about India and the Mediterranean? ''
Domestically, the Liberal Cabinet was split and in the event that war was not declared the Government would fall as Prime Minister Asquith, Edward Grey and Winston Churchill made it clear they would resign. In that event, the existing Liberal Cabinet would lose their jobs. Since it was likely the pro-war Conservatives would be elected to power this would lead to a slightly belated British entry into the war in any event, so wavering Cabinet ministers were also likely motivated by the desire to avoid senselessly splitting their party and sacrificing their jobs.
Left - wing parties, especially the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), made large gains in the 1912 German election. German government at the time was still dominated by the Prussian Junkers who feared the rise of these left - wing parties. Fritz Fischer famously argued that they deliberately sought an external war to distract the population and whip up patriotic support for the government. Indeed, one German military leader Moritz von Lynker, the chief of the military cabinet, favored war in 1909 because it was "desirable in order to escape from difficulties at home and abroad. '' Conservative Party leader Ernst von Heydebrand und der Lasa suggested that "a war would strengthen patriarchal order ''.
Other authors argue that German conservatives were ambivalent about a war, worrying that losing a war would have disastrous consequences, and even a successful war might alienate the population if it were lengthy or difficult.
The argument that Austro - Hungary was a moribund political entity, whose disappearance was only a matter of time, was deployed by hostile contemporaries to suggest that the empire 's efforts to defend its integrity during the last years before the war were in some sense illegitimate.
Clark states: "Evaluating the prospects of the Austo - Hungarian empire on the eve of the first world war confronts us in an acute way with the problem of temporal perspective... The collapse of the empire amid war and defeat in 1918 impressed itself upon the retrospective view of the Hapsburg lands, overshadowing the scene with auguries of imminent and ineluctable decline. ''
It is true that in Austro - Hungary, the political scene of the last decades before the war were increasingly dominated by the struggle for national rights among the empire 's eleven official nationalities -- German, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Romanians, Ruthenians, Poles and Italians. Yet before 1914, radical nationalists seeking full separation from the empire were still in a small minority and the roots of Austro - Hungary 's political turbulence went less deep than appearances suggested.
In fact, during the pre-war decade the Hapsburg lands passed through a phase of strong economic growth with a corresponding rise in general prosperity. Most inhabitants of the empire associated the Hapsburg state with the benefits of orderly government, public education, welfare, sanitation, the rule of law, and the maintenance of a sophisticated infrastructure.
Christopher Clark states: "Prosperous and relatively well administered, the empire, like its elderly sovereign, exhibited a curious stability amid turmoil. Crises came and went without appearing to threaten the existence of the system as such. The situation was always, as the Viennese journalist Karl Kraus quipped, ' desperate but not serious '. ''
The principal drivers of Serbian policy were to consolidate the Russian - backed expansion of Serbia during the Balkan wars of 1912 - 13 and achieve dreams of a Greater Serbia, which included "unification '' of lands with large ethnic Serb populations inside the Austro - Hungarian Empire, including Bosnia
Overlaying this was culture of extreme nationalism, and a cult of assassination, derived from the slaying of the Ottoman Sultan as the heroic epilogue to the otherwise disastrous Battle of Kosovo on 28 June 1389. Clark states: "The Greater Serbian vision was not just a question of government policy, however, or even of propaganda. It was woven deeply into the culture and identity of the Serbs ''.
Serbian policy was complicated by the fact that the main actors in 1914 were both the official Serb government led by Nikola Pašić and the "Black Hand '' terrorists led by the Head of Serb Military Intelligence, known as Apis. The Black Hand believed that a Greater Serbia would be achieved by provoking a war with Austro - Hungary through an act of terror which, with Russian backing, would be won.
The official government position was to focus on consolidating the gains made during the Balkan war, and avoid any further conflict, since recent wars had somewhat exhausted the Serb state. Nevertheless, the official policy was muted by the political necessity of simultaneously and clandestinely supporting dreams of a Greater Serb state in the long - term. The Serb government found it impossible to put and end to the machinations of the Black Hand for fear it would itself be overthrown. Clark states: "Serbian authorities were partly unwilling and partly unable to suppress the irredentist activity that had given rise to the assassinations in the first place ''
Russia, for its part, tended to support Serbian as a fellow Slav state and considered Serbia her "client ''. Russia also encouraged Serbia to focus its irredentism against Austro - Hungary because it would discourage conflict between Serbia and Bulgaria (another prospective Russian ally) in Macedonia.
Imperial rivalry, and the consequences of the search for imperial security or for imperial expansion, had important consequences for the origins of the First World War.
Imperial rivalries between France, Great Britain, Russia and Germany played an important part in the creation of the Triple Entente and the relative isolation of Germany. Imperial opportunism, in the form of the Italian attack on Ottoman Libyan provinces, also encouraged the Balkan wars of 1912 - 13, which changed the balance of power in the Balkans to the detriment of Austro - Hungary.
Some historians, such as Margaret MacMillan, believe that Germany created its own diplomatic isolation in Europe in part through an aggressive and pointless imperial policy, known as Weltpolitik. Others, such as Clark, believe that German isolation was the unintended consequence of a détente between Great Britain, France and Russia. This détente was driven by Britain 's desire for imperial security in relation to France in North Africa and in relation to Russia in Persia and India.
Either way, this isolation is important for the causes of WW1 because it left Germany few options but to ally herself more strongly with Austro - Hungary, leading ultimately to unconditional support for Austria 's punitive war on Serbia during the July crisis of 1914.
Germany 's Chancellor in the 1870s and 1880s Otto von Bismarck disliked the idea of an overseas empire. Rather Bismarck supported French colonization in Africa because it diverted government attention and resources away from continental Europe and revanchism post 1870. Germany 's "New Course '' in foreign affairs, termed "Weltpolitik '' ("world policy '') was adopted in the 1890s after Bismarck 's dismissal.
The aim of Weltpolitik was ostensibly to transform Germany into a global power through assertive diplomacy, the acquisition of overseas colonies, and the development of a large navy.
Some historians, notably MacMillan and Hew Strachan, believe that a consequence of the policy of Weltpolitik and the associated assertiveness was to isolate Germany.
Weltpolitik, particularly as expressed in Germany 's objections to France 's growing influence in Morocco in 1904 and 1907, also helped cement the Triple Entente. The Anglo - German Naval race also isolated Germany by reinforcing Britain 's preference for agreements with Germany 's continental rivals, France and Russia.
Historians, including Ferguson and Clark, believe that Germany 's isolation was the unintended consequences of the need for Britain to defend her Empire against threats from France and Russia. They also downplay the impact of Weltpolitik and the Anglo - German naval race, which ended in 1911.
Britain and France signed a series of agreement in 1904, which became known as the Entente Cordiale. The most important feature of the agreement was that it granted freedom of action to the UK in Egypt and to France in Morocco. Equally, the Anglo - Russian Convention of 1907 is the common name used for the Convention between the United Kingdom and Russia relating to Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet. The convention brought shaky British -- Russian relations to the forefront by solidifying boundaries that identified respective control in Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet.
The alignment between Great Britain, France and Russia became known as the Triple Entente. Therefore, the Triple Entente was not conceived as a counterweight to the Triple Alliance, but rather as a formula to secure imperial security between these three powers. The impact of the Triple Entente was therefore twofold, to improve British relations with France and her ally Russia and to demote the importance to Britain of good relations with Germany. Clark states it was "not that antagonism toward Germany caused its isolation, but rather that the new system itself channeled and intensified hostility towards the German Empire ''.
The Italo - Turkish War of 1911 - 12 was fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Italy in North Africa. The main significance for the First World War was that this war made it clear that no Great Power appeared to wish to support the Ottoman Empire any longer and this paved the way for the Balkan Wars.
The status of Morocco had been guaranteed by international agreement, and when France attempted to greatly expand its influence there without the assent of all the other signatories Germany opposed it prompting the Moroccan Crises, the Tangier Crisis of 1905 and the Agadir Crisis of 1911. The intent of German policy was to drive a wedge between the British and French, but in both cases produced the opposite effect and Germany was isolated diplomatically, most notably lacking the support of Italy despite Italian membership in the Triple Alliance. The French protectorate over Morocco was established officially in 1912.
In 1914, however, the African scene was peaceful. The continent was almost fully divided up by the imperial powers (with only Liberia and Ethiopia still independent). There were no major disputes there pitting any two European powers against each other.
Marxists typically attributed the start of the war to imperialism. "Imperialism, '' argued Lenin, "is the monopoly stage of capitalism. '' He thought the monopoly capitalists went to war to control markets and raw materials.
Social Darwinism was a theory of human evolution loosely based on Darwinism that influenced most European intellectuals and strategic thinkers in the 1870 - 1914 era. These theories emphasized that struggle between nations and "races '' was natural and that only the fittest nation deserved to survive. It gave an impetus to German assertiveness as a world economic and military power, aimed at competing with France and Britain for world power. German colonial rule in Africa 1884 - 1914 was an expression of nationalism and moral superiority that was justified by constructing an image of the natives as "Other ''. This approach highlighted racist views of mankind. German colonization was characterized by the use of repressive violence in the name of ' culture ' and ' civilization '. Germany 's cultural - missionary project boasted that its colonial programs were humanitarian and educational endeavors. Furthermore, the wide acceptance among intellectuals of social Darwinism justified Germany 's right to acquire colonial territories as a matter of the ' survival of the fittest ', according to historian Michael Schubert.
The model suggested an explanation of why some ethnic groups (called "races '' at the time) had been so antagonistic for so long, such as Germans and Slavs. They were natural rivals, destined to clash. Senior German generals such as Helmuth von Moltke talked in apocalyptic terms about the need for Germans to fight for their existence as a people and culture. MacMillan states: "Reflecting the Social Darwinist theories of the era, many Germans saw Slavs, as especially Russia as the natural opponent of the Teutonic races ''. Social Darwinism extended to Austria, where Conrad, Chief of the Austro - Hungarian General Staff declared: "A people that lays down its weapons seals its fate. '' In July 1914 the Austrian press described Serbia and the South Slavs in terns which owed much to Social Darwinism.
War was seen seen as natural and a viable or even useful instrument of policy. "War was compared to a tonic for a sick patient or a life - saving operation to cut out diseased flesh '' Since war was natural for some leaders it was simply a question of timing, and it would be therefore better to have a war when the circumstances where most precipitous. "I consider a war inevitable '', declared Moltke in 1912, "The sooner the better ''.
Nationalism made war a competition between peoples, nations or races rather than kings and elites. Social Darwinism carried a sense of inevitability to conflict and downplayed the use of diplomacy or international agreements to end warfare. It tended to glorify warfare, taking the initiative and the warrior male role.
Social Darwinism played an important role across Europe, but J. Leslie has argued that it played a critical and immediate role in the strategic thinking of some important, hawkish members of the Austro - Hungarian government. Social Darwinism therefore normalised war as an instrument of policy and justified its use.
General narratives of the war tend to emphasis the importance of Alliances in binding the major powers to act in the event of a crisis such as the July crisis. Historians such as Margaret MacMillan warn against the argument that alliances forced the great powers to act as they did during the July crisis. MacMillan states: "What we tend to think of as fixed alliances before the First World War were nothing of the sort. They were much more loose, much more porous, much more capable of change. ''
The most important alliances in Europe required participants to agree to collective defense if attacked. Some of these represented formal alliances while the Triple Entente represented only a frame of mind. These included:
There are three notable exceptions which demonstrate that alliances did not in themselves force the great powers to act:
By the 1870s or 1880s all the major powers were preparing for a large - scale war, although none expected one. Britain focused on building up its Royal Navy, already stronger than the next two navies combined. Germany, France, Austria, Italy and Russia, and some smaller countries, set up conscription systems whereby young men would serve from 1 to three years in the army, then spend the next 20 years or so in the reserves with annual summer training. Men from higher social statuses became officers. Each country devised a mobilisation system whereby the reserves could be called up quickly and sent to key points by rail. Every year the plans were updated and expanded in terms of complexity. Each country stockpiled arms and supplies for an army that ran into the millions. Germany in 1874 had a regular professional army of 420,000 with an additional 1.3 million reserves. By 1897 the regular army was 545,000 strong and the reserves 3.4 million. The French in 1897 had 3.4 million reservists, Austria 2.6 million, and Russia 4.0 million. The various national war plans had been perfected by 1914, albeit with Russia and Austria trailing in effectiveness. Recent wars (since 1865) had typically been short -- a matter of months. All the war plans called for a decisive opening and assumed victory would come after a short war; no one planned for or was ready for the food and munitions needs of a long stalemate as actually happened in 1914 -- 18.
As David Stevenson has put it, "A self - reinforcing cycle of heightened military preparedness... was an essential element in the conjuncture that led to disaster... The armaments race... was a necessary precondition for the outbreak of hostilities. '' David Herrmann goes further, arguing that the fear that "windows of opportunity for victorious wars '' were closing, "the arms race did precipitate the First World War. '' If Archduke Franz Ferdinand had been assassinated in 1904 or even in 1911, Herrmann speculates, there might have been no war. It was "... the armaments race... and the speculation about imminent or preventive wars '' that made his death in 1914 the trigger for war.
One of the aims of the First Hague Conference of 1899, held at the suggestion of Tsar Nicholas II, was to discuss disarmament. The Second Hague Conference was held in 1907. All the signatories except for Germany supported disarmament. Germany also did not want to agree to binding arbitration and mediation. The Kaiser was concerned that the United States would propose disarmament measures, which he opposed. All parties tried to revise international law to their own advantage.
Historians have debated the role of the German naval build - up as the principal cause of deteriorating Anglo - German relations. In any case Germany never came close to catching up with Britain.
Supported by Wilhelm II 's enthusiasm for an expanded German navy, Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz championed four Fleet Acts from 1898 to 1912, and, from 1902 to 1910, the Royal Navy embarked on its own massive expansion to keep ahead of the Germans. This competition came to focus on the revolutionary new ships based on the Dreadnought, which was launched in 1906, and which gave Britain a battleship that far outclassed any other in Europe.
The overwhelming British response proved to Germany that its efforts were unlikely to equal the Royal Navy. In 1900, the British had a 3.7: 1 tonnage advantage over Germany; in 1910 the ratio was 2.3: 1 and in 1914, 2.1: 1. Ferguson argues that, "So decisive was the British victory in the naval arms race that it is hard to regard it as in any meaningful sense a cause of the First World War. '' This ignores the fact that the Kaiserliche Marine had narrowed the gap by nearly half, and that the Royal Navy had long intended to be stronger than any two potential opponents; the United States Navy was in a period of growth, making the German gains very ominous.
In Britain in 1913, there was intense internal debate about new ships due to the growing influence of John Fisher 's ideas and increasing financial constraints. In early - mid-1914 Germany adopted a policy of building submarines instead of new dreadnoughts and destroyers, effectively abandoning the race, but kept this new policy secret to delay other powers following suit.
The Germans abandoned the naval race before the war broke out. The extent to which the naval race was one of the chief factors in Britain 's decision to join the Triple Entente remains a key controversy. Historians such as Christopher Clark believe it was not significant, with Margaret Moran taking the opposite view.
The main Russian goals included strengthening its role as the protector of Eastern Christians in the Balkans (such as the Serbians). Although Russia enjoyed a booming economy, growing population, and large armed forces, its strategic position was threatened by an expanding Turkish military trained by German experts using the latest technology. The start of the war renewed attention of old goals: expelling the Turks from Constantinople, extending Russian dominion into eastern Anatolia and Persian Azerbaijan, and annexing Galicia. These conquests would assure Russian predominance in the Black Sea and access to the Mediterranean.
Traditional narratives of the war suggested that when the war began both sides believed that the war would end quickly. Rhetorically speaking there was an expectation that the war would be "Over by Christmas '' 1914. This is important for the origins of the conflict since it suggests that, given the expectation was that war would be short, the statesmen did not tend to take gravity of military action as seriously as they might have done.
However, modern historiography suggests a more nuanced approach. There is ample evidence to suggest that statesmen and military leaders thought the war would be lengthy, terrible and have profound political consequences.
While it is true all military leaders planned for a swift victory, many military and civilian leaders recognized that the war may be long and highly destructive. The principal German and French military leaders, including Moltke and Ludendorff and his French counterpart Joseph Joffre, expected a long war. The British Secretary of State for War Lord Kitchener expected a long war: "three years '' or longer, he told an amazed colleague.
Moltke hoped that a European war, if it broke out, would be resolved swiftly, but he also conceded that it might drag on for years, wreaking immeasurable ruin. Asquith wrote of the approach of ' Armageddon ' and French and Russian generals spoke of a ' war of extermination ' and the ' end of civilization '. Foreign Secretary Grey famously stated just hours before Britain declared war: "The lamps are going out all over Europe, we shall not see them lit again in our life - time ''.
Nevertheless, Clark concludes that "In the minds of many statesmen, the hope for a short war and the fear of a long one seemed to have cancelled each other out, holding at bay a fuller appreciation of the risks. ''
Military commanders of the time, including Moltke, Joffre and Conrad, held that seizing the offensive was extremely important. This theory encouraged all belligerents to devise war plans to strike first to gain the advantage. These war plans all included complex plans for mobilisation of the armed forces, either as a prelude to war or as a deterrent. In the case of the continental Great Powers the mobilisation plans included arming and transporting millions of men and their equipment, typically by rail and to strict schedules - hence the metaphor "War by Timetable ''.
These mobilisation plans shortened the window for diplomacy as military planners wanted to begin mobilization as quickly as possible to avoid being caught on the defensive. They also put pressure on policymakers to begin their own mobilisation once it was discovered that other nations had begun to mobilise.
Some historians assert that mobilization schedules were so rigid that once it was begun, they could not be cancelled without massive disruption of the country and military disorganization and so diplomatic overtures conducted after the mobilizations had begun were ignored.
For example, Russia ordered partial mobilisation on 25 July. The policy was intended to be a mobilisation against Austria - Hungary only. However, due to a lack of pre-war planning for this type of partial mobilisation, the Russians realised by 29 July that partial mobilisation was not militarily possible, and as it would interfere with a general mobilisation, only full mobilisation could prevent the entire operation being botched. The Russians were therefore faced with only two options, to cancel mobilisation during a crisis or to move to full mobilisation, which they did on 30 July. This full mobilisation meant mobilising along both the Russian border with Austro - Hungary and the border with Germany.
For their part the German war plans, the so - called Schlieffen plan, assumed a two - front war against France and Russia. They were predicated on massing the bulk of the German army against France, and taking the offensive in the West, while a holding force held East Prussia. The plans were based on the assumption that France would mobilise significantly quicker than Russia. Hence German forces could be deployed in the West to defeat France before turning to face the slow - moving Russians in the East.
On 28 July, Germany learned through its spy network that Russia had implemented partial mobilisation and its "Period Preparatory to War ''. The Germans assumed that Russia had, after all, decided upon war and that her mobilisation put Germany in danger. This was doubly so because German war plans, the so - called Schlieffen Plan, relied upon Germany to mobilise speedily enough to defeat France first (by attacking largely through neutral Belgium) before turning to defeat the slower - moving Russians.
Christopher Clarke states: "German efforts at mediation -- which suggested that Austria should "Halt in Belgrade '' and use the occupation of the Serbian capital to ensure its terms were met -- were rendered futile by the speed of Russian preparations, which threatened to force the Germans to take counter -- measures before mediation could begin to take effect "... Furthermore, Clarke states: "The Germans declared war on Russia before the Russians declared war on Germany. But by the time that happened, the Russian government had been moving troops and equipment to the German front for a week. The Russians were the first great power to issue an order of general mobilisation and the first Russo - German clash took place on German, not on Russian soil, following the Russian invasion of East Prussia. That does n't mean that the Russians should be ' blamed ' for the outbreak of war. Rather it alerts us to the complexity of the events that brought war about and the limitations of any thesis that focuses on the culpability of one actor. ''
During the period immediately following the end of hostilities, Anglo - American historians argued that Germany was solely responsible for the start of the war. However, academic work in the English - speaking world in the later 1920s and 1930s blamed participants more equally.
Since the 1960s, the tendency has been to reassert the guilt of Germany, although some historians continue to argue for collective responsibility.
Discussion over which country "started '' the war, and who bears the blame, continues to this day.
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what were four methods of european colonial control that emerged over time | Scramble for Africa - wikipedia
The "Scramble for Africa '' was the occupation, division, and colonization of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism, between 1881 and 1914. It is also called the Partition of Africa and by some, the Conquest of Africa. In 1870, only 10 percent of Africa was under European control; by 1914 it had increased to almost 90 percent of the continent, with only Ethiopia (Abyssinia), the Dervish state (present - day Somalia) and Liberia still being independent.
The Berlin Conference of 1884, which regulated European colonisation and trade in Africa, is usually referred to as the starting point of the scramble for Africa. Consequent to the political and economic rivalries among the European empires in the last quarter of the 19th century, the partitioning, or splitting up of Africa was how the Europeans avoided warring amongst themselves over Africa. The later years of the 19th century saw the transition from "informal imperialism '' (hegemony), by military influence and economic dominance, to direct rule, bringing about colonial imperialism.
The Portuguese established the first firm post-Middle Ages European settlements, trade posts, permanent fortifications and ports of call along the coast of the African continent, from the beginning of the Age of Discovery during the 15th century. But Europeans showed comparatively little interest in (and less knowledge of) the interior for some two centuries thereafter.
European exploration of the African interior began in earnest at the end of the 18th century. By 1835, Europeans had mapped most of northwestern Africa. In the middle decades of the 19th century, famous European explorers included David Livingstone and H.M. Stanley, each of whom mapped vast areas of Southern Africa and Central Africa. Arduous expeditions in the 1850s and 1860s by Richard Burton, John Speke and James Grant located the great central lakes and the source of the Nile. By the end of the 19th century Europeans had charted the Nile from its source, traced the courses of the Niger, Congo and Zambezi Rivers, and realized the vast resources of Africa.
Even as late as the 1870s, European states still controlled only ten percent of the African continent, with all their territories located near the coast. The most important holdings were Angola and Mozambique, held by Portugal; the Cape Colony, held by the United Kingdom; and Algeria, held by France. By 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent of European control.
Technological advances facilitated European expansion overseas. Industrialisation brought about rapid advancements in transportation and communication, especially in the forms of steam navigation, railways, and telegraphs. Medical advances also played an important role, especially medicines for tropical diseases. The development of quinine, an effective treatment for malaria, made vast expanses of the tropics more accessible for Europeans.
Sub-Saharan Africa, one of the last regions of the world largely untouched by "informal imperialism '', was also attractive to Europe 's ruling elites for economic, political and social reasons. During a time when Britain 's balance of trade showed a growing deficit, with shrinking and increasingly protectionist continental markets due to the Long Depression (1873 -- 96), Africa offered Britain, Germany, France, and other countries an open market that would garner them a trade surplus: a market that bought more from the colonial power than it sold overall.
In addition, surplus capital was often more profitably invested overseas, where cheap materials, limited competition, and abundant raw materials made a greater premium possible. Another inducement for imperialism arose from the demand for raw materials unavailable in Europe, especially copper, cotton, rubber, palm oil, cocoa, diamonds, tea, and tin, to which European consumers had grown accustomed and upon which European industry had grown dependent. Additionally, Britain wanted the southern and eastern coasts of Africa for stopover ports on the route to Asia and its empire in India.
However, in Africa -- excluding the area which became the Union of South Africa in 1910 -- the amount of capital investment by Europeans was relatively small, compared to other continents. Consequently, the companies involved in tropical African commerce were relatively small, apart from Cecil Rhodes 's De Beers Mining Company. Rhodes had carved out Rhodesia for himself; Léopold II of Belgium later, and with considerable brutality, exploited the Congo Free State. These events might detract from the pro-imperialist arguments of colonial lobbies such as the Alldeutscher Verband, Francesco Crispi and Jules Ferry, who argued that sheltered overseas markets in Africa would solve the problems of low prices and over-production caused by shrinking continental markets.
John A. Hobson argued in Imperialism that this shrinking of continental markets was a key factor of the global "New Imperialism '' period.
William Easterly of New York University, however, disagrees with the link made between capitalism and imperialism, arguing that colonialism is used mostly to promote state - led development rather than "corporate '' development. He has stated that "imperialism is not so clearly linked to capitalism and free markets... historically there has been a closer link between colonialism / imperialism and state - led approaches to development. ''
The rivalry between Britain, France, Germany, and the other European powers accounts for a large part of the colonisation.
While tropical Africa was not a large zone of investment, other overseas regions were. The vast interior between Egypt and the gold and diamond - rich southern Africa had strategic value in securing the flow of overseas trade. Britain was under political pressure to secure lucrative markets against encroaching rivals in China and its eastern colonies, most notably India, Malaya, Australia and New Zealand. Thus, it was crucial to secure the key waterway between East and West -- the Suez Canal. However, the prevailing theory which suggested that Britain annexed East Africa in the 1880 - 90s out of geo - strategic concerns connected to the Nile Valley and Britain 's position in Egypt -- and by extension the sea - route to India via the Suez Canal -- was challenged by John Darwin in 1997, a refutation that was further contextualized and consolidated by Jonas F. Gjersø in 2015.
The scramble for African territory also reflected concern for the acquisition of military and naval bases, for strategic purposes and the exercise of power. The growing navies, and new ships driven by steam power, required coaling stations and ports for maintenance. Defense bases were also needed for the protection of sea routes and communication lines, particularly of expensive and vital international waterways such as the Suez Canal.
Colonies were also seen as assets in "balance of power '' negotiations, useful as items of exchange at times of international bargaining. Colonies with large native populations were also a source of military power; Britain and France used large numbers of British Indian and North African soldiers, respectively, in many of their colonial wars (and would again be utilized in the coming World Wars). In the age of nationalism there was pressure for a nation to acquire an empire as a status symbol; the idea of "greatness '' became linked with the sense of duty underlying many nations ' strategies.
In the early 1880s, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza was exploring the Kingdom of Kongo for France, at the same time Henry Morton Stanley explored it on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, who would have it as his personal Congo Free State (see section below). France occupied Tunisia in May 1881, which may have convinced Italy to join the German - Austrian Dual Alliance in 1882, thus forming the Triple Alliance. The same year, Britain occupied Egypt (hitherto an autonomous state owing nominal fealty to the Ottoman Empire), which ruled over Sudan and parts of Chad, Eritrea, and Somalia. In 1884, Germany declared Togoland, the Cameroons and South West Africa to be under its protection; and France occupied Guinea. French West Africa (AOF) was founded in 1895, and French Equatorial Africa in 1910.
Germany was hardly a colonial power before the New Imperialism period, but would eagerly participate in this race. Fragmented in various states, Germany was only unified under Prussia 's rule after the 1866 Battle of Königgrätz and the 1870 Franco - Prussian War. A rising industrial power close on the heels of Britain, Germany began its world expansion in the 1880s. After isolating France by the Dual Alliance with Austria - Hungary and then the 1882 Triple Alliance with Italy, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck proposed the 1884 -- 85 Berlin Conference, which set the rules of effective control of a foreign territory. Weltpolitik (world policy) was the foreign policy adopted by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1890, with the aim of transforming Germany into a global power through aggressive diplomacy, the acquisition of overseas colonies, and the development of a large navy.
Some Germans, claiming themselves of Friedrich List 's thought, advocated expansion in the Philippines and Timor; others proposed to set themselves up in Formosa (modern Taiwan), etc. At the end of the 1870s, these isolated voices began to be relayed by a real imperialist policy, backed by mercantilist thesis. In 1881, Hübbe - Schleiden, a lawyer, published Deutsche Kolonisation, according to which the "development of national consciousness demanded an independent overseas policy ''. Pan-Germanism was thus linked to the young nation 's imperialist drives. In the beginning of the 1880s, the Deutscher Kolonialverein was created, and got its own magazine in 1884, the Kolonialzeitung. This colonial lobby was also relayed by the nationalist Alldeutscher Verband. Generally, Bismarck was opposed to widespread German colonialism, but he had to resign at the insistence of the new German Emperor Wilhelm II on 18 March 1890. Wilhelm II instead adopted a very aggressive policy of colonisation and colonial expansion.
Germany 's expansionism would lead to the Tirpitz Plan, implemented by Admiral von Tirpitz, who would also champion the various Fleet Acts starting in 1898, thus engaging in an arms race with Britain. By 1914, they had given Germany the second - largest naval force in the world (roughly three - fifths the size of the Royal Navy). According to von Tirpitz, this aggressive naval policy was supported by the National Liberal Party rather than by the conservatives, implying that imperialism was supported by the rising middle classes.
Germany became the third - largest colonial power in Africa. Nearly all of its overall empire of 2.6 million square kilometres and 14 million colonial subjects in 1914 was found in its African possessions of Southwest Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, and Tanganyika. Following the 1904 Entente cordiale between France and the British Empire, Germany tried to isolate France in 1905 with the First Moroccan Crisis. This led to the 1905 Algeciras Conference, in which France 's influence on Morocco was compensated by the exchange of other territories, and then to the Agadir Crisis in 1911. Along with the 1898 Fashoda Incident between France and Britain, this succession of international crises reveals the bitterness of the struggle between the various imperialist nations, which ultimately led to World War I.
Italy took possession of parts of Eritrea in 1870 and 1882. Following its defeat in the First Italo -- Ethiopian War (1895 -- 1896), it acquired Italian Somaliland in 1889 -- 90 and the whole of Eritrea (1899). In 1911, it engaged in a war with the Ottoman Empire, in which it acquired Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (modern Libya). In 1919 Enrico Corradini -- who fully supported the war, and later merged his group in the early fascist party (PNF) -- developed the concept of Proletarian Nationalism, supposed to legitimize Italy 's imperialism by a mixture of socialism with nationalism:
We must start by recognizing the fact that there are proletarian nations as well as proletarian classes; that is to say, there are nations whose living conditions are subject... to the way of life of other nations, just as classes are. Once this is realised, nationalism must insist firmly on this truth: Italy is, materially and morally, a proletarian nation.
The Second Italo - Abyssinian War (1935 -- 36), ordered by the Fascist Benito Mussolini, would actually be one of the last colonial wars (that is, intended to colonise a foreign country, as opposed to wars of national liberation), occupying Ethiopia -- which had remained the last independent African territory, apart from Liberia.
David Livingstone 's explorations, carried on by Henry Morton Stanley, excited imaginations with Stanley 's grandiose ideas for colonisation; but these found little support owing to the problems and scale of action required, except from Léopold II of Belgium, who in 1876 had organised the International African Association (the Congo Society). From 1869 to 1874, Stanley was secretly sent by Léopold II to the Congo region, where he made treaties with several African chiefs along the Congo River and by 1882 had sufficient territory to form the basis of the Congo Free State. Léopold II personally owned the colony from 1885 and used it as a source of ivory and rubber.
While Stanley was exploring Congo on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, the Franco - Italian marine officer Pierre de Brazza travelled into the western Congo basin and raised the French flag over the newly founded Brazzaville in 1881, thus occupying today 's Republic of the Congo. Portugal, which also claimed the area due to old treaties with the native Kongo Empire, made a treaty with Britain on 26 February 1884 to block off the Congo Society 's access to the Atlantic.
By 1890 the Congo Free State had consolidated its control of its territory between Leopoldville and Stanleyville, and was looking to push south down the Lualaba River from Stanleyville. At the same time, the British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes was expanding north from the Limpopo River, sending the Pioneer Column (guided by Frederick Selous) through Matabeleland, and starting a colony in Mashonaland.
To the west, in the land where their expansions would meet, was Katanga, site of the Yeke Kingdom of Msiri. Msiri was the most militarily powerful ruler in the area, and traded large quantities of copper, ivory and slaves -- and rumors of gold reached European ears. The scramble for Katanga was a prime example of the period. Rhodes and the BSAC sent two expeditions to Msiri in 1890 led by Alfred Sharpe, who was rebuffed, and Joseph Thomson, who failed to reach Katanga. Leopold sent four CFS expeditions. First, the Le Marinel Expedition could only extract a vaguely worded letter. The Delcommune Expedition was rebuffed. The well - armed Stairs Expedition was given orders to take Katanga with or without Msiri 's consent. Msiri refused, was shot, and the expedition cut off his head and stuck it on a pole as a "barbaric lesson '' to the people. The Bia Expedition finished the job of establishing an administration of sorts and a "police presence '' in Katanga.
Thus, the half million square kilometers of Katanga came into Leopold 's possession and brought his African realm up to 2,300,000 square kilometres (890,000 sq mi), about 75 times larger than Belgium. The Congo Free State imposed such a terror regime on the colonised people, including mass killings and forced labor, that Belgium, under pressure from the Congo Reform Association, ended Leopold II 's rule and annexed it in 1908 as a colony of Belgium, known as the Belgian Congo.
The brutality of King Leopold II of Belgium in his former colony of the Congo Free State, now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, was well documented; up to 8 million of the estimated 16 million native inhabitants died between 1885 and 1908. According to the former British diplomat Roger Casement, this depopulation had four main causes: "indiscriminate war '', starvation, reduction of births and diseases. Sleeping sickness ravaged the country and must also be taken into account for the dramatic decrease in population; it has been estimated that sleeping sickness and smallpox killed nearly half the population in the areas surrounding the lower Congo River.
Estimates of the total death toll vary considerably. As the first census did not take place until 1924, it is difficult to quantify the population loss of the period. Casement 's report set it at three million. William Rubinstein wrote: "More basically, it appears almost certain that the population figures given by Hochschild are inaccurate. There is, of course, no way of ascertaining the population of the Congo before the twentieth century, and estimates like 20 million are purely guesses. Most of the interior of the Congo was literally unexplored if not inaccessible. '' See Congo Free State for further details including numbers of victims.
A similar situation occurred in the neighbouring French Congo. Most of the resource extraction was run by concession companies, whose brutal methods, along with the introduction of disease, resulted in the loss of up to 50 percent of the indigenous population. The French government appointed a commission, headed by de Brazza, in 1905 to investigate the rumoured abuses in the colony. However, de Brazza died on the return trip, and his "searingly critical '' report was neither acted upon nor released to the public. In the 1920s, about 20,000 forced laborers died building a railroad through the French territory.
French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps had obtained many concessions from Isma'il Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt and Sudan, in 1854 -- 56, to build the Suez Canal. Some sources estimate the workforce at 30,000, but others estimate that 120,000 workers died over the ten years of construction due to malnutrition, fatigue and disease, especially cholera. Shortly before its completion in 1869, Khedive Isma'il borrowed enormous sums from British and French bankers at high rates of interest. By 1875, he was facing financial difficulties and was forced to sell his block of shares in the Suez Canal. The shares were snapped up by Britain, under its Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli, who sought to give his country practical control in the management of this strategic waterway. When Isma'il repudiated Egypt 's foreign debt in 1879, Britain and France seized joint financial control over the country, forcing the Egyptian ruler to abdicate, and installing his eldest son Tewfik Pasha in his place. The Egyptian and Sudanese ruling classes did not relish foreign intervention.
During the 1870s, European initiatives against the slave trade caused an economic crisis in northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of Mahdist forces. In 1881, the Mahdist revolt erupted in Sudan under Muhammad Ahmad, severing Tewfik 's authority in Sudan. The same year, Tewfik suffered an even more perilous rebellion by his own Egyptian army in the form of the Urabi Revolt. In 1882, Tewfik appealed for direct British military assistance, commencing Britain 's administration of Egypt. A joint British - Egyptian military force ultimately defeated the Mahdist forces in Sudan in 1898. Thereafter, Britain (rather than Egypt) seized effective control of Sudan.
The occupation of Egypt, and the acquisition of the Congo were the first major moves in what came to be a precipitous scramble for African territory. In 1884, Otto von Bismarck convened the 1884 -- 85 Berlin Conference to discuss the African problem. The diplomats put on a humanitarian façade by condemning the slave trade, prohibiting the sale of alcoholic beverages and firearms in certain regions, and by expressing concern for missionary activities. More importantly, the diplomats in Berlin laid down the rules of competition by which the great powers were to be guided in seeking colonies. They also agreed that the area along the Congo River was to be administered by Léopold II of Belgium as a neutral area, known as the Congo Free State, in which trade and navigation were to be free. No nation was to stake claims in Africa without notifying other powers of its intentions. No territory could be formally claimed prior to being effectively occupied. However, the competitors ignored the rules when convenient and on several occasions war was only narrowly avoided.
Britain 's administration of Egypt and the Cape Colony contributed to a preoccupation over securing the source of the Nile River. Egypt was overrun by British forces in 1882 (although not formally declared a protectorate until 1914, and never an actual colony); Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya and Uganda were subjugated in the 1890s and early 20th century; and in the south, the Cape Colony (first acquired in 1795) provided a base for the subjugation of neighboring African states and the Dutch Afrikaner settlers who had left the Cape to avoid the British and then founded their own republics. Theophilus Shepstone annexed the South African Republic (or Transvaal) in 1877 for the British Empire, after it had been independent for twenty years. In 1879, after the Anglo - Zulu War, Britain consolidated its control of most of the territories of South Africa. The Boers protested, and in December 1880 they revolted, leading to the First Boer War (1880 -- 81). British Prime Minister William Gladstone signed a peace treaty on 23 March 1881, giving self - government to the Boers in the Transvaal. The Jameson Raid of 1895 was a failed attempt by the British South Africa Company and the Johannesburg Reform Committee to overthrow the Boer government in the Transvaal. The Second Boer War, fought between 1899 and 1902, was about control of the gold and diamond industries; the independent Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (or Transvaal) were this time defeated and absorbed into the British Empire.
The French thrust into the African interior was mainly from the coasts of West Africa (modern day Senegal) eastward, through the Sahel along the southern border of the Sahara, a huge desert covering most of present - day Senegal, Mali, Niger, and Chad. Their ultimate aim was to have an uninterrupted colonial empire from the Niger River to the Nile, thus controlling all trade to and from the Sahel region, by virtue of their existing control over the Caravan routes through the Sahara. The British, on the other hand, wanted to link their possessions in Southern Africa (modern South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Swaziland, and Zambia), with their territories in East Africa (modern Kenya), and these two areas with the Nile basin. The Sudan (which in those days included most of present - day Uganda) was the key to the fulfillment of these ambitions, especially since Egypt was already under British control. This "red line '' through Africa is made most famous by Cecil Rhodes. Along with Lord Milner, the British colonial minister in South Africa, Rhodes advocated such a "Cape to Cairo '' empire, linking the Suez Canal to the mineral - rich Southern part of the continent by rail. Though hampered by German occupation of Tanganyika until the end of World War I, Rhodes successfully lobbied on behalf of such a sprawling African empire.
If one draws a line from Cape Town to Cairo (Rhodes 's dream), and one from Dakar to the Horn of Africa (now Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia), (the French ambition), these two lines intersect somewhere in eastern Sudan near Fashoda, explaining its strategic importance. In short, Britain had sought to extend its East African empire contiguously from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope, while France had sought to extend its own holdings from Dakar to the Sudan, which would enable its empire to span the entire continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea.
A French force under Jean - Baptiste Marchand arrived first at the strategically located fort at Fashoda, soon followed by a British force under Lord Kitchener, commander in chief of the British Army since 1892. The French withdrew after a standoff and continued to press claims to other posts in the region. In March 1899, the French and British agreed that the source of the Nile and Congo Rivers should mark the frontier between their spheres of influence.
Although the 1884 -- 85 Berlin Conference had set the rules for the Scramble for Africa, it had not weakened the rival imperialists. The 1898 Fashoda Incident, which had seen France and the British Empire on the brink of war, ultimately led to the signature of the Entente Cordiale of 1904, which countered the influence of the European powers of the Triple Alliance. As a result, the new German Empire decided to test the solidity of such influence, using the contested territory of Morocco as a battlefield.
Thus, Kaiser Wilhelm II visited Tangiers on 31 March 1905 and made a speech in favor of Moroccan independence, challenging French influence in Morocco. France 's influence in Morocco had been reaffirmed by Britain and Spain in 1904. The Kaiser 's speech bolstered French nationalism, and with British support the French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé, took a defiant line. The crisis peaked in mid-June 1905, when Delcassé was forced out of the ministry by the more conciliation - minded premier Maurice Rouvier. But by July 1905 Germany was becoming isolated and the French agreed to a conference to solve the crisis. Both France and Germany continued to posture up until the conference, with Germany mobilizing reserve army units in late December and France actually moving troops to the border in January 1906.
The 1906 Algeciras Conference was called to settle the dispute. Of the thirteen nations present, the German representatives found their only supporter was Austria - Hungary. France had firm support from Britain, the US, Russia, Italy and Spain. The Germans eventually accepted an agreement, signed on 31 May 1906, whereby France yielded certain domestic changes in Morocco but retained control of key areas.
However, five years later the Second Moroccan Crisis (or Agadir Crisis) was sparked by the deployment of the German gunboat Panther to the port of Agadir on 1 July 1911. Germany had started to attempt to surpass Britain 's naval supremacy -- the British navy had a policy of remaining larger than the next two naval fleets in the world combined. When the British heard of the Panther 's arrival in Morocco, they wrongly believed that the Germans meant to turn Agadir into a naval base on the Atlantic.
The German move was aimed at reinforcing claims for compensation for acceptance of effective French control of the North African kingdom, where France 's pre-eminence had been upheld by the 1906 Algeciras Conference. In November 1911 a convention was signed under which Germany accepted France 's position in Morocco in return for territory in the French Equatorial African colony of Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo).
France and Spain subsequently established a full protectorate over Morocco (30 March 1912), ending what remained of the country 's formal independence. Furthermore, British backing for France during the two Moroccan crises reinforced the Entente between the two countries and added to Anglo - German estrangement, deepening the divisions that would culminate in the First World War.
Following the Berlin Conference at the end of the 19th century, the British, Italians, and Ethiopians sought to claim lands owned by the Somalis such as the Warsangali Sultanate, the Ajuran Sultanate and the Gobroon Dynasty.
The Dervish State was a state established by Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, a Somali religious leader who gathered Muslim soldiers from across the Horn of Africa and united them into a loyal army known as the Dervishes. This Dervish army enabled Hassan to carve out a powerful state through conquest of lands sought after by the Ethiopians and the European powers. The Dervish State successfully repulsed the British Empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region. Due to these successful expeditions, the Dervish State was recognized as an ally by the Ottoman and German empires. The Turks also named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation, and the Germans promised to officially recognize any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.
After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain 's use of aircraft.
Between 1904 and 1908, Germany 's colonies in German South - West Africa and German East Africa were rocked by separate, contemporaneous native revolts against their rule. In both territories the threat to German rule was quickly defeated once large - scale reinforcements from Germany arrived, with the Herero rebels in German South - West Africa being defeated at the Battle of Waterberg and the Maji - Maji rebels in German East Africa being steadily crushed by German forces slowly advancing through the countryside, with the natives resorting to guerrilla warfare. German efforts to clear the bush of civilians in German South - West Africa then resulted in a genocide of the population.
In total, as many as 65,000 Herero (80 % of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Namaqua (50 % of the total Namaqua population) either starved, died of thirst, or were worked to death in camps such as Shark Island Concentration Camp between 1904 and 1908. Characteristic of this genocide was death by starvation and the poisoning of the population 's wells whilst they were trapped in the Namib Desert.
In its earlier stages, imperialism was generally the act of individual explorers as well as some adventurous merchantmen. The colonial powers were a long way from approving without any dissent the expensive adventures carried out abroad. Various important political leaders, such as Gladstone, opposed colonisation in its first years. However, during his second premiership between 1880 and 1885 he could not resist the colonial lobby in his cabinet, and thus did not execute his electoral promise to disengage from Egypt. Although Gladstone was personally opposed to imperialism, the social tensions caused by the Long Depression pushed him to favor jingoism: the imperialists had become the "parasites of patriotism '' (John A. Hobson). In France, then Radical politician Georges Clemenceau also adamantly opposed himself to it: he thought colonisation was a diversion from the "blue line of the Vosges '' mountains, that is revanchism and the patriotic urge to reclaim the Alsace - Lorraine region which had been annexed by the German Empire with the 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt. Clemenceau actually made Jules Ferry 's cabinet fall after the 1885 Tonkin disaster. According to Hannah Arendt in The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), this expansion of national sovereignty on overseas territories contradicted the unity of the nation state which provided citizenship to its population. Thus, a tension between the universalist will to respect human rights of the colonised people, as they may be considered as "citizens '' of the nation state, and the imperialist drive to cynically exploit populations deemed inferior began to surface. Some, in colonising countries, opposed what they saw as unnecessary evils of the colonial administration when left to itself; as described in Joseph Conrad 's Heart of Darkness (1899) -- published around the same time as Kipling 's The White Man 's Burden -- or in Louis - Ferdinand Céline 's Journey to the End of the Night (1932).
Colonial lobbies emerged to legitimize the Scramble for Africa and other expensive overseas adventures. In Germany, France, and Britain, the middle class often sought strong overseas policies to ensure the market 's growth. Even in lesser powers, voices like Enrico Corradini claimed a "place in the sun '' for so - called "proletarian nations '', bolstering nationalism and militarism in an early prototype of fascism.
However, by the end of World War I the colonial empires had become very popular almost everywhere in Europe: public opinion had been convinced of the needs of a colonial empire, although most of the metropolitans would never see a piece of it. Colonial exhibitions had been instrumental in this change of popular mentalities brought about by the colonial propaganda, supported by the colonial lobby and by various scientists. Thus, the conquest of territories were inevitably followed by public displays of the indigenous people for scientific and leisure purposes. Karl Hagenbeck, a German merchant in wild animals and a future entrepreneur of most Europeans zoos, thus decided in 1874 to exhibit Samoa and Sami people as "purely natural '' populations. In 1876, he sent one of his collaborators to the newly conquered Egyptian Sudan to bring back some wild beasts and Nubians. Presented in Paris, London, and Berlin these Nubians were very successful. Such "human zoos '' could be found in Hamburg, Antwerp, Barcelona, London, Milan, New York City, Paris, etc., with 200,000 to 300,000 visitors attending each exhibition. Tuaregs were exhibited after the French conquest of Timbuktu (visited by René Caillié, disguised as a Muslim, in 1828, thereby winning the prize offered by the French Société de Géographie); Malagasy after the occupation of Madagascar; Amazons of Abomey after Behanzin 's mediatic defeat against the French in 1894. Not used to the climatic conditions, some of the indigenous exposed died, such as some Galibis in Paris in 1892.
Geoffroy de Saint - Hilaire, director of the Parisian Jardin d'acclimatation, decided in 1877 to organize two "ethnological spectacles '', presenting Nubians and Inuit. The public of the Jardin d'acclimatation doubled, with a million paying entrances that year, a huge success for these times. Between 1877 and 1912, approximately thirty "ethnological exhibitions '' were presented at the Jardin zoologique d'acclimatation. "Negro villages '' would be presented in Paris ' 1878 and 1879 World 's Fair; the 1900 World 's Fair presented the famous diorama "living '' in Madagascar, while the Colonial Exhibitions in Marseilles (1906 and 1922) and in Paris (1907 and 1931) would also display human beings in cages, often nudes or quasi-nudes. Nomadic "Senegalese villages '' were also created, thus displaying the power of the colonial empire to all the population.
In the US, Madison Grant, head of the New York Zoological Society, exposed Pygmy Ota Benga in the Bronx Zoo alongside the apes and others in 1906. At the behest of Grant, a prominent scientific racist and eugenicist, zoo director Hornaday placed Ota Benga in a cage with an orangutan and labeled him "The Missing Link '' in an attempt to illustrate Darwinism, and in particular that Africans like Ota Benga are closer to apes than were Europeans. Other colonial exhibitions included the 1924 British Empire Exhibition and the successful 1931 Paris "Exposition coloniale ''.
From the beginning of the 20th century onward, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers. The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk. In the 20th century, Africa saw the biggest increase in its population due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to peace, famine relief, medicine, and above all, the end or decline of the slave trade. Africa 's population has grown from 120 million in 1900 to over 1 billion today.
During the New Imperialism period, by the end of the 19th century, Europe added almost 9,000,000 square miles (23,000,000 km) -- one - fifth of the land area of the globe -- to its overseas colonial possessions. Europe 's formal holdings now included the entire African continent except Ethiopia, Liberia, and Saguia el - Hamra, the latter of which would be integrated into Spanish Sahara. Between 1885 and 1914, Britain took nearly 30 % of Africa 's population under its control; 15 % for France, 11 % for Portugal, 9 % for Germany, 7 % for Belgium and 1 % for Italy. Nigeria alone contributed 15 million subjects, more than in the whole of French West Africa or the entire German colonial empire. It was paradoxical that Britain, the staunch advocate of free trade, emerged in 1914 with not only the largest overseas empire thanks to its long - standing presence in India, but also the greatest gains in the "scramble for Africa '', reflecting its advantageous position at its inception. In terms of surface area occupied, the French were the marginal victors but much of their territory consisted of the sparsely populated Sahara.
The political imperialism followed the economic expansion, with the "colonial lobbies '' bolstering chauvinism and jingoism at each crisis in order to legitimize the colonial enterprise. The tensions between the imperial powers led to a succession of crises, which finally exploded in August 1914, when previous rivalries and alliances created a domino situation that drew the major European nations into World War I. Austria - Hungary attacked Serbia to avenge the murder by Serbian agents of Austrian crown prince Francis Ferdinand, Russia would mobilize to assist allied Serbia, Germany would intervene to support Austria - Hungary against Russia. Since Russia had a military alliance with France against Germany, the German General Staff, led by General von Moltke decided to realize the well prepared Schlieffen Plan to invade and quickly knock France out of the war before turning against Russia in what was expected to be a long campaign. This required an invasion of Belgium which brought Britain into the war against Germany, Austria - Hungary and their allies. German U-Boat campaigns against ships bound for Britain eventually drew the United States into what had become World War I. Moreover, using the Anglo - Japanese Alliance as an excuse, Japan leaped onto this opportunity to conquer German interests in China and the Pacific to become the dominating power in the Western Pacific, setting the stage for the Second Sino - Japanese War (starting in 1937) and eventually World War II.
After the First World War, Germany 's possessions were partitioned among Britain (which took a sliver of western Cameroon, Tanzania, western Togo, and Namibia), France (which took most of Cameroon and eastern Togo) and Belgium (which took Rwanda and Burundi).
Later, during the Interwar period, with the Second Italo - Ethiopian War Italy would annex Ethiopia, which formed together with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland the Italian East Africa (A.O.I., "Africa Orientale Italiana '', also defined by the fascist government as L'Impero).
The British were primarily interested in maintaining secure communication lines to India, which led to initial interest in Egypt and South Africa. Once these two areas were secure, it was the intent of British colonialists such as Cecil Rhodes to establish a Cape - Cairo railway and to exploit mineral and agricultural resources. Control of the Nile was viewed as a strategic and commercial advantage.
Liberia was the only nation in Africa that was a colony and a protectorate of the United States. Liberia was founded, colonised, established, and controlled by the American Colonization Society, a private organization established in order to relocate freed African - American and Caribbean slaves from the United States and the Caribbean islands in 1821. Liberia declared its independence from the American Colonization Society on July 26, 1847. Liberia is Africa 's oldest democratic republic, and the second - oldest black republic in the world (after Haiti).
Ethiopia maintained its independence from Italy after the Battle of Adwa which resulted in the Treaty of Addis Ababa. With the exception of the occupation between 1936 and 1941 by Benito Mussolini 's military forces, Ethiopia is Africa 's oldest independent nation.
The new scramble for Africa began with the emergence of the Afro - Neo-Liberal capitalist movement in Post-Colonial Africa. When African nations began to gain independence during the Post World War II Era, their post colonial economic structures remained undiversified and linear. In most cases, the bulk of a nation 's economy relied on cash crops or natural resources. The decolonisation process kept independent African nations at the mercy of colonial powers due to structurally - dependent economic relations. Structural Adjustment Programs lead to the privatization and liberalization of many African political and economic systems, forcefully pushing Africa into the global capitalist market. The economic decline in the 1990s fostered democratization by the World Bank intervening in the political and economic affairs of Africa once again. All of these factors led to Africa 's forced development under Western ideological systems of economics and politics.
In the era of globalization, many African countries have emerged as petro - states (for example Sudan, Cameroon, Nigeria, Angola). These are nations with an economic and political partnership between transnational oil companies and the ruling elite class in oil - rich African nations. Numerous countries have entered into a neo-imperial relationship with Africa during this time period. Mary Gilmartin notes that "material and symbolic appropriation of space (is) central to imperial expansion and control ''; nations in the globalization era who invest in controlling land internationally are engaging in neo-imperialism. Chinese (and other Asian countries) state oil companies have entered Africa 's highly competitive oil sector. China National Petroleum Corporation purchased 40 % of Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company. Furthermore, Sudan exports 50 -- 60 % of its domestically produced oil to China, making up 7 % of China 's imports. China has also been purchasing equity shares in African oil fields, invested in industry related infrastructure development and acquired continental oil concessions throughout Africa.
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who sang the song it's been a long time coming | A Change Is Gonna Come - wikipedia
"A Change Is Gonna Come '' is a song by American recording artist Sam Cooke, released on December 22, 1964, by RCA Victor. Produced by Hugo & Luigi and arranged and conducted by René Hall, the song was the B - side to "Shake ''.
The song was inspired by various personal events in Cooke 's life, most prominently an event in which he and his entourage were turned away from a whites only motel in Louisiana. Cooke felt compelled to write a song that spoke to his struggle and of those around him, and he recorded the song for its first release on his final album, Ai n't That Good News. The song, released in 1964, pertains to the Civil Rights Movement, African - Americans and contains the refrain, "It 's been a long time coming, but I know a change is gon na come. ''
Though only a modest hit for Cooke in comparison with his previous singles, "A Change Is Gonna Come '' is widely considered Cooke 's best composition and has been voted among the best songs ever released by various publications. In 2007, the song was selected for preservation in the Library of Congress, with the National Recording Registry deeming the song "culturally, historically, or aesthetically important. ''
On October 8, 1963, Cooke called ahead to the Holiday Inn North to make reservations for his wife, Barbara, and himself, but when he and his group arrived, the desk clerk glanced nervously and explained there were no vacancies. While his brother Charles protested, Sam was fuming, yelling to see the manager and refusing to leave until he received an answer. His wife nudged him, attempting to calm him down, telling him, "They 'll kill you, '' to which he responded, "They ai n't gon na kill me, because I 'm Sam Cooke. '' When they eventually persuaded Cooke to leave, the group drove away calling out insults and blaring their horns. When they arrived at the Castle Motel on Sprague Street downtown, the police were waiting for them, arresting them for disturbing the peace. The New York Times ran an AP report the following day headlined "Negro Band Leader Held in Shreveport, '' but African - Americans were outraged, leading to the creation of a myth surrounding the incident, exaggerating parts of the story and fabricating others.
In addition, upon hearing Bob Dylan 's "Blowin ' in the Wind '' in 1963, Cooke was greatly moved that such a poignant song about racism in America could come from someone who was not black, and was also ashamed he had not yet written something like that himself. However, his image and fears of losing his largely white fan base prevented him from doing so. Cooke loved the song so much it was immediately incorporated into his repertoire.
Following Christmas 1963, Cooke invited J.W. Alexander to his home to preview a new song he had just written, one Cooke was very excited about. When he arrived, Cooke ran through the number on his guitar twice, the second time going over it line by line. Both were very excited to record the song, with Alexander viewing it more personal and political than anything he had yet attempted. He warned Cooke that he may not profit off the song as he had with lighter, poppier songs, but Cooke did not care. He explained to Alexander that he hoped the song would make his father proud. "It was less work than any song he 'd ever written, '' biographer Peter Guralnick says. "It almost scared him that the song -- it was almost as if the song were intended for somebody else. He grabbed it out of the air and it came to him whole, despite the fact that in many ways it 's probably the most complex song that he wrote. It was both singular -- in the sense that you started out, ' I was born by the river ' -- but it also told the story both of a generation and of a people. ''
Cooke handed the song to his contributor René Hall, with no specific instructions as to what he personally wanted, but to give it "the kind of instrumentation and orchestration that it demanded. '' Previously, the duo had collaborated on arrangement, but this was the first occasion in which Hall was granted complete control of the eventual arrangement, and he composed it as he would a movie score, with lush, symphonic strings. "I wanted it to be the greatest thing in my (life) -- I spent a lot of time, put out a lot of ideas, and then changed them and rearranged them, '' said Hall. Cooke was well known as a perfectionist and "control freak '' in the recording studio, so giving Hall total latitude was unprecedented.
AFO drummer John Boudreaux was intimidated by the orchestral arrangement and refused to leave the control room; session player and close collaborator Earl Palmer was working next door and filled in for the song. Luigi Creatore asked Cooke to provide one more take, and the eighth take was "nearly perfect. '' Luigi was very pleased with the song, considering it among his best, both very serious and still uniquely his own. Cooke had initially imagined that Luigi, first and foremost a pop hitmaker, would not respect the socially conscious song.
Each verse is a different movement, with the horns carrying the first, the strings the second, and the timpani carrying the bridge. The French horn present in the recording was intended to convey a sense of melancholy.
Cooke incorporated his own personal experiences as well into the song, such as encounters in Memphis, Shreveport and Birmingham, to reflect the lives and struggles of all African - Americans of the time. The lines "I do n't know what 's up there / Beyond the sky '' could refer to Cooke 's doubt for absolute true justice on earth. The final verse, in which Cooke pleads for his "brother '' to help him, is a metaphor for what Alexander described as "the establishment '' The verse continues, ' But he winds up knocking me / back down on my knees. ' ''
"A Change Is Gonna Come '' was recorded on January 30, 1964, at RCA Studios in Hollywood, California. The engineer present was Wally Heider, and the session was conducted and arranged by René Hall. The musicians also recorded "Falling in Love '' the same day. Credits adapted from the liner notes to the 2003 compilation Portrait of a Legend: 1951 -- 1964.
Cooke first performed "A Change Is Gonna Come '' on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson on February 7, 1964. Cooke 's new manager, Allen Klein, was infatuated with the song and persuaded Cooke to do away with promoting his most recent single, "Ai n't That Good News '', and perform "Change '' instead, feeling that that was the statement he needed to make before a national audience. Cooke objected, noting that the album 's release was a month away and that he had no time to pull together an arrangement within such a short time frame. Klein arranged for RCA to pay for a full string section and Cooke performed the song that Friday on The Tonight Show after performing "Basin Street ''. An NBC timekeeper logged down the number as "It 's a Long Time Coming, '' but the network did not save the tape of the performance. Klein and Alexander both felt it would become a milestone moment in Cooke 's career, but it was overshadowed by the Beatles ' performance on The Ed Sullivan Show on CBS just two days later.
Cooke elected not to perform "A Change Is Gonna Come '' again in his lifetime, both because of the complexity of the arrangement and because of the ominous nature of the song. When shown to his protégé Bobby Womack, his response was that it sounds "like death. '' Cooke responded, "Man, that 's kind of how it sounds like to me. That 's why I 'm never going to play it in public. '' Womack clarified his thoughts, that it was n't deathly, but rather "spooky, '' but Cooke never performed the song again.
Ten months later, "A Change Is Gonna Come '' was prepared for single release, with the verse and chorus preceding the bridge ("I go to the movies... '') deleted for radio airplay. The civil rights movement picked up on "A Change Is Gonna Come '' with near immediacy. On December 11, 1964, two weeks before the song was released, Sam Cooke was fatally shot at a Los Angeles motel.
"A Change Is Gonna Come '' became an anthem for the Civil Rights Movement, and is widely considered Cooke 's best composition. Over the years, the song has garnered significant praise and, in 2005, was voted number 12 by representatives of the music industry and press in Rolling Stone magazine 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, and voted number 3 in the webzine Pitchfork Media 's The 200 Greatest Songs of the 60s. The song is also among three hundred songs deemed the most important ever recorded by National Public Radio (NPR) and was recently selected by the Library of Congress as one of twenty - five selected recordings to the National Recording Registry as of March 2007. The song is currently ranked as the 46th greatest song of all time, as well as the third best song of 1964, by Acclaimed Music. NPR called the song "one of the most important songs of the civil rights era. ''
Despite its acclaim, legal troubles have haunted the single since its release. A dispute between Cooke 's music publisher, ABKCO, and record company, RCA Records, made the recording unavailable for much of the four decades since its release. Although the song was featured prominently in the 1992 film Malcolm X, it could not be included in the film 's soundtrack. By 2003, however, the disputes had been settled in time for the song to be included on the remastered version of Ai n't That Good News, as well as the Cooke anthology Portrait of a Legend.
A live rendition was included in the soundtrack to the 2001 Michael Mann film Ali. James Taylor recorded a version specially for an episode of the same title of the television drama The West Wing. The Allman Brothers Band captured their performance of the song on their 2003 DVD Live at the Beacon Theatre.
Other notable artists who have covered the song include:
In recent years, the song has served as a sample for rappers Ghostface Killah (1996), Ja Rule (2003), Papoose (2006), Lil Wayne (2007) "Long Time Coming (remix) '' Charles Hamilton, Asher Roth, and B.o.B (2009), and Nas 's It Was Written album also features a similar opening as the song. On their album The Reunion hip - hop artists Capone - N - Noreaga used an excerpt from the song on the opening track which shares the same title as the Cooke original. British soul singer Beverley Knight says the song is her all - time favorite and has performed it live many a time; most notably on ' Later with Jools Holland '. On May 6, 2008, during the seventh season of American Idol, the song was sung by contestant Syesha Mercado as the remaining top 4. It was also sung by Joshua Ledet during the Top 7 episode of season 11 (2012), for which he received a standing ovation from the audience. After winning the 2008 United States presidential election, Barack Obama referred to the song, stating to his supporters in Chicago, "It 's been a long time coming, but tonight, change has come to America. '' A duet of the song by Bettye LaVette and Jon Bon Jovi was included in We Are One: The Obama Inaugural Celebration at the Lincoln Memorial. In Washington DC, in the days leading up to the Inauguration of Barack Obama, this song could be heard played constantly in the city centre.
In 2004, Patti LaBelle performed the song on the annual Nobel Peace Prize Concert to a standing ovation.
Julian Casablancas, lead singer of popular rock band The Strokes, has cited "A Change Is Gonna Come '' as his favorite song of all time.
In 2009, Aaron Neville, along with the Mt. Zion Mass Choir, released a version of the song "A Change Is Gonna Come '' on the compilation album Oh Happy Day.
American Idol creator / producer Simon Fuller selected the song for contestant Adam Lambert to sing in the season 8 finale in May, 2009. It was also covered by season 9 semifinalist Lilly Scott in March 2010.
In 2010, one of the finalists of the British The X Factor, Rebecca Ferguson, sang the song for her audition, impressing judges Simon Cowell, Louis Walsh and guest judge Nicole Scherzinger.
The song was performed in the 2011 Miss America Pageant by Miss Kentucky, Djuan Trent.
In 2011, jazz group Afro - Blue performed the song on The Sing - off by request of the judges. The same year, Everlast recorded a version of the song for his album Songs of the Ungrateful Living. Maverick Sabre covered the song on his 2012 album Lonely Are the Brave
On January 1, 2012, the song was the single to be played on the New Zealand radio station Solid Gold FM.
On June 1, 2013 Beyoncé Knowles sang the song during The Sound of Change Live concert in London, as part of Chime for Change, an organization which supports total equality between women and men in all areas of life. Mark Sutherland of Rolling Stone magazine noted that Knowles belted out the song, while Alice Vincent from The Daily Telegraph noted that the rendition of the song reflected the event 's purpose. Later, on July 20, 2013, Knowles performed the song during a stop in Detroit as part of her Mrs. Carter Show World Tour. The performance followed the city 's recent file for bankruptcy. As Knowles performed, the screen behind her displayed photos of Detroit 's landmarks and icons including Aretha Franklin, Aaliyah, Eminem, Anita Baker, Bob Seger, Kid Rock, The White Stripes, Berry Gordy, Jr, Joe Louis. The montage ended with the declaration "Nothing Stops Detroit! '' and Knowles closed the performance by saying "I love you, Detroit ''. A spokesperson for the singer described the performance as a "unique tribute to the history of an incredible city and a celebration of the strong spirit of its people ''. A black - and - white video of the cover was uploaded on Knowles ' official YouTube channel on July 30, 2013. It closes with a quote from Henry Ford: "Failure is simply the opportunity to start over, this time more intelligently. '' A reporter for The Huffington Post reported that the singer 's "heartfelt '' cover of the song "touched '' her fans and the people who loved Detroit. Latifah Muhammad of the Black Entertainment Television wrote that Knowles ' "powerful '' rendition of the song came right on time. An editor for Essence described Knowles ' cover as a "moving tribute to Detroit ''. Jordan Sargent of Spin wrote, "It all might come off as a bit heavy - handed if it was n't for the fact that, well, Beyonce absolutely slays the cover. '' Lauren Moraski from CBS News described the tribute to the city as "touching ''. In 2013 15 - year - old Dwayne Cooke released a video of himself singing "A Change Gonna Come '' on YouTube which has gone viral on Facebook and other social networking sites...
Many stations have played this song to signal the moment of format change (e.g. when KSOC 94.5 in Dallas / Fort Worth, TX changed from urban AC to urban oldies in July 2011).
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when did the lion king first come out | The Lion King - wikipedia
The Lion King is a 1994 American animated epic musical film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. It is the 32nd Disney animated feature film, and the fifth animated film produced during a period known as the Disney Renaissance. The Lion King was directed by Roger Allers and Rob Minkoff, produced by Don Hahn, and has a screenplay credited to Irene Mecchi, Jonathan Roberts, and Linda Woolverton. Its original songs were written by composer Elton John and lyricist Tim Rice, with a score by Hans Zimmer. The film features an ensemble voice cast that includes Matthew Broderick, James Earl Jones, Jeremy Irons, Jonathan Taylor Thomas, Moira Kelly, Nathan Lane, Ernie Sabella, Rowan Atkinson, Robert Guillaume, Madge Sinclair, Whoopi Goldberg, Cheech Marin, and Jim Cummings. The story takes place in a kingdom of lions in Africa and was influenced by William Shakespeare 's Hamlet.
The Lion King tells the story of Simba, a young lion who is to succeed his father, Mufasa, as King of the Pride Lands; however, after Simba 's uncle Scar (Mufasa 's jealous younger brother), murders Mufasa, Simba is manipulated into thinking he was responsible and flees into exile. Upon maturation living with two wastrels, Simba is given some valuable perspective from his childhood friend, Nala, and his shaman, Rafiki, before returning to challenge Scar to end his tyranny and take his place in the Circle of Life as the rightful King.
Development of The Lion King began in 1988 during a meeting between Jeffrey Katzenberg, Roy E. Disney, and Peter Schneider while promoting Oliver & Company in Europe. Thomas Disch wrote a film treatment, and Woolverton developed the first scripts while George Scribner was signed on as director, being later joined by Allers. Production began in 1991 concurrently with Pocahontas, which wound up attracting most of Disney 's top animators. Some time after the staff traveled to Hell 's Gate National Park in Kenya to research on the film 's setting and animals, Scribner left production disagreeing with the decision to turn the film into a musical and was replaced by Minkoff. When Hahn joined the project, he was dissatisfied with the script and the story was promptly rewritten. Nearly 20 minutes of animation sequences were produced at Disney 's Hollywood Studios theme park in Florida. Computer animation was also used in several scenes, most notably in the wildebeest stampede sequence.
The Lion King was released on June 15, 1994, to a positive reaction from critics, who praised the film for its music, story, and animation. With a worldwide gross of $766 million, it finished its theatrical run as the highest - grossing release of 1994 and the second highest - grossing film of all time. It is also the highest - grossing traditionally animated film of all time. The Lion King garnered two Academy Awards for its achievement in music and the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy. The film has led to many derived works, such as a Broadway adaptation; two direct - to - video follow - ups -- the sequel, The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride (1998), and the prequel / parallel, The Lion King 11⁄2 (2004); two television series, Timon and Pumbaa and The Lion Guard; and a 3D re-release, in 2011.
In 2016, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. A CGI remake of the film directed by Jon Favreau is scheduled for a July 19, 2019 release in the United States.
In the Pride Lands of Kenya, Africa, a pride of lions rule over the animal kingdom from Pride Rock. King Mufasa 's newborn son, Simba, is presented to the assembled animals by Rafiki the baboon (with the colorful facial marking of a mandrill) who serves as shaman and advisor. Mufasa shows young Simba the Pride Lands and explains to him the responsibilities of kingship and the "circle of life '' which connects all living things. Mufasa 's younger brother, Scar, covets the throne and plots to eliminate Mufasa and Simba so he may become king. He tricks Simba and his best friend Nala -- to whom Simba is betrothed -- into exploring a forbidden elephants ' graveyard, where they are attacked by three spotted hyenas who are in league with Scar. Mufasa is alerted to the danger by his majordomo, the hornbill Zazu, and rescues the cubs. Though angry with Simba, Mufasa forgives him and explains that the great kings of the past watch over them from the night sky, from which he will one day watch over Simba.
Scar sets a trap for his brother and nephew, luring Simba into a gorge and having the hyenas drive a large herd of wildebeest into a stampede that will trample him. He informs Mufasa of Simba 's peril, knowing the king will rush to save his son. Mufasa saves Simba but ends up hanging perilously from the gorge 's edge. Scar refuses to help Mufasa, instead sending him falling to his death. He then convinces Simba that the tragedy was Simba 's own fault and advises him to flee the kingdom. He orders the hyenas to kill the cub, but Simba escapes. Scar tells the pride that both Mufasa and Simba were killed in the stampede and steps forward as the new king, allowing his three hyena minions and the rest of their large pack to live in the Pride Lands.
Simba collapses in a desert and is rescued by Timon and Pumbaa, a meerkat and warthog who are fellow outcasts. Simba grows up in the jungle with his two new friends, living a carefree life under the motto "hakuna matata '' ("no worries '' in Swahili). Now a young adult, Simba rescues Timon and Pumbaa from a hungry lioness who turns out to be Nala. She and Simba reunite and fall in love, and she urges him to return home, telling him the Pride Lands have become a drought - stricken wasteland under Scar 's reign. Feeling guilty over his father 's death, Simba refuses and storms off. He encounters Rafiki, who tells him that Mufasa 's spirit lives on in Simba. Simba is visited by the ghost of Mufasa in the night sky, who tells him he must take his rightful place as king. Realizing he can no longer run from his past, Simba decides to return home.
Aided by his friends, Simba sneaks past the hyenas at Pride Rock and confronts Scar. Scar taunts him over his role in Mufasa 's death and backs him to the edge of the rock, where he reveals to Simba that he murdered Mufasa. Enraged, Simba pins Scar to the ground and forces him to reveal the truth to the rest of the pride. Timon, Pumbaa, Rafiki, Zazu, and the lionesses fend off the hyenas while Scar, attempting to escape, is cornered by Simba at the top of Pride Rock. Scar begs for mercy and attempts to blame the hyenas for his actions; Simba spares his life but orders him to leave the Pride Lands forever. Scar attacks his nephew, but Simba manages to toss him from the top of the rock. Scar survives the fall but is killed by the hyenas, who overheard him betray them to Simba. With his enemies gone, Simba takes over the kingship as the rains begin to fall, restoring life to the land.
Later, with Pride Rock restored to its former glory, Rafiki presents Simba and Nala 's newborn cub to the assembled animals, continuing the circle of life.
The idea for The Lion King was conceived in late 1988 during a conversation between Jeffrey Katzenberg, Roy E. Disney and Peter Schneider on a plane to Europe to promote Oliver & Company. During the conversation, the topic of a story set in Africa came up, and Katzenberg immediately jumped at the idea. The idea was then developed by Walt Disney Feature Animation 's vice president for creative affairs Charlie Fink. Katzenberg decided to add elements involving coming of age and death, and ideas from personal life experiences, such as some of his trials in his bumpy road in politics, saying about the film, "It is a little bit about myself. '' In November of that year Thomas Disch (author of The Brave Little Toaster) wrote a treatment entitled King of the Kalahari, and afterwards, Linda Woolverton spent a year writing drafts of the script, which was titled King of the Beasts and then King of the Jungle. The original version of the film was very different from the final film. The plot was centered in a battle being between lions and baboons with Scar being the leader of the baboons, Rafiki being a cheetah, and Timon and Pumbaa being Simba 's childhood friends. Simba would also not leave the kingdom but become a "lazy, slovenly, horrible character '' due to manipulations from Scar, so Simba could be overthrown after coming of age. By 1990, producer Thomas Schumacher, who had just completed The Rescuers Down Under, decided to attach himself to the project "because lions are cool ''. Schumacher likened the script for King of the Jungle to "an animated National Geographic special ''.
Oliver & Company director George Scribner was the initial director of the film, being later joined by Roger Allers, who was the lead story man on Beauty and the Beast in October 1991. Allers brought with him Brenda Chapman, who would become the head of story. Afterwards, several of the lead crew members, including Allers, Scribner, Hahn, Chapman, and production designer Chris Sanders, took a trip to Hell 's Gate National Park in Kenya, in order to study and gain an appreciation of the environment for the film. After six months of story development work Scribner decided to leave the project, as he clashed with Allers and the producers on their decision to turn the film into a musical, as Scribner 's intention was of making a documentary - like film more focused on natural aspects. Rob Minkoff replaced Scribner, and producer Don Hahn joined the production as Schumacher became only an executive producer due to Disney promoting him to Vice President of Development for Feature Animation. Hahn found the script unfocused and lacking a clear theme, and after establishing the main theme as "leaving childhood and facing up to the realities of the world '', asked for a final retool. Allers, Minkoff, Chapman and Hahn then rewrote the story across two weeks of meetings with directors Kirk Wise and Gary Trousdale, who had just finished Beauty and the Beast. The script also had its title changed from King of the Jungle to The Lion King, as the setting was not the jungle but the savannah.
The Lion King was the first Disney animated feature to be an original story, rather than be based on an already existing work. The filmmakers have said that the story of The Lion King was inspired by the lives of Joseph and Moses, from the Bible, and William Shakespeare 's Hamlet. During the summer of 1992, the team was joined by screenwriter Irene Mecchi, with a second screenwriter, Jonathan Roberts, joining a few months later. Mecchi and Roberts took charge of the revision process, fixing unresolved emotional issues in the script and adding comic business for Pumbaa, Timon, and the hyenas. Lyricist Tim Rice worked closely with the writing team, flying to California at least once a month because his songs needed to work in the narrative continuity. Rice 's lyrics -- which were reworked up to the production 's end -- were pinned to the storyboards during development. Rewrites were frequent, with animator Andreas Deja saying that completed scenes would be delivered, only for the response to be that parts needed to be reanimated because of dialog changes.
The voice actors were chosen for how they fit and could add to the characters -- for instance, James Earl Jones was cast because the directors found his voice "powerful '' and similar to a lion 's roar. Jones commented that during the years of production, Mufasa "became more and more of a dopey dad instead of (a) grand king ''.
Nathan Lane originally auditioned for Zazu, and Ernie Sabella for one of the hyenas. Upon meeting each other at the recording studio, the actors, who at the time both co-starred in Guys and Dolls, were asked to record together as hyenas. The directors laughed at their performance and decided to cast them as Timon and Pumbaa. For the hyenas, the original intention was to reunite Cheech & Chong, but while Cheech Marin accepted to play Banzai, Tommy Chong was unavailable. Thus his role was changed into a female hyena, Shenzi, who was voiced by Whoopi Goldberg.
Matthew Broderick was cast as adult Simba early during production, and during the three years of voice acting only recorded with another actor once, and only discovered Moira Kelly voiced Nala at the premiere. English actors Tim Curry and Malcolm McDowell were originally considered for the role of Scar, however, Curry left the role due to Home Alone 2: Lost in New York, and it was ultimately won by English actor Jeremy Irons. Irons had at first refused the role due to not being comfortable going from the dramatic performance as Claus von Bülow in Reversal of Fortune to a comedic role. But once he came in, Irons ' performance even inspired the writers to incorporate more of his acting as von Bülow -- adding one of that character 's lines, "You have no idea '' -- and animator Andreas Deja to watch both Reversal of Fortune and Damage to pick up Irons 's facial traits and tics.
Don Hahn
The development of The Lion King coincided with that of Pocahontas, which most of the animators of Walt Disney Feature Animation decided to work on instead, believing it would be the more prestigious and successful of the two. The story artists also did not have much faith in the project, with Chapman declaring she was reluctant to accept the job "because the story was n't very good '', and writer Burny Mattinson saying to co-worker Joe Ranft "I do n't know who is going to want to watch that one. '' Most of the leading animators either were doing their first major work supervising a character, or had much interest in animating an animal. Thirteen of these supervising animators, both in California and in Florida, were responsible for establishing the personalities and setting the tone for the film 's main characters. The animation leads for the main characters included Mark Henn on young Simba, Ruben A. Aquino on adult Simba, Andreas Deja on Scar, Aaron Blaise on young Nala, Anthony DeRosa on adult Nala, and Tony Fucile on Mufasa. Nearly 20 minutes of the film, including the "I Just Ca n't Wait to Be King '' sequence, were animated at the Disney - MGM Studios facility. More than 600 artists, animators, and technicians contributed to The Lion King. Weeks before the film was to be released, the 1994 Northridge earthquake shut down the studio and required the animators to finish their work from home.
The character animators studied real - life animals for reference, as was done for the 1942 Disney film Bambi. Jim Fowler, renowned wildlife expert, visited the studios on several occasions with an assortment of lions and other savannah inhabitants to discuss behavior and help the animators give their drawings authenticity. The animators also studied animal movements at the Miami MetroZoo under guidance from wildlife expert Ron Magill. The Pride Lands are modeled on the Kenyan national park visited by the crew. Varied focal lengths and lenses were employed to differ from the habitual portrayal of Africa in documentaries -- which employ telephoto lenses to shoot the wildlife from a distance. The epic feel drew inspiration from concept studies by artist Hans Bacher -- which, following Scribner 's request for realism, tried to depict effects such as lens flare -- and the works of painters Charles Marion Russell, Frederic Remington and Maxfield Parrish. Art director Andy Gaskill and the filmmakers sought to give the film a sense of grand sweep and epic scale similar to David Lean 's Lawrence of Arabia. Gaskill explained: "We wanted audiences to sense the vastness of the savannah and to feel the dust and the breeze swaying through the grass. In other words, to get a real sense of nature and to feel as if they were there. It 's very difficult to capture something as subtle as a sunrise or rain falling on a pond, but those are the kinds of images that we tried to get. '' The filmmakers also watched the films of John Ford and other filmmakers, which also had an impact on the design of the film.
Because the characters were not anthropomorphized, all the animators had to learn to draw four - legged animals, and the story and character development was done through use of longer shots following the characters.
Computers helped the filmmakers present their vision in new ways. For the "wildebeest stampede '' sequence, several distinct wildebeest characters were created in a 3D computer program, multiplied into hundreds, cel shaded to look like drawn animation, and given randomized paths down a mountainside to simulate the real, unpredictable movement of a herd. Five specially trained animators and technicians spent more than two years creating the two - and - a-half - minute stampede. The CAPS helped simulate camera movements such as tracking shots, and was employed in coloring, lighting, and particle effects.
Lyricist Tim Rice, who was working with composer Alan Menken on songs for Aladdin, was invited to write the songs, and accepted on the condition of finding a composing partner. As Menken was unavailable, the producers accepted Rice 's suggestion of Elton John, after Rice 's invitation of ABBA fell through due to Benny Andersson being busy with the musical Kristina från Duvemåla. John expressed an interest in writing "ultra-pop songs that kids would like; then adults can go and see those movies and get just as much pleasure out of them '', mentioning a possible influence of The Jungle Book, where he felt the "music was so funny and appealed to kids and adults ''.
John and Rice wrote five original songs for the film ("Circle of Life '', "I Just Ca n't Wait to Be King '', "Be Prepared '', "Hakuna Matata '' and "Can You Feel the Love Tonight ''), with John 's performance of "Can You Feel the Love Tonight '' playing over the end credits. The IMAX and DVD releases added another song, "The Morning Report '', based on a song discarded during development that eventually featured in the live musical version of The Lion King. The score was composed by Hans Zimmer, who was hired based on his work in two films in African settings, The Power of One and A World Apart, and supplemented the score with traditional African music and choir elements arranged by Lebo M. Zimmer 's partners Mark Mancina and Jay Rifkin helped with arrangements and song production.
The Lion King original motion picture soundtrack was released by Walt Disney Records on July 13, 1994. It was the fourth - best - selling album of the year on the Billboard 200 and the top - selling soundtrack. It is the only soundtrack for an animated film to be certified Diamond (10 × platinum) by the Recording Industry Association of America. Zimmer 's complete instrumental score for the film was never originally given a full release, until the soundtrack 's commemorative 20th anniversary re-release in 2014. The Lion King also inspired the 1995 release Rhythm of the Pride Lands, with eight songs by Zimmer, Mancina, and Lebo M.
The use of the song "The Lion Sleeps Tonight '' in a scene with Timon and Pumbaa led to disputes between Disney and the family of South African Solomon Linda, who composed the song (originally titled "Mbube '') in 1939. In July 2004, Linda 's family filed suit, seeking $1.6 million in royalties from Disney. In February 2006, Linda 's heirs reached a legal settlement with Abilene Music, who held the worldwide rights and had licensed the song to Disney for an undisclosed amount of money.
For The Lion King 's first film trailer, Disney opted to feature a single scene, the entire opening sequence with the song "Circle of Life ''. Buena Vista Pictures Distribution president Dick Cook said the decision was made for such an approach because "we were all so taken by the beauty and majesty of this piece that we felt like it was probably one of the best four minutes of film that we 've seen '', and Don Hahn added that "Circle of Life '' worked as a trailer as it "came off so strong, and so good, and ended with such a bang ''. The trailer was released in November 1993, accompanying The Three Musketeers in theaters, as only a third of The Lion King had been completed. Audience reaction was enthusiastic, causing Hahn to have some initial concerns as he became afraid of not living up to the expectations raised by the preview. Prior to the film 's release, Disney did 11 test screenings.
Upon release, The Lion King was accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign which included tie - ins with Burger King, Mattel, Kodak, Nestlé and Payless ShoeSource, and various merchandise, accounting 186 licensed products. In 1994, Disney earned approximately $1 billion with products based on the film, with $214 million for Lion King toys during Christmas 1994 alone.
The Lion King was first released on VHS and laserdisc in the United States on March 3, 1995, under Disney 's "Masterpiece Collection '' video series. The VHS tape contained a special preview for Walt Disney Pictures ' then - upcoming animated film Pocahontas, in which the title character (voiced by Judy Kuhn) sings the musical number "Colors of the Wind ''. In addition, Deluxe Editions of both formats were released. The VHS Deluxe Edition included the film, an exclusive lithograph of Rafiki and Simba (in some editions), a commemorative "Circle of Life '' epigraph, six concept art lithographs, another tape with the half - hour TV show The Making of The Lion King, and a certificate of authenticity. The CAV laserdisc Deluxe Edition also contained the film, six concept art lithographs and The Making of The Lion King, and added storyboards, character design artwork, concept art, rough animation, and a directors ' commentary that the VHS edition did not have, on a total of four double sided discs. The VHS tape quickly became the best - selling videotape of all time: 4.5 million tapes were sold on the first day and ultimately sales totaled more than 30 million before these home video versions went into moratorium in 1997.
On October 7, 2003, the film was re-released on VHS and released on DVD for the first time, titled The Lion King: Platinum Edition, as part of Disney 's Platinum Edition line of animated classic DVDs. The DVD release featured two versions of the film on the first disc, a remastered version created for the 2002 IMAX release and an edited version of the IMAX release purporting to be the original 1994 theatrical version. A second disc, with bonus features, was also included in the DVD release. The film 's soundtrack was provided both in its original Dolby 5.1 track and in a new Disney Enhanced Home Theater Mix, making this one of the first Disney DVDs so equipped. By means of seamless branching, the film could be viewed either with or without a newly created scene -- a short conversation in the film replaced with a complete song ("The Morning Report ''). A Special Collector 's Gift Set was also released, containing the DVD set, five exclusive lithographed character portraits (new sketches created and signed by the original character animators), and an introductory book entitled The Journey. The Platinum Edition of The Lion King featured changes made to the film during its IMAX re-release, including re-drawn crocodiles in the "I Just Ca n't Wait to Be King '' sequence as well as other alterations. More than two million copies of the Platinum Edition DVD and VHS units were sold on the first day of release. A DVD boxed set of the three The Lion King films (in two - disc Special Edition formats) was released on December 6, 2004. In January 2005, the film, along with the sequels, went back into moratorium.
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the Diamond Edition of The Lion King on October 4, 2011. This marks the time that the film has been released in high - definition Blu - ray and on Blu - ray 3D. The initial release was produced in three different packages: a two - disc version with Blu - ray and DVD; a four - disc version with Blu - ray, DVD, Blu - ray 3D, and digital copy; and an eight - disc box set that also includes the sequels The Lion King 2: Simba 's Pride and The Lion King 11⁄2. A standalone single - disc DVD release also followed on November 15, 2011. The Diamond Edition topped the Blu - ray charts with over 1.5 million copies sold. The film sold 3.83 million Blu - ray units in total, leading to a $101.14 million income.
The Lion King was once again released to home media as part of the Walt Disney Signature Collection; first released on Digital HD on August 15, 2017 and on Blu - ray and DVD on August 29, 2017.
The Lion King earned $422,783,777 in North America and an $545,700,000 in other territories for a worldwide total of $968,483,777. It is currently the 35th highest - grossing film of all time, the seventh highest - grossing animated film of all time worldwide and the third highest - grossing film of Walt Disney Animation Studios (behind Frozen and Zootopia). The film was also the highest - grossing motion picture of 1994 worldwide. After its initial run, having earned $763.4 million, it ranked as the second - highest - grossing film of all time worldwide, behind Jurassic Park. It held the record for the highest - grossing animated feature film (in North America, outside North America, and worldwide) until it was surpassed by the computer animated Finding Nemo (2003), Shrek 2 (2004), Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs (2009), and Toy Story 3 (2010) prior to the 2011 re-release. With the earnings of the 3D run, The Lion King surpassed all the aforementioned films but Toy Story 3 to rank as the second - highest - grossing animated film worldwide -- later downgraded to eighth after Despicable Me 2, Frozen (both 2013), Minions (2015), Zootopia, Finding Dory, (both 2016), and Despicable Me 3 (2017) -- and it remains the highest - grossing hand - drawn animated film. It is also the biggest animated movie of the last 50 years in terms of estimated attendance.
The Lion King had a limited release in North America on June 15, 1994, playing in only two theaters, El Capitan Theater in Los Angeles and Radio City Music Hall in New York City. It still earned $1,586,753 across the weekend of June 17 -- 19, standing at the tenth place of the box office ranking. The average of $793,377 per theater stands as the largest ever achieved during a weekend. The wide release followed on June 24, 1994, in 2,550 screens. The digital surround sound of the film led many of those theaters to implement Dolby Laboratories ' newest sound systems. The Lion King grossed $40.9 million -- which at the time was the fourth biggest opening weekend earning ever and the highest sum for a Disney film -- to top the weekend box office. It also earned a rare "A + '' rating from CinemaScore. By the end of its theatrical run, in spring 1995, it had earned $312,855,561, being the second - highest - grossing 1994 film in North America behind Forrest Gump. Outside North America, it earned $455.8 million during its initial run, for a worldwide total of $768.6 million. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 74 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run.
The film was re-issued on December 25, 2002 for IMAX and large - format theaters. Don Hahn explained that eight years after The Lion King got its original release, "there was a whole new generation of kids who have n't really seen it, particularly on the big screen. '' Given the film had already been digitally archived during production, the restoration process was easier, while also providing many scenes with enhancements that covered up original deficiencies. An enhanced sound mix was also provided to, as Hahn explained, "make the audience feel like they 're in the middle of the movie. '' On its first weekend, The Lion King made $2.7 million from 66 locations, a $27,664 per theater average. This run ended with $15,686,215 on May 30, 2003.
In 2011, The Lion King was converted to 3D for a two - week limited theatrical re-issue and subsequent 3D Blu - ray release. The film opened at the number one spot on Friday, September 16, 2011 with $8.9 million and finished the weekend with $30.2 million, ranking number one at the box office. This made The Lion King the first re-issue release to earn the number - one slot at the American weekend box office since the re-issue of Return of the Jedi in March 1997. The film also achieved the fourth - highest September opening weekend of all time. It held off very well on its second weekend, again earning first place at the box office with a 27 percent decline to $21.9 million. Most box - office observers had expected the film to fall about 50 percent in its second weekend and were also expecting Moneyball to be at first place.
After its initial box - office success, many theaters decided to continue to show the film for more than two weeks, even though its 3D Blu - ray release was scheduled for two - and - a-half weeks after its theatrical release. In North America, the 3D re-release ended its run in theaters on January 12, 2012 with a gross $94,242,001. Outside North America, it earned $83,400,000. The successful 3D re-release of The Lion King made Disney and Pixar plan 3D theatrical re-releases of Beauty and the Beast, Finding Nemo, Monsters, Inc., and The Little Mermaid during 2012 and 2013. However, none of the re-releases of the first three films achieved the enormous success of The Lion King 3D and theatrical re-release of The Little Mermaid was ultimately cancelled. In 2012, Ray Subers of Box Office Mojo wrote that the reason why the 3D version of The Lion King succeeded was because, "the notion of a 3D re-release was still fresh and exciting, and The Lion King (3D) felt timely given the movie 's imminent Blu - ray release. Audiences have been hit with three 3D re-releases in the year since, meaning the novelty value has definitely worn off. ''
The Lion King was released to critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 91 %, based on 113 reviews, with an average rating of 8.3 out of 10. It also ranked 56th on their "Top 100 Animation Movies ''. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Emotionally stirring, richly drawn, and beautifully animated, The Lion King stands tall within Disney 's pantheon of classic family films. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 83 out of 100, based on 14 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare "A + '' grade.
Roger Ebert gave it 3 1 / 2 out of 4 - stars and called the film "a superbly drawn animated feature '' and, in his print review wrote, "The saga of Simba, which in its deeply buried origins owes something to Greek tragedy and certainly to Hamlet, is a learning experience as well as an entertainment. '' On the television program Siskel & Ebert, the film was praised but received a mixed reaction when compared to previous Disney films. Ebert and his partner Gene Siskel both gave the film a "Thumbs Up '' but Siskel said that it was not as good as earlier films such as Beauty and the Beast and was "a good film, not a great one ''. Hal Hinson of The Washington Post called it "an impressive, almost daunting achievement '' and felt that the film was "spectacular in a manner that has nearly become commonplace with Disney 's feature - length animations '', but was less enthusiastic toward the end of his review saying, "Shakespearean in tone, epic in scope, it seems more appropriate for grown - ups than for kids. If truth be told, even for adults it is downright strange. ''
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly praised the film, writing that it "has the resonance to stand not just as a terrific cartoon but as an emotionally pungent movie ''. Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers praised the film and felt that it was "a hugely entertaining blend of music, fun and eye - popping thrills, though it does n't lack for heart ''. James Berardinelli from ReelViews praised the film saying, "With each new animated release, Disney seems to be expanding its already - broad horizons a little more. The Lion King is the most mature (in more than one sense) of these films, and there clearly has been a conscious effort to please adults as much as children. Happily, for those of us who generally stay far away from ' cartoons ', they have succeeded. ''
Some reviewers still had problems with the film 's narrative. The staff of TV Guide wrote that while The Lion King was technically proficient and entertaining, it "offers a less memorable song score than did the previous hits, and a hasty, unsatisfying dramatic resolution. '' The New Yorker 's Terrence Rafferty considered that despite the good animation, the story felt like "manipulat (ing) our responses at will '', as "Between traumas, the movie serves up soothingly banal musical numbers and silly, rambunctious comedy ''.
The Lion King received four Golden Globe and Academy Award nominations. The film would go on to win two Golden Globes; for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy and Best Original Score, as well as two Academy Awards, for Best Original Score (Hans Zimmer) and Best Original Song with "Can You Feel the Love Tonight '' by Elton John and Tim Rice. The songs "Circle of Life '' and "Hakuna Matata '' were also nominated. "Can You Feel the Love Tonight '' also won the Grammy Award for Best Male Vocal Performance. The Lion King also won Annie Awards for Best Animated Feature, Best Achievement in Voice Acting (for Jeremy Irons) and Best Individual Achievement for Story Contribution in the Field of Animation.
At the Saturn Awards, the film was nominated in two categories, Best Fantasy Film and Best Performance by a Younger Actor although it did not win in either category. The film also received two nominations at the British Academy Film Awards, for Best Sound as well as the Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music although it lost in both categories to Speed and Backbeat respectively. The film received two BMI Film & TV Awards for Film Music and Most Performed Song with "Can You Feel the Love Tonight. '' At the 1995 MTV Movie Awards, the film received nominations for Best Villain and Best Song, though it lost in both categories. The Lion King won the Kids ' Choice Award for Favorite Movie at the 1995 Kids ' Choice Awards.
In 2008, The Lion King was ranked as the 319th greatest film ever made by Empire magazine, and in June 2011, TIME named it one of "The 25 All - TIME Best Animated Films ''. In June 2008, the American Film Institute listed The Lion King as the fourth best film in the animation genre in its AFI 's 10 Top 10 list, having previously put "Hakuna Matata '' as 99th on its AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs ranking.
In 2016, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Certain elements of the film were considered to bear a resemblance to a 1960s Japanese anime television series, Jungle Emperor (known as Kimba the White Lion in the United States), with characters having similar analogues, and various individual scenes being similar in composition to the show. Matthew Broderick believed initially that he was, in fact, working on an American version of Kimba since he was familiar with the Japanese original. The Lion King director Roger Allers claimed complete unfamiliarity with the show until the movie was almost completed, and did not remember it being ever mentioned during development. Co-director Rob Minkoff also stated that he was unfamiliar with it. Minkoff also observed that whenever a story is based in Africa, it is "not unusual to have characters like a baboon, a bird or hyenas. '' Yoshihiro Shimizu, of Tezuka Productions, which created Kimba the White Lion, has refuted rumors that the studio was paid hush money by Disney but explains that they rejected urges from within the industry to sue because, "we 're a small, weak company. It would n't be worth it anyway... Disney 's lawyers are among the top twenty in the world! '' Fred Ladd, who was involved early on with importing Kimba and other Japanese into America for NBC, expressed incredulity that Disney 's people could remain ignorant. Ladd stated there was at least one animator remembered by his colleagues as being an avid Kimba fan and being quite vociferous about Disney 's conduct during production. Animators Tom Sito and Mark Kausler who both have story credits have both admitted to watching Kimba, and assumed many of their colleagues had too, especially if they grew up in the 60s. But Sito insisted there was no conscious effort to derive work from Kimba, and Kausler emphasized Disney 's own Bambi as being their model during development.
Protests were raised against one scene where it appears as if the word "SEX '' might have been embedded into the dust flying in the sky when Simba flops down, which conservative activist Donald Wildmon asserted was a subliminal message intended to promote sexual promiscuity. Animator Tom Sito has stated that the letters spell "SFX '' (a common abbreviation for "special effects ''), not with an "E '' instead of the "F '', and were intended as an innocent "signature '' created by the effects animation team.
Hyena biologists protested against the animal 's portrayal: one hyena researcher sued Disney studios for defamation of character, and another -- who had organized the animators ' visit to the University of California 's Field Station for Behavioural Research, where they would observe and sketch captive hyenas -- included boycotting The Lion King among the ways it would help preserve hyenas in the wild. The hyenas have also been interpreted to represent an anti-immigrant allegory, where the hyenas would be black and Latino ethnic communities. The film has also been criticised for advancing a fascist narrative in its portrayal of the lion kingdom and the circle of life where "only the strong and the beautiful triumph, and the powerless survive only by serving the strong. ''
The first Lion King - related animated projects involved the characters of Timon and Pumbaa. First, the duo starred in the animated short "Stand by Me '', featuring Timon singing the eponymous song, which was released in 1995 accompanying the theatrical release of Tom and Huck. The duo then received their own animated series, The Lion King 's Timon and Pumbaa, which ran for three seasons and 85 episodes between 1995 and 1999. Ernie Sabella continued to voice Pumbaa, while Timon was voiced by Quinton Flynn and Kevin Schon in addition to Nathan Lane.
Disney released two direct - to - video films related to The Lion King. The first was sequel The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride, released in 1998 on VHS. The film centers around Simba and Nala 's daughter, Kiara, who falls in love with Kovu, a male lion who was raised in a pride of Scar 's followers, the Outsiders. 2004 saw the release of another Lion King film on DVD, The Lion King 11⁄2. It is a prequel in showing how Timon and Pumbaa met each other, and also a parallel in that it also depicts what the characters were retconned to have done during the events of the original movie.
In June 2014, it was announced that a new TV series based on the film would be released called The Lion Guard, featuring Kion, the second - born cub of Simba and Nala. The Lion Guard is a sequel to The Lion King and takes place during the time - gap within The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride. It was first broadcast on Disney Channel as a television film titled The Lion Guard: Return of the Roar in November 2015 before airing as a series on Disney Junior in January 2016.
In September 2016, following the critical and financial success of The Jungle Book, Walt Disney Pictures announced that they were developing a CGI remake of The Lion King by the same name, with Jon Favreau directing. The following month, Jeff Nathanson was hired to write the script for the film. Favreau originally planned shoot it back to back with the sequel to The Jungle Book. However, it was reported in early 2017 that the latter film was put on hold in order for Favreau to instead focus mainly on The Lion King. In February 2017, Favreau announced that Donald Glover had been cast as Simba and that James Earl Jones would be reprising the role of Mufasa. The following month, it was reported that Beyoncé was Favreau 's top choice to voice Nala, but she had not accepted the role yet due to a pregnancy. In April 2017, Billy Eichner and Seth Rogen joined the film as Timon and Pumbaa, respectively. Two months later, John Oliver was cast as Zazu. At the end of July 2017, Beyoncé had reportedly entered final negotiations to play Nala and contribute the soundtrack as well. The following month, Chiwetel Ejiofor entered talks to play Scar. Later on, Alfre Woodard and John Kani joined the film as Sarabi and Rafiki, respectively. On November 1, 2017, Beyoncé and Chiwetel Ejiofor were officially confirmed to voice Nala and Scar with Eric Andre, Florence Kasumba, Keegan - Michael Key, JD McCrary and Shahadi Wright Joseph joining the cast as the voices of Azizi, Shenzi and Kamari, young Simba and young Nala, respectively while Hans Zimmer would return to score the film 's music. On November 28, 2017, it was reported that Elton John had signed onto the project to rework his musical compositions from the original film.
Production for the film began in May 2017. It is scheduled for release on July 19, 2019.
Along with the film release, three different video games based on The Lion King were released by Virgin Interactive in December 1994. The main title was developed by Westwood Studios, and published for PC and Amiga computers and the consoles SNES and Sega Mega Drive / Genesis. Dark Technologies created the Game Boy version, while Syrox Developments handled the Master System and Game Gear version. The film and sequel Simba 's Pride later inspired another game, Torus Games ' The Lion King: Simba 's Mighty Adventure (2000) for the Game Boy Color and PlayStation. Timon and Pumbaa also appeared in Timon & Pumbaa 's Jungle Games, a 1995 PC game collection of puzzle games by 7th Level, later ported to the SNES by Tiertex.
The Square Enix series Kingdom Hearts features Simba as a recurring summon, as well as a playable in the Lion King world, known as Pride Lands, in Kingdom Hearts II. There the plotline is loosely related to the later part of the original film, with all of the main characters except Zazu and Sarabi. The Lion King also provides one of the worlds featured in the 2011 action - adventure game Disney Universe, and Simba was featured in the Nintendo DS title Disney Friends (2008).
Walt Disney Theatrical produced a musical stage adaptation of the same name, which premiered in Minneapolis, Minnesota in July 1997, and later opened on Broadway in October 1997 at the New Amsterdam Theatre. The Lion King musical was directed by Julie Taymor and featured songs from both the movie and Rhythm of the Pride Lands, along with three new compositions by Elton John and Tim Rice. Mark Mancina did the musical arrangements and new orchestral tracks. The musical became one of the most successful in Broadway history, winning six Tony Awards including Best Musical, and despite moving to the Minskoff Theatre in 2006, is still running to this day in New York, becoming the third longest - running show and highest grossing Broadway production in history. The show 's financial success led to adaptations all over the world.
The Lion King inspired two attractions retelling the story of the film at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts. The first, "The Legend of the Lion King '', featured a recreation of the film through life - size puppets of its characters, and ran from 1994 to 2002 at Magic Kingdom in Walt Disney World. Another that is still running is the live - action 30 - minute musical revue of the movie, "Festival of the Lion King '', which incorporates the musical numbers into gymnastic routines with live actors, along with animatronic puppets of Simba and Pumba and a costumed actor as Timon. The attraction opened in April 1998 at Disney World 's Animal Kingdom, and in September 2005 in Hong Kong Disneyland 's Adventureland. A similar version under the name "The Legend of the Lion King '' was featured in Disneyland Paris from 2004 to 2009.
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how much of new orleans is below sea level | New Orleans - Wikipedia
New Orleans (/ ˈɔːrl (i) ənz, ɔːr ˈliːnz /, locally / ˈnɔːrlənz /; French: La Nouvelle - Orléans (la nuvɛlɔʁleɑ̃) (listen)) is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana.
The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U.S. Census. The New Orleans metropolitan area (New Orleans -- Metairie -- Kenner Metropolitan Statistical Area) had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans -- Metairie -- Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a larger trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. Before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranked third, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish and East Baton Rouge Parish. The city of New Orleans is geographically coextensive with Orleans Parish.
The city is known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is famous for its cuisine, music (particularly as the birthplace of jazz) and its annual celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is often referred to as the "most unique '' in the United States.
New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, and occupies both sides of the Mississippi River. The heart of the city and its French Quarter is on the river 's north side. The city and Orleans Parish (French: paroisse d'Orléans) are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which lies within the city limits, lies to the north and Lake Borgne lies to the east.
The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723. It has many illustrative nicknames:
La Nouvelle - Orléans (New Orleans) was founded in Spring of 1718 (May 7 has become the traditional date to mark the anniversary, but the actual day is unknown) by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time. His title came from the French city of Orléans.
The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris (1763). During the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a southern campaign against the British from the city in 1779. Nueva Orleans (the name of New Orleans in Spanish) remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French rule. Nearly all of the surviving 18th - century architecture of the Vieux Carré (French Quarter) dates from the Spanish period, notably excepting the Old Ursuline Convent.
Napoleon sold Louisiana (New France) to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans and Italians. Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on nearby large plantations.
Thousands of refugees from the 1804 Haitian Revolution, both whites and free people of color (affranchis or gens de couleur libres), arrived in New Orleans, often accompanied by slaves of African descent. While Governor Claiborne and other officials wanted to keep out additional free black people, the French Creoles wanted to increase the French - speaking population. As more refugees were allowed into the Territory of Orleans, Haitian émigrés who had first gone to Cuba also arrived. Many of the white Francophones had been deported by officials in Cuba in retaliation for Bonapartist schemes.
Nearly 90 percent of these immigrants settled in New Orleans. The 1809 migration brought 2,731 whites; 3,102 free persons of African descent; and 3,226 slaves of African descent, doubling the city 's population. The city became 63 percent black, a greater proportion than Charleston, South Carolina 's 53 percent.
During the final campaign of the War of 1812, the British sent a force of 11,000 in an attempt to capture New Orleans. Despite great challenges, General Andrew Jackson, with support from the U.S. Navy, successfully cobbled together a force of militia from Louisiana and Mississippi, including free men of color, U.S. Army regulars, a large contingent of Tennessee state militia, Kentucky riflemen, Choctaw fighters and local privateers (the latter led by the pirate Jean Lafitte), to decisively defeat the British troops, led by Sir Edward Pakenham, in the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815.
The armies had not learned of the Treaty of Ghent that had been signed on December 24, 1814 (however, the treaty did not call for cessation of hostilities until after both governments had ratified it. The U.S. government ratified it on February 16, 1815). The fighting in Louisiana had begun in December 1814 and did not end until late January, after the Americans held off the British Navy during a ten - day siege of Fort St. Philip (the Royal Navy went on to capture Fort Bowyer near Mobile, before the commanders received news of the peace treaty).
As a port, New Orleans played a major role during the antebellum era in the Atlantic slave trade. The port handled commodities for export from the interior and imported goods from other countries, which were warehoused and transferred in New Orleans to smaller vessels and distributed along the Mississippi River watershed. The river was filled with steamboats, flatboats and sailing ships. Despite its role in the slave trade, New Orleans at the time had the largest and most prosperous community of free persons of color in the nation, who were often educated, middle - class property owners.
Dwarfing the other cities in the antebellum South, New Orleans had the nation 's largest slave market. The market expanded after the U.S. ended the international trade in 1808. Two - thirds of the more than one million slaves brought to the Deep South arrived via forced migration in the domestic slave trade. The money generated by the sale of slaves in the Upper South has been estimated at 15 percent of the value of the staple crop economy. The slaves were collectively valued at half a billion dollars. An ancillary economy grew up around the trade -- for transportation, housing and clothing, fees, etc., estimated at 13.5 % of the price per person, amounting to tens of billions of dollars (2005 dollars, adjusted for inflation) during the antebellum period, with New Orleans as a prime beneficiary.
According to historian Paul Lachance,
After the Louisiana Purchase, numerous Anglo - Americans migrated to the city. The population doubled in the 1830s and by 1840, New Orleans had become the nation 's wealthiest and the third-most populous city. German and Irish immigrants began arriving in the 1840s, working as port laborers. In this period, the state legislature passed more restrictions on manumissions of slaves and virtually ended it in 1852.
In the 1850s, white Francophones remained an intact and vibrant community. They maintained instruction in French in two of the city 's four school districts (all were white). In 1860, the city had 13,000 free people of color (gens de couleur libres), the class of free, mostly mixed - race people that expanded during French and Spanish rule. The census recorded 81 percent as mulatto, a term used to cover all degrees of mixed race. Mostly part of the Francophone group, they constituted the artisan, educated and professional class of African Americans. Most blacks were still enslaved, working at the port, in domestic service, in crafts, and mostly on the many large, surrounding sugarcane plantations.
After growing by 45 percent in the 1850s, by 1860, the city had nearly 170,000 people. It had grown in wealth, with a "per capita income (that) was second in the nation and the highest in the South. '' The city had a role as the "primary commercial gateway for the nation 's booming midsection. '' The port was the nation 's third largest in terms of tonnage of imported goods, after Boston and New York, handling 659,000 tons in 1859.
As the Creole elite feared, the Civil War changed their world. In 1862, following the occupation by the Navy after the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, led by Gen. Benjamin F. Butler, a respected state lawyer of the Massachusetts militia, Northern forces occupied the city. Later New Orleans residents nicknamed him "Beast '' Butler, because of a military order he issued. After his troops had been assaulted and harassed in the streets by Southern women, his order warned that future such occurrences would result in his men treating such "ladies '' as those "plying their avocation in the streets '', implying that they would treat the women like prostitutes. Accounts of this spread widely. He also came to be called "Spoons '' Butler because of the alleged looting that his troops did while occupying the city.
Butler abolished French language instruction in city schools. Statewide measures in 1864 and, after the war, 1868 further strengthened the English - only policy imposed by federal representatives. With the predominance of English speakers, that language had already become dominant in business and government. By the end of the 19th century, French usage had faded. It was also under pressure from Irish, Italian and German immigrants. However, as late as 1902 "one - fourth of the population of the city spoke French in ordinary daily intercourse, while another two - fourths was able to understand the language perfectly, '' and as late as 1945, many elderly Creole women spoke no English. The last major French language newspaper, L'Abeille de la Nouvelle - Orléans (New Orleans Bee), ceased publication on December 27, 1923, after ninety - six years. (According to some sources, Le Courrier de la Nouvelle Orleans continued until 1955.)
As the city was captured and occupied early in the war, it was spared the destruction through warfare suffered by many other cities of the American South. The Union Army eventually extended its control north along the Mississippi River and along the coastal areas. As a result, most of the southern portion of Louisiana was originally exempted from the liberating provisions of the 1863 "Emancipation Proclamation '' issued by President Abraham Lincoln. Large numbers of rural ex-slaves and some free people of color from the city volunteered for the first regiments of Black troops in the War. Led by Brigadier General Daniel Ullman (1810 -- 1892), of the 78th Regiment of New York State Volunteers Militia, they were known as the "Corps d'Afrique. '' While that name had been used by a militia before the war, that group was composed of free people of color. The new group was made up mostly of former slaves. They were supplemented in the last two years of the War by newly organized United States Colored Troops, who played an increasingly important part in the war.
Violence throughout the South, especially the Memphis Riots of 1866 followed by the New Orleans Riot in the same year, led Congress to pass the Reconstruction Act and the Fourteenth Amendment, extending the protections of full citizenship to freedmen and free people of color. Louisiana and Texas were put under the authority of the "Fifth Military District '' of the United States during Reconstruction. Louisiana was readmitted to the Union in 1868. Its Constitution of 1868 granted universal male suffrage and established universal public education. Both blacks and whites were elected to local and state offices. In 1872, lieutenant governor P.B.S. Pinchback, who was of mixed race, succeeded Henry Clay Warmouth for a brief period as Republican governor of Louisiana, becoming the first governor of African descent of an American state (the next African American to serve as governor of an American state was Douglas Wilder, elected in Virginia in 1989). New Orleans operated a racially integrated public school system during this period.
Wartime damage to levees and cities along the Mississippi River adversely affected southern crops and trade. The federal government contributed to restoring infrastructure. The nationwide financial recession and Panic of 1873 adversely affected businesses and slowed economic recovery.
From 1868, elections in Louisiana were marked by violence, as white insurgents tried to suppress black voting and disrupt Republican Party gatherings. Violence continued around elections. The disputed 1872 gubernatorial election resulted in conflicts that ran for years. The "White League '', an insurgent paramilitary group that supported the Democratic Party, was organized in 1874 and operated in the open, violently suppressing the black vote and running off Republican officeholders. In 1874, in the Battle of Liberty Place, 5,000 members of the White League fought with city police to take over the state offices for the Democratic candidate for governor, holding them for three days. By 1876, such tactics resulted in the white Democrats, the so - called Redeemers, regaining political control of the state legislature. The federal government gave up and withdrew its troops in 1877, ending Reconstruction.
White Democrats passed Jim Crow laws, establishing racial segregation in public facilities. In 1889, the legislature passed a constitutional amendment incorporating a "grandfather clause '' that effectively disfranchised freedmen as well as the propertied people of color manumitted before the war. Unable to vote, African Americans could not serve on juries or in local office, and were closed out of formal politics for generations. The South was ruled by a white Democratic Party. Public schools were racially segregated and remained so until 1960.
New Orleans ' large community of well - educated, often French - speaking free persons of color (gens de couleur libres), who had been free prior to the Civil War, fought against Jim Crow. They organized the Comité des Citoyens (Citizens Committee) to work for civil rights. As part of their legal campaign, they recruited one of their own, Homer Plessy, to test whether Louisiana 's newly enacted Separate Car Act was constitutional. Plessy boarded a commuter train departing New Orleans for Covington, Louisiana, sat in the car reserved for whites only, and was arrested. The case resulting from this incident, Plessy v. Ferguson, was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1896. The court ruled that "separate but equal '' accommodations were constitutional, effectively upholding Jim Crow measures. In practice, African - American public schools and facilities were underfunded across the South. The Supreme Court ruling contributed to this period as the nadir of race relations in the United States. The rate of lynchings of black men was high across the South, as other states also disfranchised blacks and sought to impose Jim Crow. Nativist prejudices also surfaced. Anti-Italian sentiment in 1891 contributed to the lynchings of 11 Italians, some of whom had been acquitted of the murder of the police chief. Some were shot and killed in the jail where they were detained. It was the largest mass lynching in U.S. history. In July 1900 the city was swept by white mobs rioting after Robert Charles, a young African American, killed a policeman and temporarily escaped. The mob killed him and an estimated 20 other blacks; seven whites died in the days - long conflict, until a state militia suppressed it.
Throughout New Orleans ' history, until the early 20th century when medical and scientific advances ameliorated the situation, the city suffered repeated epidemics of yellow fever and other tropical and infectious diseases.
New Orleans ' economic and population zenith in relation to other American cities occurred in the antebellum period. It was the nation 's fifth - largest city in 1860 (after New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Baltimore) and was significantly larger than all other southern cities. From the mid-19th century onward rapid economic growth shifted to other areas, while New Orleans ' relative importance steadily declined. The growth of railways and highways decreased river traffic, diverting goods to other transportation corridors and markets. Thousands of the most ambitious people of color left the state in the Great Migration around World War II and after, many for West Coast destinations. From the late 1800s, most censuses recorded New Orleans slipping down the ranks in the list of largest American cities (New Orleans ' population still continued to increase throughout the period, but at a slower rate than before the Civil War).
By the mid-20th century, New Orleanians recognized that their city was no longer the leading urban area in the South. By 1950, Houston, Dallas, and Atlanta exceeded New Orleans in size, and in 1960 Miami eclipsed New Orleans, even as the latter 's population reached its historic peak. As with other older American cities, highway construction and suburban development drew residents from the center city to newer housing outside. The 1970 census recorded the first absolute decline in population since the city became part of the United States in 1803. The New Orleans metropolitan area continued expanding in population, albeit more slowly than other major Sun Belt cities. While the port remained one of the nation 's largest, automation and containerization cost many jobs. The city 's former role as banker to the South was supplanted by larger peer cities. New Orleans ' economy had always been based more on trade and financial services than on manufacturing, but the city 's relatively small manufacturing sector also shrank after World War II. Despite some economic development successes under the administrations of DeLesseps "Chep '' Morrison (1946 -- 1961) and Victor "Vic '' Schiro (1961 -- 1970), metropolitan New Orleans ' growth rate consistently lagged behind more vigorous cities.
During the later years of Morrison 's administration, and for the entirety of Schiro 's, the city was a center of the Civil Rights Movement. The Southern Christian Leadership Conference was founded in New Orleans, and lunch counter sit - ins were held in Canal Street department stores. A prominent and violent series of confrontations occurred in 1960 when the city attempted school desegregation, following the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education (1954). When six - year - old Ruby Bridges integrated William Frantz Elementary School in the Ninth Ward, she was the first child of color to attend a previously all - white school in the South.
The Civil Rights Movement 's success in gaining federal passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 renewed constitutional rights, including voting for blacks. Together, these resulted in the most far - reaching changes in New Orleans ' 20th century history. Though legal and civil equality were re-established by the end of the 1960s, a large gap in income levels and educational attainment persisted between the city 's White and African - American communities. As the middle class and wealthier members of both races left the center city, its population 's income level dropped, and it became proportionately more African American. From 1980, the African - American majority elected primarily officials from its own community. They struggled to narrow the gap by creating conditions conducive to the economic uplift of the African - American community.
New Orleans became increasingly dependent on tourism as an economic mainstay during the administrations of Sidney Barthelemy (1986 -- 1994) and Marc Morial (1994 -- 2002). Relatively low levels of educational attainment, high rates of household poverty, and rising crime threatened the city 's prosperity in the later decades of the century. The negative effects of these socioeconomic conditions aligned poorly with the changes in the late - 20th century to the economy of the United States, which reflected a post-industrial, knowledge - based paradigm in which mental skills and education were more important to advancement than manual skills.
In the 20th century, New Orleans ' government and business leaders believed they needed to drain and develop outlying areas to provide for the city 's expansion. The most ambitious development during this period was a drainage plan devised by engineer and inventor A. Baldwin Wood, designed to break the surrounding swamp 's stranglehold on the city 's geographic expansion. Until then, urban development in New Orleans was largely limited to higher ground along the natural river levees and bayous.
Wood 's pump system allowed the city to drain huge tracts of swamp and marshland and expand into low - lying areas. Over the 20th century, rapid subsidence, both natural and human - induced, resulted in these newly populated areas subsiding to several feet below sea level.
New Orleans was vulnerable to flooding even before the city 's footprint departed from the natural high ground near the Mississippi River. In the late 20th century, however, scientists and New Orleans residents gradually became aware of the city 's increased vulnerability. In 1965, flooding from Hurricane Betsy killed dozens of residents, although the majority of the city remained dry. The rain - induced flood of May 8, 1995, demonstrated the weakness of the pumping system. After that event, measures were undertaken to dramatically upgrade pumping capacity. By the 1980s and 1990s, scientists observed that extensive, rapid, and ongoing erosion of the marshlands and swamp surrounding New Orleans, especially that related to the Mississippi River -- Gulf Outlet Canal, had the unintended result of leaving the city more vulnerable than before to hurricane - induced catastrophic storm surges.
New Orleans was catastrophically affected by what Raymond B. Seed called "the worst engineering disaster in the world since Chernobyl '', when the Federal levee system failed during Hurricane Katrina in 2005. By the time the hurricane approached the city at the end of August 2005, most residents had evacuated. As the hurricane passed through the Gulf Coast region, the city 's federal flood protection system failed, resulting in the worst civil engineering disaster in American history. Floodwalls and levees constructed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers failed below design specifications and 80 % of the city flooded. Tens of thousands of residents who had remained were rescued or otherwise made their way to shelters of last resort at the Louisiana Superdome or the New Orleans Morial Convention Center. More than 1,500 people were recorded as having died in Louisiana, most in New Orleans, while others remain unaccounted for. Before Hurricane Katrina, the city called for the first mandatory evacuation in its history, to be followed by another mandatory evacuation three years later with Hurricane Gustav.
The city was declared off - limits to residents while efforts to clean up after Hurricane Katrina began. The approach of Hurricane Rita in September 2005 caused repopulation efforts to be postponed, and the Lower Ninth Ward was reflooded by Rita 's storm surge.
Because of the scale of damage, many people resettled permanently outside the area. Federal, state, and local efforts supported recovery and rebuilding in severely damaged neighborhoods. The Census Bureau in July 2006 estimated the population to be 223,000; a subsequent study estimated that 32,000 additional residents had moved to the city as of March 2007, bringing the estimated population to 255,000, approximately 56 % of the pre-Katrina population level. Another estimate, based on utility usage from July 2007, estimated the population to be approximately 274,000 or 60 % of the pre-Katrina population. These estimates are somewhat smaller to a third estimate, based on mail delivery records, from the Greater New Orleans Community Data Center in June 2007, which indicated that the city had regained approximately two - thirds of its pre-Katrina population. In 2008, the Census Bureau revised its population estimate for the city upward, to 336,644. Most recently, 2010 estimates show that neighborhoods that did not flood are near or greater than 100 % of their pre-Katrina populations.
Several major tourist events and other forms of revenue for the city have returned. Large conventions returned. College bowl games returned for the 2006 -- 2007 season. The New Orleans Saints returned that season. The New Orleans Hornets (now named the Pelicans) returned to the city for the 2007 -- 2008 season. New Orleans hosted the 2008 NBA All - Star Game. Additionally, the city hosted Super Bowl XLVII.
Major annual events such as Mardi Gras and the Jazz & Heritage Festival were never displaced or canceled. A new annual festival, "The Running of the Bulls New Orleans '', was created in 2007.
On February 7, 2017, a large EF3 wedge tornado hit parts of the eastern side of the city, damaging homes and other buildings, as well as destroying a mobile home park. At least 25 people were left injured by the event.
New Orleans is located in the Mississippi River Delta, south of Lake Pontchartrain, on the banks of the Mississippi River, approximately 105 miles (169 km) upriver from the Gulf of Mexico. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city 's area is 350 square miles (910 km), of which 169 square miles (440 km) is land and 181 square miles (470 km) (52 %) is water. Orleans Parish is the smallest parish by land area in Louisiana. The area along the river is characterized by ridges and hollows.
New Orleans was originally settled on the river 's natural levees or high ground. After the Flood Control Act of 1965, the US Army Corps of Engineers built floodwalls and man - made levees around a much larger geographic footprint that included previous marshland and swamp. Over time, pumping of water from marshland allowed for development into lower elevation areas. Today, a large portion of the city is at or below local mean sea level. Evidence suggests that portions of the city may be dropping in elevation due to subsidence Being that the motion of the earth 's surface is shifting downwards relative to sea level.
A 2007 study by Tulane and Xavier University suggested that "51 %... of the contiguous urbanized portions of Orleans, Jefferson, and St. Bernard parishes lie at or above sea level, '' with the more densely populated areas generally on higher ground. The average elevation of the city is currently between 1 foot (0.30 m) and 2 feet (0.61 m) below sea level, with some portions of the city as high as 20 feet (6 m) at the base of the river levee in Uptown and others as low as 7 feet (2 m) below sea level in the farthest reaches of Eastern New Orleans. A study published by the ASCE Journal of Hydrologic Engineering in 2016, however, stated:
The magnitude of subsidence potentially caused by the draining of natural marsh in the New Orleans area and southeast Louisiana is a topic of debate. A study published in Geology in 2006 by an associate professor at Tulane University claims:
The study noted, however, that the results did not necessarily apply to the Mississippi River Delta, nor the New Orleans Metropolitan area proper. On the other hand, a report by the American Society of Civil Engineers claims that "New Orleans is subsiding (sinking) '':
In May 2016, NASA published a study which suggested that most areas were, in fact, experiencing subsidence at a "highly variable rate '' which was "generally consistent with, but somewhat higher than, previous studies. ''
The Central Business District is located immediately north and west of the Mississippi and was historically called the "American Quarter '' or "American Sector. '' It was developed after the heart of French and Spanish settlement. It includes Lafayette Square. Most streets in this area fan out from a central point. Major streets include Canal Street, Poydras Street, Tulane Avenue and Loyola Avenue. Canal Street divides the traditional "downtown '' area from the "uptown '' area.
Every street crossing Canal Street between the Mississippi River and Rampart Street, which is the northern edge of the French Quarter, has a different name for the "uptown '' and "downtown '' portions. For example, St. Charles Avenue, known for its street car line, is called Royal Street below Canal Street, though where it traverses the Central Business District between Canal and Lee Circle, it is properly called St. Charles Street. Elsewhere in the city, Canal Street serves as the dividing point between the "South '' and "North '' portions of various streets. In the local parlance downtown means "downriver from Canal Street '', while uptown means "upriver from Canal Street ''. Downtown neighborhoods include the French Quarter, Tremé, the 7th Ward, Faubourg Marigny, Bywater (the Upper Ninth Ward), and the Lower Ninth Ward. Uptown neighborhoods include the Warehouse District, the Lower Garden District, the Garden District, the Irish Channel, the University District, Carrollton, Gert Town, Fontainebleau and Broadmoor. However, the Warehouse and the Central Business District are frequently called "Downtown '' as a specific region, as in the Downtown Development District.
Other major districts within the city include Bayou St. John, Mid-City, Gentilly, Lakeview, Lakefront, New Orleans East and Algiers.
New Orleans is world - famous for its abundance of architectural styles that reflect the city 's multicultural heritage. Though New Orleans possesses numerous structures of national architectural significance, it is equally, if not more, revered for its enormous, largely intact (even post-Katrina) historic built environment. Twenty National Register Historic Districts have been established, and fourteen local historic districts aid in preservation. Thirteen of the districts are administered by the New Orleans Historic District Landmarks Commission (HDLC), while one -- the French Quarter -- is administered by the Vieux Carre Commission (VCC). Additionally, both the National Park Service, via the National Register of Historic Places, and the HDLC have landmarked individual buildings, many of which lie outside the boundaries of existing historic districts.
Housing styles include the shotgun house and the bungalow style. Creole cottages and townhouses, notable for their large courtyards and intricate iron balconies, line the streets of the French Quarter. American townhouses, double - gallery houses, and Raised Center - Hall Cottages are notable. St. Charles Avenue is famed for its large antebellum homes. Its mansions are in various styles, such as Greek Revival, American Colonial and the Victorian styles of Queen Anne and Italianate architecture. New Orleans is also noted for its large, European - style Catholic cemeteries.
For much of its history, New Orleans ' skyline displayed only low - and mid - rise structures. The soft soils are susceptible to subsidence, and there was doubt about the feasibility of constructing high rises. Developments in engineering throughout the twentieth century eventually made it possible to build sturdy foundations to underlie high rises. In the 1960s, the World Trade Center New Orleans and Plaza Tower demonstrated skyscrapers ' viability. One Shell Square became the city 's tallest building in 1972. The oil boom of the 1970s and early 1980s redefined New Orleans ' skyline with the development of the Poydras Street corridor. Most are clustered along Canal Street and Poydras Street in the Central Business District.
The climate is humid subtropical (Köppen climate classification Cfa), with short, generally mild winters and hot, humid summers; most suburbs and parts of Wards 9 and 15 fall in USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 9a, while the city 's other 15 wards are rated 9b in whole. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 53.4 ° F (11.9 ° C) in January to 83.3 ° F (28.5 ° C) in July and August. Officially, as measured at New Orleans International Airport, temperature records range from 11 to 102 ° F (− 12 to 39 ° C) on December 23, 1989 and August 22, 1980, respectively; Audubon Park has recorded temperatures ranging from 6 ° F (− 14 ° C) on February 13, 1899 up to 104 ° F (40 ° C) on June 24, 2009. Dewpoints in the summer months (June -- August) are relatively high, ranging from 71.1 to 73.4 ° F (21.7 to 23.0 ° C).
The average precipitation is 62.5 inches (1,590 mm) annually; the summer months are the wettest, while October is the driest month. Precipitation in winter usually accompanies the passing of a cold front. On average, there are 77 days of 90 ° F (32 ° C) + highs, 8.1 days per winter where the high does not exceed 50 ° F (10 ° C), and 8.0 nights with freezing lows annually. It is rare for the temperature to reach 20 or 100 ° F (− 7 or 38 ° C), with the last occurrence of each being February 5, 1996 and June 26, 2016, respectively.
New Orleans experiences snowfall only on rare occasions. A small amount of snow fell during the 2004 Christmas Eve Snowstorm and again on Christmas (December 25) when a combination of rain, sleet, and snow fell on the city, leaving some bridges icy. The New Year 's Eve 1963 snowstorm affected New Orleans and brought 4.5 inches (11 cm). Snow fell again on December 22, 1989, when most of the city received 1 -- 2 inches (2.5 -- 5.1 cm).
The last significant snowfall in New Orleans was on the morning of December 11, 2008.
Hurricanes pose a severe threat to the area, and the city is particularly at risk because of its low elevation, because it is surrounded by water from the north, east, and south and because of Louisiana 's sinking coast. According to the Federal Emergency Management Agency, New Orleans is the nation 's most vulnerable city to hurricanes. Indeed, portions of Greater New Orleans have been flooded by the Grand Isle Hurricane of 1909, the New Orleans Hurricane of 1915, 1947 Fort Lauderdale Hurricane, Hurricane Flossy in 1956, Hurricane Betsy in 1965, Hurricane Georges in 1998, Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005, and Hurricane Gustav in 2008, with the flooding in Betsy being significant and in a few neighborhoods severe, and that in Katrina being disastrous in the majority of the city.
In 2005, storm surge from Hurricane Katrina caused catastrophic failure of the federally designed and built levees, flooding 80 % of the city. A report by the American Society of Civil Engineers says that "had the levees and floodwalls not failed and had the pump stations operated, nearly two - thirds of the deaths would not have occurred ''.
New Orleans has always had to consider the risk of hurricanes, but the risks are dramatically greater today due to coastal erosion from human interference. Since the beginning of the 20th century, it has been estimated that Louisiana has lost 2,000 square miles (5,000 km) of coast (including many of its barrier islands), which once protected New Orleans against storm surge. Following Hurricane Katrina, the Army Corps of Engineers has instituted massive levee repair and hurricane protection measures to protect the city.
In 2006, Louisiana voters overwhelmingly adopted an amendment to the state 's constitution to dedicate all revenues from off - shore drilling to restore Louisiana 's eroding coast line. Congress has allocated $7 billion to bolster New Orleans ' flood protection.
According to a study by the National Academy of Engineering and the National Research Council, levees and floodwalls surrounding New Orleans -- no matter how large or sturdy -- can not provide absolute protection against overtopping or failure in extreme events. Levees and floodwalls should be viewed as a way to reduce risks from hurricanes and storm surges, not as measures that completely eliminate risk. For structures in hazardous areas and residents who do not relocate, the committee recommended major floodproofing measures -- such as elevating the first floor of buildings to at least the 100 - year flood level.
Historical Population Figures
According to the 2010 Census, 343,829 people and 189,896 households lived in New Orleans. Its racial and ethnic makeup was 60.2 % African American, 33.0 % White, 2.9 % Asian (1.7 % Vietnamese, 0.3 % Indian, 0.3 % Chinese, 0.1 % Filipino, 0.1 % Korean), 0.0 % Pacific Islander, and 1.7 % were people of two or more races. People of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 5.3 % of the population; 1.3 % is Mexican, 1.3 % Honduran, 0.4 % Cuban, 0.3 % Puerto Rican, and 0.3 % Nicaraguan.
The last population estimate before Hurricane Katrina was 454,865, as of July 1, 2005. A population analysis released in August 2007 estimated the population to be 273,000, 60 % of the pre-Katrina population and an increase of about 50,000 since July 2006. A September 2007 report by The Greater New Orleans Community Data Center, which tracks population based on U.S. Postal Service figures, found that in August 2007, just over 137,000 households received mail. That compares with about 198,000 households in July 2005, representing about 70 % of pre-Katrina population. More recently, the Census Bureau revised upward its 2008 population estimate for the city, to 336,644 inhabitants. In 2010, estimates showed that neighborhoods that did not flood were near or even greater than 100 % of their pre-Katrina populations.
A 2006 study by researchers at Tulane University and the University of California, Berkeley determined that as many as 10,000 to 14,000 undocumented immigrants, many from Mexico, resided in New Orleans. Janet Murguía, president and chief executive officer of the National Council of La Raza, stated that up to 120,000 Hispanic workers lived in New Orleans. In June 2007, one study stated that the Hispanic population had risen from 15,000, pre-Katrina, to over 50,000.
As of 2010, 90.31 % of residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 4.84 % spoke Spanish, 1.87 % Vietnamese, and 1.05 % spoke French. In total, 9.69 % population age 5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.
New Orleans ' colonial history of French and Spanish settlement generated a strong Roman Catholic tradition. Catholic missions ministered to slaves and free people of color and established schools for them. In addition, many late 19th and early 20th century European immigrants, such as the Irish, some Germans, and Italians were Catholic. Within the Archdiocese (which includes not only the city but the surrounding Parishes as well), 35.9 % percent of the population is Roman Catholic. Catholicism is reflected in French and Spanish cultural traditions, including its many parochial schools, street names, architecture and festivals, including Mardi Gras.
New Orleans displays a distinctive variety of Louisiana Voodoo, due in part to syncretism with African and Afro - Caribbean Roman Catholic beliefs. The fame of voodoo practitioner Marie Laveau contributed to this, as did New Orleans ' Caribbean cultural influences. Although the tourism industry strongly associated Voodoo with the city, only a small number of people are serious adherents.
Jewish settlers, primarily Sephardim, settled in New Orleans from the early nineteenth century. Some migrated from the communities established in the colonial years in Charleston, South Carolina and Savannah, Georgia. The merchant Abraham Cohen Labatt helped found the first Jewish congregation in New Orleans in the 1830s, which became known as the Portuguese Jewish Nefutzot Yehudah congregation (he and some other members were Sephardic Jews, whose ancestors had lived in Portugal and Spain). Ashkenazi Jews from eastern Europe immigrated in the late 19th and 20th centuries. By the 21st century, 10,000 Jews lived in New Orleans. This number dropped to 7,000 after Hurricane Katrina. New Orleans synagogues lost members, but most re-opened in their original locations. The exception was Congregation Beth Israel, the oldest and most prominent Orthodox synagogue in the New Orleans region. Beth Israel 's building in Lakeview was destroyed by flooding. After seven years of holding services in temporary quarters, the congregation consecrated a new synagogue on land purchased from the Reform Congregation Gates of Prayer in Metairie.
As of 2011 the Hispanic population had grown in the New Orleans area, including in Kenner, central Metairie, and Terrytown in Jefferson Parish and eastern New Orleans and Mid-City in New Orleans proper.
After Katrina the small Brazilian - American population expanded. Portuguese speakers were the second most numerous group to take English as a second language classes in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese, after Spanish speakers. Many Brazilians worked in skilled trades such as tile and flooring, although fewer worked as day laborers than did Latinos. Many had moved from Brazilian communities in the Northeastern United States, Florida and Georgia. Brazilians settled throughout the metropolitan area. Most were undocumented. In January 2008 the New Orleans Brazilian population had a mid-range estimate of 3,000. By 2008 Brazilians had opened many small churches, shops and restaurants catering to their community.
Beginning in 1960, the population decreased due to factors such as the cycles of oil production and tourism, and as suburbanization increased (as with many cities), and jobs migrated to surrounding parishes. This economic and population decline resulted in high levels of poverty in the city; in 1960 it had the fifth - highest poverty rate of all US cities, and was almost twice the national average in 2005, at 24.5 %. New Orleans experienced an increase in residential segregation from 1900 to 1980, leaving the disproportionately African - American poor in older, low - lying locations. These areas were especially susceptible to flood and storm damage.
Katrina displaced 800,000 people, contributing significantly to the decline. African Americans, renters, the elderly, and people with low income were disproportionately affected by Katrina, compared to affluent and white residents. In Katrina 's aftermath, city government commissioned groups such as Bring New Orleans Back Commission, the New Orleans Neighborhood Rebuilding Plan, the Unified New Orleans Plan, and the Office of Recovery Management to contribute to plans addressing depopulation. Their ideas included shrinking the city 's footprint from before the storm, incorporating community voices into development plans, and creating green spaces, some of which incited controversy.
From 2010 to 2014 the city grew by 12 %, adding an average of more than 10,000 new residents each year following the 2010 Census.
New Orleans operates one of the world 's largest and busiest ports and metropolitan New Orleans is a center of maritime industry. The region accounts for a significant portion of the nation 's oil refining and petrochemical production, and serves as a white - collar corporate base for onshore and offshore petroleum and natural gas production.
New Orleans is also a center for higher learning, with over 50,000 students enrolled in the region 's eleven two - and four - year degree - granting institutions. Tulane University, a top - 50 research university, is located in Uptown. Metropolitan New Orleans is a major regional hub for the health care industry and boasts a small, globally competitive manufacturing sector. The center city possesses a rapidly growing, entrepreneurial creative industries sector and is renowned for its cultural tourism. Greater New Orleans, Inc. (GNO, Inc.) acts as the first point - of - contact for regional economic development, coordinating between Louisiana 's Department of Economic Development and the various business development agencies.
New Orleans began as a strategically located trading entrepôt and it remains, above all, a crucial transportation hub and distribution center for waterborne commerce. The Port is the fifth - largest in the United States based on cargo volume, and second - largest in the state after the Port of South Louisiana. It is the twelfth - largest in the U.S. based on cargo value. The Port of South Louisiana, also located in the New Orleans area, is the world 's busiest in terms of bulk tonnage. When combined with Port of New Orleans, it forms the 4th - largest port system in volume. Many shipbuilding, shipping, logistics, freight forwarding and commodity brokerage firms either are based in metropolitan New Orleans or maintain a local presence. Examples include Intermarine, Bisso Towboat, Northrop Grumman Ship Systems, Trinity Yachts, Expeditors International, Bollinger Shipyards, IMTT, International Coffee Corp, Boasso America, Transoceanic Shipping, Transportation Consultants Inc., Dupuy Storage & Forwarding and Silocaf. The largest coffee - roasting plant in the world, operated by Folgers, is located in New Orleans East.
New Orleans is located near to the Gulf of Mexico and its many oil rigs. Louisiana ranks fifth among states in oil production and eighth in reserves. It has two of the four Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) storage facilities: West Hackberry in Cameron Parish and Bayou Choctaw in Iberville Parish. The area hosts 17 petroleum refineries, with a combined crude oil distillation capacity of nearly 2.8 million barrels per day (450,000 m / d), the second highest after Texas. Louisiana 's numerous ports include the Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP), which is capable of receiving the largest oil tankers. Given the quantity of oil imports, Louisiana is home to many major pipelines: Crude Oil (Exxon, Chevron, BP, Texaco, Shell, Scurloch - Permian, Mid-Valley, Calumet, Conoco, Koch Industries, Unocal, U.S. Dept. of Energy, Locap); Product (TEPPCO Partners, Colonial, Plantation, Explorer, Texaco, Collins); and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (Dixie, TEPPCO, Black Lake, Koch, Chevron, Dynegy, Kinder Morgan Energy Partners, Dow Chemical Company, Bridgeline, FMP, Tejas, Texaco, UTP). Several energy companies have regional headquarters in the area, including Royal Dutch Shell, Eni and Chevron. Other energy producers and oilfield services companies are headquartered in the city or region, and the sector supports a large professional services base of specialized engineering and design firms, as well as a term office for the federal government 's Minerals Management Service.
The city is the home to a single Fortune 500 company: Entergy, a power generation utility and nuclear power plant operations specialist. After Katrina, the city lost its other Fortune 500 company, Freeport - McMoRan, when it merged its copper and gold exploration unit with an Arizona company and relocated that division to Phoenix. Its McMoRan Exploration affiliate remains headquartered in New Orleans.
Companies with significant operations or headquarters in New Orleans include: Pan American Life Insurance, Pool Corp, Rolls - Royce, Newpark Resources, AT&T, TurboSquid, iSeatz, IBM, Navtech, Superior Energy Services, Textron Marine & Land Systems, McDermott International, Pellerin Milnor, Lockheed Martin, Imperial Trading, Laitram, Harrah 's Entertainment, Stewart Enterprises, Edison Chouest Offshore, Zatarain 's, Waldemar S. Nelson & Co., Whitney National Bank, Capital One, Tidewater Marine, Popeyes Chicken & Biscuits, Parsons Brinckerhoff, MWH Global, CH2M HILL, Energy Partners Ltd, The Receivables Exchange, GE Capital and Smoothie King.
Tourism is a staple of the city 's economy. Perhaps more visible than any other sector, New Orleans ' tourist and convention industry is a $5.5 billion industry that accounts for 40 percent of city tax revenues. In 2004, the hospitality industry employed 85,000 people, making it the city 's top economic sector as measured by employment. New Orleans also hosts the World Cultural Economic Forum (WCEF). The forum, held annually at the New Orleans Morial Convention Center, is directed toward promoting cultural and economic development opportunities through the strategic convening of cultural ambassadors and leaders from around the world. The first WCEF took place in October 2008.
Federal agencies and the Armed forces operate significant facilities there. The U.S. Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals operates at the US Courthouse downtown. NASA 's Michoud rocket factory is located in New Orleans East and is operated by Lockheed Martin. It is a huge manufacturing facility that produced the external fuel tanks for the Space Shuttles and is now used for the construction of NASA 's Space Launch System. The rocket factory lies within the enormous New Orleans Regional Business Park, also home to the National Finance Center, operated by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Crescent Crown distribution center. Other large governmental installations include the U.S. Navy 's Space and Naval Warfare (SPAWAR) Systems Command, located within the University of New Orleans Research and Technology Park in Gentilly, Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base New Orleans; and the headquarters for the Marine Force Reserves in Federal City in Algiers.
According to the City 's 2008 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers are:
New Orleans has many visitor attractions, from the world - renowned French Quarter to St. Charles Avenue, (home of Tulane and Loyola Universities, the historic Pontchartrain Hotel and many 19th - century mansions) to Magazine Street with its boutique stores and antique shops.
According to current travel guides, New Orleans is one of the top ten most - visited cities in the United States; 10.1 million visitors came to New Orleans in 2004. Prior to Katrina, 265 hotels with 38,338 rooms operated in the Greater New Orleans Area. In May 2007, that had declined to some 140 hotels and motels with over 31,000 rooms.
A 2009 Travel + Leisure poll of "America 's Favorite Cities '' ranked New Orleans first in ten categories, the most first - place rankings of the 30 cities included. According to the poll, New Orleans was the best U.S. city as a spring break destination and for "wild weekends '', stylish boutique hotels, cocktail hours, singles / bar scenes, live music / concerts and bands, antique and vintage shops, cafés / coffee bars, neighborhood restaurants, and people watching. The city ranked second for: friendliness (behind Charleston, South Carolina), gay - friendliness (behind San Francisco), bed and breakfast hotels / inns, and ethnic food. However, the city placed near the bottom in cleanliness, safety and as a family destination.
The French Quarter (known locally as "the Quarter '' or Vieux Carré), which was the colonial - era city and is bounded by the Mississippi River, Rampart Street, Canal Street, and Esplanade Avenue, contains popular hotels, bars and nightclubs. Notable tourist attractions in the Quarter include Bourbon Street, Jackson Square, St. Louis Cathedral, the French Market (including Café du Monde, famous for café au lait and beignets) and Preservation Hall. Also in the French Quarter is the old New Orleans Mint, a former branch of the United States Mint which now operates as a museum, and The Historic New Orleans Collection, a museum and research center housing art and artifacts relating to the history and the Gulf South.
Close to the Quarter is the Tremé community, which contains the New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park and the New Orleans African American Museum -- a site which is listed on the Louisiana African American Heritage Trail.
The Natchez is an authentic steamboat with a calliope that cruises the length of the city twice daily. Unlike most other places in the United States, New Orleans has become widely known for its elegant decay. The city 's historic cemeteries and their distinct above - ground tombs are attractions in themselves, the oldest and most famous of which, Saint Louis Cemetery, greatly resembles Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris.
The National WWII Museum offers a multi-building odyssey through the history of the Pacific and European theaters. Nearby, Confederate Memorial Hall, the oldest continually operating museum in Louisiana (although under renovation since Katrina), contains the second - largest collection of Confederate memorabilia. Art museums include the Contemporary Arts Center, the New Orleans Museum of Art (NOMA) in City Park, and the Ogden Museum of Southern Art.
New Orleans is home to the Audubon Nature Institute (which consists of Audubon Park, the Audubon Zoo, the Aquarium of the Americas and the Audubon Insectarium), and home to gardens which include Longue Vue House and Gardens and the New Orleans Botanical Garden. City Park, one of the country 's most expansive and visited urban parks, has one of the largest stands of oak trees in the world.
Other points of interest can be found in the surrounding areas. Many wetlands are found nearby, including Honey Island Swamp and Barataria Preserve. Chalmette Battlefield and National Cemetery, located just south of the city, is the site of the 1815 Battle of New Orleans.
In 2009, New Orleans ranked No. 7 on Newsmax magazine 's list of the "Top 25 Most Uniquely American Cities and Towns ''. The piece cited the city 's post-Katrina rebuilding effort as well as its efforts to become eco-friendly.
The New Orleans area is home to numerous annual celebrations. The most well - known is Carnival, or Mardi Gras. Carnival officially begins on the Feast of the Epiphany, also known as the "Twelfth Night ''. Mardi Gras (French for "Fat Tuesday ''), the final and grandest day of festivities, is the last Tuesday before the Catholic liturgical season of Lent, which commences on Ash Wednesday.
The largest of the city 's many music festivals is the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival. Commonly referred to simply as "Jazz Fest '', it is one of the nation 's largest music festivals. The festival features a variety of music, including both native Louisiana and international artists. Along with Jazz Fest, New Orleans ' Voodoo Experience ("Voodoo Fest '') and the Essence Music Festival are other festivals featuring local and international artists.
Other major festivals include Southern Decadence, the French Quarter Festival and the Tennessee Williams / New Orleans Literary Festival.
In 2002, Louisiana began offering tax incentives for film and television production. This led to a substantial increase in activity and brought the nickname "Hollywood South. '' Films produced in and around New Orleans include Ray, Runaway Jury, The Pelican Brief, Glory Road, All the King 's Men, Déjà Vu, Last Holiday, The Curious Case of Benjamin Button and 12 Years a Slave. In 2006, work began on the Louisiana Film & Television studio complex, based in Tremé. Louisiana began to offer similar tax incentives for music and theater productions in 2007, leading many to begin referring to New Orleans as "Broadway South. ''
The first theatre in New Orleans was the French - language Theatre de la Rue Saint Pierre, which opened in 1792. The first opera in New Orleans was performed there in 1796. In the nineteenth century the city was the home of two of America 's most important venues for French opera, the Théâtre d'Orléans and later the French Opera House. Today, opera is performed by the New Orleans Opera.
New Orleans has long been a significant center for music, showcasing its intertwined European, Latin American and African cultures. The city 's unique musical heritage was born in its colonial and early American days from a unique blending of European musical instruments with African rhythms. As the only North American city to have allowed slaves to gather in public and play their native music (largely in Congo Square, now located within Louis Armstrong Park), New Orleans gave birth to an epochal indigenous music: jazz. Soon, brass bands formed, beginning a century - long tradition. The Louis Armstrong Park area, near the French Quarter in Tremé, contains the New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park. The city 's music was later significantly influenced by Acadiana, home of Cajun and Zydeco music, and by Delta blues.
New Orleans ' unique musical culture is on display in its traditional funerals. A spin on military funerals, New Orleans ' traditional funerals feature sad music (mostly dirges and hymns) on the way to the cemetery and happier music (hot jazz) on the way back. Until the 1990s, most locals preferred to call these "funerals with music '', but visitors to the city have long dubbed them "jazz funerals. ''
Much later in its musical development, New Orleans was home to a distinctive brand of rhythm and blues that contributed greatly to the growth of rock and roll. An example of the New Orleans ' sound in the 1960s is the # 1 US hit "Chapel of Love '' by the Dixie Cups, a song which knocked the Beatles out of the top spot on the Billboard Hot 100. New Orleans became a hotbed for funk music in the 1960s and 1970s, and by the late 1980s, it had developed its own localized variant of hip hop, called bounce music. While not commercially successful outside of the Deep South, it remained immensely popular in poorer neighborhoods throughout the 1990s.
A cousin of bounce, New Orleans hip hop achieved commercial success locally and internationally, producing Lil Wayne, Master P, Birdman, Juvenile, Cash Money Records and No Limit Records. Additionally, the popularity of cowpunk, a fast form of southern rock, originated with the help of several local bands, such as The Radiators, Better Than Ezra, Cowboy Mouth and Dash Rip Rock. Throughout the 1990s, many sludge metal bands started. New Orleans ' heavy metal bands like Eyehategod, Soilent Green, Crowbar, and Down incorporated styles such as hardcore punk, doom metal and southern rock to create an original and heady brew of swampy and aggravated metal that has largely avoided standardization.
New Orleans is the southern terminus of the famed Highway 61 made musically famous by Bob Dylan.
New Orleans is world - famous for its food. The indigenous cuisine is distinctive and influential. New Orleans food combined local Creole, haute Creole and New Orleans French cuisines. Local ingredients, French, Spanish, Italian, African, Native American, Cajun, Chinese, and a hint of Cuban traditions combine to produce a truly unique and easily recognizable New Orleans flavor.
New Orleans is known for specialties including beignets (locally pronounced like "ben - yays ''), square - shaped fried dough that could be called "French doughnuts '' (served with café au lait made with a blend of coffee and chicory rather than only coffee); and po ' boy and Italian muffuletta sandwiches; Gulf oysters on the half - shell, fried oysters, boiled crawfish and other seafood; étouffée, jambalaya, gumbo and other Creole dishes; and the Monday favorite of red beans and rice (Louis Armstrong often signed his letters, "Red beans and ricely yours ''). Another New Orleans specialty is the praline locally / ˈprɑːliːn /, a candy made with brown sugar, granulated sugar, cream, butter, and pecans. The city offers notable street food including the Asian inspired beef Yaka mein.
New Orleans developed a distinctive local dialect that is neither Cajun nor the stereotypical Southern accent that is often misportrayed by film and television actors. Like earlier Southern Englishes, feature frequent deletion of the pre-consonantal "r ''. This dialect is quite similar to New York City area accents such as "Brooklynese '', to people unfamiliar with either. No consensus describes how it came to be, but it likely resulted from New Orleans ' geographic isolation by water and the fact that the city was a major immigration port throughout the 19th century. As a result, many of the ethnic groups who reside in Brooklyn also reside in New Orleans, such as the Irish, Italians (especially Sicilians), Germans and a Jewish community.
One of the strongest varieties of the New Orleans accent is sometimes identified as the Yat dialect, from the greeting "Where y'at? '' This distinctive accent is dying out in the city, but remains strong in the surrounding parishes.
Less visibly, various ethnic groups throughout the area have retained distinct language traditions. Although rare, languages still spoken include Cajun, the Kreyol Lwiziyen spoken by the Creoles and an archaic Louisiana - Canarian Spanish dialect spoken by the Isleño people and older members of the population.
New Orleans ' professional sports teams include the 2009 Super Bowl XLIV champion New Orleans Saints (NFL), the New Orleans Pelicans (NBA), and the New Orleans Baby Cakes (PCL). It is also home to the Big Easy Rollergirls, an all - female flat track roller derby team, and the New Orleans Blaze, a women 's football team. New Orleans is also home to two NCAA Division I athletic programs, the Tulane Green Wave of the American Athletic Conference and the UNO Privateers of the Southland Conference.
The Mercedes - Benz Superdome is the home of the Saints, the Sugar Bowl, and other prominent events. It has hosted the Super Bowl a record seven times (1978, 1981, 1986, 1990, 1997, 2002, and 2013). The Smoothie King Center is the home of the Pelicans, VooDoo, and many events that are not large enough to need the Superdome. New Orleans is also home to the Fair Grounds Race Course, the nation 's third - oldest thoroughbred track. The city 's Lakefront Arena has also been home to sporting events.
Each year New Orleans plays host to the Sugar Bowl, the New Orleans Bowl and the Zurich Classic, a golf tournament on the PGA Tour. In addition, it has often hosted major sporting events that have no permanent home, such as the Super Bowl, ArenaBowl, NBA All - Star Game, BCS National Championship Game, and the NCAA Final Four. The Rock ' n ' Roll Mardi Gras Marathon and the Crescent City Classic are two annual road running events.
The City is a political subdivision of the state of Louisiana. It has a mayor - council government, following a Home Rule Charter adopted in 1954, as later amended. The city council consists of seven members, who are elected by district and two at - large councilmembers. The mayor as of 2017 was Mitch Landrieu. The Orleans Parish Civil Sheriff 's Office serves papers involving lawsuits and provides security for the Civil District Court and Juvenile Courts. The Criminal Sheriff, Marlin Gusman, maintains the parish prison system, provides security for the Criminal District Court, and provides backup for the New Orleans Police Department on an as - needed basis. An ordinance in 2006 established an Office of Inspector General to review city government activities.
The city and the parish of Orleans operate as a merged city - parish government. The original city was composed of what are now the 1st through 9th wards. The city of Lafayette (including the Garden District) was added in 1852 as the 10th and 11th wards. In 1870, Jefferson City, including Faubourg Bouligny and much of the Audubon and University areas, was annexed as the 12th, 13th, and 14th wards. Algiers, on the west bank of the Mississippi, was also annexed in 1870, becoming the 15th ward.
New Orleans ' government is largely centralized in the city council and mayor 's office, but it maintains earlier systems from when various sections of the city managed their affairs separately. For example, New Orleans had seven elected tax assessors, each with their own staff, representing various districts of the city, rather than one centralized office. A constitutional amendment passed on November 7, 2006 consolidated the seven assessors into one in 2010. The New Orleans government operates both a fire department and the New Orleans Emergency Medical Services.
Crime is an ongoing problem. As in comparable U.S. cities, the incidence of homicide and other violent crimes is highly concentrated in certain impoverished neighborhoods. The murder rate for the city has been historically high and consistently among the highest rates nationwide. The first record was broken in 1979 when the city reached 242 homicides. The record would be broken again reaching 250 by 1989 to 345 by the end of 1991. 1994 was the year the city was officially named the "Murder Capitol of America '', hitting a historic peak at 424. The murder count surpassed Gary, Indiana Washington D.C., Chicago, Baltimore and Miami.
In 2003 New Orleans homicide rate was nearly eight times the national average and had the highest per capita city murder rate in the United States with 274 homicides up from the previous year. According to the local officials, New Orleans redeemed its status as the nations murder capitol for the second time since 1994. In 2006 with nearly half of the population gone from Hurricane Katrina, the city hit another record of homicide making it the most dangerous city in the country.
Homicides peaked in the early - to mid-1990s at 86 murders per 100,000 residents. By 2009, despite a 17 % decrease in violent crime, the homicide rate remained among the highest in the United States, at between 55 and 64 per 100,000 residents. In 2010, New Orleans ' homicide rate was 49.1 per 100,000, and in 2012, that number climbed to 53.2. This was the highest rate among cities of 250,000 population or larger. Offenders in New Orleans are almost exclusively black males: 97 % were black and 95 % were male.
The violent crime rate was a key issue in the 2010 mayoral race. In January 2007, several thousand New Orleans residents marched to City Hall for a rally demanding police and city leaders tackle the crime problem. Then - Mayor Ray Nagin said he was "totally and solely focused '' on addressing the problem. Later, the city implemented checkpoints during late night hours in problem areas. The murder rate climbed 14 % in 2011 to 57.88 per 100,000 rising to # 21 in the world. In 2016, according to annual crime statistics released by the New Orleans Police Department, 176 were murdered. In 2017, New Orleans had the highest rate of gun violence surpassing the larger populated Chicago and Detroit.
New Orleans has the highest concentration of colleges and universities in Louisiana.
Colleges and universities based within the city:
New Orleans Public Schools (NOPS) is the city 's public school system. Katrina was a watershed moment for the school system. Pre-Katrina, NOPS was one of the area 's largest systems (along with the Jefferson Parish public school system). It was also the lowest - performing school district in Louisiana. According to researchers Carl L. Bankston and Stephen J. Caldas, only 12 of the 103 public schools within the city limits showed reasonably good performance.
Following Hurricane Katrina, the state of Louisiana took over most of the schools within the system (all schools that matched a nominal "worst - performing '' metric). Many of these schools (and others) were subsequently granted operating charters giving them administrative independence from the Orleans Parish School Board, the Recovery School District and / or the Louisiana Board of Elementary and Secondary Education (BESE). At the start of the 2014 school year, all public school students in the NOPS system attended these independent public charter schools, the nation 's first to do so.
The charter schools made significant and sustained gains in student achievement, led by outside operators such as KIPP, the Algiers Charter School Network, and the Capital One -- University of New Orleans Charter School Network. An October 2009 assessment demonstrated continued growth in the academic performance of public schools. Considering the scores of all public schools in New Orleans gives an overall school district performance score of 70.6. This score represents a 24 % improvement over an equivalent pre-Katrina (2004) metric, when a district score of 56.9 was posted. Notably, this score of 70.6 approaches the score (78.4) posted in 2009 by the adjacent, suburban Jefferson Parish public school system, though that system 's performance score is itself below the state average of 91.
One particular change was that parents could choose which school to enroll their children in, rather than attending the school nearest them.
Academic and public libraries as well as archives in New Orleans include Monroe Library at Loyola University, Howard - Tilton Memorial Library at Tulane University, the Law Library of Louisiana, and the Earl K. Long Library at the University of New Orleans.
The New Orleans Public Library operates in 13 locations. The main library includes a Louisiana Division that houses city archives and special collections.
Other research archives are located at the Historic New Orleans Collection and the Old U.S. Mint.
An independently operated lending library called Iron Rail Book Collective specializes in radical and hard - to - find books. The library contains over 8,000 titles and is open to the public.
The Louisiana Historical Association was founded in New Orleans in 1889. It operated first at Howard Memorial Library. A separate Memorial Hall for it was later added to Howard Library, designed by New Orleans architect Thomas Sully.
Historically, the major newspaper in the area was The Times - Picayune. The paper made headlines of its own in 2012 when owner Advance Publications cut its print schedule to three days each week, instead focusing its efforts on its website, NOLA.com. That action briefly made New Orleans the largest city in the country without a daily newspaper, until the Baton Rouge newspaper The Advocate began a New Orleans edition in September 2012. In June 2013, the Times - Picayune resumed daily printing with a condensed newsstand tabloid edition, nicknamed TP Street, which is published on the three days each week that its namesake broadsheet edition is not printed (the Picayune has not returned to daily delivery). With the resumption of daily print editions from the Times - Picayune and the launch of the New Orleans edition of The Advocate, now The New Orleans Advocate, the city had two daily newspapers for the first time since the afternoon States - Item ceased publication on May 31, 1980.
In addition to the daily newspapers, weekly publications include The Louisiana Weekly and Gambit Weekly. Also, in wide circulation is the Clarion Herald, the newspaper of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New Orleans.
Greater New Orleans is the 54th largest Designated Market Area (DMA) in the U.S., serving 566,960 homes. Major television network affiliates serving the area include:
WWOZ, the New Orleans Jazz and Heritage Station, broadcasts, modern and traditional jazz, blues, rhythm and blues, brass band, gospel, cajun, zydeco, Caribbean, Latin, Brazilian, African and bluegrass 24 hours per day.
WTUL, is the Tulane University radio station. Its programming includes 20th century classical, reggae, jazz, showtunes, indie rock, electronic music, soul / funk, goth, punk, hip hop, New Orleans music, opera, folk, hardcore, Americana, country, blues, Latin, cheese, techno, local, world, ska, swing and big band, kids shows, and news programming. WTUL is listener supported and non-commercial. The disc jockeys are volunteers, many of them college students.
Louisiana 's film and television tax credits spurred growth in the television industry, although to a lesser degree than in the film industry. Many films and advertisements were set there, along with television programs such as The Real World: New Orleans in 2000, The Real World: Back to New Orleans in 2009 and 2010 and Bad Girls Club: New Orleans in 2011.
Two radio stations that were influential in promoting New Orleans - based bands and singers were 50,000 - watt WNOE - AM (1060) and 10,000 - watt WTIX (690 AM). These two stations competed head - to - head from the late 1950s to the late 1970s.
Hurricane Katrina devastated transit service in 2005. The New Orleans Regional Transit Authority (RTA) was quicker to restore the streetcars to service, while bus service had only been restored to 35 % of pre-Katrina levels as recently as the end of 2013. During the same period, streetcars arrived at an average of once every seventeen minutes, compared to bus frequencies of once every thirty - eight minutes. The same priority was demonstrated in RTA 's spending, increasing the proportion of its budget devoted to streetcars to more than three times compared to its pre-Katrina budget. Through the end of 2017, counting both streetcar and bus trips, only 51 % of service had been restored to pre-Katrina levels.
In 2017, the New Orleans Regional Transit Authority began operation on the extension of the Rampart -- St. Claude streetcar line. Another change to transit service that year was the re-routing of the 15 Freret and 28 Martin Luther King bus routes to Canal Street. These increased the number of jobs accessible by a thirty minute walk or transit ride: from 83,722 in 2016 to 89,216 in 2017. This resulted in a regional increase in such job access by more than a full percentage point.
New Orleans has four active streetcar lines:
The city 's streetcars were featured in the Tennessee Williams play, A Streetcar Named Desire. The streetcar line to Desire Street became a bus line in 1948.
Public transportation is operated by the New Orleans Regional Transit Authority ("RTA ''). Many bus routes connect the city and suburban areas. The RTA lost 200 + buses in the flood. Some of the replacement buses operate on biodiesel. The Jefferson Parish Department of Transit Administration operates Jefferson Transit, which provides service between the city and its suburbs.
New Orleans has had continuous ferry service since 1827, operating three routes as of 2017. The Canal Street Ferry (or Algiers Ferry) connects downtown New Orleans at the foot of Canal Street with the National Historic Landmark District of Algiers Point across the Mississippi ("West Bank '' in local parlance). It services passenger vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians. This same terminal also serves the Canal Street / Gretna Ferry, connecting Gretna, Louisiana for pedestrians and bicyclists only. A third auto / bicycle / pedestrian connects Chalmette, Louisiana and Lower Algiers.
The city 's flat landscape, simple street grid and mild winters facilitate bicycle ridership, helping to make New Orleans eighth among U.S. cities in its rate of bicycle and pedestrian transportation as of 2010, and sixth in terms of the percentage of bicycling commuters. New Orleans is located at the start of the Mississippi River Trail, a 3,000 - mile (4,800 km) bicycle path that stretches from the city 's Audubon Park to Minnesota. Since Katrina the city has actively sought to promote bicycling by constructing a $1.5 million bike trail from Mid-City to Lake Pontchartrain, and by adding over 37 miles (60 km) of bicycle lanes to various streets, including St. Charles Avenue. In 2009, Tulane University contributed to these efforts by converting the main street through its Uptown campus, McAlister Place, into a pedestrian mall opened to bicycle traffic. A 3.1 - mile (5.0 km) bicycle corridor stretches from the French Quarter to Lakeview, and 14 miles (23 km) of additional bike lanes on existing streets. New Orleans has been recognized for its abundance of uniquely decorated and uniquely designed bicycles.
New Orleans is served by Interstate 10, Interstate 610 and Interstate 510. I - 10 travels east -- west through the city as the Pontchartrain Expressway. In New Orleans East it is known as the Eastern Expressway. I - 610 provides a direct shortcut for traffic passing through New Orleans via I - 10, allowing that traffic to bypass I - 10 's southward curve.
In addition to the interstates, U.S. 90 travels through the city, while U.S. 61 terminates downtown. In addition, U.S. 11 terminates in the eastern portion of the city.
New Orleans is home to many bridges; Crescent City Connection is perhaps the most notable. It serves as New Orleans ' major bridge across the Mississippi, providing a connection between the city 's downtown on the eastbank and its westbank suburbs. Other Mississippi crossings are the Huey P. Long Bridge, carrying U.S. 90 and the Hale Boggs Memorial Bridge, carrying Interstate 310.
The Twin Span Bridge, a five - mile (8 km) causeway in eastern New Orleans, carries I - 10 across Lake Pontchartrain. Also in eastern New Orleans, Interstate 510 / LA 47 travels across the Intracoastal Waterway / Mississippi River - Gulf Outlet Canal via the Paris Road Bridge, connecting New Orleans East and suburban Chalmette.
The tolled Lake Pontchartrain Causeway, consisting of two parallel bridges are, at 24 miles (39 km) long, the longest bridges in the world. Built in the 1950s (southbound span) and 1960s (northbound span), the bridges connect New Orleans with its suburbs on the north shore of Lake Pontchartrain via Metairie.
The metropolitan area is served by the Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport, located in the suburb of Kenner. Regional airports include the Lakefront Airport, Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base New Orleans (Callender Field) in the suburb of Belle Chasse and Southern Seaplane Airport, also located in Belle Chasse. Southern Seaplane has a 3,200 - foot (980 m) runway for wheeled planes and a 5,000 - foot (1,500 m) water runway for seaplanes. New Orleans International suffered some damage from Katrina, but as of April 2007, it was the busiest airport in Louisiana and the sixth busiest in the Southeast. As of 2017, the airport handled more than 11 million passengers, serving more than 57 destinations. The airport 's international service includes nonstop flights to the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, Mexico, Honduras, Bahamas and Dominican Republic.
The city is served by Amtrak. The New Orleans Union Passenger Terminal is the central rail depot and is served by the Crescent, operating between New Orleans and New York City; the City of New Orleans, operating between New Orleans and Chicago and the Sunset Limited, operating through New Orleans between Orlando and Los Angeles. Starting in late August 2005, the Sunset Limited no longer serves its official route, and since late October 2005, it only serves the New Orleans - to - Los Angeles segment. The obstacles to restoration of the full route have been more managerial and political than physical.
With the strategic benefits of both the port and its double - track Mississippi River crossings, the city attracted six of the seven Class I railroads in North America: Union Pacific Railroad, BNSF Railway, Norfolk Southern Railway, Kansas City Southern Railway, CSX Transportation and Canadian National Railway. The New Orleans Public Belt Railroad provides interchange services between the railroads.
According to the 2016 American Community Survey, 67.4 % of working city of New Orleans residents commuted by driving alone, 9.7 % carpooled, 7.3 % used public transportation, and 4.9 % walked. About 5 % used all other forms of transportation, including taxicab, motorcycle, and bicycle. About 5.7 % of working New Orleans residents worked at home.
Many city of New Orleans households own no personal automobiles. In 2015, 18.8 % of New Orleans households were without a car, which increased to 20.2 % in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. New Orleans averaged 1.26 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8 per household.
New Orleans ranks high among cities in terms of the percentage of working residents who commute by walking or bicycling. In 2013, 5 % of working people from New Orleans commuted by walking and 2.8 % commuted by cycling. During the same period, New Orleans ranked thirteenth for percentage of workers who commuted by walking or biking among cities not included within the fifty most populous cities. Only nine of the most fifty most populous cities had a higher percentage of commuters who walked or biked than did New Orleans in 2013.
New Orleans has eleven sister cities:
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how many episodes are in pll end game | Pretty Little Liars (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh and final season of the American mystery drama television series Pretty Little Liars, based on the books of the same name by Sara Shepard, was renewed on June 10, 2014 for two additional seasons, making the show Freeform 's longest running original series.
The season consisted of 20 episodes, in which ten episodes aired in the summer of 2016, with the remaining ten episodes aired from April 2017. The season 's premiere aired on June 21, 2016 on Freeform. Production and filming began in the end of March 2016, which was confirmed by showrunner I. Marlene King. The season premiere was written by I. Marlene King and directed by Ron Lagomarsino. King revealed the title of the premiere on Twitter on March 17, 2016. On August 29, 2016, it was confirmed that this would be the final season of the series.
A.D. gives the Liars 24 hours to find Charlotte 's real killer or Hanna dies. While discussing possible suspects, the girls ' suspicion fell on Alison. Aria suspects the red jacket blonde she saw entering the church was Alison. Emily finds the jacket in Alison 's things and Caleb gives it to A.D. Meanwhile, Hanna manages to escape. Elliot 's true motive is later revealed to Alison; she managed to use his phone to alert the girls to her location when he takes her out in his car one night. She jumps out of the car and he gives chase but Hanna accidentally runs him over and they bury him in the woods.
The Liars find out Jenna is calling Elliot as "Archer '' on his burner phone. Mona then traces most of the sent messages from a secret apartment where they find out his real name is "Archer Dunhill ''. Toby discovers this and gets the cops to release Alison who reveals that she was the red jacket blonde but only tried to comfort Charlotte. Jenna befriends Sara and Noel begins helping them. Emily confronts Jenna and Sara. Jenna reveals that she became Charlotte 's friend after feeling sympathy for her in Welby and helped Archer fake his identity to be with Charlotte. Sara reveals that they are all looking for the same thing but is killed soon after. A.D. tricks Hanna into believing Archer is alive and records her digging up his grave.
The Liars find videos in Noel 's cabin of him torturing them in the dollhouse. Hanna kidnaps Noel after negotiating with him does n't work and films an interrogation video. He manages to escape and lures the Liars to an abandoned blind school. They leave the dollhouse videos on a table and someone takes them but Noel and Jenna attempt to murder them. In the confrontation, Noel is accidently killed, and Spencer is shot by Jenna, who is subdued by Mary. She then reveals that Spencer is her second child. A.D. saves Jenna who asks if they shot Spencer.
One week later, Spencer has recovered and A.D. sends Jenna to confess to the cops that Noel wanted money Charlotte left Jenna for another eye surgery, killed Sara and tried to kill Jenna in the blind school. Peter returns and reveals that Mary is the one who killed Jessica. Hanna and Spencer follow the trail of a private investigator he hired to find Mary and bump into Ted who reveals he has been hiding her as she is his college fling with whom he conceived Charles. Mary reveals to Spencer that Peter and Jessica were planning to kill her, thus she used his pills to kill Jessica. A.D. then uses Emily 's stolen eggs to impregnate Alison, as a way to further torture the liars. Meanwhile, A.D. hires Sydney Driscoll as their helper and she fakes being A.D. to recruit Aria into joining the A.D. team. Aria is forced into playing and becomes A.D. 's new helper, destroying Emison 's baby nursery and leaving an "A '' message in Spencer 's house, until the Liars catch her in the act and she defects. Mona, who is becoming addicted to the A-game again, reveals that she tried to scare Charlotte into not resuming the A-game but Charlotte attacked her and she killed her in self - defense. Mary confesses to Rollins and Jessica 's murder. A.D. ends the game as they have finally learned that Mona was Charlotte 's killer.
One year later, Mary escapes from prison and Mona is released from Welby but rejoins the A-Team and is sent to kidnap Spencer, who comes face - to - face with A.D. - Alex Drake, her twin sister. Mary reveals she sold Alex to a London family to get out of Radley. Alex ran away and met Wren who revealed everything about Spencer to her and introduced her to Charlotte who left her everything. She became A.D. to use the Liars to find Charlotte 's killer and killed Wren as he always saw her as Alex while she wanted to become Spencer to have her "perfect life ''. She explains that Sara was looking for Charlotte 's false treasure in the Radley which was actually the secret fall and Jenna recruited Noel to look for "Charlotte 's sister ''. Jenna uses her enhanced sense of smell to figure out "Spencer 's not Spencer '' and alerts Toby who tells the others. Mona reveals to them that Wren was going to kill her but she convinced him she could get Mary out. The Liars, Toby, Mona, and Caleb come face to face with Alex and Spencer as they can not tell them apart, until Toby makes the distinction by asking what Spencer 's favorite poem from a book she gave him. Mona tracked A.D. 's location has a cop arrest her. The Liars then say goodbye to one another as Aria leaves for her honeymoon with Ezra. Mona moves to Paris and the "cop '' is revealed to be her boyfriend who has imprisoned Alex and Mary in her basement dollhouse. In the finale moment, a new set of liars are awaken to find their leader, Addison, has just gone missing.
After putting herself in danger, Hanna is rescued by Mary Drake. After Alison calls Emily about her current condition, this leads the Liars to grow suspicious of Elliott. Spencer and Caleb 's relationship is on the rocks after Hanna tells Caleb about her feelings towards him. Liam is assigned to help Aria and Ezra on their book and after Aria breaks up with him, he unleashes on Ezra. Hanna breaks off her engagement with Jordan, and later signs a contract with Lucas to construct a fashion company.
The Rosewood P.D. begin to question Elliott 's disappearance and explore the possibility of him being dead. The investigation leads the Liars to question Elliott 's murder altogether, with Hanna being conflicted about whether or not to tell the police the truth. Spencer talks with Marco in order to make things clear regarding the kiss they had in the Radley elevator. Meanwhile, Aria and Ezra struggle with their relationship after Aria turns down Ezra 's proposal because of Elliott 's murder. Emily questions the fact that Sara and Jenna have teamed up together, and finds out that Charlotte enlisted Jenna 's help to find her birth mother and make Archer the alias of Elliott Rollins in order to purposely meet Ali and take advantage of her good intentions for her eventual release. Spencer and Caleb finally have a conversation about their relationship and break up. "A.D. '' unsuccessfully attacks Alison at her house wearing a mask. After hearing everything from Aria, Ezra proposes to her again -- and, this time, she says yes. Sara is murdered by an unseen figure and her body is discovered in a bathtub at The Radley.
Jason comes back to Rosewood in order to stop Alison from becoming too close to Mary. Meanwhile, Noel Kahn 's behaviour starts to worry the girls when they find out he broke into Toby 's house to steal Mary 's Radley file. The Liars discover new information about Mary and Jessica, leading them to a secret cellar in Carol Ward 's house where they discover that Jessica had files about them and that Mary had a second child while at Radley. They then begin to think that this child, a cousin of Alison, may be behind the "A.D. '' mask, and wanting revenge for something. The cellar explodes right after the girls leave, and someone writes "I see you '' on the rear window of their car. Ezra and Aria decide to elope in Italy, but right before they are about to leave, the FBI contacts Ezra and tells him that Nicole may be alive.
The Liars, Alison, Mona, and Caleb team up with Rosewood P.D. to find Hanna. Emily and Paige continue to rebuild their friendship. Alison reveals to Emily that she 's pregnant. Spencer learns that Toby and Yvonne are planning to leave Rosewood. Aria finds out that Nicole is alive. Noel manages to escape and leads the Liars to an abandoned school for the blind where Jenna, armed with a gun, attempts to murder the Liars with Noel. However, Noel, while attacking Hanna and Emily, trips on his axe and accidentally kills himself. Jenna then shoots at the Liars and gets Spencer. Jenna corners her and is about to execute her when Mary Drake knocks her out and reveals that she is Spencer 's biological mother. While leaving town, Toby and Yvonne are in a car accident.
One week after the events of the last episode, Toby is well but Yvonne is in a coma while Spencer has recovered. Ezra arrives and reveals he has n't told Nicole about him and Aria getting married. Hanna and Caleb are back together and Mona helps her get back into the fashion business. Emily is appointed coach of the varsity swimming team and Paige is made an athletics supervisor at Rosewood High. The Liars are given a interactive board game by "A.D. '' which shows the area of notable places of Rosewood and figurines of the Liars. Spencer plays the game and receives a puzzle piece and a letter from Mary. Hanna tries to destroy the game but a video appears showing that "A.D. '' knows they killed Rollins.
After being blackmailed by "A.D. '', Aria supplies info to them about the Liars findings. Detective Furey reveals to Spencer that she used Archer 's credit card to buy drinks when they first met and she is now a suspect in Archer 's death. After some arguing, Ezra finally agrees to leave Nicole behind for Aria, while Emily encourages Ali to not get an abortion and raise her child. Paige discovers Emily is going to help Alison raise her child. That night Paige and Alison discuss Emily, while finally making up after years of hate. Realizing that Emily loves Alison, Paige leaves Rosewood and Emily for good. After learning about Lucas ' relation with Charles, Hanna sets out to prove he is innocent, but finds more evidence that he is "A.D '', when the Liars find a comic book made by Lucas and Charles, that heavily resembles the "A '' game. Hanna tells Mona about the game and tries to convince her to help. Meanwhile, "A.D. '' sends Aria to retrieve the comic book for them, and in return she is gifted the official "A '' uniform.
Spencer steals a flash drive from Marco 's apartment about Lucas ' alibi confession to the police the night Archer was killed. "A.D. '' sends Aria to destroy Alison and Emily 's nursery. In Hanna 's turn at the game, "A.D. '' makes her pick up something at the computer repair shop and bring it to Rosewood High School. The Liars have a confrontation with Lucas where he explains to them that he did n't know Charles and Charlotte were the same person, or that Charlotte was "A ''. A second comic book exists and depicts turning vengeance into a game. Aria breaks down in remorse after her plot to destroy the nursery. Meanwhile, Caleb and Hanna return to Lucas 's loft with the hard drive Hanna picked up. The audio file contains a Patsy Cline song. Hanna remembers that "A '' played a different Patsy song in the Dollhouse. Alison finally admits her feelings to Emily.
The Liars are told by Caleb that Mona has the board game and jump to conclusions that Mona is "A.D. ''. Mary meets with Spencer at Lost Woods Resort and gives her ownership of the building. Mona reveals that Charlotte never recovered and was going to resume the A-game. She confronted Charlotte and threatened to push her out the window but never planned to go through with it. When Hanna, Caleb and Spencer take Mona back to their car, the final two puzzle pieces are waiting. Later, the Liars gather in a room at the Lost Woods and put the two final puzzle pieces in. When the pieces are in place, the game says "Congratulations. Claim the grand prize '', a picture of Archer. Augmented reality shows a man walking toward Aunt Carol 's house. The Liars are arrested by Tanner at Aunt Carol 's where Archer 's body is found. Mary lies and says she killed Archer, also confessing to Jessica 's murder, saving the Liars from a murder charge. Mona reveals that after she stopped threatening her, Charlotte attacked Mona and in the struggle she accidentally killed Charlotte in self - defense.
The seventh season was ordered with the sixth season on June 10, 2014, right before the fifth - season premiere aired, which made Pretty Little Liars ABC Family 's longest running original series, surpassing The Secret Life of the American Teenager, which was ABC Family 's previous longest running original series. The season will consist of 20 episodes, in which ten episodes will air in the summer of 2016, with the remaining ten episodes beginning to air in April 2017. Charlie Craig, who served as writer / consulting producer on the second season, will return for the seventh season as executive producer / co-showrunner. I. Marlene King revealed the title of the premiere "Tick - Tock, Bitches '' on Twitter. Variety announced that season premiere would air on June 21, 2016, the latest for a season premiere in the show 's history. Additionally, series star Troian Bellisario would make her directorial debut this season. Bellisario is set to direct the fifteenth episode of the season. A promo was released on May 12, 2016. Freeform released a promotional poster for the season, on June 7, 2016. After the season premiere, Freeform released another poster which included Ashley Benson. On August 29, 2016, I. Marlene King with the principal cast of the show announced that Pretty Little Liars would end after the seventh season. King also announced that the show would start airing the second half of the season later than usual, in April 2017 and that the series finale would be a two - hour episode event. It was reported on October 26, 2016, that a tell - all special will air after the series finale "Till Death Do Us Part '', where the main cast and showrunner I. Marlene King talked about the show and behind - the - scenes exclusive.
The seventh season had been speculated by both fans and the cast and crew of the show to being the final season of Pretty Little Liars ever since the show was renewed for two additional seasons. In an interview with BuzzFeed, Troian Bellisario said "This is the beginning of the end. But the best part about these last two years is that, because it 's the beginning of the end, we can actually start telling the story I think we 've been waiting to tell for a long time. '' Regarding the show 's ending, Lucy Hale said to E! News that "Seven seasons will definitely end the show. '' Showrunner I. Marlene King commented on these rumors to TVLine as she said "We have enough story to take us to the end of Season 7, and we 're going to let the fans tell us if they 're ready to say goodbye to this world and these characters. '' She confirmed to being open for an eighth season and a movie and a new book.
In an interview with Variety regarding the five - year time - jump, King said "I think that this story when we 're back will end next year at the end of Season 7 ''. She later took to Twitter where she confirmed that the current storyline that began in the second half of the sixth season would end after the seventh season, but would not necessarily mean that the show would end after the seventh season. Hale said on The Late Late Show with James Corden that the show was ending after the seventh season. Bellisario 's fiancé Patrick J. Adams said in June 2016, that the show was ending in 2017, as the couple has decided to get married after the show ends. Freeform gave out a statement not long after saying that "There has been no official decision made for PLL beyond a season 7. '' It was announced on August 29, 2016, the day before the mid-season finale would air, that Pretty Little Liars will end after the seventh season.
Production began on February 1, 2016, when King announced on Twitter that the writers were in full swing brainstorming and mapping the seventh season. Production and filming began in the end of March 2016 and officially wrapped up in October 2016.
The seventh season has nine roles receiving star billing, with eight of them returning from the previous season, six of which was part of the original cast from the first season. The season saw the four protagonists of the series continue the roles as they try to take down the new ' A '. Troian Bellisario played Spencer Hastings, who has relationship problems with Caleb, while Ashley Benson played Hanna Marin, who was kidnapped at the end of last season. Lucy Hale continued her role as Aria Montgomery as she is set in a love triangle with Ezra and her boyfriend Liam. Shay Mitchell portrayed Emily Fields who begins to rekindle her relationship with Alison. Sasha Pieterse continued to portray Alison DiLaurentis as Alison struggles with being in a psych - ward. Janel Parrish returned as Mona Vanderwaal who seems to be finally on their side. Tyler Blackburn continues to play Caleb Rivers and Ian Harding also continued his role as Ezra Fitz. Andrea Parker was added as a series regular, playing Jessica DiLaurentis ' twin sister Mary Drake.
After the sixth - season finale, it was announced that Andrea Parker would return to the show as Mary Drake, Jessica DiLaurentis ' identical twin sister and biological mother to Charlotte DiLaurentis. TVLine later confirmed that Parker was added as a series regular for the upcoming season. Deadline reported on May 10, 2016, that actor Nicholas Gonzalez was cast as Detective Vic Furey, a character who will oversee the Rosewood Police Department. The character was later renamed Det. Marco Furey. Tammin Sursok announced that she will return to the show as Jenna Marshall after last appearing in the fifth - season episode "How the ' A ' Stole Christmas ''. On June 2, 2016, Variety reported that Brant Daugherty would be returning as Noel Kahn; Brant has not appeared on the show since the beginning of the fifth season.
On June 10, 2016, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Lindsey Shaw would be returning as Paige McCullers after leaving in the fifth season mid-season premiere. The actress playing Sydney Driscoll, Chloe Bridges, posted an image on social media, confirming that she would return to the show after last appearing in the Christmas special episode. On July 28, 2016, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Shane Coffey would be returning as Holden Strauss; Shane has not appeared on the show since the beginning of the third season. It was announced on August 8, 2016, that Ava Allan will appear on the show, and will first appear in the second half of the season as Addison. On August 17, 2016, TVLine reported that Edward Kerr would be returning to the show as Pastor Ted Wilson in the second half of the season. Kerr had not been on the show since towards the end of the fifth season.
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one of the major constituent of gobar gas is | Biogas - wikipedia
Biogas typically refers to a mixture of different gases produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas can be produced from raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste or food waste. Biogas is a renewable energy source.
Biogas can be produced by anaerobic digestion with anaerobic organisms, which digest material inside a closed system, or fermentation of biodegradable materials.
Biogas is primarily methane (CH 4) and carbon dioxide (CO) and may have small amounts of hydrogen sulfide (H 2S), moisture and siloxanes. The gases methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide (CO) can be combusted or oxidized with oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to be used as a fuel; it can be used for any heating purpose, such as cooking. It can also be used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into electricity and heat.
Biogas can be compressed, the same way as natural gas is compressed to CNG, and used to power motor vehicles. In the UK, for example, biogas is estimated to have the potential to replace around 17 % of vehicle fuel. It qualifies for renewable energy subsidies in some parts of the world. Biogas can be cleaned and upgraded to natural gas standards, when it becomes bio-methane. Biogas is considered to be a renewable resource because its production - and - use cycle is continuous, and it generates no net carbon dioxide. Organic material grows, is converted and used and then regrows in a continually repeating cycle. From a carbon perspective, as much carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere in the growth of the primary bio-resource as is released when the material is ultimately converted to energy.
Biogas is produced as landfill gas (LFG), which is produced by the breakdown of Biodegradable waste inside a landfill due to chemical reactions and microbes, or as digested gas, produced inside an anaerobic digester. A biogas plant is the name often given to an anaerobic digester that treats farm wastes or energy crops. It can be produced using anaerobic digesters (air - tight tanks with different configurations). These plants can be fed with energy crops such as maize silage or biodegradable wastes including sewage sludge and food waste. During the process, the microorganisms transform biomass waste into biogas (mainly methane and carbon dioxide) and digestate. The biogas is a renewable energy that can be used for heating, electricity, and many other operations that use a reciprocating internal combustion engine, such as GE Jenbacher or Caterpillar gas engines. Other internal combustion engines such as gas turbines are suitable for the conversion of biogas into both electricity and heat. The digestate is the remaining inorganic matter that was not transformed into biogas. It can be used as an agricultural fertiliser.
There are two key processes: mesophilic and thermophilic digestion which is dependent on temperature. In experimental work at University of Alaska Fairbanks, a 1000 - litre digester using psychrophiles harvested from "mud from a frozen lake in Alaska '' has produced 200 -- 300 liters of methane per day, about 20 % -- 30 % of the output from digesters in warmer climates.
The dangers of biogas are mostly similar to those of natural gas, but with an additional risk from the toxicity of its hydrogen sulfide fraction. Biogas can be explosive when mixed in the ratio of one part biogas to 8 - 20 parts air. Special safety precautions have to be taken for entering an empty biogas digester for maintenance work.
It is important that a biogas system never has negative pressure as this could cause an explosion. Negative gas pressure can occur if too much gas is removed or leaked; Because of this biogas should not be used at pressures below one column inch of water, measured by a pressure gauge.
Frequent smell checks must be performed on a biogas system. If biogas is smelled anywhere windows and doors should be opened immediately. If there is a fire the gas should be shut off at the gate valve of the biogas system.
Landfill gas is produced by wet organic waste decomposing under anaerobic conditions in a biogas.
The waste is covered and mechanically compressed by the weight of the material that is deposited above. This material prevents oxygen exposure thus allowing anaerobic microbes to thrive. Biogas builds up and is slowly released into the atmosphere if the site has not been engineered to capture the gas. Landfill gas released in an uncontrolled way can be hazardous since it can become explosive when it escapes from the landfill and mixes with oxygen. The lower explosive limit is 5 % methane and the upper is 15 % methane.
The methane in biogas is 20 times more potent a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Therefore, uncontained landfill gas, which escapes into the atmosphere may significantly contribute to the effects of global warming. In addition, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in landfill gas contribute to the formation of photochemical smog.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of oxygen required by aerobic micro-organisms to decompose the organic matter in a sample of aterial being used in the biodigester as well as the BOD for the liquid discharge allows for the calculation of the daily energy output from a biodigester.
Another term related to biodigesters is effluent dirtiness, which tells how much organic material there is per unit of biogas source. Typical units for this measure are in mg BOD / litre. As an example, effluent dirtiness can range between 800 -- 1200 mg BOD / litre in Panama.
From 1 kg of decommissioned kitchen bio-waste, 0.45 m3 of biogas can be obtained. The price for collecting biological waste from households is approximately € 70 per ton.
The composition of biogas varies depending upon the substrate composition, as well as the conditions within the anaerobic reactor (temperature, pH, and substrate concentration). Landfill gas typically has methane concentrations around 50 %. Advanced waste treatment technologies can produce biogas with 55 % -- 75 % methane, which for reactors with free liquids can be increased to 80 % - 90 % methane using in - situ gas purification techniques. As produced, biogas contains water vapor. The fractional volume of water vapor is a function of biogas temperature; correction of measured gas volume for water vapor content and thermal expansion is easily done via simple mathematics which yields the standardized volume of dry biogas.
In some cases, biogas contains siloxanes. They are formed from the anaerobic decomposition of materials commonly found in soaps and detergents. During combustion of biogas containing siloxanes, silicon is released and can combine with free oxygen or other elements in the combustion gas. Deposits are formed containing mostly silica (SiO 2) or silicates (Si xO y) and can contain calcium, sulfur, zinc, phosphorus. Such white mineral deposits accumulate to a surface thickness of several millimeters and must be removed by chemical or mechanical means.
Practical and cost - effective technologies to remove siloxanes and other biogas contaminants are available.
For 1000 kg (wet weight) of input to a typical biodigester, total solids may be 30 % of the wet weight while volatile suspended solids may be 90 % of the total solids. Protein would be 20 % of the volatile solids, carbohydrates would be 70 % of the volatile solids, and finally fats would be 10 % of the volatile solids.
High levels of methane are produced when manure is stored under anaerobic conditions. During storage and when manure has been applied to the land, nitrous oxide is also produced as a byproduct of the denitrification process. Nitrous oxide (N2O) is 320 times more aggressive as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide and methane 25 times more than carbon dioxide.
By converting cow manure into methane biogas via anaerobic digestion, the millions of cattle in the United States would be able to produce 100 billion kiloWatt hours of electricity, enough to power millions of homes across the United States. In fact, one cow can produce enough manure in one day to generate 3 kiloWatt hours of electricity; only 2.4 kiloWatt hours of electricity are needed to power a single 100 - Watt light bulb for one day. Furthermore, by converting cattle manure into methane biogas instead of letting it decompose, global warming gases could be reduced by 99 million metric tons or 4 %.
Biogas can be used for electricity production on sewage works, in a CHP gas engine, where the waste heat from the engine is conveniently used for heating the digester; cooking; space heating; water heating; and process heating. If compressed, it can replace compressed natural gas for use in vehicles, where it can fuel an internal combustion engine or fuel cells and is a much more effective displacer of carbon dioxide than the normal use in on - site CHP plants.
Raw biogas produced from digestion is roughly 60 % methane and 29 % CO 2 with trace elements of H 2S; it is not of high enough quality to be used as fuel gas for machinery. The corrosive nature of H 2S alone is enough to destroy the internals of a plant.
Methane in biogas can be concentrated via a biogas upgrader to the same standards as fossil natural gas, which itself has to go through a cleaning process, and becomes biomethane. If the local gas network allows, the producer of the biogas may use their distribution networks. Gas must be very clean to reach pipeline quality and must be of the correct composition for the distribution network to accept. Carbon dioxide, water, hydrogen sulfide, and particulates must be removed if present.
There are four main methods of upgrading: water washing, pressure swing adsorption, selexol adsorption, and amine gas treating. In addition to these, the use of membrane separation technology for biogas upgrading is increasing, and there are already several plants operating in Europe and USA.
The most prevalent method is water washing where high pressure gas flows into a column where the carbon dioxide and other trace elements are scrubbed by cascading water running counter-flow to the gas. This arrangement could deliver 98 % methane with manufacturers guaranteeing maximum 2 % methane loss in the system. It takes roughly between 3 % and 6 % of the total energy output in gas to run a biogas upgrading system.
Gas - grid injection is the injection of biogas into the methane grid (natural gas grid). Injections includes biogas until the breakthrough of micro combined heat and power two - thirds of all the energy produced by biogas power plants was lost (the heat), using the grid to transport the gas to customers, the electricity and the heat can be used for on - site generation resulting in a reduction of losses in the transportation of energy. Typical energy losses in natural gas transmission systems range from 1 % to 2 %. The current energy losses on a large electrical system range from 5 % to 8 %.
If concentrated and compressed, it can be used in vehicle transportation. Compressed biogas is becoming widely used in Sweden, Switzerland, and Germany. A biogas - powered train, named Biogaståget Amanda (The Biogas Train Amanda), has been in service in Sweden since 2005. Biogas powers automobiles. In 1974, a British documentary film titled Sweet as a Nut detailed the biogas production process from pig manure and showed how it fueled a custom - adapted combustion engine. In 2007, an estimated 12,000 vehicles were being fueled with upgraded biogas worldwide, mostly in Europe.
Biogas is part of the wet gas and condensing gas (or air) category that includes mist or fog in the gas stream. The mist or fog is predominately water vapor that condenses on the sides of pipes or stacks throughout the gas flow. Biogas environments include wastewater digesters, landfills, and animal feeding operations (covered livestock lagoons).
Ultrasonic flow meters are one of the few devices capable of measuring in a biogas atmosphere. Most of thermal flow meters are unable to provide reliable data because the moisture causes steady high flow readings and continuous flow spiking, although there are single - point insertion thermal mass flow meters capable of accurately monitoring biogas flows with minimal pressure drop. They can handle moisture variations that occur in the flow stream because of daily and seasonal temperature fluctuations, and account for the moisture in the flow stream to produce a dry gas value.
The European Union has legislation regarding waste management and landfill sites called the Landfill Directive.
Countries such as the United Kingdom and Germany now have legislation in force that provides farmers with long - term revenue and energy security.
The United States legislates against landfill gas as it contains VOCs. The United States Clean Air Act and Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) requires landfill owners to estimate the quantity of non-methane organic compounds (NMOCs) emitted. If the estimated NMOC emissions exceeds 50 tonnes per year, the landfill owner is required to collect the gas and treat it to remove the entrained NMOCs. Treatment of the landfill gas is usually by combustion. Because of the remoteness of landfill sites, it is sometimes not economically feasible to produce electricity from the gas.
With the many benefits of biogas, it is starting to become a popular source of energy and is starting to be used in the United States more. In 2003, the United States consumed 147 trillion BTU of energy from "landfill gas '', about 0.6 % of the total U.S. natural gas consumption. Methane biogas derived from cow manure is being tested in the U.S. According to a 2008 study, collected by the Science and Children magazine, methane biogas from cow manure would be sufficient to produce 100 billion kilowatt hours enough to power millions of homes across America. Furthermore, methane biogas has been tested to prove that it can reduce 99 million metric tons of greenhouse gas emissions or about 4 % of the greenhouse gases produced by the United States.
In Vermont, for example, biogas generated on dairy farms was included in the CVPS Cow Power program. The program was originally offered by Central Vermont Public Service Corporation as a voluntary tariff and now with a recent merger with Green Mountain Power is now the GMP Cow Power Program. Customers can elect to pay a premium on their electric bill, and that premium is passed directly to the farms in the program. In Sheldon, Vermont, Green Mountain Dairy has provided renewable energy as part of the Cow Power program. It started when the brothers who own the farm, Bill and Brian Rowell, wanted to address some of the manure management challenges faced by dairy farms, including manure odor, and nutrient availability for the crops they need to grow to feed the animals. They installed an anaerobic digester to process the cow and milking center waste from their 950 cows to produce renewable energy, a bedding to replace sawdust, and a plant - friendly fertilizer. The energy and environmental attributes are sold to the GMP Cow Power program. On average, the system run by the Rowells produces enough electricity to power 300 to 350 other homes. The generator capacity is about 300 kilowatts.
In Hereford, Texas, cow manure is being used to power an ethanol power plant. By switching to methane biogas, the ethanol power plant has saved 1000 barrels of oil a day. Over all, the power plant has reduced transportation costs and will be opening many more jobs for future power plants that will rely on biogas.
In Oakley, Kansas, an ethanol plant considered to be one of the largest biogas facilities in North America is using Integrated Manure Utilization System "IMUS '' to produce heat for its boilers by utilizing feedlot manure, municipal organics and ethanol plant waste. At full capacity the plant is expected to replace 90 % of the fossil fuel used in the manufacturing process of ethanol.
The level of development varies greatly in Europe. While countries such as Germany, Austria and Sweden are fairly advanced in their use of biogas, there is a vast potential for this renewable energy source in the rest of the continent, especially in Eastern Europe. Different legal frameworks, education schemes and the availability of technology are among the prime reasons behind this untapped potential. Another challenge for the further progression of biogas has been negative public perception.
In February 2009, the European Biogas Association (EBA) was founded in Brussels as a non-profit organisation to promote the deployment of sustainable biogas production and use in Europe. EBA 's strategy defines three priorities: establish biogas as an important part of Europe 's energy mix, promote source separation of household waste to increase the gas potential, and support the production of biomethane as vehicle fuel. In July 2013, it had 60 members from 24 countries across Europe.
As of September 2013, there are about 130 non-sewage biogas plants in the UK. Most are on - farm, and some larger facilities exist off - farm, which are taking food and consumer wastes.
On 5 October 2010, biogas was injected into the UK gas grid for the first time. Sewage from over 30,000 Oxfordshire homes is sent to Didcot sewage treatment works, where it is treated in an anaerobic digestor to produce biogas, which is then cleaned to provide gas for approximately 200 homes.
In 2015 the Green - Energy company Ecotricity announced their plans to build three grid - injecting digesters.
Germany is Europe 's biggest biogas producer and the market leader in biogas technology. In 2010 there were 5,905 biogas plants operating throughout the country: Lower Saxony, Bavaria, and the eastern federal states are the main regions. Most of these plants are employed as power plants. Usually the biogas plants are directly connected with a CHP which produces electric power by burning the bio methane. The electrical power is then fed into the public power grid. In 2010, the total installed electrical capacity of these power plants was 2,291 MW. The electricity supply was approximately 12.8 TWh, which is 12.6 % of the total generated renewable electricity.
Biogas in Germany is primarily extracted by the co-fermentation of energy crops (called ' NawaRo ', an abbreviation of nachwachsende Rohstoffe, German for renewable resources) mixed with manure. The main crop used is corn. Organic waste and industrial and agricultural residues such as waste from the food industry are also used for biogas generation. In this respect, biogas production in Germany differs significantly from the UK, where biogas generated from landfill sites is most common.
Biogas production in Germany has developed rapidly over the last 20 years. The main reason is the legally created frameworks. Government support of renewable energy started in 1991 with the Electricity Feed - in Act (StrEG). This law guaranteed the producers of energy from renewable sources the feed into the public power grid, thus the power companies were forced to take all produced energy from independent private producers of green energy. In 2000 the Electricity Feed - in Act was replaced by the Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG). This law even guaranteed a fixed compensation for the produced electric power over 20 years. The amount of around 8 ¢ / kWh gave farmers the opportunity to become energy suppliers and gain a further source of income.
The German agricultural biogas production was given a further push in 2004 by implementing the so - called NawaRo - Bonus. This is a special payment given for the use of renewable resources, that is, energy crops. In 2007 the German government stressed its intention to invest further effort and support in improving the renewable energy supply to provide an answer on growing climate challenges and increasing oil prices by the ' Integrated Climate and Energy Programme '.
This continual trend of renewable energy promotion induces a number of challenges facing the management and organisation of renewable energy supply that has also several impacts on the biogas production. The first challenge to be noticed is the high area - consuming of the biogas electric power supply. In 2011 energy crops for biogas production consumed an area of circa 800,000 ha in Germany. This high demand of agricultural areas generates new competitions with the food industries that did not exist hitherto. Moreover, new industries and markets were created in predominately rural regions entailing different new players with an economic, political and civil background. Their influence and acting has to be governed to gain all advantages this new source of energy is offering. Finally biogas will furthermore play an important role in the German renewable energy supply if good governance is focused.
Biogas in India has been traditionally based on dairy manure as feed stock and these "gobar '' gas plants have been in operation for a long period of time, especially in rural India. In the last 2 - 3 decades, research organisations with a focus on rural energy security have enhanced the design of the systems resulting in newer efficient low cost designs such as the Deenabandhu model.
The Deenabandhu Model is a new biogas - production model popular in India. (Deenabandhu means "friend of the helpless. '') The unit usually has a capacity of 2 to 3 cubic metres. It is constructed using bricks or by a ferrocement mixture. In India, the brick model costs slightly more than the ferrocement model; however, India 's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy offers some subsidy per model constructed.
LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) is a key source of cooking fuel in urban India and its prices have been increasing along with the global fuel prices. Also the heavy subsidies provided by the successive governments in promoting LPG as a domestic cooking fuel has become a financial burden renewing the focus on biogas as a cooking fuel alternative in urban establishments. This has led to the development of prefabricated digester for modular deployments as compared to RCC and cement structures which take a longer duration to construct. Renewed focus on process technology like the Biourja process model has enhanced the stature of medium and large scale anaerobic digester in India as a potential alternative to LPG as primary cooking fuel.
In India, Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh biogas produced from the anaerobic digestion of manure in small - scale digestion facilities is called gobar gas; it is estimated that such facilities exist in over 2 million households in India, 50,000 in Bangladesh and thousands in Pakistan, particularly North Punjab, due to the thriving population of livestock. The digester is an airtight circular pit made of concrete with a pipe connection. The manure is directed to the pit, usually straight from the cattle shed. The pit is filled with a required quantity of wastewater. The gas pipe is connected to the kitchen fireplace through control valves. The combustion of this biogas has very little odour or smoke. Owing to simplicity in implementation and use of cheap raw materials in villages, it is one of the most environmentally sound energy sources for rural needs. One type of these system is the Sintex Digester. Some designs use vermiculture to further enhance the slurry produced by the biogas plant for use as compost.
To create awareness and associate the people interested in biogas, the Indian Biogas Association was formed. It aspires to be a unique blend of nationwide operators, manufacturers and planners of biogas plants, and representatives from science and research. The association was founded in 2010 and is now ready to start mushrooming. Its motto is "propagating Biogas in a sustainable way ''.
In Pakistan, the Rural Support Programmes Network is running the Pakistan Domestic Biogas Programme which has installed 5,360 biogas plants and has trained in excess of 200 masons on the technology and aims to develop the Biogas Sector in Pakistan.
In Nepal, the government provides subsidies to build biogas plant at home.
The Chinese have experimented with the applications of biogas since 1958. Around 1970, China had installed 6,000,000 digesters in an effort to make agriculture more efficient. During the last years the technology has met high growth rates. This seems to be the earliest developments in generating biogas from agricultural waste.
Domestic biogas plants convert livestock manure and night soil into biogas and slurry, the fermented manure. This technology is feasible for small - holders with livestock producing 50 kg manure per day, an equivalent of about 6 pigs or 3 cows. This manure has to be collectable to mix it with water and feed it into the plant. Toilets can be connected. Another precondition is the temperature that affects the fermentation process. With an optimum at 36 C ° the technology especially applies for those living in a (sub) tropical climate. This makes the technology for small holders in developing countries often suitable.
Depending on size and location, a typical brick made fixed dome biogas plant can be installed at the yard of a rural household with the investment between US $300 to $500 in Asian countries and up to $1400 in the African context. A high quality biogas plant needs minimum maintenance costs and can produce gas for at least 15 -- 20 years without major problems and re-investments. For the user, biogas provides clean cooking energy, reduces indoor air pollution, and reduces the time needed for traditional biomass collection, especially for women and children. The slurry is a clean organic fertilizer that potentially increases agricultural productivity.
Domestic biogas technology is a proven and established technology in many parts of the world, especially Asia. Several countries in this region have embarked on large - scale programmes on domestic biogas, such as China and India.
The Netherlands Development Organisation, SNV, supports national programmes on domestic biogas that aim to establish commercial - viable domestic biogas sectors in which local companies market, install and service biogas plants for households. In Asia, SNV is working in Nepal, Vietnam, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Pakistan and Indonesia, and in Africa; Rwanda, Senegal, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Benin and Cameroon.
In South Africa a prebuilt Biogas system is manufactured and sold. One key feature is that installation requires less skill and is quicker to install as the digester tank is premade plastic.
In the 1985 Australian film Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome the post-apocalyptic settlement Barter town is powered by a central biogas system based upon a piggery. As well as providing electricity, methane is used to power Barter 's vehicles.
"Cow Town '', written in the early 1940s, discuss the travails of a city vastly built on cow manure and the hardships brought upon by the resulting methane biogas. Carter McCormick, an engineer from a town outside the city, is sent in to figure out a way to utilize this gas to help power, rather than suffocate, the city.
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when and where was the treaty between france and germany signed | Treaty of Versailles - wikipedia
The Treaty of Versailles (French: Traité de Versailles) was the most important of the peace treaties that brought World War I to an end. The Treaty ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919 in Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of World War I signed separate treaties. Although the armistice, signed on 11 November 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of Allied negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. The treaty was registered by the Secretariat of the League of Nations on 21 October 1919.
Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the most important and controversial required "Germany (to) accept the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage '' during the war (the other members of the Central Powers signed treaties containing similar articles). This article, Article 231, later became known as the War Guilt clause. The treaty forced Germany to disarm, make substantial territorial concessions, and pay reparations to certain countries that had formed the Entente powers. In 1921 the total cost of these reparations was assessed at 132 billion marks (then $31.4 billion or £ 6.6 billion, roughly equivalent to US $442 billion or UK £ 284 billion in 2017). At the time economists, notably John Maynard Keynes (a British delegate to the Paris Peace Conference), predicted that the treaty was too harsh -- a "Carthaginian peace '' -- and said the reparations figure was excessive and counter-productive, views that, since then, have been the subject of ongoing debate by historians and economists from several countries. On the other hand, prominent figures on the Allied side such as French Marshal Ferdinand Foch criticized the treaty for treating Germany too leniently.
The result of these competing and sometimes conflicting goals among the victors was a compromise that left no one content: Germany was neither pacified nor conciliated, nor was it permanently weakened. The problems that arose from the treaty would lead to the Locarno Treaties, which improved relations between Germany and the other European powers, and the re-negotiation of the reparation system resulting in the Dawes Plan, the Young Plan, and the indefinite postponement of reparations at the Lausanne Conference of 1932.
Although it is often referred to as the "Versailles Conference '', only the actual signing of the treaty took place at the historic palace. Most of the negotiations were in Paris, with the "Big Four '' meetings taking place generally at the Quai d'Orsay.
The First World War (1914 -- 1918) was fought across Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Asia. Countries beyond the war zones were also affected by the disruption of international trade, finance and diplomatic pressures from the belligerents. In 1917, two revolutions occurred within the Russian Empire, which led to the collapse of the Imperial Government and the rise of the Bolshevik Party led by Vladimir Lenin.
On 6 April 1917, the United States entered the war against the Central Powers due to German submarine warfare against merchant ships trading with France and Britain, which led to the sinking of the RMS Lusitania and the loss of 128 American lives, as well as the interception of the Zimmerman Telegram, sent by the Empire of Germany to Mexico, urging for a declaration of war against the United States. The American war aim was to detach the war from nationalistic disputes and ambitions after the Bolshevik disclosure of secret treaties between the Allies. The existence of these treaties tended to discredit Allied claims that Germany was the sole power with aggressive ambitions.
On 8 January 1918, United States President Woodrow Wilson issued a statement that became known as the Fourteen Points. This speech outlined a policy of free trade, open agreements, democracy and self - determination. It also called for a diplomatic end to the war, international disarmament, the withdrawal of the Central Powers from occupied territories, the creation of a Polish state, the redrawing of Europe 's borders along ethnic lines, and the formation of a League of Nations to afford "mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike ''. Wilson 's speech also responded to Vladimir Lenin 's Decree on Peace of November 1917, which proposed an immediate withdrawal of Russia from the war and called for a just and democratic peace uncompromised by territorial annexations. The Fourteen Points were based on the research of the Inquiry, a team of about 150 advisors led by foreign - policy advisor Edward M. House, into the topics likely to arise in the anticipated peace conference. Europeans generally welcomed Wilson 's intervention, but Allied colleagues Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom and Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy were sceptical of Wilsonian idealism.
After the Central Powers launched Operation Faustschlag on the Eastern Front, the new Soviet Government of Russia signed the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk with Germany on 3 March 1918. This treaty ended the war between Russia and the Central powers and annexed 1,300,000 square miles (3,400,000 km) of territory and 62 million people. This loss equated to a third of the Russian population, a quarter of its territory, around a third of the country 's arable land, three - quarters of its coal and iron, a third of its factories (totalling 54 percent of the nation 's industrial capacity), and a quarter of its railroads.
During the autumn of 1918, the Central Powers began to collapse. Desertion rates within the German army began to increase, and civilian strikes drastically reduced war production. On the Western Front, the Allied forces launched the Hundred Days Offensive and decisively defeated the German western armies. Sailors of the Imperial German Navy at Kiel mutinied, which prompted uprisings in Germany, which became known as the German Revolution. The German government tried to obtain a peace settlement based on the Fourteen Points, and maintained it was on this basis that they surrendered. Following negotiations, the Allied powers and Germany signed an armistice, which came into effect on 11 November while German forces were still positioned in France and Belgium.
The terms of the armistice called for an immediate evacuation of German troops from occupied Belgium, France, and Luxembourg within fifteen days. In addition, it established that Allied forces would occupy the Rhineland. In late 1918, Allied troops entered Germany and began the occupation.
Both the German Empire and Great Britain were dependent on imports of food and raw materials, primarily from the Americas, which had to be shipped across the Atlantic Ocean. The Blockade of Germany (1914 -- 1919) was a naval operation conducted by the Allied Powers to stop the supply of raw materials and foodstuffs reaching the Central Powers. The German Kaiserliche Marine was mainly restricted to the German Bight and used commerce raiders and unrestricted submarine warfare for a counter-blockade. The German Board of Public Health in December 1918 stated that 763,000 German civilians had died during the Allied blockade, although an academic study in 1928 put the death toll at 424,000 people.
In late 1918, a Polish government was formed and an independent Poland proclaimed. In December, Poles launched an uprising within the German province of Posen. Fighting lasted until February, when an armistice was signed that left the province in Polish hands, but technically still a German possession.
Negotiations between the Allied powers started on 18 January in the Salle de l'Horloge at the French Foreign Ministry on the Quai d'Orsay in Paris. Initially, 70 delegates from 27 nations participated in the negotiations. The defeated nations of Germany, Austria, and Hungary were excluded from the negotiations. Russia was also excluded because it had negotiated a separate peace (the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk) with Germany in 1918. The terms of this treaty awarded Germany a large proportion of Russia 's land and resources. Its terms were extremely harsh, as the negotiators at Versailles later pointed out.
At first a "Council of Ten '' comprising two delegates each from Britain, France, the United States, Italy and Japan met officially to decide the peace terms. It became the "Big Four '' when Japan dropped out and the top person from each of the other four nations met in 145 closed sessions to make all the major decisions to be ratified by the entire assembly. Apart from Italian issues, the main conditions were determined at personal meetings among the leaders of the "Big Three '' nations: British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, and American President Woodrow Wilson.
The minor nations attended a weekly "Plenary Conference '' that discussed issues in a general forum, but made no decisions. These members formed over 50 commissions that made various recommendations, many of which were incorporated into the final treaty.
As the only major allied power sharing a land border with Germany, France was chiefly concerned with weakening Germany as much as possible. The French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau described France 's position best by telling Wilson: "America is far away, protected by the ocean. Not even Napoleon himself could touch England. You are both sheltered; we are not. '' Clemenceau and his colleagues hoped at the very least to have Allied troops occupy bridges over the Rhine and proposed a plan to create a buffer state in the Rhineland in order to create a barrier between a revitalized Germany and France. However, their demands would not be met by the treaty. Instead, France obtained the demilitarization of the Rhineland, a mandate over the Saar and promises of Anglo - American support in case of a new German aggression (a commitment that could not be relied on after the United States failed to ratify the treaty). Clemenceau 's inability to procure the Rhineland state led to fierce criticism of him in France and contributed to his subsequent fall from power.
British economist John Maynard Keynes argued,
So far as possible, therefore, it was the policy of France to set the clock back and undo what, since 1870, the progress of Germany had accomplished. By loss of territory and other measures her population was to be curtailed; but chiefly the economic system, upon which she depended for her new strength, the vast fabric built upon iron, coal, and transport must be destroyed. If France could seize, even in part, what Germany was compelled to drop, the inequality of strength between the two rivals for European hegemony might be remedied for generations.
France, which suffered significant destruction in its northern territories (the worst damage sustained in areas that formed a so - called Red Zone) and the second heaviest (after the Russian empire) human losses among allies (see main article World War I casualties), was adamant on the payment of reparations. The failure of the government of the Weimar Republic to pay these reparations led to the Occupation of the Ruhr by French and Belgian forces.
Britain had suffered little land devastation during the war and Prime Minister David Lloyd George supported reparations to a lesser extent than the French. Britain began to look on a restored Germany as an important trading partner and worried about the effect of reparations on the British economy.
Before the end of the war, President Woodrow Wilson put forward his Fourteen Points, which represented the liberal position at the Conference and helped shape world opinion. Wilson was concerned with rebuilding the European economy, encouraging self - determination, promoting free trade, creating appropriate mandates for former colonies, and above all, creating a powerful League of Nations that would ensure the peace. He opposed harsh treatment of Germany but was outmanoeuvered by Britain and France. He brought along top intellectuals as advisors, but his refusal to include prominent Republicans in the American delegation made his efforts seem partisan, and it contributed to a risk of political defeat at home.
In June 1919, the Allies declared that war would resume if the German government did not sign the treaty they had agreed to among themselves. The government headed by Philipp Scheidemann was unable to agree on a common position, and Scheidemann himself resigned rather than agree to sign the treaty. Gustav Bauer, the head of the new government, sent a telegram stating his intention to sign the treaty if certain articles were withdrawn, including Articles 227, 230 and 231. In response, the Allies issued an ultimatum stating that Germany would have to accept the treaty or face an invasion of Allied forces across the Rhine within 24 hours. On 23 June, Bauer capitulated and sent a second telegram with a confirmation that a German delegation would arrive shortly to sign the treaty. On 28 June 1919, the fifth anniversary of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (the immediate impetus for the war), the peace treaty was signed. The treaty had clauses ranging from war crimes, the prohibition on the merging of Austria with Germany without the consent of the League of Nations, freedom of navigation on major European rivers, to the returning of a Koran to the king of Hedjaz.
The treaty stripped Germany of 25,000 square miles (65,000 km) of territory and 7 million people. It also required Germany to give up the gains made via the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk and grant independence to the protectorates that had been established. In Western Europe Germany was required to recognize Belgian sovereignty over Moresnet and cede control of the Eupen - Malmedy area. Within six months of the transfer, Belgium was required to conduct a plebiscite on whether the citizens of the region wanted to remain under Belgian sovereignty or return to German control, communicate the results to the League of Nations and abide by the League 's decision. To compensate for the destruction of French coal mines, Germany was to cede the output of the Saar coalmines to France and control of the Saar to the League of Nations for 15 years; a plebiscite would then be held to decide sovereignty. The treaty "restored '' the provinces of Alsace - Lorraine to France by rescinding the treaties of Versailles and Frankfurt of 1871 as they pertained to this issue. The sovereignty of Schleswig - Holstein was to be resolved by a plebiscite to be held at a future time (see Schleswig Plebiscites).
In Eastern Europe, Germany was to recognize the independence of Czechoslovakia and cede parts of the province of Upper Silesia. Germany had to recognize the independence of Poland and renounce "all rights and title over the territory ''. Portions of Upper Silesia were to be ceded to Poland, with the future of the rest of the province to be decided by plebiscite. The border would be fixed with regard to the vote and to the geographical and economic conditions of each locality. The province of Posen (now Poznan), which had come under Polish control during the Greater Poland Uprising, was also to be ceded to Poland. Pomerelia (Eastern Pomerania), on historical and ethnic grounds, was transferred to Poland so that the new state could have access to the sea and became known as the Polish Corridor. The sovereignty of part of southern East Prussia was to be decided via plebiscite while the East Prussian Soldau area, which was astride the rail line between Warsaw and Danzig, was transferred to Poland outright without plebiscite. An area of 51,800 square kilometres (20,000 square miles) was granted to Poland at the expense of Germany. Memel was to be ceded to the Allied and Associated powers, for disposal according to their wishes. Germany was to cede the city of Danzig and its hinterland, including the delta of the Vistula River on the Baltic Sea, for the League of Nations to establish the Free City of Danzig.
Article 119 of the treaty required Germany to renounce sovereignty over former colonies and Article 22 converted the territories into League of Nations mandates under the control of Allied states. Togoland and German Kamerun (Cameroon) were transferred to France. Ruanda and Urundi were allocated to Belgium, whereas German South - West Africa went to South Africa and the United Kingdom obtained German East Africa. As compensation for the German invasion of Portuguese Africa, Portugal was granted the Kionga Triangle, a sliver of German East Africa in northern Mozambique. Article 156 of the treaty transferred German concessions in Shandong, China, to Japan, not to China. Japan was granted all German possessions in the Pacific north of the equator and those south of the equator went to Australia, except for German Samoa, which was taken by New Zealand.
The treaty was comprehensive and complex in the restrictions imposed upon the post-war German armed forces (the Reichswehr). The provisions were intended to make the Reichswehr incapable of offensive action and to encourage international disarmament. Germany was to demobilize sufficient soldiers by 31 March 1920 to leave an army of no more than 100,000 men in a maximum of seven infantry and three cavalry divisions. The treaty laid down the organisation of the divisions and support units, and the General Staff was to be dissolved. Military schools for officer training were limited to three, one school per arm, and conscription was abolished. Private soldiers and Non-commissioned officers were to be retained for at least twelve years and officers for a minimum of 25 years, with former officers being forbidden to attend military exercises. To prevent Germany from building up a large cadre of trained men, the number of men allowed to leave early was limited.
The number of civilian staff supporting the army was reduced and the police force was reduced to its pre-war size, with increases limited to population increases; paramilitary forces were forbidden. The Rhineland was to be demilitarized, all fortifications in the Rhineland and 50 kilometres (31 miles) east of the river were to be demolished and new construction was forbidden. Military structures and fortifications on the islands of Heligoland and Düne were to be destroyed. Germany was prohibited from the arms trade, limits were imposed on the type and quantity of weapons and prohibited from the manufacture or stockpile of chemical weapons, armoured cars, tanks and military aircraft. The German navy was allowed six pre-dreadnought battleships and was limited to a maximum of six light cruisers (not exceeding 6,000 long tons (6,100 t)), twelve destroyers (not exceeding 800 long tons (810 t)) and twelve torpedo boats (not exceeding 200 long tons (200 t)) and was forbidden submarines. The manpower of the navy was not to exceed 15,000 men, including manning for the fleet, coast defences, signal stations, administration, other land services, officers and men of all grades and corps. The number of officers and warrant officers was not allowed to exceed 1,500 men. Germany surrendered eight battleships, eight light cruisers, forty - two destroyers, and fifty torpedo boats for decommissioning. Thirty - two auxiliary ships were to be disarmed and converted to merchant use. Article 198 prohibited Germany from having an air force, including naval air forces, and required Germany to hand over all aerial related materials. In conjunction, Germany was forbidden to manufacture or import aircraft or related material for a period of six months following the signing of the treaty.
In Article 231 Germany accepted responsibility for the losses and damages caused by the war "as a consequence of the... aggression of Germany and her allies. '' The treaty required Germany to compensate the Allied powers, and it also established an Allied "Reparation Commission '' to determine the exact amount which Germany would pay and the form that such payment would take. The commission was required to "give to the German Government a just opportunity to be heard '', and to submit its conclusions by 1 May 1921. In the interim, the treaty required Germany to pay an equivalent of 20 billion gold marks ($5 billion) in gold, commodities, ships, securities or other forms. The money would help to pay for Allied occupation costs and buy food and raw materials for Germany.
To ensure compliance, the Rhineland and bridgeheads east of the Rhine were to be occupied by Allied troops for fifteen years. If Germany had not committed aggression, a staged withdrawal would take place; after five years, the Cologne bridgehead and the territory north of a line along the Ruhr would be evacuated. After ten years, the bridgehead at Coblenz and the territories to the north would be evacuated and after fifteen years remaining Allied forces would be withdrawn. If Germany reneged on the treaty obligations, the bridgeheads would be reoccupied immediately.
Part I of the treaty, as per all the treaties signed during the Paris Peace Conference, was the Covenant of the League of Nations, which provided for the creation of the League, an organization for the arbitration of international disputes. Part XIII organized the establishment of the International Labour Officer, to regulate hours of work, including a maximum working day and week; the regulation of the labour supply; the prevention of unemployment; the provision of a living wage; the protection of the worker against sickness, disease and injury arising out of his employment; the protection of children, young persons and women; provision for old age and injury; protection of the interests of workers when employed abroad; recognition of the principle of freedom of association; the organization of vocational and technical education and other measures. The treaty also called for the signatories to sign or ratify the International Opium Convention.
The surrender of the German High Seas Fleet following the Armistice and its internment (and eventual scuttling) in Scapa Flow meant that Britain had already accomplished her primary war goal even before the Paris Peace Conference opened. With the German naval threat removed, Britain began focusing on Germany as a bulwark against the threat posed by the new Soviet Union.
Thus, British policy towards Germany began diverging from France 's almost from the moment the guns fell silent. British officials at the conference declared French policy to be "greedy '' and "vindictive, '' with Ramsay MacDonald later announcing, after Hitler 's re-militarisation of the Rhineland in 1936, that he was "pleased '' that the treaty was "vanishing '', expressing his hope that the French had been taught a "severe lesson ''. In 1938, Lloyd George published a massive two - volume memoir titled The Truth About the Peace Treaties, in which he effectively repudiated the terms of the treaty that bore his signature.
France signed the treaty and was active in the League. The French people rejoiced that Alsace and Lorraine had been returned to France and that Germany had agreed to pay reparations. But the perception that Clemenceau had failed to achieve all of France 's demands damaged him politically. When he stood for election as President of France in January 1920, he was defeated. Through much of the 1920s, France was the most vigorous of the wartime Allies in seeking to enforce the treaty 's harsher terms, especially with regard to reparations. Without strong British support, however, she was largely unsuccessful. French Marshal Ferdinand Foch -- who felt the restrictions on Germany were too lenient -- prophetically predicted that "this (treaty) is not peace. It is an Armistice for twenty years. ''
Reaction in Italy to the treaty was extremely negative. The country had suffered high casualties, yet failed to achieve most of its major war goals, notably gaining control of the Dalmatian coast and Fiume. President Wilson rejected Italy 's claims on the basis of "national self - determination. '' For their part, Britain and France -- who had been forced in the war 's latter stages to divert their own troops to the Italian front to stave off collapse -- were disinclined to support Italy 's position at the peace conference. Differences in negotiating strategy between Premier Vittorio Orlando and Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino further undermined Italy 's position at the conference. A furious Vittorio Orlando suffered a nervous collapse and at one point walked out of the conference (though he later returned). He lost his position as prime minister just a week before the treaty was scheduled to be signed, effectively ending his active political career. Anger and dismay over the treaty 's provisions helped pave the way for the establishment of Benito Mussolini 's dictatorship three years later.
Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in 1916 primarily to ensure the security of its African colonies, which were threatened with seizure by both Britain and Germany. To this extent, she succeeded in her war aims. The treaty recognized Portuguese sovereignty over these areas and awarded her small portions of Germany 's bordering overseas colonies. Otherwise, however, Portugal obtained little at the peace conference. Her promised share of German reparations never materialized, and a seat she coveted on the executive council of the new League of Nations went instead to Spain -- which had remained neutral in the war. In the end, Portugal ratified the treaty, but got little out of the war, which cost more than 8,000 Portuguese troops and as many as 100,000 of her African colonial subjects their lives.
After the Versailles conference, Democratic President Woodrow Wilson claimed that "at last the world knows America as the savior of the world! '' However, the Republican Party, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, controlled the US Senate after the election of 1918, and the senators were divided into multiple positions on the Versailles question. It proved possible to build a majority coalition, but impossible to build a two - thirds coalition that was needed to pass a treaty.
A discontent bloc of 12 -- 18 "Irreconcilables '', mostly Republicans but also representatives of the Irish and German Democrats, fiercely opposed the treaty. One block of Democrats strongly supported the Versailles Treaty, even with reservations added by Lodge. A second group of Democrats supported the treaty but followed Wilson in opposing any amendments or reservations. The largest bloc, led by Senator Lodge, comprised a majority of the Republicans. They wanted a treaty with reservations, especially on Article 10, which involved the power of the League of Nations to make war without a vote by the US Congress. All of the Irreconcilables were bitter enemies of President Wilson, and he launched a nationwide speaking tour in the summer of 1919 to refute them. However, Wilson collapsed midway with a serious stroke that effectively ruined his leadership skills.
The closest the treaty came to passage was on 19 November 1919, as Lodge and his Republicans formed a coalition with the pro-Treaty Democrats, and were close to a two - thirds majority for a Treaty with reservations, but Wilson rejected this compromise and enough Democrats followed his lead to permanently end the chances for ratification. Among the American public as a whole, the Irish Catholics and the German Americans were intensely opposed to the treaty, saying it favored the British.
After Wilson 's presidency, his successor Republican President Warren G. Harding continued American opposition to the formation of the League of Nations. Congress subsequently passed the Knox -- Porter Resolution bringing a formal end to hostilities between the United States and the Central Powers. It was signed into law by President Harding on 2 July 1921. Soon after, the US -- German Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Berlin on 25 August 1921, the US -- Austrian Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Vienna on 24 August 1921, and the US -- Hungarian Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Budapest on 29 August 1921.
China felt betrayed as the German territory in China was handed to Japan. The sense of betrayal led to great demonstrations in China and the fall of the nascent Chinese Republic 's government and poisoned relations with the West.
Wilson 's former friend Edward Mandell House, present at the negotiations, wrote in his diary on 29 June 1919:
I am leaving Paris, after eight fateful months, with conflicting emotions. Looking at the conference in retrospect, there is much to approve and yet much to regret. It is easy to say what should have been done, but more difficult to have found a way of doing it. To those who are saying that the treaty is bad and should never have been made and that it will involve Europe in infinite difficulties in its enforcement, I feel like admitting it. But I would also say in reply that empires can not be shattered, and new states raised upon their ruins without disturbance. To create new boundaries is to create new troubles. The one follows the other. While I should have preferred a different peace, I doubt very much whether it could have been made, for the ingredients required for such a peace as I would have were lacking at Paris.
On 29 April, the German delegation under the leadership of the Foreign Minister Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff - Rantzau arrived in Versailles. On 7 May, when faced with the conditions dictated by the victors, including the so - called "War Guilt Clause '', von Brockdorff - Rantzau replied to Clemenceau, Wilson and Lloyd George: "We know the full brunt of hate that confronts us here. You demand from us to confess we were the only guilty party of war; such a confession in my mouth would be a lie. '' Because Germany was not allowed to take part in the negotiations, the German government issued a protest against what it considered to be unfair demands, and a "violation of honour '', soon afterwards withdrawing from the proceedings of the peace conference.
Germans of all political shades denounced the treaty -- particularly the provision that blamed Germany for starting the war -- as an insult to the nation 's honor. They referred to the treaty as "the Diktat '' since its terms were presented to Germany on a take - it - or - leave - it basis. Germany ′ s first democratically elected head of government, Philipp Scheidemann, resigned rather than sign the treaty. In a passionate speech before the National Assembly on 21 March 1919, he called the treaty a "murderous plan '' and exclaimed,
Which hand, trying to put us in chains like these, would not wither? The treaty is unacceptable.
After Scheidemann ′ s resignation, a new coalition government was formed under Gustav Bauer. President Friedrich Ebert knew that Germany was in an impossible situation. Although he shared his countrymen 's disgust with the treaty, he was sober enough to consider the possibility that the government would not be in a position to reject it. He believed that if Germany refused to sign the treaty, the Allies would invade Germany from the west -- and there was no guarantee that the army would be able to make a stand in the event of an invasion. With this in mind, he asked Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg if the army was capable of any meaningful resistance in the event the Allies resumed the war. If there was even the slightest chance that the army could hold out, Ebert intended to recommend against ratifying the treaty. Hindenburg -- after prodding from his chief of staff, Wilhelm Groener -- concluded the army could not resume the war even on a limited scale. However, rather than inform Ebert himself, he had Groener inform the government that the army would be in an untenable position in the event of renewed hostilities. Upon receiving this, the new government recommended signing the treaty. The National Assembly voted in favour of signing the treaty by 237 to 138, with five abstentions (there were 421 delegates in total). This result was wired to Clemenceau just hours before the deadline. Foreign minister Hermann Müller and colonial minister Johannes Bell travelled to Versailles to sign the treaty on behalf of Germany. The treaty was signed on 28 June 1919 and ratified by the National Assembly on 9 July by a vote of 209 to 116.
Conservatives, nationalists and ex-military leaders condemned the treaty. Politicians of the Weimar Republic who supported the treaty, socialists, communists, and Jews were viewed with suspicion as persons of questionable loyalty. It was rumored that Jews had not supported the war and had played a role in selling Germany out to its enemies. Those who seemed to benefit from a weakened Germany and the newly formed Weimar Republic were regarded as having "stabbed Germany in the back ''. Those who instigated unrest and strikes in the critical military industries on the home front or who opposed German nationalism were seen to have contributed to Germany 's defeat. These theories were given credence by the fact that when Germany surrendered in November 1918, its armies were still on French and Belgian territory. Furthermore, on the Eastern Front, Germany had already won the war against Russia and concluded the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk. In the West, Germany had seemed to have come close to winning the war with the Spring Offensive earlier in 1918. Its failure was blamed on strikes in the arms industry at a critical moment of the offensive, leaving soldiers with an inadequate supply of materiel. The strikes were regarded by nationalists as having been instigated by traitors, with the Jews taking most of the blame.
The German economy was so weak that only a small percentage of reparations was paid in hard currency. Nonetheless, even the payment of this small percentage of the original reparations (132 billion gold marks) still placed a significant burden on the German economy. Although the causes of the devastating post-war hyperinflation are complex and disputed, Germans blamed the near - collapse of their economy on the treaty, and some economists estimated that the reparations accounted for as much as one - third of the hyper - inflation.
In March 1921, French and Belgian troops occupied Duisburg, which formed part of the demilitarized Rhineland, according to the Treaty of Versailles. In January 1923, French and Belgian forces occupied the rest of the Ruhr area as a reprisal after Germany failed to fulfill reparation payments demanded by the Versailles Treaty. The German government answered with "passive resistance '', which meant that coal miners and railway workers refused to obey any instructions by the occupation forces. Production and transportation came to a standstill, but the financial consequences contributed to German hyperinflation and completely ruined public finances in Germany. Consequently, passive resistance was called off in late 1923. The end of passive resistance in the Ruhr allowed Germany to undertake a currency reform and to negotiate the Dawes Plan, which led to the withdrawal of French and Belgian troops from the Ruhr Area in 1925.
Some significant violations of the provisions of the treaty were:
According to David Stevenson, since the opening of French archives, most commentators have remarked on French restraint and reasonableness at the conference, though Stevenson notes that "(t) he jury is still out '', and that "there have been signs that the pendulum of judgement is swinging back the other way. ''
In his book The Economic Consequences of the Peace, John Maynard Keynes referred to the Treaty of Versailles as a "Carthaginian peace '', a misguided attempt to destroy Germany on behalf of French revanchism, rather than to follow the fairer principles for a lasting peace set out in President Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points, which Germany had accepted at the armistice. He stated: "I believe that the campaign for securing out of Germany the general costs of the war was one of the most serious acts of political unwisdom for which our statesmen have ever been responsible. '' Keynes had been the principal representative of the British Treasury at the Paris Peace Conference, and used in his passionate book arguments that he and others (including some US officials) had used at Paris. He believed the sums being asked of Germany in reparations were many times more than it was possible for Germany to pay, and that these would produce drastic instability.
French economist Étienne Mantoux disputed that analysis. During the 1940s, Mantoux wrote a posthumously published book titled The Carthaginian Peace, or the Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes in an attempt to rebut Keynes ' claims. More recently economists have argued that the restriction of Germany to a small army saved it so much money it could afford the reparations payments.
It has been argued (for instance by historian Gerhard Weinberg in his book A World At Arms) that the treaty was in fact quite advantageous to Germany. The Bismarckian Reich was maintained as a political unit instead of being broken up, and Germany largely escaped post-war military occupation (in contrast to the situation following World War II). In a 1995 essay, Weinberg noted that with the disappearance of Austria - Hungary and with Russia withdrawn from Europe, that Germany was now the dominant power in Eastern Europe.
The British military historian Correlli Barnett claimed that the Treaty of Versailles was "extremely lenient in comparison with the peace terms that Germany herself, when she was expecting to win the war, had had in mind to impose on the Allies ''. Furthermore, he claimed, it was "hardly a slap on the wrist '' when contrasted with the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk that Germany had imposed on a defeated Russia in March 1918, which had taken away a third of Russia 's population (albeit of non-Russian ethnicity), one - half of Russia 's industrial undertakings and nine - tenths of Russia 's coal mines, coupled with an indemnity of six billion marks. Eventually, even under the "cruel '' terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany ′ s economy had been restored to its pre-war status.
Barnett also claims that, in strategic terms, Germany was in fact in a superior position following the Treaty than she had been in 1914. Germany ′ s eastern frontiers faced Russia and Austria, who had both in the past balanced German power. Barnett asserts that its post-war eastern borders were safer, because the former Austrian Empire fractured after the war into smaller, weaker states, Russia was wracked by revolution and civil war, and the newly restored Poland was no match for even a defeated Germany. In the West, Germany was balanced only by France and Belgium, both of which were smaller in population and less economically vibrant than Germany. Barnett concludes by saying that instead of weakening Germany, the treaty "much enhanced '' German power. Britain and France should have (according to Barnett) "divided and permanently weakened '' Germany by undoing Bismarck 's work and partitioning Germany into smaller, weaker states so it could never have disrupted the peace of Europe again. By failing to do this and therefore not solving the problem of German power and restoring the equilibrium of Europe, Britain "had failed in her main purpose in taking part in the Great War ''.
The British historian of modern Germany, Richard J. Evans, wrote that during the war the German right was committed to an annexationist program which aimed at Germany annexing most of Europe and Africa. Consequently, any peace treaty that did not leave Germany as the conqueror would be unacceptable to them. Short of allowing Germany to keep all the conquests of the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk, Evans argued that there was nothing that could have been done to persuade the German right to accept Versailles. Evans further noted that the parties of the Weimar Coalition, namely the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), the social liberal German Democratic Party (DDP) and the Christian democratic Centre Party, were all equally opposed to Versailles, and it is false to claim as some historians have that opposition to Versailles also equalled opposition to the Weimar Republic. Finally, Evans argued that it is untrue that Versailles caused the premature end of the Republic, instead contending that it was the Great Depression of the early 1930s that put an end to German democracy. He also argued that Versailles was not the "main cause '' of National Socialism and the German economy was "only marginally influenced by the impact of reparations ''.
Ewa Thompson points out that the treaty allowed numerous nations in Central and Eastern Europe to liberate themselves from oppressive German rule, a fact that is often neglected by Western historiography, more interested in understanding the German point of view. In nations that found themselves free as the result of the treaty -- such as Poles or Czechs -- it is seen as a symbol of recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by their much larger aggressive neighbours.
Regardless of modern strategic or economic analysis, resentment caused by the treaty sowed fertile psychological ground for the eventual rise of the Nazi Party. The German historian Detlev Peukert wrote that Versailles was far from the impossible peace that most Germans claimed it was during the interwar period, and though not without flaws was actually quite reasonable to Germany. Rather, Peukert argued that it was widely believed in Germany that Versailles was a totally unreasonable treaty, and it was this "perception '' rather than the "reality '' of the Versailles treaty that mattered. Peukert noted that because of the "millenarian hopes '' created in Germany during World War I when for a time it appeared that Germany was on the verge of conquering all of Europe, any peace treaty the Allies of World War I imposed on the defeated German Reich were bound to create a nationalist backlash, and there was nothing the Allies could have done to avoid that backlash. Having noted that much, Peukert commented that the policy of rapprochement with the Western powers that Gustav Stresemann carried out between 1923 and 1929 were constructive policies that might have allowed Germany to play a more positive role in Europe, and that it was not true that German democracy was doomed to die in 1919 because of Versailles. Finally, Peukert argued that it was the Great Depression and the turn to a nationalist policy of autarky within Germany at the same time that finished off the Weimar Republic, not the Treaty of Versailles.
French historian Raymond Cartier states that millions of Germans in the Sudetenland and in Posen - West Prussia were placed under foreign rule in a hostile environment, where harassment and violation of rights by authorities are documented. Cartier asserts that, out of 1,058,000 Germans in Posen - West Prussia in 1921, 758,867 fled their homelands within five years due to Polish harassment. In 1926, the Polish Ministry of the Interior estimated the remaining number of Germans at fewer than 300,000. These sharpening ethnic conflicts would lead to public demands to reattach the annexed territory in 1938 and become a pretext for Hitler ′ s annexations of Czechoslovakia and parts of Poland.
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who edited the patriotic magazine india in the beginning of 20th century | History of advertising - wikipedia
The history of advertising can be traced to ancient civilizations. It became a major force in capitalist economies in the mid-19th century, based primarily on newspapers and magazines. In the 20th century, advertising grew rapidly with new technologies such as direct mail, radio, television, the internet and mobile devices.
Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and Arabia. Lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC.
In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry (11th to 7th centuries BC) of bamboo flutes played to sell candy. Advertisement usually takes in the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. A copper printing plate dated back to the Song dynasty used to print posters in the form of a square sheet of paper with a rabbit logo with "Jinan Liu 's Fine Needle Shop '' and "We buy high quality steel rods and make fine quality needles, to be ready for use at home in no time '' written above and below is considered the world 's earliest identified printed advertising medium.
In Europe, as the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general populace was unable to read, instead of signs that read "cobbler '', "miller '', "tailor '', or "blacksmith '' would use an image associated with their trade such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horse shoe, a candle or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers (town criers) to announce their whereabouts for the convenience of the customers. The first compilation of such advertisements was gathered in "Les Crieries de Paris '', a thirteenth - century poem by Guillaume de la Villeneuve. Three forms of advertising existed during the pre-printing period (before the 15 century); those forms were trademarks (moon, stars etc.), town criers and sign boards.
In the 19th century advertisements started to appear in weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and medicines, which were increasingly sought after as modern people rejected traditional cures. However, false advertising and "Quackery '' became common. British newspapers in the 1850s and 1860s appealed to the increasingly affluent middle - class that sought out a variety of new products. The advertisements announced new health remedies as well as fresh foods and beverages. The latest London fashions were featured in the regional press. The availability of repeated advertising permitted manufacturers to develop nationally known brand names that had a much stronger appeal than generic products.
A leadership position in British advertising was held by Cope Bros & Co tobacco company, founded in Liverpool in 1848 by Thomas and George Cope. Smoking, of course, had been common for centuries, but the innovations consisted in brand names, heavy advertising, and market segmentation according to class. An innovative appeal was to health consciousness; the ads directed at the middle - class men promised that "smoke not only checks disease but preserves the lungs. '' A rugged heavy taste was pitched to working men, soldiers and sailors, while "delicately fragrant '' was part of the appeal to the upper - class. The packaging was attractive, posters were omnipresent to show that smoking was a normal part of English life; lobbying was used to undercut the anti-tobacco lobby.
In June 1836, the French newspaper La Presse was the first to include paid advertising in its pages, allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability and the formula was soon copied by all titles.
In London Thomas J. Barratt was hailed as "the father of modern advertising ''. Working for the Pears Soap company, Barratt created an effective advertising campaign for the company products, which involved the use of targeted slogans, images and phrases. One of his slogans, "Good morning. Have you used Pears ' soap? '' was famous in its day and into the 20th century.
An advertising tactic that he used was to associate the Pears brand with high culture and quality. Most famously, he used the painting Bubbles by John Everett Millais as an advertisement by adding a bar of Pears soap into the foreground. Barratt continued this theme with a series of adverts of well groomed middle - class children, associating Pears with domestic comfort and aspirations of high society.
Barratt introduced many of the crucial ideas that lie behind successful advertising and these were widely circulated in his day. He constantly stressed the importance of a strong and exclusive brand image for Pears and of emphasizing the product 's availability through saturation campaigns. He also understood the importance of constantly reevaluating the market for changing tastes and mores, stating in 1907 that "tastes change, fashions change, and the advertiser has to change with them. An idea that was effective a generation ago would fall flat, stale, and unprofitable if presented to the public today. Not that the idea of today is always better than the older idea, but it is different -- it hits the present taste. ''
In the United States around 1840, Volney B. Palmer set up the first advertising agency in Philadelphia. In 1842 Palmer bought large amounts of space in various newspapers at a discounted rate then resold the space at higher rates to advertisers. The actual ad -- the copy, layout, and artwork -- was still prepared by the company wishing to advertise; in effect, Palmer was a space broker. The situation changed in the late 19th century when the advertising agency of N.W. Ayer & Son was founded in New York. It planned, created, and executed complete advertising campaigns for its customers. It created a number of memorable slogans for firms such as De Beers, AT&T and the U.S. Army.
By 1900 the advertising agency had become the focal point of creative planning, and advertising was firmly established as a profession. At first, agencies were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers. N.W. Ayer & Son was the first full - service agency to assume responsibility for advertising content. N.W. Ayer opened in 1869, and was located in Philadelphia.
The amount of space available in newspapers grew rapidly. The Boston Transcript published in 19,000 "agate lines '' Of advertising in 1860, 87,000 in 1900, and 237,000 in 1918.
In 1893, 104 companies spent over $50,000 each on national advertising; most sold patent medicines, which faded away after the federal food and drug legislation of the early 20th century. Seven innovators had emerged in the big time: Quaker Oats, Armour meat, Cudahy meat, American Tobacco Company, P. Lorillard tobacco, Remington Typewriters, and Procter & Gamble soap. By 1914, two thirds of the top advertisers came from just five industries: 14 food producers, 13 in automobiles and tires, nine in soap and cosmetics, and four in tobacco.
Agencies were forever breaking up and reforming, especially when one executive would split taking with him a major client and his team of copywriters.
In the late 19th century in France, Charles - Louis Havas extended the services of his news agency, Havas to include advertisement brokerage, making it the first French group to organize.
Advertising the developing world was dominated by agencies in the imperial powers, especially from London and Paris. J. Walter Thompson became the first American agency to expand internationally with the opening of J. Walter Thompson London in 1899. It expanded across the globe, becoming one of the first American agencies in Egypt, South Africa and Asia. Much of the pressure to expand came from General Motors, which wanted to export its automobiles worldwide. Ford turned to N.W. Ayer, which began its expansion in Europe and Latin America in the 1930s. The typical policy was to put an American manager in charge, and hire a staff drawn from locals who had a better understanding of the language and the culture. In 1941 - 42, however, Ayer closed its foreign offices and decided to concentrate on the American market.
In 2011, spending on advertising reached $143 billion in the United States and $467 billion worldwide
Today, internationally, the largest ("big four '') advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP.
Advertising increased dramatically in the United States after 1870 as industrialization expanded the supply of manufactured products to a very large market. In order to profit from this higher rate of production, industry needed to recruit workers as consumers of factory products. It did so through the invention of mass marketing designed to influence the population 's economic behavior on a larger scale. Total advertising volume in the United States grew from about $200 million in 1880 to nearly $3 billion in 1920.
In the 1910s and 1920s, many ad men believed that human instincts could be targeted and harnessed -- "sublimated '' into the desire to purchase commodities. Edward Bernays, a nephew of Sigmund Freud, promoted the approach making him a pioneer of modern cigarette advertising. Glantz argues, "it was really the tobacco industry, from the beginning, that was at the forefront of the development of modern, innovative, advertising techniques. ''
In the 1920s, under Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, the American government promoted advertising. Hoover himself delivered an address to the Associated Advertising Clubs of the World in 1925 called ' Advertising Is a Vital Force in Our National Life. '' In October 1929, the head of the U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Julius Klein, stated "Advertising is the key to world prosperity. '' This was part of the "unparalleled '' collaboration between business and government in the 1920s, according to a 1933 European economic journal.
Advertising was a vehicle for cultural assimilation, encouraging immigrants to exchange their traditional habits and tastes in favor of a modern American lifestyle. An important tool for influencing immigrant workers was the American Association of Foreign Language Newspapers (AAFLN). The AAFLN was primarily an advertising agency but also gained heavily centralized control over much of the immigrant press.
In 1900, most Canadian newspapers were local affairs, designed primarily to inform local partisans about the provincial and national political scene. The publishers depended on loyal partisan subscribers, as well as contracts for public printing controlled by the political parties. With the rise of national advertising agencies after 1900, a major transformation was underway. The advertisers wanted them to reach the maximum possible circulation, regardless of partisanship. The result was a series of consolidations yielding much larger, largely nonpartisan newspapers, which depended more heavily on advertising revenue than on subscriptions from loyal party members. By 1900, three - fourths of the revenue of Toronto newspapers came from advertising. About two thirds of the newspapers ' editorial pages loyally supported either the Conservative or the Liberal party, while the remainder were more independent. Across the board, the news pages increasingly featured more objectivity and bipartisanship, and the publishers were mostly focused on advertising revenues that were proportionate to overall circulation. A newspaper that appealed only to one party cut its potential audience in half. Simultaneously, the rapid growth of industry in Ontario and Quebec, coupled with the rapid settlement of the prairies, produced a large more affluent newspaper - reading population. The result was a golden age for Canadian newspapers peaking about 1911. Many papers failed during the war era. Advertising agencies in 1915 gained a major advantage with the arrival of the Audit Bureau of Circulations, which for the first - time provided reliable data on circulation, as opposed to the partisan boasting and exaggeration that had been the norm. the agencies now had a stronger hand in bargaining for lower advertising rates. The 1920s became a time of consolidation, budget - cutting and dropping of traditional party affiliation. By 1930 only 24 % of Canada 's dailies were partisan, 17 % were "independent '' partisan, and the majority, 50 %, had become fully independent.
At the turn of the 20th century, there were few career choices for women in business; however, advertising was one of the few. Since women were responsible for most of the purchasing done in their household, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women 's insight during the creative process. Helen Lansdowne Resor at J. Walter Thompson Agency, was one of the pioneers.
In 1911, the Woodbury Soap Company became the first to use images of sexual contact to sell a product. Their ad slogan, created by Helen Lansdowne, claimed that women who used the soap would have "Skin You Love To Touch ''. Her copy promised the soap would increase the beauty of one 's skin; it offered a color print and a week 's supply of the soap for 10 cents. The slogan became so popular that Woodbury used it until the 1940s. Albert Lasker said the ad 's use of sex appeal made it one of three great landmarks in advertising history. It was ranked 31st on Advertising Age 's list of the top 100 campaigns of the 20th century.
In 1936, Woodbury was one of the first companies to use nudity in its advertisements. The ad, known as "The Sun Bath '', was photographed by Edward Steichen and showed a nude woman lying on stairs on her side with her back to the camera. The text advertised that Woodbury Soap was now enriched with "filter sunshine ''. Many celebrities appeared in advertisements for Woodbury Soap.
In international perspective, a 2008 comparison of nudity in advertising in Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, South Korea, Thailand, and the United States reveals that China and the United States have the most demure ads, while Germany and Thailand exposed more of the female body. There is little variation in male undress.
In the early 20th century, psychologists Walter D. Scott and John B. Watson contributed applied psychological theory to the field of advertising. Scott said, "Man has been called the reasoning animal but he could with greater truthfulness be called the creature of suggestion. He is reasonable, but he is to a greater extent suggestible ''. He demonstrated this through his advertising technique of a direct command to the consumer. The former chair at Johns Hopkins University, John B. Watson was a highly recognized psychologist in the 1920s. After leaving the field of academia he turned his attention towards advertising where he implemented the concepts of behaviorism into advertising. This focused on appealing to the basic emotions of the consumer: love, hate, and fear. This type of advertising proved to be extremely effective as it suited the changing social context which led to heavy influence of future advertising strategy and cemented the place of psychology in advertising.
Chicago, along with New York, was the center of the nation 's advertising industry. Albert Lasker, known as the "father of modern advertising, '' made Chicago his base 1898 -- 1942. As head of the Lord and Thomas agency, Lasker devised a copywriting technique that appealed directly to the psychology of the consumer. Women seldom smoked cigarettes; he told them if they smoked Lucky Strikes they could stay slender. Lasker 's use of radio, particularly with his campaigns for Palmolive soap, Pepsodent toothpaste, Kotex products, and Lucky Strike cigarettes, not only revolutionized the advertising industry but also significantly changed popular culture.
Lasker had an inquiring mind about what advertising was and how it worked. Lasker believed that advertising consisted of news and information was news, He changed his mind when a colleague Johnny Kennedy told him, "News is a technique of presentation, but advertising is a very simple thing. I can give it to you in three words, it is ' salesmanship in print ' ''. Lasker and Kennedy used this concept with the 1900 Washer Co. (later Whirlpool). Their campaign was so successful that, within four months of running the first ad, they attracted additional clients and their "advertising spend '' went from $15,000 a year to $30,000 a month. Within six months, their firm was one of the three or four largest advertisers in the nation.
In 1908 Lasker recruited Claude C. Hopkins to the firm, specifically to work on the Van Camp Packaging Company (Van Camp 's) account. The relationship lasted for 17 years. Lasker helped create America 's infatuation with orange juice. Lord & Thomas acquired the Sunkist Growers, Incorporated account in 1908, when the citrus industry was in a slump. Lasker created campaigns that not only encouraged consumers to eat oranges, but also to drink orange juice.
Among Lasker 's pioneering contributions was the introduction into public schools of classes that explained to young girls about puberty and menstruation (done to promote Kotex tampons). He is also credited as the creator of the soap opera genre, and using radio and television as media driven by advertising. Lasker took time off from business to help the presidential campaign of Republican Warren Harding in 1920, using high - powered advertising techniques that helped produce a massive landslide.
In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers and retailers who offered programs in order to sell more radios to consumers. Madison Avenue early on recognized the importance of radio as a new advertising medium. Advertising provided the major funding for most stations. United States, never had a licensing fee for set users. Great Britain Use the mandatory fee on set owners to fund the British Broadcasting Corporation, Which to this day operates without commercials or advertising. However, the government permitted commercial television in 1954 and commercial radio in 1972.
Public service advertising, non-commercial advertising, public interest advertising, cause marketing, and social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of sophisticated advertising and marketing communications techniques (generally associated with commercial enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial, public interest issues and initiatives.
In the United States, the granting of television and radio licenses by the FCC is contingent upon the station broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising. To meet these requirements, many broadcast stations in America air the bulk of their required public service announcements during the late night or early morning when the smallest percentage of viewers are watching, leaving more day and prime time commercial slots available for high - paying advertisers.
Public service advertising in the United States reached its height during the world wars. During WWII President Roosevelt commissioned the creation of The War Advertising Council (now known as the Ad Council) which is the United States ' largest developer of PSA campaigns on behalf of government agencies and non-profit organizations, including the longest - running public service campaign, Smokey Bear.
Advertising came under heavy pressure in the 1930s. The Great Depression forced businesses to drastically cut back on their advertising spending. Layoffs and reductions were common at all agencies. The New Deal furthermore aggressively promoted consumerism, and minimized the value or need of advertising. Historian Jackson Lears argues that "By the late 1930s, though, corporate advertisers had begun a successful counterattack against their critics. '' They rehabilitated the concept of consumer sovereignty by inventing scientific public opinion polls, and making it the centerpiece of their own market research, as well has the key to understanding politics. George Gallup, the vice president of Young and Rubicam, and numerous other advertising experts, led the way. Moving into the 1940s, the industry played a leading role in the ideological mobilization of the American people for fighting the Nazis and Japanese in World War II. As part of that effort, they redefined the "American Way of Life '' in terms of a commitment to free enterprise. "Advertisers, '' Lears concludes, "played a crucial hegemonic role in creating the consumer culture that dominated post-World War II American society. ''
In the prosperous postwar era, millions of Americans moved into new housing, especially in the rapidly growing suburbs. They spent heavily on housing, appliances, furniture, clothing and automobiles. The coming of television in the 1950s dramatically enlarged the arena for advertising. With most families having automobiles, and more leisure time, travel holidays became much more common, and the motel and tourism industries eagerly supported large - scale advertising.
In the public service arena, the Ad Council aggressively promoted Americanism as a Cold War strategy, with campaigns such as the Freedom Train, the Crusade for Freedom, Religion in American Life, Adams for Piece, and Peoples Capitalism. The new Brand Names Foundation sponsored conferences, local campaigns, and educational programs to promote brand loyalty, as well as free enterprise.
In The Hidden Persuaders (1957) popular writer Vance Packard exposes the use of consumer motivational research and other psychological techniques, including depth psychology and subliminal tactics. They had been used to manipulate expectations and induce desire for products since the 1920s, but the popular audience was caught by surprise. He identified eight "compelling needs '' that advertisers promise products will fulfill. According to Packard these needs are so strong that people are compelled to buy products to satisfy them. The book questions the morality of using these techniques.
Before the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s, black people were largely missing from mainstream white advertising. Those who did appear typically followed the long - standing "hierarchy of skin color '' whereby those with lighter skin tones were seen as being more socially and culturally acceptable than dark - skinned black people.
Most national corporations before the 1960s ignored the black market, and paid little attention to working with black merchants or hiring blacks for responsible positions. Pepsi - Cola was a major exception, as the number two brand fought for parity with Coca - Cola. The upstart soda brand hired black promoters who penetrated into black markets across the South and the urban North. Journalist Stephanie Capparell interviewed six men who were on the team in the late 1940s:
Pepsi advertisements avoided the stereotypical images common in the major media that depicted one - dimensional Aunt Jemimas and Uncle Bens whose role was to draw a smile from white customers. Instead it portrayed black customers as self - confident middle - class citizens who showed very good taste in their soft drinks. They were economical too, as Pepsi bottles were twice the size.
By the late 1960s, more than a few token blacks were hired at advertising agencies, and the sensitivity to the problem increased. The leading black magazines Essence and Jet routinely deplored racism in mainstream media, especially in the negative depictions of black men and women. However Essence and Jet in the 21st century themselves ran about a dozen ads a year, especially for skin lighteners, that were pervaded with "racism and White supremacy. ''
By the 1950s, fears of cancer from tobacco smoking caused consternation in the tobacco industry, which turned to advertisers for help in avoiding falling consumer demand and increased regulation. British and American agencies separately arrived at similar solutions. The Tobacco Industry Research Committee in the United States and the Tobacco Manufacturers ' Standing Committee in Britain each assuaged public anxieties and encouraged the misperception that the cigarette makers were resolving the issues through filters and low tar formulations. The public relations approach was successful in the short run, but the accumulation of medical evidence led to a fall in smoking, heavier taxation, and increased regulation. The agencies responded with sophisticated advertising strategies designed to encourage adolescent smokers as well as to recruit new smokers in less - developed foreign markets.
The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly MTV. Pioneering the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the consumer tunes in for the advertising message, rather than it being a by - product or afterthought. As cable and satellite television became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged, including channels entirely devoted to advertising, such as QVC, Home Shopping Network, and ShopTV Canada.
With the advent of the ad server, marketing through the Internet opened new frontiers for advertisers and contributed to the "dot - com '' boom of the 1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, a number of websites, including the search engine Google, started a change in online advertising by emphasizing contextually relevant ads based on an individual 's browsing interests. This has led to a plethora of similar efforts and an increasing trend of interactive advertising.
The share of advertising spending relative to GDP has changed little across large changes in media. For example, in the US in 1925, the main advertising media were newspapers, magazines, signs on streetcars, and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of GDP was about 2.9 percent. By 1998, television and radio had become major advertising media. Nonetheless, advertising spending as a share of GDP was slightly lower -- about 2.4 percent.
The advertising business model has also been adapted since the 1990s. In media for equity, advertising is not sold, but provided to start - up companies in return for equity. If the company grows and is sold, the media companies receive cash for their shares.
Chinese advertising is moving heavily to the smartphone, leaving television behind. Companies in China are increasingly more focused on mobile advertisements than on television advertisements. Central roles are played by Chinese - based social networking sites Weixin (also known as WeChat), and Sina Weibo, and the efforts of Western companies, including Coca - Cola, Burberry, and North Face, to market to Chinese consumers through their smartphones.
Since the 1950s, the industry itself, or the government, has imposed some restrictions on advertising certain types of products, especially liquor and cigarettes. Tobacco bans exist in many major countries across the world and cover 2.3 billion people. In the 1990s Quebec banned some advertising directed at children. The restrictions have hindered competition in the breakfast cereal market when compared with the rest of Canada.
J. Walter Thompson became the first American agency to expand internationally with the opening of J. Walter Thompson London in 1899.
Marcel Bleustein - Blanchet (1906 - 1996) was the most prominent leader of French advertising in the 20th century. He founded Publicis. After 1945 his little - known Paris - based advertising agency grew rapidly, becoming the world 's fourth largest agency. It was a leader in promoting France 's post-war economic boom, especially the expansion of the advertising industry. It was successful because of its close ties with top officials of the French government, its clever use of symbols to promote itself, and its ability to attract clients from widely diverse growing industries.
The question of whether advertising reflects society or shapes society, can be seen in European models that diverged from the American style. In France, Michelin dominated the tire industry and was one of the leading advertisers; to this day its famous guidebooks are very widely used by upscale travelers. From 1894 to the present its symbol was Bibendum (the "Michelin Man '' made of tires). He was a lord of industry, a master of all he surveyed, and a patriotic expounder of the French spirit. In the 1920s, Bibendum urged Frenchmen to adopt America 's superior factory system, but to patriotically avoid using the "inferior '' products of those factories. As automobiles diffused to the middle classes, Michelin advertising likewise shifted downscale, and its restaurant and hotel guides covered a broader range of price categories.
J Walter Thompson expanded successfully in many countries, but France was not one of them. French businessmen did not like the American tone, and were fearful of Americanization. The French market was heavily regulated and protected to repel foreign interests, and the American admen in Paris were not good at hiding their condescension and insensitivity.
As millions of American soldiers passed through Britain during the Second World War, there were fearsof an "Americanization '' of British commerce and culture. The Marshall Plan explicitly required and upgrading of the marketing and organizational skills of British industry. There were fears among the leaders of the London advertising world of what the brash, rich Americans would do to them. Radio and television was off limits to advertising, because BBC relied on fees paid by owners of radio receivers. The question was whether the heavily funded American methods would prove irresistible. JWT London was an American owned advertising agency controlled by J. Walter Thompson in New York City. JWT London avoided being the bold apostle of the American style. Instead it is relied on soft persuasion, shedding its Americanness to adapt to the British understated style.
In the 1920s, most advertising was handled by manufacturing companies in - house. Numerous small advertising agencies handled purchase of space in the media, but did not design campaigns or the ads themselves. An important role was played by travelling salesmen in promoting products to wholesalers and retailers and providing feedback from the market to the producer.
During the Nazi era (1933 -- 45), the advertising industry expelled its Jews, and came under the supervision of the "Ad Council for the German Economy, '' a department of the propaganda ministry of Joseph Goebbels. The relationship was friendly, For the industry learned a great deal from the Nazi propaganda techniques. The industry promoted Hitler 's favorite products, such as the promised Volkswagen automobile for the people, and the construction of autobahns. It emphasized the availability of trusted brands despite growing shortages after the war began in 1939. It helped support the regime, articulating a vision of consumption that was well aligned with the Nazi spirit. In some environments and social movements, such as with post-WW2 East Germany Stasi 's zersetzung, criminology theorists estimated advertisement was used as a means to crime, the nature of the crime was the intentional exploitation of an individual to cause damage to the individual 's ability to form social bonds and appropriate perceptions of the world. This is especially true in the case of manipulation, people take advantage of their underdeveloped social skills and exploit them for selfish gain, this was later criticized to be adopted by turpitude agents of modern advertising. Many major brands were off the market by 1944, because of severe shortages. When they returned after the war, they were welcomed as an index of normality and were not associated with Nazism.
By the 1950s, German advertising agencies were starting to mimic American methods. Coca - Cola was advising "Mach mal Pause '' ("Take a Rest!), and conservative Chancellor Konrad Adenauer was running for reelection with the slogan "Keine Experimente! '' ("No Experiments! ''). The German agencies have always remained small and limited in scope, even after the unification of East Germany and West Germany in 1991. After unification, Germany became the third largest ad market in the world, with $18 billion in total ad spending in 1994.
The American influence became strong in Italy after 1945. The high risk of communist success led the American government to invest heavily in propaganda activities. Several American firms opened offices, including Young & Rubicon and Ogilvy & Mather. Italian graphic designers, most prominently Armando Testa, were inspired by modernist aesthetics and thinking brought in by the American advertising agencies and techniques in Italy. The advertising industry helped transform Italy into a consumer - oriented society.
A dramatic example of how advertising nudged the Italian middle - class into modern consumer society appears in the heavily advertised automatic washing machine. It appeared on the Italian market in 1958 and by 1965, 23 % of families had purchased one, reaching 42 % by 1970. Advertisers hailed the mechanization of domestic tedium as the advent of a new women 's "liberation. '' Commentary appeared everywhere, from advertisements to the specialized press, to women 's reviews. Architects and designers made room for the new marvel, as the promotional language celebrating the device became a chorus of praise for domestic appliances as the secret of "progress '' and "freedom '' and "liberation. '' On the other hand, husbands still insisted on driving the family automobile; it was off - limits to the liberated female.
Armando Testa Set up a full - service advertising agency in 1956, specializing in the new medium of television advertising. He was inspired by Eastern European animation techniques, and often use simple graphics like the blue hippo. His son Marco Testa, trained at Benton & Bowles in New York, and maintained the fast - paced, witty style. Emmanuelle Pirella, who trained at the Italian offices of Young & Rubicon and Ogilvy & Mather, emerged as a leading copywriter.
Benetton gained worldwide attention for its saucy advertising, inspired by its art director Oliviero Toscani. He started with multicultural themes, tied together under the campaign "United Colors of Benetton '' then became increasingly provocative with interracial groupings, and unusual sexual images, such as a nun kissing a priest.
Dentsu is the dominant firm in Japan. thanks to its origins as a media representative. It produced Japan 's first newspaper advertisements as well as the first television commercials. It was established in 1901 as Japan Advertising Ltd. and Telegraphic Service Co. by Hoshiro Mitsunaga. In 1936, it sold off its news division to Doumei News Agency, to focus on advertising. In 1946, it purchased 16 small companies and set up operational bases in Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, and Kyūshū. Dentsu company now offers a range of services, from traditional and creative marketing to specialty disciplines such as sports marketing, investing in feature film production and acquiring broadcasting rights, PR, digital contents, and a growing range of communications services.
In the first 20 years of communist control of China (1947 to 1966) Mao Zedong tried to reverse the long - standing advertising practices of Chinese newspapers, considering it a capitalist infringement on the goals of socialism. Consumerism, which had been highly developed in Shanghai, was anathema, to Mao 's peasant - based communist perspective. The regime emphasized maximum production rather than optimal consumption. The approach worsened the massive famines that happened when national resources were devoted to a highly inefficient factory production at the cost of basic food output. On the other hand, propaganda was highly developed art in the Communist Party, and so a sort of compromise was reached. Socialist - oriented advertising emphasized the collective good, rather than the benefits of products for the individual consumer. Since 1980, the strength of the private economy, and advertising, has grown dramatically. By the 1980s much emphasis was placed on the role of advertising in promoting the Four Modernizations emphasized by Deng Xiaoping. Lip service is still paid to old Maoist ideals by recycling images of historic places and episodes, but it does not inhibit the growth of consumerism.
Since Chinese entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2002, its advertising industry has fundamentally changed. It has become the world 's fastest - growing advertising market and the country with the largest pool of netizens. Major changes have come in terms of shifting cultural values, the growing role of brand names, the attractiveness of English - language titles to the younger generation, the redefinition of acceptable / offensive advertising, the very rapid growth of new media (especially the Internet and smart phones), the emergence of on - line shopping in a country with an underdeveloped system of department stores in shopping centers, and much more advanced techniques of managing advertising agencies.
Many elements of Indian culture and industry have British roots, so that British advertising models usually work well. In 1991, the government dramatically liberalized Indian economy, opening it to international business. The emergence of a moderately affluent middle - class numbering in the hundreds of millions attracts multinational corporations and international advertisers. Advertising in India operates at two levels. Ads for high - value products appear in English - language papers such as The Hindu and The Madras Mail, which targeted Europeans and high - status Indians. By contrast, ads for low - value products are typically placed in vernacular papers and are aimed at a lower middle class with highly restricted spending power. The working class and peasant populations, with very low disposable incomes, are seldom targeted by the advertising agencies. Local merchants might use signs and posters to reach them. Cricket is one sport where the Indians have had an international success, so that cricket stars are prominent endorsers in national advertising.
Subtle cultural norms can be easily transgressed. In 2002, widespread protests forced Hindustan Lever Ltd. (the Indian subsidiary of London - based Unilever) to cancel a television ad campaign for its fairness cream because of its portrayal of women. The campaign was built around the theme of a father lamenting "If only I had a son '' while showing his problem: a dark - skinned, unattractive daughter. Fast - forward. She uses the Fair & Lovely cream and has become a gorgeous light - skinned beauty. Clad in a stylish miniskirt, she is a successful airline flight attendant and takes her proud father to dine at a five - star hotel. The All India Women 's Democratic Association (AIDWA), a far left political organization, lodged a complaint with the National Human Rights Commission in New Delhi. It argued endorsing the traditional preference for sons strengthens gender discrimination, which is a major problem in India. Furthermore, said AIDWA, the ad perpetuated a culture of discrimination in a society where "fair skin '' is synonymous with "beautiful. '' The government 's Ministry of Information and Broadcast sided with AIDWA and directed stations not to air the ads because they violated the Cable and Television Networks Act of 1995 which states that no advertisement shall be permitted which "derides any race, caste, color, creed and nationality '' and furthermore states that, "Women must not be portrayed in a manner that emphasizes passive, submissive qualities and encourages them to play a subordinate secondary role in the family and society. '' The minister told Parliament that if broadcasters do not regulate ad content the government will be forced to do so. The Mumbai - based Advertising Standards Council of India (ASCI), a body of advertisers and media agencies, insisted that it should do the regulating not the government. ASCI had already told Hindustan Lever that its ad campaign was offensive and it was ended.
During the decolonization era from the late 1940s to the 1970s, British and French firms operating in Africa and Asia at first largely ignored local, nationalistic aspirations. However they learned to adjust to exploit the new spirit of independence that was shaping consumer attitudes. The new emergence of a middle class was the target audience. Their advertising abandoned the traditional paternalistic attitude toward the natives. Instead there was a portrayal of locals as up - and - coming middle class men in control of developing their nations. These more positive images assisted business operations during spells of military dictatorship, economic nationalism, and expropriation of foreign assets. Tobacco advertising was especially important. For example, in Egyptian popular culture the cigar was associated with elites, the water pipe with a lower - class and traditional lifestyle, and the cigarette with the new middle class which was striving to make the transition to modernity. It was the third group that the cigarette industry targeted.
Brazil is the largest country in Latin America, and number five in the world in terms of population. Its economy grew rapidly in the 21st century, until it began to stall in 2010. At that time it was the world 's sixth - biggest advertising market, at $ US 14.2 billion. Brazil in 2010 ranks # 1 in deodorants, # 2 in children 's products, # 3 in cosmetics, and # 4 in automobile sales
The start in 1994 of the North American Free Trade Agreement had a dramatic impact on the adveritising industry in Mexico, with its 130 full service agencies and 270 smaller operations under the auspisces of the Mexican Association of Advertising Agencies. The flood of American brand - name products greatly expanded the scope of the advertising indfustry, and the Mexican agencies faced new competition from branch offices of international firms.
A key to the new market was that upscale consumers in Mexico typically display "malinchismo '', which is a preference for imported American brands rather than local Mexican brands. As result, American products are sold mostly to the middle class market, and their advertising agencies generally avoid working class and rural areas. They concentrate their efforts instead on Mexico City, Monterrey, and Guadalajara, which purchase 70 percent of the American imports. Advertising battles in Mexico, include not only issues of quality, but issues of national authenticity. For example, in Mexico in the 1990s, two American exporters Procter & Gamble and Frito - Lay fought an advertising battle concerning whose potato chips are tastier, more natural, and more Mexican. Procter & Gamble challenged Frito - Lay 's Sabritas which controls 80 percent of the $1 billion chip market.
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what happened to ivan drago after he lost | Ivan Drago - wikipedia
Ivan Drago (Russian: Иван Драго) is a fictional character in the 1985 film Rocky IV, in which he is Rocky Balboa 's rival and the main antagonist. He is portrayed by Dolph Lundgren. Like the Clubber Lang character from Rocky III, the character and his catchphrases have gone on to inspire multiple mentions in popular culture, including in the Family Guy episodes "Brian Goes Back to College '' and "Something, Something, Something, Dark Side '', the Chuck episodes "Chuck Versus the Final Exam '' and "Chuck Versus the Anniversary '', and the film Disaster Movie. A poll of former heavyweight champions and prominent boxing writers ranked Drago as the third - best fighter in the Rocky film series.
Ivan Drago is an Olympic gold medalist and an amateur boxing champion from the Soviet Union, who had an amateur record of 100 -- 0 -- 0 wins (100 KO). He is billed at 6 ft 5 in (196 cm) and 261 pounds (118 kg, over 181⁄2 stone). Drago is carefully fitted and trained to be the consummate fighter. His heart rate and punching power are constantly measured via computers during his workouts. Drago is seen receiving intramuscular injections in the movie, implied to be anabolic steroids, though the actual nature of the injected solution is never explicitly stated.
Drago is married to another athlete, Ludmilla Vobet Drago (Brigitte Nielsen), who is mentioned to be a double gold medalist in swimming. She is much more articulate in English than Drago, who seldom talks, and always speaks on his behalf at press conferences and interviews. She dismisses allegations of Drago 's steroid use (which turn out to be true), explaining her husband 's freakish size and strength by saying, "he is like your Popeye. He eats his spinach every day! ''.
Unlike the flamboyant Apollo Creed and the brash James "Clubber '' Lang -- Rocky 's opponents in previous films -- Ivan Drago is quiet and non-boastful. Driven by his desire to be the best at all costs, this single - minded manner in which he pursues this goal deprives him of his humanity. Many viewers and critics have suggested that Drago was meant to symbolize America 's perception of Russia: immense, powerful, and emotionless. This is made evident by his cold - blooded pulverization of Creed in an exhibition match as well as by his callous reaction towards news of his opponent 's death. Drago generally allows his wife and trainers to talk on his behalf to the press. The character only speaks short sentences, throughout the film, all terse, short statements.
He speaks English four times in the film plus a few short words in the final round:
And Russian twice (not including short phrases, e.g. "привет '' or "давай ''):
In Rocky IV, Drago 's trainers, Sergei Igor Rimsky (George Rogan) and Manuel Vega (James "Cannonball '' Green), along with his wife Ludmilla (Brigitte Nielsen), are convinced that he can defeat any boxer. Drago enters professional heavyweight boxing in the beginning of the movie.
Former champion Apollo Creed (Carl Weathers), now 42 years old, comes out of retirement to challenge Drago to an exhibition match, promoted by Creed 's former rival Rocky Balboa (Sylvester Stallone). Creed arrives to the ring wearing his signature Stars & Stripes boxing garb to "Living in America, '' sung by James Brown, dancing upon a huge stage that is lowered into the ring. Before the match begins, Drago mutters "You will lose. ''
During the fight, Apollo is no match for the Russian fighter. Drago even continues to attack Creed after the bell is rung to end the round, despite this being an exhibition match instead of a professional one. In Apollo 's corner, Rocky contemplates whether to throw in the towel and surrender the fight (against Creed 's earlier instructions), but instead he decides to hold onto the towel. Defenseless, Apollo continues to absorb blows to the head until Drago finally kills him with a final blow to the head.
Drago exhibits no remorse about what happened to the former champion, simply stating in an interview after the fight that "if he dies, he dies. '' To avenge Apollo 's death, Rocky travels to the Soviet Union to fight Drago on his home turf in Moscow. The fight eventually becomes a long, drawn - out war between Rocky and Drago, and to everyone 's shock, Rocky manages to severely damage Drago, and the crowd begins to cheer for Rocky, whereas at the start of the fight, they were hostile to him. Drago 's trainer -- a Soviet / East German official -- insults him, claiming that by allowing an American to fight so admirably on Russian soil, Drago is disgracing the Soviet Union. The enraged Drago grabs him by the throat, throws him out of the ring, and proclaims he only fights for himself. Immediately preceding the final round, Rocky and Drago meet in the center of the ring where the two men touch gloves as Drago says to Rocky, "To the end. '' Rocky defeats Drago by KO in the 15th and final round in a dramatic ending.
In Rocky V, it is revealed that the pain Drago inflicted on Rocky left Rocky with brain damage (specifically diagnosed as cavum septi pellucidi (CSP)), causing him to mistake people, see visions and various other things. During Rocky 's fight with Tommy Gunn, Rocky sees visions of Drago killing Apollo while believing he is about to suffer the same fate at Tommy 's hands, until a vision of Mickey inspired him to get up and defeat Tommy.
According to Rocky: The Ultimate Guide, Drago was not permitted to resume his boxing career after his loss to Rocky Balboa because of the special circumstance that he could not officially turn pro in the USSR. Drago turned professional after the fall of the Soviet Union and accumulated a record of 31 - 0 (31 KO) while also winning a portion of the Heavyweight title. He never unified the title or fought the very top contenders (as a professional) because of promotional politics.
On July 6, 2017, Stallone teased images on his Instagram about a confrontation between Adonis Creed, son of Apollo, and Ivan Drago hinting that a film could be in the works. Stallone on July 21, 2017 confirmed that he had finished writing the script for the sequel to 2015 's Creed, which will see Dolph Lundgren reprising his role as Ivan Drago from Rocky IV. A photo of Lundgren as Drago atop the "Rocky Steps '' surfaced in March.
Commentaries on Drago often characterize him as a hyperbolic representation of Russian power in the context of the latter part of the Cold War. This symbolism is particularly clear in some lines in the film, like the radio announcer who says, "Ivan Drago is a man with an entire country in his corner. '' Others have characterized Drago in contrast to Rocky, the prototypically American hero, and that Drago 's defeat represents a crumbling of the USSR.
Some, however, have noticed Drago 's individualism. Toward the conclusion of the movie, when Drago is confronted by a Communist Party functionary, this fighter from the collectivist USSR screams at the top of his lungs, "I fight to win FOR ME!! FOR ME!!! '' Drago wants to win, but not for the crowd, not for the nation, not for the communist party, not for the Politburo. He wants to win for himself.
In 2004, The Washington Times referenced Ivan in a comparison of the American -- Soviet Olympic rivalry of the Cold War: "Nationalism makes the Olympics worth watching. Jingoism makes them worth caring about. '' The Times 's Patrick Hruby noted that without an embodiment of the rivalry like Ivan Drago, the Olympics were not as fun.
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when did us stop being backed by gold | Gold standard - Wikipedia
A gold standard is a monetary system in which the standard economic unit of account is based on a fixed quantity of gold. Three types can be distinguished: specie, bullion, and exchange.
Most nations abandoned the gold standard as the basis of their monetary systems at some point in the 20th century, although many hold substantial gold reserves. A survey of leading American economists showed that they unanimously reject that a return to the gold standard would benefit the average American.
The gold specie standard arose from the widespread acceptance of gold as currency. Various commodities have been used as money; typically, the one that loses the least value over time becomes the accepted form. Chemically, gold is of all major metals the one most resistant to corrosion.
The use of gold as money began thousands of years ago in Asia Minor.
During the early and high Middle Ages, the Byzantine gold solidus, commonly known as the bezant, was used widely throughout Europe and the Mediterranean. However, as the Byzantine Empire 's economic influence declined, so too did the use of the bezant. In its place, European territories chose silver as their currency over gold, leading to the development of silver standards.
Silver pennies based on the Roman denarius became the staple coin of Mercia in Great Britain around the time of King Offa, circa CE 757 -- 796. Similar coins, including Italian denari, French deniers, and Spanish dineros circulated in Europe. Spanish explorers discovered silver deposits in Mexico in 1522 and at Potosí in Bolivia in 1545. International trade came to depend on coins such as the Spanish dollar, the Maria Theresa thaler, and later, the United States trade dollar.
In modern times, the British West Indies was one of the first regions to adopt a gold specie standard. Following Queen Anne 's proclamation of 1704, the British West Indies gold standard was a de facto gold standard based on the Spanish gold doubloon. In 1717, Sir Isaac Newton, the master of the Royal Mint, established a new mint ratio between silver and gold that had the effect of driving silver out of circulation and putting Britain on a gold standard.
A formal gold specie standard was first established in 1821, when Britain adopted it following the introduction of the gold sovereign by the new Royal Mint at Tower Hill in 1816. The United Province of Canada in 1853, Newfoundland in 1865, and the United States and Germany (de jure) in 1873 adopted gold. The United States used the eagle as its unit, Germany introduced the new gold mark, while Canada adopted a dual system based on both the American gold eagle and the British gold sovereign.
Australia and New Zealand adopted the British gold standard, as did the British West Indies, while Newfoundland was the only British Empire territory to introduce its own gold coin. Royal Mint branches were established in Sydney, Melbourne and Perth for the purpose of minting gold sovereigns from Australia 's rich gold deposits.
The gold specie standard came to an end in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire with the outbreak of World War I.
From 1750 to 1870, wars within Europe as well as an ongoing trade deficit with China (which sold to Europe but had little use for European goods) drained silver from the economies of Western Europe and the United States. Coins were struck in smaller and smaller numbers, and there was a proliferation of bank and stock notes used as money.
In the 1790s, the United Kingdom suffered a silver shortage. It ceased to mint larger silver coins and instead issued "token '' silver coins and overstruck foreign coins. With the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Bank of England began the massive recoinage programme that created standard gold sovereigns, circulating crowns, half - crowns and eventually copper farthings in 1821. The recoinage of silver after a long drought produced a burst of coins. The United Kingdom struck nearly 40 million shillings between 1816 and 1820, 17 million half crowns and 1.3 million silver crowns.
The 1819 Act for the Resumption of Cash Payments set 1823 as the date for resumption of convertibility, which was reached by 1821. Throughout the 1820s, small notes were issued by regional banks. This was restricted in 1826, while the Bank of England was allowed to set up regional branches. In 1833 however, Bank of England notes were made legal tender and redemption by other banks was discouraged. In 1844, the Bank Charter Act established that Bank of England notes were fully backed by gold and they became the legal standard. According to the strict interpretation of the gold standard, this 1844 act marked the establishment of a full gold standard for British money.
In the 1780s, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Morris and Alexander Hamilton recommended to Congress the value of a decimal system. This system would also apply to monies in the United States. The question was what type of standard: gold, silver or both. The United States adopted a silver standard based on the Spanish milled dollar in 1785.
From 1860 to 1871 various attempts to resurrect bi-metallic standards were made, including one based on the gold and silver franc; however, with the rapid influx of silver from new deposits, the expectation of scarce silver ended.
The interaction between central banking and currency basis formed the primary source of monetary instability during this period. The combination of a restricted supply of notes, a government monopoly on note issuance and indirectly, a central bank and a single unit of value produced economic stability. Deviation from these conditions produced monetary crises.
Devalued notes or leaving silver as a store of value caused economic problems. Governments, demanding specie as payment, could drain the money out of the economy. Economic development expanded need for credit. The need for a solid basis in monetary affairs produced a rapid acceptance of the gold standard in the period that followed.
Following Germany 's decision after the 1870 -- 1871 Franco - Prussian War to extract reparations to facilitate a move to the gold standard, Japan gained the needed reserves after the Sino - Japanese War of 1894 -- 1895. For Japan, moving to gold was considered vital for gaining access to Western capital markets.
In 1792, Congress passed the Mint and Coinage Act. It authorized the federal government 's use of the Bank of the United States to hold its reserves, as well as establish a fixed ratio of gold to the U.S. dollar. Gold and silver coins were legal tender, as was the Spanish real. In 1792 the market price of gold was about 15 times that of silver. Silver coins left circulation, exported to pay for the debts taken on to finance the American Revolutionary War. In 1806 President Jefferson suspended the minting of silver coins. This resulted in a derivative silver standard, since the Bank of the United States was not required to fully back its currency with reserves. This began a long series of attempts by the United States to create a bi-metallic standard.
The intention was to use gold for large denominations, and silver for smaller denominations. A problem with bimetallic standards was that the metals ' absolute and relative market prices changed. The mint ratio (the rate at which the mint was obligated to pay / receive for gold relative to silver) remained fixed at 15 ounces of silver to 1 ounce of gold, whereas the market rate fluctuated from 15.5 to 1 to 16 to 1. With the Coinage Act of 1834, Congress passed an act that changed the mint ratio to approximately 16 to 1. Gold discoveries in California in 1848 and later in Australia lowered the gold price relative to silver; this drove silver money from circulation because it was worth more in the market than as money. Passage of the Independent Treasury Act of 1848 placed the U.S. on a strict hard - money standard. Doing business with the American government required gold or silver coins.
Government accounts were legally separated from the banking system. However, the mint ratio (the fixed exchange rate between gold and silver at the mint) continued to overvalue gold. In 1853, the US reduced the silver weight of coins to keep them in circulation and in 1857 removed legal tender status from foreign coinage. In 1857 the final crisis of the free banking era began as American banks suspended payment in silver, with ripples through the developing international financial system. Due to the inflationary finance measures undertaken to help pay for the US Civil War, the government found it difficult to pay its obligations in gold or silver and suspended payments of obligations not legally specified in specie (gold bonds); this led banks to suspend the conversion of bank liabilities (bank notes and deposits) into specie. In 1862 paper money was made legal tender. It was a fiat money (not convertible on demand at a fixed rate into specie). These notes came to be called "greenbacks ''.
After the Civil War, Congress wanted to reestablish the metallic standard at pre-war rates. The market price of gold in greenbacks was above the pre-War fixed price ($20.67 per ounce of gold) requiring deflation to achieve the pre-War price. This was accomplished by growing the stock of money less rapidly than real output. By 1879 the market price matched the mint price of gold. The coinage act of 1873 (also known as the Crime of ' 73) demonetized silver. This act removed the 412.5 grain silver dollar from circulation. Subsequently silver was only used in coins worth less than $1 (fractional currency). With the resumption of convertibility on June 30, 1879 the government again paid its debts in gold, accepted greenbacks for customs and redeemed greenbacks on demand in gold. Greenbacks were therefore perfect substitutes for gold coins. During the latter part of the nineteenth century the use of silver and a return to the bimetallic standard were recurrent political issues, raised especially by William Jennings Bryan, the People 's Party and the Free Silver movement. In 1900 the gold dollar was declared the standard unit of account and a gold reserve for government issued paper notes was established. Greenbacks, silver certificates, and silver dollars continued to be legal tender, all redeemable in gold.
The US had a gold stock of 1.9 million ounces (59 t) in 1862. Stocks rose to 2.6 million ounces (81 t) in 1866, declined in 1875 to 1.6 million ounces (50 t) and rose to 2.5 million ounces (78 t) in 1878. Net exports did not mirror that pattern. In the decade before the Civil War net exports were roughly constant; postwar they varied erratically around pre-war levels, but fell significantly in 1877 and became negative in 1878 and 1879. The net import of gold meant that the foreign demand for American currency to purchase goods, services, and investments exceeded the corresponding American demands for foreign currencies. In the final years of the greenback period (1862 -- 1879), gold production increased while gold exports decreased. The decrease in gold exports was considered by some to be a result of changing monetary conditions. The demands for gold during this period were as a speculative vehicle, and for its primary use in the foreign exchange markets financing international trade. The major effect of the increase in gold demand by the public and Treasury was to reduce exports of gold and increase the Greenback price of gold relative to purchasing power.
Towards the end of the 19th century, some silver standard countries began to peg their silver coin units to the gold standards of the United Kingdom or the United States. In 1898, British India pegged the silver rupee to the pound sterling at a fixed rate of 1s 4d, while in 1906, the Straits Settlements adopted a gold exchange standard against sterling, fixing the silver Straits dollar at 2s 4d.
Around the start of the 20th century, the Philippines pegged the silver peso / dollar to the U.S. dollar at 50 cents. This move was assisted by the passage of the Philippines Coinage Act by the United States Congress on March 3, 1903. Around the same time Mexico and Japan pegged their currencies to the dollar. When Siam adopted a gold exchange standard in 1908, only China and Hong Kong remained on the silver standard.
When adopting the gold standard, many European nations changed the name of their currency, for instance from Daler (Sweden and Denmark) or Gulden (Austria - Hungary) to Crown, since the former names were traditionally associated with silver coins and the latter with gold coins.
Governments with insufficient tax revenue suspended convertibility repeatedly in the 19th century. The real test, however, came in the form of World War I, a test which "it failed utterly '' according to economist Richard Lipsey.
By the end of 1913, the classical gold standard was at its peak but World War I caused many countries to suspend or abandon it. According to Lawrence Officer the main cause of the gold standard 's failure to resume its previous position after World War 1 was "the Bank of England 's precarious liquidity position and the gold - exchange standard. '' A run on sterling caused Britain to impose exchange controls that fatally weakened the standard; convertibility was not legally suspended, but gold prices no longer played the role that they did before. In financing the war and abandoning gold, many of the belligerents suffered drastic inflations. Price levels doubled in the US and Britain, tripled in France and quadrupled in Italy. Exchange rates changed less, even though European inflations were more severe than America 's. This meant that the costs of American goods decreased relative to those in Europe. Between August 1914 and spring of 1915, the dollar value of US exports tripled and its trade surplus exceeded $1 billion for the first time.
Ultimately, the system could not deal quickly enough with the large balance of payments deficits and surpluses; this was previously attributed to downward wage rigidity brought about by the advent of unionized labor, but is now considered as an inherent fault of the system that arose under the pressures of war and rapid technological change. In any case, prices had not reached equilibrium by the time of the Great Depression, which served to kill off the system completely.
For example, Germany had gone off the gold standard in 1914, and could not effectively return to it because War reparations had cost it much of its gold reserves. During the Occupation of the Ruhr the German central bank (Reichsbank) issued enormous sums of non-convertible marks to support workers who were on strike against the French occupation and to buy foreign currency for reparations; this led to the German hyperinflation of the early 1920s and the decimation of the German middle class.
The US did not suspend the gold standard during the war. The newly created Federal Reserve intervened in currency markets and sold bonds to "sterilize '' some of the gold imports that would have otherwise increased the stock of money. By 1927 many countries had returned to the gold standard. As a result of World War 1 the United States, which had been a net debtor country, had become a net creditor by 1919.
The gold specie standard ended in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire at the outbreak of World War I, when Treasury notes replaced the circulation of gold sovereigns and gold half sovereigns. Legally, the gold specie standard was not repealed. The end of the gold standard was successfully effected by the Bank of England through appeals to patriotism urging citizens not to redeem paper money for gold specie. It was only in 1925, when Britain returned to the gold standard in conjunction with Australia and South Africa that the gold specie standard was officially ended.
The British Gold Standard Act 1925 both introduced the gold bullion standard and simultaneously repealed the gold specie standard. The new standard ended the circulation of gold specie coins. Instead, the law compelled the authorities to sell gold bullion on demand at a fixed price, but "only in the form of bars containing approximately four hundred ounces troy (12 kg) of fine gold ''. John Maynard Keynes, citing deflationary dangers, argued against resumption of the gold standard. By fixing the price at the pre-war rate of $4.86, Churchill is argued to have made an error that led to depression, unemployment and the 1926 general strike. The decision was described by Andrew Turnbull as a "historic mistake ''.
Many other countries followed Britain in returning to the gold standard, this was followed by a period of relative stability but also deflation. This state of affairs lasted until the Great Depression (1929 -- 1939) forced countries off the gold standard. In September 19, 1931, speculative attacks on the pound forced Britain to abandon the gold standard. Loans from American and French Central Banks of £ 50,000,000 were insufficient and exhausted in a matter of weeks, due to large gold outflows across the Atlantic. The British benefited from this departure. They could now use monetary policy to stimulate the economy. Australia and New Zealand had already left the standard and Canada quickly followed suit.
The interwar partially backed gold standard was inherently unstable, because of the conflict between the expansion of liabilities to foreign central banks and the resulting deterioration in the Bank of England 's reserve ratio. France was then attempting to make Paris a world class financial center, and it received large gold flows as well.
In May 1931 a run on Austria 's largest commercial bank caused it to fail. The run spread to Germany, where the central bank also collapsed. International financial assistance was too late and in July 1931 Germany adopted exchange controls, followed by Austria in October. The Austrian and German experiences, as well as British budgetary and political difficulties, were among the factors that destroyed confidence in sterling, which occurred in mid-July 1931. Runs ensued and the Bank of England lost much of its reserves.
Some economic historians, such as Barry Eichengreen, blame the gold standard of the 1920s for prolonging the economic depression which started in 1929 and lasted for about a decade. In the United States, adherence to the gold standard prevented the Federal Reserve from expanding the money supply to stimulate the economy, fund insolvent banks and fund government deficits that could "prime the pump '' for an expansion. Once off the gold standard, it became free to engage in such money creation. The gold standard limited the flexibility of the central banks ' monetary policy by limiting their ability to expand the money supply. In the US, the central bank was required by the Federal Reserve Act (1913) to have gold backing 40 % of its demand notes. Others including former Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke and Nobel Prize - winner Milton Friedman place the blame for the severity and length of the Great Depression at the feet of the Federal Reserve, mostly due to the deliberate tightening of monetary policy even after the gold standard. They blamed the US major economic contraction in 1937 on tightening of monetary policy resulting in higher cost of capital, weaker securities markets, reduced net government contribution to income, the undistributed profits tax and higher labor costs. The money supply peaked in March 1937, with a trough in May 1938.
Higher interest rates intensified the deflationary pressure on the dollar and reduced investment in U.S. banks. Commercial banks converted Federal Reserve Notes to gold in 1931, reducing its gold reserves and forcing a corresponding reduction in the amount of currency in circulation. This speculative attack created a panic in the U.S. banking system. Fearing imminent devaluation many depositors withdrew funds from U.S. banks. As bank runs grew, a reverse multiplier effect caused a contraction in the money supply. Additionally the New York Fed had loaned over $150 million in gold (over 240 tons) to European Central Banks. This transfer contracted the US money supply. The foreign loans became questionable once Britain, Germany, Austria and other European countries went off the gold standard in 1931 and weakened confidence in the dollar.
The forced contraction of the money supply resulted in deflation. Even as nominal interest rates dropped, inflation - adjusted real interest rates remained high, rewarding those who held onto money instead of spending it, further slowing the economy. Recovery in the United States was slower than in Britain, in part due to Congressional reluctance to abandon the gold standard and float the U.S. currency as Britain had done.
In the early 1930s, the Federal Reserve defended the dollar by raising interest rates, trying to increase the demand for dollars. This helped attract international investors who bought foreign assets with gold.
Congress passed the Gold Reserve Act on 30 January 1934; the measure nationalized all gold by ordering Federal Reserve banks to turn over their supply to the U.S. Treasury. In return the banks received gold certificates to be used as reserves against deposits and Federal Reserve notes. The act also authorized the president to devalue the gold dollar. Under this authority the president, on 31 January 1934, changed the value of the dollar from $20.67 to the troy ounce to $35 to the troy ounce, a devaluation of over 40 %.
Other factors in the prolongation of the Great Depression include trade wars and the reduction in international trade caused by barriers such as Smoot -- Hawley Tariff in the US and the Imperial Preference policies of Great Britain, the failure of central banks to act responsibly, government policies designed to prevent wages from falling, such as the Davis -- Bacon Act of 1931, during the deflationary period resulting in production costs dropping slower than sales prices, thereby injuring business profits and increases in taxes to reduce budget deficits and to support new programs such as Social Security. The US top marginal income tax rate went from 25 % to 63 % in 1932 and to 79 % in 1936, while the bottom rate increased over tenfold, from. 375 % in 1929 to 4 % in 1932. The concurrent massive drought resulted in the US Dust Bowl.
The Austrian School asserted that the Great Depression was the result of a credit bust. Alan Greenspan wrote that the bank failures of the 1930s were sparked by Great Britain dropping the gold standard in 1931. This act "tore asunder '' any remaining confidence in the banking system. Financial historian Niall Ferguson wrote that what made the Great Depression truly ' great ' was the European banking crisis of 1931. According to Fed Chairman Marriner Eccles, the root cause was the concentration of wealth resulting in a stagnating or decreasing standard of living for the poor and middle class. These classes went into debt, producing the credit explosion of the 1920s. Eventually the debt load grew too heavy, resulting in the massive defaults and financial panics of the 1930s.
Under the Bretton Woods international monetary agreement of 1944, the gold standard was kept without domestic convertibility. The role of gold was severely constrained, as other countries ' currencies were fixed in terms of the dollar. Many countries kept reserves in gold and settled accounts in gold. Still they preferred to settle balances with other currencies, with the American dollar becoming the favorite. The International Monetary Fund was established to help with the exchange process and assist nations in maintaining fixed rates. Within Bretton Woods adjustment was cushioned through credits that helped countries avoid deflation. Under the old standard, a country with an overvalued currency would lose gold and experience deflation until the currency was again valued correctly. Most countries defined their currencies in terms of dollars, but some countries imposed trading restrictions to protect reserves and exchange rates. Therefore, most countries ' currencies were still basically inconvertible. In the late 1950s, the exchange restrictions were dropped and gold became an important element in international financial settlements.
After the Second World War, a system similar to a gold standard and sometimes described as a "gold exchange standard '' was established by the Bretton Woods Agreements. Under this system, many countries fixed their exchange rates relative to the U.S. dollar and central banks could exchange dollar holdings into gold at the official exchange rate of $35 per ounce; this option was not available to firms or individuals. All currencies pegged to the dollar thereby had a fixed value in terms of gold.
Starting in the 1959 -- 1969 administration of President Charles de Gaulle and continuing until 1970, France reduced its dollar reserves, exchanging them for gold at the official exchange rate, reducing US economic influence. This, along with the fiscal strain of federal expenditures for the Vietnam War and persistent balance of payments deficits, led U.S. President Richard Nixon to end international convertibility of the U.S. dollar to gold on August 15, 1971 (the "Nixon Shock '').
This was meant to be a temporary measure, with the gold price of the dollar and the official rate of exchanges remaining constant. Revaluing currencies was the main purpose of this plan. No official revaluation or redemption occurred. The dollar subsequently floated. In December 1971, the "Smithsonian Agreement '' was reached. In this agreement, the dollar was devalued from $35 per troy ounce of gold to $38. Other countries ' currencies appreciated. However, gold convertibility did not resume. In October 1973, the price was raised to $42.22. Once again, the devaluation was insufficient. Within two weeks of the second devaluation the dollar was left to float. The $42.22 par value was made official in September 1973, long after it had been abandoned in practice. In October 1976, the government officially changed the definition of the dollar; references to gold were removed from statutes. From this point, the international monetary system was made of pure fiat money.
An estimated total of 174,100 tonnes of gold have been mined in human history, according to GFMS as of 2012. This is roughly equivalent to 5.6 billion troy ounces or, in terms of volume, about 9,261 cubic metres (327,000 cu ft), or a cube 21 metres (69 ft) on a side. There are varying estimates of the total volume of gold mined. One reason for the variance is that gold has been mined for thousands of years. Another reason is that some nations are not particularly open about how much gold is being mined. In addition, it is difficult to account for the gold output in illegal mining activities.
World production for 2011 was circa 2,700 tonnes. Since the 1950s, annual gold output growth has approximately kept pace with world population growth (i.e. a doubling in this period) although it has lagged behind world economic growth (approximately 8-fold increase since the 1950s, and 4x since 1980).
Commodity money is inconvenient to store and transport in large amounts. Furthermore, it does not allow a government to manipulate the flow of commerce with the same ease that a fiat currency does. As such, commodity money gave way to representative money and gold and other specie were retained as its backing.
Gold was a preferred form of money due to its rarity, durability, divisibility, fungibility and ease of identification, often in conjunction with silver. Silver was typically the main circulating medium, with gold as the monetary reserve. Commodity money was anonymous, as identifying marks can be removed. Commodity money retains its value despite what may happen to the monetary authority. After the fall of South Vietnam, many refugees carried their wealth to the West in gold after the national currency became worthless.
Under commodity standards currency itself has no intrinsic value, but is accepted by traders because it can be redeemed any time for the equivalent specie. A US silver certificate, for example, could be redeemed for an actual piece of silver.
Representative money and the gold standard protect citizens from hyperinflation and other abuses of monetary policy, as were seen in some countries during the Great Depression. Commodity money conversely led to deflation and bank runs.
Countries that left the gold standard earlier than other countries recovered from the Great Depression sooner. For example, Great Britain and the Scandinavian countries, which left the gold standard in 1931, recovered much earlier than France and Belgium, which remained on gold much longer. Countries such as China, which had a silver standard, almost entirely avoided the depression (due to the fact it was then barely integrated into the global economy). The connection between leaving the gold standard and the severity and duration of the depression was consistent for dozens of countries, including developing countries. This may explain why the experience and length of the depression differed between national economies.
A full or 100 % - reserve gold standard exists when the monetary authority holds sufficient gold to convert all the circulating representative money into gold at the promised exchange rate. It is sometimes referred to as the gold specie standard to more easily distinguish it. Opponents of a full standard consider it difficult to implement, saying that the quantity of gold in the world is too small to sustain worldwide economic activity at or near current gold prices; implementation would entail a many-fold increase in the price of gold. Gold standard proponents have said, "Once a money is established, any stock of money becomes compatible with any amount of employment and real income. '' While prices would necessarily adjust to the supply of gold, the process may involve considerable economic disruption, as was experienced during earlier attempts to maintain gold standards.
In an international gold - standard system (which is necessarily based on an internal gold standard in the countries concerned), gold or a currency that is convertible into gold at a fixed price is used to make international payments. Under such a system, when exchange rates rise above or fall below the fixed mint rate by more than the cost of shipping gold, inflows or outflows occur until rates return to the official level. International gold standards often limit which entities have the right to redeem currency for gold.
According to research produced by the Bank of Canada, the emerging Bitcoin economy has many similarities with the economy based on gold standard, in particular:
Edward Hadas and Michael Hiltzik noted that monetary systems based on Bitcoin and gold have some similar disadvantages:
George Gilder, a proponent of gold standard, proposed breaking "the government monopoly on money '' by using a combination of Bitcoin for the internet and treating gold in tax terms as currency.
A return to the gold standard was considered by the US Gold Commission back in 1982, but found only minority support. In 2001 Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir bin Mohamad proposed a new currency that would be used initially for international trade among Muslim nations, using the Islamic gold dinar, defined as 4.25 grams of pure (24 - carat) gold. Mahathir claimed it would be a stable unit of account and a political symbol of unity between Islamic nations. This would purportedly reduce dependence on the US dollar and establish a non-debt - backed currency in accord with Sharia law that prohibited the charging of interest. As of 2013 the global monetary system continued to rely on the US dollar as the main reserve currency.
Former U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman, Alan Greenspan acknowledged he was one of "a small minority '' within the central bank that had some positive view on the gold standard. In a 1966 essay he contributed to a book by Ayn Rand, titled "Gold and Economic Freedom '', Greenspan argued the case for returning to a ' pure ' gold standard; in that essay he described supporters of fiat currencies as "welfare statists '' intending to use monetary policy to finance deficit spending. More recently he claimed that by focusing on targeting inflation "central bankers have behaved as though we were on the gold standard '', rendering a return to the standard unnecessary.
Similarly, economists like Robert Barro argued that whilst some form of "monetary constitution '' is essential for stable, depoliticized monetary policy, the form this constitution takes -- for example, a gold standard, some other commodity - based standard, or a fiat currency with fixed rules for determining the quantity of money -- is considerably less important.
The gold standard is supported by many followers of the Austrian School of Economics, free - market libertarians and some supply - siders.
In the United States, strict constitutionalists object to the government issuing fiat currency through central banks. Some gold - standard advocates also call for a mandated end to fractional - reserve banking. Many similar alternatives have been suggested, including energy - based currencies, collections of currencies or commodities, with gold as one component.
Former congressman Ron Paul is a long - term, high - profile advocate of a gold standard, but has also expressed support for using a standard based on a basket of commodities that better reflects the state of the economy.
In 2011 the Utah legislature passed a bill to accept federally issued gold and silver coins as legal tender to pay taxes. As federally issued currency, the coins were already legal tender for taxes, although the market price of their metal content currently exceeds their monetary value. Similar legislation is under consideration in other US states. The bill was initiated by newly elected Republican Party legislators associated with the Tea Party movement and was driven by anxiety over the policies of President Barack Obama.
In 2013, the Arizona Legislature passed SB 1439, which would have made gold and silver coin a legal tender in payment of debt, but the bill was vetoed by the Governor.
In 2015, some candidates for the 2016 presidential election advocated for a gold standard, based on concern that the Federal Reserve 's attempts to increase economic growth may create inflation. Economic historians did not agree with candidate 's assertions that the gold standard would benefit the US economy.
In 2012 a poll of 40 U.S. economists in the IGM Economic Experts Panel found that none of them agreed with a claim that a return to the gold standard would result in "price - stability and employment outcomes (that) would be better for the average American. '' The panel of polled economists included past Nobel Prize winners, former economic advisers to both Republican and Democratic presidents, and senior faculty from Harvard, Chicago, Stanford, MIT, and other well - known research universities. (The specific question posed to the economists was: "If the US replaced its discretionary monetary policy regime with a gold standard, defining a ' dollar ' as a specific number of ounces of gold, the price - stability and employment outcomes would be better for the average American. '')
The economist Allan H. Meltzer of Carnegie Mellon University presented arguments against Ron Paul 's advocacy of the gold standard since the 1970s. He sometimes summarizes his opposition by stating simply, "(W) e do n't have the gold standard. It 's not because we do n't know about the gold standard, it 's because we do. ''
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where was basic teacher training course begining first in uttar pradesh | Education in Uttar Pradesh - Wikipedia
The region of Uttar Pradesh had a long tradition of learning, although it had remained mostly confined to the elite class and the religious establishment.
Sanskrit - based education comprising the learning of Vedic to Gupta periods, coupled with the later Pali corpus of knowledge and a vast store of ancient to medieval learning in Persian / Arabic languages, had formed the edifice of Hindu - Buddhist - Muslim education, till the rise of British power. But, the system became decadent as it missed the advancements that were taking place in Europe during and after the Renaissance, resulting in serious educational backwardness. Corrective measures were initiated by the British administration for making liberal, universal education available in this area through a network of schools to university system on the European pattern.
However, a real turning point came due to the efforts of educationalists like Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya and Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, who championed the cause of modern learning and supported British efforts to spread it.
After independence, the state of U.P. has continued to make investment over the years in all sectors of education and has achieved significant success in overcoming general educational backwardness and illiteracy. The increase in overall literacy rate is due to persistent multi-pronged efforts made by the state government: to enrol and retain children, specially of weaker sections, in schools; to effectively implement the adult education programmes; and to establish centres of higher education. As a result, U.P. is ranked amongst the first few States to have successfully implemented the Education For All policy. The following is indicative of the gradual progress:
In 1981, the literacy rate in U.P. was 28 % and it increased to 42 % in 1991. In 1991, the adult literacy rate (per cent literates among those aged 15 and above) was 38 % and increased to 49 % in 1998, an increase of 11 per centage in the seven - year period. But, the differential between female and male literacy remained high: while in 1991, male literacy was 56 % and female literacy 25 %, eight years later in 1999, as per survey estimates, the male literacy became 73 % and female literacy 43 % (NFHS II).
One more notable feature in the state has been the persistence of higher levels of illiteracy in the younger age group, more so in females, especially in the rural areas. In the late 1980s, the incidence of illiteracy in the 10 -- 14 age group was as high as 32 % for rural males and 61 % for rural females; and more than two - thirds of all rural girls in the 12 -- 14 age group never went to school. Only 25 % of the girls in 7 + age group were able to read and write in 1991 and this figure went down to 19 % for rural areas: it was 11 % for the scheduled castes, 8 % for scheduled castes in rural areas and 8 % for the entire rural population in the most educationally backward districts. In terms of completion of basic or essential educational attainment (the primary or the secondary education), in 1992 -- 1993, only 50 % of literate males and 40 % of literate females could complete the cycle of eight years of schooling (the primary and middle stages). Possibly, Bihar is the only state in India which lags behind U.P. in education.
The problems of state 's education system are complex. Due to public apathy the public schools are run inefficiently. Privately run schools (including those run by Christian missionaries) are functional, but expensive and so beyond the reach of ordinary people.
In order to make the population totally literate, steps are being taken by the government to involve public participation, including the help of NGOs and other organisations. There are also special programmes, like the World Bank aided DPEP. As a result, progress in adult education has been made and the census of 2001 indicates a male literacy rate of 70.23 % and a female literacy rate of 42.98 %.
Presently, there are 866,361 primary schools, 8,459 higher secondary schools, 758 degree colleges and 26 universities in the state. Some of the oldest educational institutions -- founded by the British, the pioneer educationalists and other social / religious reformers -- are still functional. In addition, a number of highly competitive ivy league centres of higher or technical education have been established since Independence.
Considering the size of Uttar Pradesh, it is not surprising that it has a large number of academic and research institutes. These institutes are either under the jurisdiction of the State Government, the Central Government, or are privately run. The state has two IITs -- at Kanpur and Varanasi, an IIM at Lucknow, an LU at Lucknow, an NIT and an IIIT at Allahabad. A good number of State and Central Government universities are founded in Uttar Pradesh to provide Higher Education in various course works.
The Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology: The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MOP&NG), Government of India set up the institute at Jais, Rae Bareli district, Uttar Pradesh through an Act of Parliament. RGIPT has been accorded "Institute of National Importance '' along the lines of the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) and Indian Institute of Management (IIM). With the status of a deemed university, the institute awards degrees in its own right. RGIPT is co-promoted as an energy domain specific institute by six oil public sector units (ONGC, IOCL, OIL, GAIL, BPCL and HPCL) in association with the Oil Industry Development Board (OIDB). The Institute is associated with leading International Universities / Institutions specializing in the domain of Petroleum Technology.
Alongside above mentioned institutes of higher learning, in Uttar Pradesh, a range of Government Degree College has been set up by the Government of Uttar Pradesh for providing Higher Education to scholars who are interested in different course work (undergraduate, postgraduate and research) and program (Humanities, Science and Commerce) in higher studies. At present in Uttar Pradesh, 137 Government Degree Colleges has been established to fulfill the above criteria. The U.P. government administers and controls these colleges through Department of Higher Education, Uttar Pradesh; however, syllabus and affiliation to the universities concerned are depending upon the locality of Government Degree College. Beside government instructions, the government degree colleges also follow the norms and regulations of the University Grants Commission, New Delhi. Few private college likewise, IIMT Group of Institutions (Institute of Integrated Management and Technology) in Varanasi has been established. Uttar Pradesh Board of Technical Education is the body responsible for pre degree vocational and technical education.
Banaras Hindu University (BHU) is a Central University in Varanasi. It evolved from the Central Hindu College of Varanasi, envisioned as a Hindu university in April 1911 by Annie Wood Besant and Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya. BHU began on 1 October 1917, with the Central Hindu College as its first constituent college. Most of the money for the university came from Hindu princes, and its present 1,350 - acre (5.5 km) campus was built on land donated by the Kashi Naresh. Regarded as one of the largest residential universities in Asia, it has more than 128 independent teaching departments; several of its colleges -- including science, linguistics, law, engineering (IIT (BHU) Varanasi) and medicine (IMS - BHU) -- are ranked amongst the best in India. The university 's total enrolment stands at just over 15,000 (including international students). It is the only university in India hosting one of the IITs on its premises (IIT BHU).
The Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur (established in 1959 in the industrial city of Kanpur, and now known as IIT - Kanpur or IITK) is an Indian Institutes of Technology; it is primarily focused on undergraduate education in engineering and related science and technology, and research in these fields. It is among the few institutions which enjoys the status of an Institute of National Importance. IITK was the first college in India to offer education in computer science.
The Indian Institute of Technology (BHU) Varanasi traces its origins to three engineering and technological institutions established by Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya in 1919 -- 1923 in BHU. In 1971 these three colleges, viz. BENCO, MINMET and TECHNO, were merged to form the Institute of Technology (IT - BHU) and admissions were instituted jointly with the IIT 's through the Joint Entrance Examination. In 2012, IT - BHU was officially rechristened as IIT (BHU) Varanasi. The institute has 13 departments and three inter disciplinary schools. It enjoys the status of an Institute of National Importance.
The Indian Institute of Management Lucknow was established in 1984 by the government of India. It was the fourth Indian Institute of Management to be established in India, after IIM Calcutta, IIM Ahmedabad and IIM Bangalore. IIM Lucknow 's 185 - acre (75 ha) main campus is in Prabandh Nagar, about 21 kilometres (13 mi) from Lucknow railway station and 31 kilometres (19 mi) from Lucknow Airport. A second campus, focusing on executive programs, was established in Noida. According to the institute 's website, IIM Lucknow is the first IIM in the country to establish a second campus.
The Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad (MNNIT) was formerly Motilal Nehru Regional Engineering College, Allahabad. It is among one of the leading institutes in the country, established in 1961 as a joint enterprise of the governments of India and Uttar Pradesh in accordance with the plan to establish regional engineering colleges. On 26 June 2002 the college became a deemed university and is now known as an Institute of National Importance. MNNIT was the first college in India to grant a Bachelor of Technology degree in computer science and engineering, and among the very few colleges in India to have a PARAM supercomputer.
The Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology (RGIPT) in Jais, Raebareli was established by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MOP&NG) of the Government of India through an act of Parliament. RGIPT has been designated an Institute of National Importance, along with the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) and Indian Institute of Management (IIM). With deemed university status, the institute awards degrees in its own right. RGIPT is co-sponsored as an energy - domain - specific institute by six oil public - sector units (ONGC, IOCL, OIL, GAIL, BPCL and HPCL), in association with the Oil Industry Development Board (OIDB). The institute is associated with international universities and institutions specialising in petroleum technology.
Rajiv Gandhi National Aviation University (RGNAU) is an autonomous public central university located in the Fursatganj Airfield, Rae Bareli, Uttar Pradesh.
Allahabad University is a Central University located in Allahabad. Its origins lie in Muir Central College, named after Lt. Governor of North - Western Provinces Sir William Muir in 1876; Muir suggested a Central University at Allahabad, which later evolved into the present institution. At one point it was called the "Oxford of the East '', and on 24 June 2005 its Central University status was restored through the University Allahabad Act, 2005 of the Parliament of India. It is the fourth - oldest university in the country.
The Aligarh Muslim University is a residential academic institution. This university is spread over an area of 1.5 square kilometres (370 acres). Modelled on the University of Cambridge, it was established by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in 1875 as Mohammedan Anglo - Oriental College and was granted the status of a Central University by an Act of Parliament in 1920. Located in the city of Aligarh, it was among the first institutions of higher learning established during the British Raj.
The Gautam Buddha University was established in 2002 by the Uttar Pradesh government. The university commenced its first academic session in 2008. It basically focusses on research and offers integrated dual - degree courses in engineering, biotechnology, Bsc, BBA + MBA, BBA + LLB, humanities and Buddhist studies. Its campus is spread over 511 acres and is located in Greater Noida in close proximity to many industrial units. The university has eight schools: Gautam Buddha University School of Engineering, Gautam Buddha University School of Information and Communication Technology, Gautam Buddha University School of Biotechnology, Gautam Buddha University School of Vocational Studies and Applied Sciences, Gautam Buddha University School of Management, Gautam Buddha University School of Law, Justice and Governance, Gautam Buddha University School of Buddhist Studies and Civilization and Gautam Buddha University School of Humanities and Social Sciences.
The Indian Institute of Information Technology, Allahabad was established in 1999 by the government of India. The institute was conferred deemed university status in 2000, empowering it to award degrees following the setting of its own examinations. The new campus has been developed on 100 acres (0.40 km) of land at Deoghat, Jhalwa, on the outskirts of Allahabad. The campus and other buildings have been styled on patterns developed by mathematics professor Roger Penrose. IIITA offers a BTech degree in both information technology and electronics and communications engineering. Admission is through the All India Engineering Entrance Examination (AIEEE). Foreign students are accepted based on SAT II scores. IIITA has an extension campus at Amethi, Sultanpur District (the Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Information Technology).
The Gautam Buddha Technical University is a well - known technical university, formerly known as Uttar Pradesh Technical University. It provides technical education, research and training in such programs as engineering, technology, architecture, town planning, pharmacy and applied arts and crafts which the central government decrees in consultation with All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE). There are five government engineering colleges of GBTU:
Other schools in the state capital, Lucknow, include Colvin Taluqdars ' College, St. Francis ' College, Lucknow and La Martinière College. Secondary schools include the Loreto Convent, St Agnes ' Loreto High School and City Montessori School. The Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow is one of the youngest central universities in the country. The jurisdiction of this residential university is over the entire state of Uttar Pradesh. The campus Vidya Vihar is located off Rae Bareli Road, about 10 km south of the Charbagh railway station in Lucknow. All courses offered by the university are postgraduate, innovative and non-traditional.
M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, established in 1975, has produced a large number of scholars and technocrats in various fields of the arts, science and technology; it has departments of management, engineering, the arts, science, law, education and technology. The university 's Institute of Engineering and Technology was established in 1995, and it has a successful job - placement bureau throughout India for graduating students.
The Govind Ballabh Pant Social Science Institute, Allahabad: Established in 1980 as one in the network of Social Science Research Institutes, which Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) set up in association with the State Governments, in G.B. Pant 's case, the Government of Uttar Pradesh. The Institute undertakes interdisciplinary research in the field of social sciences. G.B. Pant Institute entered privileges of the University of Allahabad in 2005. Govind Ballabh Pant Social Science Institute became a Constituent Institute of the University of Allahabad on 14 July 2005, when the University of Allahabad Act, 2005 came into force.
The main areas of research at the Institute include development planning and policy, environment, health and population, human development, rural development and management, culture, power and change, democracy and institutions.
Institute offers a doctoral programme in social sciences and a MBA in rural development MBA - RD programme. In both programmes the degree is awarded by the University of Allahabad.
Most schools in the state are affiliated to Uttar Pradesh Madhyamik Shiksha Parishad (commonly referred to as U.P. board) with English or Hindi as the medium of instruction, while schools affiliated to Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) and Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE) with English as medium of instruction are also present.
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what type of architecture is charleston known for | Charleston, South Carolina - wikipedia
Charleston is the oldest and largest city in the U.S. state of South Carolina, the county seat of Charleston County, and the principal city in the Charleston -- North Charleston -- Summerville Metropolitan Statistical Area. The city lies just south of the geographical midpoint of South Carolina 's coastline and is located on Charleston Harbor, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean formed by the confluence of the Ashley, Cooper, and Wando rivers. Charleston had an estimated population of 134,875 in 2017. The estimated population of the Charleston metropolitan area, comprising Berkeley, Charleston, and Dorchester counties, was 761,155 residents in 2016, the third - largest in the state and the 78th - largest metropolitan statistical area in the United States.
Charleston was founded in 1670 as Charles Town, honoring King Charles II of England. Its initial location at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley River (now Charles Towne Landing) was abandoned in 1680 for its present site, which became the fifth - largest city in North America within ten years. Despite its size, it remained unincorporated throughout the colonial period; its government was handled directly by a colonial legislature and a governor sent by London. Election districts were organized according to Anglican parishes, and some social services were managed by Anglican wardens and vestries. Charleston adopted its present spelling with its incorporation as a city in 1783 at the close of the Revolutionary War. Population growth in the interior of South Carolina influenced the removal of the state government to Columbia in 1788, but the port city remained among the ten largest cities in the United States through the 1840 census. Historians estimate that "nearly half of all Africans brought to America arrived in Charleston '', most at Gadsden 's Wharf. The only major antebellum American city to have a majority - enslaved population, Charleston was controlled by an oligarchy of white planters and merchants who successfully forced the federal government to revise its 1828 and 1832 tariffs during the Nullification Crisis and launched the Civil War in 1861 by seizing the Arsenal, Castle Pinckney, and Fort Sumter from their federal garrisons.
Known for its rich history, well - preserved architecture, distinguished restaurants, and hospitable people, Charleston is a popular tourist destination. It has received numerous accolades, including "America 's Most Friendly (City) '' by Travel + Leisure in 2011 and in 2013 and 2014 by Condé Nast Traveler, and also "the most polite and hospitable city in America '' by Southern Living magazine. In 2016, Charleston was ranked the "World 's Best City '' by Travel + Leisure.
The city proper consists of six distinct districts.
The incorporated city fit into 4 -- 5 square miles (10 -- 13 km) as late as the First World War, but has since greatly expanded, crossing the Ashley River and encompassing James Island and some of Johns Island. The city limits also have expanded across the Cooper River, encompassing Daniel Island and the Cainhoy area. The present city has a total area of 127.5 square miles (330.2 km), of which 109.0 square miles (282.2 km) is land and 18.5 square miles (47.9 km) is covered by water. North Charleston blocks any expansion up the peninsula, and Mount Pleasant occupies the land directly east of the Cooper River.
Charleston Harbor runs about 7 miles (11 km) southeast to the Atlantic with an average width of about 2 miles (3.2 km), surrounded on all sides except its entrance. Sullivan 's Island lies to the north of the entrance and Morris Island to the south. The entrance itself is about 1 mile (2 km) wide; it was originally only 18 feet (5 m) deep, but began to be enlarged in the 1870s. The tidal rivers (Wando, Cooper, Stono, and Ashley) are evidence of a submergent or drowned coastline. There is a submerged river delta off the mouth of the harbor and the Cooper River is deep.
Charleston has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa), with mild winters, hot, humid summers, and significant rainfall all year long. Summer is the wettest season; almost half of the annual rainfall occurs from June to September in the form of thundershowers. Fall remains relatively warm through the middle of November. Winter is short and mild, and is characterized by occasional rain. Measurable snow (≥ 0.1 in or 0.25 cm) only occurs several times per decade at the most however freezing rain is more common; a snowfall / freezing rain event on January 3, 2018 was the first such event in Charleston since December 26, 2010. However, 6.0 in (15 cm) fell at the airport on December 23, 1989, the largest single - day fall on record, contributing to a single - storm and seasonal record of 8.0 in (20 cm) snowfall.
The highest temperature recorded within city limits was 104 ° F (40 ° C) on June 2, 1985, and June 24, 1944, and the lowest was 7 ° F (− 14 ° C) on February 14, 1899. At the airport, where official records are kept, the historical range is 105 ° F (41 ° C) on August 1, 1999, down to 6 ° F (− 14 ° C) on January 21, 1985. Hurricanes are a major threat to the area during the summer and early fall, with several severe hurricanes hitting the area -- most notably Hurricane Hugo on September 21, 1989 (a category 4 storm). The dewpoint in June to August ranges from 67.8 to 71.4 ° F (19.9 to 21.9 ° C).
The Charleston -- North Charleston -- Summerville Metropolitan Statistical Area consists of three counties: Charleston, Berkeley, and Dorchester. As of the 2013 U.S. Census, the metropolitan statistical area had a total population of 712,239 people. North Charleston is the second - largest city in the Charleston -- North Charleston -- Summerville Metropolitan Statistical Area and ranks as the third - largest city in the state; Mount Pleasant and Summerville are the next - largest cities. These cities combined with other incorporated and unincorporated areas along with the city of Charleston form the Charleston - North Charleston Urban Area with a population of 548,404 as of 2010. The metropolitan statistical area also includes a separate and much smaller urban area within Berkeley County, Moncks Corner (with a 2000 population of 9,123).
The traditional parish system persisted until the Reconstruction Era, when counties were imposed. Nevertheless, traditional parishes still exist in various capacities, mainly as public service districts. When the city of Charleston was formed, it was defined by the limits of the Parish of St. Philip and St. Michael, now also includes parts of St. James ' Parish, St. George 's Parish, St. Andrew 's Parish, and St. John 's Parish, although the last two are mostly still incorporated rural parishes.
After Charles II was restored to the English throne in 1660, he granted the chartered Province of Carolina to eight of his loyal friends, known as the Lords Proprietors, on March 24, 1663. It took seven years before the group arranged for settlement expeditions. In 1670, Governor William Sayle brought over several shiploads of settlers from Bermuda, which lies due east of Charleston although closer to Cape Hatteras in North Carolina. These settlers established Charles Town at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley River a few miles northwest of the present - day city center. Charles Town became English - speaking America 's first comprehensively planned town with governance, settlement, and development to follow a visionary plan known as the Grand Model prepared for the Lords Proprietors by John Locke. Because the Carolina 's Fundamental Constitutions was never ratified, however, Charles Town was never incorporated during the colonial period. The British Crown did not approve the one attempt to do so in the 1720s. Instead, local ordinances were passed by the provincial government, with day - to - day administration handled by the wardens and vestries of St Philip 's and St Michael 's Anglican parishes.
At the time of contact, the area was inhabited by the Cusabo Indians. The settlers declared war on them in October 1671. The Charlestonians initially allied with the Westo, a slaving northern tribe that had grown powerful trading for guns with the colonists in Virginia. The Westo had made enemies of nearly every other tribe in the region, however, and the English turned on them in 1679. Destroying the Westo by 1680, the settlers were able to use their improved relations with the Cusabo and other tribes to trade, recapture runaway slaves, and engage in slaving raids of Spanish - allied areas.
The Earl of Shaftesbury, one of the Lords Proprietors, proclaimed that it would soon become a "great port towne ''. Instead, the initial settlement quickly dwindled away and disappeared while another village -- established by the settlers on Oyster Point at the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper Rivers around 1672 -- thrived; this settlement formally replaced the original Charles Town in 1680. (The original site is now commemorated as Charles Towne Landing.) Not only was this location more defensible, but it also offered access to a fine natural harbor, which accommodated trade with the West Indies. The new town was the 5th - largest in North America by 1690. On Carolina 's southern coast, transportation between the early communities by river and sea was so convenient that Charleston was the only court needed until the late 1750s, but difficulty in transport and communications with the north meant its settlers were effectively independent of Charles Town as late as the governorship of Philip Ludwell; even then, the north was controlled through an appointed deputy governor. On December 7, 1710, the Lords Proprietors decided to separate the Province of North Carolina from Charles Town 's government, although they continued to own and control both regions.
A smallpox outbreak hit in 1698, followed by an earthquake in February 1699 whose ensuing fire destroyed about a third of the town. During rebuilding, a yellow fever outbreak killed about 15 % of the remaining inhabitants. Charles Town suffered between 5 and 8 major yellow fever outbreaks over the first half of the 18th century. It developed a deserved reputation as one of the least healthy locations in British North America for whites, although mistaken observations over the period led some doctors to think that blacks had a natural immunity to the disease. Both black and white locals appear to have developed a general immunity to the disease by 1750, with future outbreaks (lasting until 1871) tending to kill only new arrivals, prompting its local name as "stranger 's fever ''. Malaria -- locally known as "country fever '' since yellow fever was largely confined to Charles Town and the coast -- was endemic. Although it did not have the high fatalities of yellow fever, it caused much illness and was also a major health problem through most of the city 's history before dying out in the 1950s after use of pesticides.
Charles Town was fortified according to a plan developed in 1704 under Governor Nathaniel Johnson. The early settlement was often subject to attack from sea and land. Both Spain and France contested England 's claims to the region. Native Americans and pirates both raided it, though the Yamasee War of the 1710s did not quite reach it.
Charles Town was besieged by the pirate "Blackbeard '' for several days in May 1718; his pirates plundered merchant ships and seized the passengers and crew of the Crowley. Blackbeard released his hostages and left in exchange for a chest of medicine from Governor Robert Johnson.
Around 1719, the town 's name began to be generally written Charlestown and, excepting those fronting the Cooper River, the old walls were largely removed over the next decade. Charlestown was a center for inland colonization of South Carolina, but remained the southernmost point of English settlement on the American mainland until the Province of Georgia was established in 1732. The first settlers primarily came from England and its colonies on Barbados and Bermuda. The latter planters brought African slaves with them who had been purchased in the islands. Early immigrants to the city included Protestant French, Scottish, Irish, and Germans, as well as hundreds of Jews, predominately Sephardi from England and the Netherlands. As late as 1830, Charleston 's Jewish community was the largest and wealthiest in America. Because of the struggles of the English Reformation and particularly because the papacy long recognized James II 's son as the rightful king of England, Scotland, and Ireland, Roman Catholics were prohibited from settling in South Carolina throughout the colonial period. (Catholic emancipation did not proceed in earnest until after the onset of the American Revolution.)
By 1708, however, the majority of the colony 's population were black Africans. They had been brought to Charlestown on the Middle Passage, first as "servants '' and then as slaves. Of the estimated 400,000 Africans transported to North America for sale as slaves, 40 % are thought to have landed at Sullivan 's Island off Charlestown, a "hellish Ellis Island of sorts '', where they were held in a structure of 16 feet (4.9 m) by 30 feet (9.1 m) called the lazaretto or pest - house for a minimum of 10 days. This structure was demolished at the end of the 18th century. As there is no official monument, the writer Toni Morrison organized a privately funded commemorative bench. The Bakongo, Mbundu, Wolof, Mende, and Malinke peoples formed the largest groups of Africans brought through here. Free people of color also arrived from the West Indies, where wealthy whites took black consorts and color lines were (especially early on) looser among the working class. In 1767 Gadsden 's Wharf was constructed at the city port on the Cooper River; it ultimately extended 840 feet and was able to accommodate six ships at a time. Many slaves were sold from here. Devoted to plantation agriculture, the state of South Carolina had a black majority from the colonial period until after the Great Migration of the early 20th century.
At the foundation of the town, the principal items of commerce were pine timber and pitch for ships and tobacco. The early economy developed around the deerskin trade, in which colonists used alliances with the Cherokee and Creek peoples to secure the raw material used for Europeans ' buckskin pants, gloves, and bookbindings. Records show an average annual export of 54,000 skins for the years from 1699 to 1715. During the height of the trade from 1739 to 1761, 5,239,350 lb (2,376,530 kg) of deerskin were exported through Charlestown, representing between 0.5 -- 1.25 million deer. To a lesser extent, beaver pelts were also exported. At the same time, Indians were used to enslave one another. From 1680 to 1720, approximately 40,000 native men, women, and children were sold through the port, principally to the West Indies but also to Boston and other cities in British North America. The Lowcountry planters did not keep Indian slaves, considering them too prone to escape or revolt, and instead used the proceeds of their sale to purchase black African slaves for their own plantations. The slaveraiding -- and the European firearms it introduced -- helped destabilize Spanish Florida and French Louisiana in the 1700s during the War of the Spanish Succession. But it also provoked the Yamasee War of the 1710s that nearly destroyed the colony, after which they largely abandoned the Indian slave trade.
The area 's unsuitability for tobacco prompted the Lowcountry planters to experiment with other cash crops. The profitability of growing rice led the planters to pay premiums for slaves from the "Rice Coast '' who knew its cultivation; their descendants make up the Gullah. Slaves imported from the Caribbean showed the planter George Lucas 's daughter Eliza how to raise and use indigo for dyeing in 1747. Within three years, British subsidies and high demand had already made it a leading export.
Throughout this period, the slaves were sold aboard the arriving ships or at ad hoc gatherings in town 's taverns. Runaways and minor rebellions prompted the 1739 Security Act requiring all white men to carry weapons at all times (even to church on Sundays), but before it had fully taken effect, the Cato or Stono Rebellion broke out. The white community had recently been decimated by a malaria outbreak and the rebels killed about 25 white people before being stopped by the colonial militia; the rebellion resulted in whites killing 35 to 50 black people.
The planters attributed the violence to recently imported Africans and agreed to a 10 - year moratorium on slave importation through Charlestown, relying on the communities they already possessed. The 1740 Negro Act also tightened controls, requiring one white for every ten blacks on any plantation and banning slaves from assembling together, growing their own food, earning money, or learning to read. Drums were banned owing to Africans ' use of them for signaling, although slaves continued to be permitted string and other instruments. When the moratorium expired and Charlestown reopened to the slave trade in 1750, the memory of the Stono Rebellion meant that traders avoided purchasing slaves from the Congo and Angola.
By the mid-18th century, Charlestown, described as "the Jerusalem of American slavery, its capital and center of faith '', was the hub of the Atlantic trade of England 's southern colonies. Even with the decade - long moratorium, its customs processed around 40 % of the African slaves brought to North America between 1700 and 1775. and about half up until the end of the African trade. From 1767, many were sold from the newly constructed Gadsden 's Wharf, where six slave ships at a time could tie up. The plantations and the economy based on them made this the wealthiest city in British North America and the largest in population south of Philadelphia. In 1770, the city 's 11,000 inhabitants -- half slaves -- made it the 4th - largest port after Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. The elite used this wealth to create cultural and social development. America 's first theater building was constructed here in 1736; it was later replaced by today 's Dock Street Theater. St Michael 's was erected in 1753. Benevolent societies were formed by the Huguenots, free people of color, Germans, and Jews. The Library Society was established in 1748 by well - born young men who wanted to share the financial cost to keep up with the scientific and philosophical issues of the day. This group also helped establish the town 's college in 1770, the first in the colony. Until it was acquired by the state university system in 1970, the College of Charleston was the oldest municipally supported college in the United States.
Delegates for the Continental Congress were elected in 1774, and South Carolina declared its independence from Britain on the steps of the Exchange. As part of the Southern theater of the American Revolution, the British attacked the town in force three times, generally assuming that the settlement had a large base of Loyalists who would rally to their cause once given some military support. The loyalty of the white southerners had largely been forfeited, however, by British legal cases (such as the 1772 Somerset case which marked the prohibition of slavery in England and Wales; a significant milestone in the Abolitionist struggle) and military tactics (such as Dunmore 's Proclamation in 1775) that promised the emancipation of the planter 's slaves; these efforts did however, unsurprisingly win the allegiance of thousands of Black Loyalists.
The Battle of Sullivan 's Island saw the British fail to capture a partially constructed palmetto palisade from Col. Moultrie 's militia regiment on June 28, 1776; this was the British Royal Navy 's first defeat in a century. The Liberty Flag used by Moultrie 's men formed the basis of the later South Carolina flag, and the victory 's anniversary continues to be commemorated as Carolina Day.
Making the capture of Charlestown their chief priority, the British sent Gen. Clinton, who began his siege of Charleston on April 1, 1780 with about 14,000 troops and 90 ships. Bombardment began on March 11. The rebels, led by Gen. Lincoln, had about 5,500 men and inadequate fortifications to repel the forces against them. After the British cut his supply lines and lines of retreat at the battles of Monck 's Corner and Lenud 's Ferry, Lincoln 's surrender on May 12 became the greatest American defeat of the war.
The British continued to hold Charlestown for over a year following their defeat at Yorktown in 1781, although they alienated local elites by refusing to restore full civil government. General Nathanael Greene had entered the state after Cornwallis 's pyrrhic victory at Guilford Courthouse and kept the area under a kind of siege. General Alexander Leslie, commanding Charlestown, requested a truce in March 1782 to purchase food for his garrison and the town 's inhabitants. Greene refused and formed a brigade under Mordecai Gist to oppose British forays. One such foray in August led to a British victory at the Combahee River, but Charlestown was finally evacuated in December 1782. Gen. Greene presented the leaders of the town with the Moultrie Flag.
From the summer of 1782, French planters fleeing the Haitian Revolution began arriving in the port with their slaves. The major outbreak of yellow fever that occurred in Philadelphia the next year probably spread there from an epidemic these refugees brought to Charleston, although it was not publicly reported at the time. Over the 19th century, the health officials and newspapers of the town came under repeated criticism from Northerners, fellow Southerners, and one another for covering up epidemics as long as possible in order to keep up the city 's maritime traffic. The distrust and mortal risk meant that between July and October each year communication nearly shut down between the city and the surrounding countryside, which was less susceptible to yellow fever.
The spelling Charleston was adopted in 1783 as part of the city 's formal incorporation.
Although Columbia replaced it as the state capital in 1788, Charleston became even more prosperous as Eli Whitney 's 1793 invention of the cotton gin sped the processing of the crop over 50 times. The development made short - staple cotton profitable and opened the upland Piedmont region to slave - based cotton plantations, previously restricted to the Sea Islands and Lowcountry. Britain 's Industrial Revolution -- initially built upon its textile industry -- took up the extra production ravenously and cotton became Charleston 's major export commodity in the 19th century. The Bank of South Carolina, the second - oldest building in the nation to be constructed as a bank, was established in 1798. Branches of the First and Second Bank of the United States were also located in Charleston in 1800 and 1817.
Throughout the Antebellum Period, Charleston continued to be the only major American city with a majority - slave population. The city widespread use of slaves as workers was a frequent subject of writers and visitors: a merchant from Liverpool noted in 1834 that "almost all the working population are Negroes, all the servants, the carmen & porters, all the people who see at the stalls in Market, and most of the Journeymen in trades ''. American traders had been prohibited from equipping the Atlantic slave trade in 1794 and all importation of slaves was banned in 1808, but American ships long refused to permit British inspection, and smuggling remained common. Much more important was the domestic slave trade, which boomed as the Deep South was developed in new cotton plantations. As a result of the trade, there was a forced migration of more than one million slaves from the Upper South to the Lower South in the antebellum years. During the early 19th century, the first dedicated slave markets were founded in Charleston, mostly near Chalmers & State streets. Many domestic slavers used Charleston as a port in what was called the coastwise trade, traveling to such ports as Mobile and New Orleans.
Slave ownership was the primary marker of class and even the town 's freedmen and free people of color typically kept slaves if they had the wealth to do so. Visitors commonly remarked on the sheer number of blacks in Charleston and their seeming freedom of movement, though in fact -- mindful of the Stono Rebellion and the violent slave revolution that established Haiti -- the whites closely regulated the behavior of both slaves and free people of color. Wages and hiring practices were fixed, identifying badges were sometimes required, and even work songs were sometimes censored. Punishment was handled out of sight by the city 's Work House, whose fees netting the municipal government thousands a year. In 1820, a state law mandated that each individual act of freeing a slave henceforth legislative approval, effectively halting the practice.
The effects of slavery were pronounced on white society as well. The high cost of 19th - century slaves and their high rate of return combined to institute an oligarchic society controlled by about ninety interrelated families, where 4 % of the free population controlled half of the wealth, and the lower half of the free population -- unable to compete with owned or rented slaves -- held no wealth at all. The white middle class was minimal: Charlestonians generally disparaged hard work as the lot of slaves. All the slaveholders taken together held 82 % of the city 's wealth and almost all non-slaveholders were poor. Olmsted considered their civic elections "entirely contests of money and personal influence '' and the oligarchs dominated civic planning: the lack of public parks and amenities was noted, as was the abundance of private gardens in the wealthy 's walled estates.
In the 1810s, the town 's churches intensified their discrimination against their black parishioners, culminating in Bethel Methodist 's 1817 construction of a hearse house over its black burial ground. 4,376 black Methodists joined Morris Brown in establishing Hampstead Church, the African Methodist Episcopal church now known as Mother Emanuel. State and city laws prohibited black literacy, limited black worship to daylight hours, and required a majority of any church 's parishioners be white. In June 1818, 140 black church members at Hampstead Church were arrested and eight of its leaders given fines and ten lashes; police raided the church again in 1820 and leaned on it in 1821.
In 1822, members of the church, led by Denmark Vesey, a lay preacher and carpenter who had bought his freedom after winning a lottery, planned an uprising and escape to Haiti -- initially for Bastille Day -- that failed when one slave revealed the plot to his master. Over the next month, the city 's intendant (mayor) James Hamilton Jr. organized a militia for regular patrols, initiated a secret and extrajudicial tribunal to investigate, and hanged 35 and exiled 35 or 37 slaves to Spanish Cuba for their involvement. In a sign of Charleston 's antipathy to abolitionists, a white co-conspirator pled for leniency from the court on the grounds that his involvement had been motivated only by greed and not by any sympathy with the slaves ' cause. Governor Thomas Bennett Jr. had pressed for more compassionate and Christian treatment of slaves but his own had been found involved Vesey 's planned uprising. Hamilton was able to successfully campaign for more restrictions on both free and enslaved blacks: South Carolina required free black sailors to be imprisoned while their ships were in Charleston Harbor though international treaties eventually required the United States to quash the practice; free blacks were banned from returning to the state if they left for any reason; slaves were given a 9: 15 pm curfew; the city razed Hampstead Church to the ground and erected a new arsenal. This structure later was the basis of the Citadel 's first campus. The AME congregation built a new church but in 1834 the city banned it and all black worship services, following Nat Turner 's 1831 rebellion in Virginia. The estimated 10 % of slaves who came to America as Muslims never had a separate mosque. Slaveholders sometimes provided them with beef rations in place of pork in recognition of religious traditions.
In 1832, South Carolina passed an ordinance of nullification, a procedure by which a state could, in effect, repeal a federal law; it was directed against the most recent tariff acts. Soon, federal soldiers were dispensed to Charleston 's forts, and five United States Coast Guard cutters were detached to Charleston Harbor "to take possession of any vessel arriving from a foreign port, and defend her against any attempt to dispossess the Customs Officers of her custody until all the requirements of law have been complied with. '' This federal action became known as the Charleston incident. The state 's politicians worked on a compromise law in Washington to gradually reduce the tariffs.
On 27 April 1838, a massive fire broke out around 9: 00 in the evening. It raged until noon the next day, damaging over 1,000 buildings, a loss estimated at $3 million at the time. In efforts to put the fire out, all the water in the city pumps was used up. The fire ruined businesses, several churches, a new theater, and the entire market except for the fish section. Most famously, Charleston 's Trinity Church was burned. Another important building that fell victim was the new hotel that had been recently built. Many houses were burnt to the ground. The damaged buildings amounted to about one - fourth of all the businesses in the main part of the city. The fire rendered penniless many who were wealthy. Several prominent store owners died attempting to save their establishments. When the many homes and business were rebuilt or repaired, a great cultural awakening occurred. In many ways, the fire helped put Charleston on the map as a great cultural and architectural center. Previous to the fire, only a few homes were styled as Greek Revival; many residents decided to construct new buildings in that style after the conflagration. This tradition continued and made Charleston one of the foremost places to view Greek Revival architecture. The Gothic Revival also made a significant appearance in the construction of many churches after the fire that exhibited picturesque forms and reminders of devout European religion.
By 1840, the Market Hall and Sheds, where fresh meat and produce were brought daily, became a hub of commercial activity. The slave trade also depended on the port of Charleston, where ships could be unloaded and the slaves bought and sold. The legal importation of African slaves had ended in 1808, although smuggling was significant. However, the domestic trade was booming. More than one million slaves were transported from the Upper South to the Deep South in the antebellum years, as cotton plantations were widely developed through what became known as the Black Belt. Many slaves were transported in the coastwise slave trade, with slave ships stopping at ports such as Charleston.
Following the election of Abraham Lincoln, the South Carolina General Assembly voted on December 20, 1860 to secede from the Union. On December 27, Castle Pinckney was surrendered by its garrison to the state militia and, on January 9, 1861, Citadel cadets opened fire on the USS Star of the West as it entered Charleston Harbor.
The first full battle of the American Civil War occurred on April 12, 1861 when shore batteries under the command of General Beauregard opened fire on the US Army - held Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor. After a 34 - hour bombardment, Major Robert Anderson surrendered the fort. On December 11, 1861, an enormous fire burned over 500 acres (200 ha) of the city.
Union control of the sea permitted the repeated bombardment of the city, causing vast damage. Although Admiral Du Pont 's naval assault on the town 's forts in April 1863 failed, the Union navy 's blockade shut down most commercial traffic. Over the course of the war, some blockade runners got through but not a single one made it into or out of the Charleston Harbor between August 1863 and March 1864. The early submarine H.L. Hunley made a night attack on the USS Housatonic on February 17, 1864.
General Gillmore 's land assault in July 1864 was unsuccessful but the fall of Columbia and advance of General William T. Sherman 's army through the state prompted the Confederates to evacuate the town on February 17, 1865, burning the public buildings, cotton warehouses, and other sources of supply before their departure. Union troops moved into the city within the month. The War Department recovered what federal property remained and also confiscated the campus of the Citadel Military Academy and used it as a federal garrison for the next 17 years. The facilities were finally returned to the state and reopened as a military college in 1882 under the direction of Lawrence E. Marichak.
After the defeat of the Confederacy, federal forces remained in Charleston during Reconstruction. The war had shattered the city 's prosperity, but the African - American population surged (from 17,000 in 1860 to over 27,000 in 1880) as freedmen moved from the countryside to the major city. Blacks quickly left the Southern Baptist Church and resumed open meetings of the African Methodist Episcopal and AME Zion churches. They purchased dogs, guns, liquor, and better clothes -- all previously banned -- and ceased yielding the sidewalks to whites. Despite the efforts of the state legislature to halt manumissions, Charleston had already had a large class of free people of color as well. At the onset of the war, the city had 3,785 free people of color, many of mixed race, making up about 18 % of the city 's black population and 8 % of its total population. Many were educated and practiced skilled crafts; they quickly became leaders of South Carolina 's Republican Party and its legislators. Men who had been free people of color before the war comprised 26 % of those elected to state and federal office in South Carolina from 1868 to 1876.
By the late 1870s, industry was bringing the city and its inhabitants back to a renewed vitality; new jobs attracted new residents. As the city 's commerce improved, residents worked to restore or create community institutions. In 1865, the Avery Normal Institute was established by the American Missionary Association as the first free secondary school for Charleston 's African American population. Gen. Sherman lent his support to the conversion of the United States Arsenal into the Porter Military Academy, an educational facility for former soldiers and boys left orphaned or destitute by the war. Porter Military Academy later joined with Gaud School and is now a university - preparatory school, Porter - Gaud School.
In 1875, blacks made up 57 % of the city 's and 73 % of the county 's population. With leadership by members of the antebellum free black community, historian Melinda Meeks Hennessy described the community as "unique '' in being able to defend themselves without provoking "massive white retaliation '', as occurred in numerous other areas during Reconstruction. In the 1876 election cycle, two major riots between black Republicans and white Democrats occurred in the city, in September and the day after the election in November, as well as a violent incident in Cainhoy at an October joint discussion meeting.
Violent incidents occurred throughout the Piedmont of the state as white insurgents struggled to maintain white supremacy in the face of social changes after the war and granting of citizenship to freedmen by federal constitutional amendments. After former Confederates were allowed to vote again, election campaigns from 1872 on were marked by violent intimidation of blacks and Republicans by white Democratic paramilitary groups, known as the Red Shirts. Violent incidents took place in Charleston on King Street in September 6 and in nearby Cainhoy on October 15, both in association with political meetings before the 1876 election. The Cainhoy incident was the only one statewide in which more whites were killed than blacks. The Red Shirts were instrumental in suppressing the black Republican vote in some areas in 1876 and narrowly electing Wade Hampton as governor, and taking back control of the state legislature. Another riot occurred in Charleston the day after the election, when a prominent Republican leader was mistakenly reported killed.
On August 31, 1886, Charleston was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. The shock was estimated to have a moment magnitude of 7.0 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). It was felt as far away as Boston to the north, Chicago and Milwaukee to the northwest, as far west as New Orleans, as far south as Cuba, and as far east as Bermuda. It damaged 2,000 buildings in Charleston and caused $6 million worth of damage ($146 million in 2016 dollars), at a time when all the city 's buildings were valued around $24 million ($585 million in 2016 dollars).
Investment in the city continued. The William Enston Home, a planned community for the city 's aged and infirm, was built in 1889. An elaborate public building, the United States Post Office and Courthouse, was completed by the federal government in 1896 in the heart of the city. The Democrat - dominated state legislature passed a new constitution in 1895 that disfranchised blacks, effectively excluding them entirely from the political process, a second - class status that was maintained for more than six decades in a state that was majority black until about 1930.
Charleston 's tourism boom began in earnest following the publication of Albert Simons and Samuel Lapham 's Architecture of Charleston in the 1920s.
Charleston languished economically for several decades in the 20th century, though the large federal military presence in the region helped to shore up the city 's economy.
The Charleston Hospital Strike of 1969, in which mostly black workers protested discrimination and low wages, was one of the last major events of the civil rights movement. It attracted Ralph Abernathy, Coretta Scott King, Andrew Young, and other prominent figures to march with the local leader, Mary Moultrie. Its story is recounted in Tom Dent 's book Southern Journey (1996).
Joseph P. Riley Jr. was elected mayor in the 1970s, and helped advance several cultural aspects of the city. Riley worked to revive Charleston 's economic and cultural heritage. The last 30 years of the 20th century had major new investments in the city, with a number of municipal improvements and a commitment to historic preservation to restore the city 's unique fabric. There was an effort to preserve working - class housing of African Americans on the historic peninsula, but the neighborhood has gentrified, with rising prices and rents. From 1980 to 2010, the peninsula 's population has shifted from two - thirds black to two - thirds white; in 2010 residents numbered 20,668 whites to 10,455 blacks. Many African Americans have moved to the less - expensive suburbs in these decades.
The city 's commitments to investment were not slowed down by Hurricane Hugo and continue to this day. The eye of Hurricane Hugo came ashore at Charleston Harbor in 1989, and though the worst damage was in nearby McClellanville, three - quarters of the homes in Charleston 's historic district sustained damage of varying degrees. The hurricane caused over $2.8 billion in damage. The city was able to rebound fairly quickly after the hurricane and has grown in population, reaching an estimated 124,593 residents in 2009.
On June 17, 2015, 21 - year - old Dylann Roof entered the historic Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church and sat in on part of a Bible study before shooting and killing nine people. Senior pastor Clementa Pinckney, who also served as a state senator, was among those killed during the attack. The deceased also included congregation members Susie Jackson, 87; Rev. Daniel Simmons Sr., 74; Ethel Lance, 70; Myra Thompson, 59; Cynthia Hurd, 54; Rev. Depayne Middleton - Doctor, 49; Rev. Sharonda Coleman - Singleton, 45; and Tywanza Sanders, 26. The attack garnered national attention, and sparked a debate on historical racism, Confederate symbolism in Southern states, and gun violence, in part based on Roof 's online postings. On July 10, 2015, the Confederate battle flag was removed from the South Carolina State House. A memorial service on the campus of the College of Charleston was attended by President Barack Obama, Michelle Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, Jill Biden, and Speaker of the House John Boehner.
In 2010, the racial makeup of Charleston was 70.2 % White, 25.4 % African American, 1.6 % Asian, and 1.5 % of two or more races; in addition, 2.9 % of the population was Hispanic or Latino, of any race.
Given Charleston 's high concentration of African Americans who spoke the Gullah language, a creole language that developed on the Sea Islands and in the Low Country, the local speech patterns were also influenced by this community. Today, Gullah is still spoken by many African American residents. However, rapid development since 1980, especially on the surrounding Sea Islands, has attracted residents from outside the area and led to a decline in Gullah 's prominence.
The traditional educated Charleston accent has long been noted in the state and throughout the South. It is typically heard in wealthy white families who trace their families back generations in the city. It has ingliding or monophthongal long mid-vowels, raises ay and aw in certain environments, and is nonrhotic. Sylvester Primer of the College of Charleston wrote about aspects of the local dialect in his late 19th - century works: "Charleston Provincialisms '' (1887) and "The Huguenot Element in Charleston 's Provincialisms '', published in a German journal. He believed the accent was based on the English as it was spoken by the earliest settlers, therefore derived from Elizabethan England and preserved with modifications by Charleston speakers. The rapidly disappearing "Charleston accent '' is still noted in the local pronunciation of the city 's name. Some elderly (and usually upper - class) Charleston natives ignore the ' r ' and elongate the first vowel, pronouncing the name as "Chah - l - ston ''.
Charleston is known as "The Holy City '', perhaps because churches are prominent on the low - rise cityscape or because South Carolina was among the few original colonies to tolerate all Christian Protestant denominations (though not Roman Catholicism). The Anglican church was dominant in the colonial era, and the Cathedral of St. Luke and St. Paul is today the seat of the Diocese of South Carolina. Many French Huguenot refugees settled in Charleston in the early 18th century. The Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church is the oldest African Methodist Episcopal church in the Southern United States and houses the oldest black congregation south of Baltimore, Maryland.
South Carolina has long allowed Jews to practice their faith without restriction. Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim, founded in 1749 by Sephardic Jews from London, is the fourth - oldest Jewish congregation in the continental United States and was an important site for the development of Reform Judaism. Brith Sholom Beth Israel is the oldest Orthodox synagogue in the South, founded by Sam Berlin and other Ashkenazi German and Central European Jews in the mid-19th century.
The city 's oldest Roman Catholic parish, Saint Mary of the Annunciation Roman Catholic Church, is the mother church of Roman Catholicism in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. In 1820, Charleston was established as the see city of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston, which at the time comprised the Carolinas and Georgia, and presently encompasses the state of South Carolina.
Charleston is known for its unique culture, which blends traditional Southern U.S., English, French, and West African elements. The downtown peninsula has gained a reputation for its art, music, local cuisine, and fashion. Spoleto Festival USA, held annually in late spring, has become one of the world 's major performing arts festivals. It was founded in 1977 by Pulitzer Prize - winning composer Gian Carlo Menotti, who sought to establish a counterpart to the Festival dei Due Mondi (the Festival of Two Worlds) in Spoleto, Italy.
Charleston 's oldest community theater group, the Footlight Players, has provided theatrical productions since 1931. A variety of performing arts venues includes the historic Dock Street Theatre. The annual Charleston Fashion Week held each spring in Marion Square brings in designers, journalists, and clients from across the nation. Charleston is known for its local seafood, which plays a key role in the city 's renowned cuisine, comprising staple dishes such as gumbo, she - crab soup, fried oysters, Lowcountry boil, deviled crab cakes, red rice, and shrimp and grits. Rice is the staple in many dishes, reflecting the rice culture of the Low Country. The cuisine in Charleston is also strongly influenced by British and French elements.
Charleston annually hosts Spoleto Festival USA founded by Gian Carlo Menotti, a 17 - day art festival featuring over 100 performances by individual artists in a variety of disciplines. The Spoleto Festival is internationally recognized as America 's premier performing arts festival. The annual Piccolo Spoleto festival takes place at the same time and features local performers and artists, with hundreds of performances throughout the city. Other festivals and events include Historic Charleston Foundation 's Festival of Houses and Gardens and Charleston Antiques Show, the Taste of Charleston, The Lowcountry Oyster Festival, the Cooper River Bridge Run, The Charleston Marathon, Southeastern Wildlife Exposition (SEWE), Charleston Food and Wine Festival, Charleston Fashion Week, the MOJA Arts Festival, and the Holiday Festival of Lights (at James Island County Park), and the Charleston International Film Festival. The Charleston Conference is a major library industry event, held in the city center since 1980.
As it has on every aspect of Charleston culture, the Gullah community has had a tremendous influence on music in Charleston, especially when it comes to the early development of jazz music. In turn, the music of Charleston has had an influence on that of the rest of the country. The geechee dances that accompanied the music of the dock workers in Charleston followed a rhythm that inspired Eubie Blake 's "Charleston Rag '' and later James P. Johnson 's "Charleston '', as well as the dance craze that defined a nation in the 1920s. "Ballin ' the Jack '', which was a popular dance in the years before "Charleston '', was written by native Charlestonian Chris Smith.
The Jenkins Orphanage was established in 1891 by the Rev. Daniel J. Jenkins in Charleston. The orphanage accepted donations of musical instruments and Rev. Jenkins hired local Charleston musicians and Avery Institute Graduates to tutor the boys in music. As a result, Charleston musicians became proficient on a variety of instruments and were able to read music expertly. These traits set Jenkins musicians apart and helped land some of them positions in big bands with Duke Ellington and Count Basie. William "Cat '' Anderson, Jabbo Smith, and Freddie Green are but a few of the alumni from the Jenkins Orphanage band who became professional musicians in some of the best bands of the day. Orphanages around the country began to develop brass bands in the wake of the Jenkins Orphanage Band 's success. At the Colored Waif 's Home Brass Band in New Orleans, for example, a young trumpeter named Louis Armstrong first began to draw attention.
As many as five bands were on tour during the 1920s. The Jenkins Orphanage Band played in the inaugural parades of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Taft and toured the USA and Europe. The band also played on Broadway for the play "Porgy '' by DuBose and Dorothy Heyward, a stage version of their novel of the same title. The story was based in Charleston and featured the Gullah community. The Heywards insisted on hiring the real Jenkins Orphanage Band to portray themselves on stage. Only a few years later, DuBose Heyward collaborated with George and Ira Gershwin to turn his novel into the now famous opera, Porgy and Bess (so named so as to distinguish it from the play). George Gershwin and Heyward spent the summer of 1934 at Folly Beach outside of Charleston writing this "folk opera '', as Gershwin called it. Porgy and Bess is considered the Great American Opera and is widely performed.
To this day, Charleston is home to many musicians in all genres. A unique showcase of Charleston 's musical heritage is presented weekly. "The Sound of Charleston... from gospel to Gershwin '', is staged at the historic Circular Congregational Church.
The Music Farm concert venue opened in Charleston on Ann Street in 1991.
Charleston has a vibrant theater scene and is home to America 's first theater. In 2010, Charleston was listed as one of the country 's top 10 cities for theater, and one of the top two in the South. Most of the theaters are part of the League of Charleston Theatres, better known as Theatre Charleston. Some of the city 's theaters include:
Charleston has many historic buildings, art and historical museums, and other attractions, including:
Charleston is home to a number of professional, minor league, and amateur sports teams:
Other notable sports venues in Charleston include Johnson Hagood Stadium (home of The Citadel Bulldogs football team) and Toronto Dominion Bank Arena at the College of Charleston, which seats 5,700 people who view the school 's basketball and volleyball teams.
Various books and films have been set in Charleston; some of the best known works are listed below. In addition, Charleston is a popular filming location for movies and television, both in its own right and as a stand - in for Southern and / or historic settings.
Charleston is a popular tourist destination, with a considerable number of hotels, inns, and bed and breakfasts, numerous restaurants featuring Lowcountry cuisine and shops. Charleston is also a notable art destination, named a top - 25 arts destination by AmericanStyle magazine.
Commercial shipping is important to the economy. The city has two shipping terminals, owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority, which are part of the fourth - largest container seaport on the East Coast and the thirteenth - largest container seaport in North America.
Charleston is becoming a popular location for information technology jobs and corporations, and this sector has had the highest rate of growth between 2011 and 2012, due in large part to the Charleston Digital Corridor. In 2013, the Milken Institute ranked the Charleston region as the ninth - best performing economy in the US because of its growing IT sector. Notable companies include Blackbaud, SPARC, BoomTown, CSS, and Benefitfocus.
In June 2017, the mean sales price for a home in Charleston was $351,186 and the median price was $260,000.
Charleston has a strong mayor - council government, with the mayor acting as the chief administrator and the executive officer of the municipality. The mayor also presides over city council meetings and has a vote, the same as other council members. The current mayor, since 2016, is John Tecklenburg The council has 12 members who are each elected from single - member districts.
In 2006, Charleston 's residents voted against Amendment 1, which sought to ban same - sex marriage in that state. Statewide, the measure passed by 78 % to 22 %, but the voters of Charleston rejected it by 3,563 (52 %) to 3,353 votes (48 %).
The City of Charleston Fire Department consists over 300 full - time firefighters. These firefighters operate out of 20 companies located throughout the city: 16 engine companies, two tower companies, and one ladder company. Training, Fire Marshall, Operations, and Administration are the divisions of the department. The department operates on a 24 / 48 schedule and had a Class 1 ISO rating until late 2008, when ISO officially lowered it to Class 3. Russell (Rusty) Thomas served as Fire Chief until June 2008, and was succeeded by Chief Thomas Carr in November 2008.
The City of Charleston Police Department, with a total of 458 sworn officers, 117 civilians, and 27 reserve police officers, is South Carolina 's largest police department. Their procedures on cracking down on drug use and gang violence in the city are used as models to other cities to do the same. According to the final 2005 FBI Crime Reports, Charleston crime level was worse than the national average in almost every major category. Greg Mullen, the former Deputy Chief of the Virginia Beach, Virginia Police Department, serves as the current Chief of the Charleston Police Department. The former Charleston police chief was Reuben Greenberg, who resigned August 12, 2005. Greenberg was credited with creating a polite police force that kept police brutality well in check, even as it developed a visible presence in community policing and a significant reduction in crime rates. Crime overall, declining since 1999, has continued to decline in Charleston and in most major cities across the country since then.
Emergency medical services (EMS) for the city are provided by Charleston County Emergency Medical Services (CCEMS) & Berkeley County Emergency Medical Services (BCEMS). The city is served by the EMS and 911 services of both Charleston and Berkeley counties since the city is part of both counties.
Charleston is the primary medical center for the eastern portion of the state. The city has several major hospitals located in the downtown area: Medical University of South Carolina Medical Center (MUSC), Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, and Roper Hospital. MUSC is the state 's first school of medicine, the largest medical university in the state, and the sixth - oldest continually operating school of medicine in the United States. The downtown medical district is experiencing rapid growth of biotechnology and medical research industries coupled with substantial expansions of all the major hospitals. Additionally, more expansions are planned or underway at another major hospital located in the West Ashley portion of the city: Bon Secours - St Francis Xavier Hospital. The Trident Regional Medical Center located in the City of North Charleston and East Cooper Regional Medical Center located in Mount Pleasant also serve the needs of residents of the city of Charleston.
Coast Guard Station Charleston responds to search and rescue emergencies, conducts maritime law enforcement activities, and Ports, Waterways, and Coastal Security (PWCS) missions. Personnel from Station Charleston are highly trained professionals, composed of federal law enforcement officers, boat crewmen, and coxswains who are capable of completing a wide range of missions.
The following table shows Charleston 's crime rate for six crimes that Morgan Quitno uses to calculate the ranking of "America 's most dangerous cities '', in comparison to the national average. The statistics shown are for the number of crimes committed per 100,000 people.
Since 1999, the overall crime rate of Charleston has declined markedly. The total crime index rate for Charleston in 1999 was 597.1 crimes committed per 100,000 people, while in 2011, the total crime index rate was 236.4 per 100,000. (The United States average is 320.9 per 100,000.)
The City of Charleston is served by the Charleston International Airport. It is located in the City of North Charleston and is about 12 mi (19 km) northwest of downtown Charleston. It is the busiest passenger airport in South Carolina (IATA: CHS, ICAO: KCHS). The airport shares runways with the adjacent Charleston Air Force Base. Charleston Executive Airport is a smaller airport located in the John 's Island section of the city of Charleston and is used by noncommercial aircraft. Both airports are owned and operated by the Charleston County Aviation Authority.
Charleston is served by two daily Amtrak trains: The Palmetto and Silver Meteor at the Amtrak station located at 4565 Gaynor Avenue in the City of North Charleston located around 7.5 miles from downtown Charleston.
Interstate 26 (I - 26) begins in downtown Charleston, with exits to the Septima Clark Expressway, the Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge and Meeting Street. Heading northwest, it connects the city to North Charleston, the Charleston International Airport, I - 95, and Columbia. The Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge and Septima Clark Expressway are part of U.S. Route 17 (US 17), which travels east -- west through the cities of Charleston and Mount Pleasant. The Mark Clark Expressway, or I - 526, is the bypass around the city and begins and ends at US 17. US 52 is Meeting Street and its spur is East Bay Street, which becomes Morrison Drive after leaving the east side. This highway merges with King Street in the city 's Neck area (industrial district). US 78 is King Street in the downtown area, eventually merging with Meeting Street.
The Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge across the Cooper River opened on July 16, 2005, and was the second - longest cable - stayed bridge in the Americas at the time of its construction. The bridge links downtown Charleston with Mount Pleasant, and has eight lanes plus a 12 - foot lane shared by pedestrians and bicycles. It replaced the Grace Memorial Bridge (built in 1929) and the Silas N. Pearman Bridge (built in 1966). They were considered two of the more dangerous bridges in America and were demolished after the Ravenel Bridge opened.
The city is also served by a bus system, operated by the Charleston Area Regional Transportation Authority (CARTA). Most of the urban area is served by regional fixed route buses, which are equipped with bike racks as part of the system 's Rack and Ride program. CARTA offers connectivity to historic downtown attractions and accommodations with the Downtown Area Shuttle trolley buses, and it offers curbside pickup for disabled passengers with its Tel - A-Ride buses.
Rural parts of the city and metropolitan area are served by a different bus system, operated by Berkeley - Charleston - Dorchester Rural Transportation Management Association. The system is also commonly called the TriCounty Link.
The Port of Charleston, owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority, is one of the largest ports in the United States, ranked in the top 25 by containerized cargo volume in 2014. It consists of five terminals, and a sixth terminal was to open in 2018. Despite occasional labor disputes, the port is ranked number one in customer satisfaction across North America by supply chain executives. Port activity at the two terminals located in the city of Charleston is one of the city 's leading sources of revenue, behind tourism.
Today, the Port of Charleston boasts the deepest water in the southeast region and regularly handles ships too big to transit through the Panama Canal. A harbor - deepening project is currently underway to take the Port of Charleston 's entrance channel to 54 feet and harbor channel to 52 feet at mean low tide. With an average high tide of 6 feet, the depth clearances will become 60 feet and 58 feet, respectively.
Union Pier, in the city of Charleston, is a cruise ship passenger terminal which hosts numerous cruise departures annually. In May 2010, the Carnival Fantasy was permanently stationed in Charleston, offering weekly cruises to the Bahamas and Key West, eventually to include Bermuda. With the addition of the weekly Carnival Fantasy sailings, Union Terminal hosted 67 embarkations and ports of call in 2010.
With the closure of the Naval Base and the Charleston Naval Shipyard in 1996, Detyens, Inc. signed a long term lease. With three dry docks, one floating dock, and six piers, Detyens Shipyard, Inc. is one of the largest commercial marine repair facilities on the East Coast. Projects include military, commercial, and cruise ships.
Because most of the city of Charleston is located in Charleston County, it is served by the Charleston County School District. Part of the city, however, is served by the Berkeley County School District in northern portions of the city, such as the Cainhoy Industrial District, Cainhoy Historical District and Daniel Island.
Charleston is also served by a large number of independent schools, including Porter - Gaud School (K - 12), Charleston Collegiate School (K - 12), Ashley Hall (Pre K - 12), Charleston Day School (1 -- 8), First Baptist Church School (K - 12), Palmetto Christian Academy (K - 12), Coastal Christian Preparatory School (K - 12), Mason Preparatory School (K - 8), and Addlestone Hebrew Academy (K - 8).
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston Office of Education also operates out of the city and oversees several K - 8 parochial schools, such as Blessed Sacrament School, Christ Our King School, Charleston Catholic School, Nativity School, and Divine Redeemer School, all of which are "feeder '' schools into Bishop England High School, a diocesan high school within the city. Bishop England, Porter - Gaud School, and Ashley Hall are the city 's oldest and most prominent private schools, and are a significant part of Charleston history, dating back some 150 years.
Public institutions of higher education in Charleston include the College of Charleston (the nation 's 13th - oldest university), The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina, and the Medical University of South Carolina. The city is also home to private universities, including the Charleston School of Law. Charleston is also home to the Roper Hospital School of Practical Nursing, and the city has a downtown satellite campus for the region 's technical school, Trident Technical College. Charleston is also the location for the only college in the country that offers bachelor 's degrees in the building arts, The American College of the Building Arts. The Art Institute of Charleston, located downtown on North Market Street, opened in 2007. Higher education includes institutions such as the Medical University of South Carolina, College of Charleston, The Citadel, and Charleston School of Law. In addition, Charleston Southern University is located in nearby North Charleston.
Charleston, North Charleston, Goose Creek, and Hanahan are home to branches of the United States military. During the Cold War, the Naval Base (1902 -- 1996) became the third largest U.S. homeport, with 23,500 Navy and Marine personnel, and 13,200 civilians serving over 80 ships and submarines. In addition, the combined facilities of the Naval Base and Weapons Station created the largest U.S. submarine port. The Charleston Naval Shipyard repaired frigates, destroyers, cruisers, submarine tenders, and submarines. Also during this period, the shipyard conducted refueling of nuclear submarines.
The Weapons Station was the Atlantic Fleet 's loadout base for all nuclear ballistic missile submarines. Two SSBN "Boomer '' squadrons and a submarine tender were homeported at the Weapons Station, while one SSN attack squadron, Submarine Squadron 4, and a submarine tender were homeported at the Naval Base. At the 1996 closure of the station 's Polaris Missile Facility Atlantic (POMFLANT), over 2,500 nuclear warheads and their UGM - 27 Polaris, UGM - 73 Poseidon, and UGM - 96 Trident I delivery missiles (SLBM) were stored and maintained, guarded by a U.S. Marine Corps security force company.
In 2010, the Air Force base (3,877 acres) and Naval Weapons Station (> 17,000 acres) merged to form Joint Base Charleston. Today, Joint Base Charleston, supporting 53 military commands and federal agencies, provides service to over 79,000 airmen, sailors, soldiers, Marines, coast guardsmen, Department of Defense civilians, dependents, and retirees.
Charleston is the nation 's 98th - largest Designated market area (DMA), with 312,770 households and 0.27 % of the U.S. TV population. These stations are licensed in Charleston and have significant operations or viewers in the city:
Charleston has one official sister city, Spoleto, Umbria, Italy. The relationship between the two cities began when Pulitzer Prize - winning Italian composer Gian Carlo Menotti selected Charleston as the city to host the American version of Spoleto 's annual Festival of Two Worlds. "Looking for a city that would provide the charm of Spoleto, as well as its wealth of theaters, churches, and other performance spaces, they selected Charleston, South Carolina, as the ideal location. The historic city provided a perfect fit: intimate enough that the Festival would captivate the entire city, yet cosmopolitan enough to provide an enthusiastic audience and robust infrastructure. ''
Charleston is also twinned with Speightstown, St. Peter, Barbados. Early English settlers here designed the original parts of Charlestown based on the plans of Barbados 's capital city Bridgetown. Many indigo, tobacco, and cotton planters relocated their slaves and plantation operations from Speightstown to Charleston after the sugarcane industry came to dominate agricultural production in Barbados.
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function of directional control valve in hydraulic system | Directional control valve - wikipedia
Directional control valves are one of the most fundamental parts in hydraulic machinery as well as pneumatic machinery. They allow fluid flow into different paths from one or more sources. They usually consist of a spool inside a cylinder which is mechanically or electrically controlled. The movement of the spool restricts or permits the flow, thus it controls the fluid flow.
The spool (sliding type) consists of lands and grooves. The lands block oil flow through the valve body. The grooves allow oil or gas to flow around the spool and through the valve body. There are two fundamental positions of directional control valve namely normal position where valve returns on removal of actuating force and other is working position which is position of a valve when actuating force is applied. There is another class of valves with 3 or more position that can be spring centered with 2 working position and a normal position.
Directional control valves can be classified according to:
Example: A 5 / 2 directional control valve would have five ports and two spool positions.
Ports are the one which helps the liquid to flow through them. Mainly there are 4 ports P - pump, t - tank or oil sump, A&B - flow of liquid to inlet and outlet of tank.
Including the normal and working positions which a valve spool can take there are types like two position, three position and proportional valve...
Manual, spring, electrical, pneumatic, and hydraulic.
Manually operated valves work with simple levers or paddles where the operator applies force to operate the valve. Spring force is sometimes used to recover the position of valve. Some manual valves utilize either a lever or an external pneumatic or hydraulic signal to return the spool.
Mechanically operated valves apply forces by using cams, wheels, rollers, etc., hence these valves are subjected to wear.
A hydraulically operated Directional control valve works at much higher pressures than its pneumatic equivalent. They must therefore be far more robust in nature so are precision machined from higher quality and strength materials.
They are widely used in the hydraulics industry. These valves make use of electromechanical solenoids for sliding of the spool. Because simple application of electrical power provides control, these valves are used extensively. However, electrical solenoids can not generate large forces unless supplied with large amounts of electrical power. Heat generation poses a threat to extended use of these valves when energized over time. Many have a limited duty cycle. This makes their direct acting use commonly limited to low actuating forces.
Often, a low power solenoid valve is used to operate a small hydraulic valve (called the pilot) that starts a flow of fluid that drives a larger hydraulic valve that requires more force.
A bi-stable pneumatic valve is typically a pilot valve that is a 3 ported 2 position detented valve. The valve retains its position during loss of power, hence the bi-stable name.
Bi-stability can be accomplished with a mechanical detent and 2 opposing solenoids or a "magna - latch '' magnetic latch with a polarity sensitive coil. Positive opens and negative closes or vice versa. The coil is held in position magnetically when actuated.
Spool is of two types namely sliding and rotary. Sliding spool is cylindrical in cross section, and the lands and grooves are also cylindrical. Rotary valves have sphere - like lands and grooves in the form of holes drilled through them.
They are generally specified using the number of ports and the number of switching positions. It can be represented in general form as n / n, where n is the number of ports connected to the direction control valve and n the number of switching positions.
In addition, the method of actuation and the return method can also be specified. A hypothetical valve could be specified as 4 - way, 3 - position direction control valve or 4 / 3 DCV since there are four ports and three switching positions for the valve. In this example, one port is called the pressure port which is connected to the pump; one port is the tank port and is connected to the tank (or reservoir); and the two remaining ports are called working ports and are connected to the actuator. Apart from characteristics of valve the fluid suitable for valve, working temperature and viscosity also thought upon before selecting a particular type of valve.
While working with layouts of hydraulic machinery it is cumbersome to draw actual picture of every valve and other components. Instead of pictures, symbols are used for variety of components in the hydraulic system to highlight the functional aspects. The symbol for directional control valve is made of number of square boxes adjacent to each other depending on the number of positions. connections to the valve are shown on these squares by capital letters. usually they are named only in their normal position and not repeated in other positions. actuation system of the valve is also designated in its symbol.
Gate valve is example of 2W / 2P directional control valve which either turns on or off the flow in normal or working positions depending on need of application. Here arrow indicates that fluid flow is taking place whereas other position shows cut - off position.
4 / 2 valve has four connections to it and two valve positions. Normally, one port is open to flow from the pump.
It has one way for pump (P), one for reservoir (R) or tank (T) and two for the inlet to the actuator. And it has 3 positions: one normal, one cross way, and one straight way.
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where does the harpy eagle live in the rainforest | Harpy eagle - wikipedia
The harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) is a neotropical species of eagle. It is also called the American harpy eagle to distinguish it from the Papuan eagle, which is sometimes known as the New Guinea harpy eagle or Papuan harpy eagle. It is the largest and most powerful raptor found in the rainforest, and among the largest extant species of eagles in the world. It usually inhabits tropical lowland rainforests in the upper (emergent) canopy layer. Destruction of its natural habitat has caused it to vanish from many parts of its former range, and it is nearly extirpated in Central America. In Brazil, the harpy eagle is also known as royal - hawk (in Portuguese: gavião - real).
The harpy eagle was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 as Vultur harpyja, after the mythological beast harpy. The only member of the genus Harpia, the harpy eagle is most closely related to the crested eagle (Morphnus guianensis) and the New Guinea harpy eagle (Harpyopsis novaeguineae), the three composing the subfamily Harpiinae within the large family Accipitridae. Previously thought to be related, the Philippine eagle has been shown by DNA analysis to belong elsewhere in the raptor family, as it is related to the Circaetinae.
The species name harpyja and the word harpy in the common name harpy eagle both come from Ancient Greek hárpuia (ἅρπυια). They refer to the Harpies of Ancient Greek mythology. These were wind spirits that took the dead to Hades, and were said to have a body like an eagle and the face of a human.
The upper side of the harpy eagle is covered with slate - black feathers, and the underside is mostly white, except for the feathered tarsi, which are striped black. A broad black band across the upper breast separates the gray head from the white belly. The head is pale grey, and is crowned with a double crest. The upper side of the tail is black with three gray bands, while the underside of it is black with three white bands. The iris is gray or brown or red, the cere and bill are black or blackish and the tarsi and toes are yellow. The plumage of males and females are identical. The tarsus is up to 13 cm (5.1 in) long.
Female harpy eagles typically weigh 6 to 9 kg (13 to 20 lb). One source states that adult females can weigh up to 10 kg (22 lb). An exceptionally large captive female, "Jezebel '', weighed 12.3 kg (27 lb). Being captive, this large female may not be representative of the weight possible in wild harpy eagles due to differences in the food availability. The male, in comparison, is much smaller and weighs only about 4 to 4.8 kg (8.8 to 10.6 lb). Harpy eagles are 86.5 -- 107 cm (2 ft 10 in -- 3 ft 6 in) long and have a wingspan of 176 to 224 cm (5 ft 9 in to 7 ft 4 in). Among the standard measurements, the wing chord measures 54 -- 63 cm (1 ft 9 in -- 2 ft 1 in), the tail measures 37 -- 42 cm (1 ft 3 in -- 1 ft 5 in), the tarsus is 11.4 -- 13 cm (4.5 -- 5.1 in) long, and the exposed culmen from the cere is 4.2 to 6.5 cm (1.7 to 2.6 in).
It is sometimes cited as the largest eagle alongside the Philippine eagle, which is somewhat longer on average, and the Steller 's sea eagle, which is slightly heavier on average. The wingspan of the harpy eagle is relatively small, an adaptation that increases maneuverability in forested habitats and is shared by other raptors in similar habitats. The wingspan of the harpy eagle is surpassed by several large eagles who live in more open habitats, such as those in the Haliaeetus and Aquila genera. The extinct Haast 's eagle was significantly larger than all extant eagles, including the harpy.
This species is largely silent away from the nest. There, the adults give a penetrating, weak, melancholy scream, with the incubating males ' call described as "whispy screaming or wailing ''. The females ' calls while incubating are similar, but are lower - pitched. While approaching the nest with food, the male calls out "rapid chirps, goose - like calls, and occasional sharp screams ''. Vocalization in both parents decreases as the nestlings age, while the nestlings become more vocal. The nestlings call chi - chi - chi... chi - chi - chi - chi, seemingly in alarm in response to rain or direct sunlight. When humans approach the nest, the nestlings have been described as uttering croaks, quacks, and whistles.
Rare throughout its range, the harpy eagle is found from Mexico (almost extinct), through Central America and into South America to as far south as Argentina. The eagle is most common in Brazil, where it is found across the entire national territory. With the exception of some areas of Panama, the species is almost extinct in Central America, subsequent to the logging of much of the rainforest there. The harpy eagle inhabits tropical lowland rainforests and may occur within such areas from the canopy to the emergent vegetation. They typically occur below an elevation of 900 m (3,000 ft), but have been recorded at elevations up to 2,000 m (6,600 ft). Within the rainforest, they hunt in the canopy or sometimes on the ground, and perch on emergent trees looking for prey. They do not generally occur in disturbed areas, but regularly visit semiopen forest / pasture mosaic, mainly in hunting forays. Harpies, however, can be found flying over forest borders in a variety of habitats, such as cerrados, caatingas, buriti palm stands, cultivated fields, and cities. They have been found in areas where high - grade forestry is practiced.
The harpy eagle is an actively hunting carnivore and is an apex predator. Adults are near the top of a food chain but are preyed upon by snakes, jaguars and the much smaller ocelot. Its main prey are tree - dwelling mammals and a majority of the diet has been shown to focus on sloths and monkeys. Research conducted by Aguiar - Silva between 2003 and 2005 in a nesting site in Parintins, Amazonas, Brazil, collected remains from prey offered to the nestling by its parents and after sorting them, concluded, in terms of individuals preyed upon, the harpy 's prey basis was composed in 79 % by sloths from two species: Bradypus variegatus amounting to 39 % of the individual prey base, and Choloepus didactylus to 40 %; various monkeys amounted to 11.6 % of the same prey base. In a similar research venture in Panama, where a couple of captive - bred subadults was released, 52 % of the male 's captures and 54 % of the female 's were of two sloth species (Bradypus variegatus and Choloepus hoffmanni). At one Venezuelan nest, the remains comprised sloths. Monkeys regularly taken can include capuchin monkeys, saki monkeys, howler monkeys, titi monkeys, squirrel monkeys, and spider monkeys. Smaller monkeys, such as tamarins and marmosets, are seemingly ignored as prey by this species. At several nest in Guyana, monkeys made up about 37 % of the prey remains found at the nests. Similarly, cebid monkeys made up 35 % of the remains found at 10 nests in Amazonian Ecuador. Other partially arboreal and even land mammals are also preyed on given the opportunity, including porcupines, squirrels, opossums, anteaters, armadillos, and even relatively large carnivores such as kinkajous, coatis, and tayras. In the Pantanal, a pair of nesting eagles preyed largely on the porcupine (Coendou prehensilis) and the agouti (Dasyprocta azarae). The eagle may also attack bird species such as macaws: At the Parintins research site, the red - and - green macaw made up for 0.4 % of the prey base, with other birds amounting to 4.6 %. '' Other parrots have also been preyed on, as well as cracids such as curassows and other birds like seriemas. Additional prey items reported include reptiles such as iguanas, tejus, and snakes. Snakes up to 5 cm (2.0 in) in diameter have been observed to be cut in half, then the pieces are swallowed whole. On occasion, larger prey such as capybaras, peccaries, and deer are taken and they are usually taken to a stump or low branch and partially eaten, since they are too heavy to be carried whole to the nest. Red brocket deer, a species commonly weighing over 30 kg (66 lb), have been reportedly taken and, in such cases, the eagle may have to tear it into pieces or feed on it at the killing site rather than fly with it, as it would be too heavy. The harpy has been recorded as taking domestic livestock, including chickens, lambs, goats, and young pigs, but this is extremely rare under normal circumstances. They control the population of mesopredators such as capuchin monkeys which prey extensively on bird 's eggs and which (if not naturally controlled) may cause local extinctions of sensitive species.
Harpy eagles routinely take prey weighing more than 7 kg (15 lb). They possess the largest talons of any living eagle. They have been recorded as lifting prey up to equal their own body weight. That allows the birds to snatch a live sloth from tree branches, as well as other huge prey items. Males usually take relatively smaller prey, with a typical range of 0.5 to 2.5 kg (1.1 to 5.5 lb) or about half their own weight. The larger females take larger prey, with a minimum recorded prey weight of around 2.7 kg (6.0 lb). Adult female harpies regularly grab large male howler or spider monkeys or mature sloths weighing 6 to 9 kg (13 to 20 lb) in flight and fly off without landing, an enormous feat of strength. Prey items taken to the nest by the parents are normally medium - sized, having been recorded from 1 to 4 kg (2.2 to 8.8 lb). The prey brought to the nest by males averaged 1.5 kg (3.3 lb), while the prey brought to the nest by females averaged 3.2 kg (7.1 lb).
Sometimes, harpy eagles are "sit - and - wait '' predators (common in forest - dwelling raptors). In harpies, this consists of perching and watching for long times from a high perch near an opening, a river, or a salt - lick (where many mammals go to feed for nutrients). The more common hunting technique of the species is perch - hunting, which consists of scanning around for prey activity while briefly perched between short flights from tree to tree. When prey is spotted, the eagle quickly dives and grabs the prey. On occasion, they may also hunt by flying within or above the canopy. They have also been observed tail - chasing, a predation style common to hawks that hunt birds, the genus Accipiter. This comprises the eagle pursuing another bird in flight, rapidly dodging among trees and branches.
In ideal habitats, nests would be fairly close together. In some parts of Panama and Guyana, active nests were located 3 km (1.9 mi) away from one another, while they are within 5 km (3.1 mi) of each other in Venezuela. In Peru, the average distance between nests was 7.4 km (4.6 mi) and the average area occupied by each breeding pairs was estimated at 4,300 ha (11,000 acres). In less ideal areas, with fragmented forest, breeding territories were estimated at 25 km (16 mi). The female harpy eagle lays two white eggs in a large stick nest, which commonly measures 1.2 m (3.9 ft) deep and 1.5 m (4.9 ft) across and may be used over several years. Nests are located high up in a tree, usually in the main fork, at 16 to 43 m (52 to 141 ft), depending on the stature of the local trees. The harpy often builds its nest in the crown of the kapok tree, one of the tallest trees in South America. In many South American cultures, it is considered bad luck to cut down the kapok tree, which may help safeguard the habitat of this stately eagle. The bird also uses other huge trees on which to build its nest, such as the Brazil nut tree. A nesting site found in the Brazilian Pantanal was built on a cambará tree (Vochysia divergens).
No display is known between pairs of eagles, and they are believed to mate for life. A pair of harpy eagles usually only raises one chick every 2 -- 3 years. After the first chick hatches, the second egg is ignored and normally fails to hatch unless the first egg perishes. The egg is incubated around 56 days. When the chick is 36 days old, it can stand and walk awkwardly. The chick fledges at the age of 6 months, but the parents continue to feed it for another 6 to 10 months. The male captures much of the food for the incubating female and later the eaglet, but also takes an incubating shift while the female forages and also brings prey back to the nest. Breeding maturity is not reached until birds are 4 to 6 years of age. Adults can be aggressive toward humans who disturb the nesting site or appear to be a threat to its young.
Although the harpy eagle still occurs over a considerable range, its distribution and populations have dwindled considerably. It is threatened primarily by habitat loss due to the expansion of logging, cattle ranching, agriculture, and prospecting. Secondarily, it is threatened by being hunted as an actual threat to livestock and / or a supposed one to human life, due to its great size. Although not actually known to prey on humans and only rarely on domestic stock, the species ' large size and nearly fearless behavior around humans reportedly make it an "irresistible target '' for hunters. Such threats apply throughout its range, in large parts of which the bird has become a transient sight only; in Brazil, it was all but wiped out from the Atlantic rainforest and is only found in appreciable numbers in the most remote parts of the Amazon basin; a Brazilian journalistic account of the mid-1990s already complained that at the time it was only found in significant numbers in Brazilian territory on the northern side of the Equator. Scientific 1990s records, however, suggest that the harpy Atlantic Forest population may be migratory. Subsequent research in Brazil has established that, as of 2009, the harpy eagle, outside the Brazilian Amazon, is critically endangered in Espírito Santo, São Paulo and Paraná, endangered in Rio de Janeiro, and probably extirpated in Rio Grande do Sul (where there is a recent (March 2015) record for the Parque Estadual do Turvo) (1) and Minas Gerais -- the actual size of their total population in Brazil is unknown.
Globally, the harpy eagle is considered Near Threatened by IUCN and threatened with extinction by CITES (appendix I). The Peregrine Fund until recently considered it a "conservation - dependent species '', meaning it depends on a dedicated effort for captive breeding and release to the wild, as well as habitat protection, to prevent it from reaching endangered status, but now has accepted the Near Threatened status. The harpy eagle is considered critically endangered in Mexico and Central America, where it has been extirpated in most of its former range; in Mexico, it used to be found as far north as Veracruz, but today probably occurs only in Chiapas in the Selva Zoque. It is considered as Near Threatened or Vulnerable in most of the South American portion of its range; at the southern extreme of its range, in Argentina, it is found only in the Parana Valley forests at the province of Misiones. It has disappeared from El Salvador, and almost so from Costa Rica.
Various initiatives for restoration of the species are in place in various countries. Since 2002, Peregrine Fund initiated a conservation and research program for the harpy eagle in the Darién Provinceboom. A similar -- and grander, given the dimensions of the countries involved -- research project is occurring in Brazil, at the National Institute of Amazonian Research, through which 45 known nesting locations (updated to 62, only three outside the Amazonian basin and all three inactive) are being monitored by researchers and volunteers from local communities. A harpy eagle chick has been fitted with a radio transmitter that allows it to be tracked for more than three years via a satellite signal sent to the Brazilian National Institute for Space Research. Also, a photographic recording of a nest site in the Carajás National Forest was made for the Brazilian edition of National Geographic Magazine.
In Belize, the Belize Harpy Eagle Restoration Project began in 2003 with the collaboration of Sharon Matola, founder and director of the Belize Zoo and the Peregrine Fund. The goal of this project was the re-establishment of the harpy eagle within Belize. The population of the eagle declined as a result of forest fragmentation, shooting, and nest destruction, resulting in near extirpation of the species. Captive - bred harpy eagles were released in the Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Area in Belize, chosen for its quality forest habitat and linkages with Guatemala and Mexico. Habitat linkage with Guatemala and Mexico were important for conservation of quality habitat and the harpy eagle on a regional level. As of November 2009, 14 harpy eagles have been released and are monitored by the Peregrine Fund, through satellite telemetry.
In January 2009, a chick from the all - but - extirpated population in the Brazilian state of Paraná was hatched in captivity at the preserve kept in the vicinity of the Itaipu Dam by the Brazilian / Paraguayan state - owned company Itaipu Binacional. In September 2009, an adult female, after being kept captive for 12 years in a private reservation, was fitted with a radio transmitter before being restored to the wild in the vicinity of the Pau Brasil National Park (formerly Monte Pascoal NP), in the state of Bahia.
In December 2009, a 15th harpy eagle was released into the Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Area in Belize. The release was set to tie in with the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009, in Copenhagen. The 15th eagle, nicknamed "Hope '' by the Peregrine officials in Panama, was the "poster child '' for forest conservation in Belize, a developing country, and the importance of these activities in relation to climate change. The event received coverage from Belize 's major media entities, and was supported and attended by the U.S. Ambassador to Belize, Vinai Thummalapally, and British High Commissioner to Belize, Pat Ashworth.
In Colombia, as of 2007, an adult male and a subadult female confiscated from wildlife trafficking were restored to the wild and monitored in Paramillo National Park in Córdoba, and another couple was being kept in captivity at a research center for breeding and eventual release. A monitoring effort with the help of volunteers from local Native American communities is also being made in Ecuador, including the joint sponsorship of various Spanish universities -- this effort being similar to another one going on since 1996 in Peru, centered around a native community in the Tambopata Province, Madre de Dios Region. Another monitoring project, begun in 1992, was operating as of 2005 in the state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
The harpy eagle is the national bird of Panama and is depicted on the coat of arms of Panama. The 15th harpy eagle released in Belize, named "Hope '', was dubbed "Ambassador for Climate Change '', in light of the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009.
The harpy eagle was the inspiration behind the design of Fawkes the Phoenix in the Harry Potter film series. A live harpy eagle was used to portray the now - extinct Haast 's eagle in BBC 's Monsters We Met.
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who sent the ninjas in the last samurai | The Last Samurai - wikipedia
The Last Samurai is a 2003 American epic period drama war film directed and co-produced by Edward Zwick, who also co-wrote the screenplay with John Logan and Marshall Herskovitz. The film stars Tom Cruise, who also co-produced, with Timothy Spall, Ken Watanabe, Billy Connolly, Tony Goldwyn, Hiroyuki Sanada, Koyuki, and Shin Koyamada in supporting roles.
Tom Cruise portrays a United States Captain of the 7th Cavalry Regiment, whose personal and emotional conflicts bring him into contact with samurai warriors in the wake of the Meiji Restoration in 19th Century Japan. The film 's plot was inspired by the 1877 Satsuma Rebellion led by Saigō Takamori, and the westernization of Japan by foreign powers, though in the film the United States is portrayed as the primary force behind the push for westernization. To a lesser extent it is also influenced by the stories of Jules Brunet, a French army captain who fought alongside Enomoto Takeaki in the earlier Boshin War and Frederick Townsend Ward, an American mercenary who helped Westernize the Chinese army by forming the Ever Victorious Army.
The Last Samurai grossed a total of $456 million at the box office and was well received upon its release, receiving praise for the acting, writing, directing, score, visuals, costumes and messages. It was nominated for several awards, including four Academy Awards, three Golden Globe Awards, and two National Board of Review Awards.
Former US Army Captain Nathan Algren, a bitter alcoholic traumatized by the atrocities he committed during the American Indian Wars, is approached by his former commanding officer Colonel Bagley to train the newly created Imperial Japanese Army for Japanese businessman Omura, who intends to use the army to suppress a samurai - headed rebellion against Japan 's new Emperor. Despite his hatred of Bagley for his role in the Indian Wars, an impoverished Algren takes the job for the money, and is accompanied to Japan by his old friend, Sergeant Zebulon Gant. Upon arriving, Algren meets Simon Graham, a British translator knowledgeable about the Samurai.
Algren finds the Imperial soldiers are actually conscripted peasants that have no knowledge of firearms or battle. Early in their training, Algren is informed that the Samurai are attacking one of Omura 's railroads; Omura sends the army there, despite Algren 's protests that they are not ready. The battle is a disaster; the conscripts are routed and Gant is killed. Algren fights to the last before he is surrounded; expecting to die, he is taken prisoner when Samurai leader Katsumoto decides to spare him. Algren is taken to Katsumoto 's son 's village to live among his family. While he is poorly treated by the Samurai at first, he eventually gains their respect and actually becomes friends with Katsumoto. Algren overcomes his alcoholism and guilt, and learns the Japanese language and culture. He develops sympathy for the Samurai, who are angry that the spread of modern technology has eroded traditional feudalism and the status and power of the Samurai. Algren develops an unspoken affection for Taka, Katsumoto 's sister and the widow of a Samurai Algren killed.
One night, as the village is watching a kabuki play, a group of ninja infiltrate the village and attempt to assassinate Katsumoto. Algren warns Katsumoto, saving his life, and then helps defend the village with the Samurai. Katsumoto requests a meeting with Emperor Meiji and is given safe passage to Tokyo. He brings Algren, intending to release him. Upon arriving in Tokyo, Algren finds the Imperial Army is now a well - trained and fully equipped fighting force. Katsumoto, to his dismay, discovers that the young and inexperienced Emperor has essentially become a puppet of Omura. At a government meeting, Omura orders Katsumoto 's arrest for carrying a sword in public and asks him to commit seppuku to redeem his honor. Algren refuses Omura 's offer to lead the new army to crush the rebels; Omura orders him killed as well by sending assassins to kill Algren, but Algren kills the assailants. Algren assists the Samurai in freeing Katsumoto from the Imperial Army; in the process, Katsumoto 's son Nobutada is mortally wounded, and he sacrifices himself to allow the others to escape.
As the Imperial Army marches to crush the rebellion, a grieving Katsumoto contemplates seppuku, but Algren convinces him to fight until the end, and joins the Samurai in battle. Citing the Battle of Thermopylae, the Samurai use the Imperial Army 's overconfidence to lure their soldiers into a trap and deprive them of artillery support. The ensuing mêlée battle inflicts massive casualties on both sides and forces the Imperial soldiers to retreat. Knowing that Imperial reinforcements are coming and defeat is inevitable, Katsumoto orders a suicidal charge on horseback. During the charge, the Samurai break through Bagley 's line; Algren kills Bagley, but they are quickly mowed down by gatling guns. The Imperial captain, previously trained by Algren and horrified by the sight of the dying Samurai, orders all of the guns to cease fire, disregarding Omura 's orders. A mortally wounded Katsumoto commits seppuku with Algren 's help as the soldiers at the scene kneel down in respect for the fallen Samurai.
Days later, as trade negotiations conclude, Algren, though injured, arrives and interrupts the proceedings. He presents the Emperor with Katsumoto 's sword and asks him to remember the traditions for which Katsumoto died. The Emperor realizes that while Japan should modernize and continue to interact with other countries, it can not forget its own culture and history. He rejects the trade offer with Omura protesting the decision; the Emperor chooses to seize the Omura family assets and distribute them to the poor. Algren 's fate is shrouded in mystery; while various rumors about him circulate, Graham concludes that Algren had finally found peace in his life and returned to the village to reunite with Taka.
Filming took place in New Zealand, mostly in the Taranaki region, with Japanese cast members and an American production crew. This location was chosen due to the fact that Egmont / Mount Taranaki resembles Mount Fuji, and also because there is a lot of forest and farmland in the Taranaki region. American Location Manager, Charlie Harrington, saw the mountain in a travel book and encouraged the producers to send him to Taranaki to scout the locations. This acted as a backdrop for many scenes, as opposed to the built up cities of Japan. Several of the village scenes were shot on the Warner Bros. Studios backlot in Burbank, California. Some scenes were shot in Kyoto and Himeji, Japan. There were 13 filming locations altogether. Tom Cruise did his own stunts for the film.
The film is based on an original screenplay entitled "The Last Samurai '', from a story by John Logan. The project itself was inspired by writer and director Vincent Ward. Ward became executive producer on the film -- working in development on it for nearly four years and after approaching several directors (Francis Ford Coppola, Peter Weir), until he became interested with Edward Zwick. The film production went ahead with Zwick and was shot in Ward 's native New Zealand.
The film was based on the stories of Jules Brunet, a French army captain who fought alongside Enomoto Takeaki in the earlier Boshin War and Frederick Townsend Ward, an American mercenary who helped Westernize the Chinese army by forming the Ever Victorious Army. The historical roles of the British Empire, the Netherlands and France in Japanese westernization are largely attributed to the United States in the film, for American audiences.
The Last Samurai: Original Motion Picture Score was released on November 25, 2003 by Warner Sunset Records. All music on the soundtrack was composed, arranged, and produced by Hans Zimmer, performed by the Hollywood Studio Symphony, and conducted by Blake Neely. It peaked at number 24 on the US Top Soundtracks chart.
All music composed by Hans Zimmer.
The film achieved higher box office receipts in Japan than in the United States. Critical reception in Japan was generally positive. Tomomi Katsuta of The Mainichi Shinbun thought that the film was "a vast improvement over previous American attempts to portray Japan '', noting that director Edward Zwick "had researched Japanese history, cast well - known Japanese actors and consulted dialogue coaches to make sure he did n't confuse the casual and formal categories of Japanese speech. '' However, Katsuta still found fault with the film 's idealistic, "storybook '' portrayal of the samurai, stating: "Our image of samurai is that they were more corrupt. '' As such, he said, the noble samurai leader Katsumoto "set (his) teeth on edge. ''
The Japanese premiere was held at Roppongi Hills multiplex in Tokyo on November 1, 2003. The entire cast was present; they signed autographs, provided interviews and appeared on stage to speak to fans. Many of the cast members expressed the desire for audiences to learn and respect the important values of the samurai, and to have a greater appreciation of Japanese culture and custom.
In the United States, critic Roger Ebert of Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four, saying it was "beautifully designed, intelligently written, acted with conviction, it 's an uncommonly thoughtful epic. '' Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 66 % of critics have given the film a positive review based on 219 reviews, the site 's consensus stating: "With high production values and thrilling battle scenes, The Last Samurai is a satisfying epic '', and with an average score of 6.4 / 10, making the film a "Fresh '' on the website 's rating system. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film received an average score of 55, based on 43 reviews, which indicates "mixed or average reviews ''.
As of 1 January 2016, the film had grossed $456.8 million against a production budget of $140 million.
The film was nominated for four Academy Awards: Best Supporting Actor (Ken Watanabe), Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design and Best Sound (Andy Nelson, Anna Behlmer and Jeff Wexler). It was also nominated for three Golden Globe Awards: Best Supporting Actor (Watanabe), Best Actor -- Motion Picture Drama (Tom Cruise) and Best Score (Hans Zimmer).
Awards won by the film include Best Director by the National Board of Review, Outstanding Supporting Visual Effects at the Visual Effects Society Awards, Outstanding Foreign Language Film at the Japan Academy Prize, four Golden Satellite Awards and Best Fire Stunt at the Taurus World Stunt Awards.
Motoko Rich of The New York Times observed that the film has opened up a debate, "particularly among Asian - Americans and Japanese, '' about whether the film and others like it were "racist, naïve, well - intentioned, accurate -- or all of the above. ''
Todd McCarthy, a film critic for the Variety magazine, wrote: "Clearly enamored of the culture it examines while resolutely remaining an outsider 's romanticization of it, yarn is disappointingly content to recycle familiar attitudes about the nobility of ancient cultures, Western despoilment of them, liberal historical guilt, the unrestrainable greed of capitalists and the irreducible primacy of Hollywood movie stars. ''
According to history professor Cathy Schultz, "Many samurai fought Meiji modernization not for altruistic reasons but because it challenged their status as the privileged warrior caste. Meiji reformers proposed the radical idea that all men essentially being equal... The film also misses the historical reality that many Meiji policy advisors were former samurai, who had voluntarily given up their traditional privileges to follow a course they believed would strengthen Japan. ''
The fictional character of Katsumoto bears a striking resemblance to the historical figure of Saigō Takamori, a hero of the Meiji Restoration and the leader of the ineffective Satsuma Rebellion, who appears in the histories and legends of modern Japan as a hero against the corruption, extravagance, and unprincipled politics of his contemporaries. "Though he had agreed to become a member of the new government, '' writes the translator and historian Ivan Morris, "it was clear from his writings and statements that he believed the ideals of the civil war were being vitiated. He was opposed to the excessively rapid changes in Japanese society and was particularly disturbed by the shabby treatment of the warrior class. '' Suspicious of the new bureaucracy, he wanted power to remain in the hands of the samurai class and the Emperor, and it was for this purpose that he had joined the central government. "Edicts like the interdiction against carrying swords and wearing the traditional topknot seemed like a series of gratuitous provocations; and, though Saigō realized that Japan needed an effective standing army to resist pressure from the West, he could not countenance the social implications of the military reforms. For this reason Saigō, although participating in the Okinoerabu government, continued to exercise a powerful appeal among disgruntled ex-samurai in Satsuma and elsewhere. '' Saigō fought for a moral revolution, not a material one, and he described his revolt as a check on the declining morality of a new, Westernizing materialism.
In 2014, the movie was one of several discussed by Keli Goff in The Daily Beast in an article concerning white savior narratives in film, a cinematic trope studied in sociology, for which The Last Samurai has been analyzed.
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who wrote the song pass me not oh gentle saviour | Pass me not, O gentle Saviour - Wikipedia
Pass, me not O gentle Saviour, Hear my humble cry. While on others Thou art calling, Do not pass me by. Saviour, Saviour, Hear my humble cry. While on others Thou art calling, Do not pass me by. Let me at Thy throne of mercy, Find a sweet relief. Kneeling there in deep contrition, Help my unbelief. Saviour, Saviour, Hear my humble cry. While on others Thou art calling, Do not pass me by. Trusting only in Thy merit, Would I seek Thy face, Heal my wounded, broken spirit, Save me by Thy grace. Frances J. Crosby, 1868
"Pass Me Not, O Gentle Savior '' is a 19th - century American hymn written by Frances J. Crosby in 1868, set to music by William H. Doane in 1870.
The hymn has been recorded by singers including Reggie Houston, Cyrus Chestnut, Bill Gaither, and Lyle Lovett. Bob Dylan performed this song live to open five concerts in his 2002 American tour.
In 1991 hip hop artist MC Hammer released a version of the hymn entitled "Do Not Pass Me By '' on his fourth album, Too Legit to Quit. Gospel artist Tramaine Hawkins appeared on the song as a guest vocalist. A music video was produced for this single which charted as well.
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who invented to say hello on the phone | Alexander Graham Bell - wikipedia
Alexander Graham Bell (March 3, 1847 -- August 2, 1922) was a Scottish - born scientist, inventor, engineer, and innovator who is credited with patenting the first practical telephone and founding the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) in 1885.
Bell 's father, grandfather, and brother had all been associated with work on elocution and speech and both his mother and wife were deaf, profoundly influencing Bell 's life 's work. His research on hearing and speech further led him to experiment with hearing devices which eventually culminated in Bell being awarded the first U.S. patent for the telephone in 1876. Bell considered his invention an intrusion on his real work as a scientist and refused to have a telephone in his study.
Many other inventions marked Bell 's later life, including groundbreaking work in optical telecommunications, hydrofoils, and aeronautics. Although Bell was not one of the 33 founders of the National Geographic Society, he had a strong influence on the magazine while serving as the second president from January 7, 1898, until 1903.
Alexander Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on March 3, 1847. The family home was at 16 South Charlotte Street, and has a stone inscription marking it as Alexander Graham Bell 's birthplace. He had two brothers: Melville James Bell (1845 -- 70) and Edward Charles Bell (1848 -- 67), both of whom would die of tuberculosis. His father was Professor Alexander Melville Bell, a phonetician, and his mother was Eliza Grace (née Symonds). Born as just "Alexander Bell '', at age 10, he made a plea to his father to have a middle name like his two brothers. For his 11th birthday, his father acquiesced and allowed him to adopt the name "Graham '', chosen out of respect for Alexander Graham, a Canadian being treated by his father who had become a family friend. To close relatives and friends he remained "Aleck ''.
As a child, young Bell displayed a natural curiosity about his world, resulting in gathering botanical specimens as well as experimenting even at an early age. His best friend was Ben Herdman, a neighbour whose family operated a flour mill, the scene of many forays. Young Bell asked what needed to be done at the mill. He was told wheat had to be dehusked through a laborious process and at the age of 12, Bell built a homemade device that combined rotating paddles with sets of nail brushes, creating a simple dehusking machine that was put into operation and used steadily for a number of years. In return, Ben 's father John Herdman gave both boys the run of a small workshop in which to "invent ''.
From his early years, Bell showed a sensitive nature and a talent for art, poetry, and music that was encouraged by his mother. With no formal training, he mastered the piano and became the family 's pianist. Despite being normally quiet and introspective, he revelled in mimicry and "voice tricks '' akin to ventriloquism that continually entertained family guests during their occasional visits. Bell was also deeply affected by his mother 's gradual deafness (she began to lose her hearing when he was 12), and learned a manual finger language so he could sit at her side and tap out silently the conversations swirling around the family parlour. He also developed a technique of speaking in clear, modulated tones directly into his mother 's forehead wherein she would hear him with reasonable clarity. Bell 's preoccupation with his mother 's deafness led him to study acoustics.
His family was long associated with the teaching of elocution: his grandfather, Alexander Bell, in London, his uncle in Dublin, and his father, in Edinburgh, were all elocutionists. His father published a variety of works on the subject, several of which are still well known, especially his The Standard Elocutionist (1860), which appeared in Edinburgh in 1868. The Standard Elocutionist appeared in 168 British editions and sold over a quarter of a million copies in the United States alone. In this treatise, his father explains his methods of how to instruct deaf - mutes (as they were then known) to articulate words and read other people 's lip movements to decipher meaning. Bell 's father taught him and his brothers not only to write Visible Speech but to identify any symbol and its accompanying sound. Bell became so proficient that he became a part of his father 's public demonstrations and astounded audiences with his abilities. He could decipher Visible Speech representing virtually every language, including Latin, Scottish Gaelic, and even Sanskrit, accurately reciting written tracts without any prior knowledge of their pronunciation.
As a young child, Bell, like his brothers, received his early schooling at home from his father. At an early age, he was enrolled at the Royal High School, Edinburgh, Scotland, which he left at the age of 15, having completed only the first four forms. His school record was undistinguished, marked by absenteeism and lacklustre grades. His main interest remained in the sciences, especially biology while he treated other school subjects with indifference, to the dismay of his demanding father. Upon leaving school, Bell travelled to London to live with his grandfather, Alexander Bell. During the year he spent with his grandfather, a love of learning was born, with long hours spent in serious discussion and study. The elder Bell took great efforts to have his young pupil learn to speak clearly and with conviction, the attributes that his pupil would need to become a teacher himself. At the age of 16, Bell secured a position as a "pupil - teacher '' of elocution and music, in Weston House Academy at Elgin, Moray, Scotland. Although he was enrolled as a student in Latin and Greek, he instructed classes himself in return for board and £ 10 per session. The following year, he attended the University of Edinburgh; joining his older brother Melville who had enrolled there the previous year. In 1868, not long before he departed for Canada with his family, Bell completed his matriculation exams and was accepted for admission to University College London.
His father encouraged Bell 's interest in speech and, in 1863, took his sons to see a unique automaton developed by Sir Charles Wheatstone based on the earlier work of Baron Wolfgang von Kempelen. The rudimentary "mechanical man '' simulated a human voice. Bell was fascinated by the machine and after he obtained a copy of von Kempelen 's book, published in German, and had laboriously translated it, he and his older brother Melville built their own automaton head. Their father, highly interested in their project, offered to pay for any supplies and spurred the boys on with the enticement of a "big prize '' if they were successful. While his brother constructed the throat and larynx, Bell tackled the more difficult task of recreating a realistic skull. His efforts resulted in a remarkably lifelike head that could "speak '', albeit only a few words. The boys would carefully adjust the "lips '' and when a bellows forced air through the windpipe, a very recognizable "Mama '' ensued, to the delight of neighbours who came to see the Bell invention.
Intrigued by the results of the automaton, Bell continued to experiment with a live subject, the family 's Skye Terrier, "Trouve ''. After he taught it to growl continuously, Bell would reach into its mouth and manipulate the dog 's lips and vocal cords to produce a crude - sounding "Ow ah oo ga ma ma ''. With little convincing, visitors believed his dog could articulate "How are you, grandma? '' Indicative of his playful nature, his experiments convinced onlookers that they saw a "talking dog ''. These initial forays into experimentation with sound led Bell to undertake his first serious work on the transmission of sound, using tuning forks to explore resonance.
At age 19, Bell wrote a report on his work and sent it to philologist Alexander Ellis, a colleague of his father (who would later be portrayed as Professor Henry Higgins in Pygmalion). Ellis immediately wrote back indicating that the experiments were similar to existing work in Germany, and also lent Bell a copy of Hermann von Helmholtz 's work, The Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music.
Dismayed to find that groundbreaking work had already been undertaken by Helmholtz who had conveyed vowel sounds by means of a similar tuning fork "contraption '', Bell pored over the German scientist 's book. Working from his own erroneous mistranslation of a French edition, Bell fortuitously then made a deduction that would be the underpinning of all his future work on transmitting sound, reporting: "Without knowing much about the subject, it seemed to me that if vowel sounds could be produced by electrical means, so could consonants, so could articulate speech. '' He also later remarked: "I thought that Helmholtz had done it... and that my failure was due only to my ignorance of electricity. It was a valuable blunder... If I had been able to read German in those days, I might never have commenced my experiments! ''
In 1865, when the Bell family moved to London, Bell returned to Weston House as an assistant master and, in his spare hours, continued experiments on sound using a minimum of laboratory equipment. Bell concentrated on experimenting with electricity to convey sound and later installed a telegraph wire from his room in Somerset College to that of a friend. Throughout late 1867, his health faltered mainly through exhaustion. His younger brother, Edward "Ted, '' was similarly bed - ridden, suffering from tuberculosis. While Bell recovered (by then referring to himself in correspondence as "A.G. Bell '') and served the next year as an instructor at Somerset College, Bath, England, his brother 's condition deteriorated. Edward would never recover. Upon his brother 's death, Bell returned home in 1867. His older brother Melville had married and moved out. With aspirations to obtain a degree at University College London, Bell considered his next years as preparation for the degree examinations, devoting his spare time at his family 's residence to studying.
Helping his father in Visible Speech demonstrations and lectures brought Bell to Susanna E. Hull 's private school for the deaf in South Kensington, London. His first two pupils were deaf - mute girls who made remarkable progress under his tutelage. While his older brother seemed to achieve success on many fronts including opening his own elocution school, applying for a patent on an invention, and starting a family, Bell continued as a teacher. However, in May 1870, Melville died from complications due to tuberculosis, causing a family crisis. His father had also suffered a debilitating illness earlier in life and had been restored to health by a convalescence in Newfoundland. Bell 's parents embarked upon a long - planned move when they realized that their remaining son was also sickly. Acting decisively, Alexander Melville Bell asked Bell to arrange for the sale of all the family property, conclude all of his brother 's affairs (Bell took over his last student, curing a pronounced lisp), and join his father and mother in setting out for the "New World ''. Reluctantly, Bell also had to conclude a relationship with Marie Eccleston, who, as he had surmised, was not prepared to leave England with him.
In 1870, aged 23, Bell, together with Bell 's brother 's widow, Caroline Margaret Ottaway, and his parents travelled on the SS Nestorian to Canada. After landing at Quebec City, the Bells transferred to another steamer to Montreal and then boarded a train to Paris, Ontario, to stay with the Reverend Thomas Henderson, a family friend. After a brief stay with the Hendersons, the Bell family purchased a farm of 10.5 acres (42,000 m) at Tutelo Heights (now called Tutela Heights), near Brantford, Ontario. The property consisted of an orchard, large farmhouse, stable, pigsty, hen - house, and a carriage house, which bordered the Grand River.
At the homestead, Bell set up his own workshop in the converted carriage house near to what he called his "dreaming place '', a large hollow nestled in trees at the back of the property above the river. Despite his frail condition upon arriving in Canada, Bell found the climate and environs to his liking, and rapidly improved. He continued his interest in the study of the human voice and when he discovered the Six Nations Reserve across the river at Onondaga, he learned the Mohawk language and translated its unwritten vocabulary into Visible Speech symbols. For his work, Bell was awarded the title of Honorary Chief and participated in a ceremony where he donned a Mohawk headdress and danced traditional dances.
After setting up his workshop, Bell continued experiments based on Helmholtz 's work with electricity and sound. He also modified a melodeon (a type of pump organ) so that it could transmit its music electrically over a distance. Once the family was settled in, both Bell and his father made plans to establish a teaching practice and in 1871, he accompanied his father to Montreal, where Melville was offered a position to teach his System of Visible Speech.
Bell 's father was invited by Sarah Fuller, principal of the Boston School for Deaf Mutes (which continues today as the public Horace Mann School for the Deaf), in Boston, Massachusetts, United States, to introduce the Visible Speech System by providing training for Fuller 's instructors, but he declined the post in favour of his son. Travelling to Boston in April 1871, Bell proved successful in training the school 's instructors. He was subsequently asked to repeat the programme at the American Asylum for Deaf - mutes in Hartford, Connecticut, and the Clarke School for the Deaf in Northampton, Massachusetts.
Returning home to Brantford after six months abroad, Bell continued his experiments with his "harmonic telegraph ''. The basic concept behind his device was that messages could be sent through a single wire if each message was transmitted at a different pitch, but work on both the transmitter and receiver was needed.
Unsure of his future, he first contemplated returning to London to complete his studies, but decided to return to Boston as a teacher. His father helped him set up his private practice by contacting Gardiner Greene Hubbard, the president of the Clarke School for the Deaf for a recommendation. Teaching his father 's system, in October 1872, Alexander Bell opened his "School of Vocal Physiology and Mechanics of Speech '' in Boston, which attracted a large number of deaf pupils, with his first class numbering 30 students. While he was working as a private tutor, one of his pupils was Helen Keller, who came to him as a young child unable to see, hear, or speak. She was later to say that Bell dedicated his life to the penetration of that "inhuman silence which separates and estranges ''. In 1893, Keller performed the sod - breaking ceremony for the construction of Bell 's new Volta Bureau, dedicated to "the increase and diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf ''.
Several influential people of the time, including Bell, viewed deafness as something that should be eradicated, and also believed that with resources and effort, they could teach the deaf to speak and avoid the use of sign language, thus enabling their integration within the wider society from which many were often being excluded. Owing to his efforts to suppress the teaching of sign language, Bell is often viewed negatively by those embracing Deaf culture.
In the following year, Bell became professor of Vocal Physiology and Elocution at the Boston University School of Oratory. During this period, he alternated between Boston and Brantford, spending summers in his Canadian home. At Boston University, Bell was "swept up '' by the excitement engendered by the many scientists and inventors residing in the city. He continued his research in sound and endeavored to find a way to transmit musical notes and articulate speech, but although absorbed by his experiments, he found it difficult to devote enough time to experimentation. While days and evenings were occupied by his teaching and private classes, Bell began to stay awake late into the night, running experiment after experiment in rented facilities at his boarding house. Keeping "night owl '' hours, he worried that his work would be discovered and took great pains to lock up his notebooks and laboratory equipment. Bell had a specially made table where he could place his notes and equipment inside a locking cover. Worse still, his health deteriorated as he suffered severe headaches. Returning to Boston in fall 1873, Bell made a fateful decision to concentrate on his experiments in sound.
Deciding to give up his lucrative private Boston practice, Bell retained only two students, six - year - old "Georgie '' Sanders, deaf from birth, and 15 - year - old Mabel Hubbard. Each pupil would play an important role in the next developments. George 's father, Thomas Sanders, a wealthy businessman, offered Bell a place to stay in nearby Salem with Georgie 's grandmother, complete with a room to "experiment ''. Although the offer was made by George 's mother and followed the year - long arrangement in 1872 where her son and his nurse had moved to quarters next to Bell 's boarding house, it was clear that Mr. Sanders was backing the proposal. The arrangement was for teacher and student to continue their work together, with free room and board thrown in. Mabel was a bright, attractive girl who was ten years Bell 's junior but became the object of his affection. Having lost her hearing after a near - fatal bout of scarlet fever close to her fifth birthday, she had learned to read lips but her father, Gardiner Greene Hubbard, Bell 's benefactor and personal friend, wanted her to work directly with her teacher.
By 1874, Bell 's initial work on the harmonic telegraph had entered a formative stage, with progress made both at his new Boston "laboratory '' (a rented facility) and at his family home in Canada a big success. While working that summer in Brantford, Bell experimented with a "phonautograph '', a pen - like machine that could draw shapes of sound waves on smoked glass by tracing their vibrations. Bell thought it might be possible to generate undulating electrical currents that corresponded to sound waves. Bell also thought that multiple metal reeds tuned to different frequencies like a harp would be able to convert the undulating currents back into sound. But he had no working model to demonstrate the feasibility of these ideas.
In 1874, telegraph message traffic was rapidly expanding and in the words of Western Union President William Orton, had become "the nervous system of commerce ''. Orton had contracted with inventors Thomas Edison and Elisha Gray to find a way to send multiple telegraph messages on each telegraph line to avoid the great cost of constructing new lines. When Bell mentioned to Gardiner Hubbard and Thomas Sanders that he was working on a method of sending multiple tones on a telegraph wire using a multi-reed device, the two wealthy patrons began to financially support Bell 's experiments. Patent matters would be handled by Hubbard 's patent attorney, Anthony Pollok.
In March 1875, Bell and Pollok visited the scientist Joseph Henry, who was then director of the Smithsonian Institution, and asked Henry 's advice on the electrical multi-reed apparatus that Bell hoped would transmit the human voice by telegraph. Henry replied that Bell had "the germ of a great invention ''. When Bell said that he did not have the necessary knowledge, Henry replied, "Get it! '' That declaration greatly encouraged Bell to keep trying, even though he did not have the equipment needed to continue his experiments, nor the ability to create a working model of his ideas. However, a chance meeting in 1874 between Bell and Thomas A. Watson, an experienced electrical designer and mechanic at the electrical machine shop of Charles Williams, changed all that.
With financial support from Sanders and Hubbard, Bell hired Thomas Watson as his assistant, and the two of them experimented with acoustic telegraphy. On June 2, 1875, Watson accidentally plucked one of the reeds and Bell, at the receiving end of the wire, heard the overtones of the reed; overtones that would be necessary for transmitting speech. That demonstrated to Bell that only one reed or armature was necessary, not multiple reeds. This led to the "gallows '' sound - powered telephone, which could transmit indistinct, voice - like sounds, but not clear speech.
In 1875, Bell developed an acoustic telegraph and drew up a patent application for it. Since he had agreed to share U.S. profits with his investors Gardiner Hubbard and Thomas Sanders, Bell requested that an associate in Ontario, George Brown, attempt to patent it in Britain, instructing his lawyers to apply for a patent in the U.S. only after they received word from Britain (Britain would issue patents only for discoveries not previously patented elsewhere).
Meanwhile, Elisha Gray was also experimenting with acoustic telegraphy and thought of a way to transmit speech using a water transmitter. On February 14, 1876, Gray filed a caveat with the U.S. Patent Office for a telephone design that used a water transmitter. That same morning, Bell 's lawyer filed Bell 's application with the patent office. There is considerable debate about who arrived first and Gray later challenged the primacy of Bell 's patent. Bell was in Boston on February 14 and did not arrive in Washington until February 26.
Bell 's patent 174,465, was issued to Bell on March 7, 1876, by the U.S. Patent Office. Bell 's patent covered "the method of, and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically... by causing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sound '' Bell returned to Boston the same day and the next day resumed work, drawing in his notebook a diagram similar to that in Gray 's patent caveat.
On March 10, 1876, three days after his patent was issued, Bell succeeded in getting his telephone to work, using a liquid transmitter similar to Gray 's design. Vibration of the diaphragm caused a needle to vibrate in the water, varying the electrical resistance in the circuit. When Bell spoke the sentence "Mr. Watson -- Come here -- I want to see you '' into the liquid transmitter, Watson, listening at the receiving end in an adjoining room, heard the words clearly.
Although Bell was, and still is, accused of stealing the telephone from Gray, Bell used Gray 's water transmitter design only after Bell 's patent had been granted, and only as a proof of concept scientific experiment, to prove to his own satisfaction that intelligible "articulate speech '' (Bell 's words) could be electrically transmitted. After March 1876, Bell focused on improving the electromagnetic telephone and never used Gray 's liquid transmitter in public demonstrations or commercial use.
The question of priority for the variable resistance feature of the telephone was raised by the examiner before he approved Bell 's patent application. He told Bell that his claim for the variable resistance feature was also described in Gray 's caveat. Bell pointed to a variable resistance device in Bell 's previous application in which Bell described a cup of mercury, not water. Bell had filed the mercury application at the patent office a year earlier on February 25, 1875, long before Elisha Gray described the water device. In addition, Gray abandoned his caveat, and because he did not contest Bell 's priority, the examiner approved Bell 's patent on March 3, 1876. Gray had reinvented the variable resistance telephone, but Bell was the first to write down the idea and the first to test it in a telephone.
The patent examiner, Zenas Fisk Wilber, later stated in an affidavit that he was an alcoholic who was much in debt to Bell 's lawyer, Marcellus Bailey, with whom he had served in the Civil War. He claimed he showed Gray 's patent caveat to Bailey. Wilber also claimed (after Bell arrived in Washington D.C. from Boston) that he showed Gray 's caveat to Bell and that Bell paid him $100. Bell claimed they discussed the patent only in general terms, although in a letter to Gray, Bell admitted that he learned some of the technical details. Bell denied in an affidavit that he ever gave Wilber any money.
Continuing his experiments in Brantford, Bell brought home a working model of his telephone. On August 3, 1876, from the telegraph office in Mount Pleasant five miles (eight km) away from Brantford, Bell sent a tentative telegram indicating that he was ready. With curious onlookers packed into the office as witnesses, faint voices were heard replying. The following night, he amazed guests as well as his family when a message was received at the Bell home from Brantford, four miles (six km) distant, along an improvised wire strung up along telegraph lines and fences, and laid through a tunnel. This time, guests at the household distinctly heard people in Brantford reading and singing. These experiments clearly proved that the telephone could work over long distances.
Bell and his partners, Hubbard and Sanders, offered to sell the patent outright to Western Union for $100,000. The president of Western Union balked, countering that the telephone was nothing but a toy. Two years later, he told colleagues that if he could get the patent for $25 million he would consider it a bargain. By then, the Bell company no longer wanted to sell the patent. Bell 's investors would become millionaires while he fared well from residuals and at one point had assets of nearly one million dollars.
Bell began a series of public demonstrations and lectures to introduce the new invention to the scientific community as well as the general public. A short time later, his demonstration of an early telephone prototype at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia brought the telephone to international attention. Influential visitors to the exhibition included Emperor Pedro II of Brazil. Later, Bell had the opportunity to demonstrate the invention personally to Sir William Thomson (later, Lord Kelvin), a renowned Scottish scientist, as well as to Queen Victoria, who had requested a private audience at Osborne House, her Isle of Wight home. She called the demonstration "most extraordinary ''. The enthusiasm surrounding Bell 's public displays laid the groundwork for universal acceptance of the revolutionary device.
The Bell Telephone Company was created in 1877, and by 1886, more than 150,000 people in the U.S. owned telephones. Bell Company engineers made numerous other improvements to the telephone, which emerged as one of the most successful products ever. In 1879, the Bell company acquired Edison 's patents for the carbon microphone from Western Union. This made the telephone practical for longer distances, and it was no longer necessary to shout to be heard at the receiving telephone.
In January 1915, Bell made the first ceremonial transcontinental telephone call. Calling from the AT&T head office at 15 Dey Street in New York City, Bell was heard by Thomas Watson at 333 Grant Avenue in San Francisco. The New York Times reported:
On October 9, 1876, Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson talked by telephone to each other over a two - mile wire stretched between Cambridge and Boston. It was the first wire conversation ever held. Yesterday afternoon (on January 25, 1915), the same two men talked by telephone to each other over a 3,400 - mile wire between New York and San Francisco. Dr. Bell, the veteran inventor of the telephone, was in New York, and Mr. Watson, his former associate, was on the other side of the continent.
As is sometimes common in scientific discoveries, simultaneous developments can occur, as evidenced by a number of inventors who were at work on the telephone. Over a period of 18 years, the Bell Telephone Company faced 587 court challenges to its patents, including five that went to the U.S. Supreme Court, but none was successful in establishing priority over the original Bell patent and the Bell Telephone Company never lost a case that had proceeded to a final trial stage. Bell 's laboratory notes and family letters were the key to establishing a long lineage to his experiments. The Bell company lawyers successfully fought off myriad lawsuits generated initially around the challenges by Elisha Gray and Amos Dolbear. In personal correspondence to Bell, both Gray and Dolbear had acknowledged his prior work, which considerably weakened their later claims.
On January 13, 1887, the U.S. Government moved to annul the patent issued to Bell on the grounds of fraud and misrepresentation. After a series of decisions and reversals, the Bell company won a decision in the Supreme Court, though a couple of the original claims from the lower court cases were left undecided. By the time that the trial wound its way through nine years of legal battles, the U.S. prosecuting attorney had died and the two Bell patents (No. 174,465 dated March 7, 1876, and No. 186,787 dated January 30, 1877) were no longer in effect, although the presiding judges agreed to continue the proceedings due to the case 's importance as a precedent. With a change in administration and charges of conflict of interest (on both sides) arising from the original trial, the US Attorney General dropped the lawsuit on November 30, 1897, leaving several issues undecided on the merits.
During a deposition filed for the 1887 trial, Italian inventor Antonio Meucci also claimed to have created the first working model of a telephone in Italy in 1834. In 1886, in the first of three cases in which he was involved, Meucci took the stand as a witness in the hopes of establishing his invention 's priority. Meucci 's evidence in this case was disputed due to a lack of material evidence for his inventions as his working models were purportedly lost at the laboratory of American District Telegraph (ADT) of New York, which was later incorporated as a subsidiary of Western Union in 1901. Meucci 's work, like many other inventors of the period, was based on earlier acoustic principles and despite evidence of earlier experiments, the final case involving Meucci was eventually dropped upon Meucci 's death. However, due to the efforts of Congressman Vito Fossella, the U.S. House of Representatives on June 11, 2002, stated that Meucci 's "work in the invention of the telephone should be acknowledged '', even though this did not put an end to a still contentious issue. Some modern scholars do not agree with the claims that Bell 's work on the telephone was influenced by Meucci 's inventions.
The value of the Bell patent was acknowledged throughout the world, and patent applications were made in most major countries, but when Bell delayed the German patent application, the electrical firm of Siemens & Halske (S&H) set up a rival manufacturer of Bell telephones under their own patent. The Siemens company produced near - identical copies of the Bell telephone without having to pay royalties. The establishment of the International Bell Telephone Company in Brussels, Belgium in 1880, as well as a series of agreements in other countries eventually consolidated a global telephone operation. The strain put on Bell by his constant appearances in court, necessitated by the legal battles, eventually resulted in his resignation from the company.
On July 11, 1877, a few days after the Bell Telephone Company was established, Bell married Mabel Hubbard (1857 -- 1923) at the Hubbard estate in Cambridge, Massachusetts. His wedding present to his bride was to turn over 1,487 of his 1,497 shares in the newly formed Bell Telephone Company. Shortly thereafter, the newlyweds embarked on a year - long honeymoon in Europe. During that excursion, Bell took a handmade model of his telephone with him, making it a "working holiday ''. The courtship had begun years earlier; however, Bell waited until he was more financially secure before marrying. Although the telephone appeared to be an "instant '' success, it was not initially a profitable venture and Bell 's main sources of income were from lectures until after 1897. One unusual request exacted by his fiancée was that he use "Alec '' rather than the family 's earlier familiar name of "Aleck ''. From 1876, he would sign his name "Alec Bell ''. They had four children:
The Bell family home was in Cambridge, Massachusetts, until 1880 when Bell 's father - in - law bought a house in Washington, D.C.; in 1882 he bought a home in the same city for Bell 's family, so they could be with him while he attended to the numerous court cases involving patent disputes.
Bell was a British subject throughout his early life in Scotland and later in Canada until 1882 when he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. In 1915, he characterized his status as: "I am not one of those hyphenated Americans who claim allegiance to two countries. '' Despite this declaration, Bell has been proudly claimed as a "native son '' by all three countries he resided in: the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom.
By 1885, a new summer retreat was contemplated. That summer, the Bells had a vacation on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia, spending time at the small village of Baddeck. Returning in 1886, Bell started building an estate on a point across from Baddeck, overlooking Bras d'Or Lake. By 1889, a large house, christened The Lodge was completed and two years later, a larger complex of buildings, including a new laboratory, were begun that the Bells would name Beinn Bhreagh (Gaelic: beautiful mountain) after Bell 's ancestral Scottish highlands. Bell also built the Bell Boatyard on the estate, employing up to 40 people building experimental craft as well as wartime lifeboats and workboats for the Royal Canadian Navy and pleasure craft for the Bell family. He was an enthusiastic boater, and Bell and his family sailed or rowed a long series of vessels on Bras d'Or Lake, ordering additional vessels from the H.W. Embree and Sons boatyard in Port Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia. In his final, and some of his most productive years, Bell split his residency between Washington, D.C., where he and his family initially resided for most of the year, and at Beinn Bhreagh where they spent increasing amounts of time.
Until the end of his life, Bell and his family would alternate between the two homes, but Beinn Bhreagh would, over the next 30 years, become more than a summer home as Bell became so absorbed in his experiments that his annual stays lengthened. Both Mabel and Bell became immersed in the Baddeck community and were accepted by the villagers as "their own ''. The Bells were still in residence at Beinn Bhreagh when the Halifax Explosion occurred on December 6, 1917. Mabel and Bell mobilized the community to help victims in Halifax.
Although Alexander Graham Bell is most often associated with the invention of the telephone, his interests were extremely varied. According to one of his biographers, Charlotte Gray, Bell 's work ranged "unfettered across the scientific landscape '' and he often went to bed voraciously reading the Encyclopædia Britannica, scouring it for new areas of interest. The range of Bell 's inventive genius is represented only in part by the 18 patents granted in his name alone and the 12 he shared with his collaborators. These included 14 for the telephone and telegraph, four for the photophone, one for the phonograph, five for aerial vehicles, four for "hydroairplanes '', and two for selenium cells. Bell 's inventions spanned a wide range of interests and included a metal jacket to assist in breathing, the audiometer to detect minor hearing problems, a device to locate icebergs, investigations on how to separate salt from seawater, and work on finding alternative fuels.
Bell worked extensively in medical research and invented techniques for teaching speech to the deaf. During his Volta Laboratory period, Bell and his associates considered impressing a magnetic field on a record as a means of reproducing sound. Although the trio briefly experimented with the concept, they could not develop a workable prototype. They abandoned the idea, never realizing they had glimpsed a basic principle which would one day find its application in the tape recorder, the hard disc and floppy disc drive, and other magnetic media.
Bell 's own home used a primitive form of air conditioning, in which fans blew currents of air across great blocks of ice. He also anticipated modern concerns with fuel shortages and industrial pollution. Methane gas, he reasoned, could be produced from the waste of farms and factories. At his Canadian estate in Nova Scotia, he experimented with composting toilets and devices to capture water from the atmosphere. In a magazine interview published shortly before his death, he reflected on the possibility of using solar panels to heat houses.
Bell and his assistant Charles Sumner Tainter jointly invented a wireless telephone, named a photophone, which allowed for the transmission of both sounds and normal human conversations on a beam of light. Both men later became full associates in the Volta Laboratory Association.
On June 21, 1880, Bell 's assistant transmitted a wireless voice telephone message a considerable distance, from the roof of the Franklin School in Washington, D.C., to Bell at the window of his laboratory, some 213 metres (700 ft) away, 19 years before the first voice radio transmissions.
Bell believed the photophone 's principles were his life 's "greatest achievement '', telling a reporter shortly before his death that the photophone was "the greatest invention (I have) ever made, greater than the telephone ''. The photophone was a precursor to the fiber - optic communication systems which achieved popular worldwide usage in the 1980s. Its master patent was issued in December 1880, many decades before the photophone 's principles came into popular use.
Bell is also credited with developing one of the early versions of a metal detector in 1881. The device was quickly put together in an attempt to find the bullet in the body of U.S. President James Garfield. According to some accounts, the metal detector worked flawlessly in tests but did not find the assassin 's bullet partly because the metal bed frame on which the President was lying disturbed the instrument, resulting in static. The president 's surgeons, who were skeptical of the device, ignored Bell 's requests to move the president to a bed not fitted with metal springs. Alternatively, although Bell had detected a slight sound on his first test, the bullet may have been lodged too deeply to be detected by the crude apparatus.
Bell 's own detailed account, presented to the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1882, differs in several particulars from most of the many and varied versions now in circulation, by concluding that extraneous metal was not to blame for failure to locate the bullet. Perplexed by the peculiar results he had obtained during an examination of Garfield, Bell "proceeded to the Executive Mansion the next morning... to ascertain from the surgeons whether they were perfectly sure that all metal had been removed from the neighborhood of the bed. It was then recollected that underneath the horse - hair mattress on which the President lay was another mattress composed of steel wires. Upon obtaining a duplicate, the mattress was found to consist of a sort of net of woven steel wires, with large meshes. The extent of the (area that produced a response from the detector) having been so small, as compared with the area of the bed, it seemed reasonable to conclude that the steel mattress had produced no detrimental effect. '' In a footnote, Bell adds, "The death of President Garfield and the subsequent post-mortem examination, however, proved that the bullet was at too great a distance from the surface to have affected our apparatus. ''
The March 1906 Scientific American article by American pioneer William E. Meacham explained the basic principle of hydrofoils and hydroplanes. Bell considered the invention of the hydroplane as a very significant achievement. Based on information gained from that article, he began to sketch concepts of what is now called a hydrofoil boat. Bell and assistant Frederick W. "Casey '' Baldwin began hydrofoil experimentation in the summer of 1908 as a possible aid to airplane takeoff from water. Baldwin studied the work of the Italian inventor Enrico Forlanini and began testing models. This led him and Bell to the development of practical hydrofoil watercraft.
During his world tour of 1910 -- 11, Bell and Baldwin met with Forlanini in France. They had rides in the Forlanini hydrofoil boat over Lake Maggiore. Baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying. On returning to Baddeck, a number of initial concepts were built as experimental models, including the Dhonnas Beag (Scottish Gaelic for little devil), the first self - propelled Bell - Baldwin hydrofoil. The experimental boats were essentially proof - of - concept prototypes that culminated in the more substantial HD - 4, powered by Renault engines. A top speed of 54 miles per hour (87 km / h) was achieved, with the hydrofoil exhibiting rapid acceleration, good stability, and steering, along with the ability to take waves without difficulty. In 1913, Dr. Bell hired Walter Pinaud, a Sydney yacht designer and builder as well as the proprietor of Pinaud 's Yacht Yard in Westmount, Nova Scotia to work on the pontoons of the HD - 4. Pinaud soon took over the boatyard at Bell Laboratories on Beinn Bhreagh, Bell 's estate near Baddeck, Nova Scotia. Pinaud 's experience in boat - building enabled him to make useful design changes to the HD - 4. After the First World War, work began again on the HD - 4. Bell 's report to the U.S. Navy permitted him to obtain two 350 horsepower (260 kilowatts) engines in July 1919. On September 9, 1919, the HD - 4 set a world marine speed record of 70.86 miles per hour (114.04 kilometres per hour), a record which stood for ten years.
In 1891, Bell had begun experiments to develop motor - powered heavier - than - air aircraft. The AEA was first formed as Bell shared the vision to fly with his wife, who advised him to seek "young '' help as Bell was at the age of 60.
In 1898, Bell experimented with tetrahedral box kites and wings constructed of multiple compound tetrahedral kites covered in maroon silk. The tetrahedral wings were named Cygnet I, II, and III, and were flown both unmanned and manned (Cygnet I crashed during a flight carrying Selfridge) in the period from 1907 -- 1912. Some of Bell 's kites are on display at the Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site.
Bell was a supporter of aerospace engineering research through the Aerial Experiment Association (AEA), officially formed at Baddeck, Nova Scotia, in October 1907 at the suggestion of his wife Mabel and with her financial support after the sale of some of her real estate. The AEA was headed by Bell and the founding members were four young men: American Glenn H. Curtiss, a motorcycle manufacturer at the time and who held the title "world 's fastest man '', having ridden his self - constructed motor bicycle around in the shortest time, and who was later awarded the Scientific American Trophy for the first official one - kilometre flight in the Western hemisphere, and who later became a world - renowned airplane manufacturer; Lieutenant Thomas Selfridge, an official observer from the U.S. Federal government and one of the few people in the army who believed that aviation was the future; Frederick W. Baldwin, the first Canadian and first British subject to pilot a public flight in Hammondsport, New York, and J. A. D. McCurdy -- Baldwin and McCurdy being new engineering graduates from the University of Toronto.
The AEA 's work progressed to heavier - than - air machines, applying their knowledge of kites to gliders. Moving to Hammondsport, the group then designed and built the Red Wing, framed in bamboo and covered in red silk and powered by a small air - cooled engine. On March 12, 1908, over Keuka Lake, the biplane lifted off on the first public flight in North America. The innovations that were incorporated into this design included a cockpit enclosure and tail rudder (later variations on the original design would add ailerons as a means of control). One of the AEA 's inventions, a practical wingtip form of the aileron, was to become a standard component on all aircraft. The White Wing and June Bug were to follow and by the end of 1908, over 150 flights without mishap had been accomplished. However, the AEA had depleted its initial reserves and only a $15,000 grant from Mrs. Bell allowed it to continue with experiments. Lt. Selfridge had also become the first person killed in a powered heavier - than - air flight in a crash of the Wright Flyer at Fort Myer, Virginia, on September 17, 1908.
Their final aircraft design, the Silver Dart, embodied all of the advancements found in the earlier machines. On February 23, 1909, Bell was present as the Silver Dart flown by J.A.D. McCurdy from the frozen ice of Bras d'Or made the first aircraft flight in Canada. Bell had worried that the flight was too dangerous and had arranged for a doctor to be on hand. With the successful flight, the AEA disbanded and the Silver Dart would revert to Baldwin and McCurdy who began the Canadian Aerodrome Company and would later demonstrate the aircraft to the Canadian Army.
Bell was connected with the eugenics movement in the United States. In his lecture Memoir upon the formation of a deaf variety of the human race presented to the National Academy of Sciences on November 13, 1883, he noted that congenitally deaf parents were more likely to produce deaf children and tentatively suggested that couples where both parties were deaf should not marry. However, it was his hobby of livestock breeding which led to his appointment to biologist David Starr Jordan 's Committee on Eugenics, under the auspices of the American Breeders ' Association. The committee unequivocally extended the principle to humans. From 1912 until 1918, he was the chairman of the board of scientific advisers to the Eugenics Record Office associated with Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in New York, and regularly attended meetings. In 1921, he was the honorary president of the Second International Congress of Eugenics held under the auspices of the American Museum of Natural History in New York. Organizations such as these advocated passing laws (with success in some states) that established the compulsory sterilization of people deemed to be, as Bell called them, a "defective variety of the human race ''. By the late 1930s, about half the states in the U.S. had eugenics laws, and California 's compulsory sterilization law was used as a model for that of Nazi Germany.
Honors and tributes flowed to Bell in increasing numbers as his invention became ubiquitous and his personal fame grew. Bell received numerous honorary degrees from colleges and universities to the point that the requests almost became burdensome. During his life, he also received dozens of major awards, medals, and other tributes. These included statuary monuments to both him and the new form of communication his telephone created, including the Bell Telephone Memorial erected in his honor in Alexander Graham Bell Gardens in Brantford, Ontario, in 1917.
A large number of Bell 's writings, personal correspondence, notebooks, papers, and other documents reside in both the United States Library of Congress Manuscript Division (as the Alexander Graham Bell Family Papers), and at the Alexander Graham Bell Institute, Cape Breton University, Nova Scotia; major portions of which are available for online viewing.
A number of historic sites and other marks commemorate Bell in North America and Europe, including the first telephone companies in the United States and Canada. Among the major sites are:
In 1880, Bell received the Volta Prize with a purse of 50,000 francs (approximately US $260,000 in today 's dollars) for the invention of the telephone from the Académie française, representing the French government. Among the luminaries who judged were Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas. The Volta Prize was conceived by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1801, and named in honor of Alessandro Volta, with Bell receiving the third grand prize in its history. Since Bell was becoming increasingly affluent, he used his prize money to create endowment funds (the ' Volta Fund ') and institutions in and around the United States capital of Washington, D.C.. These included the prestigious ' Volta Laboratory Association ' (1880), also known as the Volta Laboratory and as the ' Alexander Graham Bell Laboratory ', and which eventually led to the Volta Bureau (1887) as a center for studies on deafness which is still in operation in Georgetown, Washington, D.C. The Volta Laboratory became an experimental facility devoted to scientific discovery, and the very next year it improved Edison 's phonograph by substituting wax for tinfoil as the recording medium and incising the recording rather than indenting it, key upgrades that Edison himself later adopted. The laboratory was also the site where he and his associate invented his "proudest achievement '', "the photophone '', the "optical telephone '' which presaged fibre optical telecommunications while the Volta Bureau would later evolve into the Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing (the AG Bell), a leading center for the research and pedagogy of deafness.
In partnership with Gardiner Greene Hubbard, Bell helped establish the publication Science during the early 1880s. In 1898, Bell was elected as the second president of the National Geographic Society, serving until 1903, and was primarily responsible for the extensive use of illustrations, including photography, in the magazine. he also became a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution (1898 -- 1922). The French government conferred on him the decoration of the Légion d'honneur (Legion of Honor); the Royal Society of Arts in London awarded him the Albert Medal in 1902; the University of Würzburg, Bavaria, granted him a PhD, and he was awarded the Franklin Institute 's Elliott Cresson Medal in 1912. He was one of the founders of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers in 1884 and served as its president from 1891 -- 92. Bell was later awarded the AIEE 's Edison Medal in 1914 "For meritorious achievement in the invention of the telephone ''.
The bel (B) and the smaller decibel (dB) are units of measurement of sound intensity invented by Bell Labs and named after him. Since 1976, the IEEE 's Alexander Graham Bell Medal has been awarded to honor outstanding contributions in the field of telecommunications.
In 1936, the US Patent Office declared Bell first on its list of the country 's greatest inventors, leading to the US Post Office issuing a commemorative stamp honoring Bell in 1940 as part of its ' Famous Americans Series '. The First Day of Issue ceremony was held on October 28 in Boston, Massachusetts, the city where Bell spent considerable time on research and working with the deaf. The Bell stamp became very popular and sold out in little time. The stamp became and remains to this day, the most valuable one of the series.
The 150th anniversary of Bell 's birth in 1997 was marked by a special issue of commemorative £ 1 banknotes from the Royal Bank of Scotland. The illustrations on the reverse of the note include Bell 's face in profile, his signature, and objects from Bell 's life and career: users of the telephone over the ages; an audio wave signal; a diagram of a telephone receiver; geometric shapes from engineering structures; representations of sign language and the phonetic alphabet; the geese which helped him to understand flight; and the sheep which he studied to understand genetics. Additionally, the Government of Canada honored Bell in 1997 with a C $100 gold coin, in tribute also to the 150th anniversary of his birth, and with a silver dollar coin in 2009 in honor of the 100th anniversary of flight in Canada. That first flight was made by an airplane designed under Dr. Bell 's tutelage, named the Silver Dart. Bell 's image, and also those of his many inventions have graced paper money, coinage, and postal stamps in numerous countries worldwide for many dozens of years.
Alexander Graham Bell was ranked 57th among the 100 Greatest Britons (2002) in an official BBC nationwide poll, and among the Top Ten Greatest Canadians (2004), and the 100 Greatest Americans (2005). In 2006, Bell was also named as one of the 10 greatest Scottish scientists in history after having been listed in the National Library of Scotland 's ' Scottish Science Hall of Fame '. Bell 's name is still widely known and used as part of the names of dozens of educational institutes, corporate namesakes, street and place names around the world.
Alexander Graham Bell, who could not complete the university program of his youth, received at least a dozen honorary degrees from academic institutions, including eight honorary LL. D.s (Doctorate of Laws), two Ph. D.s, a D.Sc., and an M.D.:
Bell died of complications arising from diabetes on August 2, 1922, at his private estate in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, at age 75. Bell had also been afflicted with pernicious anemia. His last view of the land he had inhabited was by moonlight on his mountain estate at 2: 00 a.m. While tending to him after his long illness, Mabel, his wife, whispered, "Do n't leave me. '' By way of reply, Bell signed "no... '', lost consciousness, and died shortly after.
On learning of Bell 's death, the Canadian Prime Minister, Mackenzie King, cabled Mrs. Bell, saying:
My colleagues in the Government join with me in expressing to you our sense of the world 's loss in the death of your distinguished husband. It will ever be a source of pride to our country that the great invention, with which his name is immortally associated, is a part of its history. On the behalf of the citizens of Canada, may I extend to you an expression of our combined gratitude and sympathy.
Bell 's coffin was constructed of Beinn Bhreagh pine by his laboratory staff, lined with the same red silk fabric used in his tetrahedral kite experiments. To help celebrate his life, his wife asked guests not to wear black (the traditional funeral color) while attending his service, during which soloist Jean MacDonald sang a verse of Robert Louis Stevenson 's "Requiem '':
Upon the conclusion of Bell 's funeral, "every phone on the continent of North America was silenced in honor of the man who had given to mankind the means for direct communication at a distance ''.
Dr. Alexander Graham Bell was buried atop Beinn Bhreagh mountain, on his estate where he had resided increasingly for the last 35 years of his life, overlooking Bras d'Or Lake. He was survived by his wife Mabel, his two daughters, Elsie May and Marian, and nine of his grandchildren.
U.S. patent images in TIFF format
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when will the k 12 program be implemented | Education in the Philippines - wikipedia
Education in the Philippines is managed and regulated by the Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). DepEd is responsible for the K -- 12 basic education; it exercises full and exclusive control over public schools and nominal regulation over private schools, and it also enforces the national curriculum that has been put in place since 2013. CHED and TESDA, on the other hand, are responsible for higher education; CHED regulates the academically - oriented universities and colleges while TESDA oversees the development of technical and vocational education institutions and programs in the country.
From 1945 to 2011, basic education took ten years to complete -- six years of elementary education and four years of high school education for children aged six up to fifteen. However, after the implementation of the K -- 12 Program of DepEd and subsequent ratification of Kindergarten Education Act of 2012 and Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013, the basic education today takes thirteen years to complete -- one year of kindergarten, six years of elementary education, four years of junior high school and two years of senior high school for children aged five up to seventeen. As of 2017, the implementation of Grade 12 has started.
Meanwhile, higher education requires even as little as two years (e.g. associate degree) or much longer (e.g. bachelor 's degree, master 's degree, doctorate) to complete in universities and colleges, and much shorter in technical and vocational schools. University of the Philippines serves as the country 's national university and widely regarded as the top higher education institution in the Philippines. There is also a large number of state universities and colleges and privately run ones, and can either be for - profit or not - for - profit and secular or religious.
The school year usually runs from June to March, although it may also end in April, depending on when the Holy Week is. Republic Act 7797 states that a school year may not exceed two hundred and twenty school days, and that it may only start classes between the first Monday of June and last day of August. While K -- 12 private schools are free to assign the date of opening of classes anytime they want as long as it is within the prescribed period, K -- 12 public schools have to follow a stringent school calendar crafted by DepEd regardless of circumstances.
In some cases, the K - 12 tertiary schools (HEIs, LUCs, SUCs, and TVIs) of both public and private, are free to assign the date of opening of classes anytime they want as long as it is within the prescribed period (between the first Monday of June and last day of August), while K - 12 elementary and secondary (JHS and SHS) schools of both public and private, is always at June as the month of opening of classes.
During the pre-colonial period, most children were provided with solely vocational training, which was supervised by parents, tribal tutors or those assigned for specific, specialized roles within their communities (for example, the baybayin). In most communities, stories, songs, poetry, dances, medicinal practices and advice regarding all sorts of community life issues were passed from generation to generation mostly through oral tradition. Some communities utilised a writing system known as baybayin, whose use was wide and varied, though there are other syllabaries used throughout the archipelago.
Formal education was brought to the Philippines by the Spaniards, which was conducted mostly by religious orders. Upon learning the local languages and writing systems, they began teaching Christianity, the Spanish language, and Spanish culture. These religious orders opened the first schools and universities as early as the 16th century. Spanish missionaries established schools immediately after reaching the islands. The Augustinians opened a parochial school in Cebu in 1565. The Franciscans, took to the task of improving literacy in 1577, aside from the teaching of new industrial and agricultural techniques. The Jesuits followed in 1581, as well as the Dominicans in 1587, setting up a school in Bataan. The church and the school cooperated to ensure that Christian villages had schools for students to attend.
Schools for boys and for girls were then opened. Colegios were opened for boys, ostensibly the equivalent to present day senior high schools. The Universidad de San Ignacio, founded in Manila by the Jesuits in 1589 was the first colegio. Eventually, it was incorporated into the University of Santo Tomas, College of Medicine and Pharmacology following the suppression of the Jesuits. Girls had two types of schools - the beaterio, a school meant to prepare them for the convent, and another, meant to prepare them for secular womanhood.
The Spanish also introduced printing presses to produce books in Spanish and Tagalog, sometimes using baybayin. The first book printed in the Philippines dates back to 1590. It was a Chinese language version of Doctrina Christiana. Spanish and Tagalog versions, in both Latin script and the locally used baybayin script, were later printed in 1593. In 1610, Tomas Pinpin, a Filipino printer, writer and publisher, who is sometimes referred to as the "Patriarch of Filipino Printing '', wrote his famous "Librong Pagaaralan nang manga Tagalog nang Uicang Castilla '', which was meant to help Filipinos learn the Spanish language. The prologue read:
Other Tagalogs like us did not take a year to learn the Spanish language when using my book. This good result has given me satisfaction and encouraged me to print my work, so that all may derive some profit from it.
The Educational Decree of 1863 provided a free public education system in the Philippines, managed by the government. The decree mandated the establishment of at least one primary school for boys and one for girls in each town under the responsibility of the municipal government, and the establishment of a normal school for male teachers under the supervision of the Jesuits. Primary education was also declared free and available to every Filipino, regardless of race or social class. Contrary to what the propaganda of the Spanish -- American War tried to depict, they were not religious schools; rather, they are schools that were established, supported, and maintained by the Spanish government.
After the implementation of the decree, the number of schools and students increased steadily. In 1866, the total population of the Philippines was 4,411,261. The total number of public schools for boys was 841, and the number of public schools for girls was 833. The total number of children attending those schools was 135,098 for boys, and 95,260 for girls. In 1892, the number of schools had increased to 2,137, of which 1,087 were for boys, and 1,050 for girls. By 1898, enrollment in schools at all levels exceeded 200,000 students.
Among those who benefited from the free public education system were a burgeoning group of Filipino intellectuals: the Ilustrados (' enlightened ones '), some of whom included José Rizal, Graciano López Jaena, Marcelo H. del Pilar, Mariano Ponce, and Antonio Luna -- all of whom played vital roles in the Propaganda Movement that ultimately inspired the founding of the Katipunan.
The defeat of Spain following the Spanish -- American War led to the short - lived Philippine Independence movement, which established the insurgent First Philippine Republic. The schools maintained by Spain for more than three centuries were closed briefly, but were reopened on August 29, 1898 by the Secretary of Interior. The Burgos Institute (the country 's first law school), the Academia Militar (the country 's first military academy), and the Literary University of the Philippines were established. Article 23 of the Malolos Constitution mandated that public education would be free and obligatory in all schools of the nation under the First Philippine Republic. However, the Philippine -- American War hindered its progress.
About a year after having secured Manila, the Americans were keen to open up seven schools with army servicemen teaching with army command - selected books and supplies. In the same year, 1899, more schools were opened, this time, with 24 English - language teachers and 4500 students.
A highly centralised, experimental public school system was installed in 1901 by the Philippine Commission and legislated by Act No. 74. The law exposed a severe shortage of qualified teachers, brought about by large enrollment numbers in schools. As a result, the Philippine Commission authorized the Secretary of Public Instruction to bring more than 1,000 teachers from the United States, who were called the Thomasites, to the Philippines between 1901 and 1902. These teachers were scattered throughout the islands to establish barangay schools. The same law established the Philippine Normal School (now the Philippine Normal University) to train aspiring Filipino teachers.
The high school system was supported by provincial governments and included special educational institutions, schools of arts and trades, an agricultural school, and commerce and marine institutes, which were established in 1902 by the Philippine Commission.
Several other laws were passed throughout the period. In 1902, Act No. 372 authorised the opening of provincial high schools.
1908 marked the year when Act No. 1870 initiated the opening of the University of the Philippines, now the country 's national university.
The emergence of high school education in the Philippines, however, did not occur until 1910. It was borne out of rising numbers in enrollment, widespread economic depression, and a growing demand by big businesses and technological advances in factories and the emergence of electrification for skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created and the curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for professional white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved to be beneficial for both the employer and the employee; the investment in human capital caused employees to become more efficient, which lowered costs for the employer, and skilled employees received a higher wage than those employees with just primary educational attainment.
However, a steady increase in enrollment in schools appeared to have hindered any revisions to then - implemented experimental educational system. Act No. 1381, also known as Gabaldon Law, was passed in 1907, which provided a fund of a million pesos for construction of concrete school buildings and is one of many attempts by the government to meet this demand. In line as well with the Filipinization policy of the government, the Reorganization Act of 1916 provided that all department secretaries except the Secretary of Public Instruction must be a natural - born Filipino.
A series of revisions (in terms of content, length, and focus) to the curriculum began in 1924, the year the Monroe Survey Commission released its findings. After having convened in the period from 1906 to 1918, what was simply an advisory committee on textbooks was officiated in 1921 as the Board on Textbooks through Act No. 2957. The Board was faced with difficulties, however, even up to the 1940s, but because financial problems hindered the possibility of newer adaptations of books.
In 1947, after the United States relinquished all its authority over the Philippines, President Manuel Roxas issued Executive Order No. 94 which renamed Department of Instruction into Department of Education. During this period, the regulation and supervision of public and private schools belonged to the Bureau of Public and Private Schools.
In 1972, the Department of Education became the Department of Education and Culture (DECS) under Proclamation 1081, which was signed by President Ferdinand Marcos.
On September 24, 1972, by Presidential Decree No. 1, DECS was decentralized with decision - making shared among its thirteen regional offices.
Following a referendum of all barangays in the Philippines from January 10 -- 15, 1973, President Marcos ratified the 1973 Constitution by Proclamation 1102 on January 17, 1973. The 1973 Constitution set out the three fundamental aims of education in the Philippines:
In 1978, by the Presidential Decree No. 1397, DECS became the Ministry of Education and Culture.
The Education Act of 1982 provided for an integrated system of education covering both formal and non-formal education at all levels. Section 29 of the act sought to upgrade educational institutions ' standards to achieve "quality education '' through voluntary accreditation for schools, colleges, and universities. Section 16 and Section 17 upgraded the obligations and qualifications required for teachers and administrators. Section 41 provided for government financial assistance to private schools. This act also created the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports.
A new constitution was ratified on February 2, 1987, and entered into force of February 11. Section 3, Article XIV of the 1987 Constitution contains the ten fundamental aims of education in the Philippines. Section 2 (2), Article XIV of the 1987 Constitution made elementary school compulsory for all children.
In 1987, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports became again the DECS under Executive Order No. 117. The structure of DECS as embodied in the order remained practically unchanged until 1994.
On May 26, 1988, the Congress of the Philippines enacted the Republic Act 6655 or the Free Public Secondary Education Act of 1988, which mandated free public secondary education commencing in the school year 1988 -- 1989.
On February 3, 1992, the Congress enacted Republic Act 7323, which provided that students aged 15 to 25 may be employed during their Christmas vacation and summer vacation with a salary not lower than the minimum wage -- with 60 % of the wage paid by the employer and 40 % by the government.
The Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM) report of 1991 recommended the division of DECS into three parts. On May 18, 1994, the Congress passed Republic Act 7722 or the Higher Education Act of 1994, creating the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), which assumed the functions of the Bureau of Higher Education and supervised tertiary degree programs. On August 25, 1994, the Congress passed Republic Act 7796 or the Technical Education and Skills Development Act of 199, creating the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), which absorbed the Bureau of Technical - Vocational Education as well as the National Manpower and Youth Council, and began to supervise non-degree technical - vocational programs. DECS retained responsibility for all elementary and secondary education. This threefold division became known as the "trifocal system of education '' in the Philippines.
In August 2001, Republic Act 9155, otherwise called the Governance of Basic Education Act, was passed. This act changed the name of DECS to the current Department of Education (DepEd) and redefined the role of field offices (regional offices, division offices, district offices and schools). The act provided the overall framework for school empowerment by strengthening the leadership roles of headmasters and fostering transparency and local accountability for school administrations. The goal of basic education was to provide the school age population and young adults with skills, knowledge, and values to become caring, self - reliant, productive, and patriotic citizens.
In 2005, the Philippines spent about US $138 per pupil, compared to US $3,728 in Japan, US $1,582 in Singapore and US $852 in Thailand.
In 2006, the Education for All (EFA) 2015 National Action Plan was implemented. It states:
In terms of secondary level education, all children aged twelve to fifteen, are sought to be on track to completing the schooling cycle with satisfactory achievement levels at every year.
In January 2009, the Department of Education signed a memorandum of agreement with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) to seal $86 million assistance to Philippine education, particularly the access to quality education in the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM), and the Western and Central Mindanao regions.
In 2010, then - Senator Benigno Aquino III expressed his desire to implement the K -- 12 basic education cycle to increase the number of years of compulsory education to thirteen years. According to him, this will "give everyone an equal chance to succeed '' and "have quality education and profitable jobs ''. After further consultations and studies, the government under President Aquino formally adopted the K -- 6 -- 4 -- 2 basic education system -- one year of kindergarten, six years of elementary education, four years of junior high school education and two years of senior high school education. Kindergarten was formally made compulsory by virtue of the Kindergarten Education Act of 2012, while the further twelve years were officially put into law by virtue of the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013. Although DepEd has already implemented the K -- 12 Program since SY 2011 -- 2012, it was still enacted into law to guarantee its continuity in the succeeding years.
The former system of basic education in the Philippines consists of one - year preschool education, six - year elementary education and four - year high school education. Although public preschool, elementary and high school education are provided free, only primary education is stipulated as compulsory according to the 1987 Philippine Constitution. Pre-primary education caters to children aged five. A child aged six may enter elementary schools with, or without pre-primary education. Following on from primary education is four - years of secondary education, which can theoretically be further divided into three years of lower secondary and one year of upper secondary education. Ideally, a child enters secondary education at the age of 12. After completing their secondary education, students may progress to a technical education and skills development to earn a certificate or a diploma within one to three years, depending on the skill. Students also have the option to enrol in higher education programmes to earn a baccalaureate degree.
(used from 1945 until June 5, 2011)
The start of the twenty - first century 's second decade saw a major improvement in the Philippine education system.
In 2011, the Department of Education started to implement the new K - 12 educational system, which also included a new curriculum for all schools nationwide. The K - 12 program has a so - called "phased implementation '', which started in S.Y 2011 - 2012.
Formal education is the hierarchically structured, chronologically graded ' education system ', running from primary school through the university and including, in addition to general academic studies, a variety of specialised programmes and institutions for full - time technical and professional training. K - 12 and tertiary education from colleges are characterized as formal education. This does not include the informal education in the Philippines learned from daily experience and the educative influences and resources in his or her environment. Nor does this include non-formal education like the alternative learning systems provided by DepEd and TESDA and other programs from educational institutions.
K - 12 is a program that covers kindergarten and 12 years of basic education to provide sufficient time for mastery of concepts and skills, develop lifelong learners, and prepare graduates for tertiary education, middle - level skills development, employment, and entrepreneurship.
Its general features include:
Senior High School, an important feature of the new K - 12 program, creates several opportunities. Standard requirements will be applied to make sure graduates know enough to be hirable. Senior High School students will now be able to apply for TESDA Certificates of Competency (COCs) and National Certificates (NCs) to provide them with better work opportunities. Partnerships with different companies will be offered for technical and vocational courses. Senior High School students can also get work experience while studying. Aside from these, entrepreneurship courses will now be included. Instead of being employed, one can choose to start his or her own business after graduating, or choose to further one 's education by going to college.
Senior High School, as part of the K to 12 Basic Curriculum, was developed in line with the curriculum of the Commission of Higher Education (CHED) -- the governing body for college and university education in the Philippines. This ensures that by the time one graduates from Senior High School, one will have the standard knowledge, skills, and competencies needed to go to college.
Because of the shift of the curriculum in K - 12, the College General Education curriculum will have fewer units. Subjects that have been taken up in Basic Education will be removed from the College General Education curriculum. Details of the new GE Curriculum may be found in CHED Memorandum Order No. 20, series of 2013.
Regarding teachers, there are common misconceptions that teachers will lose their jobs because of the shift to the K - 12. However, DepEd ensures that "no high school teachers will be displaced. ''
The Department of Education (DepEd) is in constant coordination with CHED and DOLE on the actual number of affected faculty from private higher education institutions (HEIs). The worst - case scenario is that 39,000 HEI faculty will lose their jobs over 5 years. This will only happen if none of the HEIs will put up their own Senior High Schools; however, DepEd is currently processing over 1,000 Senior High School applications from private institutions.
DepEd is also hiring more than 30,000 new teachers in 2016 alone. The Department will prioritize affected faculty who will apply as teachers or administrators in Senior High Schools.
K - 12 's implementation began in 2011 when kindergarten was rolled out nationwide. It continued by fully implementing the system for Grades 1 and 7 during the school year 2012 - 2013, for grade 11 during 2016, and for grade 12 during 2017.
There are four "phases '' during the implementation of the new system. These are:
In terms of preparing the resources, specifically classrooms, teacher items, textbooks, seats, and water and sanitation improvements, the following table shows the accomplished material from 2010 to 2014 and those planned for 2015.
30,000 of which are for Senior High School (Grades 11 and 12)
23,414 ongoing construction 43,536 ongoing procurement as of May 2014
The Department of Education 's justifications in this change, in implementing 13 years of basic education, is that the Philippines is the last country in Asia and one of only three countries worldwide with a 10 - year pre-university cycle (Angola and Djibouti are the other two), and that the 13 - year program is found to be the best period for learning under basic education. It is also the recognized standard for students and professionals globally.
Elementary school, sometimes called primary school or grade school (Filipino: paaralang elementarya, sometimes mababang paaralan), is the first part of the educational system, and it includes the first six years of compulsory education (Grades 1 -- 6) after cumpolsory pre-school education called Kindergarten.
In public schools, the core / major subjects that were introduced starting in Grade 1 include Mathematics, Filipino, and Araling Panlipunan (this subject is synonymous to Social Studies). English is only introduced after the second semester of Grade 1. Science is only introduced starting Grade 3. Other major subjects then include Music, Arts, Physical Education, and Health (abbreviated as MAPEH), TLE (Technology and Livelihood Education) for Grade 6, EPP (Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan) for Grades 4 and 5, Mother Tongue (Grades 1 - 3) and Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao (synonymous to Ethics, Values or Character Education). In private schools, subjects in public schools are also included with the additional subjects including: Computer Education as a separate subject, though it is included in EPP and TLE through its ICT component. In Christian and Catholic schools, Religious Education is also part of the curriculum like Christian Values and Ethics, Christian Living, or Bible Studies. Islamic schools like Madrasah schools have a separate subjects for Arabic Language and for Islamic Values or abbreviated as ALIVE. Chinese schools may also have subjects in Chinese Language and Culture. International schools also have their own subjects in their own language and culture.
From Kindergarten - Grade 3, students will be taught using their mother tongue, meaning the regional languages of the Philippines will be used in some subjects (except Filipino and English) as a medium of instruction. Aside from being incorporated as a language of instruction, it is also a separate subject for Grades 1 - 3. But from Grade 4, Filipino and English as a medium of instruction will then be used.
In December 2007, the Philippine president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo announced that Spanish is to make a return as a mandatory subject in all Filipino schools starting in 2008, but this did n't come into effect.
DepEd Bilingual Policy is for the medium of instruction to be Filipino for: Filipino, Araling Panlipunan, Edukasyong Pangkatawan, Kalusugan at Musika; and English for: English, Science and Technology, Home Economics and Livelihood Education. Article XIV, Section 7 of the 1987 Philippine constitution mandates that regional languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein. As a result, the language actually used in teaching is often a polyglot of Filipino and English with the regional language as the foundation, or rarely the local language. Filipino is based on Tagalog, so in Tagalog areas (including Manila), Filipino is the foundational language used. International English language schools use English as the foundational language. Chinese schools add two language subjects, such as Min Nan Chinese and Mandarin Chinese and may use English or Chinese as the foundational language. The constitution mandates that Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis. Following on this, a few private schools mainly catering to the elite include Spanish in their curriculum. Arabic is taught in Islamic schools.
In July 2009, the Department of Education moved to overcome the foreign language issue by ordering all elementary schools to move towards initial mother - tongue based instruction (grades 1 -- 3). The order allows two alternative three - year bridging plans. Depending on the bridging plan adopted, the Filipino and English languages are to be phased in as the language of instruction for other subjects beginning in the third and fourth grades.
Until 2004, primary students traditionally took the National Elementary Achievement Test (NEAT) administered by the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS). It was intended as a measure of a school 's competence, and not as a predictor of student aptitude or success in secondary school. Hence, the scores obtained by students in the NEAT were not used as a basis for their admission into secondary school. During 2004, when DECS was officially converted into the Department of Education, the NEAT was changed to the National Achievement Test (NAT) by the Department of Education. Both the public and private elementary schools take this exam to measure a school 's competency. As of 2006, only private schools have entrance examinations for secondary schools.
The Department of Education expects over 13.1 million elementary students to be enrolled in public elementary schools for school year 2009 -- 2010.
Though elementary schooling is compulsory, as of 2010 it was reported that 27.82 % of Filipino elementary - aged children either never attend or never complete elementary schooling, usually due to the absence of any school in their area, education being offered in a language that is foreign to them, or financial distress.
Elementary or Primary School General Subjects with Daily Time Allotment (Time of Direct Contact and Teaching Interaction), and Language of Instruction (Language Medium Used)
Secondary school in the Philippines, more commonly known as "high school '' (Filipino: paaralang sekundarya, sometimes mataas na paaralan), consists of 4 lower levels and 2 upper levels. It formerly consisted of only four levels with each level partially compartmentalized, focusing on a particular theme or content. Because of the K - 12 curriculum, the high school system now has six years divided into 2 parts. The lower exploratory high school system is now called "Junior High School '' (Grades 7 - 10) while the upper specialized high school system is now called "Senior High School '' (Grades 11 and 12).
Secondary students used to sit for the National Secondary Achievement Test (NSAT), which was based on the American SAT, and was administered by the Department of Education. Like its primary school counterpart, NSAT was phased out after major reorganizations in the education department. Its successors, the National Career Assessment Examination (NCAE) and National Achievement Test (NAT) were administered to third - and fourth - year students respectively, before the implementation of the K - 12 system. The National Career Assessment Examination (NCAE) is now being administered for Grade 9 and the National Achievement Test (NAT) is being administered at Grade 6, 10, and 12. Neither the NSAT nor NAT have been used as a basis for being offered admission to higher education institutions, partly because pupils sit them at almost the end of their secondary education. Instead, higher education institutions, both public and private, administer their own College Entrance Examinations (CEE) (subjects covered will depend on the institutions). Vocational colleges usually do not have entrance examinations, simply accepting the Form 138 record of studies from high school, and enrollment payment.
Students graduating from the elementary level automatically enroll in junior high, which covers four years from grades 7 to 10. This level is now compulsory and free to all students attending public schools.
There are two main types of high school: the general secondary school, which enroll more than 90 percent of all junior high school students, and the vocational secondary school. In addition, there are also science secondary schools for students who have demonstrated a particular gift in science at the primary level as well as special secondary schools and special curricular programs.
Admission to public school is automatic for those who have completed six years of elementary school. Some private secondary schools have competitive entrance requirements based on an entrance examination. Entrance to science schools, art schools, and schools with special curricular programs is also by competitive examination sometimes including interviews, and auditions.
The Department of Education specifies a compulsory curriculum for all junior high school students, public and private. There are five core subjects: Science, Mathematics, English, Filipino, and Araling Panlipunan (Social Studies).
Other subjects in all levels of junior high school include MAPEH (a collective subject comprising Music, Art, Physical Education and Health), Values Education and Technology and Livelihood Education.
In other public schools or private secondary schools offers specialized curricular programs for students with gifts and or talents as well as aptitude in fields of: sciences and mathematics, sports, the arts, journalism, foreign language, or technical - vocational education. These are under the DepEd with the latter in partnership with TESDA. These special programs for special schools are: Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Program (STEM, formerly called ESEP); Special Program in Sports (SPS); Special Program in the Arts (SPA); Special Program in Journalism (SPJ); Special Program in Foreign Language (SPFL); and Technical - Vocational - Livelihood Program (TVL). These programs offers comprehensive secondary education in a particular academic or career pathway field. Because of being career - pathway oriented, special and advanced subjects are offered in replace of TLE subject and sometimes includes even more time and subjects for specialized learning and training.
In selective schools, various languages may be offered as electives like in a SPFL program, as well as other subjects such as computer programming and literary writing like in STEM schools or Laboratory High Schools. Chinese schools have language and cultural electives. International Schools offers electives or subjects like writing, culture, history, language, art, or a special subject unique to the school. Preparatory schools like technical vocational schools or schools with TVL Program usually add some business, entrepreneurship, and accountancy courses. Special science high schools like those of PSHS System (administered by DOST) and RSHS System (administered by DepEd) have biology, chemistry, and physics at every level and or exclusive and advanced science and math subjects as well as subjects in technology, pre-engineering, and research. These science schools are more exclusive and with higher standards compared to general high school 's STEM Program. PSHS or RSHS students may transfer to a STEM program school but not the way around. PSHS students may also transfer to a RSHS and vice versa only for incoming sophomore year. Both PSHS and RSHS students must maintain an average grade especially in their advanced sciences and math subjects on a quarterly basis or else will lose the chance of continuing education in these schools, therefore, will make students transfer to a STEM Program school or a general high school. This systems makes sure the quality and exclusiveness of science high schools. In special government - run art school such as Philippine High School for the Arts, which is administered by the Cultural Center of the Philippines in coordination with Department of Education, and as well as the National Commission for Culture and the Arts offers a much specialized and exclusive curricular program than general high school 's SPA Program. Like the PSHS and RSHS to STEM schools system, students from PHSA should maintain grades in their art field of specialization or will transfer to an SPA school or a general high school. But SPA students can enroll in PHSA only for incoming sophomores passing exclusive test, auditions, and interviews, and not from general high schools but from SPA school only. Both schools of Philippine Science High School System and the Philippine High School for the Arts are administered by government agencies apart from DepEd but still is in coordination with it. These schools offers scholarship for students with high aptitude and talents in science fields or the art fields granting those who passes rigorous and exclusive tests with many special benefits like free board and lodging, free books, a monthly stipend, and classes taught by experts, masters, and active practitioners of their respective fields among others.
Formal technical and vocational education starts at secondary education, with a two - year curriculum, which grants access to vocational tertiary education. However, there is also non-formal technical and vocational education provided as alternative learning programs.
Vocational schools offer a higher concentration of technical and vocational subjects in addition to the core academic subjects studied by students at general high schools. These schools tend to offer technical and vocational instruction in one of five main fields: agriculture, fisheries, trade - technical, home industry, and ' non-traditional ' courses while offering a host of specializations. During the first two years, students study a general vocational area, from the five main fields mentioned. During the third and fourth years they specialize in a discipline or vocation within that area. Programs contain a mixture of theory and practice.
Upon completion of Grade 10 of Junior High School, students can obtain Certificates of Competency (COC) or the vocationally oriented National Certificate Level I (NC I). After finishing a Technical - Vocational - Livelihood track in Grade 12 of Senior High School, a student may obtain a National Certificate Level II (NC II), provided he / she passes the competency - based assessment administered by the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA).
The new high school curriculum includes core classes and specialization classes based on student choice of specialization. Students may choose a specialization based on aptitude, interests, and school capacity. Classes or courses are divided into two: Core Curriculum Subjects and Track Subjects.
There are seven learning areas under the core curriculum. These are languages, literature, communication, mathematics, philosophy, natural sciences, and social sciences. These will make up 15 core courses with the same contents and competencies but with allowed contextualization based on school 's location despite of specializations of tracks and strands.
Track subjects will be further divided into Applied or Contextualized Subjects and the Specialization Subjects. There would be 7 Applied Subjects with competencies common to tracks and strands or specializations but with different contents based on specialization, and there would be 9 Specialization Subjects with unique contents and competencies under a track or strand.
All the subjects (core, applied and specialized) are having 80 hours per semester each, except for Physical Education and Health, having 20 hours per semester.
And for the subjects under General Academics Strand (GAS), Humanities 1 and 2 will be chosen from the HUMSS track subjects 1 to 4, and for the Social Science 1 will be chosen from HUMSS track subjects 5 to 8.
For their specialization classes, students choose from four tracks: Academic; technical - vocational - livelihood; Sports; and the Arts and Design.
The Academic track includes five strands of specializations:
The Technical - Vocational - Livelihood (TVL) track includes current five specializations from which TESDA - based courses can be chosen:
A mixture of specialization courses from these four fields can also be done, depending on the curricular program and offerings offered by schools who offers TVL track.
Sports track will prepare students with sports science, sports - related, physical education - related, health - related, and movement - related courses which will let them explore and specialize in fields like sports fundamental coaching, student - athlete development, sports officiating and activity management, recreational and fitness or sports leadership. This will be with courses in safety and first aid, fitness testing and basic exercise programming, psychosocial aspects of sports and exercise, and human movement. Students will have an immersion or practicum in a sports, fitness, exercise, or recreation specialization of one will be in - campus practicum and one will be off - campus apprenticeship. This track will prepare students with careers in sports athletics, fitness, exercise, recreational leadership, sports event management, coaching, and physical therapy.
Arts and Design Track will prepare student for the creative industries in various creative and artistic fields such as but not limited to: music, dance, creative writing and literature, visual arts, global media arts, broadcast arts, film and cinema, applied arts, architecture and design, theater, entertainment, etc. Students will be trained with lectures and immersions in arts appreciation and production and the performing arts. They will also learn and be prepared with physical and personal development which will help them with physical, personal, and health factors in the arts fields as an introduction to workplaces; integration of elements and principles of art which will deepen their understanding about art elements and principles and their applications; building cultural and national identity in arts which will help them appreciate cultural icons and traditional or indigenous materials, techniques, and practices in their art field. Students also will be immersed to an art field of their choice: music, theater, literary art, visual art, or media art under apprenticeship with practitioner / s of the field and will culminate showcasing their skills and talents in either a performing arts performance, a visual and media art exhibit, or a literary art production.
The government projects some 1.2 to 1.6 million students will enter senior high school in the 2016 - 17 academic year.
Senior High School "completes '' basic education by making sure that the high school graduate is equipped for work, entrepreneurship, or higher education. This is a step up from the 10 - year cycle where high school graduates still need further education (and expenses) to be ready for the world. There are 334 private schools with Senior High School permits beginning in SY 2014 or 2015. Last March 31, 2015, provisional permits have been issued to 1,122 private schools that will offer Senior High School in 2016.
Senior High School will be offered free in public schools and there will be a voucher program in place for public junior high school completers as well as ESC beneficiaries of private high schools should they choose to take Senior High School in private institutions. This means that the burden of expenses for the additional two years need not be completely shouldered by parents. All grade 10 completers from a public Junior High School who wish to enroll in a private or non-DepEd Senior High School automatically get a voucher.
All tertiary education matters are outside of the jurisdiction of DepEd, which is in charge of primary and secondary education, but is instead governed by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). As of 2013, there are over 2,229 higher education institutions (HEI 's) in the country which can be divided into public and private institutions. There are 656 public higher education institutions which account for 28.53 % of all HEI 's. While 1,643 private institutions account for 71.47 % of all HEI 's.
Public HEI 's are further divided into state universities and colleges (SUC 's), local colleges and universities (LUC 's), special HEI 's, and government schools. State universities and colleges are administered and financed by the government as determined by the Philippine Congress. LUC 's are established by the local government units that govern the area of the LUC. The local government establish these institutions through a process and number of ordinances and resolutions, and are also in charge of handling the financing of these schools. Special HEI 's are institutions that offer courses and programs that are related to public service. Examples of these include the Philippine Military Academy (PMA), Philippine National Police Academy (PNPA), Development Academy of the Philippines (DAP), etc. These institutions are controlled and administered through the use of specific laws that were created for them. Finally, government schools are public secondary and post-secondary technical - vocational education institutions that offer higher education programs.
Private HEI 's are established, and governed by special provisions by a Corporation Code, and can be divided into sectarian and non-sectarian. Non-sectarian are characterized by being owned and operated by private entities that have no affiliation with religious organizations; while sectarian HEI 's are non-profit institutions that are owned and operated by a religious organization. Of the 1,643 institutions, 79 % are non-sectarian, and 21 % are sectarian.
According to the last CHED published statistics on its website, there were 7,766 foreign nationals studying in various higher education institutions in the Philippines as of 2011 - 2012. Koreans were the top foreign nationals studying in the country with 1,572. The rest were Iranian, Chinese, American and Indian.
There are other types of schools, aside from the general public school, such as private schools, preparatory schools, international schools, laboratory high schools, and science high schools. Several foreign ethnic groups, including Chinese, British, Singaporeans, Americans, Koreans, and Japanese operate their own schools.
Science high schools are special schools for the more intellectually promising students, with the objective of fostering the problem - solving approach of critical thinking. They are separate high schools and not merely special classes in regular secondary schools. As such, they have certain characteristics not found in regular high schools, although any private or public high school can aspire to meet these special minimum standards and be considered as science high schools.
The Philippine Science High School System is a specialized public system that operates as an attached agency of the Philippine Department of Science and Technology. There are a total of nine regional campuses, with the main campus located in Quezon City. Students are admitted on a selective basis, based on the results of the PSHS System National Competitive Examination.
As well as following the general secondary curriculum, there are advanced classes in science and mathematics. The PSHSS system offers an integrated junior high and senior high six - year curriculum.
Students who successfully completed a minimum of four years of secondary education under the pre-2011 system were awarded a Diploma (Katibayan) and, in addition, the secondary school Certificate of Graduation (Katunayan) from the Department of Education. Students are also awarded a Permanent Record, or Form 137 - A, listing all classes taken and grades earned. Under the new K - 12 system, the permanent record will be issued after the completion of senior high school.
Chinese schools add two additional subjects to the core curriculum, Chinese communication arts and literature. Some also add Chinese history, philosophy and culture, and Chinese mathematics. Still, other Chinese schools called cultural schools, offer Confucian classics and Chinese art as part of their curriculum. Religion also plays an important part in the curriculum. American evangelists founded some Chinese schools. Some Chinese schools have Catholic roots.
In 2004, the Department of Education adopted DO 51, putting in place the teaching of Arabic Language and Islamic Values for (mainly) Muslim children in the public schools. The same order authorized the implementation of the Standard Madrasa Curriculum (SMC) in the private madaris (Arabic for schools, the singular form is Madrasa).
While there has been recognized Islamic schools -- i.e., Ibn Siena Integrated School (Marawi), Sarang Bangun LC (Zamboanga), and Southwestern Mindanao Islamic Institute (Jolo) -- their Islamic studies curriculum varies. With the Department of Education - authorized SMC, the subject offering is uniform across these private madaris.
Since 2005, the AusAID - funded Department of Education project Basic Education Assistance for Mindanao (BEAM) has assisted a group of private madaris seeking government permit to operate (PTO) and implement the SMC. To date, there are 30 of these private madaris scattered throughout Regions XI, XII and the ARMM.
The SMC is a combination of the RBEC subjects (English, Filipino, Science, Math, and Makabayan) and the teaching of Arabic and Islamic studies subjects.
For school year 2010 -- 2011, there are forty - seven (47) madaris in the ARMM alone.
The alternative learning systems in the Philippines caters to the needs of the following: elementary and secondary school dropouts, kids that are older than the normal age for a specific grade level (this may be a 12 year old in grade 4), unemployed adults that have n't finished their education degree, indigenous people, people with disabilities or are mentally challenged, and inmates. It is possible to have both informal and formal references for these alternative learning systems because these are apart from the formal teaching institutions. Although similarly to the formal teaching institutions, there will be a diagnostic test for everyone that will participate in order to gauge the level they are at in terms of the skills needed per grade level. If there are people that do not have the basic skills such as reading and writing there will be an additional program that will help them first learn the basics before taking the diagnostic test. There will be a specific number of hours that is required of the student in order for him / her to be able to finish the program. There will be a final assessment to test the comprehensive knowledge of the student. If the students passes he / she will be given a certificate that is signed by the secretary of the department of education allowing the student to apply for college degrees, work, formal training programs, and can re-enroll in elementary / secondary education in formal teaching institutions.
There are other avenues of alternative learning in the Philippines such as the Radio - Based Instruction (RBI) Program. This is designed to give the lectures through a radio transmission making it easier for people to access wherever they are. The goal is for the listeners to receive the same amount of education that people that sit in classroom lectures.
Non-formal technical and vocational education is assumed by institutions usually accredited and approved by TESDA: center - based programs, community - based programs and enterprise - based training, or the Alternative Learning System (ALS). The Institutions may be government operated, often by provincial government, or private. They may offer programs ranging in duration from a couple of weeks to two - year diploma courses. Programs can be technology courses like automotive technology, computer technology, and electronic technology; service courses such as caregiver, nursing aide, hotel and restaurant management; and trades courses such as electrician, plumber, welder, automotive mechanic, diesel mechanic, heavy vehicle operator & practical nursing. Upon graduating from most of these courses, students may take an examination from TESDA to obtain the relevant certificate or diploma.
In the country, there are a number of people particularly kids that do not receive proper education from formal education institutions because of various reasons. These reasons usually pertain to financial problems.
When it comes to influence, the educational system of the Philippines has been affected immensely by the country 's colonial history including the Spanish period, American period, and Japanese rule and occupation. Although having been significantly influenced by all its colonizers with regard to the educational system, the most influential and deep - rooted contributions arose during the American occupation (1898); it was during this aforementioned period that:
Similar to the United States, the Philippines has had an extensive and extremely inclusive system of education including features such as higher education.
The present Philippine educational system firstly covers six years of compulsory education (from grades 1 to 6), divided informally into two levels - both composed of three years. The first level is known as the Primary level and the second level is known as the Intermediate level.
However, although the Philippine educational system has extensively been a model for other Southeast Asian countries, in recent years such a matter has no longer stood true, and such a system has been deteriorated - such a fact is especially evident and true in the country 's more secluded poverty - stricken regions.
Most of the Philippines faces several issues when it comes to the educational system.
First of which, is the quality of education. In the year 2014, the National Achievement Test (NAT) and the National Career Assessment Examination (NCAE) results show that there had been a decline in the quality of Philippine education at the elementary and secondary levels. The students ' performance in both the 2014 NAT and NCAE were excessively below the target mean score. Having said this, the poor quality of the Philippine educational system is manifested in the comparison of completion rates between highly urbanized cities of Metro Manila, which is also happens to be not only the country 's capital region but the largest metropolitan area in the Philippines and other places in the country such as Mindanao and Eastern Visayas. Although Manila is able to boast a primary school completion rate of approximately 100 percent, other areas of the nation, such as Eastern Visayas and Mindanao, hold primary school completion rate of only 30 percent or even less. This kind of statistic is no surprise to the education system in the Philippine context, students who hail from Philippine urban areas have the financial capacity to complete at the very least their primary school education.
The second issue that the Philippine educational system faces is the budget for education. Although it has been mandated by the Philippine Constitution for the government to allocate the highest proportion of its government to education, the Philippines remains to have one of the lowest budget allocations to education among ASEAN countries.
The third prevalent issue the Philippine educational system continuously encounters is the affordability of education (or lack thereof). A big disparity in educational achievements is evident across various social groups. Socioeconomically disadvantaged students otherwise known as students who are members of high and low - income poverty - stricken families, have immensely higher drop - out rates in the elementary level. Additionally, most freshmen students at the tertiary level come from relatively well - off families.
France Castro, the secretary of Alliance of Concerned Teachers (ACT), stated that there is a grave need to address the alarming number of out - of - school youth in the country. The Philippines overall has 1.4 million children who are out - of - school, according to UNESCO 's data, and is additionally the only ASEAN country that is included in the top 5 countries with the highest number of out - of - school youth. In 2012, the Department of Education showed data of a 6.38 % drop - out rate in primary school and a 7.82 % drop - out rate in secondary school. Castro further stated that "the increasing number of out - of - school children is being caused by poverty. The increases in the price of oil, electricity, rice, water, and other basic commodities are further pushing the poor into dire poverty. '' Subsequently, as more families become poorer, the number of students enrolled in public schools increases, especially in the high school level. In 2013, the Department of Education estimated that there are 38, 503 elementary schools alongside 7,470 high schools.
There is a large mismatch between educational training and actual jobs. This stands to be a major issue at the tertiary level and it is furthermore the cause of the continuation of a substantial amount of educated yet unemployed or underemployed people. According to Dean Salvador Belaro Jr., the Cornell - educated Congressman representing 1 - Ang Edukasyon Party - list in the House of Representatives, the number of educated unemployed reaches around 600,000 per year. He refers to said condition as the "education gap ''.
Brain drain is a persistent problem evident in the educational system of the Philippines due to the modern phenomenon of globalization, with the number of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) who worked abroad at any time during the period April to September 2014 was estimated at 2.3 million. This ongoing mass immigration subsequently induces an unparalleled brain drain alongside grave economic implications. Additionally, Philippine society hitherto is footing the bill for the education of millions who successively spend their more productive years abroad. Thus, the already poor educational system of the Philippines indirectly subsidizes the opulent economies who host the OFWs.
There exists a problematic and distinct social cleavage with regard to educational opportunities in the country. Most modern societies have encountered an equalizing effect on the subject of education. This aforementioned divide in the social system has made education become part of the institutional mechanism that creates a division between the poor and the rich.
There are large - scale shortages of facilities across Philippine public schools - these include classrooms, teachers, desks and chairs, textbooks, and audio - video materials. According to 2003 Department of Education Undersecretary Juan Miguel Luz, reportedly over 17 million students are enrolled in Philippine public schools, and at an annual population growth rate of 2.3 per cent, about 1.7 million babies are born every year which means that in a few years time, more individuals will assert ownership over their share of the (limited) educational provisions. To sum it up, there are too many students and too little resources. Albeit the claims the government makes on increasing the allocated budget for education, there is a prevalent difficulty the public school system faces with regard to shortages. Furthermore, state universities and colleges gradually raise tuition so as to have a means of purchasing facilities, thus making tertiary education difficult to access or more often than not, inaccessible to the poor. However, it is worth taking note of what the Aquino administration has done in its five years of governance with regard to classroom - building - the number of classrooms built from 2005 to the first half of the year 2010 has tripled. Additionally, the number of classrooms that were put up from the year 2010 to February 2015 was recorded to be at 86,478, significantly exceeding the 17,305 classrooms that were built from 2005 to 2010 and adequate enough to counterbalance the 66,800 classroom deficit in the year 2010.
In President Aquino 's fourth state of the nation address (SONA), he spoke of the government 's achievement of zero backlog in facilities such as classrooms, desks and chairs, and textbooks which has addressed the gap in the shortages of teachers, what with 56,085 new teachers for the 61, 510 teaching items in the year 2013. However, the data gathered by the Department of Education shows that during the opening of classes (June 2013), the shortages in classrooms was pegged at 19, 579, 60 million shortages when it came to textbooks, 2.5 million shortages with regard to chairs, and 80, 937 shortages of water and sanitation facilities. Furthermore, 770 schools in Metro Manila, Cebu, and Davao were considered overcrowded. The Department of Education also released data stating that 91 % of the 61, 510 shortages in teachers was filled up alongside appointments (5, 425 to be specific) are being processed.
There is a dispute with regard to the quality of education provided by the system. In the year 2014, the National Achievement Test (NAT) and the National Career Assessment Examination (NCAE) results show that there had been a decline in the quality of Philippine education at the elementary and secondary levels. The students ' performance in both the 2014 NAT and NCAE were excessively below the target mean score. Having said this, the poor quality of the Philippine educational system is manifested in the comparison of completion rates between highly urbanized city of Metro Manila, which is also happens to be not only the country 's capital but the largest metropolitan area in the Philippines and other places in the country such as Mindanao and Eastern Visayas. Although Manila is able to boast a primary school completion rate of approximately 100 percent, other areas of the nation, such as Eastern Visayas and Mindanao, hold primary school completion rate of only 30 percent or even less. This kind of statistic is no surprise to the education system in the Philippine context, students who hail from Philippine urban areas have the financial capacity to complete at the very least their primary school education.
The second issue that the Philippine educational system faces is the budget for education. Although it has been mandated by the Philippine Constitution for the government to allocate the highest proportion of its government to education, the Philippines remains to have one of the lowest budget allocations to education among ASEAN countries. The third prevalent issue the Philippine educational system continuously encounters is the affordability of education (or lack thereof). A big disparity in educational achievements is evident across various social groups. Socioeconomically disadvantaged students otherwise known as students who are members of high and low - income poverty - stricken families have immensely higher drop - out rates in the elementary level. Additionally, most freshmen students at the tertiary level come from relatively well - off families. Lastly, there is a large proportion of mismatch, wherein there exists a massive proportion of mismatch between training and actual jobs. This stands to be a major issue at the tertiary level and it is furthermore the cause of the continuation of a substantial amount of educated yet unemployed or underemployed people.
The third issue involves the timing for requiring Grades 11 and 12. According to Sec. 4 of Republic Act No. 10533, "The enhanced basic education program encompasses at least one (1) year of kindergarten education, six (6) years of elementary education, and six (6) years of secondary education, in that sequence. Secondary education includes four (4) years of junior high school and two (2) years of senior high school education. '' However, according to Sec. 4 of Republic Act No. 10157, "Kindergarten education is hereby institutionalized as part of basic education and for school year 2011 - 2012 shall be implemented partially, and thereafter, it shall be made mandatory and compulsory for entrance to Grade 1. '' That means in order to follow the enhanced basic education program, students must take kindergarten before taking six years of elementary education, followed by six years of secondary education, which includes Grades 11 and 12. But since kindergarten became mandatory and implemented fully only in SY 2012 - 2013, then Grade 11 can only be required in SY 2023 - 2024.
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what are the phases of the system development life cycle | Systems development life cycle - wikipedia
The systems development life cycle (SDLC), also referred to as the application development life - cycle, is a term used in systems engineering, information systems and software engineering to describe a process for planning, creating, testing, and deploying an information system. The systems development lifecycle concept applies to a range of hardware and software configurations, as a system can be composed of hardware only, software only, or a combination of both.
A systems development life cycle is composed of a number of clearly defined and distinct work phases which are used by systems engineers and systems developers to plan for, design, build, test, and deliver information systems. Like anything that is manufactured on an assembly line, an SDLC aims to produce high - quality systems that meet or exceed customer expectations, based on customer requirements, by delivering systems which move through each clearly defined phase, within scheduled time frames and cost estimates. Computer systems are complex and often (especially with the recent rise of service - oriented architecture) link multiple traditional systems potentially supplied by different software vendors. To manage this level of complexity, a number of SDLC models or methodologies have been created, such as waterfall, spiral, Agile software development, rapid prototyping, incremental, and synchronize and stabilize.
SDLC can be described along a spectrum of agile to iterative to sequential methodologies. Agile methodologies, such as XP and Scrum, focus on lightweight processes which allow for rapid changes (without necessarily following the pattern of SDLC approach) along the development cycle. Iterative methodologies, such as Rational Unified Process and dynamic systems development method, focus on limited project scope and expanding or improving products by multiple iterations. Sequential or big - design - up - front (BDUF) models, such as waterfall, focus on complete and correct planning to guide large projects and risks to successful and predictable results. Other models, such as anamorphic development, tend to focus on a form of development that is guided by project scope and adaptive iterations of feature development.
In project management a project can be defined both with a project life cycle (PLC) and an SDLC, during which slightly different activities occur. According to Taylor (2004), "the project life cycle encompasses all the activities of the project, while the systems development life cycle focuses on realizing the product requirements ''.
SDLC is used during the development of an IT project, it describes the different stages involved in the project from the drawing board, through the completion of the project.
The SDLC is not a methodology per se, but rather a description of the phases in the life cycle of a software application. These phases (broadly speaking) are, investigation, analysis, design, build, test, implement, and maintenance and support. All software development methodologies (such as the more commonly known waterfall and scrum methodologies) follow the SDLC phases but the method of doing that varies vastly between methodologies. In the Scrum methodology, for example, one could say a single user story goes through all the phases of the SDLC within a single two - week sprint. Contrast this to the waterfall methodology, as another example, where every business requirement (recorded in the analysis phase of the SDLC in a document called the Business Requirements Specification) is translated into feature / functional descriptions (recorded in the design phase in a document called the Functional Specification) which are then all built in one go as a collection of solution features typically over a period of three to nine months, or more. These methodologies are obviously quite different approaches yet, they both contain the SDLC phases in which a requirement is born, then travels through the life cycle phases ending in the final phase of maintenance and support, after - which (typically) the whole life cycle starts again for a subsequent version of the software application.
The product life cycle describes the process for building information systems in a very deliberate, structured and methodical way, reiterating each stage of the product 's life. The systems development life cycle, according to Elliott & Strachan & Radford (2004), "originated in the 1960s, to develop large scale functional business systems in an age of large scale business conglomerates. Information systems activities revolved around heavy data processing and number crunching routines ''.
Several systems development frameworks have been partly based on SDLC, such as the structured systems analysis and design method (SSADM) produced for the UK government Office of Government Commerce in the 1980s. Ever since, according to Elliott (2004), "the traditional life cycle approaches to systems development have been increasingly replaced with alternative approaches and frameworks, which attempted to overcome some of the inherent deficiencies of the traditional SDLC ''.
The system development life cycle framework provides a sequence of activities for system designers and developers to follow. It consists of a set of steps or phases in which each phase of the SDLC uses the results of the previous one.
The SDLC adheres to important phases that are essential for developers, such as planning, analysis, design, and implementation, and are explained in the section below. It includes evaluation of present system, information gathering, feasibility study and request approval. A number of SDLC models have been created: waterfall, fountain, spiral, build and fix, rapid prototyping, incremental, synchronize and stabilize. The oldest of these, and the best known, is the waterfall model: a sequence of stages in which the output of each stage becomes the input for the next. These stages can be characterized and divided up in different ways, including the following:
In the following diagram, these stages of the systems development life cycle are divided in ten steps from definition to creation and modification of IT work products:
Not every project will require that the phases be sequentially executed. However, the phases are interdependent. Depending upon the size and complexity of the project, phases may be combined or may overlap.
The system investigates the IT proposal. During this step, we must consider all current priorities that would be affected and how they should be handled. Before any system planning is done, a feasibility study should be conducted to determine if creating a new or improved system is a viable solution. This will help to determine the costs, benefits, resource requirements, and specific user needs required for completion. The development process can only continue once management approves of the recommendations from the feasibility study.
Following are different components of the feasibility study:
The goal of system analysis is to determine where the problem is, in an attempt to fix the system. This step involves breaking down the system in different pieces to analyze the situation, analyzing project goals, breaking down what needs to be created and attempting to engage users so that definite requirements can be defined.
In systems design, the design functions and operations are described in detail, including screen layouts, business rules, process diagrams and other documentation. The output of this stage will describe the new system as a collection of modules or subsystems.
The design stage takes as its initial input the requirements identified in the approved requirements document. For each requirement, a set of one or more design elements will be produced as a result of interviews, workshops, and / or prototype efforts.
Design elements describe the desired system features in detail, and generally include functional hierarchy diagrams, screen layout diagrams, tables of business rules, business process diagrams, pseudo-code, and a complete entity - relationship diagram with a full data dictionary. These design elements are intended to describe the system in sufficient detail, such that skilled developers and engineers may develop and deliver the system with minimal additional input design.
Environments are controlled areas where systems developers can build, distribute, install, configure, test, and execute systems that move through the SDLC. Each environment is aligned with different areas of the SDLC and is intended to have specific purposes. Examples of such environments include the:
The code is tested at various levels in software testing. Unit, system and user acceptance testings are often performed. This is a grey area as many different opinions exist as to what the stages of testing are and how much, if any iteration occurs. Iteration is not generally part of the waterfall model, but the means to rectify defects and validate fixes prior to deployment is incorporated into this phase.
The following are types of testing that may be relevant, depending on the type of system under development:
Once a system has been stabilized through adequate testing, the SDLC ensures that proper training on the system is performed or documented before transitioning the system to its support staff and end users.
Training usually covers operational training for those people who will be responsible for supporting the system as well as training for those end users who will be using the system after its delivery to a production operating environment.
After training has been successfully completed, systems engineers and developers transition the system to its final production environment, where it is intended to be used by its end users and supported by its support and operations staff.
The deployment of the system includes changes and enhancements before the decommissioning or sunset of the system. Maintaining the system is an important aspect of SDLC. As key personnel change positions in the organization, new changes will be implemented. There are two approaches to system development; there is the traditional approach (structured) and object oriented. Information Engineering includes the traditional system approach, which is also called the structured analysis and design technique. The object oriented approach views the information system as a collection of objects that are integrated with each other to make a full and complete information system.
The final phase of the SDLC is to measure the effectiveness of the system and evaluate potential enhancements.
The systems analysis and design (SAD) is the process of developing information systems (IS) that effectively use hardware, software, data, processes, and people to support the company 's businesses objectives. System analysis and design can be considered the meta - development activity, which serves to set the stage and bound the problem. SAD can be leveraged to set the correct balance among competing high - level requirements in the functional and non-functional analysis domains. System analysis and design interacts strongly with distributed enterprise architecture, enterprise I.T. Architecture, and business architecture, and relies heavily on concepts such as partitioning, interfaces, personae and roles, and deployment / operational modeling to arrive at a high - level system description. This high level description is then further broken down into the components and modules which can be analyzed, designed, and constructed separately and integrated to accomplish the business goal. SDLC and SAD are cornerstones of full life cycle product and system planning.
Object - oriented analysis (OOA) is the process of analyzing a task (also known as a problem domain), to develop a conceptual model that can then be used to complete the task. A typical OOA model would describe computer software that could be used to satisfy a set of customer - defined requirements. During the analysis phase of problem - solving, a programmer might consider a written requirements statement, a formal vision document, or interviews with stakeholders or other interested parties. The task to be addressed might be divided into several subtasks (or domains), each representing a different business, technological, or other areas of interest. Each subtask would be analyzed separately. Implementation constraints, (e.g., concurrency, distribution, persistence, or how the system is to be built) are not considered during the analysis phase; rather, they are addressed during object - oriented design (OOD).
The conceptual model that results from OOA will typically consist of a set of use cases, one or more UML class diagrams, and a number of interaction diagrams. It may also include some kind of user interface mock - up.
The input for object - oriented design is provided by the output of object - oriented analysis. Realize that an output artifact does not need to be completely developed to serve as input of object - oriented design; analysis and design may occur in parallel, and in practice the results of one activity can feed the other in a short feedback cycle through an iterative process. Both analysis and design can be performed incrementally, and the artifacts can be continuously grown instead of completely developed in one shot.
Some typical (but common to all types of design analysis) input artifacts for object - oriented:
The SDLC phases serve as a programmatic guide to project activity and provide a flexible but consistent way to conduct projects to a depth matching the scope of the project. Each of the SDLC phase objectives are described in this section with key deliverables, a description of recommended tasks, and a summary of related control objectives for effective management. It is critical for the project manager to establish and monitor control objectives during each SDLC phase while executing projects. Control objectives help to provide a clear statement of the desired result or purpose and should be used throughout the entire SDLC process. Control objectives can be grouped into major categories (domains), and relate to the SDLC phases as shown in the figure.
To manage and control any SDLC initiative, each project will be required to establish some degree of a work breakdown structure (WBS) to capture and schedule the work necessary to complete the project. The WBS and all programmatic material should be kept in the "project description '' section of the project notebook. The WBS format is mostly left to the project manager to establish in a way that best describes the project work.
There are some key areas that must be defined in the WBS as part of the SDLC policy. The following diagram describes three key areas that will be addressed in the WBS in a manner established by the project manager. The diagram shows coverage spans numerous phases of the SDLC but the associated MCD has a subset of primary mappings to the SDLC phases. For example, Analysis and Design is primarily performed as part of the Acquisition and Implementation Domain and System Build and Prototype is primarily performed as part of delivery and support.
The upper section of the work breakdown structure (WBS) should identify the major phases and milestones of the project in a summary fashion. In addition, the upper section should provide an overview of the full scope and timeline of the project and will be part of the initial project description effort leading to project approval. The middle section of the WBS is based on the seven systems development life cycle phases as a guide for WBS task development. The WBS elements should consist of milestones and "tasks '' as opposed to "activities '' and have a definitive period (usually two weeks or more). Each task must have a measurable output (e.x. document, decision, or analysis). A WBS task may rely on one or more activities (e.g. software engineering, systems engineering) and may require close coordination with other tasks, either internal or external to the project. Any part of the project needing support from contractors should have a statement of work (SOW) written to include the appropriate tasks from the SDLC phases. The development of a SOW does not occur during a specific phase of SDLC but is developed to include the work from the SDLC process that may be conducted by external resources such as contractors.
Baselines are an important part of the systems development life cycle. These baselines are established after four of the five phases of the SDLC and are critical to the iterative nature of the model. Each baseline is considered as a milestone in the SDLC.
Complementary software development methods to systems development life cycle are:
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Few people in the modern computing world would use a strict waterfall model for their SDLC as many modern methodologies have superseded this thinking. Some will argue that the SDLC no longer applies to models like Agile computing, but it is still a term widely in use in technology circles. The SDLC practice has advantages in traditional models of systems development that lends itself more to a structured environment. The disadvantages to using the SDLC methodology is when there is need for iterative development or (i.e. web development or e-commerce) where stakeholders need to review on a regular basis the software being designed. Instead of viewing SDLC from a strength or weakness perspective, it is far more important to take the best practices from the SDLC model and apply it to whatever may be most appropriate for the software being designed.
A comparison of the strengths and weaknesses of SDLC:
An alternative to the SDLC is rapid application development, which combines prototyping, joint application development and implementation of CASE tools. The advantages of RAD are speed, reduced development cost, and active user involvement in the development process.
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who was involved in the salem witch trials as prosecutors and victims | List of people of the Salem witch trials - wikipedia
This is a list of people associated with the Salem witch trials, a series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in colonial Massachusetts between February 1692 and May 1693. The trials resulted in the executions of twenty people, most of them women.
Surnames in parentheses preceded by "née '' indicate birth family maiden names (if known) of married women, who upon marriage generally took their husbands ' surnames. Due to the low population of the Massachusetts North Shore at the time of the trials, a significant percentage of local residents were related to other local residents through descent or by marriage. Many of the witchcraft accusations were driven at least in part by acrimonious relations between the families of the plaintiffs and defendants. Unless otherwise specified, dates provided in this list use Julian - dated month and day but New Style - enumerated year (i.e., years begin on January 1 and end on December 31, in the modern style).
The list of jurors who served in the trial of Rebecca Nurse does not include other jurors who served in prior and subsequent trials. The jury initially acquitted Nurse but were ordered to redeliberate by William Stoughton.
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what do the catacombs in paris famously contain | Catacombs of Paris - wikipedia
The Catacombs of Paris (French: Catacombes de Paris, (help info)) are underground ossuaries in Paris, France, which hold the remains of more than six million people in a small part of a tunnel network built to consolidate Paris ' ancient stone mines. Extending south from the Barrière d'Enfer ("Gate of Hell '') former city gate, this ossuary was created as part of the effort to eliminate the city 's overflowing cemeteries. Preparation work began not long after a 1774 series of gruesome Saint Innocents - cemetery - quarter basement wall collapses added a sense of urgency to the cemetery - eliminating measure, and from 1786, nightly processions of covered wagons transferred remains from most of Paris ' cemeteries to a mine shaft opened near the Rue de la Tombe - Issoire.
The ossuary remained largely forgotten until it became a novelty - place for concerts and other private events in the early 19th century; after further renovations and the construction of accesses around Place Denfert - Rochereau, it was open to public visitation from 1874. Since January 1, 2013, the Catacombs number among the 14 City of Paris Museums managed by Paris Musées. Although the ossuary comprises only a small section of the underground "carrières de Paris '' ("quarries of Paris ''), Parisians presently often refer to the entire tunnel network as "the catacombs ''.
Paris ' earliest burial grounds were to the southern outskirts of the Roman - era Left Bank city. In ruins after the Roman empire 's 5th - century end and the ensuing Frankish invasions, Parisians eventually abandoned this settlement for the marshy Right Bank: from the 4th century, the first known settlement there was on higher ground around a Saint - Etienne church and burial ground (behind the present Hôtel de Ville), and urban expansion on the Right Bank began in earnest after other ecclesiastical landowners filled in the marshlands from the late 10th century. Thus, instead of burying its dead away from inhabited areas as usual, the Paris Right Bank settlement began with cemeteries near its centre.
The most central of these cemeteries, a burial ground around the 5th - century Notre - Dame - des - Bois church, became the property of the Saint - Opportune parish after the original church was demolished by the 9th - century Norman invasions. When it became its own parish associated with the church of the "Saints Innocents '' from 1130, this burial ground, filling the land between the present rue Saint - Denis, rue de la Ferronnerie, rue de la Lingerie and the rue Berger, had become the City 's principal cemetery. By the end of the same century "Saints Innocents '' was neighbour to the principal Parisian marketplace Les Halles, and already filled to overflowing. To make room for more burials, the long - dead were exhumed and their bones packed into the roofs and walls of "charnier '' galleries built inside the cemetery walls. By the end of the 18th century, the central burial ground was a two metre high mound of earth filled with centuries of Parisian dead, plus the remains from the Hôtel - Dieu hospital and the Morgue; other Parisian parishes had their own burial grounds, but the conditions in Les Innocents cemetery were the worst.
A series of ineffective decrees limiting the use of the cemetery did little to remedy the situation, and it was not until the late 18th century that it was decided to create three new large - scale suburban burial grounds on the outskirts of the city, and to condemn all existing parish cemeteries within city limits.
Much of the Left Bank area rests upon rich Lutetian limestone deposits. This stone built much of the city, but it was extracted in suburban locations away from any habitation. Because of the post 12th - century haphazard mining technique of digging wells down to the deposit and extracting it horizontally along the vein until depletion, many of these (often illicit) mines were uncharted, and when depleted, often abandoned and forgotten. Paris had annexed its suburbs many times over the centuries, and by the 18th century many of its arrondissements (administrative districts) were or included previously mined territories.
The undermined state of the Left Bank was known to architects as early as the early 17th - century construction of the Val - de-Grâce hospital (most of its building expenses were due to its foundations), but a series of mine cave - ins beginning 1774 with the collapse of a house along the "rue d'Enfer '' (near today 's crossing of the Avenue Denfert - Rochereau and the boulevard Saint - Michel) caused King Louis XVI to name a commission to investigate the state of the Parisian underground. This resulted in the creation of the inspection Générale des Carrières (Inspection of Mines) service.
The need to eliminate Les Innocents gained urgency from May 31, 1780, when a basement wall in a property adjoining the cemetery collapsed under the weight of the mass grave behind it. The cemetery was closed to the public and all intra muros (Latin: "within the (city) walls '') burials were forbidden after 1780. The problem of what to do with the remains crowding intra muros cemeteries was still unresolved.
Mine consolidations were still occurring and the underground around the site of the 1777 collapse that had initiated the project had already become a series of stone and masonry inspection passageways that reinforced the streets above. The mine renovation and cemetery closures were both issues within the jurisdiction of the Police Prefect Police Lieutenant - General Alexandre Lenoir, who had been directly involved in the creation of a mine inspection service. Lenoir endorsed the idea of moving Parisian dead to the subterranean passageways that were renovated during 1782. After deciding to further renovate the "Tombe - Issoire '' passageways for their future role as an underground sepulchre, the idea became law during late 1785.
A well within a walled property above one of the principal subterranean passageways was dug to receive Les Innocents ' unearthed remains, and the property itself was transformed into a sort of museum for all the headstones, sculptures and other artifacts recuperated from the former cemetery. Beginning from an opening ceremony on 7 April the same year, the route between Les Innocents and the "clos de la Tombe - Issoire '' became a nightly procession of black cloth - covered wagons carrying the millions of Parisian dead. It would take two years to empty the majority of Paris 's cemeteries.
Cemeteries whose remains were moved to the Catacombs include Saints - Innocents (the largest by far with about 2 million buried over 600 years of operation), Saint - Étienne - des - Grès (one of the oldest), Madeleine Cemetery, Errancis Cemetery (used for the victims of the French Revolution), and Notre - Dame - des - Blancs - Manteaux.
The catacombs in their first years were a disorganised bone repository, but Louis - Étienne Héricart de Thury, director of the Paris Mine Inspection Service from 1810, had renovations done that would transform the underground caverns into a visitable mausoleum. In addition to directing the stacking of skulls and femurs into the patterns seen in the catacombs today, he used the cemetery decorations he could find (formerly stored on the Tombe - Issoire property, many had disappeared after the 1789 Revolution) to complement the walls of bones. Also created was a room dedicated to the display of the various minerals found under Paris, and another showing various skeletal deformities found during the catacombs ' creation and renovation. He also added monumental tablets and archways bearing inscriptions (that some found questionable) that were warnings, descriptions or other comments about the nature of the ossuary, and, for the safety of eventual visitors, it was walled from the rest of the Paris 's Left Bank already - extensive underground tunnel network.
The Catacombs of Paris became a curiosity for more privileged Parisians from their creation, an early visitor being the Count of Artois (later Charles X of France) during 1787. Public visits began after its renovation into a proper ossuary and the 1814 -- 1815 war. First allowed only a few times a year with the permission of an authorized mines inspector, but later more frequently and permitted by any mine overseer, a flow of visitors degraded the ossuary to a point where the permission - only rule was restored from 1830, and the catacombs were closed completely from 1833 because of church opposition to exposing human remains to public display. Open again for four visits a year from 1850, public demand caused the government to allow monthly visits from 1867, bi-weekly visits on the first and third Saturday of each month from 1874 (with an extra opening for the November 1 toussaint holiday), and weekly visits during the 1878, 1889 (the most visitors yet that year) and 1900 World 's Fair Expositions. Later they opened for regular daily visits. After an incident of vandalism, the Catacombs were closed to the public during September 2009 and reopened on 19 December of the same year.
Although the catacombs offered space to bury the dead, they presented disadvantages to building structures; because the catacombs are directly under the Paris streets, large foundations can not be built and cave - ins have destroyed buildings. For this reason, there are few tall buildings in this area.
Coordinates: 48 ° 50 ′ 02.43 '' N 2 ° 19 ′ 56.36 '' E / 48.8340083 ° N 2.3323222 ° E / 48.8340083; 2.3323222
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who has won dancing with the stars the most | List of Dancing with the Stars (U.S.) competitors - wikipedia
Dancing with the Stars is an American reality television show in which celebrity contestants and professional dance partners compete to be the best dancers, as determined by the show 's judges and public voting. The series first broadcast in the 2005, and twenty - six complete seasons have aired on ABC through Spring 2018. During each season, competitors are progressively eliminated on the basis of public voting and scores received from the judges until only a few contestants remain. These finalists participate in a finale, from which a winner is determined. Celebrities appearing on Dancing with the Stars include "actors, singers, comedians, musicians, entrepreneurs, athletes, reality stars, journalists, internet personalities, newsmakers, and where - are - they - now personalities ''.
As of season 26, 296 celebrities have competed. Seven of those withdrew from the competition: Sara Evans of season three left the show to "give her family full attention '' after filing for divorce; Misty May - Treanor of season seven was forced to pull out after an ankle injury; Tom DeLay of season nine reportedly withdrew "due to stress fractures in both of his feet ''; Dorothy Hamill of season sixteen withdrew due to a previous injury that was unrelated to the competition; Billy Dee Williams of season eighteen quit due to a back injury; Kim Zolciak - Biermann of season twenty - one was forced to withdraw after suffering a mini-stroke, which prevented her from flying to California; and Tamar Braxton of season twenty - one withdrew due to pulmonary embolisms in her lungs. At age 14, actress Willow Shields of season twenty was the youngest contestant to compete on the show. At age 82, actress Cloris Leachman of season seven was the oldest contestant to compete on the show. At age 51, singer Donny Osmond of season nine was the oldest contestant to win the competition. At age 16 years, Laurie Hernandez of season twenty - three was the youngest contestant to win. The first (and, as of now, only) contestant to pass away after appearing on the show is Florence Henderson of season eleven, who died in November 2016, six years after her participation. Forty - four professional dancers have partnered with the celebrities. The twenty - six winners of the show, in chronological order, are Kelly Monaco, Drew Lachey, Emmitt Smith, Apolo Anton Ohno, Hélio Castroneves, Kristi Yamaguchi, Brooke Burke, Shawn Johnson, Donny Osmond, Nicole Scherzinger, Jennifer Grey, Hines Ward, J.R. Martinez, Donald Driver, Melissa Rycroft, Kellie Pickler, Amber Riley, Meryl Davis, Alfonso Ribeiro, Rumer Willis, Bindi Irwin, Nyle DiMarco, Laurie Hernandez, Rashad Jennings, Jordan Fisher and Adam Rippon. The fifteen professional partners who have won are Alec Mazo, Cheryl Burke (twice), Julianne Hough (twice), Mark Ballas (twice), Derek Hough (six times), Kym Johnson (twice), Karina Smirnoff, Peta Murgatroyd (twice), Tony Dovolani, Maksim Chmerkovskiy, Witney Carson, Valentin Chmerkovskiy (twice), Emma Slater, Lindsay Arnold and Jenna Johnson.
In the following list, the winner of each season is shown in gold, second place in silver and third place in bronze.
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where did greek philosophy originated asia minor or major | Ancient Greek philosophy - wikipedia
Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC and continued throughout the Hellenistic period and the period in which Ancient Greece was part of the Roman Empire. Philosophy was used to make sense out of the world in a non-religious way. It dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, biology, rhetoric and aesthetics.
Many philosophers around the world agree that Greek philosophy has influenced much of Western culture since its inception. Alfred North Whitehead once noted: "The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato ''. Clear, unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers to Early Islamic philosophy, the European Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.
Some claim that Greek philosophy was in turn influenced by the older wisdom literature and mythological cosmogonies of the ancient Near East, though this is debated. Martin Litchfield West gives qualified assent to this view by stating that "contact with oriental cosmology and theology helped to liberate the early Greek philosophers ' imagination; it certainly gave them many suggestive ideas. But they taught themselves to reason. Philosophy as we understand it is a Greek creation ''.
Subsequent philosophic tradition was so influenced by Socrates as presented by Plato that it is conventional to refer to philosophy developed prior to Socrates as pre-Socratic philosophy. The periods following this, up to and after the wars of Alexander the Great, are those of "classical Greek '' and "Hellenistic '' philosophy.
The convention of terming those philosophers who were active prior to Socrates the pre-Socratics gained currency with the 1903 publication of Hermann Diels ' Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, although the term did not originate with him. The term is considered philosophically useful because what came to be known as the "Athenian school '' (composed of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle) signaled a profound shift in the subject matter and methods of philosophy; Friedrich Nietzsche 's thesis that this shift began with Plato rather than with Socrates (hence his nomenclature of "pre-Platonic philosophy '') has not prevented the predominance of the "pre-Socratic '' distinction.
The pre-Socratics were primarily concerned with cosmology, ontology and mathematics. They were distinguished from "non-philosophers '' insofar as they rejected mythological explanations in favor of reasoned discourse.
Thales of Miletus, regarded by Aristotle as the first philosopher, held that all things arise from a single material substance, water. It is not because he gave a cosmogony that John Burnet calls him the "first man of science, '' but because he gave a naturalistic explanation of the cosmos and supported it with reasons. According to tradition, Thales was able to predict an eclipse and taught the Egyptians how to measure the height of the pyramids.
Thales inspired the Milesian school of philosophy and was followed by Anaximander, who argued that the substratum or arche could not be water or any of the classical elements but was instead something "unlimited '' or "indefinite '' (in Greek, the apeiron). He began from the observation that the world seems to consist of opposites (e.g., hot and cold), yet a thing can become its opposite (e.g., a hot thing cold). Therefore, they can not truly be opposites but rather must both be manifestations of some underlying unity that is neither. This underlying unity (substratum, arche) could not be any of the classical elements, since they were one extreme or another. For example, water is wet, the opposite of dry, while fire is dry, the opposite of wet. This initial state is ageless and imperishable, and everything returns to it according to necessity Anaximenes in turn held that the arche was air, although John Burnet argues that by this he meant that it was a transparent mist, the aether. Despite their varied answers, the Milesian school was searching for a natural substance that would remain unchanged despite appearing in different forms, and thus represents one of the first scientific attempts to answer the question that would lead to the development of modern atomic theory; "the Milesians, '' says Burnet, "asked for the φύσις of all things. ''
Xenophanes was born in Ionia, where the Milesian school was at its most powerful, and may have picked up some of the Milesians ' cosmological theories as a result. What is known is that he argued that each of the phenomena had a natural rather than divine explanation in a manner reminiscent of Anaximander 's theories and that there was only one god, the world as a whole, and that he ridiculed the anthropomorphism of the Greek religion by claiming that cattle would claim that the gods looked like cattle, horses like horses, and lions like lions, just as the Ethiopians claimed that the gods were snubnosed and black and the Thracians claimed they were pale and red - haired.
Burnet says that Xenophanes was not, however, a scientific man, with many of his "naturalistic '' explanations having no further support than that they render the Homeric gods superfluous or foolish. He has been claimed as an influence on Eleatic philosophy, although that is disputed, and a precursor to Epicurus, a representative of a total break between science and religion.
Pythagoras lived at roughly the same time that Xenophanes did and, in contrast to the latter, the school that he founded sought to reconcile religious belief and reason. Little is known about his life with any reliability, however, and no writings of his survive, so it is possible that he was simply a mystic whose successors introduced rationalism into Pythagoreanism, that he was simply a rationalist whose successors are responsible for the mysticism in Pythagoreanism, or that he was actually the author of the doctrine; there is no way to know for certain.
Pythagoras is said to have been a disciple of Anaximander and to have imbibed the cosmological concerns of the Ionians, including the idea that the cosmos is constructed of spheres, the importance of the infinite, and that air or aether is the arche of everything. Pythagoreanism also incorporated ascetic ideals, emphasizing purgation, metempsychosis, and consequently a respect for all animal life; much was made of the correspondence between mathematics and the cosmos in a musical harmony. Pythagoras believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics, and that the forms were based on a transcendental mathematical relation.
Heraclitus must have lived after Xenophanes and Pythagoras, as he condemns them along with Homer as proving that much learning can not teach a man to think; since Parmenides refers to him in the past tense, this would place him in the 5th century BCE. Contrary to the Milesian school, which posits one stable element as the arche, Heraclitus taught that panta rhei ("everything flows ''), the closest element to this eternal flux being fire. All things come to pass in accordance with Logos, which must be considered as "plan '' or "formula '', and "the Logos is common ''. He also posited a unity of opposites, expressed through dialectic, which structured this flux, such as that seeming opposites in fact are manifestations of a common substrate to good and evil itself.
Heraclitus called the oppositional processes ἔρις (eris), "strife '', and hypothesized that the apparently stable state of δίκη (dikê), or "justice '', is the harmonic unity of these opposites.
Parmenides of Elea cast his philosophy against those who held "it is and is not the same, and all things travel in opposite directions, '' -- presumably referring to Heraclitus and those who followed him. Whereas the doctrines of the Milesian school, in suggesting that the substratum could appear in a variety of different guises, implied that everything that exists is corpuscular, Parmenides argued that the first principle of being was One, indivisible, and unchanging. Being, he argued, by definition implies eternality, while only that which is can be thought; a thing which is, moreover, can not be more or less, and so the rarefaction and condensation of the Milesians is impossible regarding Being; lastly, as movement requires that something exist apart from the thing moving (viz. the space into which it moves), the One or Being can not move, since this would require that "space '' both exist and not exist. While this doctrine is at odds with ordinary sensory experience, where things do indeed change and move, the Eleatic school followed Parmenides in denying that sense phenomena revealed the world as it actually was; instead, the only thing with Being was thought, or the question of whether something exists or not is one of whether it can be thought.
In support of this, Parmenides ' pupil Zeno of Elea attempted to prove that the concept of motion was absurd and as such motion did not exist. He also attacked the subsequent development of pluralism, arguing that it was incompatible with Being. His arguments are known as Zeno 's paradoxes.
The power of Parmenides ' logic was such that some subsequent philosophers abandoned the monism of the Milesians, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, and Parmenides, where one thing was the arche, and adopted pluralism, such as Empedocles and Anaxagoras. There were, they said, multiple elements which were not reducible to one another and these were set in motion by love and strife (as in Empedocles) or by Mind (as in Anaxagoras). Agreeing with Parmenides that there is no coming into being or passing away, genesis or decay, they said that things appear to come into being and pass away because the elements out of which they are composed assemble or disassemble while themselves being unchanging.
Leucippus also proposed an ontological pluralism with a cosmogony based on two main elements: the vacuum and atoms. These, by means of their inherent movement, are crossing the void and creating the real material bodies. His theories were not well known by the time of Plato, however, and they were ultimately incorporated into the work of his student, Democritus.
Sophistry arose from the juxtaposition of physis (nature) and nomos (law). John Burnet posits its origin in the scientific progress of the previous centuries which suggested that Being was radically different from what was experienced by the senses and, if comprehensible at all, was not comprehensible in terms of order; the world in which men lived, on the other hand, was one of law and order, albeit of humankind 's own making. At the same time, nature was constant, while what was by law differed from one place to another and could be changed.
The first man to call himself a sophist, according to Plato, was Protagoras, whom he presents as teaching that all virtue is conventional. It was Protagoras who claimed that "man is the measure of all things, of the things that are, that they are, and of the things that are not, that they are not, '' which Plato interprets as a radical perspectivism, where some things seem to be one way for one person (and so actually are that way) and another way for another person (and so actually are that way as well); the conclusion being that one can not look to nature for guidance regarding how to live one 's life.
Protagoras and subsequent sophists tended to teach rhetoric as their primary vocation. Prodicus, Gorgias, Hippias, and Thrasymachus appear in various dialogues, sometimes explicitly teaching that while nature provides no ethical guidance, the guidance that the laws provide is worthless, or that nature favors those who act against the laws.
Socrates, born in Athens in the 5th century BCE, marks a watershed in ancient Greek philosophy. Athens was a center of learning, with sophists and philosophers traveling from across Greece to teach rhetoric, astronomy, cosmology, geometry, and the like. The great statesman Pericles was closely associated with this new learning and a friend of Anaxagoras, however, and his political opponents struck at him by taking advantage of a conservative reaction against the philosophers; it became a crime to investigate the things above the heavens or below the earth, subjects considered impious. Anaxagoras is said to have been charged and to have fled into exile when Socrates was about twenty years of age. There is a story that Protagoras, too, was forced to flee and that the Athenians burned his books. Socrates, however, is the only subject recorded as charged under this law, convicted, and sentenced to death in 399 BCE (see Trial of Socrates). In the version of his defense speech presented by Plato, he claims that it is the envy he arouses on account of his being a philosopher that will convict him.
While philosophy was an established pursuit prior to Socrates, Cicero credits him as "the first who brought philosophy down from the heavens, placed it in cities, introduced it into families, and obliged it to examine into life and morals, and good and evil. '' By this account he would be considered the founder of political philosophy. The reasons for this turn toward political and ethical subjects remain the object of much study.
The fact that many conversations involving Socrates (as recounted by Plato and Xenophon) end without having reached a firm conclusion, or aporetically, has stimulated debate over the meaning of the Socratic method. Socrates is said to have pursued this probing question - and - answer style of examination on a number of topics, usually attempting to arrive at a defensible and attractive definition of a virtue.
While Socrates ' recorded conversations rarely provide a definite answer to the question under examination, several maxims or paradoxes for which he has become known recur. Socrates taught that no one desires what is bad, and so if anyone does something that truly is bad, it must be unwillingly or out of ignorance; consequently, all virtue is knowledge. He frequently remarks on his own ignorance (claiming that he does not know what courage is, for example). Plato presents him as distinguishing himself from the common run of mankind by the fact that, while they know nothing noble and good, they do not know that they do not know, whereas Socrates knows and acknowledges that he knows nothing noble and good.
Numerous subsequent philosophical movements were inspired by Socrates or his younger associates. Plato casts Socrates as the main interlocutor in his dialogues, deriving from them the basis of Platonism (and by extension, Neoplatonism). Plato 's student Aristotle in turn criticized and built upon the doctrines he ascribed to Socrates and Plato, forming the foundation of Aristotelianism. Antisthenes founded the school that would come to be known as Cynicism and accused Plato of distorting Socrates ' teachings. Zeno of Citium in turn adapted the ethics of Cynicism to articulate Stoicism. Epicurus studied with Platonic and Stoic teachers before renouncing all previous philosophers (including Democritus, on whose atomism the Epicurean philosophy relies). The philosophic movements that were to dominate the intellectual life of the Roman empire were thus born in this febrile period following Socrates ' activity, and either directly or indirectly influenced by him. They were also absorbed by the expanding Muslim world in the 7th through 10th centuries AD, from which they returned to the West as foundations of Medieval philosophy and the Renaissance, as discussed below.
Plato was an Athenian of the generation after Socrates. Ancient tradition ascribes thirty - six dialogues and thirteen letters to him, although of these only twenty - four of the dialogues are now universally recognized as authentic; most modern scholars believe that at least twenty - eight dialogues and two of the letters were in fact written by Plato, although all of the thirty - six dialogues have some defenders. A further nine dialogues are ascribed to Plato but were considered spurious even in antiquity.
Plato 's dialogues feature Socrates, although not always as the leader of the conversation. (One dialogue, the Laws, instead contains an "Athenian Stranger. '') Along with Xenophon, Plato is the primary source of information about Socrates ' life and beliefs and it is not always easy to distinguish between the two. While the Socrates presented in the dialogues is often taken to be Plato 's mouthpiece, Socrates ' reputation for irony, his caginess regarding his own opinions in the dialogues, and his occasional absence from or minor role in the conversation serve to conceal Plato 's doctrines. Much of what is said about his doctrines is derived from what Aristotle reports about them.
The political doctrine ascribed to Plato is derived from the Republic, the Laws, and the Statesman. The first of these contains the suggestion that there will not be justice in cities unless they are ruled by philosopher kings; those responsible for enforcing the laws are compelled to hold their women, children, and property in common; and the individual is taught to pursue the common good through noble lies; the Republic says that such a city is likely impossible, however, generally assuming that philosophers would refuse to rule and the people would refuse to compel them to do so.
Whereas the Republic is premised on a distinction between the sort of knowledge possessed by the philosopher and that possessed by the king or political man, Socrates explores only the character of the philosopher; in the Statesman, on the other hand, a participant referred to as the Eleatic Stranger discusses the sort of knowledge possessed by the political man, while Socrates listens quietly. Although rule by a wise man would be preferable to rule by law, the wise can not help but be judged by the unwise, and so in practice, rule by law is deemed necessary.
Both the Republic and the Statesman reveal the limitations of politics, raising the question of what political order would be best given those constraints; that question is addressed in the Laws, a dialogue that does not take place in Athens and from which Socrates is absent. The character of the society described there is eminently conservative, a corrected or liberalized timocracy on the Spartan or Cretan model or that of pre-democratic Athens.
Plato 's dialogues also have metaphysical themes, the most famous of which is his theory of forms. It holds that non-material abstract (but substantial) forms (or ideas), and not the material world of change known to us through our physical senses, possess the highest and most fundamental kind of reality.
Plato often uses long - form analogies (usually allegories) to explain his ideas; the most famous is perhaps the Allegory of the Cave. It likens most humans to people tied up in a cave, who look only at shadows on the walls and have no other conception of reality. If they turned around, they would see what is casting the shadows (and thereby gain a further dimension to their reality). If some left the cave, they would see the outside world illuminated by the sun (representing the ultimate form of goodness and truth). If these travelers then re-entered the cave, the people inside (who are still only familiar with the shadows) would not be equipped to believe reports of this ' outside world '. This story explains the theory of forms with their different levels of reality, and advances the view that philosopher - kings are wisest while most humans are ignorant. One student of Plato (who would become another of the most influential philosophers of all time) stressed the implication that understanding relies upon first - hand observation.
Aristotle moved to Athens from his native Stageira in 367 BCE and began to study philosophy (perhaps even rhetoric, under Isocrates), eventually enrolling at Plato 's Academy. He left Athens approximately twenty years later to study botany and zoology, became a tutor of Alexander the Great, and ultimately returned to Athens a decade later to establish his own school: the Lyceum. At least twenty - nine of his treatises have survived, known as the corpus Aristotelicum, and address a variety of subjects including logic, physics, optics, metaphysics, ethics, rhetoric, politics, poetry, botany, and zoology.
Aristotle is often portrayed as disagreeing with his teacher Plato (e.g., in Raphael 's School of Athens). He criticizes the regimes described in Plato 's Republic and Laws, and refers to the theory of forms as "empty words and poetic metaphors. '' He is generally presented as giving greater weight to empirical observation and practical concerns.
Aristotle 's fame was not great during the Hellenistic period, when Stoic logic was in vogue, but later peripatetic commentators popularized his work, which eventually contributed heavily to Islamic, Jewish, and medieval Christian philosophy. His influence was such that Avicenna referred to him simply as "the Master ''; Maimonides, Alfarabi, Averroes, and Aquinas as "the Philosopher. ''
During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many different schools of thought developed in the Hellenistic world and then the Greco - Roman world. There were Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Syrians and Arabs who contributed to the development of Hellenistic philosophy. Elements of Persian philosophy and Indian philosophy also had an influence. The most notable schools of Hellenistic philosophy were:
The spread of Christianity throughout the Roman world, followed by the spread of Islam, ushered in the end of Hellenistic philosophy and the beginnings of Medieval philosophy, which was dominated by the three Abrahamic traditions: Jewish philosophy, Christian philosophy, and early Islamic philosophy.
During the Middle Ages, Greek ideas were largely forgotten in Western Europe due to the Migration Period, which resulted into decline in literacy. In the Byzantine Empire Greek ideas were preserved and studied, and not long after the first major expansion of Islam, however, the Abbasid caliphs authorized the gathering of Greek manuscripts and hired translators to increase their prestige. Islamic philosophers such as Al - Kindi (Alkindus), Al - Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) reinterpreted these works, and during the High Middle Ages Greek philosophy re-entered the West through translations from Arabic to Latin and also from the Byzantine Empire. The re-introduction of these philosophies, accompanied by the new Arabic commentaries, had a great influence on Medieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas. Although we are fortunate to have some figures who preserved these valuable texts, the general trend in Islam was to dispose of books that conflicted with the teachings of Mohammad. This can be seen in events such as the burning of the Al - hakam II library in Córdoba by Al - Mansur Ibn and Abi Aamir in 976.
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how do you say blue fire in japanese | Oni - wikipedia
Oni (鬼) are a kind of yōkai, supernatural ogre, or troll in Japanese folklore. They are typically portrayed as hulking figures with one or more horns growing out of their heads. Stereotypically, they are conceived of as red or blue - colored (green - colored), wearing loincloths of tiger pelt, and carrying iron clubs.
They are popular characters in Japanese art, literature, and theatre, and appear as stock villains in the well - known fairytales of Momotaro (Peach Boy), Issun - bōshi, and Kobutori Jīsan.
Depictions of oni vary widely but usually portray them as hideous, gigantic ogre - like creatures with a single horn or multiple horns emerging from their heads, with sharp claws and wild hair.
They are often depicted wearing tiger - skin loincloths and carrying iron clubs called kanabō (金棒). This image leads to the expression "oni with an iron club '' (鬼 に 金棒, oni - ni - kanabō), that is, to be invincible or undefeatable.
Their skin may be any number of colors, but red, blue, and green are particularly common. They may sometimes also be depicted as black - skinned, or yellow - skinned.
They may occasionally be depicted with a third eye on their forehead, or extra fingers and toes.
An old etymology for "oni '' is that the word derives from on, the on'yomi reading of a character (隠) meaning "to hide or conceal '', due to oni having the tendency of "hiding behind things, not wishing to appear ''. This explanation is found in the 10th century dictionary Wamyōshō, which reveals that the oni at the time had a different meaning, defined as "a soul / spirit of the dead ''.
The character for oni, 鬼 (pinyin: guǐ; Jyutping: gwai) in Chinese also means a dead or ancestral spirit, and not necessarily an evil specter. Accordingly, Chinese (Taoist) origins for the concept of oni has been proposed by Takahashi Masaaki (ja).
The oni was syncretized with Hindu - Buddhist creatures such as the man - devouring yaksha and the rakshasa, and became the oni who tormented sinners as wardens of Jigoku (Hell), administering sentences passed down by Hell 's magistrate, King Yama (Enma Daiō). The hungry ghosts called gaki (餓鬼) has also been sometimes considered a type of oni (the letter "ki '' 鬼 is also read "oni '').
Some scholars have even argued that the oni was entirely a concept of Buddhist mythology.
According to Chinese Taoism and esoteric Onmyōdō, the ways of yin and yang, the northeasterly direction is termed the kimon (鬼門, "demon gate '') and considered an unlucky direction through which evil spirits passed. Based on the assignment of the twelve zodiac animals to the cardinal directions, the kimon was also known as the ushitora (丑寅), or "Ox Tiger '' direction. One theory is that the oni 's bovine horns and tiger - skin loincloth developed as a visual depiction of this term.
Temples are often built facing that direction, for example, Enryaku - ji was deliberately built on Mount Hiei which was in the kimon (northeasterly) direction from Kyoto in order to guard the capital, and similarly Kan'ei - ji was built towards that direction from Edo Castle.
However, skeptics doubt this could have been the initial design of Enryaku - ji temple, since the temple was founded in 788, six years before Kyoto even existed as a capital, and if the ruling class were so feng shui minded, the subsequent northeasterly move of the capital from Nagaoka - kyō to Kyoto would have certainly been taboo.
Also, Japanese buildings may sometimes have L - shaped indentions at the northeast to ward oni away, for example the walls surrounding the Kyoto Imperial Palace have notched corners in that direction
The traditional bean - throwing custom to drive out oni is practiced during Setsubun festival in February. It involves people casting roasted soybeans indoors or out of their homes and shouting "Oni wa soto! Fuku wa uchi! '' ("鬼 は 外! 福 は 内! '', "Oni go out! Blessings come in! ''). This custom has grown from the medieval ritual of tsuina (Chinese: nuo) or oni - yarai, an year - end rite to drive away oni (ghosts).
Regionally around Tottori Prefecture during this season, a charm made of holly - leaves and dried sardine heads are used as guard against oni.
There is also a well known game in Japan called oni gokko (鬼ごっこ), which is the same as the game of tag that children in western countries play. The player who is "it '' is instead called the "oni ''.
Oni are featured in Japanese children 's stories such as Momotaro (Peach Boy), Issun - bōshi, and Kobutori Jīsan.
In more recent times, oni have lost some of their original wickedness and sometimes take on a more protective function. Men in oni costumes often lead Japanese parades to dispel any bad luck, for example.
Japanese buildings sometimes include oni - faced roof tiles called onigawara (鬼瓦), which are thought to ward away bad luck, much like gargoyles in Western tradition.
Many Japanese idioms and proverbs also make reference to oni. For example, the expression oya ni ninu ko wa oni no ko (親 に 似 ぬ 子 は 鬼 の 子) means literally "a child that does not resemble its parents is the child of an oni '', and may be used by a parent to chastise a misbehaving child.
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who has the most wins at new hampshire | New Hampshire Motor Speedway - wikipedia
New Hampshire Motor Speedway is a 1.058 - mile (1.703 km) oval speedway located in Loudon, New Hampshire, which has hosted NASCAR racing annually since the early 1990s, as well as the longest - running motorcycle race in North America, the Loudon Classic. Nicknamed "The Magic Mile '', the speedway is often converted into a 1.6 - mile (2.6 km) road course, which includes much of the oval.
The track was originally the site of Bryar Motorsports Park before being purchased and redeveloped by Bob Bahre. The track is currently one of eight major NASCAR tracks owned and operated by Speedway Motorsports.
The track opened as New Hampshire International Speedway in June 1990, after nine months of construction following the Bahre family 's purchase of the Bryar Motorsports Park. The existing road circuit was redeveloped into a multi-purpose track, with NASCAR added to the popular Loudon Classic motorcycle, WKA go - kart and SCCA races on the complex. It was the largest speedway in New England, and later expansion has made it the largest sports and entertainment venue of any type in the region. Its construction was extremely unusual for a race track, in that it was designed and constructed without consulting engineers, and using just one surveyor (whose primary job was to plant stakes) to help. NASCAR made its debut at the track in July 1990, with a Busch Series race won by Tommy Ellis. For three years, the Busch Series hosted a pair of races at the track each year.
The Busch races were successful. Loudon gained a spot on the NASCAR Cup Series schedule in 1993. Rusty Wallace won the inaugural Slick 50 300 in July of that year. That race was also Davey Allison 's final race: the next day, Allison was fatally injured in a helicopter crash.
In 1996, Ernie Irvan captured the win in the July race, making it one of the more emotional victories in NASCAR history. The win came less than two years after Irvan suffered a near - fatal crash at Michigan International Speedway, where he was given less than a 10 % chance of survival.
After the 1996 season Bahre and Bruton Smith bought North Wilkesboro Speedway and moved one of its Cup dates to New Hampshire. The second race is held in the middle of September. From 2004 to 2010, it was the site of the first event of the Chase for the Championship. In 2011, the date was shifted to the second race in the Chase, and currently serves as one of three races in the Challenger Round.
The speedway was the first for NASCAR to start the field in two groups under the warm - up laps to help set pit speed.
The track also hosted open - wheel racing for seven years, hosting CART from 1992 -- 1995, then the Indy Racing League from 1996 -- 1998. One of the open wheel winners was Tony Stewart, who later won three NASCAR Cup Series races at the track as well.
In 2000, the track was the site of a pair of fatal collisions which took the lives of two promising young drivers. In May, while practicing for a Busch Series race, Adam Petty perished when his throttle stuck exiting the second turn, resulting in a full speed crash head - on in the middle of the third and fourth turns. When the NASCAR Cup Series made their first appearance of the season, a similar fate befell 1998 Rookie of the Year Kenny Irwin, Jr. For safety reasons, track owners decided to run restrictor plates on the cars during their return trip to the speedway in September 2000, making it the first track in recent history outside of Daytona and Talladega to use them. It would be the last one as well; an uneventful Dura Lube 300 won by Jeff Burton, which had no lead changes, was the result of the experiment. It was the first wire - to - wire race since the 1970s.
The 2001 New Hampshire 300 was originally scheduled for September 16, the Sunday after the September 11 terrorist attacks. NASCAR initially announced that the race would be held as scheduled, but the event was postponed until November 23 of that year, which was the Friday after Thanksgiving. There was much concern about the weather, but race day turned out to be unseasonably mild. Robby Gordon won that race.
In 2002, in an effort to increase competitive racing, the track 's corners were turned into a progressive banking system, as the apron was paved and became part of the track, and the track 's banking was varied from 4 degrees in the lower two lanes to 12 % grade (about seven degrees). The addition of SAFER barriers to the corner walls was made in 2003.
During the September 2003 SYLVANIA 300, an incident occurred at this track involving Dale Jarrett where his wrecked race car brought out a caution flag. At the time, NASCAR 's policy was for its drivers to race back to the start - finish line to begin the caution period. This policy allowed drivers who were one or more laps down to pass the leader and get back one lap, but during the 2003 season there were several incidents which involved drivers racing back to the caution nearly causing collisions. Jarrett 's car had stalled on the front stretch -- in fact, directly in the path of oncoming cars -- and he was in danger of being hit by cars that were trying to get laps back. Although Jarrett avoided contact, the incident was enough for NASCAR to act and beginning with the next race, NASCAR outlawed racing back to the caution flag and instead froze the field after a caution, and a "free pass '' rule (popularly referred to as "the lucky dog '') was put in place in which the first car behind the leader not on the lead lap would get their lap back during each caution period in all of NASCAR 's national and regional series.
In mid-May 2006, Loudon was one of many New England communities which experienced damaging floods after a week of near - record rainfall. Several roads and bridges were washed out near the speedway. The infield was flooded, as was the track itself (while a road racing event was going on). The facility also experienced flooding in October 2005. In June 2009, the Lenox Industrial Tools 301 NASCAR Cup Series race was ended early by a storm which caused flooding at various locations around the track, including the infield tunnel: however in that case the post-race activities were not interrupted.
Before the 2008 racing season, Speedway Motorsports purchased NHIS and other racing - related assets from the Bahre family for $340 million cash. The name of the speedway changed to New Hampshire Motor Speedway. One of the assets included in the sale was a 50 % interest in North Wilkesboro Speedway. The other 50 % was still owned by Bruton Smith, the CEO of Speedway Motorsports.
NHMS representatives made a heavy push to reintroduce open - wheel racing in the form of IndyCar Series to the track in the 2009 season. In 2011, the series returned to the track. However, the race failed to meet attendance expectations and controversial decisions made by race officials at the end of the race caused the race to be left off the 2012 schedule.
After the 2012 Sylvania 300, Bruton Smith stated he wants to install permanent lighting at the speedway, just like the other SMI ovals. However, Bob Bahre signed a legal agreement with the town of Loudon and several neighbors when the track opened that nighttime races were prohibited. The agreement is binding on the current owners. In an October 2012 poll in Loudon, however, 58 % of those who responded said they did not mind a night race. This poll also included plans to build a casino at the track, if approved by the New Hampshire Legislature.
In 2018, the fall race weekend, consisting of the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series and Camping World Truck Series is being moved to the Las Vegas Motor Speedway.
In 2009, the track introduced its first mascot, Milo the Moose. He wears a fire suit with the Speedway Motorsports logo and the track 's name around it and is often seen wearing an open - faced helmet with a dark visor. He is seen on race weekends shaking hands with the drivers during driver introductions and hanging out with fans.
The track length is disputed by the two major series that run at New Hampshire. The NASCAR timing and scoring use a length of 1.06 miles (1.71 km). The IRL timing and scoring use a length of 1.025 miles (1.650 km).
(As of 7 / 13 / 14)
* from minimum 10 starts.
New Hampshire Indy 225
Bryar Motorsports Park hosted Round 3 of the inaugural Trans - Am Series (1966). The race was held over 250 mi and was won outright by Canadian - born Australian Allan Moffat in an under 2.0 liter Lotus Cortina. The speedway hosted a round of the 2012 Global RallyCross Championship, and it hosts the Bond Auto Parts Invitational in the American Canadian Tour. It has both mini oval and road course U.S. Legends Cars International races, as well as Whelen All - American Series, Bandolero Series, and other local series races.
Since 2011, the track has also hosted a race for the amateur "24 Hours of Lemons '' race series. The Loudon Annoying was a spring event held in 2011 and 2012, and the fall Halloween Hooptiefest has taken place since 2012.
Coordinates: 43 ° 21 ′ 44 '' N 71 ° 27 ′ 41 '' W / 43.36226 ° N 71.46125 ° W / 43.36226; - 71.46125
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where do you jump from in long jump | Long jump - wikipedia
The long jump (historically called the broad jump in the USA) is a track and field event in which athletes combine speed, strength and agility in an attempt to leap as far as possible from a take off point. Along with the triple jump, the two events that measure jumping for distance as a group are referred to as the "horizontal jumps ''. This event has a history in the Ancient Olympic Games and has been a modern Olympic event for men since the first Olympics in 1896 and for women since 1948.
At the elite level, competitors run down a runway (usually coated with the same rubberized surface as running tracks, crumb rubber also vulcanized rubber -- known generally as an all - weather track) and jump as far as they can from a wooden board 20 cm or 8 inches wide that is built flush with the runway into a pit filled with finely ground gravel or sand. If the competitor starts the leap with any part of the foot past the foul line, the jump is declared a foul and no distance is recorded. A layer of plasticine is placed immediately after the board to detect this occurrence. An official (similar to a referee) will also watch the jump and make the determination. The competitor can initiate the jump from any point behind the foul line; however, the distance measured will always be perpendicular to the foul line to the nearest break in the sand caused by any part of the body or uniform. Therefore, it is in the best interest of the competitor to get as close to the foul line as possible. Competitors are allowed to place two marks along the side of the runway in order to assist them to jump accurately. At a lesser meet and facilities, the plasticine will likely not exist, the runway might be a different surface or jumpers may initiate their jump from a painted or taped mark on the runway. At a smaller meet, the number of attempts might also be limited to four or three.
Each competitor has a set number of attempts. That would normally be three trials, with three additional jumps being awarded to the best 8 or 9 (depending on the number of lanes on the track at that facility, so the event is equatable to track events) competitors. All legal marks will be recorded but only the longest legal jump counts towards the results. The competitor with the longest legal jump (from either the trial or final rounds) at the end of competition is declared the winner. In the event of an exact tie, then comparing the next best jumps of the tied competitors will be used to determine place. In a large, multi-day elite competition (like the Olympics or World Championships), a set number of competitors will advance to the final round, determined in advance by the meet management. A set of 3 trial round jumps will be held in order to select those finalists. It is standard practice to allow at a minimum, one more competitor than the number of scoring positions to return to the final round, though 12 plus ties and automatic qualifying distances are also potential factors. (For specific rules and regulations in United States Track & Field see Rule 185).
For record purposes, the maximum accepted wind assistance is two metres per second (m / s) (4.5 mph).
The long jump is the only known jumping event of Ancient Greece 's original Olympics ' pentathlon events. All events that occurred at the Olympic Games were initially supposed to act as a form of training for warfare. The long jump emerged probably because it mirrored the crossing of obstacles such as streams and ravines. After investigating the surviving depictions of the ancient event it is believed that unlike the modern event, athletes were only allowed a short running start. The athletes carried a weight in each hand, which were called halteres (between 1 and 4.5 kg). These weights were swung forward as the athlete jumped in order to increase momentum. It was commonly believed that the jumper would throw the weights behind him in midair to increase his forward momentum; however, halteres were held throughout the duration of the jump. Swinging them down and back at the end of the jump would change the athlete 's center of gravity and allow the athlete to stretch his legs outward, increasing his distance. The jump itself was made from the bater ("that which is trod upon ''). It was most likely a simple board placed on the stadium track which was removed after the event. The jumpers would land in what was called a skamma ("dug - up '' area). The idea that this was a pit full of sand is wrong. Sand in the jumping pit is a modern invention. The skamma was simply a temporary area dug up for that occasion and not something that remained over time.
The long jump was considered one of the most difficult of the events held at the Games since a great deal of skill was required. Music was often played during the jump and Philostratus says that pipes at times would accompany the jump so as to provide a rhythm for the complex movements of the halteres by the athlete. Philostratus is quoted as saying, "The rules regard jumping as the most difficult of the competitions, and they allow the jumper to be given advantages in rhythm by the use of the flute, and in weight by the use of the halter. '' Most notable in the ancient sport was a man called Chionis, who in the 656 BC Olympics staged a jump of 7.05 metres (23 feet and 1.7 inches).
There has been some argument by modern scholars over the long jump. Some have attempted to recreate it as a triple jump. The images provide the only evidence for the action so it is more well received that it was much like today 's long jump. The main reason some want to call it a triple jump is the presence of a source that claims there once was a fifty - five ancient foot jump done by a man named Phayllos.
The long jump has been part of modern Olympic competition since the inception of the Games in 1896. In 1914, Dr. Harry Eaton Stewart recommended the "running broad jump '' as a standardized track and field event for women. However, it was not until 1948 that the women 's long jump was added to the Olympic athletics programme.
There are five main components of the long jump: the approach run, the last two strides, takeoff, action in the air, and landing. Speed in the run - up, or approach, and a high leap off the board are the fundamentals of success. Because speed is such an important factor of the approach, it is not surprising that many long jumpers also compete successfully in sprints. A classic example of this long jump / sprint doubling are performances by Carl Lewis.
The objective of the approach is to gradually accelerate to a maximum controlled speed at takeoff. The most important factor for the distance travelled by an object is its velocity at takeoff -- both the speed and angle. Elite jumpers usually leave the ground at an angle of twenty degrees or less; therefore, it is more beneficial for a jumper to focus on the speed component of the jump. The greater the speed at takeoff, the longer the trajectory of the center of mass will be. The importance of a takeoff speed is a factor in the success of sprinters in this event.
The length of the approach is usually consistent distance for an athlete. Approaches can vary between 12 and 19 strides on the novice and intermediate levels, while at the elite level they are closer to between 20 and 22 strides. The exact distance and number of strides in an approach depends on the jumper 's experience, sprinting technique, and conditioning level. Consistency in the approach is important as it is the competitor 's objective to get as close to the front of the takeoff board as possible without crossing the line with any part of the foot.
Inconsistent approaches are a common problem in the event. As a result, the approach is usually practiced by athletes about 6 -- 8 times per jumping session (see Training below).
The objective of the last two strides is to prepare the body for takeoff while conserving as much speed as possible.
The penultimate stride is longer than the last stride. The competitor begins to lower his or her center of gravity to prepare the body for the vertical impulse. The final stride is shorter because the body is beginning to raise the center of gravity in preparation for takeoff.
The last two strides are extremely important because they determine the velocity with which the competitor will enter the jump.
The objective of the takeoff is to create a vertical impulse through the athlete 's center of gravity while maintaining balance and control.
This phase is one of the most technical parts of the long jump. Jumpers must be conscious to place the foot flat on the ground, because jumping off either the heels or the toes negatively affects the jump. Taking off from the board heel - first has a braking effect, which decreases velocity and strains the joints. Jumping off the toes decreases stability, putting the leg at risk of buckling or collapsing from underneath the jumper. While concentrating on foot placement, the athlete must also work to maintain proper body position, keeping the torso upright and moving the hips forward and up to achieve the maximum distance from board contact to foot release.
There are four main styles of takeoff: the kick style, double - arm style, sprint takeoff, and the power sprint or bounding takeoff.
The kick style takeoff is where the athlete actively cycles the leg before a full impulse has been directed into the board then landing into the pit. This requires great strength in the hamstrings. This causes the jumper to jump to large distances.
The double - arm style of takeoff works by moving both arms in a vertical direction as the competitor takes off. This produces a high hip height and a large vertical impulse.
The sprint takeoff is the style most widely instructed by coaching staff. This is a classic single - arm action that resembles a jumper in full stride. It is an efficient takeoff style for maintaining velocity through takeoff.
The power sprint takeoff, or bounding takeoff, is one of the more common elite styles. Very similar to the sprint style, the body resembles a sprinter in full stride. However, there is one major difference. The arm that pushes back on takeoff (the arm on the side of the takeoff leg) fully extends backward, rather than remaining at a bent position. This additional extension increases the impulse at takeoff.
The "correct '' style of takeoff will vary from athlete to athlete.
There are three major flight techniques for the long jump: the hang, the sail, and the hitch - kick. Each technique is to combat the forward rotation experienced from take - off but is basically down to preference from the athlete. It is important to note that once the body is airborne, there is nothing that the athlete can do to change the direction they are traveling and consequently where they are going to land in the pit. However, it can be argued that certain techniques influence an athlete 's landing, which can affect the distance measured. For example, if an athlete lands feet first but falls back because they are not correctly balanced, a lower distance will be measured.
In the 1970s some jumpers used a forward somersault, including Tuariki Delamere who used it at the 1974 NCAA Championships, and who matched the jump of the current Olympic champion Randy Williams. The somersault jump has potential to produce longer jumps than other techniques because in the flip, no power is lost countering forward momentum, and it reduces wind resistance in the air. The front flip jump was subsequently banned due to fear of it being unsafe.
The long jump generally requires training in a variety of areas. These areas include: speed work, jumping, over distance running, weight training, plyometric training.
Speed work is essentially short distance speed training where the athlete would be running at top or near top speeds. The distances for this type of work would vary between indoor and outdoor season but are usually around 30 -- 60 m for indoors and up to 100 m for outdoors.
Long Jumpers tend to practice jumping 1 -- 2 times a week. Approaches, or run - throughs, are repeated sometimes up to 6 -- 8 times per session. Short approach jumps are common for jumpers to do, as it allows for them to work on specific technical aspects of their jumps in a controlled environment. Using equipment such as low hurdles and other obstacles are common in long jump training, as it helps the jumper maintain and hold phases of their jump. As a common rule, it is important for the jumper to engage in full approach jumps at least once a week, as it will prepare the jumper for competition.
Over-distance running workouts helps the athlete jump a further distance than their set goal. For example, having a 100 m runner practice by running 200 m repeats on a track. This is specifically concentrated in the season when athletes are working on building endurance. Specific over-distance running workouts are performed 1 -- 2 times a week. This is great for building sprint endurance, which is required in competitions where the athlete is sprinting down the runway 3 -- 6 times. Typical workouts would include 5 × 150 m. Preseason workouts may be longer, including workouts like 6 × 300 m
During pre-season training and early in the competition season weight training tends to play a major role in the sport. It is customary for a long jumper to weight train up to 4 times a week, focusing mainly on quick movements involving the legs and trunk. Some athletes perform Olympic lifts in training. Athletes use low repetition and emphasize speed to maximize the strength increase while minimizing adding additional weight to their frame. Important lifts for a long jumper include the back squat, front squat, power cleans and hang cleans. The emphasis on these lifts should be on speed and explosive as those are crucial in the long jump take off phase.
Plyometrics, including running up and down stairs and hurdle bounding, can be incorporated into workouts, generally twice a week. This allows an athlete to work on agility and explosiveness. Other plyometric workouts that are common for long jumpers are box jumps. Boxes of various heights are set up spaced evenly apart and jumpers can proceed jumping onto them and off moving in a forward direction. They can vary the jumps from both legs to single jumps. Alternatively, they can set up the boxes in front of a high jump mat if allowed, and jump over a high jump bar onto the mat mimicking a landing phase of the jump. These plyometric workouts are typically performed at the end of a workout.
Bounding is any sort of continuous jumping or leaping. Bounding drills usually require single leg bounding, double - leg bounding, or some variation of the two. The focus of bounding drills is usually to spend as little time on the ground as possible and working on technical accuracy, fluidity, and jumping endurance and strength. Technically, bounding is part of plyometrics, as a form of a running exercise such as high knees and butt kicks.
Flexibility is an often forgotten tool for long jumpers. Effective flexibility prevents injury, which can be important for high - impact events such as the long jump. It also helps the athlete sprint down the runway. Hip and groin injuries are common for long jumpers who may neglect proper warm - up and stretching.
Hurdle mobility drills are a common way that jumpers improve flexibility. Common hurdle drills include setting up about 5 -- 7 hurdles at appropriate heights and having athletes walk over them in a continuous fashion. Other variations of hurdle mobility drills are used as well, including hurdle skips. This is a crucial part of a jumper 's training since they perform most exercises for a very short period of time and often are n't aware of their form and technique. A common tool in many long jump workouts is the use of video taping. This enables the athlete to go back and watch their own progress as well as letting the athlete compare their own footage to that of some of the world - class jumpers.
Training styles, duration, and intensity vary immensely from athlete to athlete and are based on the experience and strength of the athlete as well as on their coaching style.
Track and field events have been selected as a main motif in numerous collectors ' coins. One of the recent samples is the € 10 Greek Long Jump commemorative coin, minted in 2003 to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics. The obverse of the coin portrays a modern athlete at the moment he is touching the ground, while the ancient athlete in the background is shown while starting off his jump, as he is seen on a black - figure vase of the 5th century BC.
The long jump world record has been held by just four individuals for the majority of its existence. The first record ratified by the IAAF in 1901, by Peter O'Connor stood just short of 20 years. After it was broken in 1921, the record changed hands six times until Jesse Owens set the record at the 1935 Big Ten track meet in Ann Arbor, Michigan of 8.13 m (26 ft 8 in) that was not broken for 25 years and 2 months, until 1960 by Ralph Boston. Boston improved upon it and exchanged records with Igor Ter - Ovanesyan seven times over the next seven years. At the 1968 Summer Olympics Bob Beamon jumped 8.90 m (29 ft 2 ⁄ in) at an altitude of 7,349 feet (2,240 m), a jump not exceeded for 23 years, and which remains the second longest legal jump of all time. On 30 August 1991 Mike Powell of the United States set the current men 's world record at the World Championships in Tokyo. It was in a well - known show down against Carl Lewis, who also beat Beamon 's record that day but with an aiding wind (thus not legal for record purposes). Powell 's record 8.95 m (29 ft 4 ⁄ in) has now stood for more than 26 years.
Some jumps over 8.95 m (29 ft 4 ⁄ in) have been officially recorded. 8.99 m (29 ft 5 ⁄ in) was recorded by Mike Powell himself (wind - aided + 4.4) set at high altitude in Sestriere, Italy in 1992. A potential world record of 8.96 m (29 ft 4 ⁄ in) was recorded by Iván Pedroso, with a "legal '' wind reading also at Sestriere, but the jump was not validated because videotape revealed someone was standing in front of the wind gauge, invalidating the reading (and costing Pedroso a Ferrari valued at $130,000 -- the prize for breaking the record at that meet). Lewis himself jumped 8.91 m moments before Powell 's record - breaking jump with the wind exceeding the maximum allowed. This jump remains the longest ever not to win an Olympic or World Championship gold medal, or any competition in general.
The women 's world record has seen much more consistent improvement except for the current record. The longest to hold the record prior was by Fanny Blankers - Koen during World War II. There have been three days where the record was tied or improved upon twice in the same competition. That record stood for just over 10 years. The current world record for women is held by Galina Chistyakova of the former Soviet Union who leapt 7.52 m (24 ft 8 in) in Leningrad on 11 June 1988, a mark that has stood for over 29 years.
Below is a list of all other legal jumps equal or superior to 8.71 m:
Below is a list of all other legal jumps equal or superior to 7.40 m:
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when did the attack on pearl harbor start and end | Attack on Pearl Harbor - wikipedia
Coordinates: 21 ° 22 ′ N 157 ° 57 ′ W / 21.367 ° N 157.950 ° W / 21.367; - 157.950
Major Japanese tactical victory; precipitated the entrance of the United States into World War II
Southeast Asia
Burma
Southwest Pacific
North America
Japan
Manchuria
The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii Territory, on the morning of December 7, 1941. The attack, also known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor, led to the United States ' entry into World War II. The Japanese military leadership referred to the attack as the Hawaii Operation and Operation AI, and as Operation Z during its planning.
Japan intended the attack as a preventive action to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions that were planned in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. Over the next seven hours there were coordinated Japanese attacks on the U.S. - held Philippines, Guam and Wake Island and on the British Empire in Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong.
The attack commenced at 7: 48 a.m. Hawaiian Time (18: 18 GMT). The base was attacked by 353 Imperial Japanese aircraft (including fighters, level and dive bombers, and torpedo bombers) in two waves, launched from six aircraft carriers. All eight U.S. Navy battleships were damaged, with four sunk. All but the USS Arizona were later raised, and six were returned to service and went on to fight in the war. The Japanese also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft training ship, and one minelayer. One hundred eighty - eight U.S. aircraft were destroyed; 2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded. Important base installations such as the power station, dry dock, shipyard, maintenance, and fuel and torpedo storage facilities, as well as the submarine piers and headquarters building (also home of the intelligence section), were not attacked. Japanese losses were light: 29 aircraft and five midget submarines lost, and 64 servicemen killed. One Japanese sailor, Kazuo Sakamaki, was captured.
The surprise attack came as a profound shock to the American people and led directly to the American entry into World War II in both the Pacific and European theaters. The following day, December 8, the United States declared war on Japan, and several days later, on December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S. The U.S. responded with a declaration of war against Germany and Italy. Domestic support for non-interventionism, which had been fading since the Fall of France in 1940, disappeared.
There were numerous historical precedents for unannounced military action by Japan, but the lack of any formal warning, particularly while negotiations were still apparently ongoing, led President Franklin D. Roosevelt to proclaim December 7, 1941, "a date which will live in infamy ''. Because the attack happened without a declaration of war and without explicit warning, the attack on Pearl Harbor was later judged in the Tokyo Trials to be a war crime.
War between Japan and the United States had been a possibility that each nation had been aware of (and developed contingency plans for) since the 1920s, though tensions did not begin to grow seriously until Japan 's 1931 invasion of Manchuria. Over the next decade, Japan continued to expand into China, leading to all - out war between those countries in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China and achieve sufficient resource independence to attain victory on the mainland; the "Southern Operation '' was designed to assist these efforts.
From December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay, the Allison incident, and the Nanking Massacre (the International Military Tribunal of the Far East concluded that more than 200,000 Chinese non-combatants were killed in indiscriminate massacres, though other estimates have ranged from 40,000 to more than 300,000) swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan. Fearing Japanese expansion, the United States, the United Kingdom, and France provided loan assistance for war supply contracts to China.
In 1940, Japan invaded French Indochina in an effort to control supplies reaching China. The United States halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools, and aviation gasoline to Japan, which was perceived by Japan as an unfriendly act. The U.S. did not stop oil exports to Japan at that time in part because prevailing sentiment in Washington was that such an action would be an extreme step that Japan would likely consider a provocation, given Japanese dependence on U.S. oil.
In mid-1940 President Franklin D. Roosevelt moved the Pacific Fleet to Hawaii from its previous base in San Diego. He also ordered a military buildup in the Philippines, both in the hope of discouraging Japanese aggression in the Far East. Because the Japanese high command was (mistakenly) certain that any attack on the UK 's Southeast Asian colonies, including Singapore, would bring the U.S. into war, a devastating preventive strike appeared to be the only way to avoid U.S. naval interference. An invasion of the Philippines was also considered necessary by Japanese war planners. The U.S. War Plan Orange had envisioned defending the Philippines with a 40,000 - man elite force. This was opposed by Douglas MacArthur, who felt that he would need a force ten times that size, and was never implemented. By 1941, U.S. planners anticipated abandonment of the Philippines at the outbreak of war and orders to that effect were given in late 1941 to Admiral Thomas Hart, commander of the Asiatic Fleet.
The U.S. ceased oil exports to Japan in July 1941, following Japanese expansion into French Indochina after the Fall of France, in part because of new American restrictions on domestic oil consumption. This in turn caused the Japanese to proceed with plans to take the Dutch East Indies, an oil - rich territory. On August 17, Roosevelt warned Japan that the U.S. was prepared to take steps against Japan if it attacked "neighboring countries ''. The Japanese were faced with the option of either withdrawing from China and losing face or seizing and securing new sources of raw materials in the resource - rich, European - controlled colonies of Southeast Asia.
Japan and the U.S. engaged in negotiations during the course of 1941 in an effort to improve relations. During these negotiations, Japan offered to withdraw from most of China and Indochina when peace was made with the Nationalist government, adopt an independent interpretation of the Tripartite Pact, and not to discriminate in trade provided all other countries reciprocated. Washington rejected these proposals. Japanese Prime Minister Konoye then offered to meet with Roosevelt, but Roosevelt insisted on coming to an agreement before any meeting. The U.S. ambassador to Japan repeatedly urged Roosevelt to accept the meeting, warning that it was the only way to preserve the conciliatory Konoye government and peace in the Pacific. His recommendation was not acted upon. The Konoye government collapsed the following month when the Japanese military refused to agree to the withdrawal of all troops from China.
Japan 's final proposal, on November 20, offered to withdraw their forces from southern Indochina and not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia provided that the U.S., the UK, and the Netherlands ceased aiding China and lifted their sanctions against Japan. The American counter-proposal of November 26 (November 27 in Japan) (the Hull note) required Japan to evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with Pacific powers. However the day before the Hull Note was delivered, on November 26 in Japan, the main Japanese attack fleet left port for Pearl Harbor.
Preliminary planning for an attack on Pearl Harbor to protect the move into the "Southern Resource Area '' (the Japanese term for the Dutch East Indies and Southeast Asia generally) had begun very early in 1941 under the auspices of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, then commanding Japan 's Combined Fleet. He won assent to formal planning and training for an attack from the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff only after much contention with Naval Headquarters, including a threat to resign his command. Full - scale planning was underway by early spring 1941, primarily by Rear Admiral Ryūnosuke Kusaka, with assistance from Captain Minoru Genda and Yamamoto 's Deputy Chief of Staff, Captain Kameto Kuroshima. The planners studied the 1940 British air attack on the Italian fleet at Taranto intensively.
Over the next several months, pilots were trained, equipment was adapted, and intelligence was collected. Despite these preparations, Emperor Hirohito did not approve the attack plan until November 5, after the third of four Imperial Conferences called to consider the matter. Final authorization was not given by the emperor until December 1, after a majority of Japanese leaders advised him the "Hull Note '' would "destroy the fruits of the China incident, endanger Manchukuo and undermine Japanese control of Korea. ''
By late 1941, many observers believed that hostilities between the U.S. and Japan were imminent. A Gallup poll just before the attack on Pearl Harbor found that 52 % of Americans expected war with Japan, 27 % did not, and 21 % had no opinion. While U.S. Pacific bases and facilities had been placed on alert on many occasions, U.S. officials doubted Pearl Harbor would be the first target; instead, they expected the Philippines would be attacked first. This presumption was due to the threat that the air bases throughout the country and the naval base at Manila posed to sea lanes, as well as to the shipment of supplies to Japan from territory to the south. They also incorrectly believed that Japan was not capable of mounting more than one major naval operation at a time.
The Japanese attack had several major aims. First, it intended to destroy important American fleet units, thereby preventing the Pacific Fleet from interfering with Japanese conquest of the Dutch East Indies and Malaya and to enable Japan to conquer Southeast Asia without interference. Second, it was hoped to buy time for Japan to consolidate its position and increase its naval strength before shipbuilding authorized by the 1940 Vinson - Walsh Act erased any chance of victory. Third, to deliver a blow to America 's ability to mobilize its forces in the Pacific, battleships were chosen as the main targets, since they were the prestige ships of any navy at the time. Finally, it was hoped that the attack would undermine American morale such that the U.S. government would drop its demands contrary to Japanese interests, and would seek a compromise peace with Japan.
Striking the Pacific Fleet at anchor in Pearl Harbor carried two distinct disadvantages: the targeted ships would be in very shallow water, so it would be relatively easy to salvage and possibly repair them; and most of the crews would survive the attack, since many would be on shore leave or would be rescued from the harbor. A further important disadvantage -- this of timing, and known to the Japanese -- was the absence from Pearl Harbor of all three of the U.S. Pacific Fleet 's aircraft carriers (Enterprise, Lexington, and Saratoga). IJN top command was attached to Admiral Mahan 's "decisive battle '' doctrine, especially that of destroying the maximum number of battleships. Despite these concerns, Yamamoto decided to press ahead.
Japanese confidence in their ability to achieve a short, victorious war also meant other targets in the harbor, especially the navy yard, oil tank farms, and submarine base, were ignored, since -- by their thinking -- the war would be over before the influence of these facilities would be felt.
On November 26, 1941, a Japanese task force (the Striking Force) of six aircraft carriers -- Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū, Hiryū, Shōkaku, and Zuikaku -- departed Hittokapu Bay on Kasatka (now Iterup) Island in the Kurile Islands, en route to a position northwest of Hawaii, intending to launch its 408 aircraft to attack Pearl Harbor: 360 for the two attack waves and 48 on defensive combat air patrol (CAP), including nine fighters from the first wave.
The first wave was to be the primary attack, while the second wave was to attack carriers as its first objective and cruisers as its second, with battleships as the third target. The first wave carried most of the weapons to attack capital ships, mainly specially adapted Type 91 aerial torpedoes which were designed with an anti-roll mechanism and a rudder extension that let them operate in shallow water. The aircrews were ordered to select the highest value targets (battleships and aircraft carriers) or, if these were not present, any other high value ships (cruisers and destroyers). First wave dive bombers were to attack ground targets. Fighters were ordered to strafe and destroy as many parked aircraft as possible to ensure they did not get into the air to intercept the bombers, especially in the first wave. When the fighters ' fuel got low they were to refuel at the aircraft carriers and return to combat. Fighters were to serve CAP duties where needed, especially over U.S. airfields.
Before the attack commenced, two reconnaissance aircraft launched from cruisers Chikuma and Tone were sent to scout over Oahu and Maui and report on U.S. fleet composition and location. Reconnaissance aircraft flights risked alerting the U.S., and were not necessary. U.S. fleet composition and preparedness information in Pearl Harbor was already known due to the reports of the Japanese spy Takeo Yoshikawa. A report of the absence of the U.S. fleet in Lahaina anchorage off Maui was received from the fleet submarine I - 72. Another four scout planes patrolled the area between the Japanese carrier force (the Kidō Butai) and Niihau, to detect any counterattack.
Fleet submarines I - 16, I - 18, I - 20, I - 22, and I - 24 each embarked a Type A midget submarine for transport to the waters off Oahu. The five I - boats left Kure Naval District on November 25, 1941. On December 6, they came to within 10 nmi (19 km; 12 mi) of the mouth of Pearl Harbor and launched their midget subs at about 01: 00 on December 7. At 03: 42 Hawaiian Time, the minesweeper Condor spotted a midget submarine periscope southwest of the Pearl Harbor entrance buoy and alerted the destroyer Ward. The midget may have entered Pearl Harbor. However, Ward sank another midget submarine at 06: 37 in the first American shots in the Pacific Theater. A midget submarine on the north side of Ford Island missed the seaplane tender Curtiss with her first torpedo and missed the attacking destroyer Monaghan with her other one before being sunk by Monaghan at 08: 43.
A third midget submarine, Ha - 19, grounded twice, once outside the harbor entrance and again on the east side of Oahu, where it was captured on December 8. Ensign Kazuo Sakamaki swam ashore and was captured by Hawaii National Guard Corporal David Akui, becoming the first Japanese prisoner of war. A fourth had been damaged by a depth charge attack and was abandoned by its crew before it could fire its torpedoes. Japanese forces received a radio message from a midget submarine at 00: 41 on December 8 claiming damage to one or more large warships inside Pearl Harbor.
In 1992, 2000, and 2001, Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory 's submersibles found the wreck of the fifth midget submarine lying in three parts outside Pearl Harbor. The wreck was in the debris field where much surplus U.S. equipment was dumped after the war, including vehicles and landing craft. Both of its torpedoes were missing. This correlates with reports of two torpedoes fired at the light cruiser St. Louis at 10: 04 at the entrance of Pearl Harbor, and a possible torpedo fired at destroyer Helm at 08: 21.
The attack took place before any formal declaration of war was made by Japan, but this was not Admiral Yamamoto 's intention. He originally stipulated that the attack should not commence until thirty minutes after Japan had informed the United States that peace negotiations were at an end. However, the attack began before the notice could be delivered. Tokyo transmitted the 5000 - word notification (commonly called the "14 - Part Message '') in two blocks to the Japanese Embassy in Washington. Transcribing the message took too long for the Japanese ambassador to deliver it on schedule; in the event, it was not presented until more than an hour after the attack began. (In fact, U.S. code breakers had already deciphered and translated most of the message hours before he was scheduled to deliver it.) The final part is sometimes described as a declaration of war. While it was viewed by a number of senior U.S government and military officials as a very strong indicator negotiations were likely to be terminated and that war might break out at any moment, it neither declared war nor severed diplomatic relations. A declaration of war was printed on the front page of Japan 's newspapers in the evening edition of December 8, but not delivered to the U.S. government until the day after the attack.
For decades, conventional wisdom held that Japan attacked without first formally breaking diplomatic relations only because of accidents and bumbling that delayed the delivery of a document hinting at war to Washington. In 1999, however, Takeo Iguchi, a professor of law and international relations at International Christian University in Tokyo, discovered documents that pointed to a vigorous debate inside the government over how, and indeed whether, to notify Washington of Japan 's intention to break off negotiations and start a war, including a December 7 entry in the war diary saying, "(O) ur deceptive diplomacy is steadily proceeding toward success. '' Of this, Iguchi said, "The diary shows that the army and navy did not want to give any proper declaration of war, or indeed prior notice even of the termination of negotiations... and they clearly prevailed. ''
In any event, even if the Japanese had decoded and delivered the 14 - Part Message before the beginning of the attack, it would not have constituted either a formal break of diplomatic relations or a declaration of war. The final two paragraphs of the message read:
Thus the earnest hope of the Japanese Government to adjust Japanese - American relations and to preserve and promote the peace of the Pacific through cooperation with the American Government has finally been lost.
The first attack wave of 183 planes was launched north of Oahu, led by Commander Mitsuo Fuchida. Six planes failed to launch due to technical difficulties. It included:
As the first wave approached Oahu, it was detected by the U.S. Army SCR - 270 radar at Opana Point near the island 's northern tip. This post had been in training mode for months, but was not yet operational. The operators, Privates George Elliot Jr. and Joseph Lockard, reported a target. But Lieutenant Kermit A. Tyler, a newly assigned officer at the thinly manned Intercept Center, presumed it was the scheduled arrival of six B - 17 bombers from California. The Japanese planes were approaching from a direction very close (only a few degrees difference) to the bombers, and while the operators had never seen a formation as large on radar, they neglected to tell Tyler of its size. Tyler, for security reasons, could not tell the operators of the six B - 17s that were due (even though it was widely known).
As the first wave planes approached Oahu, they encountered and shot down several U.S. aircraft. At least one of these radioed a somewhat incoherent warning. Other warnings from ships off the harbor entrance were still being processed or awaiting confirmation when the attacking planes began bombing and strafing. Nevertheless, it is not clear any warnings would have had much effect even if they had been interpreted correctly and much more promptly. The results the Japanese achieved in the Philippines were essentially the same as at Pearl Harbor, though MacArthur had almost nine hours warning that the Japanese had already attacked Pearl Harbor.
The air portion of the attack began at 7: 48 a.m. Hawaiian Time (3: 18 a.m. December 8 Japanese Standard Time, as kept by ships of the Kido Butai), with the attack on Kaneohe. A total of 353 Japanese planes in two waves reached Oahu. Slow, vulnerable torpedo bombers led the first wave, exploiting the first moments of surprise to attack the most important ships present (the battleships), while dive bombers attacked U.S. air bases across Oahu, starting with Hickam Field, the largest, and Wheeler Field, the main U.S. Army Air Forces fighter base. The 171 planes in the second wave attacked the Army Air Forces ' Bellows Field near Kaneohe on the windward side of the island, and Ford Island. The only aerial opposition came from a handful of P - 36 Hawks, P - 40 Warhawks, and some SBD Dauntless dive bombers from the carrier Enterprise.
In the first wave attack, about eight of the forty - nine 800 kg (1760 lb) armor - piercing bombs dropped hit their intended battleship targets. At least two of those bombs broke up on impact, another detonated before penetrating an unarmored deck, and one was a dud. Thirteen of the forty torpedoes hit battleships, and four torpedoes hit other ships. Men aboard U.S. ships awoke to the sounds of alarms, bombs exploding, and gunfire, prompting bleary - eyed men to dress as they ran to General Quarters stations. (The famous message, "Air raid Pearl Harbor. This is not drill. '', was sent from the headquarters of Patrol Wing Two, the first senior Hawaiian command to respond.) The defenders were very unprepared. Ammunition lockers were locked, aircraft parked wingtip to wingtip in the open to prevent sabotage, guns unmanned (none of the Navy 's 5 "/ 38s, only a quarter of its machine guns, and only four of 31 Army batteries got in action). Despite this low alert status, many American military personnel responded effectively during the attack. Ensign Joe Taussig Jr., aboard Nevada, commanded the ship 's antiaircraft guns and was severely wounded, but continued to be on post. Lt. Commander F.J. Thomas commanded Nevada in the captain 's absence and got her under way until the ship was grounded at 9: 10 a.m. One of the destroyers, Aylwin, got underway with only four officers aboard, all ensigns, none with more than a year 's sea duty; she operated at sea for 36 hours before her commanding officer managed to get back aboard. Captain Mervyn Bennion, commanding West Virginia, led his men until he was cut down by fragments from a bomb which hit Tennessee, moored alongside.
The second planned wave consisted of 171 planes: 54 B5Ns, 81 D3As, and 36 A6Ms, commanded by Lieutenant - Commander Shigekazu Shimazaki. Four planes failed to launch because of technical difficulties. This wave and its targets comprised:
The second wave was divided into three groups. One was tasked to attack Kāne ʻohe, the rest Pearl Harbor proper. The separate sections arrived at the attack point almost simultaneously from several directions.
Ninety minutes after it began, the attack was over. Two thousand and eight sailors were killed, and 710 others wounded; 218 soldiers and airmen (who were part of the Army until the independent U.S. Air Force was formed in 1947) were killed and 364 wounded; 109 marines were killed and 69 wounded; and 68 civilians were killed and 35 wounded. In total, 2,403 Americans died and 1,178 were wounded. Eighteen ships were sunk or run aground, including five battleships. All of the Americans killed or wounded during the attack were non-combatants, given the fact there was no state of war when the attack occurred.
Of the American fatalities, nearly half were due to the explosion of Arizona 's forward magazine after it was hit by a modified 16 - inch (410 mm) shell.
Already damaged by a torpedo and on fire amidships, Nevada attempted to exit the harbor. She was targeted by many Japanese bombers as she got under way and sustained more hits from 250 lb (113 kg) bombs, which started further fires. She was deliberately beached to avoid blocking the harbor entrance.
California was hit by two bombs and two torpedoes. The crew might have kept her afloat, but were ordered to abandon ship just as they were raising power for the pumps. Burning oil from Arizona and West Virginia drifted down on her, and probably made the situation look worse than it was. The disarmed target ship Utah was holed twice by torpedoes. West Virginia was hit by seven torpedoes, the seventh tearing away her rudder. Oklahoma was hit by four torpedoes, the last two above her belt armor, which caused her to capsize. Maryland was hit by two of the converted 16 '' shells, but neither caused serious damage.
Although the Japanese concentrated on battleships (the largest vessels present), they did not ignore other targets. The light cruiser Helena was torpedoed, and the concussion from the blast capsized the neighboring minelayer Oglala. Two destroyers in dry dock, Cassin and Downes were destroyed when bombs penetrated their fuel bunkers. The leaking fuel caught fire; flooding the dry dock in an effort to fight fire made the burning oil rise, and both were burned out. Cassin slipped from her keel blocks and rolled against Downes. The light cruiser Raleigh was holed by a torpedo. The light cruiser Honolulu was damaged, but remained in service. The repair vessel Vestal, moored alongside Arizona, was heavily damaged and beached. The seaplane tender Curtiss was also damaged. The destroyer Shaw was badly damaged when two bombs penetrated her forward magazine.
Of the 402 American aircraft in Hawaii, 188 were destroyed and 159 damaged, 155 of them on the ground. Almost none were actually ready to take off to defend the base. Eight Army Air Forces pilots managed to get airborne during the attack and six were credited with downing at least one Japanese aircraft during the attack: 1st Lt. Lewis M. Sanders, 2nd Lt. Philip M. Rasmussen, 2nd Lt. Kenneth M. Taylor, 2nd Lt. George S. Welch, 2nd Lt. Harry W. Brown, and 2nd Lt. Gordon H. Sterling Jr. Sterling was shot down by Lt. Fujita over Kaneohe Bay and is listed as Body Not Recovered (not Missing In Action). Lt. John L. Dains was killed by friendly fire returning from a victory over Kaawa. Of 33 PBYs in Hawaii, 24 were destroyed, and six others damaged beyond repair. (The three on patrol returned undamaged.) Friendly fire brought down some U.S. planes on top of that, including five from an inbound flight from Enterprise. Japanese attacks on barracks killed additional personnel.
At the time of the attack, nine civilian aircraft were flying in the vicinity of Pearl Harbor. Of these, three were shot down.
Fifty - five Japanese airmen and nine submariners were killed in the attack, and one was captured. Of Japan 's 414 available planes, 29 were lost during the battle (nine in the first attack wave, 20 in the second), with another 74 damaged by antiaircraft fire from the ground.
Several Japanese junior officers including Fuchida and Genda urged Nagumo to carry out a third strike in order to destroy as much of Pearl Harbor 's fuel and torpedo storage, maintenance, and dry dock facilities as possible. Genda, who had unsuccessfully advocated for invading Hawaii after the air attack, believed that without an invasion, three strikes were necessary to disable the base as much as possible. The captains of the other five carriers in the task force reported they were willing and ready to carry out a third strike. Military historians have suggested the destruction of these shore facilities would have hampered the U.S. Pacific Fleet far more seriously than the loss of its battleships. If they had been wiped out, "serious (American) operations in the Pacific would have been postponed for more than a year ''; according to Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, later Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet, "it would have prolonged the war another two years. '' Nagumo, however, decided to withdraw for several reasons:
At a conference aboard his flagship the following morning, Yamamoto supported Nagumo 's withdrawal without launching a third wave. In retrospect, sparing the vital dockyards, maintenance shops, and the oil tank farm meant the U.S. could respond relatively quickly to Japanese activities in the Pacific. Yamamoto later regretted Nagumo 's decision to withdraw and categorically stated it had been a great mistake not to order a third strike.
Seventeen ships were damaged or lost in the attack, of which fourteen were repaired and returned to service.
After a systematic search for survivors, formal salvage operations began. Captain Homer N. Wallin, Material Officer for Commander, Battle Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet, was immediately ordered to lead salvage operations. "Within a short time I was relieved of all other duties and ordered to full time work as Fleet Salvage Officer. ''
Around Pearl Harbor, divers from the Navy (shore and tenders), the Naval Shipyard, and civilian contractors (Pacific Bridge and others) began work on the ships that could be refloated. They patched holes, cleared debris, and pumped water out of ships. Navy divers worked inside the damaged ships. Within six months, five battleships and two cruisers were patched or refloated so they could be sent to shipyards in Pearl Harbor and on the mainland for extensive repair.
Intensive salvage operations continued for another year, a total of some 20,000 man - hours under water. Oklahoma, while successfully raised, was never repaired, and capsized while under tow to the mainland in 1947. Arizona and the target ship Utah were too heavily damaged for salvage, though much of their armament and equipment was removed and put to use aboard other vessels. Today, the two hulks remain where they were sunk, with Arizona becoming a war memorial.
In the wake of the attack, 15 Medals of Honor, 51 Navy Crosses, 53 Silver Stars, four Navy and Marine Corps Medals, one Distinguished Flying Cross, four Distinguished Service Crosses, one Distinguished Service Medal, and three Bronze Star Medals were awarded to the American servicemen who distinguished themselves in combat at Pearl Harbor. Additionally, a special military award, the Pearl Harbor Commemorative Medal, was later authorized for all military veterans of the attack.
The day after the attack, Roosevelt delivered his famous Infamy Speech to a Joint Session of Congress, calling for a formal declaration of war on the Empire of Japan. Congress obliged his request less than an hour later. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, even though the Tripartite Pact did not require it. Congress issued a declaration of war against Germany and Italy later that same day. The UK actually declared war on Japan nine hours before the U.S. did, partially due to Japanese attacks on Malaya, Singapore and Hong Kong, and partially due to Winston Churchill 's promise to declare war "within the hour '' of a Japanese attack on the United States.
The attack was an initial shock to all the Allies in the Pacific Theater. Further losses compounded the alarming setback. Japan attacked the Philippines hours later (because of the time difference, it was December 8 in the Philippines). Only three days after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the battleships Prince of Wales and Repulse were sunk off the coast of Malaya, causing British Prime Minister Winston Churchill later to recollect "In all the war I never received a more direct shock. As I turned and twisted in bed the full horror of the news sank in upon me. There were no British or American capital ships in the Indian Ocean or the Pacific except the American survivors of Pearl Harbor who were hastening back to California. Over this vast expanse of waters Japan was supreme and we everywhere were weak and naked ''.
Throughout the war, Pearl Harbor was frequently used in American propaganda.
One further consequence of the attack on Pearl Harbor and its aftermath (notably the Niihau incident) was that Japanese American residents and citizens were relocated to nearby Japanese - American internment camps. Within hours of the attack, hundreds of Japanese American leaders were rounded up and brought to high - security camps such as Sand Island at the mouth of Honolulu harbor and Kilauea Military Camp on the island of Hawaii. Eventually, more than 110,000 Japanese Americans, nearly all who lived on the West Coast, were forced into interior camps, but in Hawaii, where the 150,000 - plus Japanese Americans composed over one - third of the population, only 1,200 to 1,800 were interned.
The attack also had international consequences. The Canadian province of British Columbia, bordering the Pacific Ocean, had long had a large population of Japanese immigrants and their Japanese Canadian descendants. Pre-war tensions were exacerbated by the Pearl Harbor attack, leading to a reaction from the Government of Canada. On February 24, 1942, Order - in - Council P.C. no. 1486 was passed under the War Measures Act allowing for the forced removal of any and all Canadians of Japanese descent from British Columbia, as well as the prohibiting them from returning to the province. On 4 March, regulations under the Act were adopted to evacuate Japanese - Canadians. As a result, 12,000 were interned in interior camps, 2,000 were sent to road camps and another 2,000 were forced to work in the prairies at sugar beet farms.
The Japanese planners had determined that some means was required for rescuing fliers whose aircraft were too badly damaged to return to the carriers. The island of Niihau, only 30 minutes flying time from Pearl Harbor, was designated as the rescue point.
The Zero flown by Petty Officer Shigenori Nishikaichi of Hiryu was damaged in the attack on Wheeler, so he flew to the rescue point on Niihau. The aircraft was further damaged on landing. Nishikaichi was helped from the wreckage by one of the native Hawaiians, who, aware of the tension between the United States and Japan, took the pilot 's maps and other documents. The island 's residents had no telephones or radio and were completely unaware of the attack on Pearl Harbor. Nishikaichi enlisted the support of three Japanese - American residents in an attempt to recover the documents. During the ensuing struggles, Nishikaichi was killed and a Hawaiian civilian was wounded; one collaborator committed suicide, and his wife and the third collaborator were sent to prison.
The ease with which the local ethnic Japanese residents had apparently gone to the assistance of Nishikaichi was a source of concern for many, and tended to support those who believed that local Japanese could not be trusted.
Admiral Hara Tadaichi summed up the Japanese result by saying, "We won a great tactical victory at Pearl Harbor and thereby lost the war. '' To a similar effect, see Isoroku Yamamoto 's alleged "sleeping giant '' quote.
While the attack accomplished its intended objective, it turned out to be largely unnecessary. Unbeknownst to Yamamoto, who conceived the original plan, the U.S. Navy had decided as far back as 1935 to abandon ' charging ' across the Pacific towards the Philippines in response to an outbreak of war (in keeping with the evolution of Plan Orange). The U.S. instead adopted "Plan Dog '' in 1940, which emphasized keeping the IJN out of the eastern Pacific and away from the shipping lanes to Australia, while the U.S. concentrated on defeating Nazi Germany.
Fortunately for the United States, the American aircraft carriers were untouched by the Japanese attack; otherwise the Pacific Fleet 's ability to conduct offensive operations would have been crippled for a year or more (given no diversions from the Atlantic Fleet). As it was, the elimination of the battleships left the U.S. Navy with no choice but to rely on its aircraft carriers and submarines -- the very weapons with which the U.S. Navy halted and eventually reversed the Japanese advance. While six of the eight battleships were repaired and returned to service, their relatively low speed and high fuel consumption limited their deployment, and they served mainly in shore bombardment roles (their only major action being the Battle of Surigao Strait in October 1944). A major flaw of Japanese strategic thinking was a belief that the ultimate Pacific battle would be fought by battleships, in keeping with the doctrine of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan. As a result, Yamamoto (and his successors) hoarded battleships for a "decisive battle '' that never happened.
The Japanese confidence in their ability to achieve a short, victorious war meant that they neglected Pearl Harbor 's navy repair yards, oil tank farms, submarine base, and old headquarters building. All of these targets were omitted from Genda 's list, yet they proved more important than any battleship to the American war efforts in the Pacific. The survival of the repair shops and fuel depots allowed Pearl Harbor to maintain logistical support to the U.S. Navy 's operations, such as the Battles of Coral Sea and Midway. It was submarines that immobilized the Imperial Japanese Navy 's heavy ships and brought Japan 's economy to a virtual standstill by crippling the transportation of oil and raw materials: by the end of 1942, import of raw materials was cut to half of what it had been, "to a disastrous ten million tons '', while oil import "was almost completely stopped ''. Lastly, the basement of the Old Administration Building was the home of the cryptanalytic unit which contributed significantly to the Midway ambush and the Submarine Force 's success.
Ever since the Japanese attack, there has been debate as to how and why the United States had been caught unaware, and how much and when American officials knew of Japanese plans and related topics. Military officers including Gen. Billy Mitchell had pointed out the vulnerability of Pearl to air attack. At least two naval war games, one in 1932 and another in 1936, proved that Pearl was vulnerable to such an attack. Admiral James Richardson was removed from command shortly after protesting President Roosevelt 's decision to move the bulk of the Pacific fleet to Pearl Harbor. The decisions of military and political leadership to ignore these warnings has contributed to conspiracy theories. Several writers, including journalist Robert Stinnett and former United States Rear Admiral Robert Alfred Theobald, have argued that various parties high in the U.S. and British governments knew of the attack in advance and may even have let it happen or encouraged it in order to force the U.S. into war via the so - called "back door ''. However, this conspiracy theory is rejected by mainstream historians.
Informational notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Accounts
Media
Historical documents
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what is the current salary of the president of india | Salary of Government officials in India - wikipedia
The Basic salary of Chief Ministers of Indian states, varies as per state governments income 's.
225000 for lieutenant governers
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who plays bus driver bob on the doodlebops | The Doodlebops - wikipedia
The Doodlebops was a Canadian television series. The Doodlebops ' stars were Lisa J. Lennox as Deedee Doodle, Chad McNamara as Rooney Doodle, and Jonathan Wexler as Moe Doodle.
The Doodlebops ' characters were members of a children 's band, The creators of The Doodlebops were Cookie Jar executive Michael Hirsh and musical director Carl Lenox. Jamie Waese was the producer and director of the TV series. David W. Connolly was the choreographer. Andrea Nevitt was the Line Producer. Gord McLennan was the Technical Producer. Ian Harvey was the Senior Editor.
The show featured a mix of music, dancing, humor and skits that taught social lessons. The show always included scenes from a concert in front of a preschool audience who actively participated in the singing and dancing.
The band members wore heavy makeup and / or prosthetics to look like live action cartoon characters. During the first season, they wore cloth hoods with fake ears.
There were several production and design changes that occurred on the TV show between season one and season two. Among them:
Although The Doodlebops TV series was cancelled, the Doodlebops have a new TV series called Doodlebops Rockin ' Road Show, and is rated TV - Y. Jazzmin, Audio Murphy, Mr. Moosehead and Mudge no longer appear, for the Doodlebops are on tour. The only characters seen in every episode are Bus Driver Bob, Deedee, Rooney, Moe and a small pink dog. In each episode, Mail Snail delivers the Doodlebops a DVD sent by a child in need of help. The child is then turned into an animated character and sent to the bus to be a "Doodle for a Day ''.
A live theatrical show entitled The Doodlebops: Together Forever Tour has been developed and toured Canada in early 2009. The show includes musical performances of signature favorites as well as new songs. The live version incorporates giant screens and original sets and costumes. This production features a new cast of performers portraying the Doodlebops.
The show was produced by Koba Entertainment, and presented by Paquin Entertainment.
The Doodlebops performed in these cities in 2011 - 2012
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who did the united states side with during the war between britain and france | France -- United States relations - wikipedia
French -- American relations refers to the relations between France and the United States since 1776. France was the first ally of the new United States due to its 1778 treaty and military support in the American Revolutionary War. The relations are part of France -- Americas relations. The Franco - American relationship has been generally peaceful (except for large - scale fighting in 1798 and small - scale fighting in 1942) and the relationship is important for both nations.
In 2002, 62 % of French people viewed the United States favorably; this number dropped below 50 % for each year between 2003 and 2008, due in part to differences between the two countries during the Iraq War. As of 2013, 64 % of French people viewed the U.S. favorably, increasing up to 75 % in 2014. According to a 2015 Gallup poll, 82 % of Americans view France favorably.
Leaders of France and United States from 1958
As long as Great Britain and France remained at peace in Europe, and as long as the precarious balance in the American interior survived, British and French colonies coexisted without serious difficulty. However, beginning in earnest following the Glorious Revolution in England (1688), the simmering dynastic, religious, and factional rivalries between the Protestant British and Catholic French in both Europe and the Americas triggered four "French and Indian Wars '' fought largely on American soil (King William 's War, 1689 -- 97; Queen Anne 's War, 1702 -- 13; King George 's War, 1744 -- 48; and, finally the Seven Years ' War, 1756 -- 63). Great Britain finally removed the French from continental North America in 1763 following French defeat in the Seven Years ' War. Within a decade, the British colonies were in open revolt, and France retaliated by secretly supplying the independence movement with troops and war materials.
After Congress declared independence in July 1776, its agents in Paris recruited officers for the Continental Army, notably the Marquis de Lafayette, who served with distinction as a major general. Despite a lingering distrust of France, the agents also requested a formal alliance. After readying their fleet and being impressed by the U.S. victory at the Battle of Saratoga in October 1777, the French on February 6, 1778, concluded treaties of commerce and alliance that bound them to fight Britain until independence of the United States was assured.
The military alliance began poorly. French Admiral d'Estaing sailed to North America with a fleet in 1778, and began a joint effort with American General John Sullivan to capture a British outpost at Newport, Rhode Island. D'Estaing broke off the operation to confront a British fleet, and then, despite pleas from Sullivan and Lafayette, sailed away to Boston for repairs. Without naval support, the plan collapsed, and American forces under Sullivan had to conduct a fighting retreat alone. American outrage was widespread, and several French sailors were killed in anti-French riots. D'Estaing's actions in a disastrous siege at Savannah, Georgia further undermined Franco - American relations.
The alliance improved with the arrival in the United States in 1780 of the Comte de Rochambeau, who maintained a good working relationship with General Washington. French naval actions at the Battle of the Chesapeake made possible the decisive Franco -- American victory at the siege of Yorktown in October 1781, effectively ending the war as far as the Americans were concerned. The French went on fighting, losing a naval battle to Britain in 1782.
In the peace negotiations between the Americans and the British in Paris in 1782, the French played a major role. Indeed, the French Foreign Minister Vergennes had maneuvered so that the American Congress ordered its delegation to follow the advice of the French. However, the American commissioners, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and particularly John Jay, correctly realized that France did not want a strong United States. They realized that they would get better terms directly from Britain itself. The key episodes came in September, 1782, when Vergennes proposed a solution that was strongly opposed by the United States. France was exhausted by the war, and everyone wanted peace except Spain, which insisted on continuing the war until it captured Gibraltar from the British. Vergennes came up with the deal that Spain would accept instead of Gibraltar. The United States would gain its independence but be confined to the area east of the Appalachian Mountains. Britain would take the area north of the Ohio River. In the area south of that there would be set up an independent Indian state under Spanish control. It would be an Indian barrier state and keep the Americans from the Mississippi River or New Orleans, which were under Spanish control. John Jay promptly told the British that he was willing to negotiate directly with them, cutting off France and Spain. The British Prime Minister Lord Shelburne agreed. He was in full charge of the British negotiations and he now saw a chance to split the United States away from France and make the new country a valuable economic partner. The western terms were that the United States would gain all of the area east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and south of Canada. The northern boundary would be almost the same as today. The United States would gain fishing rights off Canadian coasts, and agreed to allow British merchants and Loyalists to try to recover their property. It was a highly favorable treaty for the United States, and deliberately so from the British point of view. Prime Minister Shelburne foresaw highly profitable two - way trade between Britain and the rapidly growing United States, as it indeed came to pass. Trade with France was always on a much smaller scale.
Six years later, the French Revolution toppled the Bourbon regime. At first, the United States was quite sympathetic to the new situation in France, where the hereditary monarchy was replaced by a constitutional republic. However, in the matter of a few years, the situation in France turned sour, as foreign powers tried to invade France and King Louis XVI was accused of high treason. The French revolutionary government then became increasingly authoritarian and brutal, which dissipated some of the United States ' warmth for France.
A crisis emerged in 1793 when France found itself at war again with Great Britain and its allies, this time after the French revolutionary government had executed the king. The new federal government in the United States was uncertain how to respond. Should the United States recognize the radical government of France by accepting a diplomatic representative from it? Was the United States obliged by the alliance of 1778 to go to war on the side of France? The treaty had been called "military and economic '', and as the United States had not finished paying off the French loan, would the military alliance be ignored as well? President George Washington (responding to advice from both Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson) recognized the French government, but did not support France in the war with Britain, as expressed in his 1793 Proclamation of Neutrality. The proclamation was issued and declared without Congressional approval. Congress instead acquiesced, and a year later passed a neutrality act forbidding U.S. citizens to participate in the war and prohibiting the use of U.S. soil as a base of operation for either side. Thus, the revolutionary government viewed Washington 's policy as partial to the enemy.
The first challenge to U.S. neutrality came from France, when its first diplomatic representative, the brash Edmond - Charles Genêt, toured the United States to organize U.S. expeditions against Spain and Britain. Exasperated, Washington demanded Genêt 's recall, but by then the French Revolution had taken yet another turn and the new French ministers arrived to arrest Genêt. Washington refused to extradite Genêt (knowing he would otherwise be guillotined). Genêt became a U.S. citizen.
France regarded Jay 's Treaty (November 1794) between Britain and the United States as hostile. It opened a decade of trade when France was at war with Britain.
Timothy Pickering (1745 - 1829) was the third United States Secretary of State, serving in that office from 1795 to 1800 under Washington and John Adams. Biographer Gerald Clarfield says he was a "quick - tempered, self - righteous, frank, and aggressive Anglophile, '' who handled the French poorly. In response the French envoy Pierre Adet repeatedly provoked Pickering into embarrassing situations, then ridiculed his blunderings and blusterings to appeal to Republican Party opponents of the Administration.
To overcome this resentment John Adams sent a special mission to Paris in 1797 to meet the French foreign minister Talleyrand. The American delegation was shocked, however, when it was demanded that they pay monetary bribes in order to meet and secure a deal with the French government. Adams exposed the episode, known as the "XYZ Affair '', which greatly offended Americans even though such bribery was not uncommon among the courts of Europe.
Tensions with France escalated into an undeclared war -- called the "Quasi-War. '' It involved two years of hostilities at sea, in which both navies attacked the other 's shipping in the West Indies. The unexpected fighting ability of the U.S. Navy, which destroyed the French West Indian trade, together with the growing weaknesses and final overthrow of the ruling Directory in France, led Talleyrand to reopen negotiations. At the same time, President Adams feuded with Hamilton over control of the Adams ' administration. Adams took sudden and unexpected action, rejecting the anti-French hawks in his own party and offering peace to France. In 1800 he sent William Vans Murray to France to negotiate peace; Federalists cried betrayal. The subsequent negotiations, embodied in the Convention of 1800 (also called the "Treaty of Mortefontaine '') of Sept. 30, 1800, affirmed the rights of Americans as neutrals upon the sea and abrogated the alliance with France of 1778. The treaty failed to provide compensation for the $20,000,000 "French Spoliation Claims '' of the United States; the U.S. government eventually paid these claims. The Convention of 1800 ensured that the United States would remain neutral toward France in the wars of Napoleon and ended the "entangling '' French alliance with the United States. In truth, this alliance had only been viable between 1778 and 1783.
Spain was losing money heavily on the ownership of vast Louisiana territory, and was eager to turn it over to Napoleon in 1800. He envisioned it as the base (along with Haiti) of a New World empire. Louisiana would be a granary providing food to the enslaved labor force in the West Indies. President Jefferson could tolerate weak Spain but not powerful France in the west. He considered war to prevent French control of the Mississippi River. Jefferson sent his close friend, James Monroe, to France to buy as much of the land around New Orleans as he could. Surprisingly, Napoleon agreed to sell the entire territory. Because of an insuppressible slave rebellion in St. Domingue, modern - day Haiti, among other reasons, Bonaparte 's North American plans collapsed. To keep Louisiana out of British hands in an approaching war he sold it in April 1803 to the United States for $15 million. British bankers financed the deal, taking American government bonds and shipping gold to Paris. The size of the United States was doubled without going to war.
Britain and France resumed their war in 1803, just after the Purchase. Both challenged American neutrality and tried to disrupt trade with its enemy. presupposition was that small neutral nations could benefit from the wars of the great powers. He distrusted both Napoleon and Great Britain, but saw Britain (with its monarchism, aristocracy and great navy and position in Canada) as the more immediate threat to American interests. Therefore, he and Madison took a generally pro-French position and used the embargo to hurt British trade. Both Britain and France infringed on U.S. maritime rights. The British infringed more and also impressed thousands of American sailors into the Royal Navy; France never did anything like impressment. Jefferson signed the Embargo Act in 1807, which forbade all exports and imports. Designed to hurt the British, it hurt American commerce far more. The destructive Embargo Act, which had brought U.S. trade to a standstill, was rescinded in 1809, as Jefferson left office. Both Britain and France remained hostile to the United States. The War of 1812 was the logical extension of the embargo program as the United States declared war on Britain. However, there was never any sense of being an ally of France and no effort was made to coordinate military activity.
France and Spain had not defined a boundary between Louisiana and neighboring territory retained by Spain, leaving this problem for the U.S. and Spain to sort out. The U.S. inherited the French claims to Texas, then in the 1819 Adams -- Onís Treaty traded these (and a little of the Mississippi drainage itself) in return for American possession of Florida, where American settlers and the U.S. Army were already encroaching, and acquisition of Spain 's weak claims to the Pacific Northwest. Before three more decades had passed, the United States had annexed Texas.
Relations between the two nations were generally quiet for two decades. The United States, in cooperation with Great Britain, issued the "Monroe Doctrine '' in 1823 to keep European powers, especially Spain but also France, from seizing lands in the New World. The French had a strong interest in expanding commercial opportunity in Latin America, especially as the Spanish role was faltering. There was a desire among top French officials that some of the newly independent countries in Latin America might select a Bourbon king, but no actual operations ever took place. French officials ignored the American position. France and Austria, two reactionary monarchies, strenuously opposed American republicanism and wanted the United States to have no voice whatsoever in European affairs.
A treaty between the United States and France in 1831 called for France to pay 25 million francs for the spoilation claims of American shipowners against French seizures during the Napoleonic wars. France did pay European claims, but refused to pay the United States. President Andrew Jackson was livid, In 1834 ordered the U.S. Navy to stand by and asked Congress for legislation. Jackson 's political opponents blocked any legislation. France was annoyed but finally voted the money if the United States apologized. Jackson refused to apologize, and diplomatic relations were broken off until in December 1835 Jackson did offer some friendlier words. The British mediated, France paid the money, and cordial relations were resumed.
Modest cultural exchanges resumed, most famously and intense study visits by Gustave de Beaumont and Alexis de Tocqueville, the author of Democracy in America (1835). The book was immediately a popular success in both countries, and to this day helps shape American self understanding.
In the 1840s Britain and France considered sponsoring continued independence of the Republic of Texas and blocking U.S. moves to obtain California. Balance of power considerations made Britain want to keep the western territories out of U.S. hands to limit U.S. power; in the end, France opposed such intervention in order to limit British power, the same reason for which France had sold Louisiana to the U.S. and earlier supported the American Revolution. Thus the great majority of the territorial growth of the continental United States was accomplished with French support.
During the American Civil War, 1861 -- 65, France was neutral. However Napoleon III favored the seceding Southern states of the Confederacy, hoping to weaken the United States, create a new ally in the Confederacy, safeguard the cotton trade and protect his large investment in controlling Mexico. France was too weak to declare war alone (which might cause Prussia to attack), and needed British support. The British were unwilling to go to war and nothing happened. Napoleon III took advantage of the war in 1863, when he installed Austrian archduke Maximilian of Habsburg on the throne in Mexico. The United States protested and refused to recognize the new government.
U.S. celebration of the anniversary of the Mexican victory over the French on Cinco de Mayo, 1862 started the following year and has continued up to the present. In 1865, the United States used increasing diplomatic pressure to persuade Napoleon III to end French support of Maximilian and to withdraw French troops from Mexico. When the French troops left the Mexicans executed the puppet emperor Maximilian.
The removal of Napoleon III in 1870 after the Franco - Prussian War helped improve Franco -- American relations. During the Siege of Paris, the small American population, led by the United States Minister to France Elihu B. Washburne, provided much medical, humanitarian, and diplomatic support to peoples of all nations, gaining much credit to the Americans. In subsequent years the balance of power in the relationship shifted in favor of the United States. The United States, rising to the status as a great power, came to overshadow Europe.
All during this period the relationship remained friendly -- as symbolized by the Statue of Liberty, presented in 1884 as a gift to the United States from the French people. From 1870 until 1918, France was the only major republic in Europe, which endeared it to the United States. Many French people held the United States in high esteem, as a land of opportunity and as a source of modern ideas -- a trend which lasted well into the 1950s until the mention of a "friendly colonisation of France '' by the Eisenhower administration in 1956 (though few French people emigrated to the United States).
In 1906, when the German Empire challenged French influence in Morocco (see Tangier Crisis and Agadir Crisis), U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt sided with the French.
During World War I the United States was initially neutral but eventually entered the conflict in 1917 and provided much - needed funding, food and ammunition for the French effort. In 1918 the United States sent over a million combat troops who were located to the south of the main French lines. They gave the Allies a decisive edge, as the Germans were unable to replace their heavy losses and lost their self - confidence by September 1918. The American troops were sent over without their heavy equipment (so that the ships could carry more soldiers). They used French artillery, airplanes and tanks, such as the SPAD XIII fighter biplane and Renault FT light tank serving in the aviation and armored formations respectively, of the American Expeditionary Force on the Western Front in 1918.
Wilson had become the hero of the war for Frenchmen, and his arrival in Paris was widely hailed. However, the two countries clashed over France 's policy to weaken Germany and make it pay for the entire French war. The burning ambition of French Premier Georges Clemenceau was to ensure the security of France in the future; his formula was not friendship with Germany restitution, reparations, and guarantees. Clemenceau had little confidence in what he considered to be the unrealistic and utopian principles of US President Woodrow Wilson: "Even God was satisfied with Ten Commandments, but Wilson insists on fourteen '' (a reference to Wilson 's "Fourteen Points ''). The two nations disagreed on debts, reparations, and restraints on Germany.
Clemenceau was also determined that a buffer state consisting of the German territory west of the Rhine River should be established under the aegis of France. In the eyes of the U.S. and British representatives, such a crass violation of the principle of self - determination would only breed future wars, and a compromise was therefore offered Clemenceau, which he accepted. The territory in question was to be occupied by Allied troops for a period of five to fifteen years, and a zone extending fifty kilometers east of the Rhine was to be demilitarized. Wilson and British Prime Minister David Lloyd George agreed that the United States and Great Britain, by treaty, would guarantee France against German aggression. Republican leaders in Washington were willing to support a security treaty with France. It failed because Wilson insisted on linking it to the Versailles Treaty, which the Republicans would not accept without certain amendments Wilson refused to allow.
While French historian Duruoselle portrays Clemenceau as wiser than Wilson, and equally compassionate and committed to justice but one who understood that world peace and order depended on the permanent suppression of the German threat. Blumenthal (1986), by contrast, says Wilson 's policies were far sounder than the harsh terms demanded by Clemenceau. Blumenthal agrees with Wilson that peace and prosperity required Germany 's full integration into the world economic and political community as an equal partner. One result was that in the 1920s the French deeply distrusted the Americans, who were loaning money to Germany (which Germany used to pay its reparations to France and other Allies), while demanding that France repay its war loans from Washington.
During the interwar years, the two nations remained friendly. Beginning in the 1920s, U.S. intellectuals, painters, writers, and tourists were drawn to French art, literature, philosophy, theatre, cinema, fashion, wines, and cuisine.
A number of American artists, such as Josephine Baker, experienced popular success in France. Paris was also quite welcoming to American jazz music and black artists in particular, as France, unlike a significant part of the United States at the time, had no racial discrimination laws. Numerous writers such as William Faulkner, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, and others were deeply influenced by their experiences of French life.
However, anti-Americanism came of age in the 1920s, as many French traditionalists were alarmed at the power of Hollywood and warned that America represented modernity, which in turn threatened traditional French values, customs, and popular literature. The alarm of American influence escalated half a century later when Americans opened a $4 billion Disneyland Paris theme park in 1992. It attracted larger crowds than the Louvre, and soon it was said that the iconic American cartoon character Mickey Mouse had become more familiar than Asterix among French youth.
In 1928 the two nations were the chief sponsors of the Kellogg -- Briand Pact which informally outlawed war. The pact, which was endorsed by most major nations, renounced the use of war, promoted peaceful settlement of disputes, and called for collective force to prevent aggression. Its provisions were incorporated into the United Nations Charter and other treaties and it became a stepping stone to a more activist American policy.
In the Second World War the United States again favored France over Nazi Germany. The successful performance of German warplanes during the Spanish Civil War (1936 - 39) suddenly forced France to realize ts merit military inferiority. Germany had better warplanes, more of them, and much more efficient production systems. President Franklin Roosevelt had long been interested in France, and was a personal friend of French Senator, Baron Amaury de La Grange. In late 1937 he told Roosevelt about The French weaknesses, and asked for military help. Roosevelt was forthcoming, and forced the War Department to secretly sell the most modern American airplanes to France. Paris frantically expanded its own aircraft production, but it was too little and too late. France and Britain declared war on Germany when it invaded Poland in September 1939, but there was little action until the following spring. Suddenly a German blitzkrieg overwhelmed Denmark and Norway, And trapped French and British forces in Belgium. Many French soldiers were evacuated through Dunkirk, but France was forced to surrender.
Langer (1947) argues that Washington was shocked by the sudden collapse of France in spring 1940, and feared that Germany might gain control of the large French fleet, and exploit France 's overseas colonies. This led the Roosevelt administration to maintain diplomatic relations. FDR appointed his close associate Admiral William D. Leahy as ambassador. Vichy regime was officially neutral but it was helping Germany.
The United States severed diplomatic relations in late 1942 when Germany took direct control of areas that Vichy had ruled, and Vichy France became a Nazi puppet state. More recently, Hurstfield (1986) concluded that Roosevelt, not the State Department, had made the decision, thereby deflecting criticism from leftwing elements of his coalition onto the hapless State Department. When the experiment ended FDR brought Leahy back to Washington as his top military advisor and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs.
Relations were strained between Roosevelt and Charles De Gaulle, the leader of the Free French, who had refused to participate in the Normandy landings in June 1944. After Normandy the Americans and the Allies knew it was only a matter of time before the Nazis lost. Eisenhower did give De Gaulle his word that Paris would be liberated by the French as the Americans had no interest in Paris, a city they considered lacking tactical value. It was therefore easy for Eisenhower to let De Gaulle 's FFI take the charge. There was one important aspect of Paris that did seem to matter to everyone: it was its historical and cultural significance. Hitler had given the order to bomb and burn Paris to the ground; he wanted to make it a second Stalingrad. The Americans and the Allies could not let this happen. The French 2nd armored division with Maj. Gen Phillipe Leclerc at its helm was granted this supreme task of liberating Paris. General Leclerc was ecstatic at this thought because he wanted to wipe away the humiliation of the Vichy Government.
General George S. Patton was at the command of the U.S. Third Army that swept across northern France. It campaigned in Lorraine for some time, but it was one of the least successful of Patton 's career. While in Lorraine, he annexed the Maj. Gen. Phillipe Leclerc 's battalion into his army. Leclerc did not respect his American counterparts because like the British he thought that they were new to the war. Therefore, he thought the Americans did not know what they were doing on the field. After being more trouble than help Patton let Leclerc go for Paris. The French then went on to liberate Paris from the east while the 4th U.S. Infantry (they were originally part of Patton 's Army) came from the west. Because of Eisenhower 's deal with De Gaulle, the Liberation was left to the French 's 2nd armored division. With De Gaulle becoming the head of state, the Americans and the British had no other choice, but to accept him. Eisenhower even came to Paris to give De Gaulle his blessing.
In the postwar years, both cooperation and discord persisted. The debts left over from World War I, whose payment had been suspended since 1931, was renegotiated in the Blum - Byrnes agreement of 1946. The United States forgave all $2.8 billion in debt, and gave France a new loan of $650 million. In return French negotiator Jean Monnet set out the French five - year plan for recovery and development.
The United States helped revive the French economy with the Marshall Plan whereby it gave France $2.3 billion with no repayment. The total of all American grants and credits to France from 1946 to 1953, amounted to $4.9 billion. A central feature of the Marshall Plan was to encourage international trade, reduce tariffs, lower barriers, and modernize French management. The Marshall Plan set up intensive tours of American industry. France sent 500 missions with 4700 businessmen and experts to tour American factories, farms, stores and offices. They were especially impressed with the prosperity of American workers, and how they could purchase an inexpensive new automobile for nine months work, compared to 30 months in France. Some French businesses resisted Americanization, but the most profitable, especially chemicals, oil, electronics, and instrumentation, seized upon the opportunity to attract American investments and build a larger market.
In 1949 the two became formal allies through the North Atlantic treaty, which set up the NATO military alliance. Although the United States openly disapproved of French efforts to regain control of colonies in Africa and Southeast Asia, it supported the French government in fighting the Communist uprising in French Indochina. However, in 1954, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower declined French requests for aerial strikes to relieve besieged French forces at Dien Bien Phu.
Both countries opposed the Soviet Union in Cold War confrontations but went through another crisis in 1956. When France, Britain, and Israel attacked Egypt, which had recently nationalized the Suez Canal and shown signs of warming relations with the Soviet Union and China, Eisenhower forced them to withdraw. By exposing their diminished international stature, the Suez Crisis had a profound impact on the UK and France: the UK subsequently aligned its Middle East policy to that of the United States, whereas France distanced itself from what it considered to be unreliable allies and sought its own path.
While occasional tensions surfaced between the governments, the French public, except for the Communists, generally had a good opinion of the United States throughout the 1950s and into the 1960s. Despite some cultural friction, the United States was seen as a benevolent giant, the land of modernity, and French youth took a taste to American culture such as chewing gum, Coca - Cola, and rock and roll.
In the 1950s France sought American help in developing nuclear weapons; Eisenhower rejected the overtures for four reasons. Before 1958, he was troubled by the political instability of the French Fourth Republic and worried that it might use nuclear weapons in its colonial wars in Vietnam and Algeria. Charles de Gaulle brought stability to the Fifth Republic starting in 1958, but Eisenhower was still hesitant to assist in the nuclearization of France. De Gaulle wanted to challenge the Anglo - Saxon monopoly on Western weapons by having his own Force de frappe. Eisenhower feared his grandiose plans to use the bombs to restore French grandeur would weaken NATO. Furthermore, Eisenhower wanted to discourage the proliferation of nuclear arms anywhere.
DeGaulle also quarreled with Washington over the admission of Britain into the European Economic Community. These and other tensions led to de Gaulle 's decision in 1966 to withdraw French forces from the integrated military structure of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation and forced it to move its headquarters to Belgium. De Gaulle 's foreign policy was centered on an attempt to limit the power and influence of both superpowers, which would increase France 's international prestige in relative terms. De Gaulle hoped to move France from being a follower of the United States to a leading first - world power with a large following among certain non-aligned Third World countries. The nations de Gaulle considered potential participants in this grouping were those in France 's traditional spheres of influence, Africa and the Middle East.
The two nations differed over the waging of the Vietnam War, in part because French leaders were convinced that the United States could not win. The recent French experience with the Algerian War of Independence was that it was impossible, in the long run, for a democracy to impose by force a government over a foreign population without considerable manpower and probably the use of unacceptable methods such as torture. The French popular view of the United States worsened at the same period, as it came to be seen as an imperialist power.
Relations improved somewhat after de Gaulle lost power in 1969. Small tensions reappeared intermittently. France, more strongly than any other nation, has seen the European Union as a method of counterbalancing American power, and thus works towards such ends as having the Euro challenge the preeminent position of the United States dollar in global trade and developing a European defense initiative as an alternative to NATO. Overall, the United States had much closer relations with the other large European powers, Great Britain, Germany and Italy. In the 1980s the two nations cooperated on some international matters but disagreed sharply on others, such as Operation El Dorado Canyon and the desirability of a reunified Germany. The Reagan administration did its best efforts to prevent France and other European countries from buying natural gas from Russia, through the construction of the Siberia - Europe pipeline. The European governments, including the French, were undeterred and the pipeline was finally built.
Richard Kuisel, an American scholar, has explored how France partly embraced American consumerism while rejecting much of American values and power. He writes in 2013:
On the other hand, Kuisel identifies several strong pull effects:
France under President François Mitterrand supported the 1991 Persian Gulf War in Iraq as a major participant under Operation Daguet. The French Assemblee Nationale even took the "unprecedented decision '' to place all French forces in the Gulf under United States command for the duration of the war.
In March 2003 France, along with Germany, China, and Russia, opposed the proposed UN resolution that would have authorized a U.S. invasion of Iraq. During the run - up to the war, French foreign minister Dominique de Villepin emerged as a prominent critic of the George W. Bush administration 's Iraq policies. Despite the recurring rifts, the often ambivalent relationship remained formally intact. A few days after the September 11, 2001 attacks, President Jacques Chirac -- later known for his frosty relationship with Bush -- had ordered the French secret services to collaborate closely with U.S. intelligence, and created Alliance Base in Paris, a joint - intelligence service center charged with enacting the Bush administration 's War on Terror.
Public attempts in 2003 to boycott French goods in retaliation for perceived French "active hostility toward America '' ultimately fizzled out, having had no impact. Nonetheless, the Iraq war, the attempted boycott, and anti-French sentiments routinely whipped up by American commentators and politicians bred increased suspicion of the United States among the French public in 2003, just as anti-war demonstrations, hostile treatment of American tourists in Europe, and the actions of the French government bred a similar level of increased distrust of France in the United States. By 2006, only one American in six considered France an ally of the United States.
The ire of American popular opinion towards France during the run - up to the 2003 Iraq Invasion was primarily due to the fact that France decided not to intervene in Iraq (because the French did not believe the reasons given to go to war, such as the supposed link between Saddam Hussein and Al - Qaeda, and the purported weapons of mass destruction to be legitimate). This contributed to the perception of the French as uncooperative and unsympathetic in American popular opinion at the time. This perception was quite strong and persisted despite the fact that France was and had been for some time a major ally in the campaign in Afghanistan (see for example the French forces in Afghanistan) where both nations (among others in the US - led coalition) were dedicated to the removal of the rogue Taliban, and the subsequent stabilization of Afghanistan, a recognized training ground and safe haven for terrorists intent on carrying out attacks in the Western world.
As the Iraq War progressed, relations between the two nations began to improve. In June 2006 the Pew Global Attitudes Project revealed that 52 % of Americans had a positive view of France, up from 46 % in 2005. Other reports indicate Americans are moving not so much toward favorable views of France as toward ambivalence, and that views toward France have stabilized roughly on par with views toward Russia and China.
Following issues like Hezbollah 's rise in Lebanon, Iran 's nuclear program and the stalled Israeli - Palestinian peace process, George Bush urged Jacques Chirac and other world leaders to "stand up for peace '' in the face of extremism during a meeting in New York on September 19, 2006.
Strong French and American diplomatic cooperation at the United Nations played an important role in the Cedar Revolution, which saw the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon. France and the United States also worked together (with some tensions) in crafting UN resolution 1701, intended to bring about a ceasefire in the 2006 Israeli -- Lebanese conflict.
Political relations between France and the United States became friendlier after Nicolas Sarkozy was elected President of France in 2007. Sarkozy, who has been called "Sarko the American '', has said that he "love (s) America '' and that he is "proud of his nickname ''.
In 2007, Sarkozy delivered a speech before the U.S. Congress that was seen as a strong affirmation of French -- American ties; during the visit, he also met with President George W. Bush as well as senators John McCain and Barack Obama (before they were chosen as presidential candidates).
Obama and McCain also met with Sarkozy in Paris after securing their respective nominations in 2008. After receiving Obama in July, Sarkozy was quoted saying "Obama? C'est mon copain '', which means "Obama? He 's my buddy. '' Because of their previous acquaintance, relations between the Sarkozy and Obama administrations were expected to be warm.
Since 2008, France has been back to the integrated command of NATO, a decision that has been greatly appreciated by the United States.
In 2011 the two countries were part of the multi-state coalition which launched a military intervention in Libya where they led the alliance and conducted 35 % of all NATO strikes.
In 2013, France launched a major operation in Mali to free the country from an ad - hoc alliance of terrorists and Azawa rebels. The United States provided France with logistical support for Operation Serval.
After president François Hollande pledged support for military action against Syria, U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry referred to France as "our oldest ally ''.
On February 10, 2014, Hollande arrived in the U.S. for the first state visit by a French leader in nearly two decades. Obama and Hollande published jointly in the Washington Post and Le Monde:
"... we have been able to take our alliance to a new level because our interests and values are so closely aligned.
Rooted in a friendship stretching back more than two centuries, our deepening partnership offers a model for international cooperation. ''
During his state visit Hollande toured Monticello where he stated:
"We were allies in the time of Jefferson and Lafayette. We are still allies today. We were friends at the time of Jefferson and Lafayette and will remain friends forever ''
On September 19, 2014 it was announced that France had joined the United States in bombing Islamic State targets in Iraq as a part of the 2014 American intervention in Iraq. United States president, Barack Obama & the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Martin Dempsey, praised Hollande 's decision to join the operation:
"As one of our oldest and closest allies, France is a strong partner in our efforts against terrorism and we are pleased that French and American service members will once again work together on behalf of our shared security and our shared values. ''
Said Obama,
"the French were our very first ally and they 're with us again now. ''
Stated Dempsey, who was visiting the Normandy landing beaches and the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial with his French counterpart, General Pierre de Villiers.
On April 18, 2015, the Hermione (a replica of the famous 1779 French frigate Hermione) departed La Rochelle, France, bound for Yorktown, Virginia, USA, where it arrived in early June. After that it has visited ports along the eastern seaboard en route to New York City for Independence Day celebrations. The original Concorde class frigate became famous when she ferried General Lafayette to the United States in 1780 to allow him to rejoin the American side in the American Revolutionary War. French President François Hollande was at La Rochelle to see the replica off, where he stated:
"L'Hermione is a luminous episode of our history. She is a champion of universal values, freedom, courage and of the friendship between France and the United States, ''
President Barack Obama in a letter commemorating the voyage stated:
For more than two centuries, the United States and France have stood united in the freedom we owe to one another. From the battlefields where a revolution was won to the beaches where the liberation of a continent began, generations of our peoples have defended the ideals that guide us - overcoming the darkness of oppression and injustice with the light of liberty and equality, time and again.
As we pay tribute to the extraordinary efforts made by General Lafayette and the French people to advance the Revolutionary cause, we reflect on the partnership that has made France our Nation 's oldest ally. By continuing to renew and deepen our alliance in our time, we ensure generations to come can carry it forward proudly.
The ship was given a copy of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen by the French President to be presented to the American President upon its arrival.
On July 12, 2017, United States President, Donald Trump, visited France and French President, Emmanuel Macron. The two leaders discussed issues like counter-terrorism and the war in Syria, but skipped topics where they disagreed, like climate change and trade. The visit was 2 days before the 1 year anniversary 2016 Nice attack that occurred on Bastille Day of 2016.
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what is a petitioner in a court case | Petitioner - wikipedia
A petitioner is a person who pleads with governmental institution for a legal remedy or a redress of grievances, through use of a petition.
The petitioner may seek a legal remedy if the state or another private person has acted unlawfully. In this case, the petitioner, often called a plaintiff, will submit a plea to a court to resolve the dispute.
On the other hand, the petitioner may be complaining against the law it to "... make no law... abridging... the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for redress of grievances ''.
A petitioner need not seek a change to an existing law. Often, petitioners speak against (or in support of) legislative proposals as these progress.
A group of 17th century English politicians became known as Petitioners, due to their support of the Exclusion Bill, a bill which would prevent the succession to the throne of the Catholic James, Duke of York, the heir apparent of King Charles II. After the House of Commons passed the Bill, Charles dissolved Parliament; when a new Parliament was elected shortly afterwards, Charles simply refused to summon it to meet. The Petitioners got their name from the many petitions they sent to Charles urging him to summon Parliament; they were opposed by the Abhorrers, who resisted the Exclusion Bill and were in no hurry to see a pro-Exclusion Bill Parliament meet. In the heat of the dispute, the two factions traded insulting epithets; with the result that the Petitioners became known as the Whigs and their opponents as Tories.
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who used to be the quarterback for the minnesota vikings | List of Minnesota Vikings starting quarterbacks - wikipedia
The Minnesota Vikings are a professional American football team based in Minneapolis. They are members of the North Division of the National Football Conference (NFC) in the National Football League (NFL). A franchise was granted to Minneapolis businessmen Bill Boyer, H.P. Skoglund and Max Winter in 1959 as a member of the American Football League (AFL). The ownership forfeited their AFL membership in January 1960 and received the National Football League 's 14th franchise on January 28, 1960 that started play in 1961.
The Vikings have had 36 starting quarterbacks in the history of their franchise; they have never had more than three starting quarterbacks in one season. The Vikings ' past starting quarterbacks include Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees Fran Tarkenton, Brett Favre and Warren Moon. The team 's first starting quarterback was George Shaw; he was replaced by Tarkenton in the franchise 's first game, and the future Hall of Famer retained the starting role for most of the remainder of the season. As of the 2017 season, Minnesota 's starting quarterback is Case Keenum.
The Vikings ' starting quarterback for the first game of their inaugural season against the Chicago Bears was George Shaw. However, he was replaced by Fran Tarkenton early on, who passed for four touchdowns in the game and rushed for one more. Tarkenton went on to start in 10 of the Vikings ' 14 regular season matches that year. He played for the Vikings until 1967, when he was traded to the New York Giants, and Joe Kapp took his place as the Vikings ' starting quarterback. Kapp led the Vikings to their first playoff appearance in 1968, but he was traded to the Boston Patriots in 1970 and Gary Cuozzo stepped up to replace him. Cuozzo remained in the position for two seasons, moving to the St. Louis Cardinals in 1972.
Tarkenton returned for another seven - year spell as the Vikings ' starting quarterback in 1972, continuing until his retirement in 1978, at which point Tommy Kramer was promoted from the second string in his second season with the franchise. Kramer was injured for most of the 1983 season, so Steve Dils served as the starting quarterback for most of the season, before Kramer reclaimed the position in 1984. For the 1987 season, Kramer shared quarterback duties with Wade Wilson, before Wilson took over on a permanent basis from 1988. Wilson was replaced by the emerging Rich Gannon in 1990, but Gannon was released after the 1992 season and veteran Jim McMahon took over for the 1993 season until the arrival of Warren Moon in 1994.
Moon retained the starting quarterback spot for two seasons, but suffered a broken collarbone halfway through his third season with the Vikings and was replaced by Brad Johnson for the remainder of the season. The Vikings had three starting quarterbacks in the following three seasons -- Johnson (1997), Randall Cunningham (1998) and Jeff George (1999) -- before Daunte Culpepper began a six - year spell in his second year in the NFL in 2000. He suffered a serious knee injury during the 2005 season, and Johnson took over in the position again, having re-signed the previous summer after seven years away from the franchise. Culpepper then joined the Miami Dolphins in 2006, giving Johnson another full year as starting quarterback, only to be replaced by sophomore Tarvaris Jackson in 2007. The 2008 season commenced with Jackson starting at quarterback, but he was replaced after two games by Gus Frerotte, who was returning to the Vikings from the St. Louis Rams after having been traded to the Miami Dolphins in 2005. Jackson regained the job for the final three games and led the Vikings to their first divisional title since 2000, and their first NFC North title.
In 2009, the Vikings recruited veteran quarterback Brett Favre out of retirement to be their new starting quarterback. In Week 13 of the 2010 season, Favre suffered a chest injury that ended his NFL - record streak of consecutive starts at 297 (321 including postseason games), and Tarvaris Jackson reclaimed the starting spot for Week 14. However, Jackson was injured himself in Week 15, giving rookie Joe Webb a chance to stake a claim for the position. He was unable to hold onto the position as Donovan McNabb was signed as a free agent to replace Favre, who retired at the end of the 2010 season. After going 1 -- 5 through the first six games of 2011, though, McNabb was replaced by first - round draft pick Christian Ponder, who retained the starting position for the remainder of the season and for the whole of 2012. However, he was plagued by indifferent form and the Vikings signed Matt Cassel -- recently released by the Kansas City Chiefs. When Ponder suffered an injury early in the 2013 season, Cassel was given his first start for the Vikings in week 4 in the NFL International Series game against the Pittsburgh Steelers at Wembley Stadium, London. He started the following game, but was replaced in week 7 by Josh Freeman, recently signed after his release by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. However, he was injured during the game and did not make another start for the Vikings, allowing Ponder to reclaim the starting role. Cassel then returned as the starter in week 14, and retained the role for the rest of the season and into 2014. After three games, he was placed on injured reserve and first - round draft pick Teddy Bridgewater took over for the week 4 game against the Atlanta Falcons. Bridgewater himself was injured late in the game, allowing Ponder the chance to come back in for the following week, but the rookie soon returned and has held the starting berth until suffering a knee injury in practice during the 2016 preseason. Shaun Hill started the season opener and Sam Bradford took over in week 2.
Seven Vikings quarterbacks have made at least one start in their rookie season: Tarkenton in 1961, Vander Kelen in 1963, Kramer in 1977, Jackson in 2006, Webb in 2010, Ponder in 2011 and Bridgewater in 2014.
Having been the franchise 's starting quarterback for 13 seasons (longer than any other Vikings player), Fran Tarkenton holds the record for the most starts in a Vikings jersey, and those for the most wins and ties. He is also the franchise 's leading passer in terms of numbers of attempts, completions, total yards gained and passing touchdowns, although Brett Favre has the best pass completion percentage. However, Tarkenton has also thrown the most interceptions. The record for the longest completed pass by a Vikings starting quarterback is held by Gus Frerotte, who threw a 99 - yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Bernard Berrian in a home game against the Chicago Bears in the 2008 season.
Tarkenton is also the franchise leader for rushing attempts and rushing yards as a quarterback, but it is Daunte Culpepper -- with 72 fewer rushing yards on 10 fewer attempts than Tarkenton -- who has the most rushing touchdowns. Joe Webb holds the record for the longest rush with a 65 - yard run in Minnesota 's 34 -- 28 road loss to the Detroit Lions in 2011.
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what season does haley and nathan get married | One Tree Hill (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of One Tree Hill, an American teen drama television series, began airing on October 5, 2005. The season concluded on May 3, 2006, after 22 episodes. It is the final season that aired on The WB television network. Season three dipped in ratings, averaging 2.8 million viewers weekly.
This season focuses on the first half of senior year at Tree Hill High School. Starting three months after the second season finale, Haley returns to Tree Hill and tries to save her marriage with Nathan. Peyton gets to know her birth mother. Lucas and Brooke begin a relationship. Keith and Karen get engaged. Nathan patches things up with Lucas, while Mouth begins a complicated relationship with newcomer Rachel, who also spreads a lot of drama through the core characters. After a shooting at the school things between Lucas and Peyton heat up despite Peyton 's proposal to Jake.
In the third season premiere, we finally discover Dan 's fate after the fire. In addition to the situation with his father, Nathan also has to deal with Haley 's reappearance in Tree Hill and the future of their relationship. Peyton tries to find the truth about the mysterious woman claiming to be her mother. Lucas looks forward to Brooke 's return after a summer apart.
Brooke has an end of the summer party on the beach. Nathan is home from basketball camp. Lucas deals with Brooke 's rules for non-exclusive dating. Brooke ends up having a ball with many guys whereas Lucas spends the night alone and then tells Brooke that he is the one for her, which marks the beginning of his mission to become exclusive. Peyton deals with family issues, by confronting her mom about her drug problem, after Lucas witnesses her buying. Haley tries to tell Nathan how she feels, however he is not ready for a relationship yet and is still angry with her.
It 's the first day of senior year for the Tree Hill gang. Lucas tells Dan he saved his life. Peyton discovers Ellie 's secret. Nathan tells Haley he 's considering a divorce. Dan accuses several people of starting the dealership fire and tries to get Whitey replaced as Ravens coach.
It 's Halloween in Tree Hill and everybody 's celebrating at TRIC, with special guest band Fall Out Boy. The masquerade ball gives Haley the chance to win Nathan back, while Lucas keeps trying to convince Brooke to be exclusive. Peyton decides to face her new mother and get to know her. Dan tries to use blackmail to become mayor but things do n't turn out the way he thought they would when Deb gets in his way.
The Ravens begin basketball practice. New team captain Nathan clashes with Lucas over Haley, and a new cheerleader named Rachel Gatina sets her sights on Lucas. Dan 's mayoral bid takes a surprising turn when an unlikely opponent emerges in Karen.
Brooke starts a "Fantasy Boy Draft '', after the cheerleaders start fighting over the same guys. Haley and Peyton continue to argue about Nathan. Dan butts heads with Karen as the election draws nearer. Lucas tries to keep up with the fast pace of basketball.
The fantasy draft dates begin, Lucas finds himself with Rachel and a very familiar setting. Brooke is on a double date with a surprising person and a surprising couple. Skills goes to Bevin 's house for the night, but is n't quite interested in what she has in mind. Mouth and Peyton hang out. Karen and Deb take the campaigning for mayor to a new level, to bring down Dan. Nathan gets mad when Chris gets close to Haley.
As the town readies for the Ravens ' first basketball game, Lucas worries that his head and heart are n't in it. Nathan accuses Lucas of being the Ravens ' weak link. Peyton and Haley mend fences to support Brooke in her time of need. When the mayoral race tightens, Dan resorts to a smear campaign.
It is revealed that Lucas knows who tried to kill Dan and he confronts the guilty party. Brooke, Peyton and Haley find themselves behind bars. Peyton is annoyed by the presence of her guilty conscience. Chris Keller convinces Nathan to be his wingman at a cash poker game. The residents of Tree Hill finally choose a mayor.
Lucas and Peyton take a road trip together to find Ellie. While out of town, Lucas reconnects with a friend from the past. Brooke, Haley and Mouth successfully launch the Clothes Over Bro 's website, only to find that demand far exceeds supply. Deb reveals to Nathan that she tried to kill Dan. Nathan and Haley finally get back together.
The Ravens lose their second game in a row, Whitey decides to teach them a tough lesson. Peyton and Ellie look for support for their album and hope to attract Nada Surf to the project. Both Dan and Haley upset Nathan, while Brooke plans a romantic thank - you for Lucas.
As the students meet with the school counselor to plan for the future, Nathan and Haley realize they want to attend colleges across the country from one another. Brooke discovers Rachel 's reasons for submitting her designs to Rogue Vogue. Meanwhile, Ellie and Peyton bond as they finish the benefit album.
A violent rainstorm knocks out the power in Tree Hill, leading Haley to Nathan 's doorstep and Brooke out into the downpour for a dramatic confrontation with Lucas. Peyton finally confronts the truth about Ellie 's illness. Mouth is tempted by his new friend, Rachel. Before morning, secrets are revealed, relationships are tested and romance heats up.
Brooke is forced to grow up in a hurry when her trip to a New York City fashion show prevents her from attending an annual cheerleading tournament. Nathan and Lucas are influenced by the father of a friend. Skills tells Bevin he ca n't swim to trick her into giving him a swimming lesson. Struggling with her birth mother 's cancer, Peyton joins Rachel for a night of blowing off steam. Haley and Nathan use their hotel room as the honeymoon suite they never had.
When someone unleashes the students ' time capsule on Tree Hill High, Lucas and Mouth must confront a person from their past. Brooke deals with the revelation that secrets are n't the only things she exposed in the time capsule. Dan tries to forgive Keith. Haley is forced to reconcile the man Nathan was before with the man he has become. Peyton 's Breast Cancer Benefit Concert at TRIC features performances by Haley and Jack 's Mannequin and the return of Fall Out Boy.
In the aftermath of the release of the time capsule, chaos breaks out, Jimmy Edwards holds students of Tree Hill High School hostage with a gun. While lives hang in the balance, Nathan and Lucas put themselves at risk to protect their friends and loved ones. Young lives are shattered and two will end. Dan takes revenge on a close relative.
The aftermath of the school shooting and the death of Jimmy Edwards force everyone in Tree Hill to examine their lives. Nathan reassesses his relationship with Haley, while Brooke and Rachel join forces to heal the student body. Dan must deal with the ramifications of killing Keith. Lucas and Peyton consider the implications of their kiss in the library.
Rachel invites the gang for a weekend getaway at her family 's cabin. Craziness will ensue, including a game of "I Never '' which will cause people to do things they normally would n't. A nasty little issue Mouth has been harboring toward Rachel will surface. Meanwhile, Karen confronts Dan about Keith 's death.
Lucas attempts to play in the first game after Keith 's death, but he can not bring himself to do it. After seeing Lucas 's pain, Nathan asks Whitey to forfeit the game. Lucas finally tells Whitey, Nathan, and Karen about his heart condition (HCM) after Deb convinces him to be there for Karen after Keith 's death. Nathan and Haley prepare to renew their vows. Mouth tries to get closer to Rachel. Peyton gets an invitation to go to Chicago, from Pete. Brooke gets revenge on Rachael, by making posters of Rachael who got multiple surgeries to become attractive, because she was obese when she was 14.
Nathan deals with a player who is a rival both on and off the court. Dan is given a restraining order from Deb and Nathan. Brooke and Mouth look to get even with Rachel, who has tricked Cooper into thinking she is 26 and a model. Dan has a run - in with Cooper. Peyton makes a major decision and goes to see Jake and Jenny who are in Savannah. At the end of the episode Peyton asks Jake to marry her.
Haley argues with Brooke about her wedding dress. Brooke plans an engagement party for Nathan and Haley. Karen and Lucas get back in town. Peyton is surprised by her own feelings when she mumble she loves Lucas in her sleep and Jake overhears.
Nathan worries about Haley as they prepare to renew their vows. Deb confesses to Dan about the fire. Peyton and Brooke 's friendship becomes strained when Peyton confesses she still loves Lucas. Nathan, Cooper and Rachel 's lives hang in the balance after a car accident. Someone might be pregnant.
The DVD release of season three was released after the season has completed broadcast on television. It has been released in Regions 1, 2 and 4. As well as every episode from the season, the DVD release features bonus material such as audio commentaries on some episodes from the creator and cast, deleted scenes, gag reels and behind - the - scenes featurettes.
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what are the numbers on the england cricket team shirts | List of England Test cricketers - wikipedia
This is a list of England Test cricketers. A Test match is an international two - innings per side cricket match between two of the leading cricketing nations. The list is arranged in the order in which each player won his Test cap by playing for the England cricket team. Where more than one player won his first Test cap in the same Test match, those players are listed alphabetically by surname. In the text, the numbers that follow the players ' names correspond to their place in the chronological list of English Test cricketers. Current players have their chronological number on the front of their shirts.
Statistics for these players are correct as of the end of the third Test of the West Indies tour of England (9 September 2017).
General
Batting
Bowling
Fielding
The early years of Test cricket saw a number of tours to Australia. Most of these tours were professional in nature, and as the sea voyage was around 42 days and the tours lasted many months, the sides were selected as much on availability as on cricketing aptitude. As a result of this, coupled with there only being a small number of Tests being played, there are many early cricketers with Test records of only a few matches. The key players who had their Test debut during this period include the great professional all - rounders George Ulyett (11), who played 25 Tests, and Billy Barnes (21), who played 21. England 's Champion cricketer WG Grace (24) first played Test cricket in 1880. Although Test match cricket had not been invented in his heyday of the late 1860s and 1870s, he continued playing into his fifties, finally retiring from Test cricket at the turn of the century. Shrewsbury (35) and Stoddart (56) go down amongst the great captains of the period, as well as two of the many cricketing suicides. Johnny Briggs (47), who, bedevilled by mental illness, died young, notched up the most Test caps of the earliest era of Test match cricket.
The period between 1890 and immediately before the First World War is known as the golden age of cricket. It saw great amateur players such as CB Fry (95), the Indian Prince Ranjitsinhji (105) and captains Stanley Jackson (82), Archie MacLaren (92) and Plum Warner (118) as the leading lights in an era eulogised by Neville Cardus and others. In reality, it was not quite the great age of the amateur related in Cardus 's writings. Sydney Barnes (129) became the best paid cricketer by spurning county cricket to play in the Lancashire leagues. However, the sheer volume of greats, that include Jack Hobbs (157), Tom Hayward (97), Gilbert Jessop (122) and Wilfred Rhodes (121) means that the age retains a fond place in the memory of England 's cricket fans. It was also an era in which Bernard Bosanquet (137) invented the googly and Tip Foster (138) became the only man to captain England at both cricket and football, and Rhodes, at 30 years, 10 months and 11 days, had the longest spanning Test career of all.
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who was married to ashley in coronation street | Ashley Peacock - wikipedia
Ashley Sibelius Peacock is a fictional character from the British ITV soap opera, Coronation Street. Portrayed by Steven Arnold, the character first appeared on - screen during the episode airing on 1 February 1995. On 23 April 2010, it was announced that the character had been axed along with his on - screen family by new producer Phil Collinson. Ashley was a victim of the tram crash and died as part of the show 's 50th birthday in December 2010.
Ashley is the son of Fred Elliott (John Savident) and Kathleen Gutteridge (Elizabeth Rider). He was conceived when his father had a relationship with Kathleen who was an employee at his family 's shop. Fred proposed to Kathleen, wanting to provide stability for his son but Kathleen rejected his proposal as she did not want to be tied down at a young age. When Ashley was born, Kathleen agreed to let Fred 's sister Beryl Peacock (Anny Tobin) and her husband Sam, raise Ashley as their own son. Ashley grew up believing Fred was his uncle and Beryl was his mother.
Ashley is first seen doing bicycle deliveries for his uncle, Fred, from his butcher 's shop. Fred sends Ashley to Rita Sullivan (Barbara Knox) with a parcel of rump steak. Rita does n't want it as she does n't want to be obligated to Fred. Jamie does his puncture trick on Ashley 's bike and is paid again. Kelly Thomson (Sarah Moffett) is pleased to see Ashley, her old school friend. She gives him a cup of tea and is pleased to discover that he 's not going out with anyone. She tells him that his old girlfriend Margaret was two timing him all the time. She is embarrassed when Sally Webster (Sally Dynevor) matchmakes between them. Ashley and Kelly arrange to have a date in The Rovers, both terribly shy of actually asking the other out. Ashley feels bold enough to kiss Kelly but runs off in case Fred catches him. Ashley tells Judy that Fred intends to sell the horse for horsemeat. Ashley and Kelly plan to spend the night together at No. 1 in Ken Barlow 's (William Roache) absence. Ashley spends the night with Kelly at No. 1. Emily Bishop (Eileen Derbyshire) sees Ashley leaving No. 1 in the morning and realises that he spent the night with Kelly. Ken returns from the course to find Ashley wearing his dressing gown. Emily is annoyed when Ashley accuses her of telling Ken about him staying the night with Kelly. Emily tells Ken that she 's not going to tell tales on Kelly but admits Ashley stayed the night. Kelly and Ashley have to cancel an evening out in Blackpool as Ken has an emergency meeting. Ashley tells Kelly that Ken puts on her but she accuses him of being selfish. Ashley apologises to Kelly and tells her that he 's fed up as they never get any privacy. Ashley asks for time off as he has enteritis. However, Fred discovers that he 's helping Kelly to move into Ken 's house. A row ensues and Ashley gets fired. Ashley refuses to make amends with Fred. Kelly asks Rita to persuade Fred to take Ashley back as Ashley 's too scared to approach Fred. Rita asks Fred to give Ashley a second chance but he tells her to let him run his business his way. She is put out. Rita explains to Kelly that she had no luck with Fred in getting Ashley 's job back. Fred reinstates Ashley.
Ashley does n't like his mother 's boyfriend Trevor and feels they want him to leave home. Kelly tells Ashley that Don Brennan (Geoffrey Hinsliff) needs a lodger and it would be handy as it 's only two doors from her. Don shows Ashley around No. 5. Ashley likes it but Kelly is wary of Don. Kelly thinks that No. 5 is n't the right house for Ashley as she does n't like Don. Ashley moves into No. 5. Don tells him that now he has his rent money he does n't need to work so many night shifts. Ashley is disappointed as he was hoping to entertain Kelly. Ashley 's plans to go out with Kelly are spoiled when Don drags him onto a poker game. Kelly is furious when he stands her up as he enjoys the game and wins the others money. Don advises Ashley to be masterful with Kelly. Ashley tells Kelly that he 's not weak and is stunned when she slams the door in his face. Kelly is upset that Ashley is trying to act macho. Fred is annoyed by the new masterful Ashley and blames Kelly for changing him but she tells him that it 's Don 's fault. Fred advises Ashley to show Kelly he 's the boss by grabbing her for a kiss. Kelly is pleased when Ashley kisses her passionately and apologises but he oversteps the mark when he tells her to shut up so she slams the door on him again. Kelly and Ashley make - up and she admits that she does enjoy it when he 's forceful. Kelly tells Ashley that she fears she 'll have to go home to her parents and hints about them getting a flat together but he does n't pick up on the hint as he likes his independence at No. 5. Kelly moves back home with Ashley 's help. Ashley and Kelly have a tearful farewell when she leaves for Scotland. He gives her a charm bracelet to remember him by. Don breaks open Ashley 's present to him - a bottle of whisky. Ashley keeps Don company. Ashley brings Don out of himself by talking to him about gambling.
After his relationship with Kelly ends, Ashley is involved in an on - off relationship with Maxine Heavey (Tracy Shaw). Eventually, Maxine moves in with Ashley at No. 4 - Fred 's house. When teenage runaway Zoe Tattersall (Joanne Froggatt) comes to Coronation Street, Ashley feels sorry for her and allows her to move in but Maxine is uncomfortable with the arrangement and leaves. Eventually Ashley falls in love with Zoe and sets out to be a provider for her and her baby daughter, Shannon. However, Zoe exploits Ashley 's good nature and runs off to join a cult after Shannon dies of meningitis.
In 1999, Ashley and Maxine get back together, and finally marry in September. Ashley also finds out that his uncle, Fred, is actually his biological father. Fred tells Ashley about Kathleen and her reluctance to be a mother at a young age. Fred also explains to Ashley that Beryl, who he believed to be his mother, is actually his aunt, and that Fred let her raise Ashley so he could watch him grow up. Ashley decides that he wants to meet his birth mother but Fred begs him not to, believing it would hurt Beryl. Ashley, however, tracks Kathleen down to her home in Oldham. He is initially very bitter towards her for abandoning him but they reconcile and Ashley lets Kathleen attend his and Maxine 's wedding.
Ashley and Maxine decide to have a baby and after months of trying, it is discovered that Ashley needs minor surgery. While he is in hospital overnight, Maxine gets drunk and has a one - night stand with local doctor Matt Ramsden (Stephen Beckett) and subsequently becomes pregnant with his child. When Joshua (Benjamin Beresford) is born in 2002, Maxine lets Ashley believe that he is the father and Ashley is named on the birth certificate. Maxine tells Ashley the truth and he is hurt and betrayed by her actions, but he forgives her and agrees to raise Joshua as his son and asks her never to reveal to anybody that he is not Joshua 's biological father. In January 2003, Maxine is murdered by Richard Hillman (Brian Capron), leaving Ashley devastated. At Maxine 's funeral, her boss Audrey Roberts (Sue Nicholls) causes a scene and accuses Richard of murdering Maxine and attempting to kill her and Emily. Later at the wake in The Rovers ', Ashley is very angry with Audrey and does not accept her apology. However, he accepts the support of Audrey 's daughter, Gail (Helen Worth), Richard 's wife. Ashley is further devastated when a blood test confirms that Matt is indeed Joshua 's biological father.
Ashley realizes that he needs help looking after Joshua and hires a nanny, Claire Casey (Julia Haworth). Ashley and Claire bond over Joshua and they eventually fall in love. In September 2004, Ashley proposes to Claire in The Rovers and she accepts. They get married on Christmas Day 2004. In November 2005, Fred challenges another butcher, Eddie Maddocks, to a boxing match between Ashley and Eddie 's son, Marvin, a local boxing champion. On the day of the fight, Fred drops a weight on Ashley 's foot and he is hospitalised. Ashley recovers and goes ahead with the fight but a riot breaks out amongst the spectators. In order to restore order, Ashley and Marvin agree on a tie.
On their first wedding anniversary in December 2005, Claire tells Ashley that she is pregnant. Their son Thomas is born on 17 July 2006. Around the same time, Matt contacts Ashley and demands access to Joshua. Ashley refuses and the matter goes to court. Eventually, Claire persuades Ashley to make Matt an offer of limited access which he accepts but ends up delivering Claire 's baby when she goes into labour and congratulates Ashley on becoming a father himself. Ashley supports Claire when she suffers from post-natal depression and is sectioned after trying to kill Thomas. Ashley stands by Claire during her ordeal and they reconcile when she is allowed home.
In October 2006, Ashley is devastated when Fred dies of a heart attack. Fred was due to marry Bev Unwin (Susie Blake) but visited his former lover, Audrey 's, house. Although Ashley swore that Fred and Audrey were not having an affair, not everyone believed him. Ashley had to cope with losing his father and people gossiping about why Fred had been at Audrey 's house. Ashley blamed Audrey for Fred 's death because she told him that she loved him and wished he was marrying her instead of Bev. Ashley is comforted by Claire who suggests that they rename their son Freddie, in Fred 's honour. Ashley takes over the running of his father 's shop.
In May 2007, whilst Ashley and Joshua visit Maxine 's parents, the Peacocks ' house is set on fire. Claire is rescued but Freddie is missing and is later found in a local park. Claire suspects her former friend Casey Carswell (Zoe Henry) but Ashley does not believe her. One day whilst Claire is out, Ashley kisses Casey and they agree to forget it ever happened. However, Casey has no intention of forgetting anything, manipulating Ashley into having an affair. They are almost caught when Claire returns from a trauma support group. Feeling guilty about his affair, Ashley tells Audrey and Kevin Webster (Michael Le Vell). Ashley decides to make his marriage work and ends things with Casey but, adamant that Ashley loves her, Casey pesters him constantly. Claire becomes suspicious, as Casey had stayed with Ashley while she was away, and she asks Ashley if he had slept with Casey but he denies it. Casey becomes obsessed with Ashley and is prepared to do anything to get his attention, eventually kidnapping Freddie and takes him to her house, knowing Ashley would come to get him. When Ashley arrives, he is horrified to see Casey has photos of him everywhere. He tries to reason with her but Claire barges in and Audrey, who also accompanied them, calls the police. Claire talks to Casey and she reveals her affair with Ashley. Claire rescues Freddie, and Casey is arrested and admits starting the fire at the Peacocks ' house. After Ashley and Casey 's affair is revealed, Claire tells Ashley that their marriage is over. He moves out, staying briefly with the Websters before moving in with Audrey, Bill Webster (Peter Armitage) and her grandson, David Platt (Jack P. Shepherd). Ashley sees Joshua and Freddie regularly but it is clear that Claire is angry and hurt by his actions. She struggles with childcare and work but can not bring herself to forgive Ashley until Audrey convinces her to do so and the couple reconcile.
During 2008, Claire is shocked to discover that she and Ashley are struggling financially. Ashley confesses to using their savings to keep the butcher 's shop going so Claire discusses housing options with Sally when she mentions that her daughters, Rosie (Helen Flanagan) and Sophie Webster (Brooke Vincent), are getting too old to share a room. Ashley and Claire 's sons are young enough for room sharing not to be a problem so Claire and Sally decide to swap houses. Initially, Ashley and Kevin are reluctant to move but are persuaded to do so by their wives. The couples agree to value the houses and the Websters agree to give the Peacocks the difference in cash. Eventually, the purchase price is agreed and both families move.
In July 2009, Claire is rushed into hospital after collapsing due to a near - fatal blood clot, brought on by a miscarriage. Claire and Ashley were unaware that Claire was pregnant. During her recovery, Claire decides not to have any more children and insists Ashley have a vasectomy. He agrees but when he arrives at the clinic for the surgery, he changes his mind and goes home, telling Claire that he has had it done. Eventually however, he tells her the truth, causing tension between the couple; eventually he agrees to have the operation.
On 10 November 2008, Ashley employs Graeme Proctor (Craig Gazey) at his shop following the teenager 's release from a Young Offenders Institution and he and Ashley form a close bond and friendship. Since Autumn 2009, Ashley developed a friendship with Steve McDonald (Simon Gregson) due to Claire 's newly developed friendship with Steve 's wife, Becky (Katherine Kelly).
In August 2010, Claire is babysitting Joshua, Freddie, Aadi Alahan (Zennon Ditchett), Asha Alahan (Tanisha Gorey) and Simon Barlow (Alex Bain). She is forced to leave the children when her mother is taken ill and asks Sophie and Sian Powers (Sacha Parkinson) to watch the children. Whilst she is gone, Aadi and Simon have a fight and Aadi hits his head and later collapses and is rushed to hospital. He recovers and Aadi 's parents, Dev (Jimmi Harkishin) and Sunita Alahan (Shobna Gulati), tell the police Claire was babysitting. When Claire is questioned, she tells the police about Sophie and Sian babysitting. Claire later tells Ashley she is concerned that her past mental health problems will be brought up but he reassures her that she has nothing to worry about. The Peacocks are angry with the Alahans for telling the police about Claire. After the police question Sophie and Sian, Sally confronts the Peacocks at Roy (David Neilson) and Hayley Cropper 's (Julie Hesmondhalgh) wedding and accuses Claire of using the girls as a scapegoat and causing Aadi 's injury herself and mocks her former mental health problems. Claire then reveals that Sophie and Sian are lesbians and that she saw them kissing after returning home but the girls deny it. Ashley and Claire leave the ceremony and Claire shouts at Sophie as they walk past her for letting everyone believe that she is a liar.
Claire then goes to stay with her mother and leaves Joshua and Freddie with Ashley. Ashley is angry with Sunita when she comes into the butchers to ask after Claire and he orders her to leave. When the truth is revealed about Simon causing Aadi 's injury, Ashley angrily confronts Simon 's father Peter Barlow (Chris Gascoyne) and accuses Simon of lying to cover his tracks and causing Claire 's problems. Peter apologises to Ashley. When Claire returns home, Sunita comes round to apologize but the Peacocks do not accept it and Ashley orders Sunita to leave.
In order to put her ordeal behind her, Claire asks Ashley if they can move away from Weatherfield for a fresh start. Ashley is reluctant at first but agrees. However, Claire 's mother Yvonne (Yvonne O'Grady) later visits and she convinces Claire to move to France, where she lives. Claire is enthusiastic and agrees but Ashley changes his mind about moving, not wanting to leave the country.
In October 2010, Ashley is closing the butcher 's shop when he witnesses Graeme get run over by his former friend David. Ashley calls an ambulance and has to restrain Graeme 's girlfriend, Tina McIntyre (Michelle Keegan), David 's ex-girlfriend, from attacking David. Ashley and Claire accompany Graeme to the hospital and Ashley believes Claire is having second thoughts about leaving. Ashley is angry with David and accuses him of deliberately running Graeme over, saying some horrible comments. However, upon learning that David had an epileptic fit at the wheel and did not mean to run Graeme over, he feels guilty and apologises off - screen.
In order to change Ashley 's mind about moving, Claire arranges a romantic meal for them but Ashley realises that she is trying to win him round when he notices that the food and wine is French. Ashley refuses to move again, but suddenly feels a pain in his chest. Believing he is having a heart attack, Claire rushes him to hospital. Ashley discovers that he was suffering from indigestion but he does not tell Claire this and he lets her continue thinking that he has heart problems in order for her to change her mind about moving and it works. Ashley is given indigestion tablets and removes them from their packet and puts them in a biscuit tin in the kitchen. Later, Joshua feeds Freddie one of Ashley 's pills and Claire panics and takes Freddie to hospital. Ashley is forced to admit that the tablets were for indigestion and not heart problems. When Claire returns home she apologises to Ashley for forcing him to move and tells him that she will move to France alone, with Joshua and Freddie and leave him behind.
Ashley is forced to sleep on the sofa and later gets drunk in The Rovers. Graeme and Tina take him home and let him spend the night at their flat in order to sleep off his hangover. Ashley attends Jack Dobbs ' christening and Jack Duckworth (Bill Tarmey) asks him how things are between him and Claire. Ashley is forced to admit that his marriage may be over but Jack convinces Ashley to speak to Claire and he does so in The Rovers but they end up arguing again.
Jack dies from cancer two weeks later and at his funeral, Ashley comforts Claire. At Jack 's wake, Ashley and Claire reconcile and he agrees to move to France with her. Ashley tells Graeme he will be selling the shop. Graeme is upset but wishes Ashley and Claire well.
On 6 December 2010, Ashley attends Peter 's stag night at The Joinery Bar. Ashley gets drunk and decides to go home. He goes into the office to say goodbye to Peter. He wishes Peter well and tells him never to turn his back on his fiancée Leanne Battersby (Jane Danson). He also asks Peter to come and visit himself and Claire in France once they have settled down and the two men embrace. An explosion then tears through The Joinery, severing the overhead railway line and derailing a tram. Ashley is trapped in the office with Peter and bar manager Nick Tilsley (Ben Price). He then helps Nick free Peter who is buried under debris and badly injured. Ashley tries to search for a way out and realises he is seriously injured when he coughs up blood. He then tries to call Claire but gets no reply. He leaves a message on her phone telling her that he loves her and is looking forward to going to France with her and the boys. Ashley and Nick then manage to carry Peter to a hole in the wall after hearing firefighters call out to them. The roof starts to collapse and Ashley is trapped but holds the ceiling up long enough for Nick to pass Peter out to safety. Nick offers to stay behind and help Ashley but realising it is too late to save himself, Ashley shouts at Nick to get out and save himself. The roof then gives way and Ashley is crushed to death. Claire then listens to the voicemail that Ashley left her whilst he was trapped in the joinery.
A distraught Claire then goes with Graeme to identify Ashley 's body at the morgue. Ashley 's funeral was held on 16 December 2010, off - screen. The character has been referenced to several times since his death.
For his portrayal of Ashley, Arnold was nominated in the category of "Most Popular Actor '' at the 1999 National Television Awards.
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in this excerpt the author argues against which of the following rights for women | A Vindication of the Rights of Woman - wikipedia
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects (1792), written by the 18th - century British proto - feminist Mary Wollstonecraft, is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy. In it, Wollstonecraft responds to those educational and political theorists of the 18th century who did not believe women should have an education. She argues that women ought to have an education commensurate with their position in society, claiming that women are essential to the nation because they educate its children and because they could be "companions '' to their husbands, rather than mere wives. Instead of viewing women as ornaments to society or property to be traded in marriage, Wollstonecraft maintains that they are human beings deserving of the same fundamental rights as men.
Wollstonecraft was prompted to write the Rights of Woman after reading Charles Maurice de Talleyrand - Périgord 's 1791 report to the French National Assembly, which stated that women should only receive a domestic education; she used her commentary on this specific event to launch a broad attack against sexual double standards and to indict men for encouraging women to indulge in excessive emotion. Wollstonecraft wrote the Rights of Woman hurriedly to respond directly to ongoing events; she intended to write a more thoughtful second volume but died before completing it.
While Wollstonecraft does call for equality between the sexes in particular areas of life, such as morality, she does not explicitly state that men and women are equal. Her ambiguous statements regarding the equality of the sexes have since made it difficult to classify Wollstonecraft as a modern feminist, particularly since the word and the concept were unavailable to her. Although it is commonly assumed now that the Rights of Woman was unfavourably received, this is a modern misconception based on the belief that Wollstonecraft was as reviled during her lifetime as she became after the publication of William Godwin 's Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1798). The Rights of Woman was actually well received when it was first published in 1792. One biographer has called it "perhaps the most original book of (Wollstonecraft 's) century ''.
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman was written against the tumultuous background of the French Revolution and the debates that it spawned in Britain. In a lively and sometimes vicious pamphlet war, now referred to as the Revolution controversy, British political commentators addressed topics ranging from representative government to human rights to the separation of church and state, many of these issues having been raised in France first. Wollstonecraft first entered this fray in 1790 with A Vindication of the Rights of Men, a response to Edmund Burke 's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790). In his Reflections, Burke criticized the view of many British thinkers and writers who had welcomed the early stages of the French revolution. While they saw the revolution as analogous to Britain 's own Glorious Revolution in 1688, which had restricted the powers of the monarchy, Burke argued that the appropriate historical analogy was the English Civil War (1642 -- 1651) in which Charles I had been executed in 1649. He viewed the French revolution as the violent overthrow of a legitimate government. In Reflections he argues that citizens do not have the right to revolt against their government because civilization is the result of social and political consensus; its traditions can not be continually challenged -- the result would be anarchy. One of the key arguments of Wollstonecraft 's Rights of Men, published just six weeks after Burke 's Reflections, is that rights can not be based on tradition; rights, she argues, should be conferred because they are reasonable and just, regardless of their basis in tradition.
When Charles Maurice de Talleyrand - Périgord presented his Rapport sur l'instruction publique (1791) to the National Assembly in France, Wollstonecraft was galvanized to respond. In his recommendations for a national system of education, Talleyrand had written:
Let us bring up women, not to aspire to advantages which the Constitution denies them, but to know and appreciate those which it guarantees them... Men are destined to live on the stage of the world. A public education suits them: it early places before their eyes all the scenes of life: only the proportions are different. The paternal home is better for the education of women; they have less need to learn to deal with the interests of others, than to accustom themselves to a calm and secluded life.
Wollstonecraft dedicated the Rights of Woman to Talleyrand: "Having read with great pleasure a pamphlet which you have lately published, I dedicate this volume to you; to induce you to reconsider the subject, and maturely weigh what I have advanced respecting the rights of woman and national education. '' At the end of 1791, French feminist Olympe de Gouges had published her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen, and the question of women 's rights became central to political debates in both France and Britain.
The Rights of Woman is an extension of Wollstonecraft 's arguments in the Rights of Men. In the Rights of Men, as the title suggests, she is concerned with the rights of particular men (18th - century British men) while in the Rights of Woman, she is concerned with the rights afforded to "woman '', an abstract category. She does not isolate her argument to 18th - century women or British women. The first chapter of the Rights of Woman addresses the issue of natural rights and asks who has those inalienable rights and on what grounds. She answers that since natural rights are given by God, for one segment of society to deny them to another segment is a sin. The Rights of Woman thus engages not only specific events in France and in Britain but also larger questions being raised by political philosophers such as John Locke and Jean - Jacques Rousseau.
Wollstonecraft did not employ the formal argumentation or logical prose style common to 18th - century philosophical writing when composing her own works. The Rights of Woman is a long essay that introduces all of its major topics in the opening chapters and then repeatedly returns to them, each time from a different point of view. It also adopts a hybrid tone that combines rational argument with the fervent rhetoric of sensibility.
In the 18th century, sensibility was a physical phenomenon that came to be attached to a specific set of moral beliefs. Physicians and anatomists believed that the more sensitive people 's nerves, the more emotionally affected they would be by their surroundings. Since women were thought to have keener nerves than men, it was also believed that women were more emotional than men. The emotional excess associated with sensibility also theoretically produced an ethic of compassion: those with sensibility could easily sympathise with people in pain. Thus historians have credited the discourse of sensibility and those who promoted it with the increased humanitarian efforts, such as the movement to abolish the slave trade. But sensibility also paralysed those who had too much of it; as scholar G.J. Barker - Benfield explains, "an innate refinement of nerves was also identifiable with greater suffering, with weakness, and a susceptibility to disorder ''.
By the time Wollstonecraft was writing the Rights of Woman, sensibility had already been under sustained attack for a number of years. Sensibility, which had initially promised to draw individuals together through sympathy, was now viewed as "profoundly separatist ''; novels, plays, and poems that employed the language of sensibility asserted individual rights, sexual freedom, and unconventional familial relationships based only upon feeling. Furthermore, as Janet Todd, another scholar of sensibility, argues, "to many in Britain the cult of sensibility seemed to have feminized the nation, given women undue prominence, and emasculated men. ''
One of Wollstonecraft 's central arguments in the Rights of Woman is that women should be educated in a rational manner to give them the opportunity to contribute to society. In the 18th century, it was often assumed by both educational philosophers and conduct book writers, who wrote what one might think of as early self - help books, that women were incapable of rational or abstract thought. Women, it was believed, were too susceptible to sensibility and too fragile to be able to think clearly. Wollstonecraft, along with other female reformers such as Catharine Macaulay and Hester Chapone, maintained that women were indeed capable of rational thought and deserved to be educated. She argued this point in her own conduct book, Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787), in her children 's book, Original Stories from Real Life (1788), as well as in the Rights of Woman.
Stating in her preface that "my main argument is built on this simple principle, that if (woman) be not prepared by education to become the companion of man, she will stop the progress of knowledge and virtue; for truth must be common to all '', Wollstonecraft contends that society will degenerate without educated women, particularly because mothers are the primary educators of young children. She attributes the problem of uneducated women to men and "a false system of education, gathered from the books written on this subject by men who (consider) females rather as women than human creatures ''. Women are capable of rationality; it only appears that they are not, because men have refused to educate them and encouraged them to be frivolous (Wollstonecraft describes silly women as "spaniels '' and "toys ''). While stressing it is of the same kind, she entertains the notion that women might not be able to attain the same degree of knowledge that men do.
Wollstonecraft attacks conduct book writers such as James Fordyce and John Gregory as well as educational philosophers such as Jean - Jacques Rousseau who argue that a woman does not need a rational education. (Rousseau famously argues in Emile (1762) that women should be educated for the pleasure of men; Wollstonecraft, infuriated by this argument, attacks not only it but also Rousseau himself.) Intent on illustrating the limitations that contemporary educational theory placed upon women, Wollstonecraft writes, "taught from their infancy that beauty is woman 's sceptre, the mind shapes itself to the body, and, roaming round its gilt cage, only seeks to adorn its prison '', implying that without this damaging ideology, which encourages young women to focus their attention on beauty and outward accomplishments, they could achieve much more. Wives could be the rational "companions '' of their husbands and even pursue careers should they so choose: "women might certainly study the art of healing, and be physicians as well as nurses. And midwifery, decency seems to allot to them... they might, also, study politics... Business of various kinds, they might likewise pursue. ''
For Wollstonecraft, "the most perfect education '' is "an exercise of the understanding as is best calculated to strengthen the body and form the heart. Or, in other words, to enable the individual to attach such habits of virtue as will render it independent. '' In addition to her broad philosophical arguments, Wollstonecraft lays out a specific plan for national education to counter Talleyrand 's. In Chapter 12, "On National Education, '' she proposes that children be sent to day schools as well as given some education at home "to inspire a love of home and domestic pleasures, '' and that such schools be free for children "five to nine years of age. '' She also maintains that schooling should be co-educational, contending that men and women, whose marriages are "the cement of society, '' should be "educated after the same model. ''
It is debatable to what extent the Rights of Woman is a feminist text; because the definitions of feminist vary, different scholars have come to different conclusions. Wollstonecraft would never have referred to her text as feminist because the words feminist and feminism were not coined until the 1890s. Moreover, there was no feminist movement to speak of during Wollstonecraft 's lifetime. In the introduction to her seminal work on Wollstonecraft 's thought, Barbara Taylor writes:
Describing (Wollstonecraft 's philosophy) as feminist is problematic, and I do it only after much consideration. The label is of course anachronistic... Treating Wollstonecraft 's thought as an anticipation of nineteenth and twentieth - century feminist argument has meant sacrificing or distorting some of its key elements. Leading examples of this... have been the widespread neglect of her religious beliefs, and the misrepresentation of her as a bourgeois liberal, which together have resulted in the displacement of a religiously inspired utopian radicalism by a secular, class - partisan reformism as alien to Wollstonecraft 's political project as her dream of a divinely promised age of universal happiness is to our own. Even more important however has been the imposition on Wollstonecraft of a heroic - individualist brand of politics utterly at odds with her own ethically driven case for women 's emancipation. Wollstonecraft 's leading ambition for women was that they should attain virtue, and it was to this end that she sought their liberation.
In the Rights of Woman, Wollstonecraft does not make the claim for gender equality using the same arguments or the same language that late 19th - and 20th century feminists later would. For instance, rather than unequivocally stating that men and women are equal, Wollstonecraft contends that men and women are equal in the eyes of God, which means that they are both subject to the same moral law. For Wollstonecraft, men and women are equal in the most important areas of life. While such an idea may not seem revolutionary to 21st - century readers, its implications were revolutionary during the 18th century. For example, it implied that both men and women -- not just women -- should be modest and respect the sanctity of marriage. Wollstonecraft 's argument exposed the sexual double standard of the late 18th century and demanded that men adhere to the same virtues demanded of women.
However, Wollstonecraft 's arguments for equality stand in contrast to her statements respecting the superiority of masculine strength and valour. Wollstonecraft famously and ambiguously states:
Let it not be concluded, that I wish to invert the order of things; I have already granted, that, from the constitution of their bodies, men seem to be designed by Providence to attain a greater degree of virtue. I speak collectively of the whole sex; but I see not the shadow of a reason to conclude that their virtues should differ in respect to their nature. In fact, how can they, if virtue has only one eternal standard? I must therefore, if I reason consequentially, as strenuously maintain that they have the same simple direction, as that there is a God.
Moreover, Wollstonecraft calls on men, rather than women, to initiate the social and political changes she outlines in the Rights of Woman. Because women are uneducated, they can not alter their own situation -- men must come to their aid. Wollstonecraft writes at the end of her chapter "Of the Pernicious Effects Which Arise from the Unnatural Distinctions Established in Society '':
I then would fain convince reasonable men of the importance of some of my remarks; and prevail on them to weigh dispassionately the whole tenor of my observations. -- I appeal to their understandings; and, as a fellow - creature, claim, in the name of my sex, some interest in their hearts. I entreat them to assist to emancipate their companion, to make her a help meet for them! Would men but generously snap our chains, and be content with rational fellowship instead of slavish obedience, they would find us more observant daughters, more affectionate sisters, more faithful wives, more reasonable mothers -- in a word, better citizens.
It is Wollstonecraft 's last novel, Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman (1798), the fictionalized sequel to the Rights of Woman, that is usually considered her most radical feminist work.
One of Wollstonecraft 's most scathing criticisms in the Rights of Woman is against false and excessive sensibility, particularly in women. She argues that women who succumb to sensibility are "blown about by every momentary gust of feeling ''; because these women are "the prey of their senses '', they can not think rationally. In fact, not only do they do harm to themselves but they also do harm to all of civilization: these are not women who can refine civilization -- these are women who will destroy it. But reason and feeling are not independent for Wollstonecraft; rather, she believes that they should inform each other. For Wollstonecraft, as for the important 18th - century philosopher David Hume, the passions underpin all reason. This was a theme that she would return to throughout her career, but particularly in her novels Mary: A Fiction (1788) and Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman.
As part of her argument that women should not be overly influenced by their feelings, Wollstonecraft emphasises that they should not be constrained by or made slaves to their bodies or their sexual feelings. This particular argument has led many modern feminists to suggest that Wollstonecraft intentionally avoids granting women any sexual desire. Cora Kaplan argues that the "negative and prescriptive assault on female sexuality '' is a "leitmotif '' of the Rights of Woman. For example, Wollstonecraft advises her readers to "calmly let passion subside into friendship '' in the ideal companionate marriage (that is, in the ideal of a love - based marriage that was developing at the time). It would be better, she writes, when "two virtuous young people marry... if some circumstances checked their passion ''. According to Wollstonecraft, "love and friendship can not subsist in the same bosom ''. As Mary Poovey explains, "Wollstonecraft betrays her fear that female desire might in fact court man 's lascivious and degrading attentions, that the subordinate position women have been given might even be deserved. Until women can transcend their fleshly desires and fleshly forms, they will be hostage to the body. '' If women are not interested in sexuality, they can not be dominated by men. Wollstonecraft worries that women are consumed with "romantic wavering '', that is, they are interested only in satisfying their lusts. Because the Rights of Woman eliminates sexuality from a woman 's life, Kaplan contends, it "expresses a violent antagonism to the sexual '' while at the same time "exaggerat (ing) the importance of the sensual in the everyday life of women ''. Wollstonecraft was so determined to wipe sexuality from her picture of the ideal woman that she ended up foregrounding it by insisting upon its absence. But as Kaplan and others have remarked, Wollstonecraft may have been forced to make this sacrifice: "it is important to remember that the notion of woman as politically enabled and independent (was) fatally linked (during the eighteenth century) to the unrestrained and vicious exercise of her sexuality. ''
Claudia Johnson, a prominent Wollstonecraft scholar, has called the Rights of Woman "a republican manifesto ''. Johnson contends that Wollstonecraft is hearkening back to the Commonwealth tradition of the 17th century and attempting to reestablish a republican ethos. In Wollstonecraft 's version, there would be strong, but separate, masculine and feminine roles for citizens. According to Johnson, Wollstonecraft "denounces the collapse of proper sexual distinction as the leading feature of her age, and as the grievous consequence of sentimentality itself. The problem undermining society in her view is feminized men ''. If men feel free to adopt both the masculine position and the sentimental feminine position, she argues, women have no position open to them in society. Johnson therefore sees Wollstonecraft as a critic, in both the Rights of Men and the Rights of Woman, of the "masculinization of sensitivity '' in such works as Edmund Burke 's Reflections on the Revolution in France.
In the Rights of Woman Wollstonecraft adheres to a version of republicanism that includes a belief in the eventual overthrow of all titles, including the monarchy. She also briefly suggests that all men and women should be represented in government. But the bulk of her "political criticism, '' as Chris Jones, a Wollstonecraft scholar, explains, "is couched predominantly in terms of morality ''. Her definition of virtue focuses on the individual 's happiness rather than, for example, the good of the entire society. This is reflected in her explanation of natural rights. Because rights ultimately proceed from God, Wollstonecraft maintains that there are duties, tied to those rights, incumbent upon each and every person. For Wollstonecraft, the individual is taught republicanism and benevolence within the family; domestic relations and familial ties are crucial to her understanding of social cohesion and patriotism.
In many ways the Rights of Woman is inflected by a bourgeois view of the world, as is its direct predecessor the Rights of Men. Wollstonecraft addresses her text to the middle class, which she calls the "most natural state ''. She also frequently praises modesty and industry, virtues which, at the time, were associated with the middle class. From her position as a middle - class writer arguing for a middle - class ethos, Wollstonecraft also attacks the wealthy, criticizing them using the same arguments she employs against women. She points out the "false - refinement, immorality, and vanity '' of the rich, calling them "weak, artificial beings, raised above the common wants and affections of their race, in a premature unnatural manner (who) undermine the very foundation of virtue, and spread corruption through the whole mass of society ''.
But Wollstonecraft 's criticisms of the wealthy do not necessarily reflect a concomitant sympathy for the poor. For her, the poor are fortunate because they will never be trapped by the snares of wealth: "Happy is it when people have the cares of life to struggle with; for these struggles prevent their becoming a prey to enervating vices, merely from idleness! '' Moreover, she contends that charity has only negative consequences because, as Jones puts it, she "sees it as sustaining an unequal society while giving the appearance of virtue to the rich ''.
In her national plan for education, she retains class distinctions (with an exception for the intelligent), suggesting that: "After the age of nine, girls and boys, intended for domestic employments, or mechanical trades, ought to be removed to other schools, and receive instruction, in some measure appropriated to the destination of each individual... The young people of superior abilities, or fortune, might now be taught, in another school, the dead and living languages, the elements of science, and continue the study of history and politics, on a more extensive scale, which would not exclude polite literature. ''
In attempting to navigate the cultural expectations of female writers and the generic conventions of political and philosophical discourse, Wollstonecraft, as she does throughout her oeuvre, constructs a unique blend of masculine and feminine styles in the Rights of Woman. She uses the language of philosophy, referring to her work as a "treatise '' with "arguments '' and "principles ''. However, Wollstonecraft also uses a personal tone, employing "I '' and "you '', dashes and exclamation marks, and autobiographical references to create a distinctly feminine voice in the text. The Rights of Woman further hybridizes its genre by weaving together elements of the conduct book, the short essay, and the novel, genres often associated with women, while at the same time claiming that these genres could be used to discuss philosophical topics such as rights.
Although Wollstonecraft argues against excessive sensibility, the rhetoric of the Rights of Woman is at times heated and attempts to provoke the reader. Many of the most emotional comments in the book are directed at Rousseau. For example, after excerpting a long passage from Emile (1762), Wollstonecraft pithily states, "I shall make no other comments on this ingenious passage, than just to observe, that it is the philosophy of lasciviousness. '' A mere page later, after indicting Rousseau 's plan for female education, she writes "I must relieve myself by drawing another picture. '' These terse exclamations are meant to draw the reader to her side of the argument (it is assumed that the reader will agree with them). While she claims to write in a plain style so that her ideas will reach the broadest possible audience, she actually combines the plain, rational language of the political treatise with the poetic, passionate language of sensibility to demonstrate that one can combine rationality and sensibility in the same self. Wollstonecraft defends her positions not only with reasoned argument but also with ardent rhetoric.
In her efforts to vividly describe the condition of women within society, Wollstonecraft employs several different analogies. She often compares women to slaves, arguing that their ignorance and powerlessness places them in that position. But at the same time, she also compares them to "capricious tyrants '' who use cunning and deceit to manipulate the men around them. At one point, she reasons that a woman can become either a slave or tyrant, which she describes as two sides of the same coin. Wollstonecraft also compares women to soldiers; like military men, they are valued only for their appearance and obedience. And like the rich, women 's "softness '' has "debased mankind ''.
Wollstonecraft was forced to write the Rights of Woman hurriedly to respond to Talleyrand and ongoing events. Upon completing the work, she wrote to her friend William Roscoe: "I am dissatisfied with myself for not having done justice to the subject. -- Do not suspect me of false modesty -- I mean to say that had I allowed myself more time I could have written a better book, in every sense of the word... I intend to finish the next volume before I begin to print, for it is not pleasant to have the Devil coming for the conclusion of a sheet fore it is written. '' When Wollstonecraft revised the Rights of Woman for the second edition, she took the opportunity not only to fix small spelling and grammar mistakes but also to bolster the feminist claims of her argument. She changed some of her statements regarding female and male difference to reflect a greater equality between the sexes.
Wollstonecraft never wrote the second part to the Rights of Woman, although William Godwin published her "Hints '', which were "chiefly designed to have been incorporated in the second part of the Vindication of the Rights of Woman '', in the posthumous collection of her works. However, she did begin writing the novel Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman, which most scholars consider a fictionalized sequel to the Rights of Woman. It was unfinished at her death and also included in the Posthumous Works published by Godwin.
When it was first published in 1792, the Rights of Woman was reviewed favourably by the Analytical Review, the General Magazine, the Literary Magazine, New York Magazine, and the Monthly Review, although the assumption persists even today that Rights of Woman received hostile reviews. It was almost immediately released in a second edition in 1792, several American editions appeared, and it was translated into French. Taylor writes that "it was an immediate success ''. Moreover, other writers such as Mary Hays and Mary Robinson specifically alluded to Wollstonecraft 's text in their own works. Hays cited the Rights of Woman in her novel Memoirs of Emma Courtney (1796) and modelled her female characters after Wollstonecraft 's ideal woman.
Although female conservatives such as Hannah More excoriated Wollstonecraft personally, they actually shared many of the same values. As the scholar Anne Mellor has shown, both More and Wollstonecraft wanted a society founded on "Christian virtues of rational benevolence, honesty, personal virtue, the fulfillment of social duty, thrift, sobriety, and hard work ''. During the early 1790s, many writers within British society were engaged in an intense debate regarding the position of women in society. For example, the respected poet and essayist Anna Laetitia Barbauld and Wollstonecraft sparred back and forth; Barbauld published several poems responding to Wollstonecraft 's work and Wollstonecraft commented on them in footnotes to the Rights of Woman. The work also provoked outright hostility. The bluestocking Elizabeth Carter was unimpressed with the work. Thomas Taylor, the Neoplatonist translator who had been a landlord to the Wollstonecraft family in the late 1770s, swiftly wrote a satire called A Vindication of the Rights of Brutes: if women have rights, why not animals too?
After Wollstonecraft died in 1797, her husband William Godwin published his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1798). He revealed much about her private life that had previously not been known to the public: her illegitimate child, her love affairs, and her attempts at suicide. While Godwin believed he was portraying his wife with love, sincerity, and compassion, contemporary readers were shocked by Wollstonecraft 's unorthodox lifestyle and she became a reviled figure. Richard Polwhele targeted her in particular in his anonymous long poem The Unsex 'd Females (1798), a defensive reaction to women 's literary self - assertion: Hannah More is Christ to Wollstonecraft 's Satan. His poem was "well known '' among the responses A Vindication. One reviewer comments this "ingenious poem '' with its "playful sallies of sarcastic wit '' against "our modern ladies, '' though others found it "a tedious, lifeless piece of writing. '' Critical responses largely fell along clear - cut political lines.
Wollstonecraft 's ideas became associated with her life story and women writers felt that it was dangerous to mention her in their texts. Hays, who had previously been a close friend and an outspoken advocate for Wollstonecraft and her Rights of Woman, for example, did not include her in the collection of Illustrious and Celebrated Women she published in 1803. Maria Edgeworth specifically distances herself from Wollstonecraft in her novel Belinda (1802); she caricatures Wollstonecraft as a radical feminist in the character of Harriet Freke. But, like Jane Austen, she does not reject Wollstonecraft 's ideas. Both Edgeworth and Austen argue that women are crucial to the development of the nation; moreover, they portray women as rational beings who should choose companionate marriage.
The negative views towards Wollstonecraft persisted for over a century. The Rights of Woman was not reprinted until the middle of the 19th century and it still retained an aura of ill - repute. George Eliot wrote "there is in some quarters a vague prejudice against the Rights of Woman as in some way or other a reprehensible book, but readers who go to it with this impression will be surprised to find it eminently serious, severely moral, and withal rather heavy ''. The suffragist (i.e. moderate reformer, as opposed to suffragette) Millicent Garrett Fawcett wrote the introduction to the centenary edition of the Rights of Woman, cleansing the memory of Wollstonecraft and claiming her as the foremother of the struggle for the vote. While the Rights of Woman may have paved the way for feminist arguments, 20th century feminists have tended to use Wollstonecraft 's life story, rather than her texts, for inspiration; her unorthodox lifestyle convinced them to try new "experiments in living '', as Virginia Woolf termed it in her famous essay on Wollstonecraft. However, there is some evidence that the Rights of Woman may be influencing current feminists. Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a feminist who is critical of Islam 's dictates regarding women, cites the Rights of Woman in her autobiography Infidel, writing that she was "inspired by Mary Wollstonecraft, the pioneering feminist thinker who told women they had the same ability to reason as men did and deserved the same rights ''.
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region of northern europe including norway and sweden crossword clue | List of rivers of Europe - wikipedia
This page lists the principal rivers of Europe with their main attributes.
The border of Europe and Asia is here defined as from the Kara Sea over the Ural Mountains and Ural River to the Caspian Sea. While the crest of the Caucasus Mountains is the geographical border with Asia in the south, Georgia, and to a lesser extended Armenia and Azerbaijan, are politically and culturally often associated with Europe; rivers in these countries are therefore included.
The list is at the outset limited to those rivers that are at least 250 km long from the most distant source, have a drainage basin (catchment area, watershed) of at least 10,000 km2, or have a mean discharge (volume, flow) of at least 150 m3 / s. Also included are a number of rivers (currently 47) that do not meet these criteria, but are very well - known and / or nearly make the mark. Examples of these are the Arno, Ruhr, Saar, and River Clyde. See the lists of rivers for individual countries linked to at the bottom of the page for smaller rivers.
The rivers are ordered from those flowing to the extreme northeast into the Arctic Ocean, following the coastline anticlockwise all the way to the southeastern coast of the Black Sea. Iceland and the British Islands are included via virtual connections with northern Norway and across the Strait of Dover and the North Channel, respectively. Finally, rivers draining into the Caspian Sea are listed from Azerbaijan to the Ural River.
The table can be sorted over each column. The first three columns give a ranking for (maximum) length, area and volume of those rivers flowing into the sea or an endorheic lake down to the cut - off values. No ranking of tributaries is attempted, as the concept is too contentious; for example, hydrologically the middle and upper Volga could be considered a tributary of the Kama, in which case it would be the fifth or sixth longest river in Europe. Instead it does n't appear in the table at all.
The provided measurements are drawn from sources deemed most reliable, but still are often uncertain, especially when other sources disagree wildly. For example, the Siret in Romania and Ukraine is 726 km with a basin of 44,000 km2 according to the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 647 km (44,811 km2) according to a Romanian management plan for the Siret basin and 559 km (47,610 km2) according to the extensive transboundary rivers study by the Economic Commission for Europe.
Length estimates for rivers depend on a number of variables. 1) The estimate will be larger when the river 's curves are traced at a smaller scale. 2) The choice of the source obviously has an impact. Here we attempt to list the most distant source. When that involves a tributary nearer the mouth of the river, the length of the nominal river is listed as well, if it meets the above criteria. 3) Rivers flowing into estuaries have an arbitrary end. Its channel through an estuary is usually included in the length when it is exposed at low tide. 4) The length of a watercourse through a reservoir or lake is open for interpretation. For this table, when a source for the total length of a river system involving lakes is lacking, the shortest courses through the lakes is used. 5) Over time, a river 's length can change (usually decrease) through canalization, the creation of reservoirs, and natural changes in the water course.
The catchment areas are more consistent between sources. However, in low relief the watershed is less obvious, while underground connections (especially in karst systems) further complicate area measurements. Unless excellent sources are available, the areas below 70 ° latitude are taken from the HydroBASINS project. The River Networks and Ramsar Sites Information Service websites provide convenient interfaces to assess the accuracy of many of the basins. Areas for rivers above 70 ° are warned and found to be less reliable.
The listed multiyear mean discharges are even less reliable than the lengths. Underestimates are most common, as the gauging stations are often far above the mouth, so that only a fraction of the drainage basin is represented. On the other hand, the highest volume of a river may not be at the mouth due to water loss by human usage, diversion (e.g. through distributaries), evaporation, or underground drainage.
SWRR = State Water Register of Russia; GSE = Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969 -- 1978 edition; IEU = Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine.
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spontaneous contraction of random groups of muscles is called | Muscle contraction - wikipedia
Muscle contraction is the activation of tension - generating sites within muscle fibers. In physiology, muscle contraction does not necessarily mean muscle shortening because muscle tension can be produced without changes in muscle length such as holding a heavy book or a dumbbell at the same position. The termination of muscle contraction is followed by muscle relaxation, which is a return of the muscle fibers to their low tension - generating state.
Muscle contractions can be described based on two variables: length and tension. A muscle contraction is described as isometric if the muscle tension changes but the muscle length remains the same. In contrast, a muscle contraction is isotonic if muscle length changes but the muscle tension remains the same. If the muscle length shortens, the contraction is concentric; if the muscle length lengthens, the contraction is eccentric. In natural movements that underlie locomotor activity, muscle contractions are multifaceted as they are able to produce changes in length and tension in a time - varying manner. Therefore, neither length nor tension is likely to remain the same in muscles that contract during locomotor activity.
In vertebrates, skeletal muscle contractions are neurogenic as they require synaptic input from motor neurons to produce muscle contractions. A single motor neuron is able to innervate multiple muscle fibers, thereby causing the fibers to contract at the same time. Once innervated, the protein filaments within each skeletal muscle fiber slide past each other to produce a contraction, which is explained by the sliding filament theory. The contraction produced can be described as a twitch, summation, or tetanus, depending on the frequency of action potentials. In skeletal muscles, muscle tension is at its greatest when the muscle is stretched to an intermediate length as described by the length - tension relationship.
Unlike skeletal muscle, the contractions of smooth and cardiac muscles are myogenic (meaning that they are initiated by the smooth or heart muscle cells themselves instead of being stimulated by an outside event such as nerve stimulation), although they can be modulated by stimuli from the autonomic nervous system. The mechanisms of contraction in these muscle tissues are similar to those in skeletal muscle tissues.
Muscle contractions can be described based on two variables: force and length. Force itself can be differentiated as either tension or load. Muscle tension is the force exerted by the muscle on an object whereas a load is the force exerted by an object on the muscle. When muscle tension changes without any corresponding changes in muscle length, the muscle contraction is described as isometric. If the muscle length changes while muscle tension remains the same, then the muscle contraction is isotonic. In an isotonic contraction, the muscle length can either shorten to produce a concentric contraction or lengthen to produce an eccentric contraction. Furthermore, if the muscle length shortens, the contraction is concentric. But if the muscle length lengthens, then the contraction is eccentric. In natural movements that underlie locomotor activity, muscle contractions are multifaceted as they are able to produce changes in length and tension in a time - varying manner. Therefore, neither length nor tension is likely to remain constant when the muscle is active during locomotor activity.
An isometric contraction of a muscle generates tension without changing length. An example can be found when the muscles of the hand and forearm grip an object; the joints of the hand do not move, but muscles generate sufficient force to prevent the object from being dropped.
In isotonic contraction, the tension in the muscle remains constant despite a change in muscle length. This occurs when a muscle 's force of contraction matches the total load on the muscle.
In concentric contraction, muscle tension is sufficient to overcome the load, and the muscle shortens as it contracts. This occurs when the force generated by the muscle exceeds the load opposing its contraction.
During a concentric contraction, a muscle is stimulated to contract according to the sliding filament theory. This occurs throughout the length of the muscle, generating a force at the origin and insertion, causing the muscle to shorten and changing the angle of the joint. In relation to the elbow, a concentric contraction of the biceps would cause the arm to bend at the elbow as the hand moved from the leg to the shoulder (a biceps curl). A concentric contraction of the triceps would change the angle of the joint in the opposite direction, straightening the arm and moving the hand towards the leg.
In eccentric contraction, the tension generated is insufficient to overcome the external load on the muscle and the muscle fibers lengthen as they contract. Rather than working to pull a joint in the direction of the muscle contraction, the muscle acts to decelerate the joint at the end of a movement or otherwise control the repositioning of a load. This can occur involuntarily (e.g., when attempting to move a weight too heavy for the muscle to lift) or voluntarily (e.g., when the muscle is ' smoothing out ' a movement). Over the short - term, strength training involving both eccentric and concentric contractions appear to increase muscular strength more than training with concentric contractions alone. However, exercise - induced muscle damage is also greater during lengthening contractions.
During an eccentric contraction of the biceps muscle, the elbow starts the movement while bent and then straightens as the hand moves away from the shoulder. During an eccentric contraction of the triceps muscle, the elbow starts the movement straight and then bends as the hand moves towards the shoulder. Desmin, titin, and other z - line proteins are involved in eccentric contractions, but their mechanism is poorly understood in comparison to crossbridge cycling in concentric contractions.
Though the muscle is doing a negative amount of mechanical work, (work is being done on the muscle), chemical energy (in fat, glucose or ATP) is nevertheless consumed, although less than would be consumed during a concentric contraction of the same force. For example, one expends more energy going up a flight of stairs than going down the same flight.
Muscles undergoing heavy eccentric loading suffer greater damage when overloaded (such as during muscle building or strength training exercise) as compared to concentric loading. When eccentric contractions are used in weight training, they are normally called negatives. During a concentric contraction, muscle fibers slide across each other, pulling the Z - lines together. During an eccentric contraction, the filaments slide past each other the opposite way, though the actual movement of the myosin heads during an eccentric contraction is not known. Exercise featuring a heavy eccentric load can actually support a greater weight (muscles are approximately 40 % stronger during eccentric contractions than during concentric contractions) and also results in greater muscular damage and delayed onset muscle soreness one to two days after training. Exercise that incorporates both eccentric and concentric muscular contractions (i.e., involving a strong contraction and a controlled lowering of the weight) can produce greater gains in strength than concentric contractions alone. While unaccustomed heavy eccentric contractions can easily lead to overtraining, moderate training may confer protection against injury.
Eccentric contractions normally occur as a braking force in opposition to a concentric contraction to protect joints from damage. During virtually any routine movement, eccentric contractions assist in keeping motions smooth, but can also slow rapid movements such as a punch or throw. Part of training for rapid movements such as pitching during baseball involves reducing eccentric braking allowing a greater power to be developed throughout the movement.
Eccentric contractions are being researched for their ability to speed rehabilitation of weak or injured tendons. Achilles tendinitis and patellar tendonitis (also known as jumper 's knee or patellar tendonosis) have been shown to benefit from high - load eccentric contractions.
In vertebrate animals, there are three types of muscle tissues: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Skeletal muscle constitutes the majority of muscle mass in the body and is responsible for locomotor activity. Smooth muscle forms blood vessels, gastrointestinal tract, and other areas in the body that produce sustained contractions. Cardiac muscle make up the heart, which pumps blood. Skeletal and cardiac muscles are called striated muscle because of their striped appearance under a microscope, which is due to the highly organized alternating pattern of A bands and I bands.
Excluding reflexes, all skeletal muscles contractions occur as a result of conscious effort originating in the brain. The brain sends electrochemical signals through the nervous system to the motor neuron that innervates several muscle fibers. In the case of some reflexes, the signal to contract can originate in the spinal cord through a feedback loop with the grey matter. Other actions such as locomotion, breathing, and chewing have a reflex aspect to them: the contractions can be initiated both consciously or unconsciously.
A neuromuscular junction is a chemical synapse formed by the contact between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. It is the site in which a motor neuron transmits a signal to a muscle fiber to initiate muscle contraction. The sequence of events that results in the depolarization of the muscle fiber at the neuromuscular junction begins when an action potential is initiated in the cell body of a motor neuron, which is then propagated by saltatory conduction along its axon toward the neuromuscular junction. Once it reaches the terminal bouton, the action potential causes a Ca 2 + ion influx into the terminal by way of the voltage - gated calcium channels. The Ca 2 + influx causes synaptic vesicles containing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine to fuse with the plasma membrane, releasing acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft between the motor neuron terminal and the neuromuscular junction of the skeletal muscle fiber. Acetylcholine diffuses across the synapse and binds to and activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the neuromuscular junction. Activation of the nicotinic receptor opens its intrinsic sodium / potassium channel, causing sodium to rush in and potassium to trickle out. As a result, the sarcolemma reverses polarity and its voltage quickly jumps from the resting membrane potential of - 90mV to as high as + 75mV as sodium enters. The membrane potential then becomes hyperpolarized when potassium exits and is then adjusted back to the resting membrane potential. This rapid fluctuation is called the end - plate potential The voltage - gated ion channels of the sarcolemma next to the end plate open in response to the end plate potential. These voltage - gated channels are sodium and potassium specific and only allow one through. This wave of ion movements creates the action potential that spreads from the motor end plate in all directions. If action potentials stop arriving, then acetylcholine ceases to be released from the terminal bouton. The remaining acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft is either degraded by active acetylcholine esterase or reabsorbed by the synaptic knob and none is left to replace the degraded acetylcholine.
Excitation -- contraction coupling is the process by which a muscular action potential in the muscle fiber causes the myofibrils to contract. In skeletal muscle, excitation -- contraction coupling relies on a direct coupling between key proteins, the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) calcium release channel (identified as the ryanodine receptor, RyR) and voltage - gated L - type calcium channels (identified as dihydropyridine receptors, DHPRs). DHPRs are located on the sarcolemma (which includes the surface sarcolemma and the transverse tubules), while the RyRs reside across the SR membrane. The close apposition of a transverse tubule and two SR regions containing RyRs is described as a triad and is predominantly where excitation -- contraction coupling takes place. Excitation -- contraction coupling occurs when depolarization of skeletal muscle cell results in a muscle action potential, which spreads across the cell surface and into the muscle fiber 's network of T - tubules, thereby depolarizing the inner portion of the muscle fiber. Depolarization of the inner portions activates dihydropyridine receptors in the terminal cisternae, which are in close proximity to ryanodine receptors in the adjacent sarcoplasmic reticulum. The activated dihydropyridine receptors physically interact with ryanodine receptors to activate them via foot processes (involving conformational changes that allosterically activates the ryanodine receptors). As the ryanodine receptors open, Ca 2 + is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the local junctional space, which then diffuses into the bulk cytoplasm to cause a calcium spark. Note that the sarcoplasmic reticulum has a large calcium buffering capacity partially due to a calcium - binding protein called calsequestrin. The near synchronous activation of thousands of calcium sparks by the action potential causes a cell - wide increase in calcium giving rise to the upstroke of the calcium transient. The Ca 2 + released into the cytosol binds to Troponin C by the actin filaments, to allow crossbridge cycling, producing force and, in some situations, motion. The sarco / endoplasmic reticulum calcium - ATPase (SERCA) actively pumps Ca 2 + back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. As Ca 2 + declines back to resting levels, the force declines and relaxation occurs.
The sliding filament theory describes a process used by muscles to contract. It is a cycle of repetitive events that cause a thin filament to slide over a thick filament and generate tension in the muscle. It was independently developed by Andrew Huxley and Rolf Niedergerke and by Hugh Huxley and Jean Hanson in 1954. Physiologically, this contraction is not uniform across the sarcomere; the central position of the thick filaments becomes unstable and can shift during contraction. However the actions of elastic proteins such as titin are hypothesised to maintain uniform tension across the sarcomere and pull the thick filament into a central position.
Crossbridge cycling is a sequence of molecular events that underlies the sliding filament theory. A crossbridge is a myosin projection, consisting of two myosin heads, that extends from the thick filaments. Each myosin head has two binding sites: one for ATP and another for actin. The binding of ATP to a myosin head detaches myosin from actin, thereby allowing myosin to bind to another actin molecule. Once attached, the ATP is hydrolyzed by myosin, which uses the released energy to move into the "cocked position '' whereby it binds weakly to a part of the actin binding site. The remainder of the actin binding site is blocked by tropomyosin. With the ATP hydrolyzed, the cocked myosin head now contains ADP + P. Two Ca 2 + ions bind to troponin C on the actin filaments. The troponin - Ca 2 + complex causes tropomyosin to slide over and unblock the remainder of the actin binding site. Unblocking the rest of the actin binding sites allows the two myosin heads to close and myosin to bind strongly to actin. The myosin head then releases the inorganic phosphate and initiates a power stroke, which generates a force of 2 pN. The power stroke moves the actin filament inwards, thereby shortening the sarcomere. Myosin then releases ADP but still remains tightly bound to actin. At the end of the power stroke, ADP is released from the myosin head, leaving myosin attached to actin in a rigor state until another ATP binds to myosin. A lack of ATP would result in the rigor state characteristic of rigor mortis. Once another ATP binds to myosin, the myosin head will again detach from actin and another crossbridges cycle occurs.
Crossbridge cycling is able to continue as long as there are sufficient amounts of ATP and Ca 2 + in the cytoplasm. Termination of crossbridge cycling can occur when Ca 2 + is actively pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. When Ca 2 + is no longer present on the thin filament, the tropomyosin changes conformation back to its previous state so as to block the binding sites again. The myosin ceases binding to the thin filament, and the muscle relaxes. The Ca 2 + ions leave the troponin molecule in order to maintain the Ca 2 + ion concentration in the sarcoplasm. The active pumping of Ca 2 + ions into the sarcoplasmic reticulum creates a deficiency in the fluid around the myofibrils. This causes the removal of Ca 2 + ions from the troponin. Thus, the tropomyosin - troponin complex again covers the binding sites on the actin filaments and contraction ceases.
The strength of skeletal muscle contractions can be broadly separated into twitch, summation, and tetanus. A twitch is a single contraction and relaxation cycle produced by an action potential within the muscle fiber itself. The time between a stimulus to the motor nerve and the subsequent contraction of the innervated muscle is called the latent period, which usually takes about 10 ms and is caused by the time taken for nerve action potential to propagate, the time for chemical transmission at the neuromuscular junction, then the subsequent steps in excitation - contraction coupling.
If another muscle action potential were to be produced before the complete relaxation of a muscle twitch, then the next twitch will simply sum onto the previous twitch, thereby producing a summation. Summation can be achieved in two ways: frequency summation and multiple fiber summation. In frequency summation, the force exerted by the skeletal muscle is controlled by varying the frequency at which action potentials are sent to muscle fibers. Action potentials do not arrive at muscles synchronously, and, during a contraction, some fraction of the fibers in the muscle will be firing at any given time. In a typical circumstance, when a human is exerting a muscle as hard as he / she is consciously able, roughly one - third of the fibers in that muscle will be firing at once, though this ratio can be affected by various physiological and psychological factors (including Golgi tendon organs and Renshaw cells). This ' low ' level of contraction is a protective mechanism to prevent avulsion of the tendon -- the force generated by a 95 % contraction of all fibers is sufficient to damage the body. In multiple fiber summation, if the central nervous system sends a weak signal to contract a muscle, the smaller motor units, being more excitable than the larger ones, are stimulated first. As the strength of the signal increases, more motor units are excited in addition to larger ones, with the largest motor units having as much as 50 times the contractile strength as the smaller ones. As more and larger motor units are activated, the force of muscle contraction becomes progressively stronger. A concept known as the size principle, allows for a gradation of muscle force during weak contraction to occur in small steps, which then become progressively larger when greater amounts of force are required.
Finally, if the frequency of muscle action potentials increases such that the muscle contraction reaches its peak force and plateaus at this level, then the contraction is a tetanus.
Length - tension relationship relates the strength of an isometric contraction to the length of the muscle at which the contraction occurs. Muscles operate with greatest active tension when close to an ideal length (often their resting length). When stretched or shortened beyond this (whether due to the action of the muscle itself or by an outside force), the maximum active tension generated decreases. This decrease is minimal for small deviations, but the tension drops off rapidly as the length deviates further from the ideal. Due to the presence of elastic proteins within a muscle cell (such as titin) and extracellular matrix, as the muscle is stretched beyond a given length, there is an entirely passive tension, which opposes lengthening. Combined together, there is a strong resistance to lengthening an active muscle far beyond the peak of active tension.
Force -- velocity relationship relates the speed at which a muscle changes its length (usually regulated by external forces, such as load or other muscles) to the amount of force that it generates. Force declines in a hyperbolic fashion relative to the isometric force as the shortening velocity increases, eventually reaching zero at some maximum velocity. The reverse holds true for when the muscle is stretched -- force increases above isometric maximum, until finally reaching an absolute maximum. This has strong implications for the rate at which muscles can perform mechanical work (power). Since power is equal to force times velocity, the muscle generates no power at either isometric force (due to zero velocity) or maximal velocity (due to zero force). Instead, the optimal shortening velocity for power generation is approximately one - third of maximum shortening velocity.
These two fundamental properties of muscle have numerous biomechanical consequences, including limiting running speed, strength, and jumping distance and height.
Smooth muscles can be divided into two subgroups: single - unit (unitary) and multi-unit. Single - unit smooth muscle cells can be found in the gut and blood vessels. Because these cells are linked together by gap junctions, they are able to contract as a syncytium. Single - unit smooth muscle cells contract myogenically, which can be modulated by the autonomic nervous system.
Unlike single - unit smooth muscle cells, multi-unit smooth muscle cells are found in the muscle of the eye and in the base of hair follicles. Multi-unit smooth muscle cells contract by being separately stimulated by nerves of the autonomic nervous system. As such, they allow for fine control and gradual responses, much like motor unit recruitment in skeletal muscle.
The contractile activity of smooth muscle cells is influenced by multiple inputs such as spontaneous electrical activity, neural and hormonal inputs, local changes in chemical composition, and stretch. This is in contrast to the contractile activity of skeletal muscle cells, which relies on a single neural input. Some types of smooth muscle cells are able to generate their own action potentials spontaneously, which usually occur following a pacemaker potential or a slow wave potential. These action potentials are generated by the influx of extracellular Ca 2 +, and not Na +. Like skeletal muscles, cytosolic Ca 2 + ions are also required for crossbridge cycling in smooth muscle cells.
The two sources for cytosolic Ca 2 + in smooth muscle cells are the extracellular Ca 2 + entering through calcium channels and the Ca 2 + ions that are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The elevation of cytosolic Ca 2 + results in more Ca 2 + binding to calmodulin, which then binds and activates myosin light - chain kinase. The calcium - calmodulin - myosin light - chain kinase complex phosphorylates myosin on the 20 kilodalton (kDa) myosin light chains on amino acid residue - serine 19, initiating contraction and activating the myosin ATPase. Unlike skeletal muscle cells, smooth muscle cells lack troponin, even though they contain the thin filament protein tropomyosin and other notable proteins -- caldesmon and calponin. Thus, smooth muscle contractions are initiated by the Ca 2 + - activated phosphorylation of myosin rather than Ca 2 + binding to the troponin complex that regulates myosin binding sites on actin like in skeletal and cardiac muscles.
Termination of crossbridge cycling (and leaving the muscle in latch - state) occurs when myosin light chain phosphatase removes the phosphate groups from the myosin heads. Phosphorylation of the 20 kDa myosin light chains correlates well with the shortening velocity of smooth muscle. During this period, there is a rapid burst of energy utilization as measured by oxygen consumption. Within a few minutes of initiation, the calcium level markedly decreases, the 20 kDa myosin light chains ' phosphorylation decreases, and energy utilization decreases; however, force in tonic smooth muscle is maintained. During contraction of muscle, rapidly cycling crossbridges form between activated actin and phosphorylated myosin, generating force. It is hypothesized that the maintenance of force results from dephosphorylated "latch - bridges '' that slowly cycle and maintain force. A number of kinases such as rho kinase, ZIP kinase, and protein kinase C are believed to participate in the sustained phase of contraction, and Ca 2 + flux may be significant.
Although smooth muscle contractions are myogenic, the rate and strength of their contractions can be modulated by the autonomic nervous system. Postganglionic nerve fibers of parasympathetic nervous system release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which binds to muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) on smooth muscle cells. These receptors are metabotropic, or G - protein coupled receptors that initiate a second messenger cascade. Conversely, postganglionic nerve fibers of the sympathetic nervous system release the neurotransmitters epinephrine and norepinephrine, which bind to adrenergic receptors that are also metabotropic. The exact effects on the smooth muscle depend on the specific characteristics of the receptor activated -- both parasympathetic input and sympathetic input can be either excitatory (contractile) or inhibitory (relaxing).
There are two types of cardiac muscle cells: autorhythmic and contractile. Autorhythmic cells do not contract, but instead set the pace of contraction for other cardiac muscle cells, which can be modulated by the autonomic nervous system. In contrast, contractile muscle cells (cardiomyocytes) constitute the majority of the heart muscle and are able to contract.
Unlike skeletal muscle, excitation -- contraction coupling in cardiac muscle is thought to depend primarily on a mechanism called calcium - induced calcium release. Though the proteins involved are similar, the L - type calcium channels and ryanodine receptors (RyRs) are not physically coupled. Instead, RyRs are activated by a calcium trigger, which is brought about by the flow of Ca 2 + through the L - type calcium channels. Furthermore, cardiac muscle tend to exhibit diad (or dyad) structures, rather than triads.
Excitation - contraction coupling in cardiac muscle cells occurs when an action potential is initiated by pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial node or Atioventricular node and conducted to all cells in the heart via gap junctions. The action potential travels along the surface membrane into T - tubules (the latter are not seen in all cardiac cell types) and the depolarisation causes extracellular Ca 2 + to enter the cell via L - type calcium channels and possibly sodium - calcium exchanger (NCX) during the early part of the plateau phase. This Ca 2 + influx causes a small local increase in intracellular Ca 2 +. The increase in Ca 2 + is detected by ryanodine receptors in the membrane of the sarcoplasmic reticulum which releaes Ca 2 + in a positive feedback physiological response. This positive feedback is known as calcium - induced calcium release and gives rise to calcium sparks (Ca 2 + sparks). The spatial and temporal summation of ~ 30,000 Ca 2 + sparks gives a cell - wide increase in cytoplasmic calcium concentration. The increase in cytosolic calcium following the flow of calcium through the cell membrane and sarcoplasmic reticulum is moderated by calcium buffers which bind a large proportion of intracellular calcium. As a result, a large increase in total calcium leads to a relatively small rise in free Ca 2 +.
The cytoplasmic calcium binds to Troponin C, moving the tropomyosin complex off the actin binding site allowing the myosin head to bind to the actin filament. From this point on, the contractile mechanism is essentially the same as for skeletal muscle (above). Briefly, using ATP hydrolysis, the myosin head pulls the actin filament toward the centre of the sarcomere.
Following systole, intracellular calcium is taken up by the sarco / endoplasmic reticulum ATPase (SERCA) pump back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum ready for the next cycle to begin. Calcium is also ejected from the cell mainly by the sodium - calcium exchanger (NCX) and, to a lesser extent, a plasma membrane calcium ATPase. Some calcium is also taken up by the mitochondria. An enzyme, phospholamban, serves as a brake for SERCA. At low heart rates, phospholamban is active and slows down the activity of the ATPase so that Ca 2 + does not have to leave the cell entirely. At high heart rates, phospholamban is phosphorylated and deactivated thus taking most Ca 2 + from the cytoplasm back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Once again, calcium buffers moderate this fall in Ca 2 + concentration, permitting a relatively small decrease in free Ca 2 + concentration in response to a large change in total calcium. The falling Ca 2 + concentration allows the troponin complex to dissociate from the actin filament thereby ending contraction. The heart relaxes, allowing the ventricles to fill with blood and begin the cardiac cycle again.
In annelids such as earthworms and leeches, circular and longitudinal muscles cells form the body wall of these animals and are responsible for their movement. In an earthworm that is moving through a soil, for example, contractions of circular and longitudinal muscles occur reciprocally while the coelomic fluid serves as a hydroskeleton by maintaining turgidity of the earthworm. When the circular muscles in the anterior segments contract, the anterior portion of animal 's body begins to constrict radially, which pushes the incompressible coelomic fluid forward and increasing the length of the animal. As a result, the front end of the animal moves forward. As the front end of the earthworm becomes anchored and the circular muscles in the anterior segments become relaxed, a wave of longitudinal muscle contractions passes backwards, which pulls the rest of animal 's trailing body forward. These alternating waves of circular and longitudinal contractions is called peristalsis, which underlies the creeping movement of earthworms.
Invertebrates such as annelids, mollusks, and nematodes, possess obliquely striated muscles, which contain bands of thick and thin filaments that are arranged helically rather than transversely, like in vertebrate skeletal or cardiac muscles. In bivalves, the obliquely striated muscles can maintain tension over long periods without using too much energy. Bivalves use these muscles to keep their shells closed.
Advanced insects such as wasps, flies, bees, and beetles possess asynchronous muscles that constitute the flight muscles in these animals. These flight muscles are often called fibrillar muscles because they contain myofibrils that are thick and conspicuous. A remarkable feature of these muscles is that they do not require stimulation for each muscle contraction. Hence, they are called asynchronous muscles because the number of contractions in these muscles do not correspond (or synchronize) with the number of action potentials. For example, a wing muscle of a tethered fly may receive action potentials at a frequency of 3 Hz but it is able to beat at a frequency of 120 Hz. The high frequency beating is made possible because the muscles are connected to a resonant system, which is driven to a natural frequency of vibration.
In 1780, Luigi Galvani discovered that the muscles of dead frogs ' legs twitched when struck by an electrical spark. This was one of the first forays into the study of bioelectricity, a field that still studies the electrical patterns and signals in tissues such as nerves and muscles.
In 1952, the term excitation -- contraction coupling was coined to describe the physiological process of converting an electrical stimulus to a mechanical response. This process is fundamental to muscle physiology, whereby the electrical stimulus is usually an action potential and the mechanical response is contraction. Excitation -- contraction coupling can be dysregulated in many diseases. Though excitation -- contraction coupling has been known for over half a century, it is still an active area of biomedical research. The general scheme is that an action potential arrives to depolarize the cell membrane. By mechanisms specific to the muscle type, this depolarization results in an increase in cytosolic calcium that is called a calcium transient. This increase in calcium activates calcium - sensitive contractile proteins that then use ATP to cause cell shortening.
The mechanism for muscle contraction evaded scientists for years and requires continued research and updating. The sliding filament theory was independently developed by Andrew F. Huxley and Rolf Niedergerke and by Hugh Huxley and Jean Hanson. Their findings were published as two consecutive papers published in the 22 May 1954 issue of Nature under the common theme "Structural Changes in Muscle During Contraction ''.
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who got the gold in men's figure skating | List of Olympic medalists in figure skating - wikipedia
Figure skating has been part of the Olympic Games since 1908 and has been included in 25 Olympic Games. There have been 271 medals (91 gold, 90 silver, and 90 bronze) awarded to figure skaters representing 29 representing National Olympic Committees. Six events have been contested but one, men 's special figures, was discontinued after a single Olympics.
Canadian ice dancers Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir are the only figure skaters to win five Olympic medals (3 gold, 2 silver). Swedish figure skater Gillis Grafström (3 gold, 1 silver) and Russian figure skater Evgeni Plushenko (2 gold, 2 silver) each have four medals. Seventeen figure skaters have won three medals.
The only skaters with three consecutive titles are Grafström in men 's singles, Sonja Henie (Norway) in ladies ' singles, and Irina Rodnina (Soviet Union) in pairs. Sixteen figure skaters have earned two golds within the same discipline and five skaters have earned gold in two separate Olympic events.
On two occasions, there has been a podium sweep. Russian figure skaters hold the unique record for earning gold medals in all six Olympic figure skating events. Three skaters won Olympic medals in multiple figure skating disciplines.
Men 's special figures was only included in one Olympic Games before being discontinued. The sole winner of the event was Russian Nikolai Panin, who gave his country its first ever Olympic gold medal.
The team event is the newest Olympic figure skating event, first contested in the 2014 Games. It combines the four Olympic figure skating disciplines (men 's singles, ladies ' singles, pairs, and ice dancing) into a single event with the team earning the most placement points winning gold.
Gillis Grafström earned the most medals in a single event: four medals, three of which gold, in men 's singles. The only other skaters to have earned three golds in a single discipline are Sonja Henie in ladies ' singles and Irina Rodnina in pairs.
Counting multiple events, Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir hold the record for the most medals, with a total of five medals including two golds in ice dancing and a team event gold. Evgeni Plushenko earned four medals, including a gold in men 's singles and a team event gold.
Figure skaters who won three or more medal at the Olympics are listed below:
The only skaters with three consecutive titles are Gillis Grafström in men 's singles, Sonja Henie in ladies ' singles, and Irina Rodnina in pairs. The most consecutive titles in ice dance is two, which has only been achieved by Oksana Grishuk and Evgeny Platov. In addition, one ladies ' singles skater, three men 's singles skaters, and five pairs skaters have earned consecutive titles. Two ice dancers and three pair skaters have earned non-consecutive titles.
Five skaters have won Olympic gold medals in multiple events. Evgeni Plushenko won gold in men 's singles in 2006 and team event gold in 2014. Tatiana Volosozhar and Maxim Trankov were the first skaters to win multiple events at a single Olympics, winning both pairs and team event. Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir matched this feat four years later, earning golds in ice dancing and team event.
Only three skaters have won Olympic medals in multiple figure skating disciplines. All other multi-event medalists won medals in their discipline plus the team event (which, while being a separate event, is not considered its own skating discipline).
In 1908, Madge Syers became the first skater to medal in multiple figure skating disciplines at a single Olympics. The only skater to match this feat was Ernst Baier in 1936. The only other skater to medal in multiple disciplines was Beatrix Loughran who did so at separate Olympics.
No skater has won gold medals in multiple disciplines.
The team event was introduced at the 2014 Winter Olympics. It allowed skaters to medal twice while skating one discipline.
On 9 February 2014, Evgeni Plushenko became the first skater to win multiple figure skating events. On 12 February 2014, Tatiana Volosozhar and Maxim Trankov became the first skaters to win multiple events at a single Olympics. Four years later, Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir matched this feat.
The below table lists all skaters who have medaled in their own discipline and in the team event. (Team event medals are indicated by "T '' in the gold, silver, and bronze columns.)
Since figure skating was held during the Summer Olympic Games in 1908 and 1920 before being moved to the Winter Olympics Games, three skaters medeled in figure skating in both the Summer and Winter Games.
Men 's singles skater Gillis Grafström 's first gold medal was earned at the 1920 Summer Olympics. His other three medals were won at the 1924 -- 1932 Winter Games. Pair skaters Ludowika Jakobsson and Walter Jakobsson also earned gold during the 1920 Summer Olympics. They later medaled at the 1924 Winter Games.
From 1964 to 2006, Russian figure skaters -- representing the Soviet Union, the Unified Team, or Russia -- won the gold medal in the pairs event, in what is the longest series of victories for one country in one winter event.
Russian figure skaters, counting both Russian Federation (IOC code RUS) and Russian Empire (IOC code RU1), hold the unique record for earning gold medals in all six Olympic figure skating events. Since men 's special figures was discontinued, this record can not be matched.
Russia (IOC code RUS) is the only NOC to have earning gold medals in all five current Olympic figure skating events. Canada has earned gold medals in four of the events (all except men 's singles). Great Britain, Unified Team, and United States have earned gold medals in three of the events.
Russia and the Unified Team are the only NOCs to have won three events at the same Olympics, at the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 1992 Winter Olympics respectively. No NOC has won more than three figure skating events at a single Olympics.
There has been two podium sweeps in Olympic figure skating history. This is when athletes from one NOC win all three medals in a single event.
General
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why we use salt bridge in galvanic cell | Salt bridge - wikipedia
A salt bridge, in electrochemistry, is a laboratory device used to connect the oxidation and reduction half - cells of a galvanic cell (voltaic cell), a type of electrochemical cell. It maintains electrical neutrality within the internal circuit, preventing the cell from rapidly running its reaction to equilibrium. If no salt bridge were present, the solution in one half cell would accumulate negative charge and the solution in the other half cell would accumulate positive charge as the reaction proceeded, quickly preventing further reaction, and hence production of electricity.
Salt bridges usually come in two types: glass tube and filter paper.
One type of salt bridge consists of a U-shaped glass tube filled with a relatively inert electrolyte; usually potassium chloride or sodium chloride is used, although the diagram here illustrates the use of a potassium nitrate solution. The electrolyte is so chosen that
The electrolyte is often gelified with agar - agar to help prevent the intermixing of fluids which might otherwise occur.
The conductivity of a glass tube bridge depends mostly on the concentration of the electrolyte solution. At concentrations below saturation, an increase in concentration increases conductivity. Beyond - saturation electrolyte content and narrow tube diameter may both lower conductivity.
The other type of salt bridge consists of a filter paper, also soaked with a relatively inert electrolyte, usually potassium chloride or sodium chloride because they are chemically inert. No gelification agent is required as the filter paper provides a solid medium for conduction.
Conductivity of this kind of salt bridge depends on a number of factors: the concentration of the electrolyte solution, the texture of the filter paper and the absorbing ability of the filter paper. Generally, smoother texture and higher absorbency equates to higher conductivity.
A porous disk or other porous barrier between the two half - cells may be used instead of a salt bridge; however, they basically serve the same purpose.
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who sang i'll always love you first | I Will Always Love You - wikipedia
"I Will Always Love You '' is a song originally written and recorded in 1973 by American singer - songwriter Dolly Parton. Her country version of the track was released in 1974 as a single and was written as a farewell to her one - time partner and mentor of seven years, Porter Wagoner, following Parton 's decision to pursue a solo career.
Parton 's version of "I Will Always Love You '' was a commercial success. It reached number one on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart twice. It first reached number one in June 1974, and then in October 1982, with her re-recording on the soundtrack of the movie version of The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas. Thus, she achieved the number one position twice with the same song, a rare feat that Chubby Checker had done previously with "The Twist '' becoming number one in 1960 and again in 1962.
Whitney Houston recorded her version of the song for the 1992 film The Bodyguard. Her single spent 14 weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart making it one of the best - selling singles of all time. It also holds the record for being the best - selling single by a woman in music history. Houston 's version of "I Will Always Love You '' re-entered the charts in 2012 after her death, making it the second single ever to reach the top three on the Billboard Hot 100 in separate chart runs. The song has been recorded by many other significant artists including Linda Ronstadt and John Doe.
Country music singer - songwriter Dolly Parton wrote the song in 1973 for her one - time partner and mentor Porter Wagoner, from whom she was separating professionally after a seven - year partnership. She recorded it in RCA 's Studio B in Nashville on June 13, 1973. "I Will Always Love You '' was issued on June 6, 1974, as the second single from Parton 's thirteenth solo studio album, Jolene (1974). In 1982, Parton re-recorded the song, when it was included on the soundtrack to the film The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas. In addition to the 1982 re-recording for the soundtrack album, Parton 's original 1974 recording of the song also appeared in Martin Scorsese 's film Alice Does n't Live Here Anymore, and the 1996 film It 's My Party. The song also won Parton Female Vocalist of the Year at the 1975 CMA Awards.
Author Curtis W. Ellison stated that the song "speaks about the breakup of a relationship between a man and a woman that does not descend into unremitting domestic turmoil, but instead envisions parting with respect -- because of the initiative of the woman ''. According to sheet music published at musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Corporation, the country love track is set in a time signature of common time with a tempo of 66 beats per minute. (Larghetto / Adagio) Although Parton found much success with the song, many people are unaware of its origin; during an interview, Parton 's manager Danny Nozel said that "one thing we found out from American Idol is that most people do n't know that Dolly Parton wrote (the track) ''.
Several times (long before Whitney Houston recorded the song), Dolly Parton asked singer Patti Labelle to record "I Will Always Love You '' because she felt Patti could have sung it so well. However, Patti admitted she kept putting off the opportunity to do so and later deeply regretted it after she heard Whitney Houston 's wonderful rendition.
During its original release in 1974, "I Will Always Love You '' reached number four in Canada on the Canadian RPM Country Tracks chart and peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, becoming one of the best selling singles of 1974.
When Parton re-recorded the song in 1982 for the soundtrack of the film The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas, the track was issued as a single and once again charted at number one on Hot Country Songs -- making her the first artist ever to earn a number one record twice with the same song. After recording a duet with Vince Gill in 1995 for the album Something Special, "I Will Always Love You '' re-entered the Billboard chart and peaked at number 15. Parton and Gill were awarded the CMA 's "Vocal Event of the Year '' award in 1996 for their recording of the song. Another duet version of the song was released in 2017 with Michael Bolton from his album Songs of Cinema.
When the 1974 recording of the song was reaching number one on the country charts, Elvis Presley indicated that he wanted to cover the song. Parton was interested until Presley 's manager, Colonel Tom Parker, told her that it was standard procedure for the songwriter to sign over half of the publishing rights to any song Elvis recorded. Parton refused. She recalls:
I said, ' I 'm really sorry, ' and I cried all night. I mean, it was like the worst thing. You know, it 's like, Oh, my God... Elvis Presley. ' And other people were saying, ' You 're nuts. It 's Elvis Presley. '... I said, ' I ca n't do that. Something in my heart says, ' Do n't do that. And I just did n't do it... He would have killed it. But anyway, so he did n't. Then when Whitney (Houston 's version) came out, I made enough money to buy Graceland.
In Curtis W. Ellison 's book, Country Music Culture: From Hard Times to Heaven (1995), he stated: "In the early 1990s, when ambiguity in romantic relationships accompanies changing expectations for both men and women, this song demonstrates Dolly Parton 's appeal as a songwriter in the pop music market. '' Ken Knight, author of The Midnight Show: Late Night Cable - TV "Guy - Flicks '' of the ' 80s (2008), commented that Parton is the only singer who can sing "I Will Always Love You '' and "make it memorable ''. Writer Paul Simpson criticized the singer, stating that the track was only written to "soften the blow '' of Parton and Wagoner 's split.
In 1992, R&B singer Whitney Houston recorded a new arrangement of "I Will Always Love You '' for the soundtrack to The Bodyguard, her film debut. The song has a saxophone solo by Kirk Whalum. She was originally to record Jimmy Ruffin 's "What Becomes of the Brokenhearted '' as the lead single from The Bodyguard. However, when it was discovered the song was to be used for Fried Green Tomatoes, Houston requested a different song. It was her co-star Kevin Costner who suggested "I Will Always Love You '', playing her Linda Ronstadt 's 1975 version from her album Prisoner in Disguise. Producer David Foster re-arranged the song as a soul ballad. Her record company did not feel a song with an a cappella introduction would be as successful; however, Houston and Costner insisted on retaining it. When Parton heard that Houston was using Ronstadt 's recording as a template, she called Foster to give him the final verse, which was missing from the Ronstadt recording, as she felt it was important to the song. The tenor saxophone solo was played by Kirk Whalum. Whitney Houston 's recording is not the only version of the song featured in the movie. In a scene where she dances with Kevin Costner, a version by John Doe can be heard playing on a jukebox.
Houston 's version appears at No. 9 on NME 's Greatest No 1 Singles in History list. In 2004, Houston 's version of "I Will Always Love You '' finished at # 65 on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema. It was also ranked at number 22 on The Guardian 's list of Britain 's favorite 100 songs, published in May 2002. In February 2014, the song was placed at number six on Billboard 's list of the Top 50 ' Love ' Songs of All Time.
A live performance was included on the 1999 release Divas Live ' 99, and on the 2014 CD / DVD release of Whitney Houston Live: Her Greatest Performances, a 1994 performance of the song was included as well.
The single spent 14 weeks at the top of the US Billboard Hot 100, which at the time was a record. It became Houston 's longest run at number one, surpassing her previous record of three weeks with the "Greatest Love of All '' in 1986. It is also the longest running number one single from a soundtrack album.
It debuted at number 40 on the Billboard Hot 100, and became Houston 's tenth number one entry two weeks later. It also dominated other Billboard charts, spending 14 weeks at the top of Billboard Hot 100 Single Sales chart, and 11 weeks at number one on its Hot 100 Airplay chart. The song also remained at number one for five weeks on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks, and for 11 weeks on the Hot R&B Singles chart becoming the longest running number one on the R&B charts at the time; it remained in the top 40 for 24 weeks. It became Arista Records ' biggest hit. The song was number one on the Hot 100, Adult Contemporary, and R&B chart simultaneously for a record - equaling five weeks; Ray Charles ' "I Ca n't Stop Loving You '' in 1962 achieved the same feat on the same charts.
The song stayed at number one in the United States throughout January and February 1993, making it the first time Billboard did not rank a new number one single until March of the new year. Houston 's "I Will Always Love You '' was also the year - end single of 1993 in the US. Similarly, in the UK, Houston 's version was ranked the number one single of 1992, and then made the countdown again in 1993 where it was ranked number nine, marking the first time any artist or group had the same single ranked in the top 10 of the year - end review two years in a row. In Australia, it was the number 17 single of 1992 and the number two song of 1993.
Houston 's single was also an international success, peaking at number one of the singles charts in almost all countries, including the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles, where it spent 13 weeks at the top. The single ruled the summit position for ten weeks in Australia, five weeks in Austria, seven weeks for Belgium, eight weeks in France, six weeks in Germany, eight weeks in Ireland, two weeks in Italy, six weeks in Netherlands, 14 weeks in New Zealand, nine weeks in Norway, one week in Spain, six weeks in Sweden, eight weeks in Switzerland, and ten weeks in the United Kingdom. Houston 's 10 - week reign in the UK set the record for the longest run at the top by a solo female artist in the history of the British singles chart. It is the only single to have topped the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australian singles charts for at least ten weeks.
Only a few hours after Houston 's death on February 11, 2012, "I Will Always Love You '' topped the US iTunes charts. Also, in the week following her death, the single returned to the Billboard Hot 100 after almost 20 years, debuting at number 7, and becoming a posthumous top - ten single for Houston, the first one since 2001. The song eventually peaked at No. 3, two spots shy of becoming the first song to return to the No. 1 position after falling off the chart since "The Twist '' by Chubby Checker. It debuted on the Billboard Hot Digital Singles Chart at number 3 on the chart dated February 25, 2012, with over 195,000 copies downloaded. In the United Kingdom, the song charted at number 10 the week of Houston 's death.
Houston 's single sold approximately 400,000 copies in its second week at the top of the charts, making it the best - selling song in a single week surpassing Bryan Adams ' "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You ''. It broke its own record in the following three weeks, peaking at 632,000 copies in the week ending December 27, 1992. The January 9, 1993 issue of Billboard reported it had broken its own record for most copies sold in a single week for any song in the Nielsen SoundsScan era. This record was broken by Elton John 's "Candle in the Wind 1997 / Something About the Way You Look Tonight '', which sold 3.4 million in the final week of September 1997. "I Will Always Love You '' was certified four times Platinum in the US for shipments of over 4 million copies by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on January 12, 1993, making Houston the first female artist with a single to reach that level in RIAA history. According to Nielsen SoundScan, as of 2009, the single had sold 4,591,000 copies, and had become the second best - selling physical single in US alone, only behind Elton John 's single in 1997.
In the United Kingdom, the single sold over 1,550,000 copies, becoming the tenth best - selling single of the 1990s, and was certified two times Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) on January 1, 1993. It was certified Platinum for shipments of over 500,000 copies by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI) in Germany. In Japan, "I Will Always Love You '' sold over 810,000 copies, staying for 27 weeks on the chart, and became the best - selling single by a foreign female artist at the time, despite not topping the charts.
Houston 's version was later called her "signature song ''. Stephen Holden of The New York Times said it was a "magnificent rendition '', commenting
Houston transforms a plaintive country ballad into a towering pop - gospel assertion of lasting devotion to a departing lover. Her voice breaking and tensing, she treats the song as a series of emotional bursts in a steady climb toward a final full - out declamation. Along the way, her virtuosic gospel embellishments enhance the emotion and never seem merely ornamental.
Writing for USA Today on November 17, 1992, James T. Jones IV called it a "tour - de-force '', and added "(Houston) gives a 3 ⁄ - star (out of four) performance. Where Dolly Parton 's original ' I Will Always Love You ' was plaintive and tear - stained, Houston 's is gospel - infused and dramatic. '' Chris Willman of the Los Angeles Times stated: "Houston has the goods to deliver on the tune 's haunting beauty and resists overpowering it -- until the finale, when the key change and stratospheric notes drain all the heart - rending sadness out of the song and make it sound like just another anthem of survival. '' Amy Linden of Entertainment Weekly wrote Houston 's version "is artistically satisfying and uncharacteristically hip for the MOR songbird. '' Stewart Mason of AllMusic found Houston 's cover "repulsively overwrought... so boomingly bombastic and glutinous with self - approbation that the tenderness of Dolly Parton 's song is lost in the mire ''.
"I Will Always Love You '' won the 1994 Grammy Award for Record of the Year, and Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, her third award for this category after earlier awards in 1986 and 1988. During the Grammy Award telecast, the Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female was presented to Houston by composer Dolly Parton and David Foster. The single topped the 1993 Billboard Hot 100 and Hot R&B Singles year - end charts simultaneously, becoming the first single by a female artist and the second overall to achieve that feat behind Prince 's "When Doves Cry '' in 1984. In addition, it received Favorite Pop / Rock Single and Favorite Soul / R&B Single awards at the 21st American Music Awards, which was the first record by a solo female artist to win both categories, and the third overall in AMA history behind "Endless Love '' by Lionel Richie & Diana Ross in 1982 and "Beat It '' by Michael Jackson in 1984. "I Will Always Love You '' won two Japan Gold Disc Awards in 1993 for International Song of the Year, and a 1994 International Song of the Year Special Award for Japanese sales of over one million units.
In 2015, "I Will Always Love You '' was named the # 1 Song of the Rock Era in the book The Top 500 Songs of the Rock Era: 1955 - 2015.
After Whitney Houston 's recording of the song became a hit in 1992, the tabloid press began reporting on a ' feud ' between the two performers, stemming from Dolly Parton allegedly reneging on an agreement that she would not perform the song for a number of months while Houston 's version was on the charts, so as not to compete with Houston 's recording. However, both Parton and Houston dispelled any rumors, speaking glowingly of one another in interviews. Houston praised Parton for writing a beautiful song. In return, Parton thanked Houston for bringing her song to a wider audience and increasing the amount of royalties for her song in the process. Dolly Parton also gave a live interview, confirming this.
When Houston won the Record of the Year award at the 1994 Grammy Awards for the recording, Parton (along with David Foster) presented her with the award.
In a statement to Billboard on the day of Houston 's death in February 2012, Parton said:
Mine is only one of the millions of hearts broken over the death of Whitney Houston. I will always be grateful and in awe of the wonderful performance she did on my song and I can truly say from the bottom of my heart, ' Whitney, I will always love you. You will be missed. '
The single 's music video, is credited to Alan Smithee (Nick Brandt removed his name due to the way Clive Davis re-edited the video), and produced by Rob Newman. It begins with the performance of the song Houston gives at the end of The Bodyguard. The video then cuts to Houston in a dark blue suit sitting in an empty theater with the spotlight shining on her, singing of her love, and at the end of the video, Houston 's theater changes into open camp circled by snow. The video is inter-cut with scenes from The Bodyguard and gives the viewer the experience of reliving the moments with the singer. At the time of the video 's shooting Houston was pregnant with her daughter Bobbi Kristina so is shown only sitting in the theater scenes.
' UK / Europe 12 '' vinyl single
UK / Europe / US 7 '' vinyl single
US / Europe Maxi - CD single
Maxi - CD singles (1999 Remixes)
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Since Houston 's death in 2012, many other artists have performed tributes to the late singer 's version of the song. Jennifer Hudson performed the song in front of Houston, who received The BET Honors Award for Entertainer Lifetime Achievement spanning over 25 years in the industry. The 2010 BET Honors Awards was held at the Warner Theatre in Washington, D.C. and aired on February 1, 2010. On February 12, 2012, Hudson performed the song as a tribute during the 54th Grammy Awards, the day after Houston 's death, alongside images of musicians who had died in 2011 and 2012, including Amy Winehouse and Etta James. The song was played at Houston 's funeral as her casket was brought out of the church. Parton complimented Hudson on her performance, saying,
I was brought to tears again last night, as I 'm sure many were, when Jennifer Hudson sang "I Will Always Love You '' on the Grammys in memory of Whitney. Like everybody else, I am still in shock. But I know that Whitney will live forever in all the great music that she left behind. I will always have a very special piece of her in the song we shared together and had the good fortune to share with the world. Rest in peace, Whitney. Again, we will always love you.
In 2012, following Whitney Houston 's death, American singer Beyoncé performed a tribute to Houston during her revue Revel Presents: Beyoncé Live in Atlantic City, New Jersey at the Revel resort. She began the performance of her song "Halo '' singing the first verse of "I Will Always Love You '' a cappella.
Later, in 2013, during her The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour, Beyoncé also sang the opening lines of "I Will Always Love You '' prior to the performance of "Halo '' as the final song of the tour. At the 2017 Commencement of the University of Southern California, Will Ferrell sang "I Will Always Love You '' to the graduating class. See Washington Post commentary:
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at what age can you drive in nj | Driver 's licenses in the United states - wikipedia
In the United States of America, driver 's licenses are issued by each individual state, territories, and the federal district rather than by the federal government because of the concept of federalism. Drivers are normally required to obtain a license from their state of residence and all states recognize each other 's licenses for temporary visitors subject to normal age requirements. A state may also suspend an individual 's driving privilege within its borders for traffic violations. Many states share a common system of license classes, with some exceptions, e.g. commercial license classes are standardized by federal regulation at 49 C.F.R. 383.
In 1899 Chicago and New York City were the first locales to require testing before being allowed to drive a motor vehicle. Massachusetts and Missouri were the first U.S. states to require a license for driving a motor vehicle in 1903; however, Missouri did not require testing before a license was granted.
Pennsylvania 's 1909 licensing laws were the first to give an age restriction ("18 years of age '') and the first state to allow 16 - year - olds to drive (accompanied by a licensed driver) was Connecticut in 1921.
Some states also have additional classifications. Hawaii, for example, has a separate license category for drivers who only operate mopeds, while some more northerly states have separate categories for snowmobiles and ATVs. South Carolina and Georgia have non-commercial versions of every commercial class license for agricultural purposes.
Class C licenses are issued in all states, except Massachusetts, in both commercial and non-commercial status. A non-commercial Class C license may not be used for hire. Most recreational vehicles that do not fall into the class D / E category, such as converted buses, tractor, lawn mowers, or full size (greater than 40 feet (12 m)) campers require a non-commercial Class C license and the corresponding permit from the state with which you reside.
Professional drivers are usually required to add endorsements to their CDL in order to drive certain types of vehicles that require additional training, such as those equipped with air brakes. CDL endorsements requirements are mostly similar, but some vary slightly from state to state. The training and testing requirements are regulated by the US Department of Transportation. Endorsements are as follows:
Licenses can be restricted through any of the following ways:
In a rare exception to states and territories issuing driver 's licenses, the State Department 's Office of Foreign Missions (OFM) issues driver 's licenses to foreign officials and diplomats, bypassing the states and territories in which they live. OFM - issued driver licenses are equivalent to a regular state - issued license.
The minimum age to obtain a restricted driver 's license in the United States varies from 14 years, three months in South Dakota to as high as 17 in New Jersey. In most states, with the exception of South Dakota, a graduated licensing law applies to newly licensed teenage drivers, going by names such as Provisional Driver, Junior Operator, Probationary Driver, or Intermediate License. These licenses restrict certain driving privileges, such as whether the new driver may carry passengers and if so how many, as well as setting a curfew for young drivers to be off the roads. For example, Utah drivers who are under 18 may not drive other people outside the family in their first six months with a license. Unlike in some states of Australia and some provinces of Canada, however, graduated licensing laws do not require lowered speed limits, displaying of L and P plates, restrictions on towing a trailer or boat, or prohibitions on highway driving or operating high performance cars.
Drivers under 18 are usually required to attend a comprehensive driver 's education program either at their high school or a professional driving school and take a certain number of behind the wheel lessons with a certified driving instructor before applying for a license. Some states like New York also require new adult drivers to attend some form of driver 's education before applying for a license.
However, in some states all newly licensed adult drivers may be on probation for a set amount of time (usually between six months and two years), during which traffic violations carry harsher penalties or mandatory suspensions that would not normally apply to experienced drivers.
According to federal law, the minimum age to operate a commercial vehicle in interstate transit is 21; as a result the minimum age to apply for an unrestricted commercial driver 's license is 21.
Driving a school bus also requires a CDL, however the minimum age to drive a school bus is typically higher, usually 25. Some states issue restricted intrastate commercial driver 's licenses, valid for operating commercial vehicles in that state only, to drivers aged 18 and older. Professional drivers who are aged 18 -- 20 typically can not be licensed to drive tractor trailers, hazardous materials, or school buses.
Below is a list of Graduated Driver 's Licenses (GDL) and hardship licenses for minors laws for each of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The list includes the state agency responsible for issuing driver 's licenses and the length of time that a full (unrestricted) driver 's license is valid for.
Note: In California, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, the minor must be at least 14 but under the age of 18. The pertinent form is DL120 and is entitled "Junior Permit Statement of Facts ''.
Note: In Georgia, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, the minor must have a suspended license due to school conduct or attendance problems and needs an exemption in order to get to and from school or for family medical reasons. The minor must be old enough to already have a license. The pertinent form is DDS 7012.
Driver must have not been convicted of a moving violation in the six months prior to turning 18 to receive full license privileges. If a driver is convicted of a moving violation in the first full year of licensing, this will result in extension of the passenger restriction for an additional six months. If a driver is convicted of a moving violation before turning 18, the Secretary of State will mail a warning letter to the driver and parents. If an under 18 driver is convicted of two moving violations in 24 months, this will result in a minimum 1 - month license suspension.
The driver may not use any telecommunication device while operating the vehicle. For the first 180 days of holding their license, the driver may not have any passengers, unless the passengers are over the age of 25 and hold a valid driver 's license. Holders of a probationary driver 's license must comply with state and local curfew laws.
Note: In Iowa, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, called a Minor School License (MSL), the minor must be at minimum 14 and a half years old, the minor must have completed an Iowa - approved drivers education class unless exempted due to hardship, the minor must have a valid instruction permit for the previous six months, the minor 's driving history must be free of convictions for moving traffic violations, contributive accidents and license withdrawals during the six - month period immediately preceding application, and the minor must live at least one mile or more from the school he or she is enrolled in. The pertinent form is Form 430021, entitled "Affidavit for School License '', but the form must be completed by the school and signed by the minor 's parent (s) or legal guardian (s).
Permit must be held for six months. After logging 20 daytime and five nighttime hours of driving, if the learner is between age 15 and 16 the learner has the option of getting a restricted license. The learner must then log an additional 20 daytime and five nighttime practice hours and reach age 16 before getting a less restricted license. Applicant must provide affidavit showing at least 50 hours of adult supervised driving, with ten of those hours being at night, by a licensed driver at least 21 years old. At age 17, a full - privileges license may be obtained with the same requirements as the semi-restricted license. Nonresident: At least 16 years of age and has in immediate possession a valid license issued by home state or country.
Intermediate License (Age 16): Must have completed the Learners 's Permit requirements, pass the on - road drivers test, and have the Learner 's Permit for at least 90 days. May not drive between the hours of 11 p.m. to 5 a.m. Full License (Age 17): Must successfully complete Learner 's Permit and Intermediate License stages or be a minimum of 17 years of age prior to application for the first time.
Note: In Michigan, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, the minor, who is at least 14 years old, must be living on a family - owned farm, the minor 's family income must meet specific levels depending on the number of family members, there must be a significant change in the farming operation, i.e. the loss of a previous driver, to warrant requesting a minor restricted license, and the minor has no alternative transportation available. The pertinent form is entitled "Application for Minor Restricted License Special Farming Need Only ''. Due to the expense of the graduated licensing system (including driver education, it can reach upwards of $500 for the entire process), most poorer Michigan residents wait until they are 18, spend $11 to get the Temporary Instruction Permit, and then take a road test, which is no higher than $50.
Note: In Minnesota, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, called a Restricted Farm Work License, the minor must be at least 15 years old and need the license to help a parent or legal guardian on a farm. The pertinent form is the Farm Work License Affidavit.
Note: The validity periods to the left are for Class D licenses.
Note: In Nebraska, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, both a School Learners Permit and a School Permit will be issued. A minor, who is at a minimum 14 years old, must have a School Learners Permit for at least 2 months before getting a School Permit. A School Permit will be issued for a minor, who is at a minimum age of 14 years, 2 months, who lives at least a mile and a half or more from school, who resides outside of a city with 5,000 people or more, or who attends a school outside a city of 5,000 people or more. The School Permit is to be used for the purpose of transporting the minor or any family member who resides with the minor to attend school, extracurricular, or school - related activities at the school, and the minor may drive under the personal supervision of a licensed driver who is at least 21 years old. If a minor has not completed a DMV - approved Driver Safety Course, then the minor is required to compile 50 hours of driving time with a parent, guardian or licensed driver 21 years or older. Information about the School Learners Permit and School Permit can be found here at and the certification of 50 hours of driving time is located at.
Note: In Nevada, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, a minor restricted license can not be approved for commercial driving purposes, to seek employment, or for public school students in Carson City, Clark, Douglas, or Washoe counties; workdays and hours are limited to a maximum of six (6) days per week, ten (10) hours per day; a physician 's statement is required if a minor is driving for medical purposes; a "Verification of Need '' affidavit must be completed by an unbiased individual (a member of the clergy or a social worker, etc.) and signed in front of a DMV authorized representative or notary public official if a minor is driving for medical appointments or to go to a grocery store; school authorities and parents / guardians must complete certain sections if a minor is driving to school. The form is entitled "Restricted License Information ''.
Learner Permits: NYC has the toughest regulations of the regions, requiring an instructor 's brake to be installed, and the accompanying driver must be a parent or professional instructor (driving school / driver 's ed teacher), and prohibits driving between 9 p.m. and 5 a.m. On Long Island, one must be accompanied by a guardian or professional instructor, and may not drive between 9 a.m. and 5 p.m. In the rest of the state, one may drive while accompanied by a licensed driver over 21 from 5 a.m. to 9 p.m.; other hours require parent or professional accompaniment.
Junior operator licenses (Class DJ or MJ) allows unaccompanied driving from 5 a.m. to 10 p.m., driving outside these hours is permitted only to or from school, employment, or documented medical appointments, unless the driver is accompanied by their parent, legal guardian, or a certified driving instructor. Once someone acquires a junior license he / she is able to drive to and from school with the same restrictions on passengers as driving anywhere else with a junior license.
Adolescent drivers must have their permit accident and ticket free for six full months before taking their road test, along with the completion at least 50 hours of supervised driving, 15 of which must be in moderate to heavy traffic.
A full driver 's education course is not required in New York, although license applicants who do not have a driver 's ed certificate must complete a five - hour pre-licensing course. For 17 - year - olds, a junior license will be converted to a full standard license if the driver submits a Driver 's Ed Certificate and a certified completion of 50 hours of driving plus 15 in moderate to heavy traffic. Otherwise, it will be converted on the driver 's 18th birthday. A 12 a.m. curfew exists for drivers who have not completed the driver 's ed program.
Under 17 either with a learner 's permit or a driver license can not drive between midnight and 6 a.m., under 18 either with a learner 's permit or a driver license can not drive between 1 a.m. and 5 a.m., unless accompanied by a parent or guardian. Drivers under 17 may only have one non-family member under the age of 21 in the vehicle; no restrictions on family members or those over 21. 18 and over have full license privileges and have no time or passenger restrictions. Special restricted license can drive after hours for purposes of employment, education, travel between home and school, vocational training, employment opportunities, and attending church services.
Note: In Ohio, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, the minor, aged 14 or 15 years old, must be the only licensed driver in the household; any other licensed driver will be required to surrender his or her driver license; a hardship license may not be used for the child to drive themselves or siblings to and from school, work or social and school events; the license is valid only within a 10 - mile radius of the home for obtaining groceries and other household necessities, to drive the disabled parent or guardian to medical appointments and medical emergencies; the parent or guardian must accompany the child at all times while driving; the family must live in an area where there is no public transportation or community services available to assist them; the parent or guardian must show proof that they can maintain financial responsibility insurance on the driver; the child must complete a driver education course and the graduated licensing requirements. To apply for a hardship license for a minor in Ohio, a minor and his or her family can send a letter to the Ohio Bureau of Motor Vehicles, P.O. Box 16784, Attention Driver License Special Case Division / Medical Unit, Columbus, Ohio, 43216 - 6784; the letter must explain the hardship and provide the BMV with the minor 's full name, date of birth, social security number and the names, dates of birth and social security numbers of any licensed drivers in the household; the BMV must also receive a notarized statement advising that any other driver (s) in the home would be willing to surrender their driver licenses if a hardship license were to be issued; before a hardship license is authorized, an investigation is conducted to assist the BMV in determining whether the household qualifies.
Special restricted license can drive after hours for purposes of employment, education, travel between home and school, vocational training, employment opportunities, and attending church services.
Applicants for the Special Restricted License must be accompanied by a parent or legal guardian during the application process to sign the Special Restricted License application.
Applicants must bring their Beginner Permit and submit a PDLA form certifying the following:
Teen drivers applying for the Special Restricted License must pass a vision screening and the DMV road test. Special Restricted License holders may drive unaccompanied from 6: 00 a.m. to 6: 00 p.m. or until 8: 00 p.m. during daylight saving time.
Outside of those hours the teen driver may drive until midnight if accompanied by a licensed driver that is a minimum of 21 years of age.
Between midnight and 4: 00 a.m. a Special Restricted License holder must be accompanied by a licensed parent or legal guardian.
Special Restricted License holders may receive an exception for these time restrictions if they can prove that the restrictions interfere with employment, education, travel between home and school, vocational training, employment opportunities, or attending church services.
Teen drivers must submit two statements to qualify the exception. One of the statements must be from a parent or legal guardian and the other must be a statement on letterhead from a school official or your employer.
The statements must describe the reason the waiver is needed.
Passengers under the age of 21 are limited to two unless they are immediate family members or students be transported to or from school or the license holder is accompanied by a licensed driver that is a minimum of 21 years of age.
Teen drivers that hold the Special Restricted License for 16 - year - olds for one year without a conviction for a traffic violation and have not been at - fault in an accident may obtain full driving privileges when they reach the age of 17.
Note: In Tennessee, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, called a Class H license, if the minor is aged 14 or 15, the minor can operate a Class D passenger vehicle or Class M motorcycle (limited to 125 cc) or both; the minor must pass a vision screening, knowledge test, and road test to operate a Class D passenger vehicle; take the Class M knowledge and driving test in addition to the Class D knowledge test to drive a Class M vehicle; be limited to daylight hours only (5 am to 7 pm, no exceptions) and authorized locations only within a 25 - mile radius from the minor 's residence, as specified in the Department of Safety (DOS) letter. If the minor who has a Class H license is aged 15, the minor is treated the same as a Class PD (learners permit) license who drives with a licensed driver 21 years or older who sits in the front passenger seat. A Class H license will expire on the minor 's 16th birthday. More information can be found at and the form for application for a hardship license is located at.
Note: In Texas, for a minor to obtain a hardship license, the minor must be aged 14 to 18 years old; must have an unusual economic hardship on the minor 's family, the sickness or illness of a member of the minor 's family, or he or she is regularly enrolled in a vocational education program and requires a driver license to pursue the program and has completed an approved course in driver education. To obtain the pertinent form, called the DL 77 form, go to.
Note: In Wisconsin, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, the minor must be at least 14 years of age, but under the age of 18; must appear in person, accompanied by his or her parent or legal guardian, before an examining officer with a birth certificate showing the minor is at least 14 years old; must have the usage of an automobile, farm truck, dual purpose farm truck, motorcycle with an engine of no more than 125 cc, moped, or motor bicycle owned and registered by the applicant 's parent or guardian, or a farm truck leased to the applicant 's parent or guardian; must pass an examination, including a test of the applicant 's ability to safely operate the type of vehicle for which the minor is requesting the ability to use. The hardship license is valid only until the minor secures a full (unrestricted) driver 's license or reaches the age of 18, whichever comes first. The minor is not permitted to drive in hours of darkness or in a city of more than 500,000 people; operate either a commercial vehicle or vehicle for hire (e.g. a taxicab). These restrictions are provided in Section 343.08 of the Wisconsin Statutes & Annotations.
Note: In Wyoming, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, the minor must be aged 14 or 15 years, the minor 's residence is more than 5 miles from the school they attend; the minor has a regular job (a minimum of 10 hours per week) more than 5 miles from the minor 's residence; the minor must have a license to work in his / her parents ' business; any other circumstances which the Wyoming Highway Patrol (WHP) finds to be an extreme inconvenience, i.e. the need to provide transportation for long - term medical treatment or conditions (not to include routine medical office visits). Instructions accompanying the Restricted License Affidavit must be read, the Restricted License Affidavit itself must be filled out, a school attendance verification form must be attached, if the license is to be used for transportation to or from school, or in conjunction with extracurricular school activities, a work verification form must be attached, if the license is to be used for transportation to and from work; a verification of parental ownership of business form must be attached, if the license is to be used in conjunction with a parental business; an insurance verification form must be completed and attached; the Restrictions form must be completed by the WHP. More information can be found at. The instructions accompanying the Restricted License Affidavit can be found at. The Restricted License Affidavit itself can be found at, the School Attendance Verification form at, the Work Verification form at, the Verification of Parental Ownership of Business form at, the Insurance Verification form at, and the Restrictions form (only to be filled out by the WHP) at.
According to a December 2, 2004, Los Angeles Times article, only 43 % of American 15 -, 16 -, and 17 - year - olds had licenses in 2002. By comparison, the percentage in 1982 was 52 %.
Driver 's licenses issued in the United States have a number or alphanumeric code issued by the issuing state 's department of motor vehicles (or equivalent), usually show a photograph of the bearer, as well as a copy of his or her signature, the address of his or her primary residence, the type or class of license, restrictions and / or endorsements (if any), the physical characteristics of the bearer (such as height, weight, hair color, and eye color), and birth date. No two driver 's license numbers issued by a state are alike. Social Security numbers are now prohibited by federal law from appearing on new driver 's licenses, due to identity theft concerns. In most states, to be compliant with AAMVA standards, the orientation of a driver 's license for persons under the age of 21 is vertical while a driver 's license for those over the age of 21 is horizontal. Since the driver 's license is often used as proof of a person 's age, the difference in orientation makes it easy to determine that a person is legally allowed to purchase or consume alcohol (the drinking age in all U.S. states is 21). Some states, however, do not require that a driver 's license is changed to horizontal, such as Arizona, where it is optional to change to a horizontal license. Furthermore, the vertical license does not expire until age 65 in the state of Arizona. Most states require that when a driver establishes residence in a state, he or she must obtain a license issued by that state within a certain time frame.
Because there is no national identity card in the United States, the driver 's license is often used as the de facto equivalent for completion of many common business and governmental transactions. As a result, driver 's licenses are the focus of many kinds of identity theft. Driver 's licenses were not always identification cards. In many states, driver 's licenses did not even have a photograph well into the 1980s. Activism by the Mothers Against Drunk Driving organization for the use of photo ID age verification in conjunction with increasing the drinking age to 21 in order to reduce underage drinking led to photographs being added to all state licenses. New York and Tennessee were the last states to add photos in 1986. However, New Jersey later allowed drivers to get non-photo licenses; this was later revoked. Vermont license holders have the option of receiving a non-photo license. All Tennessee drivers aged 60 years of age or older had the option of a non-photo driver 's license prior to January 2013, when photo licenses were required for voting identification. All people with valid non-photo licenses will be allowed to get a photo license when their current license expires. Thirteen states allow the option of a non-photo driver 's license for reasons of religious belief: Arkansas, Indiana, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, North Dakota, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Washington, and Wisconsin.
Later additions varied from state to state, and have included fingerprints, bar codes, magnetic strips, social security numbers, and tamper - proof features, most of which were added to prevent identity theft and to curb the use of fake IDs. States have now slowly been converting to digitized driver 's licenses, which incorporate holograms and bar codes to prevent forgery.
Many states, usually through the same agency that issues driver 's licenses, provide identification cards for people who do not drive.
The Department of Homeland Security has the power through the Real ID Act of 2005 to set standards relating to identification of applicants and license design for state - issued driver licenses and identification cards. States are not required to comply with RealID, but if a state does not comply, any driver licenses or ID cards issued by that state will not be valid for any official purpose with the federal government, meaning they will not be accepted for entering federal buildings or boarding airplanes.
For a state to meet RealID compliance, licenses and ID cards issued from that state must be approved by DHS in meeting RealID requirements.
States can choose to issue both regular licenses and ID cards as well as RealIDs, but any non-RealID must be marked that it is not a RealID.
RealIDs are allowed to be issued only to legal immigrants and citizens of the United States.
When a person applies for a RealID, either as a new driver license or ID card applicant or renewing a current license or ID card, they must present a citizenship document (US passport, certified birth certificate or citizenship certificate) or proof of legal immigrant status (valid visa) and proof of residency in that state. The state then must verify the documents and store them either electronically or on paper. No one may have more than one RealID at one time.
For those born on or after December 1, 1964, a RealID must be obtained by December 1, 2014, to be allowed to conduct business with the federal government. Those born before December 1, 1964, have until December 1, 2017, to obtain their RealIDs.
Florida, Nevada and Wisconsin have been approved by DHS and started to issue RealIDs. A RealID can be identified as materially compliant by a gold star located on the top third of the ID. A fully compliant RealID is identified as having a circle with an inset gold star in the top third of the ID. As of October 2011, Connecticut also issues them. Starting in January 2013, Ohio is issuing RealIDs under the name "Safe ID ''.
Additionally, some states, mostly those with an international border, issue enhanced driver licenses and enhanced ID cards. Enhanced licenses combine a regular driver 's license with the specifications of the new federal passport card. Thus, in addition to providing driving privileges, the enhanced license also is proof of U.S. citizenship, and can therefore be used to cross the Canadian and Mexican borders by road, rail, or sea, although air travel still requires a traditional passport book. The enhanced licenses are also fully Real ID compliant.
As of May 2009, Vermont, New York, Michigan, and Washington were issuing enhanced driver 's licenses and ID cards. In January 2014, Minnesota became the fifth state to issue enhanced driver 's licenses, while Ohio is set to become the sixth state once it has been approved by its legislature.
On March 27, 2008, the Secretary of Homeland Security announced that Washington 's enhanced driver 's license was the first such license approved under the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative; according to a Homeland Security press release, the department is also working with Arizonan authorities to develop enhanced driver 's licenses. On September 16, 2008, New York began issuing enhanced driver 's licenses that meet WHTI requirements. Texas was expected to also implement an enhanced driver 's license program, but the program has been blocked by Texas Governor Rick Perry, despite a state law authorizing the Texas Department of Public Safety to issue EDLs and a ruling by the state attorney general, Greg Abbott, that Texas ' production of EDLs would comply with federal requirements.
California, Iowa, and Delaware have proposed digital drivers licenses as a means of identification. The license would be available as an app by MorphoTrust USA and installed on a user 's personal cellphone. Several questions have been raised about user privacy, since a police officer may ask for one 's license and gain access to one 's cellphone.
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what does a pastor do in the church | Pastor - wikipedia
A pastor is an ordained leader of a Christian congregation. A pastor also gives advice and counsel to people from the community or congregation.
It is derived from the Latin word pastor, meaning shepherd. When used as an ecclesiastical styling or title, the term may be abbreviated to "Pr '' or "Ptr '' (singular) or "Ps '' (plural).
The word "pastor '' derives from the Latin noun pastor which means "shepherd '' and is derived from the verb pascere -- "to lead to pasture, set to grazing, cause to eat ''. The term "pastor '' also relates to the role of elder within the New Testament, but is not synonymous with the biblical understanding of minister. Many Protestant churches call their ministers "pastors ''.
Present - day usage of the word is rooted in the Biblical metaphor of shepherding. The Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament) uses the Hebrew word רעה (roʿeh), which is used as a noun as in "shepherd, '' and as a verb as in "to tend a flock. '' It occurs 173 times in 144 Old Testament verses and relates to the literal feeding of sheep, as in Genesis 29: 7. In Jeremiah 23: 4, both meanings are used (ro'im is used for "shepherds '' and yir'um for "shall feed them ''), "And I will set up shepherds over them which shall feed them: and they shall fear no more, nor be dismayed, neither shall they be lacking, saith the LORD. '' (KJV).
English - language translations of the New Testament usually render the Greek noun ποιμήν (poimēn) as "shepherd '' and the Greek verb ποιμαίνω (poimainō) as "feed ''. The two words occur a total of 29 times in the New Testament, most frequently referring to Jesus. For example, Jesus called himself the "Good Shepherd '' in John 10: 11. The same words in the familiar Christmas story (Luke 2) refer to literal shepherds.
In five New Testament passages though, the words relate to members of the church:
Bishops of various denominations often bear a formal crosier in the form of a stylised shepherd 's crook as a symbol of their pastoral / shepherding functions.
Around 400 AD, Saint Augustine, a prominent African Catholic bishop, described a pastor 's job:
Disturbers are to be rebuked, the low - spirited to be encouraged, the infirm to be supported, objectors confuted, the treacherous guarded against, the unskilled taught, the lazy aroused, the contentious restrained, the haughty repressed, litigants pacified, the poor relieved, the oppressed liberated, the good approved, the evil borne with, and all are to be loved.
In the United States, the term pastor is used by Catholics for what in other English - speaking countries is called a parish priest. The Latin term used in the Code of Canon Law is parochus.
The parish priest is the proper clergyman in charge of the congregation of the parish entrusted to him. He exercises the pastoral care of the community entrusted to him under the authority of the diocesan bishop, whose ministry of Christ he is called to share, so that for this community he may carry out the offices of teaching, sanctifying and ruling with the cooperation of other priests or deacons and with the assistance of lay members of Christ 's faithful, in accordance with the law.
In some Lutheran churches (such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland), ordained presbyters are called priests, while in others, such as the Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod, the term pastor is used more frequently.
Ordained presbyters are called priests in the Church of England, as in all other ecclesiastical provinces of the Anglican Communion.
United Methodists ordain to the office of deacon and elder, each of whom can use the title of pastor depending. United Methodists also use the title of pastor for non-ordained clergy who are licensed and appointed to serve a congregation as their pastor or associate pastor, often referred to as licensed local pastors. These pastors may be lay people, seminary students, or seminary graduates in the ordination process, and can not exercise any functions of clergy outside the charge where they are appointed.
The use of the term pastor to refer to the common Protestant title of modern times dates to the days of John Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli. Both men, and other Reformers, seem to have revived the term to replace the Roman Catholic priest in the minds of their followers. The pastor was considered to have a role separate from the board of presbyters.
Some groups today view the pastor, bishop, and elder as synonymous terms or offices; many who do are descended from the Restoration Movement in America during the 19th century, such as the Disciples of Christ and the Churches of Christ.
Other religions have started to use terms such as "Buddhist pastor ''.
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who plays lily potter in the deathly hallows | Ellie Darcey - Alden - wikipedia
Ellie May Darcey - Alden (born 4 September 1999) is a former English child film, stage and television actress who is best known for playing young Lily Potter in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 2, Francesca "Franny '' Latimer in the Doctor Who series 7 Christmas special, "The Snowmen '' and Felice della Rovere in Tom Fontana 's Borgia: Faith and Fear. Before joining such large franchises as Harry Potter and Doctor Who, she appeared in minimal parts in British theatre and television. She has also done small - time modelling, commercials, voice over work and competitive dancing.
Darcey - Alden was born in Yarnton, Oxford, Oxfordshire to a middle - class family, the daughter of Sarah Dawn (née Darcey; b. 1975), a housewife, and Philip Rodney "Phil '' Alden (b. 1966 in Berkshire), a production senior director on Falcon 9 for SpaceX in Hawthorne, a former general manager at BMW Plant Automotive Group and technology manager at Jaguar Rover Automotive, and an owner of a charity website. Her father has a prominent political background through her paternal great - great - grandfather Leonard Henry Alden, Mayor of Oxford from 1936 - 37. Her parents legally wed in August 2003.
As a baby, her mother originally intended to name her "Annie '' after the character Little Orphan Annie but decided against it, "as I 'd probably be a curly red head! '' Darcey - Alden explained.
She has a younger brother, Joseph (b. 18 February 2002) who is a former child actor and two older half - siblings, James Philip (b. 1990), a doctor at Colchester General Hospital and Rebecca Charlotte "Becki '' Alden (b. 1992), who is married, both from her father 's first marriage in April 1990.
She is a former pupil of Dance 10 Theatre School within Edward Feild Primary School (named after Bishop Edward Feild, respectively) in Kidlington which she attended from 2005 to 2011 and of Stagecoach Theatre Arts School under the instruction of Maya Sprigg in Oxford until 2013 where she moved to Elite Dance Studio in Los Angeles until 2015. In late August 2014, she began attending Palos Verdes High School and graduated on 7 June 2018. In Spring 2015 of her Freshman year, she joined her school 's Choreo dance team, an advanced dance class that has students perform at pep rallies, community events, sporting events, and at their annual Spring Concert. She additionally divided her time with the drama department. In 2016, she joined the Be the Change leadership class as an admin assistant, dedicating her time to community services and events.
In July 2017, she joined the RADA Youth Company: Acting summer term, training under Trilby James in contemporary text and Shakespeare.
Darcey - Alden first broke into the world of acting in 2007, appearing in small roles on the British stage and television, including her stage debut in Aladdin, directed by Peter Duncan for the Oxford Playhouse. At 7 - years - old, she forged her parents ' signature on a sign - up sheet which led to an audition. After the play 's run, Duncan strongly recommended that she continue acting, directing her to film agents in London where she signed on with A&J Management. This was followed by an uncredited role in the 2008 mini-series Tess of the D'Urbervilles. She began training in specialised dancing much earlier in 2005, with the Dance 10 Theatre School within Edward Feild Primary School in Kidlington.
In 2009, she appeared in her first guest - starring role as Mary in one episode of Robin Hood and in select episodes as Emma Walker in Holby City -- both for the BBC. She auditioned for the latter part earlier in June that year, accompanied by her mother, and was cast at the age of 9. Commenting on the experience, Darcey - Alden said: "It was very entertaining and a very good experience. I really, really enjoyed it. (Co-stars Jade Jackson and Patsy Kensit) were really nice, funny and entertaining. I want to be like Patsy Kensit when I am older because she is such a good actress. I am a big Holby City fan and I am really excited about seeing it on the television. All my friends and family are coming to watch it with me. ''
That year, she appeared in further stage credits, including Adrian Noble 's musical production of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang for the New Theatre Oxford which was a revamped production of the original 2002 London production and the Mardi Gras Challenge, a UK dance competition at the Sadler 's Wells Theatre.
She later commented at a 2013 LeakyCon panel in London on which form of media she preferred more -- theatre, TV or film: "I love both. I actually started out doing theatre first and worked my way into TV and film. (...) I do n't mind either, really. It 's great! ''
Darcey - Alden 's most notable role came in December 2009, when she attended an open audition for the latest Harry Potter installment (a year before she was actually needed due to the producers ' decision to split the book into two parts). She recalled, "I remember walking into the audition room, and I 'd never seen so many other ginger kids in all my life. And even though I never expected much, I kept advancing through the audition rounds. '' On 25 January 2010, she was called back for a second audition at Pinewood Studios where she met director David Yates and worked with a number of other potentials for the parts of young James Potter, Sirius Black, Severus Snape and Lily Evans. During the process, the children were asked to improvise short conversations. She subsequently received a screen test with then 13 - year - old Benedict Clarke (who would be cast as young Severus Snape) at Leavesden Studios "as well as an associated costume, hair and makeup meeting. '' A few weeks later in February, her mother was contacted by the producers and after school, Darcey - Alden was told that she received the part of young Lily Evans, cast at age 10, in the commercially successful Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 2. She said, "I screamed, like I straight up screamed, then I cried. It 's not something you expect; it 's something you create (in your mind). It 's one of those things you go, ' Oh gosh, I wish I could do this. Like, how can I be able to do this? ' And it 's, like, one of my dreams (to be in Harry Potter), something that sits in the back of your head. And then, when it actually happens, it 's really surreal. '' In the film, Darcey - Alden appears in a flashback sequence as Harry 's mother in her schooldays and reveals how she befriended Snape as child, which is crucial in explaining the back story of the shady professor and his complex relationship to Harry 's deceased parents, particularly his bitter resentment to his father James.
It was revealed in a 2011 article for the Oxford Mail that years before landing the part Darcey - Alden was tipped for future success by her agents at Enfield, London - based casting and theatrical agency A&J Management, although her parents decided to not treat her passion for acting seriously until she was more mature. Despite this, she resisted her mother for a chance in the business, especially for a part in Harry Potter, a role which her mother initially did not believe she would eventually win. In the same article, it was further reported that she was not allowed to tell her close friends of her part in Potter as she left school for Leavesden Studios and Hatfield House to film her scenes, when she met then 21 - year - old actor Daniel Radcliffe on her first day on set during her screen - test. She was quoted: "I am still trying to get over that I am actually in Harry Potter. When I got the part, I was so happy I was speechless. It was the best time of my life. It was very funny. Everyone was so friendly to me and it was really fun. At first, it was really difficult to keep the secret. But when my friends did find out, they were so happy for me and supported me all the way through it. ''
At a 2013 LeakyCon panel in Portland, Oregon, Darcey - Alden further elaborated on her meeting with Potter co-star Daniel Radcliffe. She said:
"This story is when I just had my screen test for Harry Potter. (...) I 'm leaving, and the car is waiting outside and I was thinking, ' Alright. ' And I got my stuff together, and I was just about to leave and the second AD came up and said, ' Oh, come up to my office. I got something for you, I got someone to see of you. ' I thought, ' Okay, this is a bit weird. ' And so I came up there and she was (like), ' Oh yeah, I 'd just like you to meet Dan (Radcliffe). And I thought, ' Oh my God! Hi! Hi, I 'm Ellie! ' And inside my heart 's going boom - boom - boom - boom - boom! (...) And (Dan was) like, ' Hi! I guess I 'll call you Mum! ' And I 'm like, ' Okay! ' (...) And then he 's like, to my mum, he said, ' Oh, you must be Grandma, then. ' And Mum 's like, ' Yeah, sure! ' And I 'm thinking, ' No, Mum! ' (...) And I was so relaxed and thought, ' Oh yeah... ' We 're just having a conversation (...) and the second AD said, ' Look, the car 's waiting, we 've got to go, this is your quick hello - goodbye. ' And so, (Dan is) so nice and was just like, ' Oh, I 'm really sorry to keep you waiting, oh my God! ' And I said, ' Okay, bye! ' And I shake his hand and he 's like, ' I 'll see you around then! ' And then I walked away (...) and I 'm shaking his hand (...) and was like, ' I 'm never washing this hand again! ' And Mum looked at me and she turned around to look at Dan. Dan went (gestures), ' Alright! ' (...) And Mum 's like, ' You played it so cool and you just messed it all up! ' And I 'm like, ' I 'm sorry! ' ''
Filming her scenes along with Benedict Clarke (young Snape), Ariella Paradise (young Petunia Dursely), Alfie McIlwain (young James) and Rohan Gotobed (young Sirius Black) took place in April 2010. Shooting only lasted four days where one scene was shot per day while re-shoots and pick - ups were completed in early 2011.
According to Darcey - Alden and Clarke at a 2013 LeakyCon cast junket in London, production alternated between sets at Leavesden Studios and on location shooting by the River Lea in the gardens of Hatfield Park near Hatfield House -- both set in Hertfordshire, respectively. Of the river scene in particular, Clarke elaborated by saying:
"(W) e did so many ludicrous camera angles, we had a camera up on a crane looking down at Ellie and I. And we had a camera crew coming across the river on a boat for one of those, and then they could play around (...) decide what they wanted, how they wanted to pan across the river and take a look at us. I thought it was really outstanding how they had such a ridiculous extent of angles to play with. ''
Darcey - Alden added: "We only did half - and - half at Leavesden. (...) There was the actual Hatfield House there and we got to have a look around and it was really beautiful. ''
Once location shoots were completed, Darcey - Alden and Clarke joined McIlwain and Gotobed at Leavesden on the set of the Great Hall where the set was divided with one section of the Entrance Hall in ruins for the Battle of Hogwarts sequences; two days of shooting were completed from morning until evening, scheduled a week apart where three hours of school tutoring was provided. Darcey - Alden mentioned in a LeakyCon 2013 panel session that she worked with Dame Maggie Smith the first half of the day and was quoted, jokingly: "She spoke to me. It 's not my fault. ''
She later said in detail:
"When I was filming my Great Hall scene where I had to be sorted, we were rehearsing and I think it was sorting off - camera and I sat on the stool and the Sorting Hat was sort of next to me and I looked down and was thinking, ' Wow! It 's the Sorting Hat. Okay! ' (...) And then there was Maggie Smith behind me and I 've been told, you know, give her a bit of space. You know, let her breathe (and) if she comes up to you, do n't talk to her. And I was thinking, ' Oh, I 'm really nervous! ' Because I 've been told not to say anything, not to talk her, just to sit there. And then she comes up to me and she 's like, ' Oh, you have beautiful hair! ' And I 'm like this (mimics gawking), ' Oh my goodness, that 's Maggie Smith! ' And she 's like, ' You have really beautiful hair! Well done! You 're really catchy! Good job! ' And I 'm like, Thanks... Oh my God! ' But because I was so nervous on set and that was the first scene I did, it kind of gave me more confidence. (...) Even though it was n't advice, it just gave me more confidence to be myself and just have fun and relax and everything. And (Smith is) such a lovely lady. She just comes up to you and talks to you. ''
A week later, a final day of shooting commenced in the Hogwarts corridor where multiple takes had the four child actors walk and run up the corridor numerous times. The original cut had McIlwain and Gotobed chase a first year Slytherin student, though this detail was eventually omitted. "Though originally the scene was without dialogue, '' Gotobed revealed in a blog post, "I suggested to (David Yates) that I say ' Snivellus ' as we pushed through Snape and Lily. David agreed that was a good idea, and even gave me a second line later on in the day, where I was supposed to say ' come on James ' at the end of the brief scene. As you already know, both lines were cut for release in favour of (Radcliffe) 's voiceover (sic), which makes more sense in terms of the entire montage. ''
To satisfy the look of her character as described in the books, Darcey - Alden is naturally red - haired although she was required to wear blue contact lenses to match Daniel Radcliffe 's eyes, given her eyes are brown, as revealed by her co-star Benedict Clarke. Darcey - Alden herself later confirmed that she wore contacts in January 2015 when she acted as a special guest in a Harry Potter celebration at the Riverview Middle School in New Brunswick, Canada via a live Q&A over Skype with a winning classroom. She said:
"I do n't know if you (the class) know what a screen test is, you have n't got the part yet. (...) You stand in front of (sic) a green screen in costume, hair, make - up, everything as if you got the part. And then they stand you next to whoever you 'll be filming with. So, I stood next to Benedict (Clarke). And I also stood next to Ariella (Paradise). And so I stood there in hair, and make - up and everything and after that, (I) got off (for) a couple of hours and I was wearing contacts, (they) took the contacts out, put them in, had my hair up, put it down again... ''
Later, on 23 July 2015, she released a photo on Twitter of herself with Daniel Radcliffe posing on the set of Harry Potter to celebrate Radcliffe 's 26th birthday, which further supported the fact that she had worn blue colour contacts.
In the novels, Harry is described as having his mother 's eyes, which are in fact green although Radcliffe never sported any colour - correcting contacts in the films due to a negative reaction to them; J.K. Rowling later commented on this by saying it was not an absolute need that Harry have green eyes in the films, as long as there was a resemblance between his and his mother 's. However, the method of using blue contacts ultimately backfired and Darcey - Alden 's natural eye colour showed through when captured on camera. For an unknown reason, this error was not digitally corrected in post-production.
When later asked by a fan of what it was like to be a part of a popular movie franchise, Darcey - Alden commented: "I 'm not famous, people do n't recognise me. I 'm just a normal crazy 12 year old who was very lucky to be in such a huge film. ''
Darcey - Alden has since been cast in a variety of independent and larger budget films. It was announced on 20 July 2011 via the official A&J Management Twitter that she had been cast in a cameo role in Welcome to the Punch, a British thriller co-starring James McAvoy, Mark Strong and Harry Potter alum Peter Mullan. She appeared briefly in the aeroplane scene seated in the opposite aisle from Elyes Gabel. Other roles include two short films, Pranks, a children 's ghost story concerning a 12 - year - old orphan named Katie confronted by the spirit of her foster mother 's dead son and Sam & Isobel, a coming of age tale of two young children brought together within the confines of a woodland through childlike innocence and naivety, although Sam eventually realises that Isobel is not as innocuous as she seems. Pranks co-starred her real life brother Joseph Darcey - Alden, was shot in four days on location at Cuckmans Farm, St Albans and was released to the public in April 2016. Sam & Isobel began filming on 9 April 2012 and wrapped production the following week on the 15th. The official teaser trailer was released online on 2 April 2013 by director Brendan Lyle Moles. According to the video description, the film was making its circuit at film festivals that year and was planned to be released to the public afterwards. In early 2014, the film was officially released publicly online via Vimeo and YouTube by the production crew. One review called her performance, "ripened and complicated. (...) from the moment she begins to narrate her story, she sounds so sweetly young and yet so mature for a girl of 12 to 13 years of age, a maturity that is both engaged and a bit feverish. (...) Ultimately, this indication of maturity foreshadows who her character truly is, who may appear adorably innocent yet there 's an edge of coldness beneath her given how she 's not disturbed by many of her careless actions. ''
In 2012, she returned to the BBC for the Doctor Who series 7 Christmas special, "The Snowmen '' as Francesca Latimer reuniting with real life brother Joseph Darcey - Alden as her on - screen sibling and co-starring alongside Jenna - Louise Coleman and Matt Smith. In the episode, set in London in 1892, Francesca "Franny '' Latimer and her brother Digby are wards being cared for by their governess Clara Oswin Oswald under the alias "Miss Montague ''. The children share a much closer relationship with Clara than they do their own father and Franny decides to relate a troubling experience to her: she has been having frequent nightmares of her late governess who has been tormenting her in her dreams of a promised return on Christmas Eve; it is revealed that years earlier, the governess drowned in the Latimers ' pond, now frozen. Through a series of events, Franny 's nightmare manifests under the Great Intelligence 's influence, the Ice Governess is destroyed with the help of the Doctor, and Clara tragically succumbs to internal injuries, mourned by the Latimers.
At a Chicago TARDIS 2014 panel, Darcey - Alden revealed that it was her brother who secured her the role. She said: "That was actually my brother 's doing. And he got me the part. ''
Joseph elaborated by saying:
"So the agent called and they said, ' Well, this is what you got to do. ' And I 'm like, ' Okay. ' And he sent me the script and they phoned back and said, ' Oh, bring Ellie along. ' And I was like, ' No, no, no. Do n't bring Ellie along. I 'm not just going to bring her to audition. ' And they said, ' Okay. ' (I) put the phone down, (they) ring back up and said, ' Okay, they 'll see Ellie. ' So we both went along to audition. They sent Ellie a script. They were n't auditioning girls until, I believe the week after. ''
Ellie continued: "Couple of weeks after they were auditioning the sister role. So they were just doing the brothers and then they do the sisters after that. But we (...) just went in and we read together and we got a callback. The following couple of days after that, we got a callback and then it kind of went off with that. ''
The read - through took place on 2 August 2012 and was filmed later in the month in BBC Wales ' Roath Lock studios and Newport. To date, Darcey - Alden is the latest in a line of Harry Potter cast members to have appeared in both Potter and Doctor Who, including David Tennant, Michael Gambon, Helen McCrory, John Cleese, Zoe Wanamaker, Jim Broadbent, Toby Jones, Roger Lloyd Pack, Bill Nighy, Shirley Henderson, Adrian Rawlins, David Bradley, and John Hurt.
The same year, it was confirmed that she would guest star in the second season of Tom Fontana 's French - German - Czech historical television drama Borgia: Faith and Fear (not to be confused with Showtime 's The Borgias) as Felice della Rovere, on - screen and illegitimate daughter to Dejan Čukić 's Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere (better known as Pope Julius II). Series two was shot on location in Prague and Italy in March through November 2012. Darcey - Alden filmed her scenes in Italy that October over the span of three days, sharing the screen alongside Matt Di'angelo and Mark Ryder. The show premiered on Canal+ on 18 March 2013 and Netflix on 1 May 2013.
Although Felice is considered a powerful and influential historical figure, Darcey - Alden 's part in the show is reduced to a minimal appearance in the shadow of her powerful father; based on documentation, Felice was married as early as 14 years of age and was widowed shortly after, years before she remarried Gian Giordano Orsini and subsequently became a prominent figure of the Italian Renaissance.
While Darcey - Alden filmed minimal scenes for episodes 11 and 12, they were eventually cut from the final version, yet her name still appears in the credits of the Season 2 DVD (Region 2). The show had been renewed for a third season, which was in principal photography as of May 2013; it had been confirmed that this was the final of the series. At the time, it was currently unknown whether Darcey - Alden 's character would return to the show, though since the finale aired in France on Canal+ on 27 October 2014, her character had been cut.
Stage credits included Ellen Kent 's Aida Verdi for the New Theatre Oxford and The Nutcracker Twisted (or A Twisted Nutcracker), an interpretation of the original which breaks away from classic ballet and includes tap, hip - hop, jazz, singing and some "Gangnam Style. '' It was presented by Elite Dance Studio and performed at the Norris Theatre on 30 November 2013.
This would be her last foray into professional acting until she later revealed in January 2016 to Live From 205 News that her professional acting career was temporarily on hold, commenting that, "Hollywood does not like a 16 - year - old girl with braces. Next year when I get my braces off, I 'll be out to start auditioning again. ''
On 23 -- 26 May, she appeared in the Showstopper! Competition 2014 which took place at the Disneyland Hotel in California. She competed in a ballet solo, ballet group, jazz group and contemporary group. She and her group were later awarded two Platinum 1st Place prizes with scores of 114.2 and 114.0, respectively for their performances "Stranded '' and "Hold It Against Me '' presented by Elite Dance Studio.
On 6 -- 8 February, she appeared in the KAR: Kids Artistic Revue Long Beach, CA Competition 2015, which took place at Millikan High School. She additionally performed in the Palos Verdes High School Choreo Show 2015 and returned for 2016, which was held at the James R. Armstrong Theatre in Torrance from 23 -- 24 March. To date, she has one stagehand credit as a British English dialect coach for Palos Verdes High School 's production of Noises Off, performed from 6 - 8, 12 -- 15 November 2015. Later, she was cast in her first acting role since 2013 in Palos Verdes High School 's production of Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat, directed by Nicole Thompson as the Female Ensemble which was performed from 15 - 17, 21 -- 24 April. The musical was later nominated for 15 John Raitt Awards for Youth, including Best Ensemble and took home one for Musical Comedy of the Year. In August 2018, she was cast as the recurring character Alice in the British drama action television series Remnants, directed and written by Luke Heaver and Kieran Thomas Peace. It is set for production in 2019.
Outside of screen and stage credits, she modelled small - time, including ads for Morleys Stores Ltd ca. 2009 - 10, Playworld Systems, Nestle, Sodexo, Marks and Spencer, and McCarthy and Stone, and was a front page model for the British children and pre-teen magazine Girl Talk in 2012 and 2013. In January 2011, she appeared in a commercial for Skype.
She has appeared at many Harry Potter events and other fan conventions over the years, including the Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows: Part 1 cast and crew screening in October 2010, the Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 2 world premiere on 7 July 2011 (2011 - 07 - 07) in Trafalgar Square in London, LeakyCon 2011 in Orlando, Florida, the Warner Bros. Studio Tour London: The Making of Harry Potter in October 2012, LeakyCon Portland 2013, LeakyCon London 2013 and Misti - Con 2013 in Laconia, New Hampshire. In December 2012, she along with Potter alum Ryan Turner (Hugo Weasley) participated in the Leighton Christmas Festival.
On 21 December 2013, she along with Elite Dance Studio performed for the Los Angeles Clippers Halftime Show.
She was scheduled to appear as a guest at Gallifrey One 2014, a science fiction and Doctor Who fan convention, which took place 14 -- 16 February at the Los Angeles Airport Marriott. It was announced that she would be returning to LeakyCon 2014, which took place in Orlando, Florida from 30 July to 3 August and played Hermione Granger in the Opening Ceremony. She and her brother Joseph appeared as guests at the Midwest 's Premier Doctor Who event, Chicago TARDIS 2014 from 28 -- 30 November at the Westin Lombard Yorktwon Center. In January 2015, she acted as a special guest in a Harry Potter celebration at the Riverview Middle School in New Brunswick, Canada via Skype. She and her brother were scheduled to appear as guests at the Twin Cities ' premier Doctor Who convention, CONsole Room 2015 which took place from 29 -- 31 May at the Hilton Minneapolis / St. Paul Airport. On 6 April 2016, she visited The Wizarding World of Harry Potter Opening at Universal Studios Hollywood on behalf of MuggleNet where she interviewed Harry Potter co-stars Tom Felton, James and Oliver Phelps, Evanna Lynch and Warwick Davis as well as art director Alan Gilmore.
She moved to the United States with her immediate family on 8 February 2013 when she was 13 years old. She now currently resides in Los Angeles in the city of Rancho Palos Verdes.
She is also a big fan of Muggle Quidditch, and was taught to play by members of the five National teams that participated in the 2012 IQA Summer Games (Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, France, and the United States). She commented to CNN: "I think (Muggle Quidditch is) brilliant, it 's really funny to watch! I did n't realise it was so rough and tough and it 's great to just have a go! ''
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when was the movie good will hunting made | Good Will Hunting - wikipedia
Good Will Hunting is a 1997 American drama film, directed by Gus Van Sant, and starring Robin Williams, Matt Damon, Ben Affleck, Minnie Driver and Stellan Skarsgård. Written by Affleck and Damon (and with Damon in the title role), the film follows 20 - year - old South Boston laborer Will Hunting, an unrecognized genius who, as part of a deferred prosecution agreement after assaulting a police officer, becomes a client of a therapist and studies advanced mathematics with a renowned professor. Through his therapy sessions, Will re-evaluates his relationships with his best friend, his girlfriend and himself, facing the significant task of confronting his past and thinking about his future.
The film received positive reviews and was a financial success. It grossed over US $225 million during its theatrical run with only a modest $10 million budget. It was nominated for nine Academy Awards, including the Academy Award for Best Picture, and won two: Best Supporting Actor for Williams and Best Original Screenplay for Affleck and Damon.
After Williams 's death in 2014, it was ranked at number 53 in The Hollywood Reporter 's "100 Favorite Films '' list.
Twenty - year - old Will Hunting of South Boston is a self - taught, genius - level intellect, though he works as a janitor at MIT and spends his free time drinking with his friends, Chuckie, Billy, and Morgan. When Professor Gerald Lambeau posts a difficult math problem as a challenge for his graduate students, Will solves the problem anonymously, stunning both the students and Lambeau. As a challenge to the unknown genius, Lambeau posts an even more difficult problem. Will solves the problem, but then flees the scene when Lambeau catches him. At a bar, Will meets Skylar, a British student about to graduate from Harvard, who plans on attending medical school at Stanford.
The next day, as Will and his friends fight a gang at the basketball court, police arrive and arrest Will. Lambeau visits his court appearance and notices Will 's intellect in defending himself. He arranges for him to forgo jail time if he agrees to study mathematics under Lambeau 's supervision and participate in therapy sessions. Will tentatively agrees, but treats his first few therapists with mockery. In desperation, Lambeau calls on Dr. Sean Maguire, his estranged college roommate, who now teaches psychology at Bunker Hill Community College. Unlike other therapists, Sean actually challenges Will 's defense mechanisms, and after a few unproductive sessions, Will begins to open up.
Will is particularly struck by Sean 's story of how he met his wife by giving up his ticket to the historic game six of the 1975 World Series, after falling in love at first sight. Sean neither regrets his decision, nor does he regret the final years of his marriage, after which his wife died of cancer. This encourages Will to build a relationship with Skylar, though he lies to her about his past and is reluctant to introduce her to his friends or show her his rundown neighborhood. Will also challenges Sean to take an objective look at his own life, since Sean can not move on from his wife 's death.
Lambeau sets up a number of job interviews for Will, but Will scorns them by sending Chuckie as his "chief negotiator, '' and by turning down a position at the NSA with a scathing critique of the agency 's moral position. Skylar asks Will to move to California with her, but he refuses and tells her he is an orphan, and that his foster father physically abused him. Will breaks up with Skylar and later storms out on Lambeau, dismissing the mathematical research he has been doing. Sean points out that Will is so adept at anticipating future failure in his interpersonal relationships that he deliberately sabotages them in order to avoid emotional pain.
Will walks in on a heated argument between Sean and Lambeau over his potential. Sean and Will share and find out that they were both victims of child abuse. Sean helps Will to see that he is a victim of his own inner demons and to accept that it is not his fault, causing him to break down in tears. Will accepts one of the job offers arranged by Lambeau. Having helped Will overcome his problems, Sean reconciles with Lambeau and takes a sabbatical to travel the world. When Will 's friends present him with a rebuilt Chevrolet Nova for his twenty - first birthday, he decides to pass on his job offers and drive to California to reunite with Skylar. Sometime later, Chuckie goes to Will 's house to pick him up, only to find that he is not there, much to his happiness. Sean finds a letter from Will in his mailbox, which tells him that Will is going to see Skylar.
Patrick O'Donnell, professor of physics at University of Toronto, served as mathematical consultant for the film production.
A turning point in the plot occurs when Will chalks up the adjacency matrix
as the answer to a challenging problem based on a graph posted by Professor Lambeau.
Matt Damon originally started writing the film as a final assignment for a playwriting class he was taking at Harvard University. Instead of writing a one - act play, Damon submitted a 40 - page script. He wrote his girlfriend at that time, medical student Skylar Satenstein (credited in the closing credits of the film), into his script. He then came to Ben Affleck and asked him to develop the screenplay together, and the two completed the script in 1994. At first, it was written as a thriller about a young man in the rough - and - tumble streets of South Boston who possesses a superior intelligence and is targeted by the FBI to become a G - Man. Castle Rock Entertainment president Rob Reiner later urged them to drop the thriller aspect of the story and to focus on the relationship between Will Hunting (Damon) and his psychologist (Robin Williams). At Reiner 's request, screenwriter William Goldman read the script and further suggested that the film 's climax ought to be Will 's decision to follow his girlfriend Skylar to California. Goldman has consistently denied the persistent rumor that he wrote Good Will Hunting or acted as a script doctor. In his book Which Lie Did I Tell?, Goldman jokingly writes, "I did not just doctor it. I wrote the whole thing from scratch, '' before dismissing the rumor as false.
Castle Rock bought the script for $675,000 against $775,000, meaning that Damon and Affleck would stand to earn an additional $100,000 if the film was produced and they retained sole writing credit. However, studios balked at the idea of Affleck and Damon in the lead roles, with many studio executives stating that they wanted Brad Pitt and Leonardo DiCaprio. At the time, Damon and Affleck were meeting at Castle Rock, Kevin Smith was working with Affleck on Mallrats and with both Damon and Affleck on Chasing Amy. Castle Rock put the script in turnaround, and gave Damon and Affleck 30 days to find another buyer for the script who would reimburse Castle Rock the money paid, otherwise the script reverted to the studio, and Damon and Affleck would be out. All the studios that were involved in the original bidding war for the screenplay now each turned the pair down, taking meetings with Affleck and Damon only to tell them this to their face. As a last resort, Affleck passed the script to his Chasing Amy director Kevin Smith, who read it and promised to walk the script directly into Harvey Weinstein 's office at Miramax. Weinstein read the script, loved it, and paid Castle Rock their due, while also agreeing to let Damon and Affleck star in the film. In his recollection of the meeting, Weinstein asked about an out - of - place, mid-script oral sex scene, which Damon and Affleck explained was a test to see which studio executives had actually read the script.
After buying the rights from Castle Rock, Miramax gave the green light to put the film into production. Several well - known filmmakers were originally considered to direct, including Mel Gibson, Michael Mann, and Steven Soderbergh. Originally, Affleck asked Kevin Smith if he was interested in directing. He declined, saying they needed a "good director '' and that he only directs things he writes and is not much of a visual director, but still served as one of the film 's executive producers. Damon and Affleck later chose Gus Van Sant for the job, whose work on previous films like Drugstore Cowboy (1989) had left a favorable impression on the fledgling screenwriters. Miramax was persuaded and hired Van Sant to direct the film.
Filming took place between April and June 1997. Although the story is set in Boston, and many of the scenes were done on location in the Greater Boston area, much of the filming was done at locations in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, with the University of Toronto standing in for the interiors of MIT and Harvard University. The classroom scenes were filmed at McLennan Physical Laboratories (of the University of Toronto) and Central Technical School. Harvard normally disallows filming on its property, but permitted limited filming by the project after intervention by Harvard alumnus John Lithgow. Likewise, only the exterior shots of Bunker Hill Community College were filmed in Boston; however, Sean 's office was built in Toronto as an exact replica of one at the college.
The interior bar scenes set in "Southie '' were shot on location at Woody 's L St. Tavern. Meanwhile, the homes of Will (190 West 6th Street) and Sean (259 E Street), while some distance apart in the movie, actually back up to each other on Bowen Street, the narrow street Chuckie drives down to walk up to Will 's back door.
The Bow and Arrow Pub, which was located at the corner of Bow Street and Massachusetts Avenue in Cambridge, doubled as the Harvard bar in which Will met Skylar for the first time. The Baskin - Robbins / Dunkin ' Donuts featured in the "How do you like them apples? '' scene was next door to the pub at the time of the film 's release.
The Tasty, at the corner of JFK and Brattle Streets, was the scene of Will and Skylar 's first kiss. The Au Bon Pain, where Will and Skylar discuss the former 's photographic memory, was at the corner of Dunster Street and Mass Ave.
The Boston Public Garden bench on which Will and Sean sat for a scene in the film became a temporary shrine after Williams 's death in 2014.
In the film 's opening weekend in limited release, it earned $272,912. In its January 1998 wide - release opening weekend, it earned $10,261,471. It went on to gross $138,433,435 in North America for a total worldwide gross of $225,900,000.
Good Will Hunting received strongly positive reviews from critics. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 97 %, based on 70 reviews, with an average rating of 8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "It follows a predictable narrative arc, but Good Will Hunting adds enough quirks to the journey -- and is loaded with enough powerful performances -- that it remains an entertaining, emotionally rich drama. '' At Metacritic, the film has a score of 70 out of 100, based on 28 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars, writing that while the story is "predictable '', it is "the individual moments, not the payoff, that make it so effective. ''
Several scholars have examined the film as a portrayal of residual Catholic -- Protestant tensions in Boston, as Irish Catholics from Southie are aligned against ostensibly Protestant characters who are affiliated with Harvard and MIT.
The musical score for Good Will Hunting was composed by Danny Elfman, who had previously collaborated with Gus Van Sant on To Die For and would go on to score many of the director 's other films. The film also features many songs written and recorded by singer - songwriter Elliott Smith. His song "Miss Misery '' was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song, but lost to "My Heart Will Go On '' from Titanic. Elfman 's score was also nominated for an Oscar, but lost to Titanic as well. On September 11, 2006, The Today Show used Elfman 's song "Weepy Donuts '' while Matt Lauer spoke during the opening credits.
A soundtrack album for the film was released by Capitol Records on November 18, 1997, though only two of Elfman 's cues appear on the release.
"Afternoon Delight '' by the Starland Vocal Band was featured in the film, but did not appear on the soundtrack album.
A limited edition soundtrack album featuring Elfman 's complete score from the film was released by Music Box Records on March 3, 2014. The soundtrack, issued in 1500 copies, includes all of Elfman 's cues (including music not featured on the rare Miramax Academy promo) and also contains the songs by Elliott Smith. One of the tracks is Smith 's songs with Elfman 's arrangements added into the mix.
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what are the letters in the new testament | New Testament - wikipedia
The New Testament (Greek: Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, Hē Kainḕ Diathḗkē; Latin: Novum Testamentum) is the second part of the Christian biblical canon, the first part being the Old Testament, based on the Hebrew Bible. The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first - century Christianity. Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred scripture. The New Testament (in whole or in part) has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world. It reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality. Extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are incorporated (along with readings from the Old Testament) into the various Christian liturgies. The New Testament has influenced religious, philosophical, and political movements in Christendom and left an indelible mark on literature, art, and music.
The New Testament is a collection of Christian works written in the common (Koine) Greek language of the first century, at different times by various writers, and the modern consensus is that it provides important evidence regarding Judaism in the first century AD. In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books. The original texts were written in the first and perhaps the second centuries of the Christian Era, in Greek, which was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean from the conquests of Alexander the Great (335 -- 323 BC) until the Muslim conquests in the 7th century AD. All the works that eventually became incorporated into the New Testament are believed to have been written no later than around 120 AD,. John A.T. Robinson, Dan Wallace, and William F. Albright dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD. Others give a final date of 80 AD, or at 96 AD.
Collections of related texts such as letters of the Apostle Paul (a major collection of which must have been made already by the early 2nd century) and the Canonical Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John (asserted by Irenaeus of Lyon in the late - 2nd century as the Four Gospels) gradually were joined to other collections and single works in different combinations to form various Christian canons of Scripture. Over time, some disputed books, such as the Book of Revelation and the Minor Catholic (General) Epistles were introduced into canons in which they were originally absent. Other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as 1 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Diatessaron, were excluded from the New Testament. The Old Testament canon is not completely uniform among all major Christian groups including Roman Catholics, Protestants, the Greek Orthodox Church, the Slavic Orthodox Churches, and the Armenian Orthodox Church. However, the twenty - seven - book canon of the New Testament, at least since Late Antiquity, has been almost universally recognized within Christianity (see Development of the New Testament canon).
The New Testament consists of:
The term "new testament '' (Koine Greek: Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, Hē Kainḕ Diathḗkē), or "new covenant '' (Hebrew בְּרִית חֲדָשָׁה bərîṯ ḥăḏāšâ) first occurs in Jeremiah 31: 31 (Greek Septuagint καινὴ διαθήκη kainḕ diathḗkē, cited in Hebrews 8: 8). The same Greek phrase for "new covenant '' is found elsewhere in the New Testament (Luke 22: 20, 1 Corinthians 11: 25, 2 Corinthians 3: 6, Hebrews 8: 8, and Hebrews 9: 15; cf. 2 Corinthians 3: 14). In early Bible translations into Latin, the phrase was rendered foedus, "federation '', in Jeremiah 31: 31, and was rendered testamentum in Hebrews 8: 8 and other instances from which comes the English term "New Testament. ''
Modern English, like Latin, distinguishes testament and covenant as alternative translations, and consequently the treatment of the term διαθήκη diathḗkē varies in Bible translations into English. John Wycliffe 's 1395 version is a translation of the Latin Vulgate and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews:
Use of the term New Testament to describe a collection of first and second - century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian (in Against Praxeas 15). In Against Marcion, written circa 208 AD, he writes of
the Divine Word, who is doubly edged with the two testaments of the law and the gospel.
And Tertullian continues later in the book, writing:
it is certain that the whole aim at which he (Marcion) has strenuously laboured, even in the drawing up of his Antitheses, centres in this, that he may establish a diversity between the Old and the New Testaments, so that his own Christ may be separate from the Creator, as belonging to this rival god, and as alien from the law and the prophets.
By the 4th century, the existence -- even if not the exact contents -- of both an Old and New Testament had been established. Lactantius, a 3rd -- 4th century Christian author wrote in his early - 4th - century Latin Institutiones Divinae (Divine Institutes):
But all scripture is divided into two Testaments. That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ -- that is, the law and the prophets -- is called the Old; but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The Jews make use of the Old, we of the New: but yet they are not discordant, for the New is the fulfilling of the Old, and in both there is the same testator, even Christ, who, having suffered death for us, made us heirs of His everlasting kingdom, the people of the Jews being deprived and disinherited. As the prophet Jeremiah testifies when he speaks such things: "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new testament to the house of Israel and the house of Judah, not according to the testament which I made to their fathers, in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; for they continued not in my testament, and I disregarded them, saith the Lord. ''... For that which He said above, that He would make a new testament to the house of Judah, shows that the old testament which was given by Moses was not perfect; but that which was to be given by Christ would be complete.
The canon of the New Testament is the collection of books that most Christians regard as divinely inspired and constituting the New Testament of the Christian Biblical Canon.
In the period extending roughly from 50 to 150 AD, a number of documents began to circulate among the churches, including epistles, gospel accounts, memoirs, prophecies, homilies, and collections of teachings. While some of these documents were apostolic in origin, others drew upon the tradition the apostles and ministers of the word had utilized in their individual missions, and still others represented a summation of the teaching entrusted to a particular church center. Several of these writings sought to extend, interpret, and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality.
In general, among Christian denominations the New Testament canon came to be agreed - upon as a list of 27 books, although the order of the books can vary from one version of the printed scriptures to the next. The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant traditions. The Slavonic, Armenian and Ethiopian traditions have different New Testament book orders.
Each of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. The word "gospel '' derives from the Old English gōd - spell (rarely godspel), meaning "good news '' or "glad tidings ''. The gospel was considered the "good news '' of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, the central Christian message. Gospel is a calque (word - for - word translation) of the Greek word εὐαγγέλιον, euangelion (eu - "good '', - angelion "message '').
Since the 2nd century, the four narrative accounts of the life and work of Jesus Christ have been referred to as "The Gospel of... '' or "The Gospel according to... '' followed by the name of the supposed author. Whatever these admittedly early ascriptions may imply about the sources behind or the perception of these gospels, they are anonymous compositions.
The first three gospels listed above are classified as the Synoptic Gospels. They contain similar accounts of the events in Jesus ' life and his teaching, due to their literary interdependence. The Gospel of John is structured differently and includes stories of several miracles of Jesus and sayings not found in the other three.
These four gospels that were eventually included in the New Testament were only a few among many other early Christian gospels. The existence of such texts is even mentioned at the beginning of the Gospel of Luke. Other early Christian gospels such as the so - called "Jewish - Christian Gospels '' or the Gospel of Thomas, also offer both a window into the context of early Christianity and may provide some assistance in the reconstruction of the historical Jesus.
The Acts of the Apostles is a narrative of the apostles ' ministry and activity after Christ 's death and resurrection, from which point it resumes and functions as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. Examining style, phraseology, and other evidence, modern scholarship generally concludes that Acts and the Gospel of Luke share the same author, referred to as Luke -- Acts. Luke - Acts does not name its author. Church tradition identified him as Luke the Evangelist, the companion of Paul, but the majority of scholars reject this due to the many contradictions between Acts and the authentic Pauline letters. The most probable date of composition is around 80 -- 100 AD, and there is evidence that it was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century.
The epistles of the New Testament are considered by Christians to be divinely inspired and holy letters, written by the apostles and disciples of Christ, to either local congregations with specific needs, or to New Covenant Christians in general, scattered about; or "General Epistles. ''
The Pauline epistles are the thirteen New Testament books that present Paul the Apostle as their author. Six of the letters are disputed. Four are thought by most modern scholars to be pseudepigraphic, i.e., not actually written by Paul even if attributed to him within the letters themselves. Opinion is more divided on the other two disputed letters (2 Thessalonians and Colossians). These letters were written to Christian communities in specific cities or geographical regions, often to address issues faced by that particular community. Prominent themes include the relationship both to broader "pagan '' society, to Judaism, and to other Christians.
(Disputed letters are marked with an asterisk (*).)
The last four Pauline letters in the New Testament are addressed to individual persons. They include the following:
(Disputed letters are marked with an asterisk (*).)
All of the above except for Philemon are known as the Pastoral epistles. They are addressed to individuals charged with pastoral oversight of churches and discuss issues of Christian living, doctrine and leadership. They often address different concerns to those of the preceding epistles. These letters are believed by many to be pseudepigraphic. Some scholars (e.g., Bill Mounce, Ben Witherington) will argue that the letters are genuinely Pauline, or at least written under Paul 's supervision.
The Epistle to the Hebrews addresses a Jewish audience who had come to believe that Jesus was the anointed one (Hebrew: מָשִׁיחַ -- transliterated in English as "Moshiach '', or "Messiah ''; Greek: Χριστός -- transliterated in English as "Christos '', for "Christ '') who was predicted in the writings of the Hebrew Bible. The author discusses the "better - ness '' of the new covenant and the ministry of Jesus, over the Mosaic covenant and urges the readers in the practical implications of this conviction through the end of the epistle.
The book has been widely accepted by the Christian church as inspired by God and thus authoritative, despite the acknowledgment of uncertainties about who its human author was. Regarding authorship, although the Epistle to the Hebrews does not internally claim to have been written by the Apostle Paul, some similarities in wordings to some of the Pauline Epistles have been noted and inferred. In antiquity, some began to ascribe it to Paul in an attempt to provide the anonymous work an explicit apostolic pedigree.
In the 4th century, Jerome and Augustine of Hippo supported Paul 's authorship. The Church largely agreed to include Hebrews as the fourteenth letter of Paul, and affirmed this authorship until the Reformation. The letter to the Hebrews had difficulty in being accepted as part of the Christian canon because of its anonymity. As early as the 3rd century, Origen wrote of the letter, "Men of old have handed it down as Paul 's, but who wrote the Epistle God only knows. ''
Contemporary scholars often reject Pauline authorship for the epistle to the Hebrews, based on its distinctive style and theology, which are considered to set it apart from Paul 's writings.
The General epistles (or "catholic epistles '') consist of both letters and treatises in the form of letters written to the church at large. The term "catholic '' (Greek: καθολική, katholikē), used to describe these letters in the oldest manuscripts containing them, here simply means "general '' or "universal ''. The authorship of a number of these is disputed.
The final book of the New Testament is the Book of Revelation, also known as the Apocalypse of John. In the New Testament canon, it is considered prophetical or apocalyptic literature. Its authorship has been attributed either to John the Apostle (in which case it is often thought that John the Apostle is John the Evangelist, i.e. author of the Gospel of John) or to another John designated "John of Patmos '' after the island where the text says the revelation was received (1: 9). Some ascribe the writership date as circa 81 -- 96 AD, and others at around 68 AD. The work opens with letters to seven churches and thereafter takes the form of an apocalypse, a literary genre popular in ancient Judaism and Christianity.
The order in which the books of the New Testament appear differs between some collections and ecclesiastical traditions. In the Latin West, prior to the Vulgate (an early 5th - century Latin version of the Bible), the four Gospels were arranged in the following order: Matthew, John, Luke, and Mark. The Syriac Peshitta places the major General epistles (James, 1 Peter, and 1 John) immediately after Acts and before the Pauline epistles.
The order of an early edition of the letters of Paul is based on the size of the letters: longest to shortest, though keeping 1 and 2 Corinthians and 1 and 2 Thessalonians together. The Pastoral epistles were apparently not part of the Corpus Paulinum in which this order originated and were later inserted after 2 Thessalonians and before Philemon. Hebrews was variously incorporated into the Corpus Paulinum either after 2 Thessalonians, after Philemon (i.e. at the very end), or after Romans.
The New Testament of the 16th - century Luther Bible continues, to this day, to place Hebrews, James, Jude, and the Apocalypse last. This reflects the thoughts of the Reformer Martin Luther on the canonicity of these books.
The books that eventually found a permanent place in the New Testament were not the only works of Christian literature produced in the earliest Christian centuries. The long process of canonization began early, sometimes with tacit reception of traditional texts, sometimes with explicit selection or rejection of particular texts as either acceptable or unacceptable for use in a given context (e.g., not all texts that were acceptable for private use were considered appropriate for use in the liturgy).
Over the course of history, those works of early Christian literature that survived but that did not become part of the New Testament have been variously grouped by theologians and scholars. Drawing upon, though redefining, an older term used in early Christianity and among Protestants when referring to those books found in the Christian Old Testament although not in the Jewish Bible, modern scholars began to refer to these works of early Christian literature not included in the New Testament as "apocryphal '', by which was meant non-canonical.
Collected editions of these works were then referred to as the "New Testament apocrypha ''. Typically excluded from such published collections are the following groups of works: The Apostolic Fathers, the 2nd - century Christian apologists, the Alexandrians, Tertullian, Methodius of Olympus, Novatian, Cyprian, martyrdoms, and the Desert Fathers. Almost all other Christian literature from the period, and sometimes including works composed well into Late Antiquity, are relegated to the so - called New Testament apocrypha.
Although not considered to be inspired by God, these "apocryphal '' works may be helpful in the study of the New Testament in that they were produced in the same ancient context and often using the same language as those books that would eventually form the New Testament. Some of these later works are dependent (either directly or indirectly) upon books that would later come to be in the New Testament or upon the ideas expressed in them. There is even an example of a pseudepigraphical letter composed under the guise of a presumably lost letter of the Apostle Paul, the Epistle to the Laodiceans.
The books of the New Testament were all or nearly all written by Jewish Christians -- that is, Jewish disciples of Christ, who lived in the Roman Empire, and under Roman occupation. Luke, who wrote the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts, is frequently thought of as an exception; scholars are divided as to whether Luke was a Gentile or a Hellenistic Jew. A few scholars identify the author of the Gospel of Mark as probably a Gentile, and similarly for the Gospel of Matthew, though most assert Jewish - Christian authorship.
Authorship is an area of longstanding and current research and debate, with different works posing different problems for identification. While the various works have traditional ascriptions of authorship, these ascriptions are in some cases defended by scholars, and in other cases disputed or rejected. According to many (if not most) critical scholars, none of the authors of the Gospels were eyewitnesses or even explicitly claimed to be eyewitnesses. Bart Ehrman of the University of North Carolina has argued for a scholarly consensus that many New Testament books were not written by the individuals whose names are attached. He further argues that the Gospels were originally anonymous, and names were not ascribed to them until around 185 AD. Other scholars concur. It is the perspective of some writers that none were written in Palestine.
There is a tradition that the Apostle John was the author of the Gospel of John. Traditionalists (such as Biblical commentators Albert Barnes and Matthew Henry) claim that the writer of the Gospel of John himself claimed to be an eyewitness in their commentaries of John 21: 24 and therefore the gospel was written by an eyewitness; however, this idea is rejected by the majority of modern scholars.
A review of Richard Bauckham 's book Jesus and the Eyewitnesses: The Gospels as Eyewitness Testimony states "The common wisdom in the academy is that stories and sayings of Jesus circulated for decades, undergoing countless retellings and embellishments before being finally set down in writing. ''
Most scholars hold to the two - source hypothesis, which claims that the Gospel of Mark was written first. According to the hypothesis, the authors of the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke then used the Gospel of Mark and the hypothetical Q document, in addition to some other sources, to write their individual gospel accounts. These three gospels are called the Synoptic gospels because they include many of the same stories, often in the same sequence, and sometimes exactly the same wording. Scholars agree that the Gospel of John was written last, by using a different tradition and body of testimony. In addition, most scholars agree that the author of Luke wrote the Acts of the Apostles. Scholars hold that these books constituted two halves of a single work, Luke - Acts.
Strictly speaking, each gospel and the book of Acts is arguably anonymous. The Gospel of John is somewhat of an exception, although the author simply refers to himself as "the disciple Jesus loved '' and claims to be a member of Jesus ' inner circle. The identities of each author were agreed upon at an early date, certainly no later than the early 2nd century. It is likely that the issue of the authorship of each gospel had been settled at least somewhat earlier, as the earliest sources are in complete agreement on the issue. No one questioned the early 2nd century consensus until the 18th century.
Some scholars today maintain the traditional claim that Luke the Evangelist, an associate of St. Paul who was probably not an eyewitness to Jesus ' ministry, wrote the Gospel of Luke and Acts of the Apostles. Scholars are also divided on the traditional claim that Mark the Evangelist, an associate of St. Peter who may have been an eyewitness to Jesus ' ministry, wrote the Gospel of Mark. Scholars are more divided over the traditional claim that Matthew the Apostle wrote the Gospel of Matthew and that John the Apostle wrote the Gospel of John. Opinion, however, is widely divided on this issue and there is no widespread consensus.
The Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles were both written by the same author, and are thus referred to as the Lucan texts. The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book; both were addressed to Theophilus, and the preface to the Acts of the Apostles references "my former book '' about the ministry of Jesus. Furthermore, there are linguistic and theological similarities between the two works, suggesting that they have a common author.
The Pauline epistles are the thirteen books in the New Testament traditionally attributed to Paul of Tarsus. The anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews is, despite unlikely Pauline authorship, often functionally grouped with these thirteen to form a corpus of fourteen "Pauline '' epistles.
Seven letters are generally classified as "undisputed '', expressing contemporary scholarly near consensus that they are the work of Paul: Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians and Philemon. Six additional letters bearing Paul 's name do not currently enjoy the same academic consensus: Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy and Titus.
While many scholars uphold the traditional view, some question whether the first three, called the "Deutero - Pauline Epistles '', are authentic letters of Paul. As for the latter three, the "Pastoral epistles '', some scholars uphold the traditional view of these as the genuine writings of the Apostle Paul; most, however, regard them as pseudepigrapha.
One might refer to the Epistle to the Laodiceans and the Third Epistle to the Corinthians as examples of works identified as pseudonymous. Since the early centuries of the church, there has been debate concerning the authorship of the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews, and contemporary scholars generally reject Pauline authorship.
The epistles all share common themes, emphasis, vocabulary and style; they exhibit a uniformity of doctrine concerning the Mosaic Law, Jesus, faith, and various other issues. All of these letters easily fit into the chronology of Paul 's journeys depicted in Acts of the Apostles.
The author of the Epistle of James identifies himself in the opening verse as "James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ ''. From the middle of the 3rd century, patristic authors cited the Epistle as written by James the Just. Ancient and modern scholars have always been divided on the issue of authorship. Many consider the epistle to be written in the late 1st or early 2nd centuries.
The author of the First Epistle of Peter identifies himself in the opening verse as "Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ '', and the view that the epistle was written by St. Peter is attested to by a number of Church Fathers: Irenaeus (140 -- 203), Tertullian (150 -- 222), Clement of Alexandria (155 -- 215) and Origen of Alexandria (185 -- 253). Unlike The Second Epistle of Peter, the authorship of which was debated in antiquity, there was little debate about Peter 's authorship of this first epistle until the 18th century. Although 2 Peter internally purports to be a work of the apostle, many biblical scholars have concluded that Peter is not the author. For an early date and (usually) for a defense of the Apostle Peter 's authorship see Kruger, Zahn, Spitta, Bigg, and Green.
The Epistle of Jude title is written as follows: "Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James '' (NRSV). The debate has continued over the author 's identity as the apostle, the brother of Jesus, both, or neither.
The First Epistle of John is traditionally held to have been composed by John the Apostle (the author of the Gospel of John) when the writer was in advanced age. The epistle 's content, language and conceptual style indicate that it may have had the same author as the Gospel of John, 2 John and 3 John. Eusebius claimed that the author of 2nd and 3rd John was not John the Apostle, but an "elder John '' which refers either to the apostle at an advanced age or a hypothetical second individual ("John the Elder ''). Scholars today are divided on the issue.
The author of the Book of Revelation identifies himself several times as "John ''. and states that he was on Patmos when he received his first vision. As a result, the author is sometimes referred to as John of Patmos. The author has traditionally been identified with John the Apostle to whom the Gospel and the epistles of John were attributed. It was believed that he was exiled to the island of Patmos during the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian, and there wrote Revelation. Justin Martyr (c. 100 -- 165 AD) who was acquainted with Polycarp, who had been mentored by John, makes a possible allusion to this book, and credits John as the source. Irenaeus (c. 115 -- 202) assumes it as a conceded point. According to the Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, modern scholars are divided between the apostolic view and several alternative hypotheses put forth in the last hundred years or so. Ben Witherington points out that linguistic evidence makes it unlikely that the books were written by the same person.
The earliest works that became part of the New Testament are the letters of the Apostle Paul. The earliest of the books of the New Testament was First Thessalonians, an epistle of Paul, written probably in 51, or possibly Galatians in 49 according to one of two theories of its writing.
In the 1830s German scholars of the Tübingen school tried to date the books as late as the 3rd century, but the discovery of some New Testament manuscripts and fragments from the 2nd and 3rd centuries, one of which dates as early as 125 (Papyrus 52), disproves a 3rd - century date of composition for any book now in the New Testament. Additionally, a letter to the church at Corinth in the name of Clement of Rome in 95 quotes from 10 of the 27 books of the New Testament, and a letter to the church at Philippi in the name of Polycarp in 120 quotes from 16 books. Therefore, some of the books of the New Testament must have been in circulation by the end of the first century.
Scholars hold a wide spectrum of views on exactly when the books of the new testament were written, with non-fundamentalist scholars tending to argue for later dates, and more conservative scholars arguing for an earlier one. Most contemporary scholars regard Mark as a source used by Luke (see Marcan priority). If it is true that Mark was written around the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, around 70, they theorize that Luke would not have been written before 70. Some who take this view believe that Luke 's prediction of the destruction of the temple could not be a result of Jesus predicting the future but with the benefit of hindsight regarding specific details. They believe that the Olivet Discourse in Luke 21: 5 -- 30 is specific enough (more specific than Mark 's or Matthew 's) that a date after 70 seems likely. These scholars have suggested dates for Luke from 75 to 100.
Support for a later date comes from a number of reasons. Differences of chronology, "style '', and theology suggest that the author of Luke - Acts was not familiar with Paul 's distinctive theology but instead was writing a decade or more after his death, by which point significant harmonization between different traditions within Early Christianity had occurred. Furthermore, Luke - Acts has views on Jesus ' divine nature, the end times, and salvation that are similar to those found in Pastoral epistles, which are often seen as pseudonymous and of a later date than the undisputed Pauline Epistles.
Most conservative scholars however, argue that both internal and external evidence strongly points to dates prior to 70 AD for the Synoptic Gospels, Acts, and the Pauline Epistles. They note that there is no mention of the deaths of Paul, Peter, and James, all of which happened between 60 -- 65 AD, in any book of the New Testament. These were all extremely important figures in the early church, writers would have mentioned their deaths if the New Testament had been written later. Furthermore, the Gospels contain numerous attacks on the Sadducees, a sect of Judaism that was wiped out with the destruction of the temple. Why, they ask, would later writers devote so much narrative space to attacking a group that no longer existed?
John Robinson also notes that each book of the New Testament had to be written prior to the destruction of The Temple. Robinson notes that most scholars interpret the Olivet Discourse as a post 70 AD account of the destruction of The Temple, couched in language to make it appear to be a prophecy, culminating in the Second Coming of Jesus to end the world. Robinson notes that the Second Coming did not occur after the destruction of The Temple, leading him to ask, why would a writer in the 80s or 90s forge a prophecy of an event that that is proven not to have occurred 20 years earlier?
The major languages spoken by both Jews and Greeks in the Holy Land at the time of Jesus were Aramaic and Koine Greek, and also a colloquial dialect of Mishnaic Hebrew. It is generally agreed by most scholars that the historical Jesus primarily spoke Aramaic, perhaps also some Hebrew and Koine Greek. The majority view is that all of the books that would eventually form the New Testament were written in the Koine Greek language.
As Christianity spread, these books were later translated into other languages, most notably, Latin, Syriac, and Egyptian Coptic. However, some of the Church Fathers imply or claim that Matthew was originally written in Hebrew or Aramaic, and then soon after was written in Koine Greek. Nevertheless, the Gospel of Matthew known today was composed in Greek and is neither directly dependent upon nor a translation of a text in a Semitic language.
The process of canonization of the New Testament was complex and lengthy. In the initial centuries of early Christianity, there were many books widely considered by the church to be inspired, but there was no single formally recognized New Testament canon. The process was characterized by a compilation of books that apostolic tradition considered authoritative in worship and teaching, relevant to the historical situations in which they lived, and consonant with the Old Testament. Writings attributed to the apostles circulated among the earliest Christian communities and the Pauline epistles were circulating, perhaps in collected forms, by the end of the 1st century AD.
One of the earliest attempts at solidifying a canon was made by Marcion, circa 140 AD, who accepted only a modified version of Luke (the Gospel of Marcion) and ten of Paul 's letters, while rejecting the Old Testament entirely. His canon was increasingly rejected by other groups of Christians, notably the proto - orthodox Christians, as was his theology, Marcionism. Adolf Harnack in Origin of the New Testament (1914) observed that the church gradually formulated its New Testament canon in response to the challenge posed by Marcion.
Justin Martyr, Irenaeus and Tertullian held the letters of Paul to be on par with the Hebrew Scriptures as being divinely inspired, yet others rejected him. Other books were held in high esteem but were gradually relegated to the status of New Testament apocrypha. Justin Martyr, in the mid 2nd century, mentions "memoirs of the apostles '' as being read on Sunday alongside the "writings of the prophets ''.
The Muratorian fragment, dated at between 170 and as late as the end of the 4th century (according to the Anchor Bible Dictionary), may be the earliest known New Testament canon attributed to mainstream Christianity. It is similar, but not identical, to the modern New Testament canon.
The oldest clear endorsement of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John being the only legitimate gospels was written circa 180 AD. A four gospel canon (the Tetramorph) was asserted by Irenaeus, who refers to it directly in his polemic Against the Heresies, "It is not possible that the gospels can be either more or fewer in number than they are. For, since there are four zones of the world in which we live, and four principal winds, while the church is scattered throughout all the world, and the "pillar and ground '' of the church is the gospel and the spirit of life; it is fitting that she should have four pillars, breathing out immortality on every side, and vivifying men afresh. '' The books considered to be authoritative by Irenaeus included the four gospels and many of the letters of Paul, although, based on the arguments Irenaeus made in support of only four authentic gospels, some interpreters deduce that the fourfold Gospel must have still been a novelty in Irenaeus 's time.
By the early 200s, Origen may have been using the same twenty - seven books as in the Catholic New Testament canon, though there were still disputes over the canonicity of the Letter to the Hebrews, Epistle of James, II Peter, II John and III John and the Book of Revelation, known as the Antilegomena. Likewise, the Muratorian fragment is evidence that, perhaps as early as 200, there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to the twenty - seven book NT canon, which included four gospels and argued against objections to them. Thus, while there was a good measure of debate in the Early Church over the New Testament canon, the major writings are claimed to have been accepted by almost all Christians by the middle of the 3rd century.
Origen was largely responsible for the collection of usage information regarding the texts that became the New Testament. The information used to create the late - 4th - century Easter Letter, which declared accepted Christian writings, was probably based on the Ecclesiastical History (HE) of Eusebius of Caesarea, wherein he uses the information passed on to him by Origen to create both his list at HE 3: 25 and Origen 's list at HE 6: 25. Eusebius got his information about what texts were then accepted and what were then disputed, by the third - century churches throughout the known world, a great deal of which Origen knew of firsthand from his extensive travels, from the library and writings of Origen.
In fact, Origen would have possibly included in his list of "inspired writings '' other texts kept out by the likes of Eusebius -- including the Epistle of Barnabas, Shepherd of Hermas, and 1 Clement. Notwithstanding these facts, "Origen is not the originator of the idea of biblical canon, but he certainly gives the philosophical and literary - interpretative underpinnings for the whole notion. ''
Eusebius, circa 300, gave a detailed list of New Testament writings in his Ecclesiastical History Book 3, Chapter XXV:
The Book of Revelation is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp Lake translation: "Recognized '') and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. From other writings of the church fathers, it was disputed with several canon lists rejecting its canonicity. EH 3.3. 5 adds further detail on Paul: "Paul 's fourteen epistles are well known and undisputed. It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews, saying that it is disputed by the church of Rome, on the ground that it was not written by Paul. '' EH 4.29. 6 mentions the Diatessaron: "But their original founder, Tatian, formed a certain combination and collection of the gospels, I know not how, to which he gave the title Diatessaron, and which is still in the hands of some. But they say that he ventured to paraphrase certain words of the apostle Paul, in order to improve their style. ''
In his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, gave a list of the books that would become the twenty - seven - book NT canon, and he used the word "canonized '' (kanonizomena) in regards to them. The first council that accepted the present canon of the New Testament may have been the Synod of Hippo Regius in North Africa (393 AD); the acts of this council, however, are lost. A brief summary of the acts was read at and accepted by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419). These councils were under the authority of St. Augustine, who regarded the canon as already closed.
Pope Damasus I 's Council of Rome in 382, if the Decretum Gelasianum is correctly associated with it, issued a biblical canon identical to that mentioned above, or, if not, the list is at least a 6th - century compilation. Likewise, Damasus ' commissioning of the Latin Vulgate edition of the Bible, c. 383, was instrumental in the fixation of the canon in the West. In c. 405, Pope Innocent I sent a list of the sacred books to a Gallic bishop, Exsuperius of Toulouse. Christian scholars assert that, when these bishops and councils spoke on the matter, however, they were not defining something new but instead "were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church. ''
The New Testament canon as it is now was first listed by St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, in 367, in a letter written to his churches in Egypt, Festal Letter 39. Also cited is the Council of Rome, but not without controversy. That canon gained wider and wider recognition until it was accepted at the Third Council of Carthage in 397 and 419.
Even this council did not settle the matter, however. Certain books, referred to as Antilegomena, continued to be questioned, especially James and Revelation. Even as late as the 16th century, the Reformer Martin Luther questioned (but in the end did not reject) the Epistle of James, the Epistle of Jude, the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Book of Revelation. To this day, German - language Luther Bibles are printed with these four books at the end of the canon, rather than in their traditional order as in other editions of the Bible.
In light of this questioning of the canon of Scripture by Protestants in the 16th century, the (Roman Catholic) Council of Trent reaffirmed the traditional western canon (i.e., the canon accepted at the 4th - century Council of Rome and Council of Carthage), thus making the Canon of Trent and the Vulgate Bible dogma in the Catholic Church. Later, Pope Pius XI on 2 June 1927 decreed the Comma Johanneum was open to dispute and Pope Pius XII on 3 September 1943 issued the encyclical Divino afflante Spiritu, which allowed translations based on other versions than just the Latin Vulgate, notably in English the New American Bible.
Thus, some claim that, from the 4th century, there existed unanimity in the West concerning the New Testament canon (as it is today), and that, by the 5th century, the Eastern Church, with a few exceptions, had come to accept the Book of Revelation and thus had come into harmony on the matter of the canon. Nonetheless, full dogmatic articulations of the canon were not made until the Canon of Trent of 1546 for Roman Catholicism, the Thirty - Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England, the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for Calvinism, and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for the Greek Orthodox.
On the question of NT Canon formation generally, New Testament scholar Lee Martin McDonald has written that:
Although a number of Christians have thought that church councils determined what books were to be included in the biblical canons, a more accurate reflection of the matter is that the councils recognized or acknowledged those books that had already obtained prominence from usage among the various early Christian communities.
Christian scholars assert that when these bishops and councils spoke on the matter, they were not defining something new, but instead "were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church ''.
Some synods of the 4th century published lists of canonical books (e.g. Hippo and Carthage). The existing 27 - book canon of the New Testament was reconfirmed (for Roman Catholicism) in the 16th century with the Council of Trent (also called the Tridentine Council) of 1546, the Thirty - Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England, the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for Calvinism, and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for Eastern Orthodoxy. Although these councils did include statements about the canon, when it came to the New Testament they were only reaffirming the existing canon, including the Antilegomena.
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia article on the Canon of the New Testament: "The idea of a complete and clear - cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history. The Canon of the New Testament, like that of the Old, is the result of a development, of a process at once stimulated by disputes with doubters, both within and without the Church, and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations, and which did not reach its final term until the dogmatic definition of the Tridentine Council. ''
In 331, Constantine I commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius (Apol. Const. 4) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus may be examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta and Codex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles. There is no evidence among the canons of the First Council of Nicaea of any determination on the canon.
Like other literature from antiquity, the text of the New Testament was (prior to the advent of the printing press) preserved and transmitted in manuscripts. Manuscripts containing at least a part of the New Testament number in the thousands. The earliest of these (like manuscripts containing other literature) are often very fragmentarily preserved. Some of these fragments have even been thought to date as early as the 2nd century (i.e., Papyrus 90, Papyrus 98, Papyrus 104, and famously Rylands Library Papyrus P52, though the early date of the latter has recently been called into question).
For each subsequent century, more and more manuscripts survive that contain a portion or all of the books that were held to be part of the New Testament at that time (for example, the New Testament of the 4th - century Codex Sinaiticus, once a complete Bible, contains the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas), though occasionally these manuscripts contain other works as well (e.g., Papyrus 72 and the Crosby - Schøyen Codex). The date when a manuscript was written, however, does not necessarily reflect the date of the form of text it contains. That is, later manuscripts can, and occasionally do, contain older forms of text or older readings.
Some of the more important manuscripts containing an early text of books of the New Testament are:
Textual criticism deals with the identification and removal of transcription errors in the texts of manuscripts. Ancient scribes made errors or alterations (such as including non-authentic additions). The New Testament has been preserved in more than 5,800 Greek manuscripts, 10,000 Latin manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in various other ancient languages including Syriac, Slavic, Ethiopic and Armenian. Even if the original Greek versions were lost, the entire New Testament could still be assembled from the translations.
In addition, there are so many quotes from the New Testament in early church documents and commentaries that the entire New Testament could also be assembled from these alone. Not all biblical manuscripts come from orthodox Christian writers. For example, the Gnostic writings of Valentinus come from the 2nd century AD, and these Christians were regarded as heretics by the mainstream church. The sheer number of witnesses presents unique difficulties, but it also gives scholars a better idea of how close modern Bibles are to the original versions.
On noting the large number of surviving ancient manuscripts, Bruce Metzger sums up the view on the issue by saying "The more often you have copies that agree with each other, especially if they emerge from different geographical areas, the more you can cross-check them to figure out what the original document was like. The only way they 'd agree would be where they went back genealogically in a family tree that represents the descent of the manuscripts.
In attempting to determine the original text of the New Testament books, some modern textual critics have identified sections as additions of material, centuries after the gospel was written. These are called interpolations. In modern translations of the Bible, the results of textual criticism have led to certain verses, words and phrases being left out or marked as not original. According to Bart D. Ehrman, "These scribal additions are often found in late medieval manuscripts of the New Testament, but not in the manuscripts of the earlier centuries. ''
Most modern Bibles have footnotes to indicate passages that have disputed source documents. Bible Commentaries also discuss these, sometimes in great detail. While many variations have been discovered between early copies of biblical texts, almost all have no importance, as they are variations in spelling, punctuation, or grammar. Also, many of these variants are so particular to the Greek language that they would not appear in translations into other languages. For example, order of words (i.e. "man bites dog '' versus "dog bites man '') often does not matter in Greek, so textual variants that flip the order of words often have no consequences.
Outside of these unimportant variants, there are a couple variants of some importance. The two most commonly cited examples are the last verses of the Gospel of Mark and the story of the adulterous woman in the Gospel of John. Many scholars and critics also believe that the Comma Johanneum reference supporting the Trinity doctrine in 1 John to have been a later addition. According to Norman Geisler and William Nix, "The New Testament, then, has not only survived in more manuscripts than any other book from antiquity, but it has survived in a purer form than any other great book -- a form that is 99.5 % pure ''
The often referred to Interpreter 's Dictionary of the Bible, a book written to prove the validity of the New Testament, says: "A study of 150 Greek (manuscripts) of the Gospel of Luke has revealed more than 30,000 different readings... It is safe to say that there is not one sentence in the New Testament in which the (manuscript) is wholly uniform. '' Most of the variation took place within the first three Christian centuries.
By the 4th century, textual "families '' or types of text become discernible among New Testament manuscripts. A "text - type '' is the name given to a family of texts with similar readings due to common ancestors and mutual correction. Many early manuscripts, however, contain individual readings from several different earlier forms of text. Modern texual critics have identified the following text - types among textual witnesses to the New Testament: The Alexandrian text - type is usually considered to generally preserve many early readings. It is represented, e.g., by Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus and the Bodmer Papyri.
The Western text - type is generally longer and can be paraphrastic, but can also preserve early readings. The Western version of the Acts of the Apostles is, notably, 8.5 % longer than the Alexandrian form of the text. Examples of the Western text are found in Codex Bezae, Codex Claromontanus, Codex Washingtonianus, the Old Latin (i.e., Latin translations made prior to the Vulgate), as well as in quotations by Marcion, Tatian, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Cyprian.
A text - type referred to as the "Caesarean text - type '' and thought to have included witnesses such as Codex Koridethi and minuscule 565, can today be described neither as "Caesarean '' nor as a text - type as was previously thought. However, the Gospel of Mark in Papyrus 45, Codex Washingtonianus and in Family 13 does indeed reflect a distinct type of text.
Increasing standardization of distinct (and once local) text - types eventually gave rise to the Byzantine text - type. Since most manuscripts of the New Testament do not derive from the first several centuries, that is, they were copied after the rise of the Byzantine text - type, this form of text is found the majority of extant manuscripts and is therefore often called the "Majority Text. '' As with all of the other (earlier) text - types, the Byzantine can also occasionally preserve early readings.
Biblical criticism is the scholarly "study and investigation of biblical writings that seeks to make discerning judgments about these writings. '' Viewing biblical texts as having human rather than supernatural origins, it asks when and where a particular text originated; how, why, by whom, for whom, and in what circumstances it was produced; what influences were at work in its production; what sources were used in its composition; and what message it was intended to convey.
It will vary slightly depending on whether the focus is on the Old Testament, the letters of the New Testament, or the Canonical Gospels. It also plays an important role in the quest for the historical Jesus. It also addresses the physical text, including the meaning of the words and the way in which they are used, its preservation, history, and integrity. Biblical criticism draws upon a wide range of scholarly disciplines including archaeology, anthropology, folklore, linguistics, Oral Tradition studies, history, and religious studies.
The textual variation among manuscript copies of books in the New Testament prompted attempts to discern the earliest form of text already in antiquity (e.g., by the 3rd - century Christian author Origen). The efforts began in earnest again during the Renaissance, which saw a revival of the study of ancient Greek texts. During this period, modern textual criticism was born. In this context, Christian humanists such as Lorenzo Valla and Erasmus promoted a return to the original Greek of the New Testament. This was the beginning of modern New Testament textual criticism, which over subsequent centuries would increasingly incorporate more and more manuscripts, in more languages (i.e., versions of the New Testament), as well as citations of the New Testament by ancient authors and the New Testament text in lectionaries in order to reconstruct the earliest recoverable form of the New Testament text and the history of changes to it.
Books that later formed the New Testament, like other Christian literature of the period, originated in a literary context that reveals relationships not only to other Christian writings, but also to Graeco - Roman and Jewish works. Of singular importance is the extensive use of and interaction with the Jewish Bible and what would become the Christian Old Testament. Both implicit and explicit citations, as well as countless allusions, appear throughout the books of the New Testament, from the Gospels and Acts, to the Epistles, to the Apocalypse.
The first translations (usually called "versions '') of the New Testament were made beginning already at the end of 2nd century. The earliest versions of the New Testament are the translations into the Syriac, Latin, and Coptic languages. These three versions were made directly from the Greek, and are frequently cited in the apparatuses of modern critical editions.
Syriac was spoken in Syria, and Mesopotamia, and with dialect in Roman and Byzantine Palestine where it was known as Jewish Palestinian Aramaic. Several Syriac translations were made and have come to us. Most of the Old Syriac, however, as well as the Philoxonian version have been lost.
Tatian, the Assyrian, created the Diatessaron, a gospel harmony written in Syriac around 170 AD and the earliest form of the gospel not only in Syriac but probably also in Armenian.
In the 19th century, manuscript evidence was discovered for an "Old Syriac '' version of the four distinct (i.e., not harmonized) gospels. These "separated '' (Syriac: da - Mepharreshe) gospels, though old, have been shown to be later than the Diatessaron. The Old Syriac gospels are fragmentarily preserved in two manuscripts: the 5th - century Curetonian Syriac and the Sinaitic Syriac from the 4th or 5th century.
No Old Syriac manuscripts of other portions of the New Testament survive, though Old Syriac readings, e.g. from the Pauline Epistles, can be discerned in citations made by Eastern fathers and in later Syriac versions. The Old Syriac version is a representative of the Western text - type. The Peshitta version was prepared in the beginning of the 5th century. It contains only 22 books (neither the Minor Catholic Epistles of 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude, nor the Book of Revelation were part of this translation).
The Philoxenian probably was produced in 508 for Philoxenus, Bishop of Mabung.
The Gospels were likely translated into Latin as early as the last quarter of the 2nd century in North Africa (Afra). Not much later, there were also European Latin translations (Itala). There are about 80 Old Latin mansucripts. The Vetus Latina ("Old Latin '') versions often contain readings with a Western type of text. (For the avoidance of confusion, these texts were written in Late Latin, not the early version of the Latin language known as Old Latin, pre 75 BC.)
The bewildering diversity of the Old Latin versions prompted Jerome to prepare another translation into Latin -- the Vulgate. In many respects it was merely a revision of the Old Latin. There are currently around 8,000 manuscripts of the Vulgate.
There are several dialects of the Coptic language: Bohairic (northern dialect), Fayyumic, Sahidic (southern dialect), Akhmimic, and others. The first translation was made by at least the 3rd century into the Sahidic dialect (cop). This translation represents a mixed text, mostly Alexandrian, though also with Western readings.
A Bohairic translation was made later, but existed already in the 4th century. Though the translation makes less use of Greek words than the Sahidic, it does employ some Greek grammar (e.g., in word - order and the use of particles such as the syntactic construction μεν -- δε). For this reason, the Bohairic translation can be helpful in the reconstruction of the early Greek text of the New Testament.
The continued spread of Christianity, and the foundation of national churches, led to the translation of the Bible -- often beginning with books from the New Testament -- into a variety of other languages at a relatively early date: Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Persian, Soghdian, and eventually Gothic, Old Church Slavonic, Arabic, and Nubian.
Modern Literal Version is the most recent literal translation of the books of the new testament, with the largest number of translation experts being involved in the final translation.
Historically, throughout the Christian world and in the context of Christian missionary activity, the New Testament (or portions thereof) has been that part of the Christian Bible first translated into the vernacular. The production of such translations grew out of the insertion of vernacular glosses in biblical texts, as well as out of the production of biblical paraphrases and poetic renditions of stories from the life of Christ (e.g., the Heliand).
The 16th century saw the rise of Protestantism and an explosion of translations of the New (and Old) Testament into the vernacular. Notable are those of Martin Luther (1522), Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples (1523), the Froschau Bible (1525 -- 1529, revised in 1574), William Tyndale (1526, revised in 1534, 1535 and 1536), the Brest Bible (1563), and the Authorized Version (also called the "King James Version '') (1611).
Most of these translations relied (though not always exclusively) upon one of the printed editions of the Greek New Testament edited by Erasmus, a form of this Greek text emerged as the standard and is known as the Textus Receptus. This text, based on the majority of manuscripts is also used in the majority of translations that were made in the years 100 to 400 AD.
Translations of the New Testament made since the appearance of critical editions of the Greek text (notably those of Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort, and von Soden) have largely used them as their base text. Unlike the Textus Receptus, these have a pronounced Alexandrian character. Standard critical editions are those of Souter, Vogels, Bover, Merk, and Nestlé - Aland (the text, though not the full critical apparatus of which is reproduced in the United Bible Societies ' "Greek New Testament '').
Notable translations of the New Testament based on these most recent critical editions include the Revised Standard Version (1946, revised in 1971), La Bible de Jérusalem (1961, revised in 1973 and 2000), the Einheitsübersetzung (1970, final edition 1979), the New American Bible (1970, revised in 1986), the Traduction Oecuménique de la Bible (1988, revised in 2004), and the New Revised Standard Version (1989).
Though all Christian churches accept the New Testament as Scripture, they differ in their understanding of the nature, extent, and relevance of its authority. Views of the authoritativeness of the New Testament often depend on the concept of inspiration, which relates to the role of God in the formation of the New Testament. Generally, the greater the role of God in one 's doctrine of inspiration, the more one accepts the doctrine of biblical inerrancy and / or authoritativeness of the Bible. One possible source of confusion is that these terms are difficult to define, because many people use them interchangeably or with very different meanings. This article will use the terms in the following manner:
The self - witness of the Bible to its inspiration demands a commitment to its unity. The ultimate basis for unity is contained in the claim of divine inspiration in 2 Timothy 3: 16 that "all Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness '' (KJV). The term "inspiration '' renders the Greek word theopneustos. This term only occurs here in the New Testament and literally means "God - breathed '' (the chosen translation of the NIV).
All of these concepts depend for their meaning on the supposition that the text of Bible has been properly interpreted, with consideration for the intention of the text, whether literal history, allegory or poetry, etc. Especially the doctrine of inerrancy is variously understood according to the weight given by the interpreter to scientific investigations of the world.
The notion of unity in diversity of Scripture claims that the Bible presents a noncontradictory and consistent message concerning God and redemptive history. The fact of diversity is observed in comparing the diversity of time, culture, authors ' perspectives, literary genre, and the theological themes.
Studies from many theologians considering the "unity in diversity '' to be found in the New Testament (and the Bible as a whole) have been collected and summarized by New Testament theologian Frank Stagg. He describes them as some basic presuppositions, tenets, and concerns common among the New Testament writers, giving to the New Testament its "unity in diversity '':
For the Roman Catholic Church, there are two modes of Revelation: Scripture and Tradition. Both of them are interpreted by the teachings of the Church. The Roman Catholic view is expressed clearly in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1997):
§ 82: As a result the Church, to whom the transmission and interpretation of Revelation is entrusted, does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honoured with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence. § 107: The inspired books teach the truth. Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures.
In Catholic terminology the teaching office is called the Magisterium. The Catholic view should not be confused with the two - source theory. As the Catechism states in § § 80 and 81, Revelation has "one common source... two distinct modes of transmission. ''
While many Eastern Orthodox writers distinguish between Scripture and Tradition, Bishop Kallistos Ware says that for the Orthodox there is only one source of the Christian faith, Holy Tradition, within which Scripture exists.
Traditional Anglicans believe that "Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation '', (Article VI), but also that the Catholic Creeds "ought thoroughly to be received and believed '' (Article VIII), and that the Church "hath authority in Controversies of Faith '' and is "a witness and keeper of Holy Writ '' (Article XX). Classical Anglicanism, therefore, like Orthodoxy, holds that Holy Tradition is the only safe guardian against perversion and innovation in the interpretation of Scripture.
In the famous words of Thomas Ken, Bishop of Bath and Wells: "As for my religion, I dye in the holy catholic and apostolic faith professed by the whole Church before the disunion of East and West, more particularly in the communion of the Church of England, as it stands distinguished from all Papal and Puritan innovations, and as it adheres to the doctrine of the Cross. ''
Following the doctrine of sola scriptura, Protestants believe that their traditions of faith, practice and interpretations carry forward what the scriptures teach, and so tradition is not a source of authority in itself. Their traditions derive authority from the Bible, and are therefore always open to reëvaluation. This openness to doctrinal revision has extended in Liberal Protestant traditions even to the reevaluation of the doctrine of Scripture upon which the Reformation was founded, and members of these traditions may even question whether the Bible is infallible in doctrine, inerrant in historical and other factual statements, and whether it has uniquely divine authority. However, the adjustments made by modern Protestants to their doctrine of scripture vary widely.
Within the US, the Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy (1978) is a statement, articulating evangelical views on this issue. Paragraph four of its summary states: "Being wholly and verbally God - given, Scripture is without error or fault in all its teaching, no less in what it states about God 's acts in creation, about the events of world history, and about its own literary origins under God, than in its witness to God 's saving grace in individual lives. ''
Mainline American Protestant denominations, including the United Methodist Church, Presbyterian Church USA, The Episcopal Church, and Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, do not teach the doctrine of inerrancy as set forth in the Chicago Statement. All of these churches have more ancient doctrinal statements asserting the authority of scripture, but may interpret these statements in such a way as to allow for a very broad range of teaching -- from evangelicalism to skepticism. It is not an impediment to ordination in these denominations to teach that the scriptures contain errors, or that the authors follow a more or less unenlightened ethics that, however appropriate it may have seemed in the authors ' time, moderns would be very wrong to follow blindly.
For example, ordination of women is universally accepted in the mainline churches, abortion is condemned as a grievous social tragedy but not always a personal sin or a crime against an unborn person, and homosexuality is sometimes recognized as a genetic propensity or morally neutral preference that should be neither encouraged nor condemned. In North America, the most contentious of these issues among these churches at the present time is how far the ordination of gay men and lesbians should be accepted.
Officials of the Presbyterian Church USA report: "We acknowledge the role of scriptural authority in the Presbyterian Church, but Presbyterians generally do not believe in biblical inerrancy. Presbyterians do not insist that every detail of chronology or sequence or prescientific description in scripture be true in literal form. Our confessions do teach biblical infallibility. Infallibility affirms the entire truthfulness of scripture without depending on every exact detail. ''
Those who hold a more liberal view of the Bible as a human witness to the glory of God, the work of fallible humans who wrote from a limited experience unusual only for the insight they have gained through their inspired struggle to know God in the midst of a troubled world. Therefore, they tend not to accept such doctrines as inerrancy. These churches also tend to retain the social activism of their evangelical forebears of the 19th century, placing particular emphasis on those teachings of scripture that teach compassion for the poor and concern for social justice.
The message of personal salvation is, generally speaking, of the good that comes to oneself and the world through following the New Testament 's Golden Rule admonition to love others without hypocrisy or prejudice. Toward these ends, the "spirit '' of the New Testament, more than the letter, is infallible and authoritative.
There are some movements that believe the Bible contains the teachings of Jesus but who reject the churches that were formed following its publication. These people believe all individuals can communicate directly with God and therefore do not need guidance or doctrines from a church. These people are known as Christian anarchists.
Messianic Judaism generally holds the same view of New Testament authority as evangelical Protestants. According to the view of some Messianic Jewish congregations, Jesus did not annul the Torah, but that its interpretation is revised and ultimately explained through the Apostolic Scriptures.
The Christian Congregation of Jehovah 's Witnesses accepts the New Testament as divinely inspired Scripture, and as infallible in every detail, with equal authority as the Hebrew Scriptures. They view it as the written revelation and good news of the Messiah, the ransom sacrifice of Jesus, and the Kingdom of God, explaining and expounding the Hebrew Bible, not replacing but vitally supplementing it. They also view the New Testament as the primary instruction guide for Christian living, and church discipline. They generally call the New Testament the "Christian Greek Scriptures '', and see only the "covenants '' as "old '' or "new '', but not any part of the actual Scriptures themselves.
Oneness Pentecostalism subscribes to the common Protestant doctrine of sola scriptura. They view the Bible as the inspired Word of God, and as absolutely inerrant in its contents (though not necessarily in every translation). They regard the New Testament as perfect and inerrant in every way, revealing the Lord Jesus Christ in the Flesh, and his Atonement, and which also explains and illuminates the Old Testament perfectly, and is part of the Bible canon, not because church councils or decrees claimed it so, but by witness of the Holy Spirit.
The Seventh - day Adventist Church holds the New Testament as the inspired Word of God, with God influencing the "thoughts '' of the Apostles in the writing, not necessarily every word though. The first fundamental belief of the Seventh - Day Adventist church stated that "The Holy Scriptures are the infallible revelation of (God 's) will. '' Adventist theologians generally reject the "verbal inspiration '' position on Scripture held by many conservative evangelical Christians. They believe instead that God inspired the thoughts of the biblical authors and apostles, and that the writers then expressed these thoughts in their own words. This view is popularly known as "thought inspiration '', and most Adventist members hold to that view. According to Ed Christian, former JATS editor, "few if any ATS members believe in verbal inerrancy ''.
Regarding the teachings of the New Testament compared to the Old, and the application in the New Covenant, Adventists have traditionally taught that the Decalogue is part of the moral law of God, which was not abrogated by the ministry and death of Jesus Christ. Therefore, the fourth commandment concerning the Sabbath is as applicable to Christian believers as the other nine. Adventists have often taught a distinction between "moral law '' and "ceremonial law ''. According to Adventist beliefs, the moral law continues into the "New Testament era '', but the ceremonial law was done away with by Jesus.
How the Mosaic law should be applied came up at Adventist conferences in the past, and Adventist theologians such as A.T. Jones and E.J. Waggoner looked at the problem addressed by Paul in Galatians as not the ceremonial law, but rather the wrong use of the law (legalism). They were opposed by Uriah Smith and George Butler at the 1888 Conference. Smith in particular thought the Galatians issue had been settled by Ellen White already, yet in 1890 she claimed justification by faith is "the third angel 's message in verity. ''
Ellen White interpreted Colossians 2: 14 as saying that the ceremonial law was nailed to the cross.
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) believe that the New Testament, as part of the Christian biblical canon, is accurate "as far as it is translated correctly ''. They believe the Bible as originally revealed is the word of God, but that the processes of transcription and translation have introduced errors into the texts as currently available, and therefore they can not be regarded as completely inerrant. In addition to the Old and New Testaments, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price are considered part of their scriptural canon.
Despite the wide variety among Christian liturgies, texts from the New Testament play a role in almost all forms of Christian worship. In addition to some language derived from the New Testament in the liturgy itself (e.g., the Trisagion may be based on Apocalypse 4: 8, and the beginning of the "Hymn of Praise '' draws upon Luke 2: 14), the reading of extended passages from the New Testament is a practice common to almost all Christian worship, liturgical or not.
These readings are most often part of an established lectionary (i.e., selected texts to be read at church services on specific days), and (together with an Old Testament reading and a Psalm) include a non-gospel reading from the New Testament and culminate with a Gospel reading. No readings from the Book of Revelation, however, are included in the standard lectionary of the Eastern Orthodox churches.
Central to the Christian liturgy is the celebration of the Eucharist or "Holy Communion ''. The Words of Institution that begin this rite are drawn directly from 1 Corinthians 11: 23 -- 26. In addition, the communal recitation of the Lord 's Prayer (in the form found in the Gospel of Matthew 6: 9 -- 13) is also a standard feature of Christian worship.
Most of the influence of the New Testament upon the arts has come from the Gospels and the Book of Revelation. Literary expansion of the Nativity of Jesus found in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke began already in the 2nd century, and the portrayal of the Nativity has continued in various art forms to this day. The earliest Christian art would often depict scenes from the New Testament such as the raising of Lazarus, the baptism of Jesus or the motif of the Good Shepherd.
Biblical paraphrases and poetic renditions of stories from the life of Christ (e.g., the Heliand) became popular in the Middle Ages, as did the portrayal of the arrest, trial and execution of Jesus in Passion plays. Indeed, the Passion became a central theme in Christian art and music. The ministry and Passion of Jesus, as portrayed in one or more of the New Testament Gospels, has also been a theme in film, almost since the inception of the medium (e.g., "La Passion '', France, 1903).
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how many notes make up the accompaniment during the aria | Aria - Wikipedia
An aria ((ˈaːrja); Italian: air; plural: arie (ˈaːrje), or arias in common usage, diminutive form arietta (aˈrjetta) or ariette) in music was originally any expressive melody, usually, but not always, performed by a singer. The term became used almost exclusively to describe a self - contained piece for one voice, with or without instrumental or orchestral accompaniment, normally part of a larger work. The typical context for arias is opera, but vocal arias also feature in oratorios and cantatas, sharing features of the operatic arias of their periods.
The term, which derives from the Greek and Latin ' aer ' (air) first appeared in relation to music in the 14th century when it simply signified a manner or style of singing or playing. By the end of the 16th century, the term ' aria ' refers to an instrumental form (cf. Santino Garsi da Parma lute works, ' Aria del Gran Duca '). By the early 16th century it was in common use as meaning a simple setting of strophic poetry; melodic madrigals, free of complex polyphony, were known as madrigale arioso.
In the context of staged works and concert works, arias evolved from simple melodies into structured forms. In such works, the sung, melodic, and structured aria became differentiated from the more speech - like (parlando) recitative -- broadly, the latter tended to carry the story - line, the former carried more emotional freight and became an opportunity for singers to display their vocal talent.
The aria evolved typically in one of two forms. Binary form arias were in two sections (A -- B); arias in ternary form (A -- B -- A) were known as da capo arias (literally ' from the head ', i.e. with the opening section repeated, often in a highly decorated manner). In the da capo aria the ' B ' episode would typically be in a different key -- the dominant or relative major key. Other variants of these forms are found in the French operas of the late 17th century such as those of Jean - Baptiste Lully which dominated the period of the French baroque; vocal solos in his operas (denominated of course by the French term, airs) are frequently in extended binary form (ABB ') or sometimes in rondeau form (ABACA), (a shape which is analogous to the instrumental rondo).
In the Italian school of composers of the late 17th and early 18th century, the da capo form of aria came gradually to be associated with the ritornello (literally, ' little return '), a recurring instrumental episode which was interspersed with the elements of the aria and eventually provided, in early operas, the opportunity for dancing or entries of characters. This version of aria form with ritornelli became a dominant feature of European opera throughout the 18th century. It is thought by some writers to be the origin of the instrumental forms of concerto and sonata form. The ritornelli became essential to the structure of the aria -- "while the words determine the character of a melody the ritornello instruments often decided in what terms it shall be presented. ''
By the early 18th century, composers such as Alessandro Scarlatti had established the aria form, and especially its da capo version with ritornelli, as the key element of opera seria. "It offered balance and continuity, and yet gave scope for contrast. (...) The very regularity of its conventional features enabled deviations from the normal to be exploited with telling effect. '' In the early years of the century, arias in the Italian style began to take over in French opera, giving rise eventually to the French genre of ariette, normally in a relatively simple ternary form.
Types of operatic aria became known by a variety of terms according to their character -- e.g. aria parlante (' speaking - style ', narrative in nature), aria di bravura (typically given to a heroine), aria buffa (aria of a comic type, typically given to a bass or bass - baritone), and so on.
M.F. Robinson describes the standard aria in opera seria in the period 1720 to 1760 as follows:
The first section normally began with an orchestral ritornello after which the singer entered and sang the words of the first stanza in their entirety. By the end of this first vocal paragraph the music, if it were in a major key as it usually was, had modulated to the dominant. The orchestra then played a second ritornello usually shorter than the first. The singer re-entered and sang the same words through a second time. The music of this second paragraph was often slightly more elaborate than that of the first. There were more repeats of words and perhaps more florid vocalisations. The key worked its way back to the tonic for the final vocal cadence after which the orchestra rounded the section off with a final ritornello.
The nature and allocation of the arias to the different roles in opera seria was highly formalized. According to the playwright and librettist Carlo Goldoni, in his autobiography,
The three principal personages of the drama ought to sing five arias each; two in the first act, two in the second, and one in the third. The second actress and the second soprano can only have three, and the inferior characters must be satisfied with a single aria each, or two at the most. The author of the words must (...) take care that two pathetic (i.e. melancholy) arias do not succeed one another. He must distribute with the same precaution the bravura arias, the arias of action, the inferior arias, and the minuets and rondeaus. He must, above all things, avoid giving impassioned arias, bravura arias, or rondeaus, to inferior characters.
By contrast, arias in opera buffa (comic opera) were often specific in character to the nature of the character being portrayed (for example the cheeky servant - girl or the irascible elderly suitor or guardian).
By later in the century it was clear that these formats were becoming fossilized. Christoph Willibald Gluck thought that both opera buffa and opera seria had strayed too far from what opera should really be, and seemed unnatural. The jokes of opera buffa were threadbare and the repetition of the same characters made them seem no more than stereotypes. In opera seria the singing was devoted to superficial effects and the content was uninteresting and stale. As in opera buffa, the singers were often masters of the stage and the music, decorating the vocal lines so floridly that audiences could no longer recognise the original melody. Gluck wanted to return opera to its origins, focusing on human drama and passions and making words and music of equal importance. The effects of these Gluckist reforms were seen not only in his own operas but in the later works of Mozart; the arias now become far more expressive of the individual emotions of the characters and are both more firmly anchored in, and advance, the storyline. Richard Wagner was to praise Gluck 's innovations in his 1850 essay "Opera and Drama '': "The musical composer revolted against the wilfulness of the singer ''; rather than "unfold (ing) the purely sensuous contents of the Aria to their highest, rankest, pitch '', Gluck sought "to put shackles on Caprice 's execution of that Aria, by himself endeavouring to give the tune (...) an expression answering to the underlying Word - text ''. This attitude was to underlie Wagner 's would - be deconstruction of aria in his concept of Gesamtkunstwerk.
Despite the ideals of Gluck, and the trend to organise libretti so that arias had a more organic part in the drama rather than merely interrupting its flow, in the operas of the early 19th century, (for example those of Gioachino Rossini and Gaetano Donizetti), bravura arias remained focal attractions, and they continued to play a major role in grand opera, and in Italian opera through the 19th century.
A favoured form of aria in the first half of the 19th century in Italian opera was the cabaletta, in which a songlike cantabile section is followed by a more animated section, the cabaletta proper, repeated in whole or in part. Typically such arias would be preceded by recitative, the whole sequence being termed a scena. There might also be opportunities for participation by orchestra or chorus. An example is Casta diva from the opera Norma of Vincenzo Bellini.
After around 1850, aria forms in Italian opera began to show more variety -- many of the operas of Giuseppe Verdi offer extended narrative arias for leading roles that enable, in their scope, intensification of drama and characterisation. Examples include Rigoletto 's condemnation of the court, "Cortigiani, vil razza dannata! '' (1851).
Later in the century, the post-1850 operas of Wagner were through - composed, with fewer elements being readily identifiable as self - contained arias; whilst the Italian genre of verismo opera also sought to integrate arioso elements although still allowing some ' show - pieces '.
Concert arias, which are not part of any larger work, (or were sometimes written to replace or insert arias in their own operas or operas of other composers) were written by composers to provide the opportunity for vocal display for concert singers; examples are Ah! perfido, Op. 65, by Beethoven, and a number of concert arias by Mozart, including Conservati fedele.
The term ' aria ' was frequently used in the 17th and 18th centuries for instrumental music used for dancing or variation, and modelled on vocal music. For example, J.S. Bach 's so - called "Goldberg Variations '' were titled at their 1741 publication "Clavier Ubung bestehend in einer ARIA mit verschiedenen Verænderungen '' ("Keyboard exercise, consisting of one ARIA with diverse variations. '')
The word is sometimes used in contemporary music as a title for instrumental pieces, e.g. Robin Holloway 's 1980 ' Aria ' for chamber ensemble. or Harrison Birtwistle 's brass band piece, ' Grimethorpe Aria ' (1973).
Notes
Sources
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aboriginal peoples and the canadian charter of rights and freedoms | Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of rights and Freedoms - wikipedia
Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms is the first section under the heading "General '' in the Charter, and like other sections within the "General '' sphere, it aids in the interpretation of rights elsewhere in the Charter. While section 25 is also the Charter section that deals most directly with Aboriginal peoples in Canada, it does not create or constitutionalize rights for them.
The Charter is a part of the larger Constitution Act, 1982. Aboriginal rights, including treaty rights, receive more direct constitutional protection under section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982.
Under the heading "General, '' the section reads:
In other words, the Charter must be enforced in a way that does not diminish Aboriginal rights. As the Court of Appeal for Ontario held in R. v. Agawa (1988), the section "confers no new rights, '' but instead "shields '' old ones.
This is a stronger recognition for non-Charter rights than section 26 's requirement that the Charter can not be interpreted to deny that non-Charter rights exist, as section 25 specifically states that Aboriginal rights will not only continue to exist but also can not be derogated by the Charter itself. The distinction came about during the negotiations of the Charter. Section 25 's content did not appear in the first version of the Charter, in October 1980, but the original version of what later became section 26 did say that the existence of Aboriginal rights could not be denied. This sparked dramatic protests among Aboriginals, who viewed the proposed constitutional amendments as an insufficient protection of their rights. This persisted until some of their leaders, the National Indian Brotherhood, the Inuit Tapirisat of Canada, and the Native Council of Canada (now the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples), were appeased by the addition of sections 25 and 35 to the Constitution Act, 1982.
The rights to which section 25 refers explicitly include those in the Royal Proclamation of 1763. They may also include those created by ordinary legislation, like the Indian Act, and constitutional scholar Peter Hogg has speculated that without this section, section 15 (the equality provision) would have possibly threatened these rights, since they are particular to a race. Nevertheless, in the Supreme Court case Corbiere v. Canada (1999), it was found that not all legislative distinctions relating to Aboriginals are protected by section 25, and section 15 was accordingly used to extend voting rights in Aboriginal reserves to Aboriginals who did not live in those reserves. As Hogg observes, what particular rights section 25 protects was in the mean time left uncertain.
Section 35 of the Constitution Act, which falls outside the Charter, does constitutionalize some aboriginal rights. As Hogg notes, this makes section 25 altogether less important than section 35, but Corbiere leaves open the possibility that rights not constitutionalized by section 35 can have some protection under section 25.
The question of how the Charter applies to Aboriginals and Aboriginal government has involved section 25. On the one hand, it has been argued that Aboriginal governments are not bound by the Charter. If section 35 includes a right to self - government, and section 25 ensures Aboriginal rights are not limited by the Charter, then section 25 would also guarantee that self - government is not limited by the Charter. On the other hand, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples once argued that while section 25 guarantees the existence of self - government itself, the powers of such Aboriginal governments will be limited to respect the Charter rights of individual Aboriginals.
Some bands receive a measure of autonomy under the Indian Act, and the consequent powers of the councils would be protected by section 25. Meanwhile, section 32, which bounds the federal and provincial governments to the Charter, may not include the band councils if their authority derives not only from the Indian Act but also tradition.
In 1983, with the passing of the Constitution Amendment Proclamation, 1983, section 25 was amended to expand the protection provided for rights associated with land claims. Whereas the original wording made reference to rights acquired "by way of land claim settlement, '' the current version refers to rights that "now exist by way of land claims agreements or may be so acquired. '' While ordinarily, section 25 could have been amended with the standard 7 / 50 amending formula, this change was also carried out with agreement of aboriginal leaders. At the same time, the Constitution Act, 1982 was amended to add section 35.1. This new section suggests that, before section 25 is amended in the future, consultation with aboriginal leaders will again be requested by the prime minister.
Scholar Celeste Hutchinson remarks in an article that little has been done with section 25 by the courts. However, she points to the British Columbia Court of Appeal case R. v. Kapp as one that discusses section 25 's application. She argues Kapp failed to resolve the issue of whether section 25 is only applied when the Charter is violated, or if applies earlier, when a Charter challenge is raised. Nevertheless, Hutchinson did feel Kapp provided some significant discussion of section 25. In Kapp, Justice Kirkpatrick endorsed the view that section 25 is first considered when a Charter challenge is raised, and made a three - step test asking (1) is the right in question a treaty, Aboriginal or other right related to Aboriginals? (2) if it falls in the "other '' category, does it relate to a part of Aboriginal life? (3) would the remedy possibly given by the Charter limit Aboriginal rights?
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does a learner's permit count as a valid driver's license | Learner 's permit - wikipedia
A driver 's permit, learner 's permit, learner 's license or provisional license, is a restricted license that is given to a person who is learning to drive, but has not yet satisfied the prerequisite to obtain a driver 's license. Having a driver 's permit for a certain length of time is usually one of the requirements (along with driver 's education and a road test) for applying for a full driver 's license. To get a learner 's permit, one must typically pass a written permit test, traffic, and rules of the road.
Laws regarding learner 's permits in Australia differ between each state. However, all states require a number of hours supervised driving to be undertaken and for the permit to be held for a set period. The age to get a Learner Permit is 16 in all states and territories except the ACT where it is 15 and 9 months. When a person is on their learner 's permit, they have to log 50 -- 120 hours depending on the state they are in, and must obtain at least 10 night hours. They can be supervised or taught in their log book hours by any person / persons holding a full license. They must sign the log book for allocated hours. Learner drivers must display a ' L ' on their car and have a 0 % BAC Alcohol limit.
A provisional learners license can be obtained after passing a theoretical exam less than three years prior. The minimum age for a learners permit is 17 years. The learner needs to be accompanied by a designated person with a valid driving license. The vehicle needs to bear a clearly visible, predesignated "learners '' sign, sporting the letter "L ''.
In Canada, the minimum age varies from province to province and may be 14 or 16. In Ontario, a G1 License is issued to new drivers at the age of 16 after completing a written test. G1 license restrictions include:
In Nova Scotia, a beginner 's permit (L) is issued to new drivers after the age of 16 after a written test. The L license restrictions include:
In Alberta, a learners permit is issued to those who complete a knowledge test, an eye exam and one who is 14 years of age or older. They 're then put into a GDL program with restrictions. Some include: having a 0 blood alcohol level, fully licensed driver in passenger seat, no more people than there are seats, and must hold the license for a one - year minimum before upgrading.
In Alberta, one has to pass a basic road test after having a learner 's permit for at least a year and at or over the age of 16, then can apply for a Class 5 GDL license, which carries some of the same restrictions, but no longer requires a fully licensed Class 5 non-GDL driver in the passenger seat. Once the person becomes 18 and holds the Class 5 GDL license for at least 2 years, they can do an advanced road test which if they pass, they 'll become a fully licensed Class 5 driver.
In France, there is Graduated driver licensing for people between the ages of 15 and 17 and half, for B Driving licence. There are some restrictions: for instance a fully qualified driver must accompany the learner.
At age 18, the learner 's permit can apply to a normal driving license, that it can pass more easily due to its previous experience; additionally, its probation license is reduced from three to two years.
This graduated driver licensing is valid only within France; thus one can not use it to cross borders.
For people over 18, there is a system similar to Graduated driver licensing, but the rules are slightly different: for instance there is no reduction from three to two years for the probation licence.
Furthermore, once receiving a full driving license for the first time, the following restrictions apply for two or three years, known as permis probatoire:
Some training to road traffic safety might help to recover points.
Since 2010, one can obtain a learner 's permit at 17 in Germany. The only restriction is that a fully licensed and previously stated driver who is at least 30 years old must accompany the learner (but is not allowed to intervene in the drive). That does not apply to light motorcycles, which can be driven freely with this license.
Furthermore, the following restrictions apply for two years after obtaining a full license:
At age 18, the learner 's permit will be automatically replaced by a normal driving license - no further test is needed. These legal circumstances in Germany are comparable to those in Austria in that respect; thus, one can cross these countries ' border with a learner 's permit.
In Hong Kong any person aged 18 or above can apply for a Learner 's Driving License for private cars, light goods vehicle and motorcycles. For other types of vehicle the age required is 21 and the applicant must have a valid private car or light goods vehicle driving license for 3 years. Unlike other jurisdictions, a learner must be supervised by an approved driving instructor instead of an ordinary fully licensed driver, or attending an approved driving school to learn to drive (except motorcycles, which learners can drive on their own, but motorcycle learners must pass a motorcycle course from an approved driving school before they can learn to drive on road). L - plate is also required when the learner is practicing.
In India, the minimum age at which a provisional licence is valid is 18 (and 16 for riding a gearless scooter). When driving under a provisional license, the learner must be accompanied by a driver who holds a full driving license. The supervisor has to be in view of the road and be in a position to control the vehicle. The provisional license is available only after passing the theory test. A full licence can be acquired only after passing the driving test. Once the learner has passed the theory test, they may take the practical driving test. Once the practical driving test has been taken and passed, a full driving licence will be automatically issued. While it is possible to take both tests immediately after each other, most learner drivers take a period between taking the theory and applying for a practical test to carry out driving lessons, either with their supervisor or a professional Driving school.
The vehicle being driven by the learner must also be fitted with L - plates on both the back and front of the vehicle. This tells other road users that the vehicle is being operated by a driver without their full license and that they may make mistakes easily and that the driver may not be fully competent yet. The L - plate consists of a white square plate with a large red L in the middle.
In Ireland the learner may perform a theory test at the age of 16 which tests their knowledge of traffic situations and road signs. Upon passing this test the learner will receive a learner 's permit which permits them to drive on the road accompanied by a full licensed driver who has had their license for more than two years. The only restrictions are that the learner driver can not drive on motorways and must visibly display ' L ' plates at all times. They must have held their learner 's permit for 6 months before they can apply to perform road test to obtain their full license. This is known as the ' six - month rule '.
In Italy, any person aged 18 or above can apply for a driving license (patente di guida). The learner has to perform a theory test which tests their knowledge of traffic situations, road signs, insurance, sanctions, etc. Upon passing this test (the learner has two possibilities to pass it), the learner will receive a learner 's permit (foglio rosa, literally pink sheet, given its color) which allows them to drive on the road, if accompanied by a driver which had their license for more than ten years. There are no restrictions on the horsepower of the car (there will be during the first year of full license). The learner can drive on motorways and must display ' P ' (standing for Principiante, beginner) stickers, both in the front and in the back of the vehicle. After receiving the foglio rosa, they have 6 months to perform road test to obtain the full license; should the learner be uncapable to pass the road test in 6 months (two possibilities to pass it, spaced one month apart), they have to pay for another foglio rosa.
In New Zealand any eligible person 16 years or over can sit a learner licence test, which is a theory multiple choice test on road rules. Once they have passed this, they may drive with an adult who has had their full license of the same licence class for at least two years (a ' supervisor '). They must display L plates at all times when driving. Learner drivers may observe the posted speed limits. They may carry passengers with an adult in the car that has had their full licence for more than two years.
After at least 6 months have passed, they must pass a practical test in order to receive their restricted license. On a restricted license, the learner may only drive between 5am and 10pm, with no passengers other than their dependent children, spouse or someone for whom they are the primary caregiver; they may drive at any time when accompanied by a supervisor. Learners who sit the practical test in an automatic car are only legally allowed to drive an automatic while on the restricted licence. If a driver has successfully completed an approved defensive driving course, the wait time between passing the restricted licence practical test and taking the full licence practical test is reduced from 18 months to 12 months.
In Norway, the learner may drive as long the learner is over 16 years of age, have passed a basic course in the rules of the road and first aid, and a person 25 or above who has had their driver 's license for more than 5 years is present.
In Singapore, any persons aged 18 or above may obtain a provisional driving licence for a fee of S $25.00 after passing the Basic Theory Test. The provisional driving licence is valid for 6 months if the PDL licence is obtained before 1 December 2017. From 1 December 2017, the validity of a PDL licence is 2 years from the date of payment, with no change of cost. It permits the holder to drive on public roads (with a few exceptions) in the presence of a Certified Driving Instructor. A car driven by a learner must display an L - plate on the front and rear of the car. Passing the Final Theory Test enables a learner to apply for the Practical Driving Test and it is valid for 2 years. A valid provisional driving licence, passed FTT and a photo ID must be presented to be allowed to take the practical test. Should a learner 's provisional driving licence expire before the date of their practical test, he or she will have to renew it at the same cost. Expired PDL are not accepted and taking the practical tests will be rejected.
A Qualified Driving Licence (QDL) is awarded to a person who has passed the practical test and made a one - time payment of S $50.00. Any person who has possessed a QDL for a period of less than a year is required to display a probation plate at the top right of their front and rear windscreens. The probation plate is made of a reflective material and consists of an orange triangle on a yellow background. Failure to do so may cause the offending driver to receive a fine for the first time and then subsequently revoked from driving. See Driving licence in Singapore for detailed requirements of each class of licence.
A South African learners license consists of three sections with the following criteria required:
There are primarily three codes to choose from:
The following documents will need to be presented when applying for a learners license:
In South Africa, any person who is of the minimum required age and holds a valid ID document may sit a learner 's licence exam. The minimum required age varies by vehicle class and has the following minimum age restrictions:
The Learner 's Licence exam is a 68 question multiple choice exam with questions spread over three sections: Rules of the road (30 questions); Signs, signals and road markings (30 questions), and vehicle controls (8 questions). The holder of a learner 's licence is allowed to drive only when supervised by a licensed driver. If the category of vehicle being driven requires a professional driving permit, the licensed driver must also hold a professional driving permit. South African Learners must carry their Learner 's Licence with them whenever they are driving a vehicle and have L plates on the rear window. The Learner 's Licence is valid for 24 months.
In Sweden, the minimum age is 16 years old to get a basic car learner 's permit; 17 years and six months are required for more advanced light vehicle combinations and up to 23 years for heavy vehicle combinations. Körkortslag 4kap 2 §
In the United Kingdom, the minimum age at which a provisional licence is valid is 17 (16 for driving a tractor, riding a moped or those receiving Disability Mobility Allowance). When driving under a provisional licence, the learner must be accompanied by a driver who has held a full driving licence for three years, and who is 21 or over. The supervisor has to be in view of the road, however the Road Safety Act 1988 states that the supervisor does not have to be in the passenger seat, although the passenger in the front seat does have to be over the age of 15. A full licence can be acquired as soon as the provisional licence is received, unlike many other countries where applicants must wait a minimum of 6 -- 12 months before getting a full license. The provisional licence is available without taking a test, although to get a full, unrestricted licence, the applicant must take a written ' Theory ' test containing fifty multiple choice questions and a fourteen - clip hazard perception test, both of which are done on a computer at one of the many DSA (Driving Standards Agency) Test centres. Once the learner has passed the theory test, they may take the practical driving test; however the practical driving test has to be passed within 2 years of completing the theory test, as the theory test certificate expires 2 years after receiving it. Once the practical driving test has been passed, a full driving licence will be automatically issued. One can take the practical test immediately after the theory test, but most learner drivers take some time between them to take driving lessons, usually with a professional driving instructor.
A vehicle being driven by a learner driver must be fitted with L - plates on both the back and front of the vehicle. These tell other road users that the vehicle is being operated by a driver without a full licence and that they may make mistakes easily and that the driver may not be fully competent yet. The L - plate consists of a white square plate (often tied to the vehicle or attached by magnets) with a large red L in the middle. (In Wales a D - plate (D for dysgwr, Welsh for "learner '') may be used instead of an L - plate.) If the vehicle is operated by multiple named drivers (as specified by the car insurance policy), then the L - plate should be removed while the car is being driven by a holder of a full licence. When the learner has passed the test, they can display a non-compulsory ' P ' plate, which shows that they have just passed their test, and so may not have much experience on the road. The P plate has a white background, with a green ' P '.
In the UK, provisional licence holders are not allowed to drive on motorways unless accompanied by a driving instructor and in a car fitted with dual controls.
After gaining a full licence, the driver is subject to a probationary period: six or more penalty points accumulated within two years of passing the test would lead to a revocation of the licence, and both tests would need to be retaken.
In Northern Ireland for one year after the passing of a driving test, the driver is defined as a "restricted driver '' who must not exceed 45 mph (72 km / h) and must display an "R - plate '' consisting of an amber sans - serif R on a white background.
In the United States, it is typical for states to have graduated driver 's license programs through which a driver first obtains a learner 's permit, qualifies for an intermediate driver 's license, and then ultimately qualifies for a full driver 's license. The rules governing learner 's permits can vary significantly by state.
In order for a minor to receive a learner 's permit, sometimes called an instructional permit, states typically require that the minor have at least 6 practice hours before getting the permit and signed permission from a parent or guardian. In the state of New Hampshire, a permit is not given but the young driver may begin to drive with a parent or guardian, or an adult 25 years of age, at the age of 15 and a half.
Typically, a driver operating with a learner 's permit must be accompanied by an adult licensed driver who is at least 21 years of age or older and in the passenger seat of the vehicle at all times.
In some states, permit holders are allowed to drive to and from school or work with a permit, without a supervising driver. In Indiana, Iowa, Texas, Rhode Island, Maryland and Kentucky, a permit holder between 17 and 18 may legally drive unaccompanied only if heading to work or to school.
After a legally defined period of driving supervised with a permit, usually between six and twelve months, and upon reaching the requisite age, the holder of a learner 's permit can apply for a provisional license. Obtaining a provisional license allows certain restrictions to be lifted from the driver, such as the times that they are allowed to drive, and the number of people allowed in the car.
The permit holder is required to document specific hours of driving under the permit before qualifying for an intermediate license, such as fifty hours of practice.
An intermediate or provisional license allows the driver to drive a vehicle without supervision by a licensed driver. Driving is typically permitted during a limited range of mostly daylight hours, as well as to and from school, work and religious activities. Some states may require a road test before allowing a learner 's permit holder to obtain an intermediate license.
In order to qualify for a provisional license the applicant must typically be at least the age of 16 and must have previously held a learner 's permit for at least six months. These requirements vary by state. For example, in Florida the prior period for holding a learner 's permit is twelve months.
In many states the period of driving on a learner 's permit is shortened if the applicant is above the age of eighteen. For example, in Oklahoma if a driver is 18 or older a learner 's permit must only be held for one month before the driver qualifies for an intermediate license. Some states allow drivers over the age of twenty - one to bypass the entire graduated licensing process. For example, in Colorado, a driver over the age of twenty - one may apply for and pass the tests for a permit and a full driver 's license on the same day and, if successful in passing the tests, may obtain a full driver 's license as soon as the driver passes a scheduled driving test.
Intermediate drivers are normally restricted in their transportation of passengers, especially minor passengers, without supervision. In some states, such as California, Nebraska, Oregon, Maine, New York, Florida, Kansas, Illinois, Oklahoma and Arizona, permitted drivers may legally drive family members under the age of 21 without adult supervision if they possess a signed note from a legal guardian.
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when did we start exchanging gifts at christmas | Christmas gift - wikipedia
A Christmas gift or Christmas present is a gift given in celebration of Christmas. Christmas gifts are often exchanged on December 25.
The tradition of gift - giving is an old one, but it became associated with Christmas more recently. It is a relic of a pagan custom, namely, the winter solstice which in Europe occurs in December. This was celebrated in ancient Rome with gift - giving during the Saturnalia holiday, which took place that month. As Christianity became increasingly widespread in the Roman lands, the custom of gift - giving continued. Around the year 336 AD the date of December 25 appears to have become established as the day of Jesus 's birth, and the tradition of gift - giving was reinterpreted and tied to the story of three Magi giving gifts to baby Jesus; together with another story, that of Santa Claus based on the historical figure of Saint Nicholas, a fourth - century Greek bishop and gift - giver, it slowly became a part of Christmas celebrations.
Some early Christian rulers, however, interpreted this story as indications that it should be their subjects who should give gifts to their superiors, and insisted on tributes and tithes during that period. This changed around the turn of the millennium following the popularity of the Good King Wenceslas story based on the life of another historical person claimed to be a gift - giver, Saint Wenceslaus. Christmas gift - giving to superiors became less common, and around the time of the Protestant Reformation, customs of gift - giving to children became increasingly widespread in Europe. The custom spread to the United States around the 19th century. This also coincided with the desire of some elites to reduce the rowdiness of adult Christmas celebrations, which in some places were tied to begging, as "bands of young men, often rowdy, would "wassail '' from home to home and demand handouts from the gentry ". Another related aspect was the growing desire by parents to keep children at home, away from the "corrupting '' influence of the urban streets.
Another relatively recent change concerned the time of Christmas gift - giving. For many centuries, gift - giving took place on December 6 around Saint Nicholas Day or in early January after New Year 's Eve. The popularity of this custom grew after the positive reception of the 1823 poem The Night Before Christmas and the 1843 novella A Christmas Carol. By the end of the 19th century, Christmas Eve replaced early December or January dates as the most common date for gift - giving in the Western culture. It is custom for one to open a single gift on the evening of Christmas Eve.
The tradition was also embraced by retailers, for whom the weeks and, eventually, the entire month before Christmas became a very profitable period. Around the turn of the 20th century retailers started directing marketing efforts at children in the hopes that they would entice the parents to buy more goods.
In the early 2000s it was estimated that shoppers in the U.S. alone spend over $4 billion each day during the Christmas shopping season, with an average individual spending over $1,000 on gifts.
There are concerns that gift - giving during Christmas is too commercial. Seventy percent of respondents to an online survey of 13,576 people in 14 European countries in 2016 said that too much attention is put on spending during the Christmas period, 42 % said they felt forced to spend more at Christmas, and 10 % borrowed money to be able to afford the gifts.
Economist Joel Waldfogel noted that because of the mismatch between what the giftee values the gift and the value paid for by the giver, the gifts lose between 10 % to one - third of their value; he calls it the "deadweight loss of Christmas ''. This leads to gifts often being returned, sold, or re-gifted. In the 2016 European online survey, 15 % of respondents were unhappy about their gifts and 10 % could not remember what they had received. Twenty - five percent of respondents said they had re-gifted their presents to someone else, 14 % sold the items, 10 % tried to return them to the store, and 5 % returned the gift to the giver. Seniors were more likely to send their unwanted presents to charity, while those aged 25 to 34 "simply threw them away ''. Gifts that are least likely to be appreciated rely on personal tastes, and include items like perfumes and cosmetics, ornaments, and clothing.
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what does having a high melting point mean | Melting point - wikipedia
The melting point (or, rarely, liquefaction point) of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure. At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium. The melting point of a substance depends on pressure and is usually specified at standard pressure. When considered as the temperature of the reverse change from liquid to solid, it is referred to as the freezing point or crystallization point. Because of the ability of some substances to supercool, the freezing point is not considered as a characteristic property of a substance. When the "characteristic freezing point '' of a substance is determined, in fact the actual methodology is almost always "the principle of observing the disappearance rather than the formation of ice '', that is, the melting point.
For most substances, melting and freezing points are approximately equal. For example, the melting point and freezing point of mercury is 234.32 kelvins (− 38.83 ° C or − 37.89 ° F). However, certain substances possess differing solid - liquid transition temperatures. For example, agar melts at 85 ° C (185 ° F) and solidifies from 31 ° C to 40 ° C (89.6 ° F to 104 ° F); such direction dependence is known as hysteresis. The melting point of ice at 1 atmosphere of pressure is very close to 0 ° C (32 ° F, 273.15 K); this is also known as the ice point. In the presence of nucleating substances, the freezing point of water is not always the same as the melting point. In the absence of nucleators water can exist as a supercool ed liquid down to − 48.3 ° C (− 55 ° F, 224.8 K) before freezing. The chemical element with the highest melting point is tungsten, at 3687 K (3414 ° C, 6177 ° F); this property makes tungsten excellent for use as filaments in light bulbs. The often - cited carbon does not melt at ambient pressure but sublimes at about 4000 K; a liquid phase only exists above pressures of 10 MPa and estimated 4300 -- 4700 K (see carbon phase diagram). Tantalum hafnium carbide (Ta HfC) is a refractory compound with a very high melting point of 4215 K (3942 ° C, 7128 ° F). At the other end of the scale, helium does not freeze at all at normal pressure even at temperatures close to absolute zero; pressures greater than twenty times normal atmospheric pressure are necessary.
Many laboratory techniques exist for the determination of melting points. A Kofler bench is a metal strip with a temperature gradient (range from room temperature to 300 ° C). Any substance can be placed on a section of the strip, revealing its thermal behaviour at the temperature at that point. Differential scanning calorimetry gives information on melting point together with its enthalpy of fusion.
A basic melting point apparatus for the analysis of crystalline solids consists of an oil bath with a transparent window (most basic design: a Thiele tube) and a simple magnifier. The several grains of a solid are placed in a thin glass tube and partially immersed in the oil bath. The oil bath is heated (and stirred) and with the aid of the magnifier (and external light source) melting of the individual crystals at a certain temperature can be observed. In large / small devices, the sample is placed in a heating block, and optical detection is automated.
The measurement can also be made continuously with an operating process. For instance, oil refineries measure the freeze point of diesel fuel online, meaning that the sample is taken from the process and measured automatically. This allows for more frequent measurements as the sample does not have to be manually collected and taken to a remote laboratory.
For refractory materials (e.g. platinum, tungsten, tantalum, some carbides and nitrides, etc.) the extremely high melting point (typically considered to be above, say, 1800 ° C) may be determined by heating the material in a black body furnace and measuring the black - body temperature with an optical pyrometer. For the highest melting materials, this may require extrapolation by several hundred degrees. The spectral radiance from an incandescent body is known to be a function of its temperature. An optical pyrometer matches the radiance of a body under study to the radiance of a source that has been previously calibrated as a function of temperature. In this way, the measurement of the absolute magnitude of the intensity of radiation is unnecessary. However, known temperatures must be used to determine the calibration of the pyrometer. For temperatures above the calibration range of the source, an extrapolation technique must be employed. This extrapolation is accomplished by using Planck 's law of radiation. The constants in this equation are not known with sufficient accuracy, causing errors in the extrapolation to become larger at higher temperatures. However, standard techniques have been developed to perform this extrapolation.
Consider the case of using gold as the source (mp = 1063 ° C). In this technique, the current through the filament of the pyrometer is adjusted until the light intensity of the filament matches that of a black - body at the melting point of gold. This establishes the primary calibration temperature and can be expressed in terms of current through the pyrometer lamp. With the same current setting, the pyrometer is sighted on another black - body at a higher temperature. An absorbing medium of known transmission is inserted between the pyrometer and this black - body. The temperature of the black - body is then adjusted until a match exists between its intensity and that of the pyrometer filament. The true higher temperature of the black - body is then determined from Planck 's Law. The absorbing medium is then removed and the current through the filament is adjusted to match the filament intensity to that of the black - body. This establishes a second calibration point for the pyrometer. This step is repeated to carry the calibration to higher temperatures. Now, temperatures and their corresponding pyrometer filament currents are known and a curve of temperature versus current can be drawn. This curve can then be extrapolated to very high temperatures.
In determining melting points of a refractory substance by this method, it is necessary to either have black body conditions or to know the emissivity of the material being measured. The containment of the high melting material in the liquid state may introduce experimental difficulties. Melting temperatures of some refractory metals have thus been measured by observing the radiation from a black body cavity in solid metal specimens that were much longer than they were wide. To form such a cavity, a hole is drilled perpendicular to the long axis at the center of a rod of the material. These rods are then heated by passing a very large current through them, and the radiation emitted from the hole is observed with an optical pyrometer. The point of melting is indicated by the darkening of the hole when the liquid phase appears, destroying the black body conditions. Today, containerless laser heating techniques, combined with fast pyrometers and spectro - pyrometers, are employed to allow for precise control of the time for which the sample is kept at extreme temperatures. Such experiments of sub-second duration address several of the challenges associated with more traditional melting point measurements made at very high temperatures, such as sample vaporization and reaction with the container.
For a solid to melt, heat is required to raise its temperature to the melting point. However, further heat needs to be supplied for the melting to take place: this is called the heat of fusion, and is an example of latent heat.
From a thermodynamics point of view, at the melting point the change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG) of the material is zero, but the enthalpy (H) and the entropy (S) of the material are increasing (ΔH, ΔS > 0). Melting phenomenon happens when the Gibbs free energy of the liquid becomes lower than the solid for that material. At various pressures this happens at a specific temperature. It can also be shown that:
Here T, ΔS and ΔH are respectively the temperature at the melting point, change of entropy of melting and the change of enthalpy of melting.
The melting point is sensitive to extremely large changes in pressure, but generally this sensitivity is orders of magnitude less than that for the boiling point, because the solid - liquid transition represents only a small change in volume. If, as observed in most cases, a substance is more dense in the solid than in the liquid state, the melting point will increase with increases in pressure. Otherwise the reverse behavior occurs. Notably, this is the case of water, as illustrated graphically to the right, but also of Si, Ge, Ga, Bi. With extremely large changes in pressure, substantial changes to the melting point are observed. For example, the melting point of silicon at ambient pressure (0.1 MPa) is 1415 ° C, but at pressures in excess of 10 GPa it decreases to 1000 ° C.
Melting points are often used to characterize organic and inorganic compounds and to ascertain their purity. The melting point of a pure substance is always higher and has a smaller range than the melting point of an impure substance or, more generally, of mixtures. The higher the quantity of other components, the lower the melting point and the broader will be the melting point range, often referred to as the "pasty range ''. The temperature at which melting begins for a mixture is known as the "solidus '' while the temperature where melting is complete is called the "liquidus ''. Eutectics are special types of mixtures that behave like single phases. They melt sharply at a constant temperature to form a liquid of the same composition. Alternatively, on cooling a liquid with the eutectic composition will solidify as uniformly dispersed, small (fine - grained) mixed crystals with the same composition.
In contrast to crystalline solids, glasses do not possess a melting point; on heating they undergo a smooth glass transition into a viscous liquid. Upon further heating, they gradually soften, which can be characterized by certain softening points.
The freezing point of a solvent is depressed when another compound is added, meaning that a solution has a lower freezing point than a pure solvent. This phenomenon is used in technical applications to avoid freezing, for instance by adding salt or ethylene glycol to water.
In organic chemistry, Carnelley 's rule, established in 1882 by Thomas Carnelley, states that high molecular symmetry is associated with high melting point. Carnelley based his rule on examination of 15,000 chemical compounds. For example, for three structural isomers with molecular formula C H the melting point increases in the series isopentane − 160 ° C (113 K) n - pentane − 129.8 ° C (143 K) and neopentane − 16.4 ° C (256.8 K). Likewise in xylenes and also dichlorobenzenes the melting point increases in the order meta, ortho and then para. Pyridine has a lower symmetry than benzene hence its lower melting point but the melting point again increases with diazine and triazines. Many cage - like compounds like adamantane and cubane with high symmetry have relatively high melting points.
A high melting point results from a high heat of fusion, a low entropy of fusion, or a combination of both. In highly symmetrical molecules the crystal phase is densely packed with many efficient intermolecular interactions resulting in a higher enthalpy change on melting.
An attempt to predict the bulk melting point of crystalline materials was first made in 1910 by Frederick Lindemann. The idea behind the theory was the observation that the average amplitude of thermal vibrations increases with increasing temperature. Melting initiates when the amplitude of vibration becomes large enough for adjacent atoms to partly occupy the same space. The Lindemann criterion states that melting is expected when the vibration root mean square amplitude exceeds a threshold value.
Assuming that all atoms in a crystal vibrate with the same frequency ν, the average thermal energy can be estimated using the equipartition theorem as
where m is the atomic mass, ν is the frequency, u is the average vibration amplitude, k is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the absolute temperature. If the threshold value of u is c a where c is the Lindemann constant and a is the atomic spacing, then the melting point is estimated as
Several other expressions for the estimated melting temperature can be obtained depending on the estimate of the average thermal energy. Another commonly used expression for the Lindemann criterion is
From the expression for the Debye frequency for ν, we have
where θ is the Debye temperature and h is the Planck constant. Values of c range from 0.15 -- 0.3 for most materials.
In February 2011, Alfa Aesar released over 10,000 melting points of compounds from their catalog as open data. This dataset has been used to create a random forest model for melting point prediction which is now freely available. Open melting point data are also available from Nature Precedings. High quality data mined from patents and also models developed with these data were published by Tetko et al.
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what were the british reasons for establishing colonies in north america | British colonization of the Americas - wikipedia
The British colonization of the Americas (including colonization by both the English and the Scots) began in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia and reached its peak when colonies had been established throughout the Americas. The British were among the most important colonizers of the Americas, and their American empire came to rival the Spanish American colonies in military and economic might.
Three types of colonies existed in the British Empire in America during the height of its power in the 18th Century. These were charter colonies, proprietary colonies and royal colonies. A group of 13 British American colonies collectively broke from the British Empire in the 1770s through a successful revolution, establishing the modern United States. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1803 -- 15), British territories in the Americas were slowly granted more responsible government. In 1838 the Durham Report recommended full responsible government for Canada, but this was not fully implemented for another decade. Eventually, with the Confederation of Canada, the Canadian colonies were granted significant autonomy and became a self - governing Dominion in 1867. Other colonies in the Americas followed at a much slower pace. In this way, two countries in North America, ten in the Caribbean, and one in South America have received their independence from the United Kingdom. All of these, except the United States, are members of the Commonwealth of Nations and nine are Commonwealth realms. The eight current British overseas territories in the Americas have varying degrees of self - government.
A number of English colonies were established under a system of Proprietary Governors, who were appointed under mercantile charters to English joint stock companies to found and run settlements.
In 1664, England took over the Dutch colony of New Netherland (including its capital of New Amsterdam) which England renamed the Province of New York. With New Netherland, the English also came to control the former New Sweden (in what is now Delaware), which the Dutch had conquered earlier. This later became part of Pennsylvania after that was established in 1680.
The Kingdom of Scotland tried unsuccessfully to establish a colony at Darién, and the Scottish colonization of Nova Scotia (New Scotland) lasted from 1629 to 1632. Thousands of Scotsmen also participated in English colonization before the two countries were united in 1707.
The Kingdom of Great Britain acquired the French colony of Acadia in 1713 and then Canada and the Spanish colony of Florida in 1763. After being renamed the Province of Quebec, the former French Canada was divided into two Provinces, the Canadas, consisting of the old settled country of Lower Canada (today Quebec) and the newly settled Upper Canada (today Ontario).
In the north, the Hudson 's Bay Company actively traded for fur with the indigenous peoples, and had competed with French, Aboriginal, and Métis fur traders. The company came to control the entire drainage basin of Hudson Bay, called Rupert 's Land. The small part of the Hudson Bay drainage south of the 49th parallel went to the United States in the Anglo - American Convention of 1818.
Thirteen of Great Britain 's colonies rebelled in the American Revolutionary War, beginning in 1775, primarily over representation, local laws and tax issues, and established the United States of America, which was recognised internationally with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 3 September 1783.
Great Britain also colonised the west coast of North America, indirectly via the Hudson 's Bay Company licenses west of the Rocky Mountains: the Columbia District and New Caledonia fur district. Most of these were jointly claimed as the Oregon Country by the United States from 1818 until the 49th parallel was established as the international boundary west of the Rockies by the Oregon Treaty of 1846. The Colony of Vancouver Island, founded in 1849, and the Colony of British Columbia, founded in 1858, were combined in 1866 under the name Colony of British Columbia, and joined the Confederation in 1871. British Columbia was expanded with the inclusion of the Stikine Territory in 1863; and upon joining Confederation the Peace River Block, formerly part of Rupert 's Land, was added.
In 1867, the colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Canada (the southern portion of modern - day Ontario and Quebec) combined to form a self - governing dominion, named Canada, within the British Empire (the term "kingdom '' was avoided so as to not provoke the United States). Quebec (including what is now the southern portion of Ontario) and Nova Scotia (including what is now New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island) had been ceded to Britain by the French. The colonies of Prince Edward Island and British Columbia joined over the next six years, and Newfoundland joined in 1949. Rupert 's Land and the North - Western Territory were ceded to Canada in 1870. This area now consists of the provinces of Manitoba (admitted after negotiation between Canada and a Métis provisional government in 1870), Saskatchewan, and Alberta (both created in 1905), as well as the Northwest Territories, the Yukon Territory (created 1898, following the start of the Klondike Gold Rush), and Nunavut (created in 1999).
In order of settlement or founding:
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how many marvel characters are there all together | List of Marvel Comics characters - wikipedia
This is a list of Marvel Universe fictional characters which were created for and are owned by Marvel Comics. Licensed or creator - owned characters (G.I. Joe, Godzilla, Groo the Wanderer, Men in Black, Conan the Barbarian, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, RoboCop, Star Trek, Rocko 's Modern Life, The Ren and Stimpy Show, etc.) are not included.
Marvel - Electronic Arts video game characters are also included with references. Characters from the Marvel Comics / DC Comics intercompany crossover series of one - shots and Amalgam Comics, created and published by Marvel Comics are included with reference.
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what number was new york to join the union | List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union - wikipedia
A state of the United States is one of the 50 constituent entities that shares its sovereignty with the federal government. Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside, due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government. Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names.
States are the primary subdivisions of the United States and possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, such as regulating intrastate commerce, running elections, creating local governments, and ratifying constitutional amendments. Each state has its own constitution grounded in republican principles, and government consisting of executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
All states and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two Senators, while Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the President of the United States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators in Congress from that state.
Article IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states.
The following table is a list of all 50 states and their respective dates of statehood. The first 13 became states in July 1776 upon agreeing to the United States Declaration of Independence, and each joined the first Union of states between 1777 and 1781, upon ratifying the Articles of Confederation, its first constitution. (A separate table is included below showing AoC ratification dates.) These states are presented in the order in which each ratified the 1787 Constitution, thus joining the present federal Union of states. The date of admission listed for each subsequent state is the official date set by Act of Congress.
The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. On March 4, 1789, the general government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the present Constitution.
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who played brenda in tupac's video brenda's got a baby | Brenda 's got a baby - wikipedia
"Brenda 's Got a Baby '' is the solo debut single by Tupac Shakur, and tenth track from his debut album, 2Pacalypse Now. The song, which features R&B singer Dave Hollister, is about a twelve - year - old girl named Brenda who lives in a ghetto, has a baby, and is incapable of supporting it. The song explores the issue of teen pregnancy and its effect on young mothers and their families. Like many of Shakur 's songs, "Brenda 's Got a Baby '' draws from the plight of the impoverished. Using Brenda to represent young mothers in general, Shakur criticises the low level of support from the baby 's father, the government, and society in general. Shakur wrote the song when he read a newspaper article about a twelve - year - old girl who became pregnant from her cousin and threw the baby in a trash compactor.
The opening consists of a duet singing the song 's title twice. Much of the rest of the song is one long verse performed by Tupac.
The verse begins with Tupac telling a group that he has heard about Brenda 's pregnancy. He also notes that the girl has had virtually no education in her life, and calls this a "damn shame '' because she has little hope of a future. Her family is very poor, and her father is a drug addict. Brenda is impregnated by her unnamed boyfriend, who is also her cousin, but she is successfully able to hide her pregnancy. Tupac explains that it would not matter to her family if she gave birth, as long as they got their cut of the government assistance.
Although she believes that her cousin (the father of her baby) will stay with her and help her raise their child, he is merely a molester, and abandons her before she gives birth to their baby on the bathroom floor. Brenda disposes of the baby by throwing it in a trash bin but later retrieves it when she hears the baby crying. Her mother scolds her severely, and Brenda becomes so ashamed of herself that she runs away from home.
Brenda is now forced to live alone, and unsuccessfully seeks employment. Her attempt to sell crack cocaine results in robbery, and eventually she views prostitution as her only way to earn money and survive. This life path leads to her getting murdered. The fates of the other characters, such as her parents, her cousin, and the baby, are left unexplained. The final minute or so of the song consists of a chorus singing "do n't you know she 's got a baby '' repeatedly.
2Pac has another song which he made late in his career which deals with this same subject called "Mama 's Just a Little Girl ''. The song can be found on his fourth posthumous studio album Better Dayz.
The video of the song is in black - and - white. It was made to visualize what Shakur narrates. The first part shows Shakur and "Brenda '' and then the actual story starts. Ethel "Edy '' Proctor is the leading lady in the video.
The video begins with "based on a true story, '' although the characters themselves are fictitious, Shakur wrote the song after reading a story in the newspaper of a twelve - year - old girl getting pregnant from her cousin and trying to dispose of the baby in a trash can.
Parts of the video were included in Tupac: Resurrection, a 2003 documentary on 2Pac 's life, in a television show later in the music video of Ghetto Gospel, in the music video of Changes and appears as a bonus in its entirety on the film 's DVD. Part of the video and song was played in 2Pac 's biopic film, "All Eyez On Me, '' released June 16th 2017.
The video was directed by the Hughes Brothers.
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who does the voices in rise of the guardians | Rise of the Guardians - Wikipedia
Rise of the Guardians is a 2012 American 3D computer - animated fantasy film based on William Joyce 's The Guardians of Childhood book series and The Man in the Moon short film by Joyce and Reel FX Creative Studios. Peter Ramsey directed the film, while Joyce and Guillermo del Toro were executive producers with voice acting by Chris Pine, Alec Baldwin, Hugh Jackman, Isla Fisher, and Jude Law. Produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Paramount Pictures, it was released on November 21, 2012.
Set about 300 years after the book series, the film tells a story about Guardians Santa Claus, the Tooth Fairy, the Easter Bunny, and the Sandman, who enlist Jack Frost to stop Pitch Black from engulfing the world in darkness. The film was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film. This was the last DreamWorks Animation film to be distributed by Paramount Pictures.
Jack Frost awakens from a frozen pond with amnesia. Upon realizing no one can see or hear him, he disappears. Three hundred years later Jack, as the spirit of Winter, enjoys delivering snow days to school kids, but resents that they do n't believe in him. At the North Pole, the Man in the Moon warns Nicholas St. North that Pitch Black is threatening the children of the world with his nightmares. He calls E. Aster Bunnymund, Sandy, and Tooth, to arms. They are then told that Jack Frost has been chosen to be a new Guardian. Jack is unimpressed by this position, as he still resents not being believed in, but North convinces him to aid them.
Visiting Tooth 's world, Jack learns that baby teeth contain childhood memories of the children who lost them; Jack 's teeth are included, but tells Tooth he does n't remember. However, Pitch raids Tooth 's home in order to kidnap all of her subordinate tooth fairies except Baby Tooth, whom Jack saved, so that the children 's teeth ca n't be collected and steals all the teeth, thus preventing Tooth from sharing Jack 's memories and causing children to not believe in Tooth. In order to thwart Pitch 's plan, the group decides to collect children 's teeth. During their journey, a quarrel between North and Bunnymund awakens a boy, Jamie. Since he still believes, he can see everybody except for Jack. Pitch 's nightmares then attack, provoking Sandy as the Guardian of Dreams. Jack aids, but Sandy is killed by Pitch.
As Easter approaches, the dejected Guardians gather in Bunnymund 's home. With the unexpected aid of Jamie 's little sister, Sophie, they begin the process of painting eggs for Easter. After Jack takes Sophie home, he is lured to Pitch 's lair by a voice. Pitch taunts him with his memories and fear of non-belief, distracting him long enough for Pitch to destroy the eggs, causing children to stop believing in Easter and Bunnymund. Losing his trust in the Guardians, Jack isolates himself in Antarctica, where Pitch tries to convince him to join his side. When Jack refuses, Pitch threatens to kill Baby Tooth unless Jack gives him his staff. He agrees, but Pitch breaks Jack 's staff and throws him down a chasm. Unlocking his memories, he learns that he was a mortal teenager who fell into ice while saving his younger sister. Inspired, Jack fixes his staff and returns to the lair to rescue the kidnapped baby fairies.
Due to Pitch, every child in the world except Jamie disbelieves, weakening the Guardians. Finding Jamie 's belief wavering, Jack makes it snow in his room, renewing belief and causing Jack to be seen and heard for the first time. Jack and Jamie gather the boy 's friends, whose renewed belief bolsters their fight against Pitch. Pitch threatens them, but their dreams prove stronger than his nightmares, resulting in Sandy 's resurrection. Defeated and disbelieved in, Pitch tries to retreat, but his nightmares, sensing his fear, turn on him and trap him in his lair. Afterward, Jamie and his friends bid goodbye to the Guardians as Jack accepts his place as the Guardian of Fun.
In 2005, William Joyce and Reel FX launched a joint venture, Aimesworth Amusements, to produce CG - animated feature films, one of which was set to be The Guardians of Childhood, based on Joyce 's idea. The film was not realized, but they did create a short animated film, The Man in the Moon, directed by Joyce, which introduced the Guardians idea, and served as an inspiration for the film.
Early in 2008, Joyce sold the film rights to DreamWorks Animation, after the studio assured him it would respect his vision for the characters and that he would be involved with the creative process. In November 2009, it was revealed that DreamWorks had hired Peter Ramsey to make his feature debut as director of what was then titled The Guardians, and playwright David Lindsay - Abaire to script. Joyce acted as a co-director for the first few years, but left this position after the death of his daughter Mary Katherine, who died of a brain tumor. Joyce continued to assist as an executive producer, while Ramsey took over full directing, making him the first African American to direct a big - budget CG animated film. As with some previous DreamWorks films, Guillermo del Toro came on board as an executive producer. Present almost from the beginning, he was able to help shape the story, character design, theme and structure of the film. He said he was proud that the filmmakers were making parts of the film "dark and moody and poetic, '' and expressed hope this might "set a different tone for family movies, for entertainment movies. '' The final title, Rise of the Guardians was announced in early 2011, along with the first cast.
Roger Deakins, the cinematographer who had already worked on the previous DreamWorks ' film, How to Train Your Dragon, advised on the lighting to achieve its real look. He selected photographic references for color keys, and during the production gave notes on contrast, saturation, depth of field and light intensity. The film contains a lot of special effects, particularly the volumetric particles for depicting Sandman and Pitch. For this, DreamWorks Animation developed OpenVDB, a more efficient tool and format for manipulating and storing volume data, like smoke and other amorphous materials. OpenVDB had been already used on Puss in Boots and Madagascar 3: Europe 's Most Wanted, and was released in August 2012 for free as an open source project with a hope to become an industry standard.
Although the film is based on the Joyce 's book series, it contains differences from the books. The book series, begun in 2011, explains the origins of the characters, while the film takes place about 300 years after the books, and shows how the characters function in present time. Joyce explained, "Because I do n't want people to read the book and then go see the movie and go, ' Oh, I like the book better, ' and I also did n't want them to know what happens in the movie. And I also knew that during the progress of film production, a lot of things can change. So I wanted to have a sort of distance, so we were able to invoke the books and use them to help us figure out the world of the movie, but I did n't want them to be openly competitive to each other. '' The idea for the Guardians came from Joyce 's daughter, who asked him "if he thought Santa Claus had ever met the Easter Bunny. '' The film includes a dedication to her, as well a song, "Still Dream, '' sung over the end credits.
Originally, the film was set to be released on November 2, 2012, but DreamWorks Animation pushed the film to November 21, 2012 to avoid competition with Pixar 's upcoming film Monsters University, which in turn had been pushed to November 2, 2012 to avoid competition with The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2. Monsters University was then pushed to June 21, 2013, with Disney 's Wreck - It Ralph taking its place.
French composer Alexandre Desplat composed the original music for the film, which was released on November 13, 2012 by Varèse Sarabande. The score was recorded in London at Abbey Road Studios and Air Studios, and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra, with a choral contribution by London Voices. David Lindsay - Abaire wrote the lyrics for the end - credit song, "Still Dream, '' which was performed by soprano Renée Fleming. Stravinsky 's Firebird Suite can also be heard during the scene where North first appears. This film marks the first time that a DreamWorks Animation film has not been composed by Hans Zimmer or a member of his Remote Control Productions family of composers (mainly John Powell, Henry Jackman, Harry Gregson - Williams or his brother Rupert Gregson - Williams).
Rise of the Guardians had its premiere on October 10, 2012, at The Mill Valley Film Festival in Mill Valley, California, followed by the international premiere at The International Rome Film Festival on November 13, 2012. Under distribution by Paramount Pictures, the film was released on November 21, 2012, in American theaters. Digitally re-mastered into IMAX 3D, it was shown in limited international and domestic IMAX theaters. It was the second film released in the firm Barco 's Auro 11.1 3D audio format, after Red Tails. The film was also shown in Dolby Atmos, a surround sound technology introduced in 2012. Rise of the Guardians was the last DreamWorks Animation film distributed by Paramount, as DreamWorks has signed a five - year distribution deal with 20th Century Fox, which started in 2013 with The Croods.
Rise of the Guardians was released on Blu - ray Disc (2D and 3D) and DVD on March 12, 2013.
That was the last DreamWorks Animation home media release to be distributed by Paramount Home Entertainment, since 20th Century Fox announced its distribution agreement with DreamWorks Animation a few months before the theatrical release. The film was more successful at home media sales than at the box office, having at the end of the second quarter of 2013 "the highest box office to DVD conversion ratio among major releases. '' In the first quarter of 2013, it sold 3.2 million home entertainment units worldwide, and in the second quarter 0.9 million units, for a total of 4.1 million units. As of August 2013, 2 million DVDs were sold domestically.
It was re-released on DVD on November 5, 2013 and comes with a wind - up marching elf toy.
Based on 148 reviews, the film holds a rating of 74 % on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 6.5 / 10, based on 149 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads: "A sort of Avengers for the elementary school set, Rise of the Guardians is wonderfully animated and briskly paced, but it 's only so - so in the storytelling department. '' Another review aggregator, Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics, calculated a score of 57 based on 34 reviews, or "Mixed or average. '' The film earned an "A '' from audiences polled by CinemaScore.
Carrie Rickey of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film three - and - a-half out of four stars and found the film 's characters to have "a primal familiarity, as though they were developed by a tag team of Maurice Sendak and Walt Disney. '' Olly Richards of Empire wrote, "It 's gorgeously designed, deftly written and frequently laugh - out - loud funny. For child or adult, this is a fantasy to get lost in. '' The Washington Post 's Michael O'Sullivan also gave the film a positive review and said, "Thoughts become things. That 's the message of Rise of the Guardians, a charming if slightly dark and cobwebbed animated feature about how believing in something makes it real, or real enough. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three stars and wrote in his review, "There 's an audience for this film. It 's not me. I gather younger children will like the breakneck action, the magical ability to fly and the young hero who has tired of only being a name. '' Though he did say, "Their parents and older siblings may find the 89 - minute running time quite long enough. ''
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter called the film "a lively but derivative 3D storybook spree for some unlikely action heroes. '' Conversely, Justin Chang in Variety said, "Even tots may emerge feeling slightly browbeaten by this colorful, strenuous and hyperactive fantasy, which has moments of charm and beauty but often resembles an exploding toy factory rather than a work of honest enchantment. '' Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal found that the film "lacks a resonant center, '' and that the script, "seems to have been written by committee, with members lobbying for each major character, and the action, set in vast environments all over the map, spreads itself so thin that a surfeit of motion vitiates emotion. ''
Rise of the Guardians grossed $103,412,758 in North America, and $203,528,912 in other countries, for a worldwide total of $306,941,670.
In North America, the film opened to $32.3 million over its extended five - day weekend, and with $23.8 million over the three - day weekend, it reached fourth place behind The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2, Skyfall, and Lincoln. The film 's opening was the lowest debut for a DreamWorks Animation film since Flushed Away. While the film did gross more than double of its $145 million budget, it still did not turn a profit for DreamWorks Animation due to its high production and marketing costs, forcing the studio to take an $83 million write - down. This marked the first time that the studio had lost money on an animated film since Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas. As a result of this combined with other factors, in February 2013, the studio announced it was laying off 350 employees as part of a company - wide restructuring.
The Rome Film Festival and Vanity Fair magazine awarded the new Vanity Fair International Award for Cinematic Excellence in November 2012 to Rise of the Guardians. The film also received the Hollywood Animation Award at the 16th Annual Hollywood Film Festival, held on October 22, 2012.
A video game based on the film was released by D3 Publisher on November 20, 2012 in North America, and released on November 23, 2012 in Europe. It allows gamers to lead the Guardians in their battle against Pitch. The game is a 3D beat - em - up, where the player travels through each of the worlds: Burgess, North Pole, Bunnymund Valley, Tooth Palace, and Sandman 's Ship, to fight Pitch 's army of Nightmares. The player can switch between all five guardians at any time, and freely customize their powers, and they learn new special abilities as they level up. All the game versions support up to 4 player gameplay. It is available on the Wii, Wii U, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Nintendo DS and Nintendo 3DS.
After the release of the film, the creators of Rise of the Guardians expressed hope that the strong A - Cinemascore average for the film and an enthusiastic word - of - mouth would gather support for the "chance to make a sequel or two. '' Author and co-producer of the series, William Joyce, also mentioned in March 2013 that he was still in talks about a sequel with DreamWorks Animation: "There is something that we are proposing that we hope they will want to do. ''
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who advocated for supervising probationers and revoking probation if the accused returned to crime | Probation - Wikipedia
Probation in criminal law is a period of supervision over an offender, ordered by the court instead of serving time in prison.
In some jurisdictions, the term probation applies only to community sentences (alternatives to incarceration), such as suspended sentences. In others, probation also includes supervision of those conditionally released from prison on parole.
An offender on probation is ordered to follow certain conditions set forth by the court, often under the supervision of a probation officer. During the period of probation an offender faces the threat of being incarcerated if found breaking the rules set by the court or probation officer.
Offenders are ordinarily required to refrain from possession of firearms, and may be ordered to remain employed or participate in an educational program, abide to a curfew, live at a directed place, obey the orders of the probation officer, or not leave the jurisdiction. The probationer might be ordered as well to refrain from contact with the victims (such as a former partner in a domestic violence case), with potential victims of similar crimes (such as minors, if the instant offense involves child sexual abuse), or with known criminals, particularly co-defendants. Additionally, the restrictions can include a ban on possession or use of alcoholic beverages, even if alcohol was not involved in the original criminal charges. Offenders on probation might be fitted with an electronic tag (or monitor), which signals their movement to officials. Also, offenders have been ordered to submit to repeat alcohol / drug testing or to participate in alcohol / drug or psychological treatment, or to perform community service work. Some courts permit defendants of limited means to perform community service in order to pay off their probation fines.
The concept of probation, from the Latin, probatio, "testing, '' has historical roots in the practice of judicial reprieve. In English common law, prior to the advent of democratic rule, the courts could temporarily suspend the execution of a sentence to allow a criminal defendant to appeal to the monarch for a pardon.
Probation first developed in the United States when John Augustus, a Boston cobbler, persuaded a judge in the Boston Police Court in 1841 to give him custody of a convicted offender, a "drunkard, '' for a brief period and then helped the man to appear rehabilitated by the time of sentencing. Even earlier, the practice of suspending a sentence was used as early as 1830 in Boston, Massachusetts, and became widespread in U.S. courts, although there was no statutory provision for such a practice. At first, judges, most notably Peter Oxenbridge Thatcher of Boston, used "release on recognizance '' or bail and simply refrained from taking any further action. In 1878 the mayor of Boston had hired a former police officer, the ironically named "Captain Savage, '' to become what many recognize as the first official probation officer. By the mid-19th century, however, many Federal Courts were using a judicial reprieve to suspend sentence, and this posed a legal question. In 1916, the United States Supreme Court, in the Killets Decision, held that a Federal Judge (Killets) was without power to suspend a sentence indefinitely. This decision led to the passing of the National Probation Act of 1925, thereby, allowing courts to suspend the imposition of incarceration and place an offender on probation. Probation developed from the efforts of a philanthropist, John Augustus, who looked for ways to rehabilitate the behavior of criminals.
Massachusetts developed the first statewide probation system in 1878, and by 1920, 21 other states had followed suit. With the passage of the National Probation Act on March 5, 1925, signed by President Calvin Coolidge, the U.S. Federal Probation Service was established. On the state level, pursuant to the Crime Control and Consent Act of 1936, a group of states entered into an agreement wherein they would supervise probationers and parolees who reside in each other 's jurisdictions on each other 's behalf. Known as the Interstate Compact For the Supervision of Parolees and Probationers, this agreement was originally signed by 25 states in 1937. By 1951, all the states in the United States of America had a working probation system and ratified the Interstate Compact Agreement. In 1959, the new states of Alaska and Hawaii, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and the territories of the Virgin Islands, Guam, and American Samoa ratified the act as well.
In the United States, most probation agencies have armed officers. In 39 states, territories and federal probation, such arming is either mandated or optional. Arming is allowed in an increasing number of jurisdictions.
Probation officers are peace officers who possess limited police powers.
Intensive probation, home detention, GPS monitoring, Computer Management These are highly intrusive forms of probation in which the offender is very closely monitored. It is common for violent criminals, higher - ranking gang members, habitual offenders, and sex offenders to be supervised at this level. Some jurisdictions require offenders under such supervision to waive their constitutional rights under the Fourth Amendment regarding search and seizure, and such probationers may be subject to unannounced home or workplace visits, surveillance, and the use of electronic monitoring or satellite tracking. Under terms of this kind of probation, a client may not change their living address and must stay at the address that is known to probation. GPS monitoring and home detention are common in juvenile cases, even if the underlying delinquency is minor. Some types of supervision may entail installing some form of monitoring software and / or conducting computer searches to ascertain what an offender is doing online. Cybercrime specialist in corrections, Art Bowker, noted "This is an area more and more community corrections officers are going to have to get up to speed on, learning how to enforce conditions that restrict and / or monitor cyber offenders ' computer and internet use. '' Bowker, also observed "The use of social media is taking off in the field of community corrections. ''
Standard supervision Offenders under standard supervision are generally required to report to an officer, most commonly between biweekly and quarterly, and are subject to any other conditions as may have been ordered, such as alcohol / drug treatment, community service, and so on.
Unsupervised probation does not involve direct supervision by an officer or probation department. The probationer is expected to complete any conditions of the order with no involvement of a probation officer, and perhaps within a period shorter than that of the sentence itself. For example, given one year of unsupervised probation, a probationer might be required to have completed community service, paid court costs or fines, etc., within the first six months. For the remaining six months, he or she may be required merely to refrain from unlawful behavior. Probationers are allowed to go to their workplace, educational institution, or place of worship. Such probationers may be asked to meet with an officer at the onset or near the end of the probationary period, or not at all. If terms are not completed, an officer may file a petition to revoke probation.
Informal supervision is supervised or unsupervised probation without having been convicted of the offense. As with other forms of probation, search clauses or drug testing may be included. At the end of the informal period, the case is dismissed. This is usually offered as part of a plea bargain or pre-trial diversion, and may requires the supervisee to waive Fourth Amendment rights for the duration. Informal probation can also require the supervisee to enter a plea of "Guilty '', pending the completion of the terms set forth in the agreement, at which time the charge is typically dismissed.
Shock probation is a program that gives a sentencing judge the power to reconsider an original jail sentence. The judge may recall the inmate from jail and put him or her on probation within the community instead. The courts have a theory that a short term in jail may "shock '' a criminal into changing their behavior. Shock probation can be used only between a specific period of 30 -- 120 days after the original sentence, and is not available in all states.
Community corrections officials are the main factors that help decide whether a criminal is granted probation or not. They are the ones who determine whether the offender is a serious risk to public safety. These officials are also the ones who make recommendations to the court on what action to take. The correction officials first go through an investigations process during the pretrial period. They assess the offenders background and history to determine if he or she can be released safely back into the community. The officers then write a report on the offender. This is an extremely important piece of information that the courts use to determine if the offender shall be put on probation instead of going to jail. After the offender is found guilty, the probation officer puts together a pre-sentence investigation report (PSI). Courts base their sentencing on it. Finally, courts make their decision whether to imprison the convict or to let him or her off on probation. If a court decides to grant a person probation, it must then determine how to impose the sentence based on the seriousness of the crime, recidivism, circumstances of the convict, and the recommendations from the corrections officials.
A probation officer may imprison a probationer and petition the court for a violation of probation. The court will request that the defendant appear at a show cause hearing at which the prosecutor must demonstrate by a preponderance of the evidence that the defendant committed a probation violation. If the defendant pleads guilty to a probation violation, or is found guilty of a probation violation after the hearing, the officer or prosecutor may request that additional conditions of probation be imposed, that the duration be extended, or that a period of incarceration be ordered, possibly followed by a return to probation. There is no law that specifies when probation violation proceedings must be commenced, although probation violation proceedings are near certain following the defendant 's conviction of a subsequent offense, or failure to report to the probation officer as ordered.
If a violation is found, the severity of the penalties may depend upon the facts of the original offense, the facts of the violation, and the probationer 's criminal history. For example, if an offender is on probation for a gang - related offense, subsequent "association with known criminals '' may be viewed as a more serious violation than if the person were on probation for driving a car with a suspended license; the reverse may be true if the initial offense were for driving under the influence. Similarly, penalties for violation may be greater if a subsequent offense is of greater severity (such as a felony, following a misdemeanor), or if the original offense and subsequent offense are of the same type (such as a battery following an assault, or retail theft following retail theft).
When a probation violation is extremely severe, or after multiple lesser violations, a probation revocation hearing could be scheduled. A judge at the hearing will consider reports from the probation officer, and if probation is revoked, the probationer will often be incarcerated in jail or prison. However, the term of incarceration might be reduced from the original potential sentence for the alleged crime (s). It is possible that an innocent defendant would choose to accept a deferred sentence rather than incur the risk of going to trial. In such a case, a probation revocation can result in conviction of the original criminal charges and a permanent record of conviction.
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map of the islamic empire at its height | List of Muslim states and dynasties - wikipedia
This article lists some of the states, empires, or dynasties that were ruled by a Muslim elite, or which were in some way central to or a part of a Muslim empire. The Islamic Empire started by being lead by Muhammad. His friend, Abu Bakr, helped him in this mission.
Scholars debate what exactly constitutes an empire. One definition defines an empire as a state that extends dominion over areas and populations culturally and ethnically distinct from the culture / ethnicity at the center of power.
In the centuries after the life of Muhammad, Muslim armies poured out into all surrounding areas, bringing some of the lands between India and Spain under their control.
With that huge amount of land under their control, the Umayia (and later, the Abbasid) Caliphates allowed merchants and scholars to travel easily through western Eurasia, bringing goods and knowledge which the Muslims greatly expanded upon through the Caliphate and outward to less advanced regions, such as Western Europe.
In 751, papermaking from China made its way to the West through Muslims. Trade introduced Islam to the Africans. In the Middle East, the success of Islam changed the culture forever. Even after the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate, Islam would remain as one of the base institutions of the region. Future states of the region, such as the Safavid, Seljuk, and Ottoman and Mughal Empires, were all "Islamic Empires ''.
Grouped by capital or core region
Southern Europe
Eastern Europe
Malay Archipelago (East Indies) (Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei)
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what brought the abbasid caliphate to an end | Abbasid Caliphate - wikipedia
The Abbasid Caliphate (/ əˈbæsɪd / or / ˈæbəsɪd / Arabic: ٱلْخِلافَةُ ٱلْعَبَّاسِيَّة , al - Khilāfatu al - ʿAbbāsiyyah) was the third of the Islamic caliphates to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The Abbasid dynasty descended from Muhammad 's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul - Muttalib (566 -- 653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes its name. They ruled as caliphs for most of the caliphate from their capital in Baghdad in modern - day Iraq, after having overthrown over the Umayyad Caliphate in the Abbasid Revolution of 750 CE (132 AH).
The Abbasid Caliphate first centred its government in Kufa, modern - day Iraq, but in 762 the caliph Al - Mansur founded the city of Baghdad, near the Sasanian capital city of Ctesiphon. The Abbasid period was marked by reliance on Persian bureaucrats (notably the Barmakid family) for governing the territories conquered by Arab Muslims as well as an increasing inclusion of non-Arab Muslims in the ummah (national community). Persianate customs were broadly adopted by the ruling elite, and they started supporting artists and scholars. Baghdad became a centre of science, culture, philosophy and invention in what became known as the Golden Age of Islam.
Despite this initial cooperation, the Abbasids of the late 8th century had alienated both non-Arab mawali (clients) and Iranian bureaucrats. They were forced to cede authority over Al - Andalus and the Maghreb to the Umayyads in 756, Morocco to the Idrisid dynasty in 788, Ifriqiya to the Aghlabids in 800 and Egypt to the Shi'ite Caliphate of the Fatimids in 969. The political power of the caliphs largely ended with the rise of the Iranian Buyids and the Seljuq Turks, which each captured Baghdad in 945 and 1055 respectively. Although Abbasid leadership over the vast Islamic empire was gradually reduced to a ceremonial religious function, the dynasty retained control over its Mesopotamian domain.
The Abbasids ' period of cultural fruition ended in 1258 with the sack of Baghdad by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan. The Abbasid line of rulers, and Muslim culture in general, re-centred themselves in the Mamluk capital of Cairo in 1261. Though lacking in political power, the dynasty continued to claim authority in religious matters until after the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517.
The Abbasid caliphs were Arabs descended from Abbas ibn Abd al - Muttalib, one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same Banu Hashim clan. The Abbasids claimed to be the true successors of Prophet Muhammad in replacing the Umayyad descendants of Banu Umayya by virtue of their closer bloodline to Muhammad.
The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking their moral character and administration in general. According to Ira Lapidus, "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Merv with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali ''. The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, who remained outside the kinship - based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Muhammad ibn ' Ali, a great - grandson of Abbas, began to campaign for the return of power to the family of Prophet Muhammad, the Hashimites, in Persia during the reign of Umar II.
During the reign of Marwan II, this opposition culminated in the rebellion of Ibrahim the Imam, the fourth in descent from Abbas. Supported by the province of Khorasan, Persia, even though the governor opposed them, and the Shi'i Arabs, he achieved considerable success, but was captured in the year 747 and died, possibly assassinated, in prison.
On 9 June 747 (15 Ramadan AH 129), Abu Muslim, rising from Khorasan, successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which was carried out under the sign of the Black Standard. Close to 10,000 soldiers were under Abu Muslim 's command when the hostilities officially began in Merv. General Qahtaba followed the fleeing governor Nasr ibn Sayyar west defeating the Umayyads at the Battle of Gorgan, the Battle of Nahāvand and finally in the Battle of Karbala, all in the year 748.
The quarrel was taken up by Ibrahim 's brother Abdallah, known by the name of Abu al - ' Abbas as - Saffah, who defeated the Umayyads in 750 in the battle near the Great Zab and was subsequently proclaimed caliph. After this loss, Marwan fled to Egypt, where he was subsequently assassinated. The remainder of his family, barring one male, were also eliminated.
Immediately after their victory, As - Saffah sent his forces to Central Asia, where his forces fought against Tang expansion during the Battle of Talas. The noble Iranian family Barmakids, who were instrumental in building Baghdad, introduced the world 's first recorded paper mill in the city, thus beginning a new era of intellectual rebirth in the Abbasid domain. As - Saffah focused on putting down numerous rebellions in Syria and Mesopotamia. The Byzantines conducted raids during these early distractions.
The first change the Abbasids, under Al - Mansur, made was to move the empire 's capital from Damascus, in Syria, to Baghdad in Iraq. This was to both appease as well to be closer to the Persian mawali support base that existed in this region more influenced by Persian history and culture, and part of the Persian mawali demand for less Arab dominance in the empire. Baghdad was established on the Tigris River in 762. A new position, that of the vizier, was also established to delegate central authority, and even greater authority was delegated to local emirs.
This eventually meant that many Abbasid caliphs were relegated to a more ceremonial role than under the Umayyads, as the viziers began to exert greater influence, and the role of the old Arab aristocracy was slowly replaced by a Persian bureaucracy. During Al - Mansur 's time control of Al - Andalus was lost, and the Shiites revolted and were defeated a year later at the Battle of Bakhamra.
The Abbasids had depended heavily on the support of Persians in their overthrow of the Umayyads. Abu al - ' Abbas ' successor, Al - Mansur welcomed non-Arab Muslims to his court. While this helped integrate Arab and Persian cultures, it alienated many of their Arab supporters, particularly the Khorasanian Arabs who had supported them in their battles against the Umayyads.
These fissures in their support led to immediate problems. The Umayyads, while out of power, were not destroyed. The only surviving member of the Umayyad royal family, which had been all but annihilated, ultimately made his way to Spain where he established himself as an independent Emir (Abd ar - Rahman I, 756). In 929, Abd ar - Rahman III assumed the title of Caliph, establishing Al Andalus from Córdoba as a rival to Baghdad as the legitimate capital of the Islamic Empire.
In 756, the Abbasid Caliph Al - Mansur sent over 4,000 Arab mercenaries to assist the Chinese Tang dynasty in the An Shi Rebellion against An Lushan. The Abbasides or "Black Flags, '' as they were commonly called, were known in Tang dynasty chronicles as the hēiyī Dàshí, "The Black - robed Tazi '', (黑 衣 大 食) ("Tazi '' being a borrowing from Persian Tāzī, the word for "Arab ''). Al - Rashid sent embassies to the Chinese Tang dynasty and established good relations with them. After the war, these embassies remained in China with Caliph Harun al - Rashid establishing an alliance with China. Several embassies from the Abbasid Caliphs to the Chinese court have been recorded in the T'ang Annals, the most important of these being those of Abul Abbas al - Saffah, the founder of the Abbasid dynasty, Abu Jafar and Harun al - Rashid.
The Abbasid leadership had to work hard in the last half of the 8th century (750 -- 800), under several competent caliphs and their viziers to overcome the political challenges created by the far flung nature of the empire, and the limited communication across it and usher in the administrative changes needed to keep order. It was also during this early period of the dynasty, in particular during the governance of al - Mansur, Harun al - Rashid, and al - Ma'mun, that the reputation and power of the dynasty was created.
Al - Mahdi restarted the fighting with the Byzantines and his sons continued the conflict until Empress Irene pushed for peace. After several years of peace, Nikephoros I broke the treaty, then fended off multiple incursions during the first decade of the 9th century. These attacks pushed into the Taurus Mountains culminating with a victory at the Battle of Krasos and the massive invasion of 806, led by Rashid himself.
Rashid 's navy also proved successful as he took Cyprus. Eventually, the momentum turned and much of the land gained was lost. Rashid decided to focus on the rebellion of Rafi ibn al - Layth in Khorasan and died while there. While the Byzantine Empire was fighting Abbasid rule in Syria and Anatolia, military operations during this period were minimal, as the caliphate focused on internal matters, its governors exerting greater autonomy and using their increasing power to make their positions hereditary.
At the same time, the Abbasids faced challenges closer to home. Harun al - Rashid turned on the Barmakids, a Persian family that had grown significantly in power within the administration of the state and killed most of the family. During the same period, several factions began either to leave the empire for other lands or to take control of distant parts of the empire away from the Abbasids. The reign of al - Rashid and his sons were considered to be the apex of the Abbasids.
After Rashid 's death, the empire was split by a civil war between the caliph al - Amin and his brother al - Ma'mun who had the support of Khorasan. This war ended with a two - year siege of Baghdad and the eventual death of al - Amin in 813. Al - Ma'mun ruled for 20 years of relative calm interspersed with a rebellion supported by the Byzantines in Azerbaijan by the Khurramites. Al - Ma'mun was also responsible for the creation of an autonomous Khorasan, and the continued repulsing of Byzantine forays.
Al - Mu'tasim gained power in 833 and his rule marked the end of the strong caliphs. He strengthened his personal army with Turkish mercenaries and promptly restarted the war with the Byzantines. His military excursions were generally successful culminating with a resounding victory in the Sack of Amorium. His attempt at seizing Constantinople failed when his fleet was destroyed by a storm. The Byzantines restarted the fighting by sacking Damietta in Egypt. Al - Mutawakkil responded by sending his troops into Anatolia again, sacking and marauding until they were eventually annihilated in 863.
Even by 820, the Samanids had begun the process of exercising independent authority in Transoxiana and Greater Khorasan, as had the Shia Hamdanids in Northern Syria, and the succeeding Tahirid and Saffarid dynasties of Iran. The Saffarids, from Khorasan, nearly seized Baghdad in 876, and the Tulunids took control of most of Syria. The trend of weakening of the central power and strengthening of the minor caliphates on the periphery continued.
An exception was the 10 - year period of Al - Mu'tadid 's rule. He brought parts of Egypt, Syria, and Khorasan back into the Abbasid 's control. Especially after the "Anarchy at Samarra '', the Abbasid central government was weakened and centrifugal tendencies became more prominent in the Caliphate 's provinces. By the early 10th century, the Abbasids almost lost control of Iraq to various amirs, and the caliph al - Radi was forced to acknowledge their power by creating the position of "Prince of Princes '' (amir al - umara).
Al - Mustakfi had a short reign from 944 -- 946, and it was during this period that the Persian faction known as the Buyids from Daylam swept into power and assumed control over the bureaucracy in Baghdad. According to the history of Miskawayh, they began distributing iqtas (fiefs in the form of tax farms) to their supporters. This period of localized secular control was to last nearly 100 years. The loss of Abbasid power to the Buyids would shift as the Seljuks would take over from the Persians.
At the end of the eighth century the Abbasids found they could no longer keep a huge polity larger than that of Rome together from Baghdad. In 793 the Shi'ite dynasty of Idrisids set up a state from Fez in Morocco, while a family of governors under the Abbasids became increasingly independent until they founded the Aghlabid Emirate from the 830s. Al - Mu'tasim started the downward slide by utilizing non-Muslim mercenaries in his personal army. Also during this period officers started assassinating superiors with whom they disagreed, in particular the caliphs.
By the 870s Egypt became autonomous under Ahmad ibn Tulun. In the East as well, governors decreased their ties to the center. The Saffarids of Herat and the Samanids of Bukhara had broken away from the 870s, cultivating a much more Persianate culture and statecraft. By this time only the central lands of Mesopotamia were under direct Abbasid control, with Palestine and the Hijaz often managed by the Tulunids. Byzantium, for its part, had begun to push Arab Muslims farther east in Anatolia.
By the 920s, the situation had changed further, as North Africa was lost to the Abbasids. A Shi'ite sect only recognizing the first five Imams and tracing its roots to Muhammad 's daughter Fatima took control of Idrisi and then Aghlabid domains. Called the Fatimid dynasty, they had advanced to Egypt in 969, establishing their capital near Fustat in Cairo, which they built as a bastion of Shi'ite learning and politics. By 1000 they had become the chief political and ideological challenge to Sunni Islam in the form of the Abbasids. By this time the latter state had fragmented into several governorships that, while recognizing caliphal authority from Baghdad, did mostly as they wanted, fighting with each other. The Caliph himself was under ' protection ' of the Buyid Emirs who possessed all of Iraq and western Iran, and were quietly Shi'ite in their sympathies.
Outside Iraq, all the autonomous provinces slowly took on the characteristic of de facto states with hereditary rulers, armies, and revenues and operated under only nominal caliph suzerainty, which may not necessarily be reflected by any contribution to the treasury, such as the Soomro Emirs that had gained control of Sindh and ruled the entire province from their capital of Mansura. Mahmud of Ghazni took the title of sultan, as opposed to the "amir '' that had been in more common usage, signifying the Ghaznavid Empire 's independence from caliphal authority, despite Mahmud 's ostentatious displays of Sunni orthodoxy and ritual submission to the caliph. In the 11th century, the loss of respect for the caliphs continued, as some Islamic rulers no longer mentioned the caliph 's name in the Friday khutba, or struck it off their coinage.
The Ismaili Fatimid dynasty of Cairo contested the Abbasids for even the titular authority of the Islamic ummah. They commanded some support in the Shia sections of Baghdad (such as Karkh), although Baghdad was the city most closely connected to the caliphate, even in the Buyid and Seljuq eras. The Fatimids ' green banners contrasted with Abbasids ' black, and the challenge of the Fatimids only ended with their downfall in the 12th century.
Despite the power of the Buyid amirs, the Abbasids retained a highly ritualized court in Baghdad, as described by the Buyid bureaucrat Hilal al - Sabi ', and they retained a certain influence over Baghdad as well as religious life. As Buyid power waned after the death of Baha ' al - Daula, the caliphate was able to regain some measure of strength. The caliph al - Qadir, for example, led the ideological struggle against the Shia with writings such as the Baghdad Manifesto. The caliphs kept order in Baghdad itself, attempting to prevent the outbreak of fitnas in the capital, often contending with the ayyarun '
With the Buyid dynasty on the wane, a vacuum was created that was eventually filled by the dynasty of Oghuz Turks known as the Seljuqs. By 1055, the Seljuqs had wrested control from the Buyids and Abbasids, and took any remaining temporal power. When the amir and former slave Basasiri took up the Shia Fatimid banner in Baghdad in, the caliph al - Qa'im was unable to defeat him without outside help. Toghril Beg, the Seljuq sultan, restored Baghdad to Sunni rule and took Iraq for his dynasty.
Once again, the Abbasids were forced to deal with a military power that they could not match, though the Abbasid caliph remained the titular head of the Islamic community. The succeeding sultans Alp Arslan and Malikshah, as well as their vizier Nizam al - Mulk, took up residence in Persia, but held power over the Abbasids in Baghdad. When the dynasty began to weaken in the 12th century, the Abbasids gained greater independence once again.
While the Caliph al - Mustarshid was the first caliph to build an army capable of meeting a Seljuk army in battle, he was nonetheless defeated in 1135 and assassinated. The Caliph al - Muqtafi was the first Abbasid Caliph to regain the full military independence of the Caliphate, with the help of his vizier Ibn Hubayra. After nearly 250 years of subjection to foreign dynasties, he successfully defended Baghdad against the Seljuqs in the siege of Baghdad (1157), thus securing Iraq for the Abbasids. The reign of al - Nasir (d. 1225) brought the caliphate back into power throughout Iraq, based in large part on the Sufi futuwwa organizations that the caliph headed. Al - Mustansir built the Mustansiriya School, in an attempt to eclipse the Seljuq - era Nizamiyya built by Nizam al - Mulk.
In 1206, Genghis Khan established a powerful dynasty among the Mongols of central Asia. During the 13th century, this Mongol Empire conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including both China in the east and much of the old Islamic caliphate (as well as Kievan Rus ') in the west. Hulagu Khan 's destruction of Baghdad in 1258 is traditionally seen as the approximate end of the Golden Age. Mongols feared that a supernatural disaster would strike if the blood of Al - Musta'sim, a direct descendant of Muhammad 's uncle Al - ' Abbas ibn ' Abd al - Muttalib, and the last reigning Abbasid caliph in Baghdad, was spilled. The Shiites of Persia stated that no such calamity had happened after the death of Husayn ibn Ali in the Battle of Kerbala; nevertheless, as a precaution and in accordance with a Mongol taboo which forbade spilling royal blood, Hulagu had Al - Musta'sim wrapped in a carpet and trampled to death by horses on 20 February 1258. The Caliph 's immediate family was also executed, with the lone exceptions of his youngest son who was sent to Mongolia, and a daughter who became a slave in the harem of Hulagu.
In the 9th century, the Abbasids created an army loyal only to their caliphate, composed of non-Arab origin people, known as Mamluks. This force, created in the reign of al - Ma'mun (813 -- 33) and his brother and successor al - Mu'tasim (833 -- 42), prevented the further disintegration of the empire. The Mamluk army, though often viewed negatively, both helped and hurt the caliphate. Early on, it provided the government with a stable force to address domestic and foreign problems. However, creation of this foreign army and al - Mu'tasim's transfer of the capital from Baghdad to Samarra created a division between the caliphate and the peoples they claimed to rule. In addition, the power of the Mamluks steadily grew until al - Radi (934 -- 41) was constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to Muhammad ibn Ra'iq.
The Mamluks eventually came to power in Egypt. In 1261, following the devastation of Baghdad by the Mongols, the Mamluk rulers of Egypt re-established the Abbasid caliphate in Cairo. The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo was Al - Mustansir. The Abbasid caliphs in Egypt continued to maintain the presence of authority, but it was confined to religious matters. The Abbasid caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time of Al - Mutawakkil III, who was taken away as a prisoner by Selim I to Constantinople where he had a ceremonial role. He died in 1543, following his return to Cairo.
The Abbasid historical period lasting to the Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1258 CE is considered the Islamic Golden Age. The Islamic Golden Age was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad. The Abbassids were influenced by the Qur'anic injunctions and hadith such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr '' stressing the value of knowledge. During this period the Muslim world became an intellectual center for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad; where both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars sought to translate and gather all the world 's knowledge into Arabic. Many classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been lost were translated into Arabic and Persian and later in turn translated into Turkish, Hebrew and Latin. During this period the Muslim world was a cauldron of cultures which collected, synthesized and significantly advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient Roman, Chinese, Indian, Persian, Egyptian, North African, Greek and Byzantine civilizations. "In virtually every field of endeavor -- in astronomy, alchemy, mathematics, medicine, optics and so forth -- the Caliphate 's scientists were in the forefront of scientific advance. ''
The reigns of Harun al - Rashid (786 -- 809) and his successors fostered an age of great intellectual achievement. In large part, this was the result of the schismatic forces that had undermined the Umayyad regime, which relied on the assertion of the superiority of Arab culture as part of its claim to legitimacy, and the Abbasids ' welcoming of support from non-Arab Muslims. It is well established that the Abbasid caliphs modeled their administration on that of the Sassanids. Harun al - Rashid 's son, Al - Ma'mun (whose mother was Persian), is even quoted as saying:
The Persians ruled for a thousand years and did not need us Arabs even for a day. We have been ruling them for one or two centuries and can not do without them for an hour.
A number of medieval thinkers and scientists living under Islamic rule played a role in transmitting Islamic science to the Christian West. In addition, the period saw the recovery of much of the Alexandrian mathematical, geometric and astronomical knowledge, such as that of Euclid and Claudius Ptolemy. These recovered mathematical methods were later enhanced and developed by other Islamic scholars, notably by Persian scientists Al - Biruni and Abu Nasr Mansur.
Christians (particularly Nestorian Christians) contributed to the Arab Islamic Civilization during the Ummayads and the Abbasids by translating works of Greek philosophers to Syriac and afterwards to Arabic. Nestorians played a prominent role in the formation of Arab culture, with the Jundishapur school being prominent in the late Sassanid, Umayyad and early Abbasid periods. Notably, eight generations of the Nestorian Bukhtishu family served as private doctors to caliphs and sultans between the eighth and eleventh centuries. Algebra was significantly developed by Persian scientist Muhammad ibn Mūsā al - Khwārizmī during this time in his landmark text, Kitab al - Jabr wa - l - Muqabala, from which the term algebra is derived. He is thus considered to be the father of algebra by some, although the Greek mathematician Diophantus has also been given this title. The terms algorism and algorithm are derived from the name of al - Khwarizmi, who was also responsible for introducing the Arabic numerals and Hindu - Arabic numeral system beyond the Indian subcontinent.
Arab scientist Ibn al - Haytham (Alhazen) developed an early scientific method in his Book of Optics (1021). The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al - Haytham 's empirical proof of the intromission theory of light (that is, that light rays entered the eyes rather than being emitted by them) was particularly important. Alhazen was significant in the history of scientific method, particularly in his approach to experimentation, and has been referred to as the "world 's first true scientist ''.
Medicine in medieval Islam was an area of science that advanced particularly during the Abbasids ' reign. During the 9th century, Baghdad contained over 800 doctors, and great discoveries in the understanding of anatomy and diseases were made. The clinical distinction between measles and smallpox was described during this time. Famous Persian scientist Ibn Sina (known to the West as Avicenna) produced treatises and works that summarized the vast amount of knowledge that scientists had accumulated, and was very influential through his encyclopedias, The Canon of Medicine and The Book of Healing. The work of him and many others directly influenced the research of European scientists during the Renaissance.
Astronomy in medieval Islam was advanced by Al - Battani, who improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth 's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al - Battani, Averroes, Nasir al - Din al - Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al - Shatir were later incorporated into the Copernican heliocentric model. The astrolabe, though originally developed by the Greeks, was developed further by Islamic astronomers and engineers, and subsequently brought to medieval Europe.
Muslim alchemists influenced medieval European alchemists, particularly the writings attributed to Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber). A number of chemical processes such as distillation techniques were developed in the Muslim world and then spread to Europe.
The best known fiction from the Islamic world is The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, a collection of fantastical folk tales, legends and parables compiled primarily during the Abbassid era. The collection is recorded as having originated from an Arabic translation of a Sassanian era Persian prototype, with likely origins in Indian literary traditions. Stories from Arabic, Persian, Mesopotamian, and Egyptian folklore and literature were later incorporated. The epic is believed to have taken shape in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another. All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian Nights '' when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights. This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland. Many imitations were written, especially in France. Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba.
A famous example of Islamic poetry on romance was Layla and Majnun, an originally Arabic story which was further developed by Iranian, Azerbaijani and other poets in Persian, Azerbaijani, Turkish languages. It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and Juliet.
Arabic poetry reached its greatest height in the Abbasid era, especially before the loss of central authority and the rise of the Persianate dynasties. Writers like Abu Tammam and Abu Nuwas were closely connected to the caliphal court in Baghdad during the early 9th century, while others such as al - Mutanabbi received their patronage from regional courts.
One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy '' is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture. '' Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims. Their works on Aristotle was a key step in the transmission of learning from ancient Greeks to the Islamic world and the West. They often corrected the philosopher, encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of ijtihad. They also wrote influential original philosophical works, and their thinking was incorporated into Christian philosophy during the Middle Ages, notably by Thomas Aquinas.
Three speculative thinkers, al - Kindi, al - Farabi, and Avicenna, combined Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam, and Avicennism was later established as a result. Other influential Abbasid philosophers include al - Jahiz, and Ibn al - Haytham (Alhacen).
As the power shifted from the Umayyads to the Abbasids, the architecture styles changed also. The Christian styles evolved into a style based more on the Sasanian Empire utilizing mud bricks and baked bricks with carved stucco. Another major development was the creation or vast enlargement of cities as they were turned into the capital of the empire. First, starting with the creation of Baghdad, starting in 762, which was planned as a walled city with a mosque and palace in the center. The walls were to have four gates to exit the city. Al - Mansur, who was responsible for the creation of Baghdad, also planned the city of Raqqa, along the Euphrates. Finally, in 836, al - Mu'tasim moved the capital to a new site that he created along the Tigris, called Samarra. This city saw 60 years of work, with race - courses and game preserves to add to the atmosphere. Due to the dry remote nature of the environment, some of the palaces built in this era were isolated havens. Al - Ukhaidir Fortress is a fine example of this type of building which has stables, living quarters, and a mosque, all surrounding inner courtyards. Other mosques of this era, such as the Mosque of Ibn Tulun, in Cairo, and the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia while ultimately built during the Umayyad dynasty, it was substantially renovated in the 9th century. This renovation was so extensive as to ostensibly be a rebuild, was in the furthest reaches of the Muslim world, in an area that the Aghlabids controlled; however the styles utilized were mainly of the Abbasids. Mesopotamia only has one surviving mausoleum from this era, in Samarra. This octagonal dome is the final resting place of al - Muntasir. Other architectural innovations and styles were few, such as the four - centered arch, and a dome erected on squinches. Unfortunately, much was lost due to the ephemeral nature of the stucco and luster tiles.
The Near East has, since Roman times, been recognized as a center of quality glassware and crystal. 9th century finds from Samarra show styles similar to Sassanian forms. The types of objects made were bottles, flasks, vases, and cups utilized for domestic use. Decorations on these domestic items include molded flutes, honeycomb patterns, and inscriptions. Other styles seen that may not have come from the Sassanians were stamped items. These were typically round stamps, such as medallions or disks with animals, birds, or Kufic inscriptions. Colored lead glass, typically blue or green, have been found in Nishapur, along with prismatic perfume bottles. Finally, cut glass may have been the high point of Abbasid glass - working, decorated with floral and animal designs.
Early Abbasid painting has not survived in great quantities, and sometimes harder to differentiate; however Samarra is a good example as it was built by the Abbasids and abandoned 56 years later. The walls of the principal rooms of the palace that has been excavated show wall paintings and lively carved stucco dadoes. The style is obviously adopted with little variation from Sassanian art, as not only the styles is similar with harems, animals, and dancing people, all enclosed in scrollwork, but also the garments are Persian. Nishapur had its own school of painting. Excavations at Nishapur show artwork both monochrome and polychrome from the 8th and 9th centuries. One famous piece of art consists of hunting nobles with falcons and on horseback, in full regalia; the clothing identifies him as Tahirid, which was again, a sub-dynasty of the Abbasids. Other styles are of vegetation, and fruit in nice colors on a four foot high dedo.
Whereas painting and architecture were not areas of strength for the Abbasid dynasty, pottery was a different story. The Islamic culture as a whole and the Abbasid 's, in particular, were at the forefront of new ideas and techniques. Some examples of their work were pieces engraved with decorations and then colored with yellow - brown, green, and purple glazes. Designs were diverse with geometric patterns, Kufic lettering, arabesque scrollwork, along with rosettes, animals, birds, and humans. Abbasid pottery from the 8th and 9th centuries have been found throughout the region, as far as Cairo. These were generally made with a yellow clay and fired multiple times with separate glazes to produce metallic luster in shades of gold, brown, or red. By the 9th century, the potters had mastered their techniques and their decorative designs could be divided into two styles. The Persian style would show animals, birds, humans, along with Kufic lettering in gold. Pieces excavated from Samarra exceed in vibrancy and beauty any from later periods. These predominantly being made for the Caliphs use. Tiles were also made utilizing this same technique to create both monochromic and polychromic luster tiles.
Egypt being a center of the textile industry was part of the Abbasid cultural advancement. Copts were employed in the textile industry and produced linens and silks. Tinnis was famous for its factories and had over 5,000 looms. Kasab, a fine linen for turbans and badana for garments of the upper class to name a couple. In a town named Tuna near Tinnis, was made the kiswah for the kaaba in Mecca. Fine silk was also made in Dabik and Damietta. Of particular interest is the stamped and inscribed fabrics. Not only did they utilize inks but also liquid gold. Some of the finer pieces were colored in such a manner as to require six separate stamps to achieve the proper design and color. This technology spread to Europe eventually.
In technology, the Abbasids adopted papermaking from China. The use of paper spread from China into the caliphate in the 8th century CE, arriving in al - Andalus (Islamic Spain) and then the rest of Europe in the 10th century. It was easier to manufacture than parchment, less likely to crack than papyrus, and could absorb ink, making it ideal for making records and making copies of the Koran. "Islamic paper makers devised assembly - line methods of hand - copying manuscripts to turn out editions far larger than any available in Europe for centuries. '' It was from the Abbasids that the rest of the world learned to make paper from linen. The knowledge of gunpowder was also transmitted from China via the caliphate, where the formulas for pure potassium nitrate and an explosive gunpowder effect were first developed.
Advances were made in irrigation and farming, using new technology such as the windmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit were brought to Europe through al - Andalus, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans. Apart from the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, navigable rivers were uncommon, so transport by sea was very important. Navigational sciences were highly developed, making use of a rudimentary sextant (known as a kamal). When combined with detailed maps of the period, sailors were able to sail across oceans rather than skirt along the coast. Abbasid sailors were also responsible for reintroducing large three masted merchant vessels to the Mediterranean. The name caravel may derive from an earlier Arab ship known as the qārib. Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century. Hormuz was an important center for this trade. There was also a dense network of trade routes in the Mediterranean, along which Muslim countries traded with each other and with European powers such as Venice, Genoa and Catalonia. The Silk Road crossing Central Asia passed through Abbasid caliphate between China and Europe.
Engineers in the Abbasid caliphate made a number of innovative industrial uses of hydropower, and early industrial uses of tidal power, wind power, and petroleum (notably by distillation into kerosene). The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal - wheeled and vertical - wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. By the time of the Crusades, every province throughout the Islamic world had mills in operation, from al - Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia. These mills performed a variety of agricultural and industrial tasks. Abbasid engineers also developed machines (such as pumps) incorporating crankshafts, employed gears in mills and water - raising machines, and used dams to provide additional power to watermills and water - raising machines. Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. It has been argued that the industrial use of waterpower had spread from Islamic to Christian Spain, where fulling mills, paper mills, and forge mills were recorded for the first time in Catalonia.
A number of industries were generated during the Arab Agricultural Revolution, including early industries for textiles, sugar, rope - making, matting, silk, and paper. Latin translations of the 12th century passed on knowledge of chemistry and instrument making in particular. The agricultural and handicraft industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.
In contrast to the earlier era, women in Abbasid society were absent from all arenas of the community 's central affairs. While their Muslim forbearers led men into battle, started rebellions, and played an active role in community life, as demonstrated in the Hadith literature, Abbasid women were ideally kept in seclusion. Conquests had brought enormous wealth and large numbers of slaves to the Muslim elite. The majority of the slaves were women and children, many of whom had been dependents or harem - members of the defeated Sassanian upper classes. In the wake of the conquests an elite man could potentially own a thousand slaves, and ordinary soldiers could have ten people serving them.
Nabia Abbott, preeminent historian of elite women of the Abbasid Caliphate, describes the lives of harem women as follows.
The choicest women were imprisoned behind heavy curtains and locked doors, the strings and keys of which were entrusted into the hands of that pitiable creature -- the eunuch. As the size of the harem grew, men indulged to satiety. Satiety within the individual harem meant boredom for the one man and neglect for the many women. Under these conditions... satisfaction by perverse and unnatural means crept into society, particularly in its upper classes.
The marketing of human beings, particularly women, as objects for sexual use meant that elite men owned the vast majority of women they interacted with, and related to them as would masters to slaves. Being a slave meant relative lack of autonomy during this time period, and belonging to a harem caused a wife and her children to have little insurance of stability and continued support due to the volatile politics of harem life.
Elite men expressed in literature the horror they felt for the humiliation and degradation of their daughters and female relatives. For example, the verses addressed to Hasan ibn al - Firat on the death of his daughter read:
Even so, courtesans and princesses produced prestigious and important poetry. Enough survives to give us access to women 's historical experiences, and reveals some vivacious and powerful figures, such as the Sufi mystic Raabi'a al - Adwiyya (714 -- 801 CE), the princess and poet ' Ulayya bint al - Mahdi (777 -- 825 CE), and the singing - girls Shāriyah (c. 815 -- 70 CE), Fadl Ashsha'ira (d. 871 CE) and Arib al - Ma'muniyya (797 -- 890 CE).
In Baghdad there were many Abbasid military leaders who were or said they were of Arab descent. However, it is clear that most of the ranks were of Iranian origin, the vast majority being from Khorasan and Transoxania, not from western Iran or Azerbaijan. with most of the Khorasani soldiers who brought the Abbasids to power were Arabs.
the standing army of the Muslims in Khurasan was overwhelmingly Arab, The unit organization of the Abbasids was designed with the goal of ethnic and racial equality among supporters. When Abu Muslim recruited officers along the Silk Road, he registered them based not on their tribal or ethno - national affiliations but on their current places of residence.
While the Abbasids originally gained power by exploiting the social inequalities against non-Arabs in the Umayyad Empire, ironically during Abbasid rule the empire rapidly Arabized. As knowledge was shared in the Arabic language throughout the empire, people of different nationalities and religions began to speak Arabic in their everyday lives. Resources from other languages began to be translated into Arabic, and a unique Islamic identity began to form that fused previous cultures with Arab culture, creating a level of civilization and knowledge that was considered a marvel in Europe.
Abbasids found themselves at odds with the Shia Muslims, most of whom had supported their war against the Umayyads, since the Abbasids and the Shias claimed legitimacy by their familial connection to Prophet Muhammad. Once in power, the Abbasids embraced Sunni Islam and disavowed any support for Shi'a beliefs. Shortly thereafter, Berber Kharijites set up an independent state in North Africa in 801. Within 50 years the Idrisids in the Maghreb and Aghlabids of Ifriqiya and a little later the Tulunids and Ikshidids of Misr were effectively independent in Africa. The Abbasid authority began to deteriorate during the reign of al - Radi when their Turkic Army generals, who already had de facto independence, stopped paying the Caliphate. Even provinces close to Baghdad began to seek local dynastic rule. Also, the Abbasids found themselves to often be at conflict with the Umayyads in Spain. The Abbasid financial position weakened as well, with tax revenues from the Sawād decreasing in the 9th and 10th centuries.
The Abbasid Caliphate differed from others in that it did not have the same borders and extent as Islam. Particularly, in the west of the Caliphate, there were multiple smaller caliphates that existed in relative peace with them. This list represents the succession of Islamic dynasties that emerged from the fractured Abbasid empire by their general geographic location. Dynasties often overlap, where a vassal emir revolted from and later conquered his lord. Gaps appear during periods of contest where the dominating power was unclear. Except for the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt, recognizing a Shi'ite succession through Ali, and the Andalusian Caliphates of the Umayyads and Almohads, every Muslim dynasty at least acknowledged the nominal suzerainty of the Abbasids as Caliph and Commander of the Faithful.
In 656 AH / 1258 CE, the year of the fall of Baghdad, and following the sack of the city, a few surviving members of the Abbasid dynastic family led by the eldest amongst them, Ismail II son of Hamza son of Ahmed son of Mohamed, made their way into the region of Fars in Southern Persia. They settled in the city of Khonj, then a great centre for learning and scholarship. Shaikh Abdulsalam Khonji (b. 661 AH -- d. 746 AH) son of Abbas son of Ismail II was born in Khonj only five years after the fall of Baghdad and the arrival of his grandfather in the city. He became a great religious scholar and Sufi saint, held in high esteem by the local populace. His tomb still stands in Khonj and is a site visited by people from near and far.
The descendants of Shaikh Abdulsalam Khonji were religious scholars and figures of great respect and repute for generation after generation. One such scholar and direct descendant of Shaikh Abdulsalam Khonji in the male line, Shaikh Mohamed (d. around 905 AH) son of Shaikh Jaber son of Shaikh Ismail IV, moved to Bastak. His grandson, Shaikh Mohamed the Elder (d. 950 or 975 AH) son of Shaikh Nasser al - Din Ahmed son of Shaikh Mohamed, settled in Khonj for a time. But in 938 AH, in response to growing Safavid power, Shaikh Mohamed the Elder moved permanently to Bastak as his grandfather had done. His own grandson, Shaikh Hassan (d. 1084 AH) (also called Mulla Hassan) son of Shaikh Mohamed the Younger son of Shaikh Mohamed the Elder, is the common ancestor of all the Abbasids of Bastak and its neighbouring areas.
Shaikh Hassan 's grandsons, Shaikh Mohamed Saeed (b. 1096 AH -- d. 1152 AH) and Shaikh Mohamed Khan (b. 1113 AH -- d. 1197 AH) son of Shaikh Abdulqader son of Shaikh Hassan, became the first two Abbasid rulers of the region. In 1137 AH, Shaikh Mohamed Saeed began gathering support for an armed force. Following the capture of Lar, he ruled the city and its dependencies for 12 or 14 years before dying in 1152 AH.
Shaikh Mohamed Khan Bastaki, his brother, was meanwhile the ruler of Bastak and the region of Jahangiriyeh. In 1161 AH, Shaikh Mohamed Khan Bastaki departed for Didehban Fortress, leaving Bastak and its dependencies in the hands of his eldest son Shaikh Mohamed Sadeq and his cousin Agha Hassan Khan son of Mulla Ismail. Shaikh Mohamed Khan ruled Jahangiriyeh from Didehban Fortress for a period of roughly 20 to 24 years, for which reason he has been referred to as Shaikh Mohamed "Didehban ''. He eventually returned to Bastak and continued to reign from there up to the time of his death. At the height of his rule, the Khanate of Bastak included not only the region of Jahangiriyeh, but its power also extended to Lar and Bandar Abbas as well as their dependencies, not to mention several islands in the Persian Gulf.
Shaikh Mohamed Khan Bastaki was the first Abbasid ruler of Bastak to hold the title of "Khan '' (Persian: خان, Arabic: الحاكم), meaning "ruler '' or "king '', which was bestowed upon him by Karim Khan Zand. The title then became that of all the subsequent Abbasid rulers of Bastak and Jahangiriyeh, and also collectively refers in plural form -- i.e., "Khans '' (Persian: خوانين) - to the descendants of Shaikh Mohamed Khan Bastaki.
The last Abbasid ruler of Bastak and Jahangiriyeh was Mohamed A'zam Khan Baniabbassian son of Mohamed Reza Khan "Satvat al - Mamalek '' Baniabbasi. He authored the book Tarikh - e Jahangiriyeh va Baniabbassian - e Bastak (1960), in which is recounted the history of the region and the Abbasid family that ruled it. Mohamed A'zam Khan Baniabbassian died in 1967, a year regarded as marking the end of the Abbasid reign in Bastak.
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what does the federal court of australia deal with | Federal Court of Australia - Wikipedia
The Federal Court of Australia is an Australian superior court of record which has jurisdiction to deal with most civil disputes governed by federal law (with the exception of family law matters), along with some summary (less serious) criminal matters. Cases are heard at first instance by single Judges. The Court includes an appeal division referred to as the Full Court comprising three Judges, the only avenue of appeal from which lies to the High Court of Australia. In the Australian court hierarchy, the Federal Court occupies a position equivalent to the Supreme Courts of each of the states and territories. In relation to the other Courts in the federal stream, it is equal to the Family Court of Australia, and superior to the Federal Circuit Court. It was established in 1976 by the Federal Court of Australia Act.
The Chief Justice of the Federal Court is James Allsop.
The Federal Court has no inherent jurisdiction. Its jurisdiction flows from statute. The Court 's original jurisdiction include matters arising from Commonwealth legislation such as, for example, matters relating to taxation, trade practices, native title, intellectual property, industrial relations, corporations, immigration and bankruptcy.
The Federal Court of Australia also has appellate jurisdiction from the Federal Circuit Court of Australia on all matters, with the exception of family law, where the Family Court of Australia has appellate jurisdiction. The Court also exercises general appellate jurisdiction in criminal and civil matters on appeal from the Supreme Court of Norfolk Island; and exercises appellate jurisdiction in appeals from State Supreme Courts in some federal matters. Other federal courts and tribunals where the Court exercises appellate jurisdiction include the Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority, the Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission.
The jurisdiction of the Federal Court of Australia includes the jurisdiction exercised by two former federal courts, the Federal Court of Bankruptcy and the Commonwealth Industrial Court.
The Federal Court of Bankruptcy had jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters and was created in 1930. The jurisdiction in bankruptcy was transferred to the Federal Court of Australia on its establishment in 1977.
The Commonwealth Industrial Court was established in 1956 as a result of the Boilermaker 's case, where the High Court held that a Chapter III Court could not exercise a non-judicial power, the arbitral function, because of the constitutional separation of powers in Australia. The judicial functions were given to the newly created Commonwealth Industrial Court and the arbitral functions were given to Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Commission.
The Court was renamed the Australian Industrial Court in 1973. In 1977 the jurisdiction of the Australian Industrial Court was transferred to the Federal Court of Australia.
In 1993 the industrial relations jurisdiction of the Federal Court of Australia was transferred to the Industrial Relations Court of Australia, and transferred back to the Federal Court of Australia in 1996. The last judge of the Industrial Relations Court, Anthony North, retired in September 2018.
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where did the ancient civilization of sumer develop | Sumer - wikipedia
Sumer (/ ˈsuːmər /) is the earliest known civilization in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia, modern - day southern Iraq, during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze ages, and arguably the first civilization in the world with Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley. Living along the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, Sumerian farmers were able to grow an abundance of grain and other crops, the surplus of which enabled them to settle in one place. Proto - writing in the prehistory dates back to c. 3000 BC. The earliest texts come from the cities of Uruk and Jemdet Nasr and date back to 3300 BC; early cuneiform script writing emerged in 3000 BC.
Modern historians have suggested that Sumer was first permanently settled between c. 5500 and 4000 BC by a West Asian people who spoke the Sumerian language (pointing to the names of cities, rivers, basic occupations, etc., as evidence), an agglutinative language isolate. These conjectured, prehistoric people are now called "proto - Euphrateans '' or "Ubaidians '', and are theorized to have evolved from the Samarra culture of northern Mesopotamia. The Ubaidians (though never mentioned by the Sumerians themselves) are assumed by modern - day scholars to have been the first civilizing force in Sumer, draining the marshes for agriculture, developing trade, and establishing industries, including weaving, leatherwork, metalwork, masonry, and pottery.
Some scholars contest the idea of a Proto - Euphratean language or one substrate language; they think the Sumerian language may originally have been that of the hunting and fishing peoples who lived in the marshland and the Eastern Arabia littoral region and were part of the Arabian bifacial culture. Reliable historical records begin much later; there are none in Sumer of any kind that have been dated before Enmebaragesi (c. 26th century BC). Juris Zarins believes the Sumerians lived along the coast of Eastern Arabia, today 's Persian Gulf region, before it was flooded at the end of the Ice Age.
Sumerian civilization took form in the Uruk period (4th millennium BC), continuing into the Jemdet Nasr and Early Dynastic periods. During the 3rd millennium BC, a close cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians, who spoke a language isolate, and Akkadian - speakers, which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the 3rd millennium BC as a Sprachbund. Sumer was conquered by the Semitic - speaking kings of the Akkadian Empire around 2270 BC (short chronology), but Sumerian continued as a sacred language.
Native Sumerian rule re-emerged for about a century in the Third Dynasty of Ur at approximately 2100 -- 2000 BC, but the Akkadian language also remained in use. The Sumerian city of Eridu, on the coast of the Persian Gulf, is considered to have been the world 's first city, where three separate cultures may have fused: that of peasant Ubaidian farmers, living in mud - brick huts and practicing irrigation; that of mobile nomadic Semitic pastoralists living in black tents and following herds of sheep and goats; and that of fisher folk, living in reed huts in the marshlands, who may have been the ancestors of the Sumerians.
The term Sumerian is the common name given to the ancient non-Semitic - speaking inhabitants of Mesopotamia, Sumer, by the East Semitic - speaking Akkadians. The Sumerians referred to themselves as ùĝ saĝ gíg ga (cuneiform: 𒌦 𒊕 𒈪 𒂵), phonetically / uŋ saŋ gi ga /, literally meaning "the black - headed people '', and to their land as ki - en - gi (- r) (cuneiform: 𒆠𒂗𒄀) (' place ' + ' lords ' + ' noble '), meaning "place of the noble lords ''. The Akkadian word Shumer may represent the geographical name in dialect, but the phonological development leading to the Akkadian term šumerû is uncertain. Hebrew Shinar, Egyptian Sngr, and Hittite Šanhar (a), all referring to southern Mesopotamia, could be western variants of Shumer.
In the late 4th millennium BC, Sumer was divided into many independent city - states, which were divided by canals and boundary stones. Each was centered on a temple dedicated to the particular patron god or goddess of the city and ruled over by a priestly governor (ensi) or by a king (lugal) who was intimately tied to the city 's religious rites.
The five "first '' cities, said to have exercised pre-dynastic kingship "before the flood '':
Other principal cities:
(location uncertain) (an outlying city in northern Mesopotamia)
Minor cities (from south to north):
(an outlying city in northern Mesopotamia)
Apart from Mari, which lies full 330 kilometres (205 miles) north - west of Agade, but which is credited in the king list as having "exercised kingship '' in the Early Dynastic II period, and Nagar, an outpost, these cities are all in the Euphrates - Tigris alluvial plain, south of Baghdad in what are now the Bābil, Diyala, Wāsit, Dhi Qar, Basra, Al - Muthannā and Al - Qādisiyyah governorates of Iraq.
The Sumerian city - states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic III period, c. the 23rd century BC, when a now deciphered syllabary writing system was developed, which has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions. Classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC. Following the Gutian period, there was a brief Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC, cut short in the 20th century BC by invasions by the Amorites. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin '' persisted until c. 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro - Babylonian) population.
The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. During this time, the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia was established at Eridu (Cuneiform: nun.ki 𒉣𒆠), c. 6500 BC, by farmers who brought with them the Hadji Muhammed culture, which first pioneered irrigation agriculture. It appears that this culture was derived from the Samarran culture from northern Mesopotamia. It is not known whether or not these were the actual Sumerians who are identified with the later Uruk culture. The rise of the city of Uruk may be reflected in the story of the passing of the gifts of civilization (me) to Inanna, goddess of Uruk and of love and war, by Enki, god of wisdom and chief god of Eridu, may reflect the transition from Eridu to Uruk.
The archaeological transition from the Ubaid period to the Uruk period is marked by a gradual shift from painted pottery domestically produced on a slow wheel to a great variety of unpainted pottery mass - produced by specialists on fast wheels. The Uruk period is a continuation and an outgrowth of Ubaid with pottery being the main visible change.
By the time of the Uruk period (c. 4100 -- 2900 BC calibrated), the volume of trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large, stratified, temple - centered cities (with populations of over 10,000 people) where centralized administrations employed specialized workers. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period that Sumerian cities began to make use of slave labor captured from the hill country, and there is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the earliest texts. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide area -- from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as central Iran.
The Uruk period civilization, exported by Sumerian traders and colonists (like that found at Tell Brak), had an effect on all surrounding peoples, who gradually evolved their own comparable, competing economies and cultures. The cities of Sumer could not maintain remote, long - distance colonies by military force.
Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest - king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. It is quite possible that the later Sumerian pantheon was modeled upon this political structure. There was little evidence of organized warfare or professional soldiers during the Uruk period, and towns were generally unwalled. During this period Uruk became the most urbanized city in the world, surpassing for the first time 50,000 inhabitants.
The ancient Sumerian king list includes the early dynasties of several prominent cities from this period. The first set of names on the list is of kings said to have reigned before a major flood occurred. These early names may be fictional, and include some legendary and mythological figures, such as Alulim and Dumizid.
The end of the Uruk period coincided with the Piora oscillation, a dry period from c. 3200 -- 2900 BC that marked the end of a long wetter, warmer climate period from about 9,000 to 5,000 years ago, called the Holocene climatic optimum.
The dynastic period begins c. 2900 BC and was associated with a shift from the temple establishment headed by council of elders led by a priestly "En '' (a male figure when it was a temple for a goddess, or a female figure when headed by a male god) towards a more secular Lugal (Lu = man, Gal = great) and includes such legendary patriarchal figures as Enmerkar, Lugalbanda and Gilgamesh -- who are supposed to have reigned shortly before the historic record opens c. 2700 BC, when the now deciphered syllabic writing started to develop from the early pictograms. The center of Sumerian culture remained in southern Mesopotamia, even though rulers soon began expanding into neighboring areas, and neighboring Semitic groups adopted much of Sumerian culture for their own.
The earliest dynastic king on the Sumerian king list whose name is known from any other legendary source is Etana, 13th king of the first dynasty of Kish. The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 26th century BC), whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh epic -- leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled, and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared. (Both Enmerkar and Gilgamesh are credited with having built the walls of Uruk).
c. 2500 -- 2270 BC
The dynasty of Lagash, though omitted from the king list, is well attested through several important monuments and many archaeological finds.
Although short - lived, one of the first empires known to history was that of Eannatum of Lagash, who annexed practically all of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk, Ur, and Larsa, and reduced to tribute the city - state of Umma, arch - rival of Lagash. In addition, his realm extended to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf. He seems to have used terror as a matter of policy. Eannatum 's Stele of the Vultures depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. His empire collapsed shortly after his death.
Later, Lugal - Zage - Si, the priest - king of Umma, overthrew the primacy of the Lagash dynasty in the area, then conquered Uruk, making it his capital, and claimed an empire extending from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. He was the last ethnically Sumerian king before Sargon of Akkad.
c. 2270 -- 2083 BC (short chronology)
The Eastern Semitic Akkadian language is first attested in proper names of the kings of Kish c. 2800 BC, preserved in later king lists. There are texts written entirely in Old Akkadian dating from c. 2500 BC. Use of Old Akkadian was at its peak during the rule of Sargon the Great (c. 2270 -- 2215 BC), but even then most administrative tablets continued to be written in Sumerian, the language used by the scribes. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate three stages of Old Akkadian: that of the pre-Sargonic era, that of the Akkadian empire, and that of the "Neo-Sumerian Renaissance '' that followed it. Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted as vernacular languages for about one thousand years, but by around 1800 BC, Sumerian was becoming more of a literary language familiar mainly only to scholars and scribes. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre - and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian '' conflict. However, it is certain that Akkadian was also briefly imposed on neighboring parts of Elam that were previously conquered, by Sargon.
c. 2083 -- 2050 BC (short chronology)
c. 2093 -- 2046 BC (short chronology)
Following the downfall of the Akkadian Empire at the hands of Gutians, another native Sumerian ruler, Gudea of Lagash, rose to local prominence and continued the practices of the Sargonid kings ' claims to divinity. The previous Lagash dynasty, Gudea and his descendants also promoted artistic development and left a large number of archaeological artifacts.
c. 2047 -- 1940 BC (short chronology)
Later, the 3rd dynasty of Ur under Ur - Nammu and Shulgi, whose power extended as far as southern Assyria, was the last great "Sumerian renaissance '', but already the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the resurgence of the Akkadian speaking Semites in Assyria and elsewhere, and the influx of waves of Semitic Martu (Amorites) who were to found several competing local powers in the south, including Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna and some time later Babylonia. The last of these eventually came to briefly dominate the south of Mesopotamia as the Babylonian Empire, just as the Old Assyrian Empire had already done so in the north from the late 21st century BC. The Sumerian language continued as a sacerdotal language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, much as Latin was used in the Medieval period, for as long as cuneiform was utilized.
This period is generally taken to coincide with a major shift in population from southern Mesopotamia toward the north. Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being compromised as a result of rising salinity. Soil salinity in this region had been long recognized as a major problem. Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an arid climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the buildup of dissolved salts in the soil, eventually reducing agricultural yields severely. During the Akkadian and Ur III phases, there was a shift from the cultivation of wheat to the more salt - tolerant barley, but this was insufficient, and during the period from 2100 BC to 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population in this area declined by nearly three fifths. This greatly upset the balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken, and comparatively strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language. Henceforth, Sumerian would remain only a literary and liturgical language, similar to the position occupied by Latin in medieval Europe.
Following an Elamite invasion and sack of Ur during the rule of Ibbi - Sin (c. 1940 BC), Sumer came under Amorites rule (taken to introduce the Middle Bronze Age). The independent Amorite states of the 20th to 18th centuries are summarized as the "Dynasty of Isin '' in the Sumerian king list, ending with the rise of Babylonia under Hammurabi c. 1700 BC.
Later rulers who dominated Assyria and Babylonia occasionally assumed the old Sargonic title "King of Sumer and Akkad '', such as Tukulti - Ninurta I of Assyria after c. 1225 BC.
Uruk, one of Sumer 's largest cities, has been estimated to have had a population of 50,000 - 80,000 at its height; given the other cities in Sumer, and the large agricultural population, a rough estimate for Sumer 's population might be 0.8 million to 1.5 million. The world population at this time has been estimated at about 27 million.
The Sumerians spoke a language isolate, but a number of linguists have claimed to be able to detect a substrate language of unknown classification beneath Sumerian because names of some of Sumer 's major cities are not Sumerian, revealing influences of earlier inhabitants. However, the archaeological record shows clear uninterrupted cultural continuity from the time of the early Ubaid period (5300 -- 4700 BC C - 14) settlements in southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerian people who settled here farmed the lands in this region that were made fertile by silt deposited by the Tigris and the Euphrates.
Some archaeologists have speculated that the original speakers of ancient Sumerian may have been farmers, who moved down from the north of Mesopotamia after perfecting irrigation agriculture there. The Ubaid period pottery of southern Mesopotamia has been connected via Choga Mami transitional ware to the pottery of the Samarra period culture (c. 5700 -- 4900 BC C - 14) in the north, who were the first to practice a primitive form of irrigation agriculture along the middle Tigris River and its tributaries. The connection is most clearly seen at Tell Awayli (Oueilli, Oueili) near Larsa, excavated by the French in the 1980s, where eight levels yielded pre-Ubaid pottery resembling Samarran ware. According to this theory, farming peoples spread down into southern Mesopotamia because they had developed a temple - centered social organization for mobilizing labor and technology for water control, enabling them to survive and prosper in a difficult environment.
Others have suggested a continuity of Sumerians, from the indigenous hunter - fisherfolk traditions, associated with the bifacial assemblages found on the Arabian littoral. Juris Zarins believes the Sumerians may have been the people living in the Persian Gulf region before it flooded at the end of the last Ice Age.
In the early Sumerian period, the primitive pictograms suggest that
There is considerable evidence concerning Sumerian music. Lyres and flutes were played, among the best - known examples being the Lyres of Ur.
Inscriptions describing the reforms of king Urukagina of Lagash (c. 2300 BC) say that he abolished the former custom of polyandry in his country, prescribing that a woman who took multiple husbands be stoned with rocks upon which her crime had been written.
Sumerian culture was male - dominated and stratified. The Code of Ur - Nammu, the oldest such codification yet discovered, dating to the Ur III, reveals a glimpse at societal structure in late Sumerian law. Beneath the lu - gal ("great man '' or king), all members of society belonged to one of two basic strata: The "lu '' or free person, and the slave (male, arad; female geme). The son of a lu was called a dumu - nita until he married. A woman (munus) went from being a daughter (dumu - mi), to a wife (dam), then if she outlived her husband, a widow (numasu) and she could then remarry another man who was from the same tribe.
Marriages were usually arranged by the parents of the bride and groom; engagements were usually completed through the approval of contracts recorded on clay tablets. These marriages became legal as soon as the groom delivered a bridal gift to his bride 's father. One Sumerian proverb describes the ideal, happy marriage through the mouth of a husband who boasts that his wife has borne him eight sons and is still eager to have sex.
The Sumerians generally seem to have discouraged premarital sex, but it was probably very commonly done in secret. The Sumerians, as well as the later Akkadians, had no concept of virginity. When describing a woman 's sexual inexperience, instead of calling her a "virgin '', Sumerian texts describe which sex acts she had not yet performed. The Sumerians had no knowledge of the existence of the hymen and whether or not a prospective bride had engaged in sexual intercourse was entirely determined by her own word.
From the earliest records, the Sumerians had very relaxed attitudes toward sex and their sexual mores were determined not by whether a sexual act was deemed immoral, but rather by whether or not it made a person ritually unclean. The Sumerians widely believed that masturbation enhanced sexual potency, both for men and for women, and they frequently engaged in it, both alone and with their partners. The Sumerians did not regard anal sex as taboo either. Entu priestesses were forbidden from producing offspring and frequently engaged in anal sex as a method of birth control.
Prostitution existed but it is not clear if sacred prostitution did.
The most important archaeological discoveries in Sumer are a large number of clay tablets written in cuneiform script. Sumerian writing, while proven to not be the oldest example of writing on earth, is considered to be a great milestone in the development of humanity 's ability to not only create historical records but also in creating pieces of literature, both in the form of poetic epics and stories as well as prayers and laws. Although pictures -- that is, hieroglyphs -- were used first, cuneiform and then ideograms (where symbols were made to represent ideas) soon followed. Triangular or wedge - shaped reeds were used to write on moist clay. A large body of hundreds of thousands of texts in the Sumerian language have survived, such as personal and business letters, receipts, lexical lists, laws, hymns, prayers, stories, and daily records. Full libraries of clay tablets have been found. Monumental inscriptions and texts on different objects, like statues or bricks, are also very common. Many texts survive in multiple copies because they were repeatedly transcribed by scribes in training. Sumerian continued to be the language of religion and law in Mesopotamia long after Semitic speakers had become dominant.
A prime example of cuneiform writing would be a lengthy poem that was discovered in the ruins of Uruk. The Epic of Gilgamesh was written in the standard Sumerian cuneiform. It tells of a king from the early Dynastic II period named Gilgamesh or "Bilgamesh '' in Sumerian. The story is based around the fictional adventures of Gilgamesh and his companion, Enkidu. It was laid out on several clay tablets and is claimed to be the earliest example of a fictional, written piece of literature discovered so far.
The Sumerian language is generally regarded as a language isolate in linguistics because it belongs to no known language family; Akkadian, by contrast, belongs to the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic languages. There have been many failed attempts to connect Sumerian to other language families. It is an agglutinative language; in other words, morphemes ("units of meaning '') are added together to create words, unlike analytic languages where morphemes are purely added together to create sentences. Some authors have proposed that there may be evidence of a substratum or adstratum language for geographic features and various crafts and agricultural activities, called variously Proto - Euphratean or Proto Tigrean, but this is disputed by others.
Understanding Sumerian texts today can be problematic. Most difficult are the earliest texts, which in many cases do not give the full grammatical structure of the language and seem to have been used as an "aide - mémoire '' for knowledgeable scribes.
During the 3rd millennium BC a cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism. The influences between Sumerian on Akkadian are evident in all areas including lexical borrowing on a massive scale -- and syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This mutual influence has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian of the 3rd millennium BC as a Sprachbund.
Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC, but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Babylonia and Assyria until the 1st century AD.
The Sumerians credited their divinities for all matters pertaining to them and exhibited humility in the face of cosmic forces, such as death and divine wrath.
Sumerian religion seems to have been founded upon two separate cosmogenic myths. The first saw creation as the result of a series of hieroi gamoi or sacred marriages, involving the reconciliation of opposites, postulated as a coming together of male and female divine beings; the gods. This continued to influence the whole Mesopotamian mythos. Thus, in the later Akkadian Enuma Elish, the creation was seen as the union of fresh and salt water; as male Abzu, and female Tiamat. The products of that union, Lahm and Lahmu, "the muddy ones '', were titles given to the gate keepers of the E-Abzu temple of Enki, in Eridu, the first Sumerian city. Describing the way that muddy islands emerge from the confluence of fresh and salty water at the mouth of the Euphrates, where the river deposited its load of silt, a second hieros gamos supposedly created Anshar and Kishar, the "sky - pivot '' or axle, and the "earth pivot '', parents in turn of Anu (the sky) and Ki (the earth). Another important Sumerian hieros gamos was that between Ki, here known as Ninhursag or "Lady of the Mountains '', and Enki of Eridu, the god of fresh water which brought forth greenery and pasture.
At an early stage, following the dawn of recorded history, Nippur, in central Mesopotamia, replaced Eridu in the south as the primary temple city, whose priests exercised political hegemony on the other city - states. Nippur retained this status throughout the Sumerian period.
Sumerians believed in an anthropomorphic polytheism, or the belief in many gods in human form. There was no common set of gods; each city - state had its own patrons, temples, and priest - kings. Nonetheless, these were not exclusive; the gods of one city were often acknowledged elsewhere. Sumerian speakers were among the earliest people to record their beliefs in writing, and were a major inspiration in later Mesopotamian mythology, religion, and astrology.
The Sumerians worshiped:
These deities formed a core pantheon; there were additionally hundreds of minor ones. Sumerian gods could thus have associations with different cities, and their religious importance often waxed and waned with those cities ' political power. The gods were said to have created human beings from clay for the purpose of serving them. The temples organized the mass labour projects needed for irrigation agriculture. Citizens had a labor duty to the temple, though they could avoid it by a payment of silver.
Sumerians believed that the universe consisted of a flat disk enclosed by a dome. The Sumerian afterlife involved a descent into a gloomy netherworld to spend eternity in a wretched existence as a Gidim (ghost).
The universe was divided into four quarters:
Their known world extended from The Upper Sea or Mediterranean coastline, to The Lower Sea, the Persian Gulf and the land of Meluhha (probably the Indus Valley) and Magan (Oman), famed for its copper ores.
Ziggurats (Sumerian temples) each had an individual name and consisted of a forecourt, with a central pond for purification. The temple itself had a central nave with aisles along either side. Flanking the aisles would be rooms for the priests. At one end would stand the podium and a mudbrick table for animal and vegetable sacrifices. Granaries and storehouses were usually located near the temples. After a time the Sumerians began to place the temples on top of multi-layered square constructions built as a series of rising terraces, giving rise to the Ziggurat style.
It was believed that when people died, they would be confined to a gloomy world of Ereshkigal, whose realm was guarded by gateways with various monsters designed to prevent people entering or leaving. The dead were buried outside the city walls in graveyards where a small mound covered the corpse, along with offerings to monsters and a small amount of food. Those who could afford it sought burial at Dilmun. Human sacrifice was found in the death pits at the Ur royal cemetery where Queen Puabi was accompanied in death by her servants.
The Sumerians adopted an agricultural lifestyle perhaps as early as c. 5000 BC -- 4500 BC. The region demonstrated a number of core agricultural techniques, including organized irrigation, large - scale intensive cultivation of land, mono - cropping involving the use of plough agriculture, and the use of an agricultural specialized labour force under bureaucratic control. The necessity to manage temple accounts with this organization led to the development of writing (c. 3500 BC).
In the early Sumerian Uruk period, the primitive pictograms suggest that sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs were domesticated. They used oxen as their primary beasts of burden and donkeys or equids as their primary transport animal and "woollen clothing as well as rugs were made from the wool or hair of the animals... By the side of the house was an enclosed garden planted with trees and other plants; wheat and probably other cereals were sown in the fields, and the shaduf was already employed for the purpose of irrigation. Plants were also grown in pots or vases. ''
The Sumerians were one of the first known beer drinking societies. Cereals were plentiful and were the key ingredient in their early brew. They brewed multiple kinds of beer consisting of wheat, barley, and mixed grain beers. Beer brewing was very important to the Sumerians. It was referenced in the Epic of Gilgamesh when Enkidu was introduced to the food and beer of Gilgamesh 's people: "Drink the beer, as is the custom of the land... He drank the beer - seven jugs! and became expansive and sang with joy! ''
The Sumerians practiced similar irrigation techniques as those used in Egypt. American anthropologist Robert McCormick Adams says that irrigation development was associated with urbanization, and that 89 % of the population lived in the cities.
They grew barley, chickpeas, lentils, wheat, dates, onions, garlic, lettuce, leeks and mustard. Sumerians caught many fish and hunted fowl and gazelle.
Sumerian agriculture depended heavily on irrigation. The irrigation was accomplished by the use of shaduf, canals, channels, dykes, weirs, and reservoirs. The frequent violent floods of the Tigris, and less so, of the Euphrates, meant that canals required frequent repair and continual removal of silt, and survey markers and boundary stones needed to be continually replaced. The government required individuals to work on the canals in a corvee, although the rich were able to exempt themselves.
As is known from the "Sumerian Farmer 's Almanac '', after the flood season and after the Spring Equinox and the Akitu or New Year Festival, using the canals, farmers would flood their fields and then drain the water. Next they made oxen stomp the ground and kill weeds. They then dragged the fields with pickaxes. After drying, they plowed, harrowed, and raked the ground three times, and pulverized it with a mattock, before planting seed. Unfortunately, the high evaporation rate resulted in a gradual increase in the salinity of the fields. By the Ur III period, farmers had switched from wheat to the more salt - tolerant barley as their principal crop.
Sumerians harvested during the spring in three - person teams consisting of a reaper, a binder, and a sheaf handler. The farmers would use threshing wagons, driven by oxen, to separate the cereal heads from the stalks and then use threshing sleds to disengage the grain. They then winnowed the grain / chaff mixture.
The Tigris - Euphrates plain lacked minerals and trees. Sumerian structures were made of plano - convex mudbrick, not fixed with mortar or cement. Mud - brick buildings eventually deteriorate, so they were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot. This constant rebuilding gradually raised the level of cities, which thus came to be elevated above the surrounding plain. The resultant hills, known as tells, are found throughout the ancient Near East.
According to Archibald Sayce, the primitive pictograms of the early Sumerian (i.e. Uruk) era suggest that "Stone was scarce, but was already cut into blocks and seals. Brick was the ordinary building material, and with it cities, forts, temples and houses were constructed. The city was provided with towers and stood on an artificial platform; the house also had a tower - like appearance. It was provided with a door which turned on a hinge, and could be opened with a sort of key; the city gate was on a larger scale, and seems to have been double. The foundation stones -- or rather bricks -- of a house were consecrated by certain objects that were deposited under them. ''
The most impressive and famous of Sumerian buildings are the ziggurats, large layered platforms that supported temples. Sumerian cylinder seals also depict houses built from reeds not unlike those built by the Marsh Arabs of Southern Iraq until as recently as 400 CE. The Sumerians also developed the arch, which enabled them to develop a strong type of dome. They built this by constructing and linking several arches. Sumerian temples and palaces made use of more advanced materials and techniques, such as buttresses, recesses, half columns, and clay nails.
The Sumerians developed a complex system of metrology c. 4000 BC. This advanced metrology resulted in the creation of arithmetic, geometry, and algebra. From c. 2600 BC onwards, the Sumerians wrote multiplication tables on clay tablets and dealt with geometrical exercises and division problems. The earliest traces of the Babylonian numerals also date back to this period. The period c. 2700 -- 2300 BC saw the first appearance of the abacus, and a table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their sexagesimal number system. The Sumerians were the first to use a place value numeral system. There is also anecdotal evidence the Sumerians may have used a type of slide rule in astronomical calculations. They were the first to find the area of a triangle and the volume of a cube.
Discoveries of obsidian from far - away locations in Anatolia and lapis lazuli from Badakhshan in northeastern Afghanistan, beads from Dilmun (modern Bahrain), and several seals inscribed with the Indus Valley script suggest a remarkably wide - ranging network of ancient trade centered on the Persian Gulf. For example, Imports to Ur came from many parts of the world. In particular, the metals of all types had to be imported.
The Epic of Gilgamesh refers to trade with far lands for goods, such as wood, that were scarce in Mesopotamia. In particular, cedar from Lebanon was prized. The finding of resin in the tomb of Queen Puabi at Ur, indicates it was traded from as far away as Mozambique.
The Sumerians used slaves, although they were not a major part of the economy. Slave women worked as weavers, pressers, millers, and porters.
Sumerian potters decorated pots with cedar oil paints. The potters used a bow drill to produce the fire needed for baking the pottery. Sumerian masons and jewelers knew and made use of alabaster (calcite), ivory, iron, gold, silver, carnelian, and lapis lazuli.
Large institutions kept their accounts in barley and silver, often with a fixed rate between them. The obligations, loans and prices in general were usually denominated in one of them. Many transactions involved debt, for example goods consigned to merchants by temple and beer advanced by "ale women ''.
Commercial credit and agricultural consumer loans were the main types of loans. The trade credit was usually extended by temples in order to finance trade expeditions and was nominated in silver. The interest rate was set at 1 / 60 a month (one shekel per mina) some time before 2000 BC and it remained at that level for about two thousand years. Rural loans commonly arose as a result of unpaid obligations due to an institution (such as a temple), in this case the arrears were considered to be lent to the debtor. They were denominated in barley or other crops and the interest rate was typically much higher than for commercial loans and could amount to 1 / 3 to 1 / 2 of the loan principal.
Periodically, rulers signed "clean slate '' decrees that cancelled all the rural (but not commercial) debt and allowed bondservants to return to their homes. Customarily, rulers did it at the beginning of the first full year of their reign, but they could also be proclaimed at times of military conflict or crop failure. The first known ones were made by Enmetena and Urukagina of Lagash in 2400 - 2350 BC. According to Hudson, the purpose of these decrees was to prevent debts mounting to a degree that they threatened the fighting force, which could happen if peasants lost the subsistence land or became bondservants due to the inability to repay the debt.
The almost constant wars among the Sumerian city - states for 2000 years helped to develop the military technology and techniques of Sumer to a high level. The first war recorded in any detail was between Lagash and Umma in c. 2525 BC on a stele called the Stele of the Vultures. It shows the king of Lagash leading a Sumerian army consisting mostly of infantry. The infantry carried spears, wore copper helmets, and carried rectangular shields. The spearmen are shown arranged in what resembles the phalanx formation, which requires training and discipline; this implies that the Sumerians may have made use of professional soldiers.
The Sumerian military used carts harnessed to onagers. These early chariots functioned less effectively in combat than did later designs, and some have suggested that these chariots served primarily as transports, though the crew carried battle - axes and lances. The Sumerian chariot comprised a four or two - wheeled device manned by a crew of two and harnessed to four onagers. The cart was composed of a woven basket and the wheels had a solid three - piece design.
Sumerian cities were surrounded by defensive walls. The Sumerians engaged in siege warfare between their cities, but the mudbrick walls were able to deter some foes.
Examples of Sumerian technology include: the wheel, cuneiform script, arithmetic and geometry, irrigation systems, Sumerian boats, lunisolar calendar, bronze, leather, saws, chisels, hammers, braces, bits, nails, pins, rings, hoes, axes, knives, lancepoints, arrowheads, swords, glue, daggers, waterskins, bags, harnesses, armor, quivers, war chariots, scabbards, boots, sandals, harpoons and beer. The Sumerians had three main types of boats:
Evidence of wheeled vehicles appeared in the mid 4th millennium BC, near - simultaneously in Mesopotamia, the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture) and Central Europe. The wheel initially took the form of the potter 's wheel. The new concept quickly led to wheeled vehicles and mill wheels. The Sumerians ' cuneiform script is the oldest (or second oldest after the Egyptian hieroglyphs) which has been deciphered (the status of even older inscriptions such as the Jiahu symbols and Tartaria tablets is controversial). The Sumerians were among the first astronomers, mapping the stars into sets of constellations, many of which survived in the zodiac and were also recognized by the ancient Greeks. They were also aware of the five planets that are easily visible to the naked eye.
They invented and developed arithmetic by using several different number systems including a mixed radix system with an alternating base 10 and base 6. This sexagesimal system became the standard number system in Sumer and Babylonia. They may have invented military formations and introduced the basic divisions between infantry, cavalry, and archers. They developed the first known codified legal and administrative systems, complete with courts, jails, and government records. The first true city - states arose in Sumer, roughly contemporaneously with similar entities in what are now Syria and Lebanon. Several centuries after the invention of cuneiform, the use of writing expanded beyond debt / payment certificates and inventory lists to be applied for the first time, about 2600 BC, to messages and mail delivery, history, legend, mathematics, astronomical records, and other pursuits. Conjointly with the spread of writing, the first formal schools were established, usually under the auspices of a city - state 's primary temple.
Finally, the Sumerians ushered in domestication with intensive agriculture and irrigation. Emmer wheat, barley, sheep (starting as mouflon), and cattle (starting as aurochs) were foremost among the species cultivated and raised for the first time on a grand scale.
Geography
Language
Coordinates: 32 ° 00 ′ N 45 ° 30 ′ E / 32.0 ° N 45.5 ° E / 32.0; 45.5
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where did the rich and poor sit in the globe theatre | Groundling - wikipedia
A groundling was a person who visited the Globe Theatre in the early 17th century. They were too poor to pay to be able to sit on one of the three levels of the theatre. If they paid one penny, they could stand in "the pit '', also called "the yard '', just below the stage to watch the play. Standing in the pit was uncomfortable, and people were usually packed in tightly. The groundlings were commoners who were also referred to as stinkards or penny - stinkers. The name ' groundlings ' came about after Hamlet referenced them as such when the play was first performed around 1600. At the time, the word had entered the English language to mean a small type of fish with a gaping mouth - from the vantage point of the actor playing Hamlet, set on a stage raised around 5 feet from the ground, the sea of upturned faces may have looked like wide - mouthed fish. They were known to misbehave and are commonly believed to have thrown food such as fruit and nuts at characters they did not like, although there is no evidence of this. They would watch the plays from the cramped pits with sometimes over 500 people standing there.
In 1599, Thomas Platter mentioned the cost of admission at contemporary London theatres in his diary:
"There are separate galleries and there one stands more comfortably and moreover can sit, but one pays more for it. Thus anyone who remains on the level standing pays only one English penny: but if he wants to sit, he is let in at a farther door, and there he gives another penny. If he desires to sit on a cushion in the most comfortable place of all, where he not only sees everything well, but can also be seen then he gives yet another English penny at another door. And in the pauses of the comedy food and drink are carried round amongst the people and one can thus refresh himself at his own cost. ''
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who has the power to make all laws | Necessary and Proper clause - wikipedia
The Necessary and Proper Clause, also known as the elastic clause, is a clause in Article I, Section 8 of the United States Constitution that is as follows:
The Congress shall have Power... To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.
According to the Articles of Confederation, "each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated '' (emphasis added). Thus, the Continental Congress had no powers incidental to those which were "expressly delegated '' by the Articles of Confederation. By contrast, the Necessary and Proper Clause expressly confers incidental powers upon Congress, while no other clauses in the Constitution do so by themselves.
The draft Necessary and Proper Clause provoked controversy during discussions of the proposed constitution, and its inclusion became a focal point of criticism for those opposed to the Constitution 's ratification. While Anti-Federalists expressed concern that the clause would grant the federal government boundless power, Federalists argued that the clause would only permit execution of power already granted by the Constitution. Alexander Hamilton spoke vigorously for this second interpretation in Federalist No. 33. At this time James Madison concurred with Hamilton, arguing in Federalist No. 44 that without this clause, the constitution would be a "dead letter ''. At the Virginia Ratifying Convention, Patrick Henry took the opposing view, saying that the clause would lead to limitless federal power that would inevitably menace individual liberty.
For several decades after the Constitution was ratified, the interpretation of the Necessary and Proper Clause continued to be a powerful bone of contention between the Democratic - Republican Party and the Federalist Party, and several other political parties in the United States. The first practical example of this contention came in 1791, when Hamilton used the clause to defend the constitutionality of the creation of the First Bank of the United States, the first federal bank in the new nation 's history. Concerned that monied Northern aristocrats would take advantage of the bank to exploit the South, Madison argued that Congress lacked the constitutional authority to charter a bank. Hamilton countered that the bank was a reasonable means of carrying out powers related to taxation and the borrowing of funds, claiming the clause applied to activities reasonably related to constitutional powers, not just those that were absolutely necessary to carry out said powers. To embarrass Madison, his contrary claims from The Federalist Papers were read aloud in Congress:
No axiom is more clearly established in law or in reason than wherever the end is required, the means are authorized; wherever a general power to do a thing is given, every particular power for doing it is included.
Eventually, Southern opposition to the bank and to Hamilton 's plan to have the federal government assume the war debts of the states was mollified by the transfer of the nation 's capital from its temporary seat in Philadelphia to a more southerly permanent seat on the Potomac, and the bill, along with the establishment of a national mint, was passed by Congress and signed by President Washington.
This clause, as justification for the creation of a national bank, was put to the test in 1819 in the case of McCulloch v. Maryland, wherein the state of Maryland had attempted to impede the operations of the Second Bank of the United States by imposing a tax on out - of - state banks, of which the Second Bank of the United States was the only one. The court ruled against Maryland, and Chief Justice John Marshall, Hamilton 's longtime Federalist ally, wrote the opinion, which stated that while the Constitution did not explicitly give permission to create a federal bank, it conferred upon Congress an implied power to do so under the Necessary and Proper Clause so that Congress could realize or fulfill its express taxing and spending powers. The case reaffirmed Hamilton 's view that legislation reasonably related to express powers was constitutional. Marshall wrote:
We admit, as all must admit, that the powers of the Government are limited, and that its limits are not to be transcended. But we think the sound construction of the Constitution must allow to the national legislature that discretion with respect to the means by which the powers it confers are to be carried into execution which will enable that body to perform the high duties assigned to it in the manner most beneficial to the people. Let the end be legitimate, let it be within the scope of the Constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consistent with the letter and spirit of the Constitution, are constitutional.
The court in McCulloch v. Maryland held that federal laws could be necessary without being "absolutely necessary '', and noted that "The clause is placed among the powers of Congress, not among the limitations on those powers. '' At the same time, the court retained the power of judicial review established in Marbury v. Madison, declaring that it had the power to strike down laws that departed from those powers: "Should Congress, in the execution of its powers, adopt measures which are prohibited by the Constitution, or should Congress, under the pretext of executing its powers, pass laws for the accomplishment of objects not intrusted to the Government, it would become the painful duty of this tribunal, should a case requiring such a decision come before it, to say that such an act was not the law of the land. ''
As Chief Justice Marshall put it, the Necessary and Proper Clause "purport (s) to enlarge, not to diminish the powers vested in the government. It purports to be an additional power, not a restriction on those already granted. '' Without this clause in the Constitution, there would have been a dispute about whether the express powers imply incidental powers, whereas this clause resolved that dispute by making the incidental powers to be expressed instead of implied.
In a related case following the Civil War, the clause was employed (in combination with other enumerated powers) to give the federal government virtually complete control over currency.
The clause has been paired with the Commerce Clause to provide the constitutional basis for a wide variety of federal laws. For instance, various reforms involved in the New Deal were found to be necessary and proper enactments of the objective of regulating interstate commerce.
Indeed, the influence of the Necessary and Proper Clause and its broader interpretation under McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) in American jurisprudence can be seen in cases generally thought to simply involve the Commerce Clause.
In Wickard v. Filburn (1942), the Supreme Court upheld a federal statute making it a crime for a farmer to produce more wheat than was allowed under price controls and production controls, even if the excess production was for the farmer 's own personal consumption. The Necessary and Proper Clause was used to justify the regulation of production and consumption.
Also, in addition to this combination of clauses being used to uphold federal laws affecting economic activity, they also were used to justify federal criminal laws. For example, Congress in the Federal Kidnapping Act (1932) made it a federal crime to transport a kidnapped person across state lines, because the transportation would be an act of interstate activity over which the Congress has power. It has also provided justification for a wide range of criminal laws relating to interference with the federal government 's rightful operation, including federal laws against assaulting or murdering federal employees.
In National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (2012), the Supreme Court ruled that the individual mandate of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act can not be upheld under the Necessary and Proper Clause. Chief Justice John Roberts wrote in his ruling that the mandate can not "be sustained under the Necessary and Proper Clause as an integral part of the Affordable Care Act 's other reforms. Each of this Court 's prior cases upholding laws under that Clause involved exercises of authority derivative of, and in service to, a granted power. (...) The individual mandate, by contrast, vests Congress with the extraordinary ability to create the necessary predicate to the exercise of an enumerated power and draw within its regulatory scope those who would otherwise be outside of it. Even if the individual mandate is "necessary '' to the Affordable Care Act 's other reforms, such an expansion of federal power is not a "proper '' means for making those reforms effective. ''
According to its proponents, this ruling in NFIB v. Sebelius returns the Necessary and Proper clause to its original interpretation outlined by John Marshall in McCulloch v. Maryland. According to David Kopel, the clause "simply restates the background principle that Congress can exercise powers which are merely ' incidental ' to Congress 's enumerated powers. ''
The specific term "Necessary and Proper Clause '' was coined in 1926 by Associate Justice Louis Brandeis, writing for the majority in the Supreme Court decision in Lambert v. Yellowley, 272 U.S. 581 (1926), where in the court upheld a law restricting medicinal use of alcohol as a necessary and proper exercise of power under the 18th Amendment establishing Prohibition in the United States.
This phrase has become the label of choice for this constitutional clause, and it was universally adopted by the courts, and it received Congress 's imprimatur in Title 50 of the United States Code, section 1541 (b) (1994), in the purpose and policy of the War Powers Resolution.
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what day is armed forces day in the us | Armed Forces Day - wikipedia
Armed Forces Day is the broad term used to describe holidays observed by nations around the world to honor their military forces. It combines elements of the U.S. holidays Veterans Day (formerly Armistice Day) which recognizes living veterans of the U.S. armed forces and Memorial Day, which recognizes veterans no longer alive. The concept also includes elements of Remembrance Day in many other nations.
In Argentina, the commemorative dates of the Armed Forces are as follows:
Բանակի օր (English: Army Day) is celebrated on 28 January to commemorate the formation of the armed forces of the newly independent Republic of Armenia in 1992.
ANZAC Day is a public holiday commemorated on 25 April. It is a national day of remembrance in Australia and New Zealand that broadly commemorates all Australians and New Zealanders "who served and died in all wars, conflicts, and peacekeeping operations '' and "the contribution and suffering of all those who have served. '' The date commemorates the landings in 1915 at Anzac Cove on the coast of the Dardanelles and the Aegean Sea of the old Ottoman Empire (modern Turkey) by Australian and New Zealand combined military forces in the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, the beginning of the costly casualties of the Gallipoli campaign in World War I.
Silahlı Qüvvələr Günü (English: Day of the Armed Forces of Azerbaijan) is celebrated on 26 June. The events are centered around a military parade in Baku, the national capital. The annual parade is one of the biggest in the Commonwealth of Independent States.
Bangladesh observes Armed Forces Day on 21 November to mark the occasion of the Tri - Services joint operation against occupying Pakistani forces in the Liberation War, 1971. The day starts with laying of a floral wreath at ' Sikha Anirban ' (Eternal Flame) at Dhaka Cantonment by the President, the Prime Minister and the service chiefs. In the afternoon a reception is held at Senakunja, Dhaka Cantonment where the Prime Minister, ministers, the leader of the opposition and other high civil and military officials attend. In other cantonments, naval bases, and air bases, similar receptions are held. A special TV programme Anirban is broadcast on different TV channels the previous evening, and special newspaper supplements are published with national dailies. Receptions are also held by the Prime Minister and the service chiefs for recipients of the gallantry award Freedom Fighter Award. Special meals for family members are served in all military stations. The Armed Forces Division also brings out a special publication with articles related to the War of Independence and the armed forces.
Bolivian Armed Forces Day (Dia de las Fuerzas Armadas de Bolivia) is marked on 7 August, the day after Independence Day, as it was the day in 1826 when Bolivia 's first President, Antonio José de Sucre, officially gave his sanction to the creation of the Armed Forces of Bolivia.
In Brazil, the commemorative dates of the Armed Forces are as follows:
Marinha do Brasil (English: Brazilian Navy):
Exército Brasileiro (English: Brazilian Army):
Força Aérea Brasileira (English: Brazilian Air Force):
The Day of Bravery and Bulgarian Armed Forces Day is commemorated every year on 6 May, The Feast of Saint George, who is the patron saint of the Bulgarian Armed Forces. The national parade is held on Prince Alexander of Battenberg Square in Sofia, the national capital city, on this day, with the salute taken by the President of Bulgaria, the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces.
In Canada, Canadian Armed Forces Day is the first Sunday in June and is a celebration of Canada 's armed services, their heritage, and their personnel. Canadian Armed Forces Day is not a public holiday in Canada.
In Chile, Día de las Glorias del Ejército (Army Day) is a national holiday celebrated every 19 September, a day after the independence day, with the "Parada Militar '', a parade where all the branches of the armed forces display some of their troops and equipment in a special part of "Parque O'Higgins '' in Santiago. Several other smaller parades can be seen on other cities of the country, as well as air displays by the air force, on Independence Day, 18 September.
For the Chilean Navy, its counterpart is the national Día de las Glorias de la Armada (Navy Day) celebrations on 21 May, in honor of the double anniversaries of the Battle of Iquique and the Battle of Punta Gruesa in 1879. Valparaiso is where the main celebrations are concentrated, with a military parade in the morning and the President of Chile 's State of the Nation address in the afternoon. Similar parades are hosted in major and minor cities and towns nationwide.
The Army Day (Chinese: 建 军 节) is celebrated in the People 's Republic of China on 1 August in commemoration of the founding of the People 's Liberation Army in 1927.
In Croatia, the commemorative dates of the Armed Forces are as follows:
Oružane snage Republike Hrvatske (English: Republic of Croatia Armed Forces):
Hrvatska kopnena vojska (English: Croatian Army);
Hrvatska ratna mornarica (English: Croatian Navy);
Hrvatsko ratno zrakoplovstvo i protuzračna obrana (English: Croatian Air Force and Defense).
The entire Croatian Armed Forces are also honored on 5 August, Victory and Homeland Defenders Day and Day of the Defenders of Croatia, celebrating the anniversary of the 1995 Operation Storm.
The Day of the Cuban Armed Forces is celebrated on 2 December to commemorate the landing of the Granma in 1956. The first ever military parade in years to be held on the holiday was marked in 2006, the parade on 2 January 2017 (postponed for 1 month due to the Death and state funeral of Fidel Castro) will be the second and will be the final event marking the diamond jubilee since the events of 1956.
Día de las Fuerzas Armadas (English: Armed forces day) is celebrated on 25 February to commemorate the anniversary of the armed forces of the Dominican Republic. It is also the day of birth of Matías Ramón Mella, who is regarded as a national hero in the Dominican Republic and fired the first shot with his blunderbuss to proclaim, along with other patriots, the Independence from Haiti on 27 February 1844. On 27 February a military parade is held to commemorate the Independence anniversary.
In Egypt, Armed Forces Day is celebrated on 6 October, the date on which the October War of 1973 began with the Egyptian Army 's successful crossing of the Suez Canal that culminated in the capture of the Bar Lev Line.
In Finland, Puolustusvoimain lippujuhlan päivä (English: Day of the Finnish Defence Forces; literally The Day of the Finnish Defence Forces ' flag fest) is celebrated on 4 June, which is the birthday of Marshal of Finland Gustaf Mannerheim. During 1919 -- 1939 it was called as "Sotaväen lippujuhlan päivä '' (The Day of the Finnish Army 's flag fest) and was celebrated on 16th as the Victory Day of the Troops of the Republic of Finland, i.e. the Whites over the Reds in the Civil War 1918. After the Winter War there were no need to maintain the dichotomy of Finnish society and the celebrations of 16 May were ended. During Mannerheim 's 75th birthday the Finnish Government declared that from then on 4 June would officially celebrated as "Suomen marsalkan syntymäpäivä '' (The Birthday of Marshal of Finland). Even though the official name of the day changed soon after it is still known, also in official context, as "The Birthday of Marshal of Finland ''.
During France 's national day, France honors its armed forces during the military parade of the 14 July, which is the oldest and largest military parade in Europe.
Georgia marks its Armed Forces Day (Georgian: შეიარაღებული ძალების დღე) on 30 April to commemorate the foundation of the Georgian Armed Forces in 1991.
Greece marks its Armed Forces Day (Greek: Ημέρα των Ενόπλων Δυνάμεων) on 21 November, on the day of the Presentation of Mary.
In Guatemala, Día del Ejército is celebrated on 30 June. It is remembered because in 1871 the Liberal Revolution or "Revolución Liberal '', led by Miguel García Granados and Justo Rufino Barrios, and composed of personnel of the Guatemalan Army, marched on the streets of Guatemala City and captured the Presidential palace, putting an end to the Conservadora administration formerly headed by Rafael Carrera, marking the start of a new era in Guatemalan history. Parades are held in honor of the holiday in Guatemala City and in other major towns nationwide.
In Haiti, Le Jour de La Battaille Des Vertieres is celebrated on 18 November in celebration of the victory of the indigenous slave African and Gens de couleur versus the European forces led by France with support from United States and Spain.
In Hungary, the Patriots and Homeland Defenders Day is celebrated on 21 May, honoring all those serving in the Hungarian Defence Force.
In India, Army Day is celebrated on 15 January, Navy Day is celebrated on 4 December and Air Force Day is celebrated on 8 October every year and 7 December is celebrated as Armed Forces Flag Day
Hari Tentara Nasional Indonesia (English: Indonesian National Armed Forces Day) abbreviated HUT TNI is celebrated on the 5 October, the day of the foundation of the Tentara Keamanan Rakyat (People 's Security Armed Forces), the predecessor of the TNI, in 1945, itself a replacement for the Badan Keamanan Rakyat (People 's Security Corps) established on 29 August on the same year. Military parades are held nationwide in major cities and provincial capitals in honor of the TNI 's serving men and women and military veterans.
Rouz - e Artesh (English: Army Day) is celebrated on 18 April, the establishment day of the army.
Iraqi Armed Forces Day is celebrated on 6 January, and marks the anniversary of the activation of the Iraqi Army on 6 January 1921.
Yom Hazikaron (English: Memorial Day) is observed on the 4th day of the month of Iyar of the Hebrew calendar or May in the Gregorian Calendar, always preceding the next day 's celebrations of Israel Independence Day, Yom Ha - Atzma'ut, on the 5th day of Iyar, the anniversary of the Proclamation of the State of Israel in 1948.
Giorno delle Forze Armate (English: Armed Forces Day) is celebrated on 4 November to remember the Italian victory in the First World War. On 4 November 1918, Austrian - Hungarian forces agreed to a cease fire, thus ending the war on Italian front.
The following service holidays are celebrated all over the Italian Armed Forces:
In Japan, following the end of World War II and beginning in 1966, the Self - Defense Force Day (Japanese: 自衛隊 記念 日; Romaji: Jiei - tai Kinen'bi) is celebrated every 1 November. The parade honoring the SDF, however, falls on the last week of October.
In the Empire of Japan, Army Commemoration Day (Japanese: 陸軍 記念 日; Romaji: Riku - gun Kinen'bi) was celebrated every 10 March, in commemoration of the Japanese victory in the Battle of Mukden. Similarly, Navy Commemoration Day (Japanese: 海軍 記念 日; Romaji: Kai - gun Kinen'bi) was celebrated every 24 May in commemoration of the Japanese victory in the Battle of Tsushima. These days were celebrated from 1906 until the end of World War II in 1945.
The Defender of the Fatherland Day of Kazakhstan is observed on 7 May to mark the founding of the Armed Forces of Kazakhstan on 7 May 1992 after the fall of the USSR.
The Anniversary of The Lao Army was observed annually every 20 January to celebrate the creation of the independent Lao army on 20 January 1949. Every year, large posters are placed to remind that date which was marks the first step towards full independence and domination of the Lao Communist Party.
The Latvian National Armed Forces Day is marked every 10 July, a day when in 1919 Latvia 's Independent and Northlatvian brigades where united in one formation under the command of General David Simanson,
Lebanese Armed Forces (Armed Forces Day) is celebrated on 1 August.
The Day of Macedonian Army is celebrated on 18 August. This date is chosen because on 18 August 1943, the battalion Mirče Acev was formed at the Slavej Mountain. It was the first organized battalion to fight against the fascist forces in World War II in Macedonia. The day is not a national holiday, but is celebrated with a manifestation at one of the Army 's barracks, where the President, the Speaker of the Assembly, the Prime Minister and the Minister of Defense are always present. Usually there is a parade of the armed forces and an exhibition of the weapons and vehicles of the Army.
Mali Army Day is celebrated on 20 January.
Hari Angkatan Tentera Malaysia (English: Malaysian Armed Forces Day) is celebrated on 16 September.
Mauritanian Armed Forces (English: Armed Forces Day) is celebrated on 1 May.
Mexican Armed Forces (English: Armed Forces Day) is celebrated on 19 February since 1950, in commemoration of the decree that created them in 1917.
Soldier 's Day (Mongolian: Цэргийн баяр) is celebrated on 18 March annually. On 18 March 1921, Sükhbaatar 's troops succeeded in taking the town, despite being heavily outnumbered. This day is now the official holiday of Mongolia 's army, and is usually celebrated as the equivalent of Defender of the Fatherland Day in Russia, or the male version of International Women 's Day.
In Myanmar, Armed Forces Day (တပ်မတော်နေ့) is celebrated on 27 March in commemoration of the start of Burmese army 's resistance to Japanese occupation in 1945. Originally, it was not Armed Forces Day, but Resistance Day (တော်လှန်ရေးနေ့).
In Nigeria, Armed Forces Day, also known as Remembrance Day, is celebrated on 15 January. It was formerly celebrated on 11 November of every year to coincide with the Remembrance Day (Poppy Day) for the World War II veterans in the British Commonwealth of Nations. But it was changed to 15 January in Nigeria in commemoration of the surrender of Biafran troops to the Federal troops on 15 January 1970, thus concluding the Nigerian Civil War that sought to tear apart the unity of Nigeria.
In North Korea, People 's Army Foundation Day is celebrated on 25 April, in commemoration of the day of the creation of the Korean People 's Army (KPA) in 1932. On that holiday North Korea holds a national commemorative assembly in Pyongyang and various commemorative events, firepower demonstrations, concerts and the military parade. Since 23 April 1996 when the Central People 's Committee issued an ordinance making it a national holiday, both the entire military and civilians are permitted to take off from work to celebrate all those serving in the KPA and its veterans.
Additionally, since 2015, the KPA and its veterans are honored on People 's Army Day, 8 February, to commemorate the official formation of the regular forces of the KPA in 1948.
In Pakistan, the Federal Army, Navy and Air Force celebrate Defence Day (6 September), the Navy Day / Victory Day (8 September) and the Air Force Day (7 September) respectively. Usually the ceremony takes place on the Resolution or Pakistan Day (23 March) when all three services display their full colours and guards of honour, as well as on Independence Day (14 August).
In Peru, the Día de las Fuerzas Armadas del Perú (English: Peruvian Armed Forces Day) is celebrated on 24 September, the feast of the Virgin of Mercy, patroness of the Armed Forces. The day for the Peruvian Army itself is 9 December, commemorating Peru 's victory in the Battle of Ayacucho, which ended the Peruvian War of Independence, while for the Peruvian Navy, Navy Day is on 8 October, the double anniversary of the 1821 foundation of the Navy and the Battle of Angamos in 1879.
Air Force Day is held on 23 July, the anniversary of the death of Peruvian Air Force Lieutenant José Quiñones Gonzales during the 1941 Ecuadorian - Peruvian war.
The Great Military Parade of Peru is held on the day after Independence Day, 29 July, and this is where all 3 services of the Armed Forces are also honored.
Armed Forces Day (Filipino: Araw ng Hukbong Sandatahang Lakas, Spanish: Dia de las Fuerzas Armadas del Filipinas) is observed on 21 December, the anniversary of the official founding of the Armed Forces of the Philippines in 1935 in accordance with CA No. 1 (National Defense Act of 1935).
In Poland, the Święto Wojska Polskiego (English: Polish Armed Forces Day) is celebrated annually on 15 August. Begun in 1923, the day commemorated the anniversary of Poland 's 1920 victory over Soviet Russia at the Battle of Warsaw in the Polish - Soviet War. The holiday was discontinued during the communist era in 1947, only to be revived again after the return of democracy in 1992.
In Romania, the Armed Forces Day is celebrated on 25 October -- on this day, in 1944, the Romanian Land Forces liberated Carei, the last Romanian city under joint Nazi - Hungarian occupation.
The Romania -- Hungary border had been reached a few days earlier, but the troops rested, completing the liberation of Romania.
In Russia, the День защитника Отечества / Dyen ' zaschitnika Otechestva (English: Defender of the Fatherland Day) is celebrated on 23 February, honoring all those serving in the Russian Armed Forces. In the Soviet Union there was День Советской Армии / Dyen ' Sovetskoy Armi'i (Day of the Soviet Army), celebrated on the same date.
In Russia the following holidays are celebrated by military personnel, veterans and the general public:
Dan Vojske Srbije (Serbian Armed Forces Day) is marked on 23 April, the anniversary of the beginning of the 1815 Second Serbian Uprising which began the long road towards the restoration of Serbian independence after years of Ottoman occupation.
In Singapore, Singapore Armed Forces Day falls on 1 July each year. The practice began in 1969, just several years after Singapore separated from Malaysia to become a sovereign nation. The day is marked by a parade and a re-affirmation of the pledge of loyalty by all members of the Singapore Armed Forces on parade. On that day, the outgoing colour bearer of the Singapore Army hands over the State Colour of the Army to a new colour bearer from the Army 's Best Combat Unit of the year.
In South Korea, 국군 의 날 (English: Armed Forces Day) falls on 1 October, the day that South Korean forces broke through the 38th parallel in 1950 during the Korean War. It is not a national holiday or public day off, but a National Flag Raising Day (국기 게양 일) to recognize and honor the active and reserve servicemen and women and veterans of the Republic of Korea Armed Forces.
Armed Forces Day (Spanish: Día de las Fuerzas Armadas) is observed in Spain since 1978. It started as a purely military celebration, but became with time a more colourful and popular event, the central acts of which are held each year at a different city. Since 1987 it is observed the Saturday nearest to 30 May, feast - day of Saint Ferdinand, King.
The Armed Forces and those killed in service are also honoured at the celebrations of Spain 's National Day (12 October).
In Sri Lanka each armed services celebrates its own Army Day (10 October), the Navy Day (9 December) and the Air Force Day (2 March) respectively. However all armed services celebrate Independence Day (4 February) with a military parade in which they display their full colours. Since 2010, the armed services also hold parades on Victory and Remembrance Day (18 May), in honour of the armed forces fallen, heroes and veterans of the Sri Lankan Civil War.
Armed Forces Day for the South African National Defence Force is celebrated on 21 February, the day of the 1993 reconstitution of the South African Defence Force into its current identity. It has been celebrated with parades nationwide since 2012. Since 2017, the Armed Forces Day event also honors the fallen of the tragic 1917 sinking of SS Mendi, which carried South African forces into the frontlines during the First World War, resulting in one of the biggest military losses ever in South African military history.
The Armed Forces Day (Chinese: 軍人 節) is celebrated in the Republic of China on the western Pacific island of Taiwan (formerly called Formosa when under Japanese occupation), on 3 September, on the same day as their Victory over Japan Day (1945). Pursuant to Article 5 of the Order to Implement Commemoration Days and Holidays (紀念 日 及 節日 實施 辦法), the Ministry of National Defense (國防 部) determines how to allow a day off for the military personnel. This is not a public holiday in the Republic of China on Taiwan, but relevant institutions, groups, and schools may hold celebrating activities.
Рӯзи ид (English: Army Day) is celebrated on 23 February to commemorate the formation of the armed forces of Tajikistan in 1993. Military parades have been held on Armed Forces Day in 1993 and 2013.
Thailand honours the Royal Thai Armed Forces on 18 January, the very day King Naresuan won Yuddhahatthi or Elephant Battle against Mingyi Swa (grandson of Bayinnaung) in 1592 at Nong Sarai, Suphanburi. This is honored with massive military parades in various parts of the country. The main celebrations are in Bangkok and on behalf of the Royal Family of Thailand, the Chief of Defence Forces takes the salute on this day 's parade.
The Ukrainian Ground Forces 's Ground Forces Day is celebrated on 12 December.
Navy Day for the Ukrainian Navy is celebrated on the first Sunday of July since June 2015.
Air Force Day is the first Saturday in August.
For the entire Armed Forces of Ukraine, Armed Forces Day is celebrated on 6 December, with fireworks displays and gun salutes nationwide. This holiday was established in 1993 by a resolution passed by the Verkhovna Rada.
The first Armed Forces Day in the United Kingdom took place on 27 June 2009. It replaced the previous Veterans ' Day, first observed in 2006. The date was chosen as it marked the day after the anniversary of the first investiture ceremony for the Victoria Cross military medal for heroism, held on 26 June 1857.
The 2009 celebrations were centred on Chatham Historic Dockyard -- a former Royal Navy base. The Prime Minister Gordon Brown and his wife Sarah, and Prince Richard, the Duke and his Duchess of Gloucester, attended as the official party, along with the head of the unified Armed Forces, Air Chief Marshal Sir Jock Stirrup, and Defence Minister Kevan Jones.
The Isle of Man, a Crown Dependency, held its events a month later on 26 July 2009.
The 2010 event was centred on Cardiff and in 2011 it was Edinburgh 's turn. Smaller events were held throughout the United Kingdom.
UK Armed Forces Day 2012 was centred on Plymouth and took place on Saturday 30 June. Smaller events were held throughout the United Kingdom. The Isle of Man holds its event on Sunday 24 June.
In the United States, Armed Forces Day is celebrated on the third Saturday in May. It falls near the end of Armed Forces Week, which begins on the second Saturday of May and ends on the third Sunday of May (the fourth if the month begins on a Sunday, as in 2016). (2)
First observed on 20 May 1950, the day was created on 31 August 1949, to honor Americans serving in the five U.S. military branches -- the U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Air Force and U.S. Coast Guard -- following the consolidation of the military services in the U.S. Department of Defense. It was intended to replace the separate Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps and Coast Guard Days, but the separate days are still observed, especially within the respective services. (3)
The first Armed Forces Day was celebrated by parades, open houses, receptions and air shows. The United States ' longest continuously running Armed Forces Day Parade is held in Bremerton, WA. In 2017 Bremerton celebrated the 69th year of the Armed Forces Day Parade.
Because of their unique training schedules, National Guard and Reserve units may celebrate Armed Forces Day / Week over any period in the month of May.
On 19 May 2017, President Donald Trump reaffirmed the Armed Forces Day holiday, marking the 70th anniversary since the creation of the Department of Defense.
Aside from the federal holiday the Armed Forces and the National Guard Bureau are honored on the following days:
Venezuela celebrates Army Day on 24 June, the anniversary of Simón Bolívar 's victory in the Battle of Carabobo, which led to Venezuela 's independence from Spain.
Navy Day, honoring the 1823 Battle of Lake Maracaibo, is celebrated on the same day as the birthday of Simon Bolivar, 24 July.
The Venezuelan Air Force marks Air Force Day on 27 November every year, honoring the role of Venezuelan military aviation in national history (the date, used since 2010, is in remembrance of the 2nd of the 1992 Venezuelan coup d'état attempts in which the Air Force took part). From 1946 till 2009, 10 December was celebrated as Air Force Day in honor of the birth of national military aviation with the 1920 opening of the Air Force Academy in Maracay.
National Guard Day is celebrated on 3 August, the date of the 1936 founding of the Venezuelan National Guard. The entire Venezuelan National Armed Forces are also honored on Independence Day, 5 July, which is also earmarked as National Armed Forces Day.
In Vietnam, People 's Army Day is celebrated on 22 December, the day of the 1944 foundation of the People 's Army of Vietnam. This is not a public holiday, but relevant celebrations are held nationwide to celebrate the occasion.
The Armed Forces Day of South Vietnam was celebrated from 1965 to 1974 on 19 June; the holiday is still celebrated internationally by former South Vietnamese military veterans.
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when did anchor butter stop being from new zealand | Anchor (brand) - Wikipedia
Anchor is a brand of dairy products that was founded in New Zealand in 1886 and is one of the key brands owned by the New Zealand - based international exporter Fonterra Co − operative Group. In Malaysia, Singapore and Taiwan the Fernleaf brand is used in place of Anchor.
Historically the Anchor brand of milk products in New Zealand was owned by the New Zealand Dairy Group which merged with Kiwi Co − operative in 2001 to form the mega dairy Co − operative Fonterra. As this merger would leave New Zealand with virtually no competition in the domestic dairy sector, government legislation was required for Fonterra to be formed. One of the requirements was that Fonterra must divest its strongest domestic brand, Anchor, in the New Zealand market. This did not affect the brand internationally. The brand was sold to what is currently Goodman Fielder. Between 2001 and 2005 Fonterra grew one of their smaller milk brands which was originally only available in the South Island of New Zealand, ' Meadow Fresh Milk ' into a nationwide brand which provided good competition to the Anchor Brand of milk products. In 2005 Fonterra did a brand swap with what is now Goodman Fielder, swapping Meadow Fresh for Anchor meaning Fonterra could once again align its international and domestic dairy brands.
Fresh Anchor Milk products available in New Zealand are manufactured and marketed by "Fonterra Brands '', a division of Fonterra. The main milk processing plant producing Anchor milk in New Zealand is in Takanini, Auckland.
In addition to the common varieties with differing percentages of milk fat, they also offer "Anchor - Xtra '', with extra calcium (marketed to "extra active '' parents), and "Mega Milk '', with extra vitamins, as well as extra calcium, marketed for children. In 2013 the Anchor brand was released in China.
Anchor Milk Powder is the major Anchor product available in some developing countries such as Guyana and Ethiopia.
Anchor Butter and Anchor Cheese are sold in New Zealand; however, the brand for these products in New Zealand is still owned by a Goodman Fielder subsidiary. For butter and cheese the brand was not returned to Fonterra in the brand swap so not all Anchor branded products are Fonterra products in New Zealand. However, like most dairy products in New Zealand the milk is still sourced from Fonterra suppliers and for butter and cheese it is also likely that Fonterra manufactured the products with Goodman Fielder simply packaging the products.
Internationally the Anchor brand is 100 % owned by the Fonterra Co-Op Group. It is available in (and manufactured in) many areas including:
In the UK, Anchor block butter was imported from New Zealand until August 2012 when Arla Foods UK, the British licensee, transferred production to a local factory at Westbury, Wiltshire, using British cream.
Anchor Spreadable is one of the brand 's specialised products. This butter - based spread is softened with canola oil and spreads easily, but marketing claims of its being spreadable direct from the fridge have been questioned. A 2003 campaign for Anchor Spreadable, created by Jonti Picking, of Weebl and Bob fame, included television ads featuring wobbly cows.
Anchor Spreadable, as well as other New Zealand butter products, were banned from import into the EU for a short time. This came after a complaint made to the European Commissioner for Trade, Peter Mandelson, by the German dairy trader, Egenberger.
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