question
stringlengths 15
100
| context
stringlengths 18
412k
|
|---|---|
is it illegal to go outside in your underwear | Clothing laws by country - wikipedia
Clothing laws vary considerably around the world. In general, in most countries, there are no laws which prescribe what clothing is required to be worn. However, the community standards of clothing are set indirectly by way of prosecution of those who wear something that is not socially approved. Those people who wear insufficient clothing can be prosecuted in many countries under various offences termed indecent exposure, public indecency or other descriptions. Generally, these offences do not themselves define what is and what is not acceptable clothing to constitute the offence, and leave it to a judge to determine in each case.
Most clothing laws concern which parts of the body must not be exposed to view; there are exceptions. Some countries have strict clothing laws, such as in some Islamic countries. Other countries are more tolerant of non-conventional attire and are relaxed about nudity. Many countries have different laws and customs for men and women, what may be allowed or perceived often varies by gender.
Separate laws are usually in place to regulate obscenity, which includes certain depictions of people in various states of undress, and child pornography, which may include similar photographs of children.
In some countries, non-sexual toplessness or nudity is legal. However, private or public establishments can establish a dress code which requires visitors to wear prescribed clothing.
There are a variety of laws around the world which affect what people can and can not wear. For example, some laws require a person in authority to wear the appropriate uniform. For example, a policeman on duty may be required to wear a uniform; and it can be illegal for the general public to wear a policeman 's uniform. The same could apply to firefighters and other emergency personnel. In some countries, for example in Australia, the boy scouts uniform is also protected.
In most courts of law lawyers and judges are required by law or custom to wear court dress, which may entail robes or traditional wigs.
In many countries, regulations require workers to wear protective clothing, such as safety helmets, shoes, vests etc., as appropriate. The obligation is generally on employers to ensure that their workers wear the appropriate protective clothing. Similarly, health regulations may require those who handle food to wear hair covering, gloves and other clothing.
Governments can also influence standards of dress shown on television through its licensing powers.
In addition to nude beaches and similar exceptional locations, there are some public events in which nudity is tolerated more than usual, such as the naked bike rides held in several countries.
There are many specific circumstances where body parts have to be covered, often for safety or sanitary reasons.
In some Islamic countries, women must conceal almost their entire bodies (see hijab).
Ever since 1940, in the Title VI of the Penal Code, naming crimes against sexual dignity (until 2009 crimes against (social) conventions), the fourth chapter is dedicated to a crime named "public outrage (related) to modesty '' (Portuguese: ultraje público ao pudor, pronounced (uwˈtɾaʒi ˈpublikw aw puˈdoʁ)).
It is composed of two articles, Art. 233 "Obscene Act '', "to practice an obscene act in a public place, or open or exposed to the public '', punished with arrest of 3 months to 1 year or a fine; and Art. 234 "Obscene Written Piece or Object '', to do, import, export, purchase or have in one 's property, to ends of trade, distribution or public display, any written, drawn, painted, stamped or object piece of obscenity, punished with arrest of 6 months to 1 years or a fine.
It is often used against people who expose their nude bodies in public environments that were not warranted a license to cater to the demographic interested in such practice (the first such place was the Praia do Abricó in Rio de Janeiro, in 1994), even if no sexual action took place, and it may include, for example, the chest area of women. Such a thing took place in FEMEN protests in São Paulo, in 2012.
Pervasive points of criticism to the legislation have included:
Brazil has about 35 spaces open or mostly open to the public where it is possible to freely practice nudism, its sole public spaces being 8 beaches. They are not criminalized when the clothes - free area is private and away from a view from the street, or through legislation when the beaches are officiated by a municipal decree, for example. It has hosted the meeting of the International Federation of Naturism in 2008, and there is a growing interest in the practice.
In Canada, s. 173 of the Criminal Code prohibits "indecent acts ''. There is no statutory definition in the Code of what constitutes an indecent act (other than that the exposure of the genitals for a sexual purpose to anyone under 14 years of age), ¿ 16 years of age? so that the decision of what state of undress is "indecent '', and thereby unlawful, is left to judges to decide. Judges have held, for example, that nude sunbathing is not indecent. Also, streaking is similarly not regarded as indecent. Section 174 prohibits nudity if it offends "against public decency or order '' and in view of the public. The courts have found that nude swimming is not offensive under this definition.
Toplessness is also not an indecent act under s. 173. In 1991, Gwen Jacob was arrested for walking in a street in Guelph, Ontario while topless. She was acquitted in 1996 by the Ontario Court of Appeal on the basis that the act of being topless is not in itself a sexual act or indecent. The case has been referred to in subsequent cases for the proposition that the mere act of public nudity is not sexual or indecent or an offense. Since then, the court ruling has been tested and upheld several times.
In Qatar, the penal code punishes and forbids the wearing of revealing or indecent clothes, this dressing - code law is enforced by a government body called "Al - Adheed ''. In 2012, a Qatari NGO organized a campaign of "public decency '' after they deemed the government to be too lax in monitoring the wearing of revealing clothes; defining the latter as "not covering shoulders and knees, tight or transparent clothes ''. The campaign targets foreigners who constitute the majority of Qatar 's population.
In Singapore, nudity is illegal. Offenders will be charged under Miscellaneous Offences (Public Order and Nuisance) Act.
No specific clothing laws exist for the general public. Nudity is treated under indecent exposure. On 3 April 2015 the country 's first official clothing optional beach, Mpenjati Beach near Trafalgar in Kwazulu - Natal, opened after the Hibiscus Coast Local Municipality approved the South African Nudist Association 's (SANNA) application. Although nudity has gradually been tolerated on Sandy Bay in Cape Town after the National Party (NP) lost the election in 1994, and strict enforcement of its moral values no longer applied, it is not an official legally recognised public nude beach. Partial nudity is also tolerated on other beaches.
The municipality of Dubai in the United Arab Emirates announced in 2008 that signs would be posted on beaches warning women against topless bathing and indecent exposure contrary to the cultural values of the UAE. There would be no fines for breaking this rule, just a warning and if necessary, ejection from the beach. This was said to be in response to residents ' complaints about tourists sunbathing topless or nude and changing their clothes in public.
There are also signs at malls and shopping centers indicating that shoulders and knees must be covered, and revealing clothes are not allowed. Violation of the rules will lead to warnings and recently, possibly arrest.
There are three legal jurisdictions in the United Kingdom (England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland). There are a further three jurisdictions that are Crown dependencies (Isle of Man, Bailiwick of Guernsey and Bailiwick of Jersey). The details of the law regarding public nudity differ substantially between them. In general nudity is not an explicit offence but there are various offences that may apply to nudity in unsuitable circumstances. What constitutes unsuitable circumstances varies according to the jurisdiction but nudity is legal in a much wider range of circumstances than many people assume.
The Crown Prosecution Service has published guidance for England and Wales.
British Naturism has published guidance for England and Wales, and Scotland. They are preparing guidance for Northern Ireland.
In England and Wales the two statutes most likely to be applicable are s. 5 Public Order Act 1986, and for aggressive nudity s. 66 Sexual Offences Act 2003.
See also:
A variety of different offenses, such as "indecent exposure '', "public lewdness '', "public indecency '', "disorderly conduct '' and so on, may involve exposure of a specific body part (genitals, buttocks, anus, nipples on women), a specific intention or effect (being sexually suggestive, offending or annoying observers). In some cases, a member of the opposite sex must be present. In Florida, designated nudity areas are given an explicit exception. There are also some specific prohibitions against sexual acts, such as having sexual intercourse in public, or publicly caressing someone in a sexual way. In Indiana and Tennessee, there are specific prohibitions against showing a noticeably erect penis through clothing, or other sensitive areas through semi-transparent clothing. In some states, indecent conduct can also occur on private property, depending on the intent or effect of the act. In some cases there are exceptions for spouses, breastfeeding, and in New York, theatre performances. In most states, there is a governing state statute which defines the offense; in Maryland and Massachusetts, indecency is defined by case law. Some local (county and municipal) governments also regulate personal exposure, as well as commercial activities such as strip clubs.
Case law in general governs the interpretation of the statutory definition, and in some cases allows for additional exceptions.
In general, exposure of the head, upper chest, and limbs is legal, and considered socially acceptable except among certain religious communities.
Federal, state, and local regulations for certain occupations require various pieces of protective clothing for the safety of the wearer. Such items include hard hats, safety vests, life jackets, aprons, hairnets, and steel - toe boots.
In the first decade of the twenty - first century there was some controversy in some southern U.S. states over the wearing of trousers so low as to expose the underwear (sagging). The practice was banned in some places.
Some states and towns have loose, or no, regulations for requiring clothing. The city of San Francisco has a history of public nudity, including at public events such as Bay to Breakers. The town of Brattleboro, VT experienced a brief period during which there was public nudity, until a law was passed banning it.
Note: The German Penal Code determines "exhibitionism '' (sec. 183) as an act of public exposure committed by a man for sexual arrousal and "causing a public disturbance '' (sec. 183a) as a sexual activity in public. Therefore, non-sexual nudity is not considered as crime or misdemeanour.
(2) The regulatory offence may be sanctioned by a regulatory fine unless the act may be sanctioned pursuant to other provisions. '' The regulatory fine is between 5 and 1.000 Euros (sec. 17 (2) of the act). More likely, the local or state police may politely demand to cover up without further sanction or a cautionary fine of 5 to 55 Euros if immediately obeyed (sec. 56 (1) of the act).
Note regional changes: REF: http://www.catalannews.com/society-science/item/barcelona-city-council-bans-nudity-and-semi-nudity-on-the-streets
|
who crushed the polish national uprising of 1830 | November Uprising - wikipedia
Congress Poland
Russian Empire
The November Uprising (1830 -- 31), also known as the Polish -- Russian War 1830 -- 31 or the Cadet Revolution, was an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire. The uprising began on 29 November 1830 in Warsaw when the young Polish officers from the local Army of the Congress Poland 's military academy revolted, led by lieutenant Piotr Wysocki. They were soon joined by large segments of societies of Lithuania, Belarus, and the Right - bank Ukraine. Despite local successes, the uprising was eventually crushed by a numerically superior Imperial Russian Army under Ivan Paskevich. Tsar Nicholas I decreed that henceforth Poland was an integral part of Russia, with Warsaw little more than a military garrison, its university closed.
After the Partitions of Poland, Poland ceased to exist as an independent political entity at the end of 1795. However, the Napoleonic Wars and Polish participation in the wars against Russia and Austria resulted in the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807. The Congress of Vienna brought that state 's existence to an end in 1815, and essentially solidified the long - term division of Poland among Russia, Prussia and the Habsburg Empire. The Austrian Empire annexed territories in the South, Prussia took control over the semi-autonomous Grand Duchy of Poznań in the West, and Russia assumed hegemony over the semi-autonomous so - called Congress Kingdom.
Initially, the Russian - formed Congress Kingdom enjoyed a relatively large amount of internal autonomy and was only indirectly subject to imperial control, having its own constitution of the Kingdom of Poland. United with Russia through a personal union with the Tsar as King of Poland, the province could elect its own parliament (the Sejm) and government. The kingdom had its own courts, army and treasury. Over time, however, the freedoms granted to the Kingdom were gradually taken back and the constitution was progressively ignored by the Russian authorities. Alexander I of Russia never formally crowned himself as King of Poland. Instead, in 1815, he appointed Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich as de facto viceroy, disregarding the constitution.
Soon after the Congress of Vienna resolutions were signed, Russia ceased to respect them. In 1819 Alexander I abandoned liberty of the press in Congress Kingdom and introduced censorship. Russian secret police commanded by Nikolay Nikolayevich Novosiltsev started infiltration and persecution of Polish clandestine organizations, and in 1821 the Tsar ordered the abolition of freemasonry. As a result, after 1825 sessions of Polish Sejm were conducted in secret. Nicholas I of Russia formally crowned himself as King of Poland on 24 May 1829 in Warsaw.
Despite numerous protests by various Polish politicians who actively supported the "personal union '', Grand Duke Constantine had no intention of respecting the Polish constitution, one of the most progressive in Europe at that time. He abolished Polish social and patriotic organizations, the liberal opposition of the Kaliszanie faction, and replaced Poles with Russians in important administrative positions. Although married to a Pole (Joanna Grudzińska), he was commonly considered as an enemy of the Polish nation. Also, his command over the Polish Army led to serious conflicts within the officer corps. These frictions led to various conspiracies throughout the country, most notably within the army.
The armed struggle began when a group of conspirators led by a young cadet from the Warsaw officers ' school, Piotr Wysocki, took arms from their garrison on 29 November 1830 and attacked the Belweder Palace, the main seat of the Grand Duke. The final spark that ignited Warsaw was a Russian plan to use the Polish Army to suppress France 's July Revolution and the Belgian Revolution, in clear violation of the Polish constitution. The rebels managed to enter the Belweder, but Grand Duke Constantine had escaped in women 's clothing. The rebels then turned to the main city arsenal, capturing it after a brief struggle. The following day, armed Polish civilians forced the Russian troops to withdraw north of Warsaw. This incident is sometimes called the Warsaw Uprising or the November Night. (Polish: Noc listopadowa).
Taken by surprise by the rapid unfolding of events during the night of 29 November, the local Polish government (Administrative Council) assembled immediately to take control and to decide on a course of action. Unpopular ministers were removed and men like Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, the historian Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz and General Józef Chłopicki took their places. Loyalists led by Prince Czartoryski initially tried to negotiate with Grand Duke Constantine and to settle matters peacefully. However, when Czartoryski told the Council that Constantine was ready to forgive the offenders and that the matter would be amicably settled, Maurycy Mochnacki and other radicals angrily objected and demanded a national uprising. Fearing an immediate break with Russia, the Government agreed to let Constantine depart with his troops.
Mochnacki did n't trust the newly constituted ministry and set out to replace it with the Patriotic Club, organized by him. At a large public demonstration on 3 December in Warsaw, he denounced the negotiations between the Government and Grand Duke Constantine, who was encamped outside the city. Mochnacki advocated a military campaign in Lithuania so as to spare the country the devastation of war and preserve the local food supply. The meeting adopted a number of demands to be communicated to the Administrative Council, including the establishment of a revolutionary government and an immediate attack upon the forces of Constantine. The Polish army, with all but two of its generals, Wincenty Krasiński and Zygmunt Kurnatowski, now joined the uprising.
The remaining four ministers of the pre-revolutionary cabinet left the Administrative Council, and their places were taken by Mochnacki and three of his associates from the Patriotic Club, including Joachim Lelewel. The new body was known as the Provisional Government. To legalize its actions the Provisional Government ordered the convocation of the Sejm and on 5 December 1830 proclaimed Chłopicki as Dictator of the Uprising. Chłopicki considered the uprising an act of madness, but bowed to pressure and consented to take command temporarily, in the hope that it would be unnecessary to take the field. An able and highly decorated soldier, he had retired from the army because of the chicanery of Constantine. He overestimated the power of Russia and underestimated the strength and fervor of the Polish revolutionary movement. By temperament and conviction he was opposed to a war with Russia, not believing in a successful outcome. He accepted the dictatorship essentially in order to maintain internal peace and to save the Constitution.
Believing that Tsar Nicholas was unaware of his brother 's actions and that the uprising could be ended if the Russian authorities accepted the Constitution, Chłopicki 's first move was to send Prince Franciszek Ksawery Drucki - Lubecki to Saint Petersburg to negotiate. Chłopicki refrained from strengthening the Polish army and refused to initiate armed hostilities by expelling Russian forces from Lithuania. However, the radicals in Warsaw pressed for war and the complete liberation of Poland. On 13 December, the Sejm pronounced the National Uprising against Russia, and on 7 January 1831 Prince Drucki - Lubecki returned from Russia with no concessions. The Tsar demanded the complete and unconditional surrender of Poland and announced that the Poles should surrender to the grace of their Emperor. His plans foiled, Chłopicki resigned the following day.
Power in Poland was now in the hands of the radicals united in the Towarzystwo Patriotyczne (Patriotic Society) directed by Joachim Lelewel. On 25 January 1831, the Sejm passed the Act of Dethronization of Nicholas I, which ended the Polish - Russian personal union and was equivalent to a declaration of war on Russia. The proclamation declared that "the Polish nation is an independent people and has a right to offer the Polish crown to him whom it may consider worthy, from whom it might with certainty expect faith to his oath and wholehearted respect to the sworn guarantees of civic freedom. ''
On 29 January, the National Government of Adam Jerzy Czartoryski was established, and Michał Gedeon Radziwiłł was chosen as successor to Chłopicki. Chłopicki was persuaded to accept active command of the army.
It was too late to move the theatre of hostilities to Lithuania. On 4 February, a 115,000 strong Russian army under Field Marshal Hans Karl von Diebitsch crossed the Polish borders. The first major battle took place on 14 February 1831, close to the village of Stoczek near Łuków. In the Battle of Stoczek, Polish cavalry under Brigadier Józef Dwernicki defeated the Russian division of Teodor Geismar. However, the victory had mostly psychological value and could not stop the Russian advance towards Warsaw. The subsequent battles of Dobre, Wawer and Białołęka were inconclusive.
The Polish forces then assembled on the right bank of the Vistula to defend the capital. On 25 February, a Polish contingent of approximately 40,000 met a Russian force of 60,000 east of Warsaw, in the Battle of Olszynka Grochowska. Both armies withdrew after almost two days of heavy fighting and with considerable losses on both sides. Over 7,000 Poles fell on that field, and the number of killed in the Russian army was slightly larger. Diebitsch was forced to retreat to Siedlce and Warsaw was saved.
Chłopicki, whose soldierly qualities reasserted themselves by military activity, was wounded in action and his place taken by General Jan Skrzynecki who, like his predecessor, had won distinction under Napoleon for personal courage. Disliked by Grand Duke Constantine, he had retired from service. He shared with Chłopicki the conviction that war with Russia was futile, but with the opening of hostilities took command of a corps and fought creditably at Grochov. When the weak and indecisive Michał Radziwiłł surrendered the dictatorship, Skrzynecki was chosen to succeed him. He endeavored to end the war by negotiations with the Russian field commanders and hoped for benign foreign intervention.
Sympathetic echoes of the Polish aspirations reverberated throughout Europe. Enthusiastic meetings had been held in Paris under Lafayette 's chairmanship, and money for the Polish cause was collected in the United States. The governments of France and Britain, however, did not share the feelings of some of their people. King Louis - Philippe of France thought mainly of securing for himself recognition on the part of all European governments, and Lord Palmerston was intent on maintaining friendly relations with Russia. England regarded with alarm the reawakening of the French national spirit and did not wish to weaken Russia, "as Europe might soon again require her services in the cause of order, and to prevent Poland, whom it regarded as a national ally of France, from becoming a French province of the Vistula. '' Austria and Prussia adopted a position of benevolent neutrality towards Russia. They closed the Polish frontiers and prevented the transportation of munitions of war or supplies of any kind.
Under these circumstances the war with Russia began to take on a somber and disquieting aspect. The Poles fought desperately and attempts were made to rouse Volhynia, Podolia, Samogitia and Lithuania. With the exception of the Lithuanian uprising, in which the youthful Countess Emilia Plater and several other women distinguished themselves, the guerilla warfare carried on in the frontier provinces was of minor importance and served only to give Russia an opportunity to crush local risings. Notorious was the slaughter of the inhabitants of the small town of Ashmiany in Belarus. Meanwhile, new Russian forces under Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich of Russia arrived in Poland but met with many defeats. Constant warfare, however, and bloody battles such as that at Ostroleka in which 8,000 Poles lost their lives, considerably depleted the Polish forces. Mistakes on the part of the commanders, constant changes and numerous resignations, and the inactivity of the commanders, who continued to hope for foreign intervention, added to the feeling of despair.
The more radical elements severely criticized the government not only for its inactivity, but also for its lack of land reform and its failure to recognize the peasants ' rights to the soil they tilled, but the Sejm, fearing that the governments of Europe might regard the war with Russia as social revolution, procrastinated and haggled over concessions. The initial enthusiasm of the peasantry waned, and the ineptitude of the government became more apparent.
In the meantime, the Russian forces, commanded after the death of Diebitsch by General Paskevich, were moving to encircle Warsaw. Skrzynecki failed to prevent the Russian forces from joining, and the Sejm responded to popular clamor for his deposition by appointing General Dembinski to temporary command. The atmosphere was highly charged. Severe rioting took place and the government became completely disorganized. Count Jan Krukowiecki was made President of the Ruling Council. He had little faith in the success of the military campaign, but believed that when passions had subsided he could end the war on, what seemed to him, advantageous terms.
Despite desperate defense by General Józef Sowiński, Warsaw 's suburb of Wola fell to Paskevich 's forces on 6 September. The next day saw the second line of the capital 's defensive works attacked by the Russians. During the night of 7 September Krukowiecki capitulated, although the city still held out. He was immediately deposed by the Polish government and replaced by Bonawentura Niemojowski. The army and the government withdrew to the Modlin fortress, on the Vistula, subsequently renamed Novo - Georgievsk by the Russians, and then to Płock. New plans had been adopted when the news arrived that the Polish crack corps under Ramorino, unable to join the main army, had laid down its arms after crossing the Austrian frontier into Galicia. It became evident that the war could be carried on no longer.
On 5 October 1831, the remainder of the Polish army of over 20,000 men crossed the Prussian frontier and laid down their arms at Brodnica in preference to submission to Russia. Only one man, a colonel by the name of Stryjenski, gained the peculiar distinction of giving himself up to Russia.
Following the example of Dąbrowski of a generation before, General Bem endeavored to reorganize the Polish soldiers in Prussia and Galicia into Legions and lead them to France, but the Prussian government frustrated his plans. The immigrants left Prussia in bands of between fifty and a hundred, and their journey through the various German principalities was greeted with enthusiasm by the local populations. Even German sovereigns such as the King of Saxony, the Princess of Weimar and the Duke of Gotha shared in the general demonstration of sympathy. It was only upon the very insistent demands of Russia that the Polish committees all over Germany had to be closed.
Adam Czartoryski remarked that the war with Russia, precipitated by the rising of young patriots in November 1830, came either too early or too late. Puzyrewski argued, that the rising should have been initiated in 1828 when Russia was experiencing reverses in Turkey and was least able to spare substantial forces for war with Poland (Lewinski - Corwin, 1917). Military critics, among them Russian pundit, General Puzyrevsky, maintained that in spite of the inequality of resources of the two countries, Poland had had every chance of holding her own against Russia, had the campaign been managed skillfully. Russia sent over 180,000 well trained men against Poland 's 70,000; 30 % of whom were fresh recruits who entered the service at the opening of hostilities. "In view of this, one would think that not only was the result of the struggle undoubted, but its course should have been a triumphant march for the infinitely stronger party. Instead, the war lasted eight months, with often doubtful success. At times the balance seemed to tip decidedly to the side of the weaker adversary who dealt not only blows, but even ventured daring offensives. ''
It had long been argued (wrote Edward Lewinski - Corwin in 1917) that "anarchy and a lack of concord '' among people were the causes of Poland 's national downfall. Thus, when the rising finally began, the insurgents demanded absolute power for their leaders and tolerated no criticism, afraid that discord would again prove ruinous for all. However, the men chosen to lead -- because of their past achievements -- proved unable to perform the great task expected of them. Moreover, many apparently had little faith that their joint effort could succeed.
Militarily, Poland might have succeeded if the line of battle had been established in Lithuania (wrote Lewinski - Corwin) and if the Russian forces arriving in Poland progressively, had been dealt with separately and decisively, one - unit - after - another.
After the end of the November Uprising, Polish women wore black ribands and jewellery as a symbol of mourning for their lost homeland. Such images can be seen in the first scenes of the movie Pan Tadeusz, filmed by Andrzej Wajda in 1999, based on the Polish national epic. A 1937 German film Ride to Freedom was partly shot on location in Poland.
The Scottish poet Thomas Campbell, who had championed the cause of the Poles in The Pleasures of Hope, was affected by the news of the capture of Warsaw by the Russians in 1831 as if it had been the deepest of personal calamities. "Poland preys on my heart night and day '', he wrote in one of his letters, and his sympathy found a practical expression in the foundation in London of the Association of the Friends of Poland. The November Uprising was also supported in the United States. Edgar Allan Poe was sympathetic to the Polish cause and volunteered to fight the Russians during the November Uprising (Bobr - Tylingo 1982, 145).
Despite Poland 's deep connection to Catholicism and the fact that many participants in the rebellion were Catholic, the rebellion was condemned by the Church. Pope Gregory XVI issued an encyclical in the following year of 1832 on the subject of civil disobedience that was entitled Cum Primum, and which stated:
When the first report of the calamities, which so seriously devastated your flourishing kingdom reached our ears, We learned simultaneously that they had been caused by some fabricators of deceit and lies. Under the pretext of religion, and revolting against the legitimate authority of the princes, they filled their fatherland, which they loosed from due obedience to authority, with mourning. We shed abundant tears at the feet of God, grieving over the harsh evil with which some of our flock was afflicted. Afterward We humbly prayed that God would enable your provinces, agitated by so many and so serious dissensions, to be restored to peace and to the rule of legitimate authority.
|
who sings i wanna make you sweat | Sweat (A La La La La Long) - wikipedia
"Sweat (A La La La La Long) '' is a song by the Jamaican reggae fusion group Inner Circle. It was released in August 1993 as the lead single from their album, Bad to the Bone.
The song achieved a great success particularly in Europe, where it was a top ten hit in many countries, including Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Norway, Portugal and Sweden. It topped the charts in Switzerland and Germany for six and twelve weeks, respectively. It was also a hit in Australia, reaching number 2, and New Zealand where it reached number 1. It reached number 3 in the United Kingdom and number 16 in the United States. The song was also ranked number 94 on the Triple J Hottest 100, 1993.
The popularity of the song has resulted in many covers and even parodies. The song in Malaysia spawned a parody song by Poe called "Alalalala Tuk (Jangan Saman) '' (Please Officer, Do n't Fine Me).
The winner of season 7 of the German music competition Deutschland sucht den Superstar in 2010 Mehrzad Marashi had it as his debut release after his win. The release also featured Mark Medlock winner in the same show in season four in 2007.
In 2010, Mehrzad Marashi and Mark Medlock (both winner of Deutschland sucht den Superstar) released a joint cover version.
The song was a big success in Europe topping at number two in Germany, number seven in Austria and number 16 in Switzerland.
|
who writes the music for bob's burgers | Bob 's Burgers - wikipedia
Bob 's Burgers is an American animated sitcom created by Loren Bouchard that premiered on Fox on January 9, 2011. The series centers on the Belcher family -- parents Bob and Linda, and their children Tina, Gene, and Louise -- who run a hamburger restaurant. The show was conceived by Bouchard after he developed Home Movies. It is produced and distributed in association with 20th Century Fox Television.
While reviews for the first season were mixed, feedback for subsequent seasons has been much more positive. The series premiere, "Human Flesh '', drew in 9.39 million viewers, making it the highest - rated series premiere of the season, and finishing ninth in the ratings for the week it aired. Reruns began airing on Cartoon Network 's late night programming block Adult Swim on June 23, 2013, and began airing in syndication on local stations in September 2015.
A comic book series based on the show, published by Dynamite Entertainment, began in September 2014, and a soundtrack album was released on May 12, 2017.
In 2013, TV Guide ranked Bob 's Burgers as one of the top 60 Greatest TV Cartoons of All Time. The series has been nominated for several awards, including the Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program seven consecutive times, winning in 2014 and 2017.
On October 7, 2015, Fox renewed the series for the seventh and eighth production cycles. The eighth season premiered on October 1, 2017. A film adaptation based on the animated TV series is in the works and is scheduled for a July 17, 2020 release.
The show centers on the Belcher family -- Bob, Linda, and their children Tina, Gene, and Louise; who run a burger restaurant on Ocean Avenue in an unnamed seaside community (informally known as "Seymour 's Bay '' among the show 's writing staff). While series creator Loren Bouchard has said that the show 's location was an indeterminate Northeastern United States shore town (calling the setting a "semi-Springfield) '', some critics, particularly after the episode "It Snakes a Village '', have deduced that the unidentified setting appears to actually be southern New Jersey.
Bob 's Burgers is located in a green two - story building which features an apartment on the second floor where the Belcher family lives. The restaurant is sandwiched between two other commercial buildings, one of which houses "It 's Your Funeral Home and Crematorium '', whose owner Mort is a regular at the restaurant. One of the show 's running gags involves the other building, which is generally vacant during episodes but has been home to such businesses as "Uncle Marty 's Breast Pumps '', "Extra Moist Yoga '', "That 's A-Door - A-Bell Doorbells '', and "Tire - Rhea ''.
Success is not easy, as Bob must compete with several other eateries for business. His biggest rival is Jimmy Pesto, who owns an Italian restaurant called "Jimmy Pesto 's Pizzeria '', which is located directly across the street. It attracts many more customers than Bob 's Burgers, creating tension between the two owners. Jimmy particularly enjoys humiliating Bob, an example being in the episode "Burgerboss '', when he got a higher score on an arcade machine than Bob, who had rented the game, and taunted him by putting "BOB SUX '' as his initials. The hatred between Bob and Jimmy is full of humor. Although they dislike each other, Bob 's daughter, Tina, shows obsessive interest toward Pesto 's eldest son, Jimmy Junior. However, it is often unclear how Jimmy Jr. feels toward Tina, although he always tries to get her back when she expresses interest in other boys. He approves of her erotic friend fiction, starring himself, in "Bad Tina '', but tends to forget they are dating because he is always occupied with activities, such as spending time with best friend and wrestling buddy, Zeke, and dancing by himself.
Bob 's restaurant also has seen its fair share of bad luck. For example, in the show 's opening, the property falls victim to a fire, an infestation of vermin, and a broken front window caused by a car knocking down a utility pole. In spite of all this, Bob does have a small but loyal group of regular customers, including the aforementioned Mort and Teddy, a local handyman.
The Belcher family runs a hamburger restaurant. Bob (H. Jon Benjamin) is the restaurant 's owner and husband to the fun - loving and happy - go - lucky Linda (John Roberts). Their three children are Tina (Dan Mintz), the oldest, Gene (Eugene Mirman), the only boy, and Louise (Kristen Schaal), the youngest. All three children help at the restaurant to some extent. Louise is somewhat of a precocious menace and an instigator of many of the debacles that face the Belcher family. Tina is awkward, but full of heart, and muddles her way through her pubescent experiences, such as leg waxing and strong fixations on neighborhood boys. Gene is the more cheery and carefree type and aspires to be a great musician.
There are various recurring characters in the series including Jimmy Pesto, Sr. (Jay Johnston), Bob 's primary business rival who owns an Italian - themed restaurant across the street, and his sons Jimmy Jr. (Benjamin), Tina 's love interest, and hyperactive and childish twins Andy (Laura Silverman) and Ollie (Sarah Silverman), who are friends of Louise. They get along well, despite the enmity between their fathers. Other recurring characters include customers Teddy (Larry Murphy) and Mort (Andy Kindler), as well as Linda 's eccentric sister Gayle (Megan Mullally), and the Belchers ' sometimes - meddling landlord, Calvin Fischoeder (Kevin Kline). Bob is frequently antagonized by health inspector Hugo (Sam Seder), Linda 's ex-fiancee who holds a grudge against Bob and constantly schemes to get the restaurant shut down, though his plans are often revealed to the Belchers by his even tempered assistant, Ron (Ron Lynch),
Creator Loren Bouchard said Bob 's Burgers came about because Fox 's animation brand centers mostly on family, but he also wanted to dabble in workplace comedy. The show has generally been viewed as a spiritual successor to King of the Hill, which carried less emphasis on shock comedy and focused more on character - driven humor; Bob 's Burgers executive producer Jim Dauterive worked on King of the Hill for nearly its entire run.
Before the show was aired, the team created a proof of concept so Fox Broadcasting Company knew what to expect if they bought the show. Jay Howell had his art featured in a test animation based on Bob forgetting about his and Linda 's wedding anniversary. This proof of concept eventually turned into the pilot episode. It had the same synopsis as the official pilot (aired in 2011) but had both cosmetic and substantial differences. These included:
The original pilot can be seen on the DVD release of the first season, released on April 17, 2012.
Bob 's Burgers first appeared on the development slate at Fox on August 6, 2009. On December 1, 2009, Fox ordered 13 episodes for the first season. On May 17, 2010, Fox placed the series on the primetime slate for the 2010 -- 11 television season. A special preview aired on Thanksgiving on November 25, 2010.
Creator Loren Bouchard serves as the executive producer, alongside developer Jim Dauterive. They have served as executive producers since the first season. Dan Fybel and Rich Rinaldi were promoted to executive producers during season 6.
The team of writers includes Loren Bouchard, Jim Dauterive, Scott Jacobson, Lizzie Molyneux, Wendy Molyneux, Holly Schlesinger, Nora Smith, Steven Davis, Kelvin Yu, Dan Fybel, Rich Rinaldi, Jon Schroeder, and Greg Thompson. Past writers on the show include Kit Boss, Aron Abrams and Mike Benner. H. Jon Benjamin, Rachel Hastings, Justin Hook, Dan Mintz, and Mike Olsen have also written or co-written episodes. After the writing has been completed, the voice actors read the script as written, but later are allowed to improvise lines. The editors and writer decide what improvised lines make the final cut.
Bob 's Burgers has five main cast members: H. Jon Benjamin as Bob Belcher, John Roberts as Linda Belcher, Dan Mintz as Tina Belcher, Eugene Mirman as Gene Belcher, and Kristen Schaal as Louise Belcher.
The components of a burger fall into place on a white screen, and Bob 's hands appear underneath to hold it. The other family members appear around him one at a time, beginning with Linda and ending with Louise. Linda puts her arm around Bob, Tina stands there expressionless, Gene plays a sound effect on his keyboard, and Louise poses for the camera. The restaurant then materializes behind them and the neighboring businesses slide into place, with a funeral parlor at screen left, and the street slides into view in front. A "Grand Opening '' banner is placed over the door, followed by a series of mishaps. First, the restaurant catches on fire. Then, vermin come running toward the restaurant as an exterminator pulls up in a van. Lastly, a car crashes into the utility pole next to the funeral home, which causes the pole to fall through the front window of the restaurant. A new banner is hung up after each event: "Grand Re-Opening, '' "Grand Re-Re - Opening, '' and finally "Grand Re-Re - Re-Opening. '' The camera then zooms in on the burger Bob is holding, and the view fades in to the start of the episode.
As with other Fox animated series such as Futurama, The Simpsons and American Dad!, the show employs the "changing element '' running gag in its opening credits. The gag present on Bob 's Burgers involves the store located to the right of the restaurant, which has a new, humorously named client in every episode (such as "Betty 's Machetes '' in "Purple Rain - Union ''). Additionally, beginning with Season 2, the pest control van in the sequence has the name of a different company on each episode; the van read "Rat 's all Folks! Exterminators '' on all episodes of Season 1. On certain episodes, an element is changed for a special night (a flash frame saying "HAPPY HALLOWEEN '' was shown during the title sequence of "Fort Night '').
In an article written by the writers of the show ranking the best 10 musical numbers of the first three seasons, it is explained by show creator and theme composer Loren Bouchard that the ukulele track heard in the theme is an edited version of the first recording he did as well as the first take in 2008. Bouchard explains that if the EQ is taken off the original track, there is noise audible from the nightclub below the apartment he was living in when he recorded the theme.
The credits sequence of Bob 's Burgers often features the Belcher family at work. The scene is the kitchen of Bob 's Burgers drawn with a black outline over a white background and the characters in full color, with the credits off to the right hand side. The sequence consists of Bob cooking a burger and Louise and Tina doing prep. Bob places the burger on the plate for Louise to give to Linda, who takes it from the window, and a few seconds later Gene walks through the kitchen wearing his burger costume.
Although the kitchen scene is still the main closing sequence the show uses, beginning in season two the producers began to use different elements from the show in the credits. Some examples:
Other times, the scene will play out as usual, but with something from the episode going on in the background, etc. For instance:
Every episode features one or more "Today 's Special '' burgers on a chalk board on the wall behind the counter. The name of the special is usually a play on words that indicates what comes on the burger (ex.: "It 's Fun to Eat at the rYe MCA Burger '': Comes with Rye, Mustard, Cheese, and Avocado). Other "Special '' burgers are also mentioned by the family without being written on their chalkboard. The joke is often that the play on words is overly complex or obscure.
The first season through the current season of the show are available on the iTunes Store for download & Hulu. The first 8 seasons are available from Amazon Video. The first 7 seasons are available from Netflix Canada.
Bob 's Burgers initially received mixed reviews for season 1, with a Metacritic score of 54 out of 100. However, by season 2, the ratings had reached a score of 78 out of 100, proving a rise in popularity with praises about its "daffy comedic momentum '' and how it is "new and fresh. '' Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season a 58 % from the collective critic feedback, admitting while it has potential, it needs to find its "rhythm. '' The Washington Post described the show as "pointlessly vulgar and derivatively dull '', while Reuters stated that "It 's unwise -- and unnecessary -- to launch an animated sitcom on Fox that appears intent to ape the vulgarity quotient of Family Guy. '' USA Today stated that "Bob 's Burgers is n't very tasty '' describing the comedy as just "lop (ing) along, stumbling from one tasteless moment to the next '' The New York Times described the show as having "a lackadaisical vibe; its humor, no matter how anarchic, slides by in a deadpan monotone. ''
However, as the first season progressed and concluded and the second began, critics began giving the series praise. Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club has recalled, "... the show was amusing, yes, and there was certainly potential, but it took half a dozen episodes before it really began to meet that potential. '' Season 2 has a Metacritic score of 78 out 100. The first season is considered by many fans as very rough in comparison to the quality in later seasons.
Entertainment Weekly gave the show an A - grade in its review, remarking that "a comedy this well done is very rare indeed ''. Ai n't It Cool News called Bob 's Burgers "perhaps the funniest half - hour currently airing on broadcast TV. '' In its review, CNN called the show "wickedly funny '' and said there are "too many highlights to list here ''. Speaking about the show during its second season, The A.V. Club reviewer Rowan Kaiser said: "After an uneven start, Bob 's Burgers is becoming one of television 's best comedies! '' Since the debut of season two of the series, the show 's positive reception has increased.
The A.V. Club voted Bob 's Burgers as the 10th best TV show of 2012, the 3rd best show of 2013, the 20th best show of 2014, and the 35th best show of 2015.
After airing, the show became the highest - rated series premiere of the season and also finished 9th in the ratings for the week it aired. Despite this, the ratings went on a slide with ratings expert Bill Gorman of TV by the Numbers calling it a "toss up '' for renewal before the series was renewed for a second season which premiered on March 11, 2012.
Adult Swim acquired the rights to air Bob 's Burgers in 2013. Episodes air six nights a week, with a 1: 30 am airing on Sunday and 8: 30 pm airings Monday through Friday. An additional episode airs every Monday through Thursday at 9: 00 pm. Adult Swim currently has rights to all five seasons of Bob 's Burgers and recently began airing the season five episodes on Mondays.
20th Television began distributing Bob 's Burgers to local stations in 2015. The syndication package began airing on its affiliates on the weekend of September 19 -- 20, 2015, and two episodes air each weekend.
The series also premiered on September 26, 2016 on TBS and airs Mondays afternoons (along with Family Guy, American Dad!, and The Cleveland Show) and on Friday nights.
On January 6, 2011, some Fatburger locations were re-branded as Bob 's Burgers for the day as a promotion. It also offered limited - time offers, such as a free burger giveaway, and a special, "The Thanks a Brunch Burger '', on the menu until February 2011. There were also "Bob 's Burgers '' coupons offered for a free medium Fatburger special. Across the US, four locations were re-branded as Bob 's Burgers: in California, New Jersey, Nevada, and Illinois. At least one restaurant location in California continues to use the Bob 's Burgers appellation into 2016.
In the Family Guy episode "Space Cadet '', the principal shows Peter and Lois a picture of Bob Belcher as a sign that Chris is doing poorly in his Advanced Art class. Peter mutters "I 'm very embarrassed '', and the principal replies "Yeah, well, someone should be. '' In "Boopa - dee Bappa - dee '', Louise is one of many characters Stewie is turned into by Peter using a remote control. Bob 's Burgers is also mentioned on "He 's Bla - ack! '', as one of the reasons why The Cleveland Show did not succeed.
The season 4 premiere episode of Archer features a crossover where the Belcher family is shown, but Bob is revealed to be Sterling Archer (also voiced by H. Jon Benjamin) in a fugue state. Archer has taken the place of Bob Belcher, with Bob inexplicably missing. The menu board touts the "Thomas Elphinstone Hambledurger, with Manning Coleslaw '', a play on amnesiac secret agent Tommy Hambledon, a character in a series of novels by Manning Coles.
"Homerland '', the season 25 premiere episode of The Simpsons, features a couch gag in which the Belcher family (skinned yellow according to the standard character coloring of the series) attend a 25th anniversary party in the Simpson family living room with the main characters of their fellow Animation Domination series. Bob made another cameo in the episode "The Girl Code '', where a picture of him is shown, and explaining that the restaurant was boycotted by short people due to an offensive Burger of the Day.
Bob makes a cameo appearance in the hour - long The Simpsons - Family Guy crossover "The Simpsons Guy ''. He appears on the same airplane as Homer and Peter in a cutaway about them being a greater team than the Air Force. Peter remarks to Homer that they have to carry Bob, and then Peter points to Cleveland 's plane and says "We let that other guy try and look what happened. '' Cleveland, repeatedly saying "no '', crashes in flames. This is a reference to the poor ratings of Bob 's Burgers and the cancellation of The Cleveland Show.
In Aqua Teen Hunger Force, a character previously known as Dr. Eugene Mirman (obviously played by himself) was renamed "Dr. Gene Belcher '' in the episode "Hospice ''. The character 's name was revealed on Aqua Teen Hunger Force 's creator Dave Willis ' Twitter account two hours before the episode. The character had been introduced in 2006, which was five years before Bob 's Burgers aired.
Seattle rock band Sleater - Kinney collaborated with Bob 's Burgers and its crew for their 2015 single "A New Wave '', from the album No Cities to Love. The resultant music video featured the band, animated in the cartoon 's style, performing for the Belcher children in Tina 's bedroom.
In 2016, The Bob 's Burgers Burger Book, edited by series creator Bouchard, was released. There are 75 burger recipes pulled from the fan - based blog "The Bob 's Burger Experiment '' based on the Specials of the Day that appear on the chalkboard menu in the show.
On October 4, 2017, Fox announced that a Bob 's Burgers movie was in the works to be released on July 17, 2020. Creator Bouchard has said the movie will "scratch every itch the fans of the show have ever had, '' while being appealing to new audiences.
|
who won the last series of the apprentice | List of the Apprentice (U.S.) Candidates - wikipedia
The Apprentice, later called The Celebrity Apprentice, is an American reality television show created by Mark Burnett in which candidates compete to become Donald Trump 's apprentice, as determined by Trump and his boardroom associates. The series first broadcast in 2004, and twelve complete seasons have aired on NBC as of May 2012. Each season, competitors are progressively eliminated based on their performance during an assigned task. After each task, the winning team receives a reward, while the losing team faces a boardroom showdown in order to determine which team member should be fired, and therefore eliminated from the show. Trump hires one of the finalists to be his apprentice. Starting with season 7, celebrities participated as a way to revitalize the series, with the winners donating their proceeds to charity. Trump departed the series after the fourteenth season to focus on his 2016 presidential campaign, in which actor and politician Arnold Schwarzenegger would now serve as host of the series. The fifteenth season, featuring Schwarzenegger was branded as The New Celebrity Apprentice.
As of season 14, 229 candidates have competed, one of whom has competed three times -- Omarosa Manigault - Stallworth competed in both season 1, season 7, and season 13. The youngest competitors include Jessie Connors and Chris Shelton, who appeared on the show at age 21. At age 75, Joan Rivers of season 8 was the oldest candidate to both appear on the show and win the competition. There have been six instances in which a candidate left The Apprentice for reasons other than being eliminated by Trump. Overcome by stress, Verna Felton of season 3 "just packed up and walked out ''. Michelle Sorro of season 6 quit after determining that the competition was "too much '' and "not worth it ''. Actor Vincent Pastore of season 7 resigned due to a conflict with Piers Morgan. Olympic sprinter Michael Johnson of season 9 quit due to a personal family situation. During season 11, baseball player Jose Canseco quit due to his father 's illness and NeNe Leakes left due to a conflict with Star Jones. The fifteen winners of the show, in chronological order, are Bill Rancic, Kelly Perdew, Kendra Todd, Randal Pinkett, Sean Yazbeck, Stefanie Schaeffer, Piers Morgan, Joan Rivers, Bret Michaels, Brandy Kuentzel, John Rich, Arsenio Hall, Trace Adkins (the first All - Star Celebrity Apprentice), Leeza Gibbons, and Matt Iseman.
Candidate 's team at the start of the season Candidate 's age at the start of the season Four Season 4 candidates were fired simultaneously and therefore display the same result. Two Season 5 candidates were fired simultaneously and therefore display the same result.
|
what are jax sons names in sons of anarchy | Jax Teller - wikipedia
Jackson Nathaniel "Jax '' Teller was a fictional character and the protagonist on the FX television series Sons of Anarchy, played by British actor Charlie Hunnam. He was the President of the Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club 's Redwood Original (SAMCRO) mother charter based in Charming, California. Until the end of season four, he was the Vice President of the club. He has a number of tattoos, most notably his club 's logo on his back, a tribute to his father John Teller on his right arm, his son Abel 's name on his chest, and his second son, also the name of his deceased brother, Thomas on his left arm. On his cut, he wears patches reading "V. President '' (later replaced with "President ''), "Men of Mayhem '', and a memorial patch for Opie. The motorcycle that he rides is a Harley - Davidson Dyna - Glide, specifically a 2003 Super Glide Sport Fxdx from seasons 1 - 5, from seasons 5 - 7 he can be seen riding a Dyna Super Glide Custom as well as a Street Glide. He is also seen driving a light grey Dodge Ram 1500 pickup truck.
Jackson "Jax '' Teller was the son of Gemma and John Teller and was born in 1978, and raised in Charming, California. His father died in 1993 and his mother remarried Clay Morrow, who then became President of the Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club Redwood Original (SAMCRO). He lives with the genetic heart disorder ("family flaw '' as Gemma calls it) that his brother Thomas "Tommy '' Teller (January 8, 1984 -- April 4, 1990) died from at the age of six. He carries a USMC KA - BAR fighting knife although his dad served in the United States Army (25th infantry division).
At the beginning of the series, Jax serves as the club 's Vice President, and works as a mechanic at Teller - Morrow Automotive Repair. He has served time in prison for smuggling and gun - running. His last arrest was in 2013 / 4. He married Wendy Case, but filed for divorce because of her drug habit. After Wendy got clean, they reconciled and conceived a son, Abel. Overwhelmed by the idea of being a father and tired of fighting with Wendy, Jax leaves his pregnant wife, allowing her to continue to live in his home while he moved into the clubhouse. Left on her own, Wendy begins using again and winds up overdosing. Abel was born 10 weeks premature and addicted to crank in the pilot episode. In season 5, Jax married his high - school sweetheart and the love of his life Tara Knowles and who is mother of his second son, Thomas.
Having discovered several of his father 's old journals and an old manuscript titled The Life and Death of Sam Crow: How the Sons of Anarchy Lost Their Way, which collectively lay out the original manifesto for SAMCRO, he finds himself doubting the club 's direction, causing friction between himself and his stepfather Clay, and spreading doubt among the other members. Another member of SAMCRO, Opie Winston, has been his best friend since childhood.
Season One begins with the Sons of Anarchy (SOA) finding their weapon storage warehouse being burned down. The SOA rush to the scene, where local police officers are already investigating. Jax and Clay talk to Sheriff Vic Trammel about the blaze, who claims that propane tanks inside the building blew up, and that he suspects arson, due to the bootprints inside. Trammel then shows them the burned corpses of the people hidden beneath the building, who were illegal immigrants. It is later revealed they were Mexican prostitutes "owned '' by the club 's Sergeant - at - Arms, Tig Trager. When Jax returns home and begins looking through storage, he finds old photographs of his late father and a journal titled The Life and Death of Sam Crow: How the Sons of Anarchy Lost Their Way written by him, and for his sons Jackson and Thomas (who had already died at the time of writing). Jax is then called away to a group meeting ("Church '') where all chapter members meet. These are: Clay Morrow (President), Bobby Munson (Treasurer), Tig Trager (Sergeant - at - Arms), Chibs Telford (Medic), Piney Winston (Co-founder), Juice Ortiz (intelligence officer) and Happy. Clay announces that Juice has located the guns and that they were stolen by the Mayans, a rival motorcycle gang. They decide to get some payback the next day, despite Jax 's suggesting that the club look into other ways of earning money instead of dealing weapons, especially with so many rival groups on their back.
Meanwhile, Gemma finds Jax 's pregnant ex-wife Wendy Case collapsed in her home, and she rushes to the hospital. Dr. Tara Knowles tells him that track marks were found on Wendy 's hands and feet, and that they had to perform an emergency C - section on her, leaving the baby ten weeks premature. Because of this, the baby has a heart defect and a tear in his abdomen. The latter is from Wendy 's drug abuse, but the former problem is likely a genetic defect. Together, both defects are near - fatal. The baby has just a 20 % chance of survival. Jax and Tara were high school sweethearts, and she personally requested to help on his case. Jax decides not to visit his baby boy, named Abel, and instead flees the hospital. He then goes to a local bar with Bobby and Chibs and beats Wendy 's dealer, who is a member of the Nordics gang, repeatedly with a pool cue. Later on, he visits Opie Winston, a former SOA member who was recently released from prison and promised his wife and children that he would never return. Jax convinces Opie to ride along with him the next day, however. Jax later returns to visit Wendy in the hospital, who promises she 'll get clean. She also says the doctors told her Abel is getting stronger, but she is facing a charge of fetal abuse as she has a stash drawer at home. She asks him to get rid of the stash before she faces time in jail. Jax turns up at his house, which he finds his mother feverishly cleaning. Jax tells her that Abel is going to die, which angers Gemma, who slaps him and tells him that he is the only one his son has. Jax asks her about his father 's original vision of the club and she responds that it was to create a brotherhood and a family. Jax tells her about the writings he found, how his father wanted a social rebellion, not an outlaw club. When she leaves, Jax flushes Wendy 's stash down the toilet and takes her gun. Clay and Gemma begin to worry that Jax is abandoning the club and what it stands for. The next day, Clay, Jax and Bobby meet Ernest Darby, the Nordics ' leader, and tell him never to bring methamphetamine or any other drug into Charming again. That night, as they prepare to go and get their guns back from San Leandro, Jax tells Opie not to come because of the situation with his family and Bobby is occupied performing his Elvis act at a club in Lake Tahoe. When they arrive at the industrial storage warehouse and find the guns, three Mayans turn up in a car outside. Clay and Chibs then shoot and kill the Mayans and another man, who has a number of Nazi and White supremacist tattoos. He was a member of the Nordics, a local skinhead gang allied with the Mayans, and it later emerges that his name was Whistler. Jax was also armed but hit a mental barrier before he could fire a shot. They then escape with the weapons and destroy the building using explosives.
Wayne Unser, the Chief of the Charming Police Department, has always gotten on well with the Sons of Anarchy during his time in charge, and even employed them as muscle at times. However, he is dying from cancer and will retire at the end of the month, handing power over to his Deputy, David Hale, who is overtly suspicious of the SOA and will almost definitely begin an investigation into the club. Hale talks to Jax, telling him that when he becomes Chief, he wo n't look the other way with the Sons of Anarchy like his predecessor did. To distract the police from their activities, the burnt - down warehouse in particular, Jax, Chibs and Half - Sack Epps (a Prospect in the club) acquire two dead bodies from the local morgue and set them up in a fake shoot - out. The set - up shooting is made to look like a racist murder involving the Nordics. On his way back to town, Jax is cut off on the road by a man driving a red muscle car. He later catches up with this man at a petrol station and beats him up. The driver then pulls out a pistol and attempts to shoot Jax, but is wrestled to the ground and then killed by the Pakistani shopkeeper, who hits him with a fire axe. The trio then steal the CCTV tapes and flee the scene. Later, Jax visits baby Abel, and Tara tells him that he will make a full recovery. She also says that Wendy is being put through sedated detox, and she will be out for a couple of days.
Local businessman Elliot Oswald goes to Clay after his 13 - year - old daughter was raped at a carnival, and asks the Sons of Anarchy to hunt down the rapist and kill him, in exchange for money. Clay refuses the money, but insists if they catch the rapist, Oswald must carry out the punishment himself. Juice and Gemma find out that the rapist is one of the carnies and the gang capture him and bring him to Oswald, who tries to castrate him, but ca n't bring himself to do it. Clay then carries the punishment out, but wears gloves while doing it. He then blackmails Oswald for the crime, as only Oswald 's fingerprints are on the knife, because Oswald was about to sell off much of the land around Charming to big business and housing, which would challenge the SOA 's reign over the town. Jax is unhappy that Clay did not tell him of the plan, however, and tells Clay to always inform him on his future motives.
When a Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) agent Josh Kohn arrives in Charming and begins investigating the club, the SOA decide that they should move their weapons to Indian Hills, Nevada, where their brother club, the Devil 's Tribe, are based. Clay sends Bobby and Jax to inform the Devil 's Tribe that the Sons of Anarchy will be patching over them and storing guns on their property. On the way there, they encounter a group of Mayans on the road and engage in a shootout, although no one is killed. Later, the pair run into a couple as they leave a petrol station. The man is posing for a picture on Jax 's bike and is extremely disrespectful to the woman, named Suzi, so they beat him up. Jax then picks Suzi up for sex and carries on with his journey. When they arrive at the Devil 's Tribe clubhouse and inform them of the news, their President, Jury, is not pleased but eventually accepts that it is the best decision for both clubs. After the patch - over party, Jax goes for a ride and attracts the attention of a group of Mayans. He then draws them back to the clubhouse, where the Sons of Anarchy are waiting for them. A large shootout ensues, during which Jury is shot and injured. After having sex with Jax, Suzi leaves and returns to her old boyfriend. The ATF agent has been following Jax the whole time, taking photographs. He sends a picture of Jax and Suzi having sex to Tara, his former lover.
Otto Delaney and a number of other imprisoned SAMCRO members have been protecting Chuck in Stockton prison. He is wanted by the Triads because he stole money from them, then informed on a number of their members when he was arrested. When Clay and Jax visit Otto in prison, he tells them that if they protected Chuck when he was released, he would inform them where the Triads keep their money. They agree and pick him up from prison and bring him to the clubhouse. SAMCRO intends to wait until the restaurant, where the money is stored, closes before raiding it, but Chuck 's frequent unconscious masturbating is unbearable for them and they decide to raid the restaurant straight away. At the restaurant, Jax uses his knife to cut open a newly plastered patch on the ceiling where the bag of money is. However, just after they steal the money and some counterfeiting plates, the Triads turn up. Instead of starting a war, Clay decides to make a deal; SAMCRO hands over Chuck and the plates, and the Triads let them keep the stolen money. Meanwhile, Kyle Hobart, a disgraced former SAMCRO member, goes to Jax and asks him if the Sons want in on his deal selling stolen car parts. Jax accepts and invites him to the clubhouse that night. This is a setup, however, to punish him for not having his SOA tattoo removed after being disowned by the club. At the clubhouse, they tie him up and Tig uses a blowtorch to burn off the tattoo.
Jax and Piney sell five AK - 47s to Nate Meineke and his right - wing state militia. They then use these guns to ambush a prison convoy and free one of their members, Frank Cison. A police officer and two bystanders are killed during the assault. Meineke drops his cell phone at the scene, and his last calls have been to Clay Morrow. When the ATF finds the phone, they arrest Clay and raid the clubhouse. Clay is later released because no evidence is found, meaning he can no longer be kept in custody. Meanwhile, Jax, Piney and Opie decide to kill Meineke and his gang to prevent them from snitching if they are apprehended by the authorities. They pretend to sell them more weapons. The "boxes of guns '' are actually filled with explosives, however, and the militia loads their trucks with them. All the militia are killed when the bombs are detonated.
When Tara tells Jax that ATF agent Josh Kohn has been stalking her, Jax threatens to kill Kohn if he goes near Tara again. Jax also reports him to David Hale, who in turn informs the ATF. Upon learning that the authorities have not yet apprehended Kohn, Jax hunts Kohn down, himself. Jax found him at the local barber shop, and a brawl ensues with Jax emerging the victor. Kohn is then arrested for breaching Tara 's restraining order against him.
While riding his motorcycle on the highway, Jax comes across a truck driver, who has been badly beaten, on the hood of his truck. The trucker says that the Nordics had beaten him because he owed them money. They also later took his truck and tanker full of diesel fuel. Jax and Opie then hijack the truck back from the Nords and sell it is to Wayne Unser, who runs a trucking company. This then gives SAMCRO enough money to buy weapons from the True IRA. Later that night, Jax goes to Tara 's house, after she phones him and asked him to come over. Kohn has broken in and tried to rape her, but she grabbed his gun and shot him in the stomach. Jax then kills Kohn and has sex with Tara.
Cameron Hayes, a member of the True IRA, offers SAMCRO a free shipment of guns if they will carry out a hit on Brenan Hefner, the man who killed his cousin Michael McKeavey. Jax, Bobby and Opie then go to the hotel room, where he sees his African American mistress. Opie is supposed to shoot him when he leaves the room, but freezes and Bobby steps in and shoots him at close range with a silenced pistol.
The ATF arrests Luann Delaney and Cherry, the women of Otto and Half - Sack, and threatens them with prison if they do not give information on SAMCRO. Bobby, Piney and Tig start a brawl at a local bar and most of the town 's small police force have to go to the scene to break it up. This gives Jax and Opie an opportunity to break into the police station, with the help of Unser, and free Cherry. Luann stays behind because the ATF are about to get Otto to plead to a case that he thought was harmless, to secure him and Luann a deal, but in fact would lead to the arrest of every club member. So Luann has to get the message to Otto.
When Bobby is arrested for the murder of Brenan Hefner, Agent Stahl makes it seem that Opie is the one who identified him. Jax never tells Clay and the other club members that Opie lost his nerve and failed to shoot Hefner, forcing Bobby to shoot Hefner from the other side of the door, where the girl saw him. Still thinking that the Hefner shoot went down clean, and thus the only people who could have seen were the other SOA members, along with all the evidence engineered by Stahl, it seems extremely likely that Opie is the rat. Jax defends Opie, however, and convinces some of the club that the ATF has set him up. Clay has Tig check Opie 's car for wiretaps, which Tig finds. Tig and Clay are convinced Opie is guilty and decide to kill him.
Tara begins staying with Jax at the clubhouse after shooting Kohn because being at her house makes her uncomfortable. When Jax and Tara are kissing at the hospital, Wendy sees them and later confronts Tara. The next day, Jax goes with Clay, Tig and Opie to make an arms deal with the Mayans in Oakland. The One - Niners attack the deal, however, and they escape while the Mayans and Niners fight. Clay and Tig had made a deal with the Niners, but did n't inform Jax or the others; the Niners were supposed to eliminate the Mayans after the SOA left, but they decide to take them out also. Later that night, Abel is released from the hospital and a party is held in celebration. Tara again kisses Jax at the party, purposely in plain view for Wendy to see. Jax then pulls Tara aside, and asks her not to flaunt their relationship in front of a newly recovered Wendy, and "to be cool with whatever this is. '' He reaches for her and she seems to draw back in a way that indicates a PTSD reaction resulting in her slapping his face. Tara storms out. When Opie leaves the party, he takes his wife 's car to take his children home in, and his wife takes his pick - up truck. Tig thinks Opie is driving the truck and shoots Donna.
Wendy tells Jax that she wants to give their relationship another chance now that they have a child, but he refuses, saying that things will be no different from before. When he later visits Tara, she tells him that she is afraid of being caught for killing Kohn and that she is moving back to Chicago. He admits she is the only woman he has ever loved and that he only married Wendy because he was lonely. At Church, Piney says he wanted to kill Laroy as revenge for killing Donna, so Jax tells Half - Sack to follow Piney to make sure Piney does n't do anything unnecessary. Half - Sack subsequently calls Jax because Piney had gone into a bar in Oakland and is holding a Niner hostage. When Jax and Chibs arrive, they manage to get Piney out and have a talk with Laroy, who says it was n't his gang who killed Donna. When he visits the police station to ask Unser if he had any leads on Donna 's killing, David Hale approaches him. Hale tells Jax about Stahl 's setting up Opie, and Jax then realizes that it was SAMCRO who killed Donna. He confronts Clay about this at the clubhouse and asks if he (Clay) had anything to do with Donna 's death. Clay denies it. As Jax leaves the clubhouse, Juice tells him that the witness to Hefner 's killing is a 17 - year - old girl and that Chibs, Happy and Tig are on their way to kill her. Jax then drives out to San Joaquin on his motorcycle and stops Tig from killing her at gunpoint. He tells Chibs and Happy to leave and threatens the witness into leaving the state. He then beats Tig up because he killed Donna. Jax spends the night in the graveyard, drinking vodka. The next morning, he goes to Donna 's funeral, which is attended by Sons of Anarchy from all across the country. He and Tara share a kiss, and the season ends as he stands and looks at his father 's and brother 's gravestones.
In the first episode of Season 2, Jax and Clay go head to head over Donna 's death. The only reason Jax does not tell Opie the truth is he loves Opie too much and does not want him to lose the only family he 's got left -- the club. Jax insists on coming with Opie, Chibs and Tig to murder a Mayan member who SAMCRO frames for Donna 's murder. After the Mayan is killed, Opie carves the Sons of Anarchy symbol into his stomach (so the Mayans will know why the man was killed). After Opie, Chibs and Tig leave, Jax removes the symbol and disposes of the body in Mayan territory, putting up 9 fingers to make it look like the Niners killed the man. Jax has gotten a new tattoo: his son Abel 's name on his left pec. He is seen saving Tig from bounty hunters with Chibs, Happy, Half - Sack and Piney. He assumes that Ethan Zobelle and L.O.A.N. will fight an underhanded war against SAMCRO and he is against Clay 's plans to strike at the Aryans head - on. Jax finds fault with most everything Clay says and the two grow farther and farther apart.
After L.O.A.N. burns down Cara - Cara, Jax suspects it was Clay, since Clay did not want the porn business around after Luann is murdered. This drives Jax over the edge, and he decides to go Nomad. The vote is unanimous and Jax removes Vice President patch and his Redwood Original patches in preparation to go Nomad, but after learning of his mother 's rape at the hands of L.O.A.N., he returns as the Vice President of SAMCRO wanting revenge on L.O.A.N., specifically A.J. Weston. Jax also learns that L.O.A.N. was responsible for the burning of Cara - Cara. After finding out Tig has told Opie the truth about Donna 's death, Opie leaves the clubhouse looking for Stahl. Jax assumes that since Stahl is investigating L.O.A.N., Opie will be after Zobelle and his crew, and goes off to follow Zobelle. While following Zobelle, Jax learns that Zobelle is dealing with the Mayans behind Weston 's back.
In the Season 2 finale "Na Trioblóidí, '' Jax finally gets revenge on A.J. Weston by killing him in a tattoo parlor bathroom. Agent Stahl kills Edmond in his attempt to murder her. Stahl frames Gemma Morrow for Edmond 's murder when Gemma comes to kill Zobelle 's daughter, who was responsible for kidnapping Gemma. At the end of the episode, Cameron Hayes, who mistakenly thinks Gemma killed his son, stabs and kills Half - Sack and kidnaps Jax 's son Abel, fleeing on his motorboat to an unknown location. Jax is last seen distraught and crying on the docks while Clay and the other Sons console him, watching Hayes speed off with his son.
In the first episode, we see Jax still distraught over the loss of Abel. As the Sons go out to look for Cameron, he remains neutral. He attempts to break up with Tara because he believes he is ruining her life, but she remains loyal to him and refuses to leave. At Half - Sack 's wake, Clay tells Jax that he has to be strong to inspire his SAMCRO brothers. When a woman 's son is shot in the drive - by after the wake, Jax finally loses it and continually bashes the gunman 's head into the pavement until his fellow Sons pull him away. Also in subsequent episodes, he increasingly tries to push Tara out of his life.
When Jax finds out that Abel is in Belfast (despite Jimmy O'Phellan's diversions), he puts into motion a deal with Agent Stahl to give her Jimmy and the True IRA in Northern California in exchange for her dropping the charges against his mother Gemma and reducing the federal gun charges that SAMCRO has against it. Jax knows all too well that this deal is very dangerous for him because he will be going behind Clay and SAMCRO 's backs. In the episode "The Push '', Jax asks Tara for help moving black market meds and she agrees. The San Joaquin Sheriffs Department raids the SAMCRO clubhouse based on a tip from Ernest Darby (who saw the deal go down) and Jax feels that Tara is risking too much by being involved with him and the club. He breaks up with her and ends up having sex with Ima, one of the former Cara - Cara pornstars. The next morning Tara walked in on him and Ima. When he sees her later in the day he apologizes for what happened earlier, but she is not interested in listening, because she believed he meant for it to happen to hurt her. She thinks he blames her for Abel 's kidnapping. He continues to say it is to protect her, but she does n't believe him. He, Clay and Tig later pick up Gemma from the hospital to take her to Belfast with them. When they arrive, Jax and the club are stopped by the police and are in danger of being deported back to America. After interrogating the officers it discovered that someone not only called them, but also paid them to deport SAMCRO. Once they reach the clubhouse belonging to the Belfast chapter, Jax meets Maureen and Trinity Ashby. Trinity is Jax 's half - sister, although this fact is n't known by either of them yet. There are subtle hints that Jax and Trinity may be attracted to each other. Jax later meets with father Kellan Ashby. Father Kellan explains to Jax that the Real IRA wants to get rid of Jimmy O'Phellan and that they want SAMCRO to do it, because the Real IRA does n't want to resort to killing one of their own leaders. Father Kellan promises Jax that he will give Abel back if Jax kills Jimmy.
In the episode "Turas, '' when SAMCRO are nearly killed by a bomb hidden in a gun shipment put there by the SAMBEL Sgt. at Arms, Jax has a shell shocked vision of his biological father speaking to him, but it turns out to actually be his stepfather, Clay Morrow. The next day SAMCRO, with the help of Sean Casey, interrogates Liam O'Neill about his connection to Jimmy. O'Neill confesses that he blew up the truck that killed members of the Real IRA and SAMBEL. He also admits that McGee is working for Jimmy. After a shootout with Jimmy and his crew, Jax chases Jimmy but ca n't get to him in time. He makes it back just in time to watch Clay kill McGee for betraying the club. Later that night, Jax and the club meet with the IRA council to present the evidence that Jimmy has flipped and learns that it will not be he who kills Jimmy. Back at the clubhouse, Jax and Trinity come close to having sex, but Gemma and Maureen walk in on them. Jax learns from his mother that Trinity is his half - sister. He takes it well, even joking that in two more minutes he would have been in Tig 's territory. After talking to his mother, he meets with Father Ashby to find out where Abel is. Father Ashby admits that he never planned to give Abel back, because he knew of John Teller 's desire to keep Jax out of the life and decided if he could n't help Jax he could try to help Abel by giving him to a better family to raise him. Jax becomes furious and attacks Ashby, only to be thrown over a table. After Jax threatens to kill Sean Casey at gunpoint, Ashby then finally tells Jax where he can find Abel. However, Ashby tells Jax that if he loves Abel, he will let him go. When Jax finally finds Abel, his emotions and Ashby 's advice do n't allow him to decide whether to rescue Abel or leave him with his new adoptive family. Gemma is furious that Jax might give up her grandson, and she tells him that Tara is pregnant with a sibling for Abel. Jimmy O'Phelan kills the Irish adoptive parents and takes Abel hostage. After this happens, Jax decides he is done taking his father 's manuscript to heart and feels that if he never listened to Ashby, his son would n't be that situation. Jax and the Real IRA make a deal with Jimmy to trade Abel for a new hostage, Father Kellan Ashby. Right before leaving Belfast, Jax receives an undisclosed phone call from Tig, which might have been about Tara 's abduction.
Once Jax and SAMCRO return from Belfast, they begin looking for Tara. The Mayans help in the search because Salazar is a threat to their new heroin operation in Stockton Prison. They find two women dead in the road. One is Salazar 's girlfriend and the other is a woman Salazar killed for her car. Jax is worried about Tara 's safety and Bobby promises him they will bring her back safely. They discover that Salazar not only has Tara, but has also taken Hale hostage. When Salazar reveals that he will trade Tara for Jax, he is ready and willing. Jax proceeds to get into a fight with Salazar. Salazar runs, only to end up cornered in the hall, where Jax stabs him to death and makes it look like self - defense. Later, he goes with Tara to have an ultrasound to make sure the baby is healthy. Jax later meets with Stahl, who is still determined to see the deal through. In the finale, it is revealed that his deal with Stahl was a club decision, and that he would never rat on his family. When she inevitably reneges on her promise of secrecy, he acts the part knowing she will soon be dead and they will serve light time. In a letter to Gemma, Jax assures her that he is not his father and would never rat on the club. However, Tara reads a letter from Jax 's father to his mistress Maureen Ashby, after the club is arrested, which strongly suggests that Gemma and Clay were responsible for John Teller 's death.
Jax and the other club members are released from prison. He has abdominal scars stemming from a prison stabbing incident involving the Russian mob. Also, Jax 's appearance is different. He has cut his hair and trimmed his beard.
After he returns home to Tara and their two sons, Abel and newborn Thomas, they make love. During a post-coital discussion, Jax proposes to Tara, with the ring wrapped in the tiny fist of his second son, Thomas. She accepts. The newly engaged couple then have a discussion about their future as a family, in which Jax admits to wanting to leave the Sons once Clay has stepped down as President. Later, he attends Opie 's wedding as his best man. After the ceremony, Jax goes with Clay and the Russians to shoot a gun given to Opie as a wedding gift from the Russians. While Clay is testing the gun, he shoots Putlova 's bodyguards and Jax stabs Putlova to death in revenge for trying to kill him in prison, saying it 's "just business. '' Jax then returns to the reception to dance with his fiancée, Tara. The next day, Jax and Tara are having breakfast with their sons when they see a news story about four dead bodies found at the Charming Heights construction site. Tara asks Jax to tell her all he knows about it. He tells her that it was retaliation for his getting stabbed in prison. After breakfast, he goes with Clay to the deal they had set up with the Galindo Cartel. At the deal, Jax learns that Clay has set it up for SAMCRO to mule cocaine for the cartel and the Mayans. Clay tells Jax that everything that has happened the last two years has left him and Gemma with no money and that he needs Jax to help him sell it to the rest of SAMCRO. Jax tells Clay that he will back him as long Clay lets Jax out of SAMCRO and that the president 's patch goes to Opie. Clay agrees to the deal. Jax and Clay meet with the rest of SAMCRO try to persuade them that the drug transporting would be good for them, financially. Jax shows them the money they made from the first deal to convince them. After the meeting, Jax and Opie go to the Indian Reservation to see about the ammunition. They are encountered by some vengeful Russians. The Russians threaten to kill two Native Americans they are holding hostage if they do n't get their guns returned. After a scuffle, Jax agrees to call SAMCRO to get their guns to them. Jax and Opie are eventually rescued by the Galindo Cartel, which kills all but two Russians, one of whom is given to the Native Americans for retribution. When Jax and Opie return to the Clubhouse, they discover it has been wrecked by Sheriff Roosevelt. To lighten the mood, Tara announces their engagement. During the celebration, Jax catches a glimpse of Bobby, who pours some liquor on the ground to signify the beginning of the end. He later is the one who convinces the Galindo not to execute Laroy Wayne and numerous One - Niners for working with the Lobos Sonoras. Bobby states this shows he deserves to be president and he knows of Jax 's desire to leave SAMCRO. Jax confronts Clay, telling him that he will help set up the deal between the IRA and the Cartel and then will leave. When Clay responds by insulting Tara, Jax threatens to "bash those half - dead hands so hard into that table, you 'll never hold that gavel again. '' He tells Tara how he will be coming with her to a hospital visit in Oregon and he will be out of the club soon. They enjoy the peaceful visit, but Tara is attacked by paid Galindo hitmen hired by Clay to stop her from revealing the letters. Jax manages to save her, but her hand is injured as a result. He later sees how Gemma has been viciously beaten by Clay. He confronts him but focuses on the matter at hand: using heavy duty IRA weapons to eliminate Lobos Sonoras. When Clay, Juice, and Romeo are pinned down, Jax calls in the IRA to deliver RPG 's which he and Chibs use to save them. When Opie found out about Piney 's murder at Clay 's hands he goes to the clubhouse, Jax holds him at gunpoint and threatens to kill him, Opie calls his bluff and shoots Clay twice in the chest. He stops Opie from finishing him and gets Unser and Rat to cover the truth. Later, Gemma finally reveals the letters to Jax as well as Clay 's involvement in Piney 's death and Tara 's abduction, angering Jax, who vows to kill Clay himself with a blood thinner given to him by Tara.
In the end, Jax does not kill Clay, as he needs Clay alive for the Galindo Cartel / IRA deal. Romeo and Luis are CIA informants and need the gun deal to survive; however, Irish King Galen will only deal with Clay. They threaten to use the cancelled RICO operation to crush Sons of Anarchy if he does not comply. Instead he tells Clay that he will be stepping down as President, thus making Jax SAMCRO 's new President. He removes Clay 's President patch and calls a meeting where everyone but Opie attends. His first act as President is making Chibs his new Sergeant - at - Arms. He tries one last time to get Tara to leave (revealing the CIA threat as well) with his boys, but she comes back telling him she was n't going anywhere.
Jax is shown to be in an even more seasoned role as President. He is now starting to write his own manuscript for his sons when they are older. His appearance has changed again; his hair has grown back out and he has it slicked back. While the Sons are transporting cocaine for the Galindo, they are attacked by Niners, retaliating for Tig murdering Oakland gangster Damon Pope 's daughter (Veronica). He later promotes Bobby to be his VP after Opie rejects the offer due to his hatred for Clay. He later has a meeting with the new Niner leader and Pope 's lieutenant August to cease hostilities between the Sons and Niners. Jax, Chibs and Bobby later find a broken Tig, having had to watch as Pope burned his daughter Dawn alive. After ensuring his other daughter 's safety, Jax, Chibs and Tig are arrested when witnesses bought by Pope testify to Tig running down Veronica Pope and Jax and Chib 's highway shooting of one of the Niners. They hide in a brothel owned by Gemma 's new suitor Nero Padilla. He meets with the club attorney to kill the R.I.C.O. case against SAMCRO and reveals the threat it poses, to Bobby and Tara. Jax manages to get Romeo to provide protection for them inside. Opie later assaults Roosevelt to accompany them. While in prison Jax is visited by Pope. Pope tells Jax that to set things straight for his daughter 's death Pope will receive half the money the Sons gets for transporting cocaine for the Galindo cartel. Pope tells Jax that due to the death, one of the Sons in prison must die and Jax will choose who it will be. Pope also wants Tig to remain in jail for the rest of his life so he can be tortured everyday. Once the death has occurred, the remaining Sons will be freed so they can earn. Jax tells Opie what Pope told him and confides in Opie about Clay killing JT and Piney. When the time comes for Jax to pick one of the Sons to fight to the death, Opie jumps in and hits one of the guards, volunteering himself to be the Son who is sacrificed. Opie is set up to fight against three black prisoners. They beat Opie to death with pipes. While being escorted back to his cell by the head guard who arranged the fight, Jax tells the guard that he is being freed the next day and that he will find him and kill him for killing his best friend.
He later meets with Nero (whose brothel business was shut down by a police raid) to propose he use SAMCRO 's connections to Cara - Cara porn stars to restart his business and split the profits with the Club. He brings it to the Club to move them away from guns and drugs, and it is voted in at the urging of Clay. They later meet with Galen and the Galindo cartel to set up the big gun sale. He and Galen come to terms with their animosity towards each other and settle it in a fist - fight. To get a location to set up the brothel for Nero, Jax, Bobby, and Chibs meet with Hale asking to lease a piece of property to use. He denies, but later reconsiders when Jax offers him dirt on a member of city council to allow Charming Heights to proceed and Damon Pope as an investor. Jax has another meeting with Pope, who offers him a new deal; to double their muling fee from Galindo by cutting his gang in on moving the cocaine. The club votes on it and, despite strong objections, it is voted in. Pope also gives Jax the identity and address of the prison sergeant who had Opie killed. To allow the muling to go through, Jax meets with Alvarez, Henry Lin, and the Niner president as the cocaine will move through their territory. Everyone agrees to the agreement allowing things to proceed. At the end of the episode, Jax, Chibs, Bobby, and Tig break into the sergeant 's house and Jax viciously beats him to death with a snow globe and needs to be pulled off of him by Chibs. In "Toad 's Wild Ride, '' Jax, Bobby and Unser come to the conclusion that the three Nomads Gogo, Greg and Frankie are behind the break - ins and Rita 's death. When Gogo and Greg are killed after trying to kill Unser, the club realizes Frankie has gone underground. Jax confronts Clay about his affiliation with the Nomads, which he denies. Jax merely remarks that when they find Frankie "they 'll decide who lives and who dies ''. When he and Chibs are riding back to the clubhouse they are attacked by two men with machine guns. They kill one and the other escapes; when they examine the dead shooter he 's revealed to be black.
In the next episode "Ablation, '' Jax, Tig and Chibs cut the hands off the body and send one to Unser for identification and the other to Pope to send a message. He then learns that Gemma, Abel, and Thomas got in a car crash apparently caused by the escaping shooter running her off the road. Jax meets with Pope, questioning whether he was behind hiring the shooters or the Nomads. Pope denies this and the Niners lead Jax to the other shooter, who reveals that they were hired by Frankie. Jax shoots the gunman multiple times and then pushes him off the building, stunning Chibs and Happy. Later Jax, Chibs, and Bobby go to the new brothel to find Nero and Lyla held at gunpoint by Frankie. He demands $150,000 or he 'll kill Lyla; Nero gives him $134,000 in cash and some good watches and he takes Chibs as a new hostage. He also reveals Clay put him, Gogo and Grey up to doing the break - ins and shoots Lyla in the leg. He also learns from Nero Gemma crashed because she was high. He tells Tara who hits Gemma and forbids her from seeing her boys. He is met by Roosevelt at the clubhouse who reveals there is another rat at the club 's table, who helped them get their R.I.C.O. case started. He states he will reveal the rat in exchange for Jax bringing Frankie to him. Jax goes to see Tara and tells her that he needs evidence that Clay hired the Nomads to bring to the club, stating he has a plan she might not like. He meets with Gemma and tells her if she wants back into their lives she has to go back to Clay, gain his trust and help him get the evidence he needs. In "Andare Pescare, '' the club learning that Frankie is hiding with a Mafia family, paying them with Nero 's cash. The club unanimously votes to kill Frankie after getting the identity of who hired him; however, Jax reveals the need to keep Frankie alive to Bobby to find out the identity of the other rat at the table. They meet with the Mafia Don hiding Frankie, and after a brawl with his bodyguards, Jax tells him that Frankie stole $500,000 from his club (lying to turn them against Frankie for not paying them enough) and gives them the location of the safehouse where Frankie is hiding. While on their way there, they spot an explosion and find the safehouse blown up with Clay and Juice holding Frankie at gunpoint. He stops them from killing him yet, but the Mafia Don, furious about one of his men killed by Frankie, guns him down before he can tell them anything. Jax has another meeting with Roosevelt where he reveals Frankie 's death was out of his hands and he figured out that Juice is the rat. The episode ends with Jax in the van tailing Juice. In "Crucifixed '' Jax, Chibs and Bobby meet to discuss Juice and the RICO case. They decide to wait out Juice to avoid damaging the Club 's image. Jax later meets with Juice stating that if Juice wants to make sure the Club never finds out, he will find some legal documents that would confirm Clay set the Nomads in motion. They later go after another of Opie 's killers, a cousin of Grim Bastard President T.O, who they corner and kill, despite Jax promising not to. The act greatly enrages the Bastards and Bobby.
The next episode, "To Thine Own Self, '' shows Jax ready to pull the club away from the Cartel, now that the RICO case is gone (Otto having killed a nurse with a cross given to him by Tara, causing the Feds to throw out his statement). He is shown to have a plan in motion to ensure everyone wins, which he reveals when he is kidnapped by Romeo; Jax has set up so the Mayans will take over muling the Cartel 's cocaine and the Triads will use their connections to Gaza, to keep getting them their "big guns. '' He reveals the deal and the dead RICO case to the Club and it is unanimously voted in. He goes to Clay 's house, with Chibs and Bobby, as Juice states he found the legal documents confirming Clay 's hand in the Nomad attacks. They find them gone as Clay moved them when he was alone. Jax punches Juice and sends him home. He then reveals to Bobby and Chibs he needs Clay to go down by revealing that Clay killed JT and Piney and tried to kill Tara. The next episode "Darthy '' shows that Bobby convinced Clay to confess to being behind the Nomad attacks in exchange for voting not to kill him. All members of the Club vote to kick Clay out of SAMCRO, but not to kill him due to Bobby 's vote no, and Jax furiously beats Clay. He learns from Lin that it will take 3 -- 4 months to start in on their gun shipments, however Romeo states that Lobo Sonoras is pushing Galindo hard and they need one more shipment of IRA weapons to wait out the time to get the Chinese stock. Jax initially manages to convince Galen to give them the guns, but Romeo shows up with armed Galindo men to take the guns, resulting in a brief gunfight with Galen and his men, before getting the guns. Galen promises to make SAMCRO pay for this. Jax puts the Club on lockdown, but Galen manages to kidnap Wendy from the hospital. He demands $479,000 or he will kill Wendy and kidnap Abel. Jax gets the money from Nero in as a down payment for selling Biz Latz guns. When Wendy threatens to report the entire incident to police and take Abel, Jax goes to her apartment, overpowers and injects her with heroin to destroy her credibility.
The season finale shows Jax finalizing his deal with Pope; He gets a document promising automotive contracts for TM and subsidized housing for Opie 's family. He joins the other Sons in tracking down Nero 's rival Dante and at point during the ensuing fight, shoves a man 's head into a bucket of nails for hurting Chibs. He later takes Tig to a remote location and seemingly hands him over to Pope before shooting three of Pope 's men and giving the gun to Tig, who then shoots Pope. The gun is revealed to be Clay 's; given to Jax by Juice. Jax then plants the gun for the cops to find. He meets with August putting all blame for Pope 's death on Clay and he had nothing to do with it. He is seen at the end of the episode in dread, as Tara is arrested for her part in Otto 's murder of the nurse.
Jax is having problems with his wife Tara being behind bars for her involvement in the death of a nurse. He is trying to continue to move from guns to legitimate businesses. He is seen at the end of episode 1 cheating on Tara with Colette Jane, an escort handler. The next episode showing him meeting resistance from Galen O'Shay to end the gun relationship with the Irish. Galen insists they take a shipment of KG - 9s after a school shooting is committed with one of theirs. Jax also meets with August Marks, to get status on Clay as well as still handing over Tig. He and Nero find the mother of the child, as she is with Nero 's cousin, to make sure she does n't reveal the origins of the weapon. They take her to the cabin, but she panics, grabs a gun and the two run. Nero shoots his cousin and the two bind and gag the woman. Against Nero 's wishes, Jax has Juice smother her and make it seem she overdosed. Jax also learns that Clay has been talking to Lee Toric, the brother of the murdered nurse who is behind Tara 's arrest. The two meet; Clay states he will not give Toric any damaging information and he is sorry. Jax then tells Toric to leave Tara alone or he will "show him how personal this is for him. '' He tries later to get a new charter to pick up SAMCRO 's gun business. He also meets with August to seemingly give up Tig, but Tig is later shown to be okay. When the San Dino charter votes down the guns, he offers the pipeline to August. He seems to be making more calls behind the Club 's back, causing friction with Chibs. When he learns of Neo-Nazis attack on Unser (in retaliation for Clay 's murder of a Stockton member) he meets with Darby to find them. He later has a second, more aggressive meeting with Galen, telling him SAMCRO is done with guns and they are no more than gangsters. In retaliation, Galen kills Filthy Phil and a prospect, dismembering their bodies, and leaving two cases of KG - 9s. The episode ends with Jax using them to wipe out the Neo-Nazis.
The next episode shows SAMCRO and its associates on lockdown while Jax, Tig, Juice, Chibs and Happy try to track down Galen 's associate Connor. When they find Connor, they learn Galen is already gone. Jax then uses Connor 's phone to talk to the Irish Kings and offer them August Marks as a new distributor and tells them he does n't want a war. Roarke tells him they will call at 8 o'clock with an answer. When it is nearly 8, Jax notices something suspicious about a beer keg, realizing it 's armed, the Sons get everyone out. Jax runs out of the clubhouse with Abel, just as it explodes. With the clubhouse destroyed, Jax and SAMCRO meet at Gemma 's house and Jax talks to Galen and the Kings again, to find that they must cooperate with their terms or more SOA clubhouses will be bombed; They will spring Clay from prison, have him set up a crew to handle the gun - running and the Sons will turn over all their customers to them without profit. Jax agrees and surprises them by stating he did n't kill Connor and the other Irishmen they abducted. He then meets with all West Coast SOA members and announces the end of the SOA - IRA relationship and the gun - running in favor of legitimate income. At the end of the meeting Bobby rejoins SAMCRO, bringing in three new members. Jax then meets with Hale to lease an old ice cream parlor as their new clubhouse. SAMCRO votes in the new recruits and also patches Ratboy in. Jax later helps Venus, one of Nero 's girls who helped them get dirt on a member of city council, get her son from her emotionally abusive mother Alice. When Alice viciously berates Venus, Jax shoots her in the head. He later finds Tara, who has suffered a miscarriage caused by Gemma. He signs legal forms to keep her from their children. Jax later finds out from Lowen the pregnancy was a lie to keep the boys from him and Gemma. He goes to Colette 's to put distance between him and Tara and tells Juice to watch her. He then meets with Galen to discuss business; Galen claims SAMCRO must help with their plan to spring Clay from his transport. Jax objects to helping, but has no choice. He and Galen meet with the Cacuzza family to get them to switch to the Irish guns. When the Triads arrive, Galen opens fire on them and they flee. The Cacuzzas make the deal out of fear. This causes the Triads to confront the Sons. They take Happy hostage and tell them to shut down the Irish pipeline. It 's also revealed Jax has made a deal with the district attorney Patterson to turn over Galen and his crew in exchange for immunity for Tara and the Club. Jax goes back to Colette 's to unwind. They have sex, but are caught by Tara who attacks Colette and smacks Jax. She states he did this to her.
The next episode "Aon Rud Persanta '' shows SAMCRO helping free Clay from his transport to trial. They succeed, but Bobby is injured and Juice kills a guard in the process. They meet with Galen who congratulates Jax. Jax then kills Galen, while Tig and Chibs kill his men. Jax explains that the Club took a vote on how to handle the situation. Clay realizes he is next and, resigned to his fate, stands ready. Jax then shoots Clay in the neck and numerous times in the chest. They then stage the killings to look like Clay and the Irish killed each other in a dispute, which Connor backs up.
Patterson meets with Jax at the new clubhouse, telling him that whatever happens today, the outcome lands on him and that he is a man, a husband, and a father before SAMCRO and that a good man would not let his family pay the price for his mistakes. Jax manages to track Tara down to a park in Lodi when Rat follows her new lawyer there. Jax assures her that he is n't going to hurt her or the kids and tells her to be a good mother and to keep their kids safe. Jax and Tara meet with Patterson, and he offers to give himself up as the source of the KG - 9 's, and Tara will be free to take the boys anywhere that she wants. Later that night, Jax says his goodbyes to the club members before departing (He also reveals his knowledge of Juice 's betrayal during their hug). At his house, he comes across Tara and Eli Roosevelt 's lifeless bodies on the floor. Jax holds Tara 's body and begins to cry as Patterson and two police officers come in. Patterson takes notice of the bodies and Jax 's gun lying on the floor.
At the beginning of season 7 we see Jax trying to cope with Tara 's death. He is shown to be held in Stockton prison on parole violation for the gun he had when he was arrested, as well as for being a suspect for Tara and Eli 's deaths. He uses the time in Stockton to viciously beat a rat for the Aryan Brotherhood leader Tully, in order to forge a partnership with them. He is later visited by District Attorney Patterson, who attempts to dissuade him from thoughts of revenge before letting him go, as the police could n't link him to either murder, and his gun from the scene of the crime was determined to not have been fired.
Gemma tells Jax she saw two Chinese men leaving Tara 's house the night Tara and Eli were murdered and pins the murder on one of Lin 's thugs at a party Jax had organized for the Irish and Chinese. Jax then kidnaps the man, brings him to an empty house, and tells him he will suffer for Tara 's death. He then tortures the man with various instruments, including a hammer and by salting his wounds, before killing him by driving a carving fork in his head.
In the next episode "Toil and Till '', SAMCRO meets with the Indian Hills charter as well as two hired guns brought in as muscle. Jax outlines to Jury his plan to destroy Lin and Lin 's club: cut off all sources of Chinese income, isolate and make him desperate, and then end him, slowly and painfully. Jax 's team then hijacks a Chinese gun shipment and steals the guns. Later that night, Jax, Bobby, and Chibs drop by the apartment of the locals who helped them hijack the shipment. After ensuring they 're alone, the Sons shoot the two men, then stage the scene, planting a kilo of Lin 's heroin and making it look like they shot each other. Bobby later calls to report to Lin that they found the guys responsible.
In the episode "Playing with Monsters '' Jax is visited by August Marks, who had previously warned Jax against retaliating against the Chinese, as it would hurt business. He questions whether or not SAMCRO was involved with the hijacking, which Jax denies. August warns Jax not to cross him, or he will crush Jax 's club. To get around this, Jax decides to help the Niners become independent of Marks so they can remove him as an obstacle. SAMCRO gives the Niners a portion of the stolen heroin and kill a gang member who was recruiting competition, in order to get them the Niners on their side. In "Poor Little Lambs '' Jax meets with Tully to help the Niners move the heroin, but Tully claims Jax will need to talk to his lieutenant Leland about working with blacks. This goes poorly, as they are followed by two sheriffs who the AB opens fire on, killing one sheriff and leaving another critically injured. Later in the episode, SAMCRO experiences Chinese retaliation when a grenade is thrown outside of the Sons ' ice cream shop, and several armed Chinese men enter Diosa and kill the escorts and guests who were present. The Sons also learn that the warehouse where they were stashing the Chinese guns was robbed of the guns and West, the club member guarding it, was killed.
In "Some Strange Eruption '', Jax is shown to be feeling the guilt of the innocents killed by the Chinese. He finds out that someone tipped off Lin where to find their stolen guns. Nero later visits Jax, saying Lin has threatened him to hand Jax over or he will kill Nero and Nero 's son. Jax and Chibs manage to lure Lin and his men into an ambush where Barosky 's cops handcuff Lin 's men, allowing Jax to fight Lin one - on - one. During their brawl, with Jax having the upper hand, Jax blasts Lin with accusations about his role in Tara 's death, which Lin continues to deny. The San Joaquin sheriffs arrive soon afterward and arrest Lin on gun and drug charges.
In "Smoke Em if You Got Em '' Jax learns that August has learned about their plot against him and plans to strike. SAMCRO decides to take out the East Dub crew that August will use in order to protect the club. Alvarez tells Jax that Juice had approached him, offering the Mayans intel on SAMCRO in exchange for safe passage to Mexico. Jax and Alvarez negotiate Juice 's hand - over to SAMCRO in exchange for handing over the gun business to the Mayans, once Marks is forced out.
The next episodes show Jax and the club working with the wife and son of a corrupt pastor the Sons mistakenly killed, who August has been trying to blackmail in a real estate scam. SOA gets the mother to sign an affidavit stating that August killed the pastor, and they attach photographs of the man 's body on a Pope Industries construction site. When the Sons attempt to blackmail August, he kidnaps Bobby and has his eye removed and sent to the Sons, to show them August is in charge. When the Sons do n't comply promptly with August 's demands, August 's men cut off Bobby 's fingers and send them to Jax.
After Marks kills Bobby and is subsequently arrested, Jax comes to the realization that the time has come to fulfill his father 's legacy and bring the club fully into legitimate ventures. But his plans are nearly derailed when his oldest son Abel asks him a question that makes Jax realize Gemma killed Tara, not Lin 's crew member whom Jax killed. Unser confirms the story the next morning, saying Lin 's man was in a Las Vegas drunk tank the night Tara was murdered. Jax Set a meeting with Juice to confirm that Gemma was the one who actually killed Tara.
With the club and Sheriff Jarry searching for Gemma, Jax heads to Stockon to confront Juice, who tearfully recounts the events that led to Tara and Eli Roosevelt 's deaths. With that news as well as confirmation that Barosky tipped off August about the guns, Jax calls a forum of several SoA presidents. He explains to them that he killed Jury White because he thought Jury had ratted the club out; the presidents recommended a Mayhem vote. Jax states his club will be on board and vote accordingly, provided an "unwritten by - law '' is tossed out. The presidents approve Jax 's request, which was to allow blacks to be patched into the SoA charters.
Jax later receives word from Wendy that a nursing home had contacted her, stating Gemma was there attempting to visit her father. Jax heads to his grandfather 's house in Oregon and finds Unser attempting to arrest Gemma, in an effort save her from Jax. Jax pleads with Unser to leave. Unser refuses, stating "This is all I have left '', and Jax shoots him dead.
Gemma leads Jax outside to the garden (where she had sat with her father, in season 2), where she tells Jax he has to kill her. "It 's who we are '', she says. In tears, Jax hesitates at first, but finally shoots his mother in the back of the head. He leaves Unser 's and Gemma 's bodies as they lay and returns home to Charming, removes his bloodied Nikes, and has sex with Wendy.
In the series finale, "Papa 's Goods '', Jax awakens and makes preparations at the house and the garage. He visits the storage unit, and burns his father 's manuscript and the pads on which Jax had been writing for years; then visits Opie 's gravesite, where he leaves his SONS rings. For the first time, he also visits Tara 's plot and kisses the headstone, after leaving his wedding ring atop it.
After voting in former Grim Bastard president T.O. Cross as the club 's first black patched member, Jax informs Chibs that the other presidents called for a Mayhem vote. He insists that Chibs follow his instructions for the sakes of Jax 's family and the club. Chibs reluctantly agrees.
Securing Connor 's allegiance to Alvarez after killing Rourke and his soldiers, Jax meets with Nero at the garage. He states that the garage and houses are to be left to Wendy, and she is to sell everything and take the boys away from Charming forever. He also arranges to leave his stake in Diosa to the club and to purchase Scoops from Mayor Jacob Hale, for use as SAMCRO 's permanent headquarters. Nero asks why, to which Jax admits he killed Gemma and says his sons should not have any memory of him other than hatred. After kissing Wendy and shaking Chucky 's hand, Jax departs on his father 's newly repaired motorcycle.
A reluctant and tearful Chibs calls a vote for Jax to meet Mr. Mayhem. A unanimous vote sentences Jackson Teller to "meet Mr. Mayhem ''.
Jax visits District Attorney Patterson and offers information that Gemma murdered Tara, and Juice murdered Roosevelt. He also says the violence that has escalated in the past few months will end by the close of the day, thanks her for her fairness, and provides an Oregon address where Gemma and Unser can be located.
Jax first goes to Barosky 's donut shop and shoots him dead behind the counter, in retaliation for ratting against the club. Later, he shoots August, newly freed on bond, in front of the courthouse. Sheriff Jarry, notified of Gemma 's and Unser 's murders, issues an all points bulletin for Jax.
At Red Woody, Jax arrives to accept his fate, passing his president 's patch to Chibs, and Chibs passes his VP patch to Tig. Chibs takes Jax 's gun but shoots Happy in the arm instead, saying the SoA presidents will be told Jax shot Happy and then escaped. Jax hugs each of SoA brother in turn (except T.O, who was not present at the time of the Mayhem vote), and leaves. "I got this '', he says, echoing Opie 's last words.
At the spot where his father was killed on I - 580, Jax reminisces about his experiences with the club and his hopes for his sons. His helmet and riding glasses rest on the ground. A passing officer, informed of the APB on Jax, orders him off the bike, but Jax shoots at him before pulling off. He leads a caravan of policemen on motorcycles and in patrol cars on a very long chase down I - 580 until he spies a semi-trailer truck heading towards him on the opposite side. The trailer 's logo is Papa 's Goods. Removing his hands from the handlebars, spreading them outward like a bird or crucified man, and closing his eyes with a small smile, Jax slams into the front of the semi, killing himself and dying in a manner similar to his father, on the same highway. The last words said in the episode are the trucker 's as he slams on his brakes in a fruitless attempt to avoid Jax: Jesus!. In a shot reminiscent of the pilot 's opener, of the homeless woman Jax encountered earlier that day who was eating bread and drinking wine, and of the Blessed Sacrament, two crows are shown eating bread by the side of the road that fly away together after Jax 's blood flows around the bread. Jax 's final words "I love you dad '', followed by the quote: "Doubt thou the stars are fire; doubt that the sun doth move; doubt truth to be a liar; but never doubt I love '' from Shakespeare 's Hamlet.
Teller was named as one of TV 's best dads by Dadcentric.com, and they described him as a "brutal anti-hero '' and "rebel who never lives by society 's rules ''. However, they also highlight how the birth of Abel and the discovery of his father 's memoirs transformed him as a person. The Chicago Tribune remarked that Jax is "the heir apparent to the gang '', but "has a great deal of nostalgia for his father 's more hippie - ish early hopes for the motorcycle club ''.
|
is the boy in stranger things in it | Stranger Things - wikipedia
Stranger Things is an American science fiction - horror web television series created, written, directed and co-executive produced by The Duffer Brothers, as well as co-executive produced by Shawn Levy and Dan Cohen. The first season, released in July 2016, stars Winona Ryder, David Harbour, Finn Wolfhard, Millie Bobby Brown, Gaten Matarazzo, Caleb McLaughlin, Natalia Dyer, Charlie Heaton, Cara Buono and Matthew Modine, with Noah Schnapp and Joe Keery in recurring roles. For the second season, Schnapp and Keery were promoted to series regulars, along with the additions of Sadie Sink, Dacre Montgomery, Sean Astin and Paul Reiser.
Set in the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana, in the 1980s, the first season focuses on the investigation into the disappearance of a young boy amid supernatural events occurring around the town including the appearance of a girl with psychokinetic abilities who helps the missing boy 's friends in their own search. The second season, titled Stranger Things 2, is set a year after the first, and deals with attempts of the characters to return to normal and consequences that linger from the first season.
The Duffer Brothers developed the series as a mix of investigative drama alongside supernatural elements with childlike sensibilities, establishing its time frame in the 1980s and creating a homage to pop culture of that decade. Several themes and directorial aspects were inspired and aesthetically informed by the works of Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, and Stephen King, among others, including several films, anime and video games.
The first season was released on Netflix on July 15, 2016. It received critical acclaim for its characterization, pacing, atmosphere, acting, soundtrack, directing, writing, and homages to 1980s genre films. The series has received several industry nominations and awards, including winning the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2016, and receiving eighteen nominations for the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series. On August 31, 2016, Netflix renewed the series for a second season of nine episodes, which was released on October 27, 2017. In December 2017, Netflix ordered a third season. The Duffer Brothers intend to conclude Stranger Things with a fourth or fifth season.
Stranger Things is set in the fictional rural town of Hawkins, Indiana, during the early 1980s. The nearby Hawkins National Laboratory ostensibly performs scientific research for the United States Department of Energy, but secretly does experiments into the paranormal and supernatural, including those that involve human test subjects. Inadvertently, they have created a portal to an alternate dimension called "the Upside Down ''. The influence of the Upside Down starts to affect the unknowing residents of Hawkins in calamitous ways.
The first season begins in November 1983, when Will Byers is abducted by a creature from the Upside Down. His mother, Joyce, and the town 's police chief, Jim Hopper, search for Will. At the same time, a young psychokinetic girl called Eleven escapes from the laboratory and assists Will 's friends, Mike, Dustin, and Lucas, in their own efforts to find Will. The second season is set a year later, starting in October 1984. Will had been rescued, but few know of the details of the events. When Will is found to be still influenced by entities from the Upside Down, his friends and family learn there is a larger threat to their universe from the Upside Down.
Executive producer Shawn Levy cameos as a morgue worker.
Stranger Things was created by Matt and Ross Duffer, known professionally as The Duffer Brothers. The two had completed writing and producing their 2015 film Hidden, which they had tried to emulate the style of M. Night Shyamalan, however, due to changes at Warner Bros., its distributor, the film did not see a wide release and the Duffers were unsure of their future. To their surprise, television producer Donald De Line approached them, impressed with Hidden 's script, and offered them the opportunity to work on episodes of Wayward Pines alongside Shyamalan. The brothers were mentored by Shyamalan during the episode 's production, so that when they finished, they felt they were ready to produce their own television series.
The Duffer Brothers prepared a script that would essentially be similar to the series ' actual pilot episode, along with a 20 - page pitch book to help shop the series around for a network. They pitched the story to a number of cable networks, all of which rejected the script on the basis that they felt a plot centered around children as leading characters would not work, asking them to make it a children 's show or to drop the children and focus on Hopper 's investigation in the paranormal. In early 2015, Dan Cohen, the VP of 21 Laps Entertainment, brought the script to his colleague Shawn Levy. They subsequently invited The Duffer Brothers to their office and purchased the rights for the series, giving full authorship of it to the brothers. After reading the pilot, the streaming service Netflix purchased the whole season for an undisclosed amount; the show was subsequently announced for a planned 2016 release by Netflix in early April 2015. The Duffer Brothers stated that at the time they had pitched to Netflix, the service had already gotten recognized for its original programming, such as House of Cards and Orange Is the New Black, with well - recognized producers behind them, and were ready to start giving upcoming producers like them a chance. The brothers started to write out the series and brought Levy and Cohen in as executive producers to start casting and filming.
The series was originally known as Montauk, as the setting of the script was in Montauk, New York and nearby Long Island locations. The brothers had chosen Montauk as it had further Spielberg ties with the film Jaws, where Montauk was used for the fictional setting of Amity Island. After deciding to change the narrative of the series to take place in the fictional town of Hawkins instead, the brothers felt they could now do things to the town, such as placing it under quarantine, that they really could not envision with a real location. With the change in location, they had to come up with a new title for the series under direction from Netflix 's Ted Sarandos so that they could start marketing it to the public. The brothers started by using a copy of Stephen King 's Firestarter novel to consider the title 's font and appearance, and came up with a long list of potential alternatives. Stranger Things came about as it sounded similar to another King novel, Needful Things, though Matt noted they still had a "lot of heated arguments '' over this final title.
With the critical success of the first season after its release in July 2016, speculation on a possible second season was raised. By the end of July, The Duffer Brothers had outlined a plan for such a season if it was green - lit, and Netflix 's CEO Reed Hastings said in early August that the company "would be dumb not to '' renew Stranger Things for a second season. On August 31, 2016, Netflix announced it had renewed Stranger Things for a second season of nine episodes, to be released in 2017. The Duffer Brothers revealed that the series had been renewed for a second season before the first premiered. Regarding the decision to wait more than a month after the first season premiered to announce the renewal, Matt Duffer said, "it actually ended up working because it had built up to this fever pitch. I guess that 's what (Netflix) were intending to do all the time. ''
The Duffers wrote the second season to make the combined first and second season feel like a complete work, but setting elements in place to go forward with additional seasons if they are green - lit. While most of the story for the second season had been decided before the first season aired, the Duffers took in the audience reactions from the first season to adjust some of the details within the second season. They knew they would not have the same element of audience surprise as when the show aired anew, and were aware fans wanted to see certain elements, but Ross said "... the point is not to give everyone what they think they want. Because I do n't think they really know what they want. '' The Duffers felt that the second season should be treated more as a sequel rather than a continuation, and thus have opted to call the second Stranger Things 2. This approach had some trepidation from Netflix, since the company felt movie sequels typically have a bad reputation, but the Duffers pointed out that there had been many successful sequels that surpassed the original film, and felt confident with this name. Despite revealing episode titles for the season in the announcement teaser in order "to provide some hint of where we were going in season two without giving anything away, '' Matt Duffer stated that some of the titles would change, since there were some things "we did n't want to put on there because we felt like it would give too much away, '' and because "people are smart on the fucking internet '' with fan - created "videos analyzing the chapter titles... right on a lot '' of how the titles related to the plot of the season. In early October 2017, the Duffers revealed the final titles for the first six episodes of the season.
Levy noted in November 2016 that he and The Duffer Brothers had already begun planning a potential third season, saying, "We are not gon na be caught off guard and we do n't wan na be making stuff up like the day before we have to write it and make it, so we are definitely optimistic and we have started thinking ahead. '' The Duffers anticipate having about four to five seasons to work with, but do want to "have a really finite ending '' while the show is still at a height of success, according to Matt, rather than letting it draw out indefinitely. In August 2017, the Duffers confirmed there would be a third season, with the likelihood of one more season following that, with Ross saying, "We 're thinking it will be a four - season thing and then out ''. However, executive producer Shawn Levy later suggested that either four or five total seasons were possibilities, claiming that "the truth is we 're definitely going four seasons and there 's very much the possibility of a fifth. Beyond that, it becomes I think very unlikely. '' Matt Duffer later commented that no official decision has been made, claiming that "It 's hard, like four seems short, five seems long. So I do n't know what to do. '' In December 2017, Netflix officially confirmed that they have greenlit the third season. Later that month, David Harbour said that the Duffers were still writing episodes for the season, and did not expect the season would release until 2019.
The idea of Stranger Things started with how the brothers felt they could take the concept of the 2013 film Prisoners, detailing the moral struggles a father goes through when his daughter is kidnapped, and expand it out over eight or so hours in a serialized television approach. As they focused on the missing child aspect of the story, they wanted to introduce the idea of "childlike sensibilities '' they could offer, and toyed around with the idea of a monster that could consume humans. The brothers thought the combination of these things "was the best thing ever ''. To introduce this monster into the narrative, they considered "bizarre experiments we had read about taking place in the Cold War '' such as Project MKUltra, which gave a way to ground the monster 's existence in science rather than something spiritual. This also helped them to decide on using 1983 as the time period, as it was a year before the film Red Dawn came out, which focused on Cold War paranoia. Subsequently, they were able to use all their own personal inspirations from the 1980s, the decade they were born, as elements of the series, crafting it in the realm of science fiction and horror. The Duffer Brothers have cited as influence for the show (among others): Stephen King novels; films produced by Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, Wes Craven, Robert Zemeckis, George Lucas and Guillermo del Toro; films such as Alien and Stand by Me; Japanese anime such as Akira and Elfen Lied; and video games such as Silent Hill, The Last of Us, and Dark Souls. The Duffers also believe that they may have brought influences from other works unintentionally, including Beyond the Black Rainbow and D.A.R.Y.L., discovered by reviewing fan feedback on the show.
With Netflix as the platform, The Duffer Brothers were not limited to a typical 22 - episode format, opting for the eight - episode approach. They had been concerned that a 22 - episode season on broadcast television would be difficult to "tell a cinematic story '' with that many episodes. Eight episodes allowed them to give time to characterization in addition to narrative development; if they had less time available, they would have had to remain committed to telling a horror film as soon as the monster was introduced and abandon the characterization. Within the eight episodes, the brothers aimed to make the first season "feel like a big movie '' with all the major plot lines completed so that "the audience feels satisfied '', but left enough unresolved to indicate "there 's a bigger mythology, and there 's a lot of dangling threads at the end '', something that could be explored in further seasons if Netflix opted to create more.
Regarding writing for the children characters of the series, The Duffer Brothers considered themselves as outcasts from other students while in high school and thus found it easy to write for Mike and his friends, and particularly for Barb. Joyce was fashioned after Richard Dreyfuss ' character Roy Neary in Close Encounters of the Third Kind, as she appears "absolutely bonkers '' to everyone else as she tries to find Will. Other characters, such as Billy in the second season, have more villainous attributes that are not necessarily obvious from the onset; Matt explained that they took further inspiration from Stephen King for these characters, as King "always has really great human villains '' that may be more malicious than the supernatural evil.
In June 2015, it was announced that Winona Ryder and David Harbour had joined the series as Joyce and as the unnamed chief of police, respectively. The brothers ' casting director Carmen Cuba had suggested Ryder for the role of Joyce, which the two were immediately drawn to because of her predominance in the films of the 1980s. Levy believed Ryder could "wretch up the emotional urgency and yet find layers and nuance and different sides of (Joyce) ''. Ryder praised that the show 's multiple storylines required her to act for Joyce as "she 's out of her mind, but she 's actually kind of onto something '', and that the producers had faith she could pull off the difficult role. The Duffer Brothers had been interested in Harbour before, who until Stranger Things primarily had smaller roles as villainous characters, and they felt that he had been "waiting too long for this opportunity '' to play a lead, while Harbour himself was thrilled by the script and the chance to play "a broken, flawed, anti-hero character ''.
Additional casting followed two months later with Finn Wolfhard as Mike, Millie Bobby Brown in an undisclosed role, Gaten Matarazzo as Dustin, Caleb McLaughlin as Lucas, Natalia Dyer as Nancy, and Charlie Heaton as Jonathan. In September 2015, Cara Buono joined the cast as Karen, followed by Matthew Modine as Martin Brenner a month later. Additional cast who recur for the first season include Noah Schnapp as Will, Shannon Purser as Barbara "Barb '' Holland, Joe Keery as Steve Harrington, and Ross Partridge as Lonnie, among others.
Actors auditioning for the children roles read lines from Stand By Me. The Duffer Brothers estimated they went through about a thousand different child actors for the roles. They noted that Wolfhard was already "a movie buff '' of the films from the 1980s period and easily filled the role, while they found Matarazzo 's audition to be much more authentic than most of the other audition tapes, and selected him after a single viewing of his audition tape. As casting was started immediately after Netflix greenlit the show, and prior to the scripts being fully completed, this allowed some of the actor 's takes on the roles to reflect into the script. The casting of the young actors for Will and his friends had been done just after the first script was completed, and subsequent scripts incorporated aspects from these actors. The brothers said Modine provided significant input on the character of Dr. Brenner, whom they had not really fleshed out before as they considered him the hardest character to write for given his limited appearances within the narrative.
In October 2016, it was announced that Schnapp and Keery had been promoted to the main cast for the second season, after each recurring in the first season, and that Sadie Sink and Dacre Montgomery would join the main cast as Max and Billy, respectively. Ryder, Harbour, Wolfhard, Brown, Matarazzo, McLaughlin, Dyer and Heaton also return for the season. Sean Astin as Bob Newby and Paul Reiser as Sam Owens are also part of the main cast in the season. For Owens, The Duffer Brothers had referred to the character in their pitch to Netflix for the season as "Paul Reiser '', and specifically alluded to Reiser 's character Burke in Aliens, with Ross referencing James Cameron 's casting choice for that film, saying, "(Cameron) thought people would inherently trust (Reiser) and it would be a twist ''. Reiser 's son was a fan of Stranger Things, and gave his father an early appreciation of the series, so that by when the production called his agent about the role, Reiser was excited for the part. Joining them in recurring roles are Linnea Berthelsen as Kali / Eight and Brett Gelman as Murray Bauman.
The brothers had desired to film the series around the Long Island area to match the initial Montauk concept. However, with filming scheduled to take place in November 2015, it was difficult to shoot in Long Island in the cold weather, and the production started scouting locations in and around the Atlanta, Georgia area. The brothers, who grew up in North Carolina, found many places that reminded them of their own childhoods in that area, and felt the area would work well with the narrative shift to the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana.
The filming of the first season began in November 2015 and was extensively done in Atlanta, Georgia, with The Duffer Brothers and Levy handling the direction of individual episodes. Jackson served as the basis of the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana. Other shooting locations included the Georgia Mental Health Institute as the Hawkins National Laboratory site, Bellwood Quarry, Patrick Henry High School in Stockbridge, Georgia, for the middle and high school scenes, Emory University 's Continuing Education Department, the former city hall in Douglasville, Georgia, Georgia International Horse Park, the probate court in Butts County, Georgia, Old East Point Library and East Point First Baptist Church in East Point, Georgia, Fayetteville, Georgia, Stone Mountain Park, Palmetto, Georgia, and Winston, Georgia. Set work was done at Screen Gem Studios in Atlanta. The series was filmed with a Red Dragon digital camera. Filming for the first season concluded in early 2016.
While filming, the brothers tried to capture shots that could be seen as homages to many of the 1980s references they recalled. Their goal was not necessarily to fill the work with these references, but instead make the series seem to the viewer as a 1980s film. They spent little time reviewing those works and instead went by memory. Matt further recognized that some of their filming homages were not purposely done but were found to be very comparable, as highlighted by a fan - made video comparing the show to several 1980s works side - by - side. Matt commented on the video that "Some were deliberate and some were subconscious. '' The brothers recognized that many of the iconic scenes from these 1980s films, such as with Poltergeist, was about "taking a very ordinary object that people deal with every day, their television set, and imbuing it with something otherworldly '', leading to the idea of using the Christmas light strings for Will to communicate with Joyce.
The brothers attributed much of the 1980s feel to set and costume designers and the soundtrack composers that helped to recreate the era for them. Lynda Reiss, the head of props, had about a $220,000 budget, similar to most films, to acquire artifacts of the 1980s, using eBay and searching through flea markets and estate sales around the Atlanta area. The bulk of the props were original items from the 1980s with only a few pieces, such as the Dungeons & Dragons books made as replicas. Costume designer Kimberly Adams - Galligan for the first season aimed for capturing authenticity of the clothes choices by the characters, such as reflecting that the Byers would likely use hand - me - down clothes compared to the other families; in this case, while the costume department did distress the outfits for all the characters, they spent more time for Will 's clothes compared to Mike 's. Frequently, they needed to create outfits for the kids themselves since many were still growing during the time of filming, and could not readily acquire period fashion across a range of sizes. Director of photography Tim Ives shot the first season with Leica lens and the 6K Red Scarlet Dragon to "make sure that our images had the soft and round tones that are in ' 80s films ''; this is achieved through digital image processing. Ives said that these cameras allow them to create an adaptable quality to the recorded film that is adaptable to a wide range of viewing experiences, including support for newer and future television technologies such as high dynamic range video that was just becoming adopted at the time of filming.
Filming for the second season began on November 7, 2016, once again in and around the Atlanta Metro area. While parts of Season 2 were set in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, these were actually filmed in downtown Atlanta, with skylines of Pittsburgh added in post-production. Andrew Stanton, director of Pixar 's Finding Nemo and WALL - E, directed the fifth and sixth episodes of the second season. Levy stated that Stanton was a big fan of the show and called up Levy, offering his directorial abilities for the show. Rebecca Thomas directed the seventh episode of the season. Unlike the first season, which they were able to film without any real security issues, the heightened awareness of the show required the producers to take significant steps to keep the show 's production in secret while filming the second season. They spoke to the production team of HBO 's Game of Thrones for tips and advice for securing filming sites, and have adopted code names for the series and various parts to allow the actors to speak to others without revealing details of the show 's plot. Kim Wilcox took over for costumes in the second season, finding many of the same problems with designing for the child actors that were aging. Furthermore, she wanted to create the 80 's aestetic but as reflected in a small rural town, with the trends of period slowly filtering into it rather that immediately jump on elements like neon colors. The second season concluded filming on June 2, 2017. Ives once again used Leica lens to film the season, while upgrading to the Red Weapon 8K S35 camera.
To create the aged effect for the series, a film grain was added over the footage, which was captured by scanning in film stock from the 1980s. The Duffers wanted to scare the audience, but not to necessarily make the show violent or gory, following in line with how the 1980s Amblin Entertainment films drove the creation of the PG - 13 movie rating. It was "much more about mood and atmosphere and suspense and dread than they are about gore '', though they were not afraid to push into more scary elements, particularly towards the end of the first season. The brothers had wanted to avoid any computer - generated effects for the monster and other parts of the series and stay with practical effects. However, the six - month filming time left them little time to plan out and test practical effects rigs for some of the shots. They went with a middle ground of using constructed props including one for the monster whenever they could, but for other shots, such as when the monster bursts through a wall, they opted to use digital effects. Post-production on the first season was completed the week before it was released to Netflix.
The title sequence uses closeups of the letters in the Stranger Things title with a red tint against a black background as they slide into place within the title. The sequence was created by the studio Imaginary Forces, formerly part of R / GA, led by creative director Michelle Doughtey. Levy introduced the studio to The Duffer Brothers, who explained their vision of the 1980s - inspired show, which helped the studio to fix the concept the producers wanted. Later, but prior to filming, the producers sent Imaginary Forces the pilot script, the synth - heavy background music for the titles, as well as the various book covers from King and other authors that they had used to establish the title and imagery, and were looking for a similar approach for the show 's titles, primarily using a typographical sequence. They took inspiration from several title sequences of works from the 1980s that were previously designed by Richard Greenberg under R / GA, such as Altered States and The Dead Zone. They also got input from Dan Perri, who worked on the title credits of several 1980s films. Various iterations included having letters vanish, to reflect the "missing '' theme of the show, and having letters cast shadows on others, alluding to the mysteries, before settling into the sliding letters. The studio began working on the title sequence before filming, and took about a month off during the filming process to let the producers get immersed in the show and come back with more input. Initially they had been working with various fonts for the title and used close - ups of the best features of these fonts, but near the end the producers wanted to work with ITC Benguiat, requiring them to rework those shots. The final sequence is fully computer generated, but they took inspiration from testing some practical effects, such as using Kodalith masks as would have been done in the 1980s, to develop the appropriate filters for the rendering software. The individual episode title cards used a "fly through '' approach, similar to the film Bullitt, which the producers had suggested to the studio.
The Stranger Things original soundtrack was composed by Michael Stein and Kyle Dixon of the electronic band Survive. It makes extensive use of synthesizers in homage to 1980s artists and film composers including Jean - Michel Jarre, Tangerine Dream, Vangelis, Goblin, John Carpenter, Giorgio Moroder, and Fabio Frizzi.
According to Stein and Dixon, The Duffer Brothers had been fans of Survive 's music, and used their song "Dirge '' for the mock trailer that was used to sell the show to Netflix. Once the show was green - lit, the Duffers contacted Survive around July 2015 to ask if they were still doing music; the two provided the production team with dozens of songs from their band 's past to gain their interest, helping to land them the role. Once aboard, the two worked with producers to select some of their older music to rework for the show, while developing new music, principally with character motifs. The two had been hired before the casting process, so their motif demos were used and played over the actors ' audition tapes, aiding in the casting selection. The show 's theme is based on an unused work Stein composed much earlier that ended up in the library of work they shared with the production staff, who thought that with some reworking would be good for the opening credits.
In addition to original music, Stranger Things features period music from artists including The Clash, Joy Division, Toto, New Order, The Bangles, Foreigner, Echo and the Bunnymen, Peter Gabriel, and Corey Hart, as well as excerpts from Tangerine Dream, John Carpenter, and Vangelis. In particular, The Clash 's "Should I Stay or Should I Go '' was specifically picked to play at pivotal moments of the story, such as when Will is trying to communicate with Joyce from the Upside Down.
Stranger Things ' original soundtrack, consisting of 75 songs from Stein and Dixon split across two volumes, was released by Lakeshore Records. Digital release and streaming options were released on August 10 and 19, 2016 for the two volumes, respectively, while retail versions were available on September 16 and 23, 2016. Limited editions of the soundtrack on vinyl, in both individual and a boxed set, are set for release in July 2017. A cassette version of the soundtrack, sold exclusively by Urban Outfitters, was released on July 14, 2017. The cassette packaging features a cardboard cover that emulates an old VHS sleeves, while the cassette case is made to look like a VHS tape.
Both volumes were nominated individually for the Best Score Soundtrack Category for the 2017 Grammy Awards, though neither won.
The soundtrack for the second season of Stranger Things was released digitally on October 20, 2017. The soundtrack, once again composed by Stein and Dixon, consists of 34 songs and was released by Lakeshore Records in the United States and Invada Records internationally. The soundtrack is intended to be released on physical formats, such as compact disc, vinyl, and cassette as well. On the soundtrack 's composition, Stein and Dixon together said that the score for the season introduces "new styles of composition, while still revisiting old themes when appropriate... We 've created new elements that are necessary to support the story, but still want to remain true to the sound of Season 1. '' The first track from the soundtrack, "Walkin ' in Hawkins '', was released on October 12.
The first season consisted of eight one - hour - long episodes which were released worldwide on Netflix on July 15, 2016, in Ultra HD 4K. The second season, consisting of nine episodes, was released on October 27, 2017 in HDR. A teaser for the second season, which also announced the release date, aired during Super Bowl LI.
The first season of Stranger Things was released on a Blu - ray / DVD combo pack exclusively to Target retailers on October 17, 2017, which includes a vintage VHS - inspired packaging.
As Netflix does not reveal subscriber viewership numbers for any of their original series, Symphony Technology Group compiled data for the season based on people using software on their phones that measures television viewing by detecting a program 's sound. According to Symphony, within the first 35 days of release, Stranger Things averaged ratings around 14.07 million adults between the ages 18 -- 49 in the United States. This made it the third most - watched season of Netflix original content in the U.S. at the time behind the first season of Fuller House and fourth season of Orange Is the New Black. In a September 2016 analysis, Netflix found that Stranger Things "hooked '' viewers by the second episode of the first season, indicating that the second episode was "the first installment that led at least 70 percent of viewers who watched that episode to complete the entire first season of a show. ''
In August 2017, the marketing analytics firm Jumpshot determined the season was the seventh-most viewed Netflix season in the first 30 days after it premiered, garnering slightly more than 20 % of the viewers that the second season of Daredevil received, which was the most viewed season according to Jumpshot. Jumpshot, which "analyzes click - stream data from an online panel of more than 100 million consumers '', looked at the viewing behavior and activity of the company 's U.S. members, factoring in the relative number of U.S. Netflix viewers who watched at least one episode of the season.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season an approval rating of 94 % based on 69 reviews, and a weighted average rating of 7.96 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Exciting, heartbreaking, and sometimes scary, Stranger Things acts as an addictive homage to Spielberg films and vintage 1980s television. '' Review aggregator Metacritic gave the first season a normalized score of 76 out of 100 based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
IGN gave the score of 8 out of 10 and called the series "Great '', saying "Stranger Things is an easy recommendation, offering viewers an atmospheric and endearing series that is a nostalgic throwback without feeling like a simple copy. '' In a review in the San Francisco Chronicle Dave Wiegand wrote: "Stranger Things reminds us of a time marked by a kind of no - strings escapism. And as it does so, we find ourselves yearning for it because the Duffers have made it so irresistibly appealing. There may be other equally great shows to watch this summer, but I guarantee you wo n't have more fun watching any of them than you will watching Stranger Things. '' Joshua Alston of The A.V. Club also reviewed it positively saying, "Balancing style and substance is always challenging for a series like Stranger Things, but the show is perfectly calibrated. It feels like watching a show produced during the era in which it 's set, but with the craft of today 's prestige television. '' Reviewing for HitFix, Alan Sepinwall said, "Over the course of the eight hours, the story and characters take on enough life of their own so that the references do n't feel self - indulgent, and so that the series can be appreciated even if you do n't know the plot of E.T. or the title font of Stephen King 's early novels (a huge influence on the show 's own opening credits) by heart. ''
Emily Nussbaum of The New Yorker also applauded the series and wrote, "This is astoundingly efficient storytelling, eight hours that pass in a blink, with even minor characters getting sharp dialogue, dark humor, or moments of pathos. '' Television critic Mary McNamara of Los Angeles Times said, "For the most part, and in absolute defiance of the odds, Stranger Things honors its source material in the best way possible: By telling a sweet ' n ' scary story in which monsters are real but so are the transformative powers of love and fealty. '' The Wall Street Journal 's Brian Kelly said, "Matt Duffer and Ross Duffer, brothers and the show 's creators, have done their homework when it comes to ' 80s cinema. Whether you 're a fan of John Carpenter 's The Thing or The Goonies is more your speed, there 's plenty to like in Stranger Things. ''
In a negative review, cultural critic Grafton Tanner called the series "wish fulfillment '' and "a window through which the present - shocked can gaze at a clichéd past. '' Similarly, Marinna Guzy of The Establishment wrote: "When confronted with a story like Stranger Things, a recycled retelling of an old story being marketed as homage and good, clean nostalgia, one has to wonder whether or not studios and content creators like The Duffer Brothers ever ask themselves whether or not the story they are telling is the one that should be told. What purpose does Stranger Things serve beyond reinforcing the status quo in the media landscape and perpetuating the dangerous delusion that things were better way back when? ''
On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 94 % based on 109 reviews, and an average rating of 7.83 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Stranger Things ' slow - building sophomore season balances moments of humor and a nostalgic sweetness against a growing horror that 's all the more effective thanks to the show 's full - bodied characters and evocative tone. '' On Metacritic, the second season has a normalized score of 78 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Shortly after its release, Stranger Things gained a dedicated fanbase. One area of focus from these fans was the character of Barb, the nerdy friend and classmate of Nancy who is taken and killed by the monster early in the season. According to actress Shannon Purser, Barb "was n't supposed to be a big deal '', and The Duffer Brothers had not gone into great detail about the character since the focus was on finding Will. However, many fans sympathized with the character, with Laura Bradley of Vanity Fair suggesting that these people found that Barb would be a similar misfit in society, and "looks more like someone you might actually meet in real life '' compared to the other characters, particularly Nancy, in the series. Hashtags such as "# ImWithBarb '' and "# JusticeforBarb '' grew in popularity after the series ' release, and several fan sites and forums were created to support her. While Purser did not return for the second season, The Duffer Brothers used the real - life "Justice for Barb '' movement as inspiration for narrative at the start of the second season, with Nancy addressing the fact "that no one ever cares about '' Barb. Purser and several media outlets took her nomination as Barb for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series in the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards as achieving "Justice for Barb '', highlighting how well her character was received.
Another impact of the series has been an increase demand for Eggo waffles, as they are shown to be Eleven 's favorite food in several episodes and are seen as a representation of the show. The Kellogg Company, which manufactures Eggo, had not been part of the production prior to the first season 's release, but recognized the market impact of the series. It provided a vintage 1980s Eggo television advertisement for Netflix to use in its Super Bowl LI commercial, and is looking to become more involved with cross-promotion.
With the release of the second season of the series, Netflix also released Beyond Stranger Things, an aftershow hosted by Jim Rash. The guests of the aftershow are composed of cast and crew from the series, including The Duffer Brothers and the series ' stars, to discuss the development and behind - the - scenes production of the series and its larger mythology. Unlike previous aftershows created by Embassy Row, such as Talking Dead and Talking Bad, Beyond Stranger Things is intended to be watched after a screening of the entire current season.
Netflix and BonusXP developed a free mobile game tie - in for Stranger Things, released to iOS and Android devices on October 4, 2017. The game uses a retro - pixel style of art, similar to games for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The game is loosely based on the Stranger Things story after season one, with the player starting as Chief of Police Jim Hopper looking for the missing boys. Once these characters are found, they become playable and have special abilities that allow the player to access more areas in the game. BonusXP had less than a year to complete the game. The team decided to make the game in a similar style to The Legend of Zelda because it "was a perfect match because both (Stranger Things and Zelda) are about exploration, and it 's kind of a mysterious fit that fit the mood of the show, '' according to BonusXP president Dave Pottinger. The map of Hawkins in the game was based on a Google street view map of Jackson, Georgia where the series is filmed. In order to help keep the game a secret, BonusXP did not hire game testers for their quality assurance, instead having family members from the design team provide feedback; this process helped create the two difficulty levels in the game. Completing the game gives players a clip from the Season 2 premiere episode of the show. The game was downloaded 3 million times in the first week, becoming a top download and receiving critical praise. With the release of season two, an update to the game added Max as a playable character, and a release for the Amazon Fire TV, which included controller support.
Sony Interactive Entertainment has announced that it is working on a PlayStation 4 - exclusive game, based on Stranger Things, for their PlayStation VR peripheral. The company has since released a teaser showing the Christmas - lights - on - a-wall scenes.
United States Representative David Cicilline compared the state of the nation during the presidency of Donald Trump to that of Stranger Things during a speech given in Congress on February 16, 2017, using a sign "Trump Things '' in the same format as the title card of the show and saying "Like the main characters in Stranger Things, we are now stuck in the Upside Down ''.
As part of its release on Netflix on April 14, 2017, the cast of the rebooted version of Mystery Science Theater 3000 riffed on the first part of "Chapter 1 '' of Stranger Things. Google used augmented reality (AR) "stickers '' of Stranger Things characters to introduce its ARCore technology announced alongside its Pixel 2 phone in October 2017. Sesame Street created a young audience - appropriate spoof of Stranger Things, called Sharing Things, released in November 2017; it featured Cookie Monster as the "Cookiegorgon '', Grover as Lucas, Ernie as Dustin, and included several nods to the narrative of the second season.
|
list of elected mps in kenya 2017 elections | Kenyan general election, 2017 - wikipedia
Uhuru Kenyatta Jubilee
None (Results annulled)
General elections were held in Kenya on 8 August 2017 to elect the President, members of Parliament and devolved governments. The reported results indicated that incumbent President Uhuru Kenyatta was re-elected with 54 % of the vote. His main opponent, Raila Odinga, refused to accept the results and contested them in the Supreme Court.
The results of the presidential election were subsequently annulled and fresh elections were ordered to be held within 60 days. It was later announced that a new election would be held on October 17. However, the results of the parliamentary and local elections remained valid.
The Kenyan Constitution requires a general election on the second Tuesday in August in every fifth year. There have been public discussions to move the date from August to December with proponents pointing to fiscal timeline (1 July -- 30 June) clashing with an August date because most ministries that support critical election processes will not have been fully funded and that a possible presidential runoff vote may interfere with the national examinations calendar of October and December. Opponents of the election date change have argued for protecting the constitutional provision and that any change would be mired by legal challenges and might drag on to the next elections and still require a referendum to decide, putting the country 's stability at risk.
On 7 August 2017, one day before the election, Barack Obama, who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017 and whose father, Barack Obama Sr., was Kenyan, called for calm and acceptance of the election results. The intervention was noted by the media as unprecedented.
The President of Kenya is elected using a modified version of the two - round system: to win in the first round, a candidate must receive over 50 % of the vote and at least 25 % of the vote in a minimum of 24 of the 47 counties.
The 337 members of the National Assembly are elected by two methods; 290 are elected in single - member constituencies by first - past - the - post voting. The remaining 47 are reserved for women and are elected from single - member constituencies based on the 47 counties, also using the first - past - the - post system. The 67 members of the Senate are elected by four methods; 47 are elected in single - member constituencies based on the counties by first - past - the - post voting. Parties are then assigned a share of 16 seats for women, two for youth and two for disabled people based on their seat share.
The Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission set the duration for political parties to conduct their primaries in April 2017 following the review of Kenya 's Election Laws. Parties would have 14 days between 20 April and 2 May to conduct their primaries and submit their candidates to the electoral commission.
On 29 July 2017, Deputy President William Ruto 's house was attacked by a local man armed with a machete. During the siege, the deputy president and his family were not present. The assailant first injured the guard on duty, held him hostage and then killed him. The siege lasted 18 hours before the Kenyan Police special forces shot the attacker dead. The motives of the attacker were unknown and members of the public were unaware how a man armed with a machete held the elite police forces at bay for 18 hours.
On 27 July 2017, two bodies were found on the outskirts of Nairobi. One of the dead, Christopher Msando, was the head of information, communication, and technology at the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission. He played a major role in developing the new voting system for the election. His body showed apparent marks of torture before he was murdered for unclear reasons. Alongside it was the body of a 21 - year - old woman, Maryanne Ngumbu. The FBI and Scotland Yard offered to help in the investigation.
The murder of Msando raised suspicion among the opposition that it was part of a plot by the ruling party to rig the election as it appeared Msando was standing in the way.
Andrew Kipkoech Rono, 58, who was arrested over allegations he sent a threatening message to Msando before he was killed, appeared before High Court judge James Wakiaga.
Kenyatta had maintained 10 + % lead over Odinga in most polls for many weeks, but the two most recent polls before the election suggested a much closer race. The outcome was reported as a 9.5 - percentage - point victory for Kenyatta. On 10 August, provisional results released by the Kenyan electoral commission put Kenyatta ahead by 54.2 % to Odinga 's 44 %. The head of the EU delegation Marietje Schaake said there had been no sign of manipulation of the result at central or local level and urged all sides to accept the result.
The Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission (IEBC) declared incumbents Uhuru Kenyatta and William Ruto as president - elect and deputy president - elect respectively on the evening of 11 August 2017. The National Super Alliance disputed the results.
Three women were elected as governors for the first time for their respective counties -- Joyce Laboso of Bomet County, Charity Ngilu of Kitui County, and Anne Waiguru of Kirinyaga County. 25 out of 47 governors lost their seats as well. 29 of the 47 governors are members of the ruling Jubilee Party.
Three women, Uasin Gishu 's Margaret Kamar, Susan Kihika of Nakuru and Fatuma Dullo of Isiolo became the first women in Kenya 's history to be elected to the Senate rather than appointed. Kihika was also elected Senate Majority Whip on 31 August.
Projected results indicated that the Jubilee party would extend their majority in the both the National Assembly and Senate and have enough seats to have full control. However, the party still needs about 13 MPs to have two - thirds majority in the National Assembly.
On 28 August, the Kenyan Supreme Court heard Odinga 's arguments for the first time. Permission was granted to allow two agents of both the ruling party and Odinga 's NASA party to audit the IEBC results, though Odinga 's lawyer James Orengo alleged afterwards that the IEBC was denying his team full access to the servers and other equipment that transmitted results from polling stations to the tallying centre despite the court allowing "read - only '' access.
Closing arguments then concluded on 29 August and it was announced that the court would make a decision on 1 September surrounding the results of the presidential election. It was later announced on 30 August that the IEBC had submitted all result forms for scrutiny to give the Supreme Court a clear picture on how Kenyans voted during the elections.
On 1 September, the Supreme Court nullified Kenyatta 's election victory and ordered that a new presidential election take place within 60 days.
Evidence was based on examining the 41,451 forms 34A, the 291 forms 34B and one form 34C that represented the stages of vote collection. The court requested the originals of all forms be brought for inspection.
The NASA opposition claimed this jeopardized 7 million votes when the margin of the result was 1.5 million votes.
On September 20, Justice Philomena Mwilu issued a court statement saying that the IEBC 's refusal to provide access and failure to provide information on the IT system 's firewall configuration left the court "no choice but to accept the petitioner 's claims that the IEBC 's IT system was infiltrated and compromised, and the data therein interfered with, or IEBC 's officials themselves interfered with the data. '' A day before the court delivered its statement, Chief Justice David Maraga said judges on the bench had faced death threats since declaring the election results void, and criticized the police for "ignoring calls to act. ''
On September 21, Kenyatta decried the ruling as a "coup. ''
On September 5, the IEBC set the next presidential election to be held on October 17, though Odinga announced that he would not participate in a new presidential election without "legal and constitutional guarantees '' against alleged electoral fraud. However, It was later announced on September 21 that the election was delayed to October 26 after the IEBC sought more time to reform the voting processes. The same day, IEBC Legal Affairs officer Praxedes Tororey succumbed to sustained pressure from NASA and resigned from her post.
On September 22, Mathare MP Anthony Olouch, a member of NASA who runs a firm called AT Olouch and Company Advocates, issued a statement to the Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP) Keriako Tobik saying calling for the prosecution of the following IEBC officials: CEO Ezra Chiloba, Chairman Wafula Chebukati, Betty Nyabuto, Immaculate Kassait, James Muhati, Praxedes Tororey (who has since retired), Moses Kipkogei, Abdi Guliye, Molu Boya and Marjan Marjan. The letter also stated "unless investigation leading into criminal charges and prosecution is commenced within 72 hours (by) this office, our instructions are to institute private prosecutions pursuant to Section 28 of the Office of the Director of Public Prosecutions (Act). ''
Opposition leader Raila Odinga alleged that the results had been tampered with by hackers. At that time, he offered no evidence to justify his claim, which the head of Kenya 's electoral commission dismissed. Following the election, there were protests in Kisumu, Kibera and Mathare where Odinga enjoys major political support, some of which turned violent and deadly. Odinga published his own results, which put him ahead, and claimed that the commission 's IT system had been hacked and that Kenya had seen the worst "voter theft '' in its history. The chairman of the electoral commission, Wafula Chebukati, responded that his organisation was the only body allowed to count votes and that while there had been an attempt to hack the commission, it had failed. A week after the vote, Odinga announced he would challenge the results in Kenya 's Supreme Court.
The Economist did its own count of a sample of paper ballots, which tallied with the electronic results.
Kenyatta 's reaction incorporated invitations of several world leaders to his inauguration, including: former US President Barack Obama; German Chancellor Angela Merkel; British Prime Minister Theresa May; Italian Prime Minister Matteo Renzi; Chinese President Xi Jinping; Liberian President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf; Nigerian President Muhammadu Buhar; Rwandan President Paul Kagame; Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni; Tanzanian President John Magufuli; South African President Jacob Zuma; His Royal Highness Aga Khan IV; and Nigerian billionaire tycoon Aliko Dangote.
On 13 August, police said a total of 16 people have been killed in recent protests.
It was announced on 13 August that the new Parliament would be sworn in on 22 August, with Kenyatta 's second inauguration to follow a week later. However, Kenyatta 's inauguration was pushed back to at least 12 September after Odinga agreed to challenge the results in court. It was later announced that the reconvening of the Kenyan parliament was delayed to no later than 7 September due to a petition which was filed by groups affiliated with the Federation of Women Lawyers in Kenya (FIDA - Kenya) over the new parliament 's lack of women needed to meet the two - thirds gender rule criteria. Despite the FIDA - Kenya lawsuit, the IEBC announced on 22 August that it will publish the full list of elected Members of the National Assembly and Members of County Assembly later that day and that the gender - rule lawsuit will not be heard in court until 20 September; the IEBC had already published the final results and names of the 47 Governors, Woman Representatives and Senators on 14 August.
The Standard later reported on 22 August that the Kenyan Parliament will reconvene in the next week. On 23 August, Kenyatta issued a decree stating that the Parliament will reconvene on 31 August when they assemble to swear in new members and elect respective Speakers and Deputy Speakers. On 29 August, members - elect of the new Parliament officially underwent the process of registering their political orientation and held their first unofficial meetings in Parliament before being sworn - in. They then met with respective party leaders on 30 August. The 12th Kenyan Parliament was then sworn in on 31 August and various leaders were elected by members of the Kenyan National Assembly and Kenyan Senate to serve their respective houses as well.
|
when did the personal health information act came into effect | Data Protection Act 1998 - wikipedia
The Data Protection Act 1998 (c 29) is a United Kingdom Act of Parliament designed to protect personal data stored on computers or in an organised paper filing system. It follows the EU Data Protection Directive 1995 protection, processing and movement of data. Individuals have legal rights to control information about themselves. Most of the Act does not apply to domestic use, for example keeping a personal address book. Anyone holding personal data for other purposes is legally obliged to comply with this Act, subject to some exemptions. The Act defines eight data protection principles to ensure that information is processed lawfully.
The 1998 Act replaced the Data Protection Act 1984 and the Access to Personal Files Act 1987 and implemented the EU Data Protection Directive 1995.
The Privacy and Electronic Communications (EC Directive) Regulations 2003 altered the consent requirement for most electronic marketing to "positive consent '' such as an opt in box. Exemptions remain for the marketing of "similar products and services '' to existing customers and enquirers, which can still be given permission on an opt out basis.
The Jersey data protection law was modelled on the UK law.
Section 1 defines "personal data '' as any data that can be used to identify a living individual. Anonymised or aggregated data is less regulated by the Act, providing the anonymisation or aggregation has not been done in a reversible way. Individuals can be identified by various means including their name and address, telephone number or email address. The Act applies only to data which is held, or intended to be held, on computers (' equipment operating automatically in response to instructions given for that purpose '), or held in a ' relevant filing system '.
In some cases paper records may be classified as a ' relevant filing system ', such as an address book or a salesperson 's diary used to support commercial activities.
The Freedom of Information Act 2000 modified the act for public bodies and authorities, and the Durant case modified the interpretation of the act by providing case law and precedent.
A person who has their data processed has the following rights:
Schedule 1 lists eight "data protection principles ''.
Personal data should only be processed fairly and lawfully. In order for data to be classed as ' fairly processed ', at least one of these six conditions must be applicable to that data (Schedule 2).
Except under the below mentioned exceptions, the individual needs to consent to the collection of their personal information and its use in the purpose (s) in question. The European Data Protection Directive defines consent as "... any freely given specific and informed indication of his wishes by which the data subject signifies his agreement to personal data relating to him being processed '', meaning the individual may signify agreement other than in writing. However, non-communication should not be interpreted as consent.
Additionally, consent should be appropriate to the age and capacity of the individual and other circumstances of the case. E.g., if an organisation "intends to continue to hold or use personal data after the relationship with the individual ends, then the consent should cover this. '' And even when consent is given, it should n't be assumed to last forever. Although in most cases consent lasts for as long as the personal data needs to be processed, individuals may be able to withdraw their consent, depending on the nature of the consent and the circumstances in which the personal information is being collected and used.
The Data Protection Act also specifies that sensitive personal data must be processed according to a stricter set of conditions, in particular any consent must be explicit.
The Act is structured such that all processing of personal data is covered by the act, while providing a number of exceptions in Part IV. Notable exceptions are:
The Act grants or acknowledges various police and court powers.
The Act details a number of civil and criminal offences for which data controllers may be liable if a data controller has failed to gain appropriate consent from a data subject. However, ' consent ' is not specifically defined in the Act and so is a common law matter.
The UK Data Protection Act is a large Act that has a reputation for complexity. While the basic principles are honoured for protecting privacy, interpreting the act is not always simple. Many companies, organisations and individuals seem very unsure of the aims, content and principles of the Act. Some hide behind the Act and refuse to provide even very basic, publicly available material quoting the Act as a restriction. The Act also impacts on the way in which organisations conduct business in terms of who can be contacted for marketing purposes, not only by telephone and direct mail but also electronically and has led to the development of permission based marketing strategies.
The definition of personal data is data relating to a living individual who can be identified
Sensitive personal data concerns the subject 's race, ethnicity, politics, religion, trade union status, health, sex life or criminal record.
The Information Commissioner 's Office website states:
This right of subject access means that you can make a request under the Data Protection Act to any organisation processing your personal data. The Act calls these organisations ' data controllers '.
Organisations may charge a fee for responding to a subject access request of up to:
Compliance with the Act is regulated and enforced by an independent authority, the Information Commissioner 's Office, which maintains guidance relating to the Act.
In January 2017 the Information Commissioner 's Office invited public comments on the EU 's Article 29 Working Party 's proposed changes to data protection law and the anticipated introduction of extensions to the interpretation of the Act, the Guide to the General Data Protection Regulation.
|
who is the nba announcer that says bang | Mike Breen - wikipedia
Michael Breen (born May 22, 1961) is an American play - by - play sports commentator for NBA on ABC and is the lead announcer for New York Knicks games on the MSG Network. Breen also calls NBA games for ESPN and was formerly a play - by - play announcer for the New York Giants ' preseason games. Breen also called regular NFL season games for both NFL on Fox and NFL on NBC. Breen also calls the NBA Finals every year regularly on ESPN.
Breen is known for his yelling of the word "BANG! '' after a clutch or big shot is made, usually during the end of a game.
Breen, a 1979 graduate of Salesian High School and a 1983 graduate of Fordham University, and as of 2016, he is currently in his 25th season as an NBA broadcaster, with some of those 25 taking place while Breen worked for NBC up until 2002, the network 's last year as both an NBA and WNBA broadcaster. He is also the main voice for New York Knicks games on MSG Network.
He first worked with the Knicks as a radio announcer for WFAN from 1992 -- 97, when he was promoted to television play - by - play upon Marv Albert 's firing following his infamous sex scandal. He later became Albert 's backup upon his return in 1999, before finally becoming the lead play - by - play upon Albert 's second dismissal in 2004. On February 8, 2006, with the departure of Al Michaels from the network, ABC announced that Breen would take over as the lead broadcaster for the NBA, including the NBA Finals. His broadcasting career started doing play - by - play for the Marist College Red Foxes basketball team in 1985. Other than his role as ABC 's main play - by - play on Sundays, Breen usually works for ESPN on Fridays, and occasionally on Wednesdays, with the rest of his schedule reserved for MSG. He has also called college basketball games for ESPN.
When the Knicks made the 2011 NBA Playoffs, he did not call any of the games for MSG due to his involvement with ESPN and ABC; he did call Games 3 (with the MSG broadcasts handled by Kenny Albert) and 4 for ESPN and ABC, respectively.
Some of Breen 's current and past broadcast partners were employed with the Knicks at one point. The list includes former Knicks head coaches Hubie Brown and Jeff Van Gundy, former Knicks players Mark Jackson and Walt Frazier, and former Knicks radio color announcer John Andariese.
In addition, he is also the voice of the NBA Live, beginning with NBA Elite 11, alongside his usual ESPN partners Mark Jackson and Jeff Van Gundy. However, the series was canceled indefinitely. He did voice along with Van Gundy in the NBA Live series beginning with NBA Live 14.
Breen has announced in 5 Olympic Games during his career, 1 Winter Olympics and 4 Summer Olympics. At the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, and the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Breen called basketball, handling play - by - play for both the men and the women. At the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Breen called ski jumping. Breen served as a play - by - play announcer for NBC Sports coverage of men 's and women 's Basketball at the 2008 Summer Olympics.
Breen has been a fixture on the radio as well. He began his professional radio career as a sportscaster on WNBC radio in the early 1980s, and frequently substituted for Dave Sims as host of "SportsNight '' on the station. From 1988 -- 2000, Breen did the sports segment on the WFAN and nationally syndicated Imus in the Morning talk / comedy radio show. Breen became noted for his deadpan delivery of false sports news, such as in the mid-1990s reporting that in the previous night 's Mets game, "Félix Millán went 4 - for - 4 with 3 runs scored '' (Millán retired in 1977).
Breen resides in Long Island, New York with his wife Rosanne and their three children, Michael, Nicole, and Matt.
|
le palais royal 8 rue de montpensier 75001 paris france | Palais - Royal - wikipedia
The Palais - Royal (French pronunciation: (pa. lɛ ʁwa. jal)), originally called the Palais - Cardinal, is a former royal palace located in the 1st arrondissement of Paris, France. The screened entrance court faces the Place du Palais - Royal, opposite the Louvre. The larger inner courtyard, the Cour d'Honneur, has since 1986 contained Daniel Buren 's site - specific art piece Les Deux Plateaux, known as Les Colonnes de Buren. In 1830 the Cour d'Honneur was enclosed to the north by what was probably the most famous of Paris 's covered arcades, the Galerie d'Orléans. Demolished in the 1930s, its flanking rows of columns still stand between the Cour d'Honneur and the popular Palais - Royal Gardens.
The Palais - Royal is nowadays the seat of the Ministry of Culture and the Constitutional Council.
Originally called the Palais - Cardinal, the palace was the personal residence of Cardinal Richelieu. The architect Jacques Lemercier began his design in 1629; construction commenced in 1633 and was completed in 1639. Upon Richelieu 's death in 1642 the palace became the property of the King and acquired the new name Palais - Royal.
After Louis XIII died the following year, it became the home of the Queen Mother Anne of Austria and her young sons Louis XIV and Philippe, duc d'Anjou, along with her advisor Cardinal Mazarin.
From 1649, the palace was the residence of the exiled Henrietta Maria and Henrietta Anne Stuart, wife and daughter of the deposed King Charles I of England. The two had escaped England in the midst of the English Civil War and were sheltered by Henrietta Maria 's nephew, King Louis XIV.
Henrietta Anne was later married to Louis ' younger brother, Philippe de France, duc d'Orléans in the palace chapel on 31 March 1661. The following year the new duchesse d'Orléans gave birth to a daughter, Marie Louise d'Orléans, inside the palace. After their marriage, the palace became the main residence of the House of Orléans.
The Duchess created the ornamental gardens of the palace, which were said to be among the most beautiful in Paris. Under the new ducal couple, the Palais - Royal would become the social center of the capital.
The court gatherings at the Palais - Royal were famed all around the capital as well as all of France. It was at these parties that the crème de la crème of French society came to see and be seen. Guests included the main members of the royal family like the Queen Mother, Anne of Austria; the duchesse de Montpensier, the Princes de Condé and de Conti. Philippe 's favourites were also frequent visitors.
The palace was redecorated and new apartments were created for the Duchess 's maids and staff. Several of the women who later came to be favourites to King Louis XIV were from her household: Louise de La Vallière, who gave birth there to two sons of the kings, in 1663 and 1665; Françoise - Athénaïs, marquise de Montespan, who supplanted Louise; and Angélique de Fontanges, who was in service to the second Duchess of Orléans.
After Henrietta Anne died in 1670 the Duke took a second wife, the Princess Palatine, who preferred to live in the Château de Saint - Cloud. Saint - Cloud thus became the main residence of her eldest son and the heir to the House of Orléans, Philippe Charles d'Orléans known as the duc de Chartres.
In 1692, on the occasion of the marriage of the duc de Chartres to Françoise Marie de Bourbon, Mademoiselle de Blois, a legitimised daughter of Louis XIV and Madame de Montespan, the King deeded the Palais - Royal to his brother.
For the convenience of the bride, new apartments were built and furnished in the wing facing east on the rue de Richelieu. It was at this time that Philippe commissioned the gallery for his famous Orleans Collection of paintings, which was easily accessible to the public. The architect was Jules Hardouin - Mansart, and the cost of this reconstruction was totaled to be 400,000 livres. Hardouin - Mansart 's assistant, François d'Orbay, prepared a general site plan, showing the Palais - Royal before these alterations were made. The garden shown on the plan was designed by André Lenôtre.
After the dismissal of Madame de Montespan and the arrival of her successor, Madame de Maintenon, who forbade any lavish entertainment at Versailles, the Palais - Royal was again a social highlight.
When the Duke of Orléans died in 1701, his son became the head of the House of Orléans. The new Duke and Duchess of Orléans took up residence at the Palais - Royal. Two of their daughters, Charlotte Aglaé d'Orléans, later the Duchess of Modena, and Louise Diane d'Orléans, later the Princess of Conti, were born there.
At the death of Louis XIV in 1715, his five - year - old great - grandson succeeded him. The Duke of Orléans became Regent for the young Louis XV, setting up the country 's government at the Palais - Royal, while the young king lived at the nearby Tuileries Palace. The Palais - Royal housed the magnificent Orléans art collection of some 500 paintings, which was arranged for public viewing until it was sold abroad in 1791.
After the Regency, the social life of the palais became much more subdued. Louis XV moved the court back to Versailles and Paris was again ignored. The same happened with the Palais - Royal; Louis d'Orléans, who succeeded his father as the new Duke of Orléans, and his son Louis Philippe lived at the other family residence in Saint - Cloud, which had been empty since the death of the Princess Palatine in 1722.
The Palais - Royal was soon the scene of the notorious debaucheries of Louise Henriette de Bourbon who was married to Louis Philippe in 1743. New apartments (located in what is now the northern section of the Rue - de-Valois wing) were added for her in the early 1750s by the architect Pierre Contant d'Ivry. She died at the age of thirty - two in 1759. She was the mother of Louis Philippe II d'Orléans, later known as Philippe Égalité.
A few years after the death of Louise Henriette, her husband secretly married his mistress, the witty marquise de Montesson, and the couple lived at the Château de Sainte - Assise where he died in 1785. Just before his death, he completed the sale of the Château de Saint - Cloud to Queen Marie Antoinette.
Louis Philippe II d'Orléans succeeded his father as the head of the House of Orléans. He was born at Saint - Cloud and later moved to the Palais - Royal and lived there with his wife, the wealthy Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon whom he had married in 1769. The couple 's eldest son, Louis - Philippe III d'Orléans, was born there in 1773.
Louis Philippe II, who controlled the Palais - Royal from 1780 onward, expanded and redesigned the complex of buildings and the gardens of the palace between 1781 and 1784. In 1780, he decided to commercialise the residence by letting out the area under the colonnades to retailers and service - providers and in 1784, the gardens and surrounding structures of the Palais - Royal opened to the public as a shopping and entertainment complex. Though the corps de logis remained the private Orléans seat, the arcades surrounding its public gardens had 145 boutiques, cafés, salons, hair salons, bookshops, museums, and countless refreshment kiosks. These retail outlets sold luxury goods such as fine jewelry, furs, paintings and furniture to the wealthy elite. Stores were fitted with long glass windows which allowed the emerging middle - classes to window shop and indulge in fantasies. Thus, the Palais - Royal became one of the first of the new style of shopping arcades and became a popular venue for the wealthy to congregate, socialise and enjoy their leisure time. The redesigned palace complex became one of the most important marketplaces in Paris. It was frequented by the aristocracy, the middle classes, and the lower orders. It had a reputation as being a site of sophisticated conversation (revolving around the salons, cafés, and bookshops)), shameless debauchery (it was a favorite haunt of local prostitutes), as well as a hotbed of Freemasonic activity.
The Palais - Royal also contained one of the most important public theatres in Paris, in the east wing on the rue Saint - Honoré (on a site just to the west of what is now the rue de Valois). It was built from 1637 to 1641 to designs by Lemercier and was initially known as the Great Hall of the Palais - Cardinal. This theatre was later used by the troupe of Molière beginning in 1660, by which time it had already become known as the Théâtre du Palais - Royal. After Molière 's death in 1673 the theatre was taken over by Jean - Baptiste Lully, who used it for his Académie Royale de Musique (the official name of the Paris Opera at that time).
The Opera 's theatre was destroyed by fire in 1763, but was rebuilt to the designs of architect Pierre - Louis Moreau Desproux on a site slightly further to the east (where the rue de Valois is located today) and reopened in 1770. This second theatre continued to be used by the Opera until 1781, when it was also destroyed by fire, but this time it was not rebuilt. Moreau Desproux also designed the adjacent surviving entrance facades of the Palais - Royal.
At the request of Louis Philippe II, two new theatres were constructed in the Palais - Royal complex shortly thereafter. Both of these new theatres were designed by Victor Louis, the architect who also designed the garden galleries for the complex. The first theatre, which opened on 23 October 1784, was a small puppet theatre in the northwest corner of the gardens at the intersection of the Galerie de Montpensier and the Galerie de Beaujolais. Initially it was known as the Théâtre des Beaujolais, then as the Théâtre Montansier, after which Victor Louis enlarged it for the performance of plays and operas. Later, beginning with the political turmoil of the Revolution, this theatre was known by a variety of other names. It was converted to a café with shows in 1812, but reopened as a theatre in 1831, when it acquired the name Théâtre du Palais - Royal, by which it is still known today.
Louis Philippe II 's second theatre was larger and located near the southwest corner of the complex, on the rue de Richelieu. He originally intended it for the Opera, but that company refused to move into it. Instead he offered it to the Théâtre des Variétés - Amusantes, formerly on the boulevard du Temple, but since 1 January 1785 playing in a temporary theatre in the gardens of the Palais - Royal. This company changed their name to Théâtre du Palais - Royal on 15 December 1789, and later moved into their new theatre upon its completion, where they opened on 15 May 1790. On 25 April 1791 the anti-royalist faction of the Comédie - Française, led by Talma, left that company 's theatre on the left bank (at that time known as the Théâtre de la Nation, but today as the Odéon), and joined the company on the rue de Richelieu, which promptly changed their name to Théâtre Français de la rue de Richelieu. With the founding of the French Republic in September 1792 the theatre 's name was changed again, to Théâtre de la République. In 1799 the players of the split company reunited at the Palais - Royal, and the theatre officially became the Comédie - Française, also commonly known as the Théâtre - Français, names which it retains to this day.
During the revolutionary period, Philippe d'Orléans became known as Philippe Égalité and ruled at the Palais de l'Égalité, as it was known during the more radical phase of the Revolution, made himself popular in Paris when he opened the gardens of the palace to all Parisians and employed the neoclassical architect Victor Louis to rebuild the structures around the palace gardens, which had been the irregular backs of houses that faced the surrounding streets, and to enclose the gardens with regular colonnades that were lined with smart shops (in one of which Charlotte Corday bought the knife she used to stab Jean - Paul Marat).
Along the galeries, ladies of the night lingered, and smart gambling casinos were lodged in second - floor quarters. There was a theatre at each end of the galleries; the larger one has been the seat of the Comédie - Française, the state theatre company, since Napoleon laid its administrative reorganisation in the décret de Moscou on 15 October 1812, which contains 87 articles. The very first theatre in the Palais - Royal was built by Lemercier for Cardinal Richelieu, and inaugurated in 1641. Under Louis XIV, the theater hosted plays by Molière, from 1660 to Molière 's death in 1673, followed by the Opera under the direction of Jean - Baptiste Lully.
From the 1780s to 1837, the palace was once again the centre of Parisian political and social intrigue and the site of the most popular cafés. The historic restaurant "Le Grand Véfour '' is still there. In 1786, a noon cannon was set up by a philosophical amateur, set on the prime meridian of Paris, in which the sun 's noon rays, passing through a lens, lit the cannon 's fuse. The noon cannon is still fired at the Palais - Royal, though most of the ladies for sale have disappeared, those who inspired the Abbé Delille 's lines;
("In this garden one encounters neither fields nor meadows nor woods nor flowers. And, if one upsets one 's morality, at least one may re-set one 's watch. '')
The Marquis de Sade referred to the grounds in front of the palace in his Philosophy in the Bedroom (1795) as a place where progressive pamphlets were sold.
Upon the death of the Duke, the palace 's ownership lapsed to the state, whence it was called Palais du Tribunat.
After the Restoration of the Bourbons, at the Palais - Royal the young Alexandre Dumas obtained employment in the office of the powerful duc d'Orléans, who regained control of the Palace during the Restoration. In the Revolution of 1848, the Paris mob trashed and looted the Palais - Royal. Under the Second Empire the Palais - Royal was home to the cadet branch of the Bonaparte family, represented by Prince Napoleon, Napoleon III 's cousin.
Today the Palais - Royal houses the Conseil d'État, the Constitutional Council, and the Ministry of Culture. At the rear of the garden are the older buildings of the Bibliothèque nationale de France, the national library of deposit, with a collection of more than 30,000,000 items (14 million books and publications); most of the collections have been moved to more modern settings elsewhere.
The House of Orléans did not occupy the northeast wing, where Anne of Austria had originally lived, but instead chose to reside in the palais Brion to the west of the main block, where the future regent, before his father died, commissioned Gilles - Marie Oppenord to decorate the grand appartement in the light and lively style Régence that foreshadowed the Rococo. These, and the Regent 's more intimate petits appartements, as well as a gallery painted with Virgilian subjects by Coypel, were all demolished in 1784, for the installation of the Théâtre - Français, now the Comédie - Française.
The palais Brion, a separate pavilion standing along rue Richelieu, to the west of the Palais - Royal, had been purchased by Louis XIV from the heirs of Cardinal Richelieu. Louis had it connected to the Palais - Royal. It was at the palais Brion that Louis had his mistress Louise de La Vallière stay while his affair with Madame de Montespan was still an official secret.
Later on, the royal collection of antiquities was installed at the palais Brion, under the care of the art critic and official court historian André Félibien, who had been appointed in 1673.
Notes
Sources
Coordinates: 48 ° 51 ′ 48 '' N 2 ° 20 ′ 13 '' E / 48.86333 ° N 2.33694 ° E / 48.86333; 2.33694
|
where does pati from pati's mexican table live | Pati Jinich - wikipedia
Patricia "Pati '' Jinich (born March 30, 1972) is an award - winning Mexican - American chef, TV personality, cookbook author, and food writer. She is best known for her double Emmy - and double James Beard - nominated public television series Pati 's Mexican Table. Her first cookbook, also Pati 's Mexican Table, was published in March 2013 and her second cookbook, Mexican Today, was published in April 2016.
Jinich is the resident chef at the Mexican Cultural Institute in Washington, DC, where she has run her Mexican - table live culinary program since 2007. She has appeared on The Today Show, The Chew, The Talk, CBS This Morning, The Home and Family Show, All Things Considered, Morning Edition, and The Splendid Table among other media. Her food writing has appeared in The Washington Post. In May 2014, Jinich was invited to cook at the White House for President Barack Obama 's Cinco de Mayo dinner.
Jinich was born and raised in Mexico City in a Jewish Mexican family, and is the youngest of four sisters. Her grandparents were Jewish refugees from Eastern Europe. Her father was an architect and a jeweler who turned restaurateur, and her mother ran an art gallery.
Food was always an important part of Jinich 's family life growing up. Her three older sisters pursued the culinary arts early on, but Jinich grew up dreaming of a career in academia. She earned a political science bachelor 's degree from the Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México and a master 's degree in Latin - American studies from Georgetown University, and she worked as a political analyst at a Washington, DC, think tank before switching careers.
She met her husband, Daniel Jinich, who is also a Mexican Jew, on a blind date. They were married in Mexico City in 1996 when she was 24.
Jinich first began researching and cooking Mexican cuisine out of homesickness for her native Mexico City, when she moved to Dallas, Texas, with her husband. Soon, she was teaching Mexican cooking to friends and neighbors. At the same time, as she was writing her bachelor 's thesis, she offered to help KERA, the Dallas public TV station with a documentary on the Mexican Revolution, but it needed help with another project: the PBS series New Tastes from Texas with Chef Stephan Pyles, for which she became a production assistant.
Two years later, she relocated to Washington, DC, with her husband and their first - born son, where she picked back up on her academic pursuits, earning her master 's degree from Georgetown and landing her dream job '' at a prestigious think tank, but she never stopped obsessively thinking about food and enrolled at L'Academie de Cuisine in Maryland.
Jinich envisioned herself writing articles about Mexican cuisine and teaching it in her home kitchen, until she met with the executive director of the Mexican Cultural Institute in Washington, DC, who encouraged her to bring her cooking program to the institute. In 2007, she launched her Mexican - table series of live cooking demonstrations along with multi-course tasting dinners, which she still runs today. The classes combine Jinich 's skilled Mexican cooking with her knowledge of the country 's history and regions. Each one explores a single topic -- for example, dishes of the Mexican Revolution, a historical vanilla menu, or convent foods from colonial Mexico.
Around the same time, she started her blog about Mexican cuisine, which was followed by invitations to write about food for print publications and to give talks and cooking demos for radio and TV shows.
Jinich 's charisma and intelligence caught the attention of television producers. After exploring different outlets, she decided Washington, DC 's WETA - TV was the right home for Pati 's Mexican Table because of her commitment to authenticity and the independence the PBS and public - TV platform allows over the content of its shows.
In Pati 's Mexican Table, Jinich shares authentic Mexican cooking, along with Mexico 's rich history and culture, her personal experiences and family life, and her ongoing conversations with cooks on both sides of the border. The series airs nationally in the United States on public television stations (distributed by APT) and on Create TV. It also airs on the Asian Food Channel in Southeast Asia, Food Network in Australia, and TLN in Canada.
Season 1 premiered in 2011, and Season 2 followed in 2012. The first two seasons were produced by the Cortez Brothers, a bilingual production company based in southern California, which Jinich chose because of its familiarity with Mexico and its culture.
Gordon Elliott, the Emmy - award - winning producer of ABC 's The Chew and several Food Network programs and his team at Follow Productions signed on beginning with Season 3. Together with Jinich, they changed the show 's format from a mostly kitchen - based cooking show to a combination travel and cooking show, featuring more footage of Pati in Mexico and more of her family life.
Season 3 first aired in 2014 and Season 4 in 2015. Season 5 began airing in the fall of 2016.
Jinich 's first cookbook, Pati 's Mexican Table: The Secrets of Real Mexican Home Cooking, was published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt in March 2013. The book is based on the traditional Mexican home cooking with which Jinich grew up, with many recipes gleaned from her childhood in Mexico City. It made Amazon 's "Best of the Year in Cookbooks '' list of 2013, the Washington Post 's "Best Cookbooks of 2013 '' list, The Splendid Table 's "Staff Book Picks of 2013 '' list, and Serious Eats "Our Favorite Cookbooks of 2013 '' list.
Jinich 's second cookbook, Mexican Today: New and Rediscovered Recipes for Contemporary Kitchens, was published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt in April 2016. Jinich explores both traditional and rediscovered Mexican dishes as well as reinterpretations and new takes using Mexican ingredients in this book. NPR 's Maria Godoy said, "Mexican Today explores not just traditional fare but (also) the country 's evolving cuisine and the many immigrant groups who have influenced it. ''
Jinich lives in Chevy Chase, Maryland, with her husband Daniel Jinich and their three sons.
|
when did the movie the siege come out | The Siege (1998 film) - wikipedia
The Siege is a 1998 American action thriller film directed by Edward Zwick. The film is about a fictional situation in which terrorist cells have made several attacks in New York City. The film stars Denzel Washington, Annette Bening, Tony Shalhoub, and Bruce Willis.
FBI Special Agent Anthony Hubbard (Denzel Washington) and his Lebanese American partner, Frank Haddad (Tony Shalhoub), intervene at the hijacking of a bus fully loaded with passengers, which contains an explosive device. The bomb turns out to be a paint bomb and the terrorists escape. The FBI receives demands to release Sheikh Ahmed bin Talal, a suspect in an earlier bombing at the American embassy in the Middle East. Hubbard eventually comes into conflict with Central Intelligence Agency agent Elise Kraft (Annette Bening), as he takes a terrorist suspect into custody and arrests Kraft. Later, another terrorist threat is made and a Metropolitan Transportation Authority bus is bombed. The feds captures a man named Samir Nazhde (Sami Bouajila), who admits to signing the visa application of one of the suicide bombers in the course of signing many applications for student visas in his job as a lecturer. However, Kraft insists that Samir is not a terrorist and that his continued freedom is vital to the investigation.
The terrorist incidents escalate with the bombing of a bus and a crowded theater and hostage - taking at an elementary school, and culminate in the destruction of One Federal Plaza, the location of the FBI 's New York City field office, with over 600 casualties. In spite of objections, the President of the United States declares martial law and the United States Army 's 101st Airborne Division, under the command of Major General William Devereaux (Bruce Willis), occupies and seals off Brooklyn in an effort to find the remaining terrorist cells. Subsequently, all young men of Arab descent, including Haddad 's son Frank Jr., are rounded up and detained in Downing Stadium. Haddad resigns in outrage. New Yorkers stage violent demonstrations against the Army and the profiling of the Arabs; the Army fights to maintain control. There are reports of Army killings.
Hubbard and Kraft, now revealed to be an agent named Sharon Bridger, continue their investigation and capture a suspect, Tariq Husseini. Devereaux 's men torture and kill Husseini in the course of the interrogation. Afterward, Bridger tells Hubbard that Husseini revealed nothing of value because of the principle of compartmentalized information. Sickened, Bridger finally admits that she provided training and support to militants opposed to Saddam Hussein 's regime, working with Samir to recruit and train the followers of the Sheikh. After the U.S. cut their funding and left them exposed, she took pity on the few of them who had not yet been slaughtered by Hussein 's forces, and arranged for them to escape to the United States, ultimately leading to the present situation as they turn their bomb making and covert skills on the country that now holds their leader. Sharon and Hubbard compel Samir to arrange a meeting with the final terrorist cell. Hubbard also convinces Haddad to return to the FBI.
A multi-ethnic peace march demonstrates against the occupation of Brooklyn. As the march is getting under way Hubbard and Haddad arrive at the meeting place, but Bridger and Samir have already left. Samir reveals to Bridger that he constitutes the final cell while in another sense he says, "there will never be a last cell. '' He straps a bomb to his body which he intends to detonate among the marchers. Hubbard and Haddad arrive in time to prevent him leaving but Samir shoots Bridger in the abdomen as she struggles to stop him. Hubbard and Haddad kill Samir but despite their best efforts the pair can only watch as Bridger succumbs to her wound after managing to recite certain lines of the second half of the Lord 's Prayer and concluding with "Inshallah '' -- the Arabic phrase "God Willing ''.
Hubbard, Haddad, and their team raid Devereaux 's headquarters to make an arrest for the torture and murder of Husseini. Deveraux insists that under the War Powers Resolution the authority vested in himself by the President supersedes that of the court which issued the arrest warrant. Deveraux then commands his soldiers to aim their assault rifles at the agents, resulting in a Mexican standoff. Hubbard reminds Devereaux that the civil liberties and human rights which he took from Husseini are what all of his predecessors have fought and perished for. Devereaux finally submits and then gets arrested. Martial law ends and the detainees, including Haddad 's son, are given their freedom.
The film received mixed reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes awards the film a score of 45 % based on 60 reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B - '' on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert gave the film 2 ⁄ stars out of four, writing that director Edward Zwick does a good job with crowd scenes, but criticizing it as clumsy.
Bruce Willis won the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actor for his performances in this film, Armageddon, and Mercury Rising.
The film grossed $40,981,289 in North America and $75,691,623 in other territories on a budget of $70 million.
When the film opened, the American - Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee came out against the film. Its spokesman Hussein Ibish said "The Siege is extremely offensive. It 's beyond offensive. We 're used to offensive, that 's become a daily thing. This is actually dangerous. '' He thought it was "Insidious and incendiary '' because it "reinforces stereotypes that lead to hate crimes. '' Ibish acknowledged that Arab terrorists did, in fact, bomb the World Trade Center in 1993, but said that Arab and Islamic groups are upset by "the very strong equation between Muslim religious practices and terrorism... (Thanks to this film) Every time someone goes through the Muslim ablution, the ritual washing of hands everybody does before they pray five times a day, that image is the announcement to the viewer of the presence of violence. '' Echoing such criticism the Council on American -- Islamic Relations protested the insinuation that "Muslims have total disregard for human life. '' The groups were "faxing and calling news organizations on a regular basis '' to voice their concerns.
Director Edward Zwick had met with Arab Americans, who suggested that the story be changed to mirror the aftermath of the Oklahoma City bombing, when Arabs were immediately assumed responsible. This idea was rejected. Zwick noted that The Siege 's villains also include members of the U.S. government, and dismissed the criticism, saying:
Anytime you talk about issues that touch on religion of any kind, you can anticipate this kind of reaction. Should we only present every group as paragons and monoliths of virtue? The movie inspires to engender this kind of dialogue. I happen to come from the school that thinks that movies should not only make you uncomfortable, they might make you think.... You can anticipate any kind of reaction in these times in which sensitivity seems very high in the culture. I have a friend who says, if you 've not offended somebody, you 're a nobody.... How does it feel to be a lightning rod? It gets the blood going. I think it 's better than being universally ignored. In a culture where there seems to be so much to talk about, it 's good to be talked about.
"What the movie is most deeply about -- it 's about our own latent possibilities of repression, stereotyping and prejudice, '' says Zwick. "To see Americans rounded up in the streets, to see Americans put into stadiums, to see people held without habeas corpus -- to have their rights violated in such a way is such a chilling and just terrifying thing to see -- that is what one takes away, I believe, from this film. ''
In a September 2007 interview, screenwriter Lawrence Wright attributed the film 's failure at the box office to Muslim and Arab protests at theaters playing the film, but also claimed that it was the most rented movie in America after the September 11 attacks.
Scholar Alexandra Campbell quoted from former Guantanamo Bay detention camp captive Tarek Dergoul when she compared the fictional demonization and extrajudicial abuse of Muslims in the film and the abuse that Dergoul described in his first post-repatriation interview.
On July 12, 2006 the magazine Mother Jones provided excerpts from the transcripts of a selection of the Guantanamo detainees. Shokuri was one of the detainees profiled. According to the article, his transcript contained the following comment:
(T) he only way I know the United States is through movies from Hollywood or through cartoons. I 'm a big fan of a lot of their singers.... (T) he first time I saw an American soldier was at Kandahar Air Base.... When I first saw myself in Kandahar, it was like I was in a cinema or a movie. I saw a 1996 movie called The Siege. The movie was about terrorists carrying out terrorist attacks in the United States.... (In the movie) the CIA and FBI were not successful in finding that terrorist group and the United States Army interfered and gathered all the people of Arabic descent and put them in a land cage or camp just like it happened in Kandahar. I was shocked, thinking, "Am I in that movie or on a stage in Hollywood? ''... Sometimes I laugh at myself and say, "When does that movie end? ''
|
who plays the characters in wizards of waverly place | List of Wizards of Waverly Place characters - wikipedia
The following is the list of characters of Disney Channel original series Wizards of Waverly Place.
The series centers on the fictional characters of the Russo family, which includes Alex (Selena Gomez), her older brother Justin (David Henrie) and their younger brother Max (Jake T. Austin). The three Russo siblings are wizards in training and live with their Italian - American father Jerry (David DeLuise), a former wizard, and their Mexican - American mother, Theresa (Maria Canals Barrera) who is a mortal. Alex 's best friend Harper (Jennifer Stone) also found out about the Russos ' wizard powers in season 2. The siblings have to keep their secret safe while living in the mortal world. When they become adults, the three siblings will have a wizard competition to decide who will become the family wizard of their generation and keep his or her wizard powers. Harper used to have a crush on Justin, but now is in love with Justin 's best friend, Zeke, who finds out about the Russo 's wizard powers in season 4. Alex Russo (Selena Gomez) and Justin Russo (David Henrie) are the only characters to appear in every episode of the series.
Alexandra Margarita Russo (Selena Gomez) is the only female out of the three Russo siblings, and the middle child. She is sly, rebellious, outgoing, and usually underachieves when it comes to school. She often gets into trouble because of her constant schemes (usually involving magic). She is part Latina and part Italian. Even though she is infamously known for doing the worst in wizard studies and school, and relentlessly torments her older brother Justin, Alex becomes much more mature throughout the series. Although she 's somewhat lazy, Alex is smart, loyal, and caring. She goes through a long term relationship with Mason Greyback, a purebred werewolf. She becomes the Russo family wizard at the end of the series. Usually, her mom calls her "m'ija '', which is Spanish for "my daughter ''.
Justin Vincenzo Pepé Russo (David Henrie) is Alex 's and Max 's brother, and the oldest of the three Russo siblings. He is very smart, and is often considered a nerd. He is in numerous clubs and has learned over 5000 spells. He continues his wizard studies in a Monster Hunting course. For his knowledge in wizardry, he takes after his father Jerry, who originally won the Wizard Family Competition against Kelbo and Megan. Unlike Alex, he is an overachiever when it comes to school. He is fairly athletic, and very respectful to his parents and other adults. Justin is responsible, sensible, kindhearted and hardworking, but can be a little sarcastic to Alex and Max. He revealed to Alex that he is jealous of her because he felt she is blessed with magic skills that he ca n't live up to, and it 's reinforced when he refers to Alex as "daddy 's little princess '' (a unique, and often favoring, bond between a father and daughter). This is what drives him to be a better wizard. Alex consoles him by stating that he is her rock and foundation, and that she is actually jealous of his academic achievements, even though she openly admits to not caring about school. He has a long - term relationship with Juliet Van Heusen, a teenage vampire whose family runs the "Late Night Bite '' (local competition for the Waverly Sub Station), which prompted a feud between the Russos and the Van Heusens. At first, their love is a forbidden romance, which Alex points out by referencing William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet, but then they eventually start dating openly. Justin reveals to Alex that Juliet is his true love, after he felt heartbroken about being unable to see her due to the feuding families. Justin gets heartbroken again when Juliet was forced to break up with him due to her getting scratched by Mason the werewolf, as she stated that when that happens a vampire 's appearance will revert to their true age.
Later in the series, Alex tells the world that they are wizards and her and Justin 's levels move down, so he makes a class with students who got kicked out of WizTech and later falls in love with an angel named Rosie.
At first, it seems that Justin won the Wizard Competition after being the first to cross the finish line, and he was about to be granted his full powers, when he says that he ca n't accept it because he did n't really win; Alex would have won if she had n't come to back to help him, and he says that she deserves to be the Russo family wizard. Because of his honesty, Professor Crumbs allows both Justin and Alex to keep their powers and for Justin to take over as Headmaster of Wiz Tech.
Later in the series he reconciles with Juliet after she regains her youthful appearance.
Maximilian Alonzo Ernesto "Max '' Russo (Jake T. Austin) is the youngest of the three Russo siblings. Alex and Justin 's magic are more advanced than Max 's (as shown by the wands). Although he is an underachiever in the beginning, he advances more during the series. At first, he does not seem to be very bright, but this is later revealed to be due to a lack of focus and a short attention span, as he becomes a A+ model student when their school introduces uniforms, claiming it helps him focus. Alex and Justin are embarrassed and annoyed by his lack of intelligence, but they do occasionally take advantage of it, for example: When they tried to lure in a Genie back to her lamp, Alex suggested that after the Genie outsmarted them, they might be able to out - dumb her, and immediately asked Max what he 'd do to get her back to grant him a wish. The Genie eventually allows him a wish, to which he responded with describing his appearance, which prompted the Genie to unintentionally reveal that there is a reset - button. He once revealed to Juliet, that he uses "randomness '' to allow others to inadvertently reveal their true thoughts and feelings to him, though he later admitted that he still has no idea what is going on around him. He is very fond of skateboards. In the episode "Three Maxes and a Little Lady '', Justin and Alex fall behind in the Wizard Competition, and Max gets a wish, which he uses to wish for the Wizard Competition to begin that day. However, both Alex and Justin use magic to turn into Max and reverse The Wish, to no avail. Max eventually decides to bump back the Wizard Competition; however, Alex and Justin cross spells and turn Max into Maxine, a girl version of him. In "Who Will be the Family Wizard '', Max 's powers are taken away, but Jerry and Teresa decide to give him The Sub Station, much to his happiness. Personality wise, Max takes after his Uncle Kelbo.
Max is played by Jake T. Austin (and Bailee Madison as Maxine) in season four.
Harper Rosanne Evans Finkle (Jennifer Stone) is best friends with Alex Russo, and always used to have a crush on her brother, Justin Russo, but now is in a relationship with Zeke Beakerman, Justin 's nerdy best friend. Harper is a typical teenager, being self - expressive, but a little insecure at times. Unlike Alex, she is a hard - working student and a fairly positive person, but still connects well with Alex. Jennifer Stone does not appear as Harper in "You Ca n't Always Get What You Carpet '' (which was actually the first episode produced, but the sixth episode broadcast -- the episode was aired out of production order).
Harper is known for her outrageous fashion ensembles that she designs herself, most of which are "food - themed '', such as one outfit seen in the season one episode "Credit Check '' which resembled a cupcake. No one ever tells her that her fashion designs are (for the most part) ridiculous, but it is implied that everyone else thinks it. Not only does she create her own clothes, but she also makes her own jewelry as seen in the episode "Art Museum Piece '', when she starts a booth selling her necklaces made of macaroni, glitter, and knobs from Alex 's room. Despite her unseemly fashion choices, she believes it is better to stand out as an individual, and is confident that she will excel at whatever she tries, no matter what people think, and has a habit of laughing out loud when the atmosphere gets tense.
She was oblivious of the fact that Alex, Max and Justin are wizards until the episode "Harper Knows '' when Alex finally told her because she felt guilty for not telling the truth to her best friend. This was also the first time Harper experienced the use of magic when Alex gave her a charmed costume with super powers. She is often paranoid of Alex 's schemes, especially after she finds out about magic, but reluctantly gets involved anyway. Despite Alex 's controlling and manipulative behavior, Harper always sees the good side in Alex and is willing to be accepting of her due to their friendship, to the point where she was the only person who believed that Alex would n't participate in a plot that, if successful, would prevent young wizards losing their powers in the Competition. She has known Alex since kindergarten and is always there when Alex needs support. In season three it is revealed that Harper is a cheerleader, which is the only secret Harper has ever kept from Alex, largely due to Alex 's typical disdain and mocking attitude towards cheerleaders.
Harper 's parents are featured in "Wizards vs Finkles '' as traveling showpeople from Romania. They ask Harper to rejoin them for shows but Harper refuses, happy with her life with the Russos while Alex, fascinated with their lifestyle, accept in Harper 's place. In the end the commitment and hard work drives Alex away, with Harper 's parents leaving for Youngstown, Ohio, for a new gig on good terms with Harper and the rest of the Russos. In "Meet the Werewolves '' it is revealed that Harper was born in Nebraska, backstage in a night club, most likely at one of her parent 's shows. In "Wizards vs. Vampires: Tasty Bites '', when Alex is so fed up with her family 's new healthy living, she says, "I 'm so desperate, I 'm thinking about going to Harper 's house '', meaning that Harper 's house is wild. In "Alex Does Good '', Harper blurts out, "It 's about time I got some appreciation, Mom! '', claiming that her mom does n't appreciate her. Harper moves in with Alex and the Russos in season three, most likely because of her home. (Although it was also motivated by her father 's recent transfer to Pittsburgh and her unwillingness to leave Alex).
In the episode "Future Harper '', it 's revealed that Harper becomes a famous author, who writes books based on the Russos ' wizard adventures, and writes under the name "H.J. Darling '' (parody of J.K. Rowling). Alex, Justin, and Max find this out when they go to confront the author of the books (seven books in the series Charmed and Dangerous) that mysteriously mimic their lives. As the older Harper (Rachel Dratch) tells them, she writes her books in the present day because in the future, wizards and magic in general have been outed, and books about magic are no longer so interesting. She does n't tell the Russo kids who it was that revealed the existence of wizards, other than it happens to be one of the three; the Alex and Justin suspect it to be Max, to which he is first appalled but then agrees (though in a later episode the Russos are questioned by the government and they trick Justin into revealing that wizards exist, though this turned out to be a false exposure); and that she came back in time with the aid of one of the most powerful wizards of all time. It is unknown if she ever marries someone with the last name Darling, or if she just uses the name H.J. Darling as a way to keep her identity safe in the present day.
In the episode "Third Wheel '', after it is discovered Stevie is a wizard, Alex starts hanging out with her more, neglecting Harper. Later in the episode, Harper confronts Alex on how she has been feeling left out. This leads to a heated argument, where Harper reveals her insecurities about how Alex is always taking her for granted and yet she never holds it against her. During this argument, they end up destroying the Homecoming float, which Justin tricked Harper into helping him build by disguising himself as Alex. Mr. Laritate witnesses this and threatens to have Alex expelled. For the sake of their friendship, Harper takes all the blame. Mr. Laritate believes her, considering that Alex never tells the truth, and punishes Harper with one week of detention. Later, Alex somehow sneaks into the detention room and apologizes for what happened. Forgiving her, Harper explains that she only did it because even if Stevie is Alex 's new best friend, it 's not going to keep her from being a friend to Alex. Alex compassionately says that her relationship with Harper is much stronger than it is with Stevie, by saying that Stevie is her friend, but Harper is her sister. When Stevie later appears to recruit Alex to aid her in a plot to destroy the power transference technology and thus prevent any younger wizards from losing their powers in the competition, Harper continues to believe that Alex will come through and do the right thing even when Justin is convinced that Alex has gone evil. Alex warmly thanks Harper for her faith in her after her true agenda is revealed when she freezes Stevie and allows Stevie 's brother Warren to inherit his full powers.
At times, Jerry and Theresa like to take credit for Harper being their daughter, as in the episode "Marathoner Helper ''. Justin then says, "C'mon, she 's not your daughter. '' And as Alex walks in eating a hot dog with cereal he says, "That 's your daughter. ''
She usually shouts "See ya in PE '' and screams when she is scared or nervous. In "Helping Hand '', she screams while laughing stating she is scared and happy.
"Crazy 10 - Minute Sale ''
Theresa Magdalena Margarita Russo (née Larkin), played by Maria Canals Barrera, is the mother of Alex, Justin and Max Russo and co-owner of the Waverly Sub Station, with her husband Jerry; and is also the slightly more serious one of the couple. Theresa is Mexican American (as a Latina, Canals Barrera has Spanish ancestry through her Cuban parents).
Theresa Russo is a typical mother. She 's fussy, caring and can be pretty embarrassing. Unlike her children, she is a mortal. She dislikes magic, probably because she was once possessed by a wizard 's love spell for twelve years. Theresa lives on Waverly Place in Manhattan with her husband (and former wizard) Jerry Russo (David DeLuise) and her children: middle daughter Alex Russo (Selena Gomez), eldest son Justin Russo (David Henrie), and youngest child Max Russo (Jake T. Austin). She owns a sandwich shop called the Waverly Sub Station with her husband in which her children work. She is overprotective of Justin and Max, but Max especially. She tries to relate with her kids but it does n't always work.
Theresa stated that she is a "Proud Latina '' and tries to get her children to learn about her and their Mexican heritage. In season one 's "You Ca n't Always Get What You Carpet '', Theresa states that she once played guitar in an all - girl mariachi band -- though when Justin says "I did n't know you played the guitar '', Jerry says "she does n't '' -- implying that Theresa is not a very good guitar player. This is shown in season 3.
At times, Theresa can be controlling of her kids and their lives; for example, in "Quinceañera '', she completely takes control of the plans for Alex 's Quinceañera fifteenth birthday party and turns it into the party that she wants, attempting to manipulate Alex into letting her. She refuses to listen to Alex 's objections all because she herself never got to have a Quinceañera of her own. This eventually gets so irritating to Alex that she casts a spell to switch bodies with her mother, partially so Theresa would be able to have the Quinceañera that she never got to have.
Theresa is the reason why Jerry could not keep his wizard powers. Since wizards are not allowed to marry non-wizards, Jerry chose to give up his powers to his younger brother Kelbo in order to marry Theresa, as was revealed in season one 's "Alex in the Middle '' -- previously unbeknownst to Justin, Alex and Max. However, Jerry says he does not regret marrying her.
It has been mentioned several times that Theresa does n't like magic, and that she feels left out due to the rest of her family all being wizards at some point. She also finds it difficult to live in a house full of wizards, especially when her children (and sometimes, Jerry) misuse magic in the house, most notably when the boys of the family want to play indoors and either directly or indirectly end up destroying a prized lamp she owns. An example of this is in season one 's "Art Museum Piece '', when a spell which causes Theresa to go through objects wears off -- and she accidentally walks into the front door and she exclaims "I hate living with wizards! ''. She has also been shown to have very little concern for major issues in the magical world, which do n't concern her. She also can be annoyed by the magic futility, was visible in "All bout You - niverse '', when Alex broken a magical mirror (and thus trapping herself in a parallel universe), Theresa find out that fixing a magical mirror is no different from fixing a normal mirror, and she remarks "Magic is lame ''. Despite this, when Alex and Justin 's antics cause Max to fail the wand quiz in "My Tutor, Tutor '', Theresa lends a sympathetic ear to his problem (even supporting his plans to get revenge), and even told Alex to use her magic to make their haunted house scarier in "Halloween ''. In "Positive Alex '', Theresa and Jerry realized that Alex had put a spell on herself to become positive, and they agree to do nothing against it, because they believe that there 's nothing wrong in being positive, though they quickly change their minds when the newly optimistic Alex turns out to be unbearably annoying.
Though normally, Theresa is a kind and caring mother, but she has a prevalent selfish side. For example, in "Retest '', when Alex, Max, and Justin were upset over the possibility of losing their powers, Theresa relished the thought of having a normal family, going so far as to suggest turning the wizard lair into a den and, although she has no intention in hurting them, Theresa often hints this fact in a very unkind form. Similarly, in "Wizards vs. Vampires on Waverly Place '', she openly refused to let Justin date Juliet at first and freely stated she cared more about her business than her children 's happiness, which even Alex was appalled and disgusted by. Alex then cut into the argument as Justin was losing it badly against their parents and fixed everything up, ending with Justin able to date Juliet and their parents happy. In "Marathon Helper '', Theresa was too shamed and upset with her family 's lack of physical attributes that she said none of her own children are members of her family, openly added Harper is her only daughter, since Harper had taken it on herself to be involved in healthy activities, and later, she goes farther, hurting Justin 's feelings by she saying she was not proud of his academic success. Both in "Wizards vs. Vampires on Waverly Place 2 '' and in "Wizards of Waverly Place: The Movie, '' she openly remarks since she is the Russos ' mother, she does n't need to care about their opinions and in more than one occasion, she arrogantly expressed the belief that she is immune to the Wizard Rules, since that she is n't (unfortunately, the "Wizard '' Rules apply to all normal and supernatural beings that is aware of the Wizard World.). In the episode "Alex 's Logo '', she was referred to as popular in school, though it turns out she was the first girl admitted to a formerly all - boys school. In "Uncle Ernesto, '' Alex encourages her to invite her brother on her birthday, however, it goes wrong and she ends up with a crashed birthday party.
Geraldo Pepé "Jerry '' Russo is the father of Alex, Justin and Max Russo and co-owner of the Waverly Sub Station, with his wife Theresa (whom he accidentally insults on occasion). He is also a former wizard, who chose to give up his powers to marry his wife Theresa, a mortal, due to a rule forbidding wizards to marry mortals. Jerry is Italian American (DeLuise also has Italian ancestry).
Jerry Russo is the average father. He is stern, protective and is annoyed by Alex and Max constantly, and even by Justin occasionally. Unlike his children, he does not have powers any more; nonetheless, his children inherited their powers from him, with Max having a fascination of the magic normal humans can do such as microwave popcorn, Alex being a natural at magic yet using it recklessly, and Justin continually trying to improve his magic through knowledge. Jerry lives on Waverly Place, a street in downtown Manhattan with his mortal wife Theresa Russo (Maria Canals Barrera) and his children: middle daughter Alex Russo (Selena Gomez), eldest son Justin Russo (David Henrie), and youngest child Max Russo (Jake T. Austin). He owns a sandwich shop called the Waverly Sub Station with Theresa, where his children work, and, in the season one episode "New Employee '' so did Alex 's best friend Harper Finkle (Jennifer Stone), although they only did it so they could be together more often. It is mentioned in the season two episode "Make It Happen '', that Jerry 's original career plan was to be a bull rider. His most popular catchphrase is "But - he - you - she - ALEX! ''
Jerry is the typical over-protective father towards his daughter. It was first shown in season one 's "First Kiss '' when Alex claimed to have had her first kiss. He said "No! She 's my little girl! What 's his name? I 'll make him cry! '' (it is almost immediately revealed that Alex lied about having had her first kiss, and when Justin teased her for it, she kissed the first random boy she deemed good enough to kiss in school the next day, who was Matt, giving him a kiss that lasted a few seconds long and catching him off guard by her blunt, surprising way -- she had slammed his locker shut when he was using it, right before pulling him by the shirt to direct his face towards hers to be able to kiss -- and when he finally recovered from it, he turned around and ran in the direction of Alex, calling out her name to presumably ask her on a date), and continued in "You Ca n't Always Get What You Carpet '' from that same season, when he did n't want to teach her how to ride the carpet because he was afraid she would grow up and leave home. He also was seen putting babyish wallpaper on her walls. When Max is accidentally transformed into a little girl in "Daddy 's Little Girl, '' Jerry calls the new Max "Maxine '' and dotes on her, which does not go unnoticed by a jealous Alex, who tries to get her father 's attention to no avail. However, when he becomes aware of Alex 's jealousy and sadness, Jerry apologizes to her, explaining that he only did so because Maxine reminds him of Alex when she was little and reassuring her that she will always be his little girl.
He normally is n't okay with her dating, such as in the first - season episode "Potion Commotion '' when Alex said "That 's my new boyfriend! '' about her crush Brad Sherwood (Shane Lyons), he said "I 'll pick your new boyfriend! '' But later on when Brad complimented Jerry, he said "I like your new boyfriend! '' When Alex began dating Dean (Daniel Samonas), he liked him at first until Alex revealed Dean wanted to kiss her in season two 's "Alex 's Brother, Maximan ''. Jerry said "I never cared for that boy!, '' when he had just said the other day he liked Dean. When Alex pointed that out he said "That 's before I knew he wanted to kiss you! He was using me to get to you! And I fell for it! '' In "Alex Charms a Boy '' Jerry is no longer overprotective because when he saw Alex and Mason kiss he smiled instead of freaking out, because he knew it was an honest and true relationship. He can be somewhat of a cheapskate; for example, in "Taxi Dance '', he is unable to remember the number of the hospital room where Justin was born when he remembers his own lottery ticket number from that same day, and being so cheap that his antics resulted in Theresa giving birth to Alex in a taxicab instead of in a hospital. Notably, before this, Theresa told the kids that Jerry had tried to make her walk to the hospital while she was in labor, to which Jerry replied, "I offered to push you in a shopping cart! ''. More notable, in "Western Show '', when Max 's increase of intelligence and maturity make him apply for various colleges, instead of showing happiness for the success of his son, he was upset with the possibility of having to pay for his learning. Additionally, in "Quinceañera, '' he is reduced to tears when Alex offers to tell him how much her Quinceañera cost.
Jerry is proud of his magical ancestry and teaches his children about the proper uses of magic in "Wizard Training Class '' on Tuesdays and Thursdays, in the lair magically disguised as a food locker in the restaurant. However, his children often disobey his magic rules (Alex, most often being the case), and he has to punish them. He wants his kids to be great wizards, but also wants them to be able to live a life without using their powers since they may not have them in the future, as only one of them will get to keep his / her powers as an adult. Jerry has an younger brother named Kelbo (Jeff Garlin), who is seen in the season one episode "Alex in the Middle '', who is the wizard in Jerry 's family because Jerry had to give him the powers to marry Theresa. Jerry 's children consider Kelbo to be more fun than Jerry, and Alex even decides to have Kelbo be her magic teacher, and is revealed to be irresponsible with magic (almost as much as Alex is sometimes) as is shown when Kelbo fails to stop a package of sea chimps that spouts a huge gush of water eventually flooding the wizard lair and turning Kelbo and Alex into sea chimps. Jerry ends up being the one who saves them both, and he reveals a secret that he has kept from Alex, Max and Justin: that he gave up his powers in order to marry Theresa, due to a rule forbidding wizards and mortals from marrying, thus relinquishing his powers to Kelbo in order to marry her. In "Retest '' it is revealed that Jerry and Kelbo have a sister, Megan. Megan holds a grudge against Jerry for giving Kelbo his powers instead of her. She lives in an art studio in Paris where she paints pictures. She is similar to Alex because she, like Alex, loves Art and hates hard work, though, unlike Alex, she is unwilling or unable to apologize for her actions. It is most likely their parents are still alive because of references from Alex and Max. Such as in "Future Harper '', when Alex is telling Harper about a wizard adventure about her and her brothers, Harper already knows the ending and tells Alex she already told her the story. Alex replies "Oh my gosh I 'm starting to sound like Grandma ''.
Jerry also is a fan of the New York Mets and New York Jets, he and Theresa accidentally made fools of themselves in front of Max 's date 's parents, because Max got confused between the New York Mets and the New York Metropolitan Opera (The Met) while trying to find common interest between them and his date 's parents, not realizing that they keep forgetting about the Intermission they usually believed the stories to "end abruptly in the middle ''. In several episodes of the series (more so in season one, than in other seasons), Jerry often makes a remark that accidentally insults Theresa, and quickly tries to correct his statement. Such an example is in season one 's "Movies '', in which Theresa tells Alex that no matter how old she gets that she is not too old to spend time with her family, Jerry responds "Exactly, just look at your mother ''. Alex then points out that Jerry accidentally called Theresa "old '', and he attempts and fails to change the subject.
In Wizards of Waverly Place: The Movie, Jerry gives Justin the family wand and the spell book which Alex steals accidentally wishing her parents never met or fell in love, but it was resolved -- ironically by Alex herself, the reckless one out of his three children, who also surprisingly won the Premature Family Wizard competition against Justin, as Justin was the favorite out of the three to win it but lost to Alex, who then gives up her powers so they could compete for their powers when they are old enough.
Jerry has made more than one mention of past friends of his youth, including "Ponyboy '' and John Bender; both names of rebellious teen characters in classic 80 's pop - culture films, The Outsiders and The Breakfast Club, respectively. Aside from the names, no other specific connections or further implications seem to have been made connecting Jerry 's youth and the events in these stories. It is revealed in "Wizard for a Day '', that he does not need his magic powers anymore, because when Alex gave him Merlin 's hat for his birthday, granting the wearer magic powers for 24 hours, all he wished for was a sandwich, whereas he could 've just as easily went downstairs to make a sandwich himself in the Sub Station. Feeling underwhelmed, Alex used the hat to convert the Sub Station into a milkshake bar from Jerry 's youth. After seeing this, he reminisced about it for a few moments before asking Alex to change it back, though he changed his mind when he saw how many customers it attracted. He later told Alex that he does n't need big exciting gifts, as he his satisfied enough with small and simple ones (referring to Justin 's gift, a magic pencil sharpener made from a soup - can).
The following is a list of recurring characters in the Disney Channel sitcom Wizards of Waverly Place.
Ezekiel ' Zeke ' Beakerman (Dan Benson) is Justin 's best friend. Zeke is in the same grade as Justin. He attends Tribeca Prep and is in advanced chemistry along with Justin. He is also part of an Alien Language League; he and Justin often "speak alien '' to each other. Zeke 's first appearance was in "Movies '', but strangely he was known as Zack Rosenblack. They later changed his name to Zeke. He is very impulsive and easygoing. He and Justin are also on the same Quiz Bowl team in "Smarty Pants ''. Zeke and Justin have tried out for several sports teams, but have apparently failed at all of them. In "Fashion Week '', they somehow succeed at talking to models. Zeke got the role of Peter Pan in the school play in "Fairy Tale ''. In the episode "Wizard For a Day '', he is upset when the real aliens do not understand his "alien speak ''. Zeke and Harper go to "Zombie Prom '' together. He is also on the cheer squad, as revealed in "Positive Alex ''. He runs against Justin in the campaign for Student Body President in "Detention Election '', but later he votes for Justin. He continues to assist Justin as student body president. Zeke continues his relationship with Harper in "Alex Russo, Matchmaker? '' In "Wizards Unleashed '', Zeke and Harper take care of the sub station and share their first kiss. In "Alex Russo, Matchmaker '', Zeke is revealed to have hydrophobia and in season 4 he finds out the Russos are wizards. He assists the Russos when possible, though his assistance usually turns more troublesome than helpful. He is present during the Russo siblings ' competition and ceremony at the series finale.
Mr. Herschel Laritate (Bill Chott) is the principal of Tribeca Prep High School, which is mentioned when he calls Alex Russo into the principal 's office in "Alex Does Good ''. Humorously, it is shown in the same episode that Alex has been sent to the principal 's office way too often (implying Alex is a delinquent student) to the point that the two have somewhat of regular routines down, such as serving drink and snacks to each other and complementing the office 's new mural of horses. His last name, Laritate, is a pun of Larry Tate from Bewitched. He loves anything related to the Old West, as seen in his daily life, such as wears cowboy hat and bolo tie, uses terms from that era when speaking, and even decorates his office in that theme. When he was relieved from his position as principal in "Western Show '', he choose to work as part - time employee in ' Wild Billy 's Western Roundup '. He teaches History class, Marriage and Family class, and taught the Art class once as temporary teacher. Mr. Laritate also acts as the adviser of several activities at the school including the World School Summit at the U.N., Happy Helpers Club, Quiz Bowl, sport activities, and school plays. His alma mater is Clementine College as mentioned in "Fairy Tale '', but later on he confessed that he does not have a college degree in "Franken - Girl ''. Nevertheless, he claimed to be able to provide a strong recommendation letter for Justin Russo to the said college.
Mr. Laritate considers Justin as a model student. On the contrary, he has an on - and - off relationship with Justin 's sister, Alex, in that he is often disappointed in Alex 's lack of work ethic and unwillingness to do well in school. In season two 's "Do n't Rain on Justin 's Parade '', Mr. Laritate calls Alex an evil genius, much to Alex 's pleasure. However, it is evident that he cares about her through his many efforts to reach out to her. In "Alex 's Logo '', he is basically Alex 's only friend because everybody became mad at Alex after she said what she really thought of them while giving a speech under truth spell. After Alex complains about everybody still being mad at her, even though it has been a week since the speech, Mr. Laritate then tries to help Alex by doing more embarrassing acts in the hope that everybody will turn their attention to him and forget what Alex has done. Unfortunately, he also incidentally embarrasses Alex on the microphone while doing so, resulting other students calling her the principal 's BFF (Best Friend Forever). He gives all the students that then threw T - shirts at him detention. He also gave Alex, who did not throw a T - shirt, detention, in order to justify his "student to principal '' relationship. However, she smiles at Mr. Laritate 's and says "thank you '', because she knows its just his another attempt to defuse tension between her and other students. It was also revealed in this episode that Mr. Laritate has somewhat a difficult relationship with his mother.
In season 4, Alex crashes Mr. Laritate 's car during her driving lesson and he sees how grown up she has become when she confesses the truth to him. Mr. Laritate personally hands high school diploma to Alex and Harper Finkle during a makeshift graduation ceremony of Tribeca Prep class of 2011 in "Wizards vs Asteroids ''. He appeared last time in "Get along Little Zombie '' in which he was temporarily turned into a zombie after he got bitten by one during his visit to Alex and Harper 's apartment. Alex and Mason Greyback turned him back into human again using ' Zombie bites treatment ' lotion. It is shown at the end of the episode that he is, apparently, willing to keep a close relationship to the Russo family.
Mason Greyback (Gregg Sulkin; seasons 3 - 4) is first mentioned in Season 2 episode Future Harper when Future Harper tells Alex that she seems irritable and asks if she broke up with Mason yet, implying that she will date a boy named Mason in the future.
Mason is first fully introduced as a student in Alex 's art class, and as an English boy who has a crush on Alex. They later begin to date. Mason loves to paint. He gives Alex a necklace that lights up when the person who wears it is in love with the person who put it on them. It is revealed that he in fact is a werewolf but does n't turn Alex into a werewolf when they kiss, because he is a purebred and only mutts turn people into werewolves when they kiss, referencing Justin 's werewolf Wizface - date from the season 2 episode "Beware Wolf ''. He helps in the search for Juliet after picking up her scent from her dental floss. It is revealed that he and Juliet used to date (which also reveals Mason does n't age) and he admits impulsively that he never stopped loving her, which breaks Alex 's heart. She throws away the magic necklace he gave her (which lights up if the wearer is in love with the person who put it on them). He later tells Max that, like dogs, werewolves are incredibly loyal and impulsive, which explains why he could n't contain himself when he saw Juliet, though his feelings for Alex are still present. He tries to prove his love for Alex by going back to the mummy 's tomb to find the necklace. Justin, Max, and Juliet come to rescue Alex, even though Alex volunteered to go and was n't in any real danger. Max likes Mason, but Justin hates him for breaking Alex 's heart. When Justin tries to make Alex forcedly leave the tomb, Mason, being fiercely protective, turns into a werewolf, and starts fighting Justin and Juliet. He is attacking Justin when Juliet bites him, causing him to turn into a wolf permanently. Before his transformation, Alex puts the necklace on him and it lights up. Alex knows now that he truly loves her, but he leaves because as a wolf, he has no control. He leaves the mummy 's tomb as he transforms into a wolf.
In Wizards Unleashed, it is discovered that Mason has been captured by wizards and being used in TV advertisements. Upon discovering this, Alex manages to retrieve him, and uses magic to revert the transformation, but only succeeds in leaving him with pointy ears, claws, and mass abounds of fur. Though Alex initially has trouble accepting Mason in this new state, she eventually gets over it and Justin manages to fully restore his humanity by playing a magical jawharp at the end of the episode. In "Wizards Exposed, '' the wizards get caught, and Mason gets caught while he was "admiring his hat. ''
In "Alex Gives Up, '' they are forced to break up due to a rule that says that werewolves and non-wizards can not date because the werewolf always ends up eating the human due to their anger management issues. At first, Chancellor Rootie Tootie Tootie appealed the rule, but then Alex, jealous of Lisa Cucuy, who was hitting on Mason, and makes Mason extremely angry by embarrassing him in front of her brother, her parents, and the Cucuy 's. Mason then transforms into his half - werewolf form and Chancellor Tootie Tootie, seeing he is incapable of controlling his anger, takes back his appeal, therefore forcing Alex and Mason to break up. In "Journey to the Center of Mason '', Mason eats Dean Moriarty (Alex 's ex-boyfriend; they broke up when Dean had to move to Ohio) because he is jealous that Alex is spending time with Dean and not him. Alex, Justin, and Max go inside of Mason. While in Mason, Alex, Justin, and Max go into his brain. Alex sees that all Mason does is think about her. When Alex, Justin, and Max come out of him with Dean, Dean leaves because Alex does n't want him back. After he leaves, Alex and Mason get back together because Alex decided to rejoin the Wizard Competition so she and Mason could be together. In the episode, Dean only refers to Mason as "London Bridges ''. Mason has the deepest love for Alex and has nicknamed her ' Brown Eyes ', ' Little Meatball ', and ' Love '. In "Wizard of the Year '', Alex breaks up with him for the third time because of his mistrust of her and a monster tamer named Chase.
In the episodes of "Wizards of Apartment 13B '', Alex and Harper move into an apartment on the thirteenth floor where coincidentally Mason is living at. Mason stops at nothing to win Alex back; using Harper 's training wand to open Alex 's heart to him. Though this turns out for the worse as Alex begins to flirt with an ugly ogre and Felix. In "Ghost Roommate '', Mason goes on a date with Lucy, a ghost who is living with Alex and Harper. Alex is jealous that Mason and Lucy went on a date and proceed to find Lucy 's long lost true love. Alex is then stuck on the Bermuda Triangle, where magic ca n't be used. Mason comes to her rescue using Justin 's hideous Bermuda shorts. In "Get Along, Little Zombie '', Mason is still determined to ask Alex out on a date and even breaking the elevator to spend some time with Alex; exposing the magical thirteenth floor to non-magical residents. Soon, Mr. Laritate discovers the thirteenth floor and gets bitten by a zombie; subsequently gets turned into a zombie. Mason and Alex go on a wild goose chase trying to find Mr. Laritate and end up in a square dance. Alex then realizes that she wants Mason back while Mason was trying to say that maybe he and Alex should just be friends. At the end of the episode, it is shown that Mason and Alex do get back together. In "Who Will be the Family Wizard '', Mason comes to the wizard competition to cheer on Alex. He and Juliet meet once again and tell each other no hard feelings from the events that took place in "Wizards vs. Werewolves ''. Also when Alex loses the competition, he and Alex look deeply saddened due to her losing and ponder breaking up. However, Justin realizes how much Alex needs to win to be happy, and so reveals she would have won if she had n't gone back for him and he did n't really win like everyone thought he did. Alex becomes the Russo family wizard and is able to stay with Mason. In "The Wizards Return: Alex vs. Alex '', Mason gets jealous over the evil wizard, Dominic, who flirts with Alex. Mason breaks Alex out of jail before she can be exiled, and he throws Dominic off the Leaning Tower of Pisa.
Juliet van Heusen (Bridgit Mendler; seasons 2 - 4) is a teenage vampire who is Justin Russo 's main love interest. When she was born, her parents let her have a soul so she could socialize in the human world. This also makes her more compassionate than most vampires, who are usually heartless and cunning. She is characterized as a beautiful girl with blonde hair and rather pale skin. She wears vanilla - scented perfume to hide her true vampire scent of death and decay in an attempt to avoid detection by monster hunters. She is also a health - conscious girl who has certain diet on her menu. Juliet 's development as a vampire is very slow, as her fangs have just started to grow at a late age for a vampire. She is also shown to not want to drink blood, and even tries to persuade her parents to abstain from drinking blood. As a very unusual character for a vampire, this trait is used for comic effect, especially when she empties a berliner with her fangs.
At first, Juliet and Justin were not allowed to date by their respective parents due to their restaurants ' rivalry. However, the two fight for their love and soon are allowed to date. In "Night at the Lazerama '', Juliet accompanies Justin on his monster - hunt for a mummy. Unfortunately, they become trapped in a glass display near a glass roof, which would cause Juliet to burn up in the morning. Since the mummy is the only one that able to take Juliet out from the glass display, Justin decides that the only way to save Juliet 's life is to turn her into the mummy 's slave. Nevertheless, he promises to save her one day. The mummy then takes Juliet to Transylvania, where she is forcibly imprisoned in suspended animation behind Hieroglyphics, though she never gives up hope that Justin will save her. In "Wizards vs. Werewolves '', Justin indeed saves her, and then it is revealed that she once dated Mason Greyback, Alex 's werewolf boyfriend, 300 years ago. This fact makes Justin rather jealous towards Mason, leads to a fight between the two. Juliet intervenes when Justin and Mason fight, and Mason scratches Juliet and, in turn, Juliet bites Mason, resulting in Mason turning into a wolf and Juliet is stripped of her vampire powers. This causes her to rapidly age into an old woman, since she is truly 2,193 years old. Because of this, Justin and Juliet are forced to end their relationship, both of them heartbroken.
In "Moving On '', Juliet appears again, happy to witness that Justin apparently has forgotten her and moved on. However, Justin and Juliet reunite towards the end of season 4, since, actually, none of them has stopped loving each other. Juliet gets her vampire powers and youth back when Gorog (the leader of dark angels) gives them to her in an effort to tempt Justin to join the Dark Side. However, the Russos defeat Gorog, releasing Juliet from his influence. Juliet comes to support Justin at the Russo family 's wizard competition, where she and Mason meet and both acknowledge that no hard feelings left from the events that took place in "Wizards vs. Werewolves ''. When Justin takes Professor Crumbs ' place as headmaster of WizTech, Juliet says she 's even happier about that.
Dean Moriarty (Daniel Samonas; seasons 2 and 4) is Alex 's boyfriend in the second season. He makes temporary tattoos in the boys bathroom and is interested in cars. In episode "Racing '' he charmed Alex 's parents with his car skills, though he revealed to Alex that he only did it to make a good first impression by being polite. It is also revealed in that episode, that he was raised by his Uncle, as he exclaimed proudly "my Uncle raised me with manners ''. Harper and Justin are n't too fond of him and Jerry seems the same way later on, though this is partly due to Jerry being an overprotective father after learning that he is dating Alex. He can never remember Harper 's name. In the episode "Alex 's Brother Maximan '' it was shown he likes roller skating and playing with the claw game and winning stuffed animals. The only thing Alex does n't like about him is that he 's horrible at showing his feelings, as shown in "Saving Wiz Tech Part 1 '', but it changed in "Saving Wiz Tech Part 2 ''. He does not appear to be academically inclined, as Alex noticed a false good grade on his wooden assignment / gift for her (it was a D changed to a B), and he also stated that he does not "test well '', meaning he does n't see himself as book - smart. He moved away sometime after that, so Alex visited him in his dreams in "Wizards vs Vampires: Dream Date ''; she then saw how they were growing apart, so they broke up. But he returned in Season 4 "Journey to the Center of Mason '' because he wanted to get back together, though she denied it because she likes Mason, and Mason eats him out of jealousy. Dean is later rescued by Alex, Justin, and Max, and learns that Alex has chosen Mason and agrees to back off.
Professor Crumbs (Ian Abercrombie) is the headmaster of WizTech (a reference to Albus Dumbledore). In "Wizard School '', he is often seen holding a muffin. (The muffin 's crumbs fall into his beard, hence the name "Crumbs ''.) Professor Crumbs is never seen without his incredibly long beard, even when he was turned into a guinea pig in the episode "Report Card ''. The only episode where he has been seen without his beard is in part two of season two 's "Saving WizTech '' when Ronald Longcape, Jr. (Chad Duell) took the beard from him, revealing that it was a fake beard all this time. After he was defeated, Crumbs took his beard back. Crumbs is shown how to socialize by Max in "Saving WizTech '' and has done some childish things, such as spitting over the edge of the Tower of Evil. In season two 's "Saving WizTech '', he states that he is 850 years old. He speaks with a British accent, which Alex sometimes makes fun of. Another thing that Alex makes fun of is the fact that he has a smelly beard revealed in Wizards Exposed. In the season 3 finale, he appears to be captured by a government agency with the rest of the wizard elite. However, the season 4 premiere reveals it was all an illusion Crumbs created to "test '' Justin and Alex. As each broke it by revealing to government agents and reporters (all also illusions), Crumbs forces them both to start at level 1 of their wizard lessons; however, after seeing how remarkably unintelligent Max was, he regretted his choice. When Justin and Max change him back into a kid, in their attempt to trick him into revealing how to undo a mutant spell they cast on Max that turned him into a little girl, it 's revealed that everyone in Crumbs ' family has a beard even as a kid. In the four - part episode revolving around Floor 13B, Professor Crumbs was surprised about a wizard floor that he did not know of and ended up discovering that Gorog was behind it. Professor Crumbs was captured by Gorog alongside the other inhabitants and was later rescued by the Russos upon Gorog 's defeat. In the end of the series finale, Crumbs announces Alex as the Family Wizard and that he is retiring, and makes Justin Russo (David Henrie) the new headmaster of WizTech, thus also granting Justin his full magic powers.
Hugh Normous (Josh Sussman; seasons 1 - 2 and 4) was Alex 's Wiz Tech friend he first appeared in "Wizard School. '' His name is a pun of the word "enormous '', it is also an irony considering that he is n't a real giant, as pointed out by Alex when he introduced himself and she responded with "Not Really ''. At first, he believed himself to be a giant, since his parents are giants, but that he 's the runt of the litter, so he carries around miniature everyday objects to boost his self - esteem; humorously, he also wears underpants and glasses too small for himself. He later appeared in season 2 episode Saving Wiz Tech where he showed Alex his friend Ronald Longcape Jr he later appears in Harper Knows and Hugh 's not Normous where he discovers that he is adopted and that he is not a real giant. He eventually meets his birth parents and goes to live with them, but he does n't resent his adoptive parents. Hugh is a giant in the sense of, when he met his birth parents, he was markedly taller than both of them, with both of them commenting on his larger size. Presumably, after discovering this, he stopped his habit of carrying miniature objects and started wearing regular - sized clothes. He does not appear in season 3 or the movie. He returned in Ghost Roommate, still thinking he is a giant.
Kelbo Russo (Jeff Garlin; seasons 1 - 3) is the uncle of Alex, Justin, and Max, and brother of Jerry and Megan. Unlike Jerry, he is very fun and carefree. Kelbo is a full wizard (Jerry had originally won the competition, but gave up his powers to marry a mortal) who often uses his powers very childishly, and often seems just as irresponsible with them as Alex is with her own. As a recurring gag, in every episode he appears in during the post credits scenes, he makes a prank call to someone.
He first appears in "Alex In the Middle '', and temporarily becomes Alex 's wizard tutor. He reappears in "Retest '', it is requested that he, Jerry and their sister Megan re-do their wizard competition, but when Megan refuses, Kelbo hires a magical fish - lawyer to help them, but after he informs that there is nothing that he can do, Kelbo decides to move to Atlantis for good. He appears once again in "Dude Looks Like Shakira '', and reveals that he is Shakira, but also added that what he has been doing is against the wizard rules, and can no longer control his transformations. The Russos eventually cure him of his illness (though Shakira 's career - end is n't mentioned afterwards). Despite his immaturity, naivety and clueless behavior, Kelbo proves to be a very loving and caring uncle, which was visible in his second appearing, and he, unlike Jerry, has no hard feelings for Megan, in fact, he was genuinely happy to see her again. Also in "Dude Looks Like Shakira '', Kelbo, in a rare moment of maturity, attempts to confess his crime to the wizard council, even knowing the consequences, in order to free his family from legal issues. Prank calls include: Is your refrigerator running (to Theresa in "Alex in the Middle ''), Is your refrigerator running (to Megan in "Retest ''), This is the wizards council. We 'll be over to break you hands for breaking wizard rules, etc. (to Justin in "Dude looks like Shakira ''). It 's also shown that he really hates the taste of cinnamon. He did not appear in season 4.
Monotone Woman (Amanda Tepe; seasons 1 - 2) has played numerous characters during the show 's first season, as well as one guest appearance in season two. She appears as a random character who speaks with a monotone. Jobs she has held include department store manager, waitress, frozen yogurt store manager, hotel maitre 'd, dog show security guard, the information desk lady at Volcano Land (only job in the magic world), art museum security guard, and hot dog vendor. Tepe 's only appearance on the show during the second season is in the episode "Wizards vs. Vampires: Dream Date '' as the hot dog vendor person. Her name in "New Employee '' is Amanda, according to her name tag, but in "Art Museum Piece '', her name is Elaine according to Blue Boy. She does not appear in the third and fourth season.
Characters only appear in Wizards of Waverly Place: The Movie.
Characters only appear in The Wizards Return: Alex vs. Alex.
|
steel authority of india limited relevance to indian economy | Steel Authority of India - Wikipedia
Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) is one of the largest state - owned steel making company based in New Delhi, India and one of the top steel makers in world, headed by Shri PK Singh. With an annual turnover of ₹ 44,452.41 Crores (FY 2016 - 17). It is a public sector undertaking which trades publicly in the market is largely owned by Government of India and acts like an operating company. Incorporated on 24 January 1973, SAIL has 78,333 employees (as of 01 - Jan - 2018). With an annual production of 13.9 million metric tons, SAIL is the 24th largest steel producer in the world. The Hot Metal capacity of the Company will further increase and is expected to reach a level of 23.5 million tonnes per annum by the end of the Financial Year 2015 - 16. Shri P.K Singh is the current Chairman of SAIL.
SAIL operates and owns 5 integrated steel plants at Bhilai, Rourkela, Durgapur, Bokaro and Burnpur (Asansol) and 3 special steel plants at Salem, Durgapur and Bhadravathi. It also owns a Ferro Alloy plant at Chandrapur. As a part of its global ambition, the company is undergoing a massive expansion and modernisation programme involving upgrading and building new facilities with emphasis on state of the art green technology. SAIL is a public sector company, owned and operated by the Government of India. According to a recent survey, SAIL is one of India 's fastest growing Public Sector Units. Besides, it has R&D centre for Iron & Steel (RDCIS), Centre for Engineering and Technology (CET), Management Training Institute (MTI) and SAIL Safety Organisation (SSO) located at Ranchi capital of Jharkhand.
SAIL traces its origin to the Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL) which was set up on 19 January 1954. HSL was initially designed to manage only one plant that was coming up at Rourkela.
For Bhilai and Durgapur Steel Plants, the preliminary work was done by the Iron and Steel Ministry. From April 1957, the supervision and control of these two steel plants were also transferred to Hindustan Steel. The registered office was originally in New Delhi. It moved to Calcutta in July 1956, and ultimately to Ranchi in December 1959.
A new steel company, Bokaro Steel Limited (Bokaro Steel Plant), was incorporated on 29 January 1964 to construct and operate the steel plant at Bokaro. The 1 MT phases of Bhilai and Rourkela Steel Plants were completed by the end of December 1961. The 1 MT phase of Durgapur Steel Plant was completed in January 1962 after commissioning of the Wheel and Axle plant. The crude steel production of HSL went up from 1.58 MT (1959 -- 60) to 1.6 MT. The second phase of Bhilai Steel Plant was completed in September 1967 after commissioning of the Wire Rod Mill. The last unit of the 1.8 MT phase of Rourkela -- the Tandem Mill -- was commissioned in February 1968, and the 1.6 MT stage of Durgapur Steel Plant was completed in August 1969 after commissioning of the Furnace in SMS. Thus, with the completion of the 2.5 MT stage at Bhilai, 1.8 MT at Rourkela and 1.6 MT at Durgapur, the total crude steel production capacity of HSL was raised to 3.7 MT in 1968 -- 69 and subsequently to 4 MT in 1972 -- 73. IISCO was taken over as a subsidiary in 1978 and later merged in 2006.
The Ministry of Steel and Mines drafted a policy statement to evolve a new model for managing industry. The policy statement was presented to the Parliament on 2 December 1972. On this basis the concept of creating a holding company to manage inputs and outputs under one roof was mooted. This led to the formation of The Steel Authority of India Ltd. The company, incorporated on 24 January 1973 with an authorised capital of ₹ 2,000 crore (US $310 million), was made responsible for managing five integrated steel plants at Bhilai, Bokaro, Durgapur, Rourkela and Burnpur, the Alloy Steel Plant and the Salem Steel Plant. In 1978 SAIL was restructured as an operating company.
SAIL Integrated Steel Plants
Special Steel Plants
Ferro Alloy Plant
Refractory Plants - SAIL Refractory Unit (SRU)
A 50: 50 joint venture between Steel Authority of India Ltd. (SAIL) and National Thermal Power Corporation Ltd. (NTPC Ltd.). It manages the captive power plants at Rourkela, Durgapur and Bhilai with a combined capacity of 314 MW. It has installed additional capacity by implementation of 500 MW (2 x 250 MW Units) power plant at Bhilai. The commercial generation of Unit 1 commenced in April 2009 and the Unit 2 in October 2009.
During FY2013 - 14, NSPCL generated 6156.091 MU of electricity with a PLF of 86.33 %
mjunction services limited operating in Information Technology and the Internet, is a 50: 50 venture promoted by SAIL and TATA Steel. Founded in February 2001, it is today not only India 's largest eCommerce company (having eTransacted worth over Rs. 900 billion till date) but also runs the world 's largest eMarketplace for steel.
SAIL has incorporated a joint venture company with M / s Jaiprakash Associates Ltd to set up a 2.2 MT slag based cement plant at Bhilai. The company shall commence cement production at Bhilai by March'2010, whereas clinker production at Satna shall start within 2009.
SAIL has incorporated another joint venture company with M / s JaiPrakash Associates Ltd to set up a 2.1 MT cement plant at Bokaro utilising slag from BSL. The project implementation is under progress with commencement of cement production likely by July 2011. Bokaro Jaypee cement plant opening ceremony was held by the chief minister of Jharkhand shri. Arjun Munda in 2012.
SAIL has incorporated a joint venture company with Manganese Ore (India) Ltd on 50: 50 basis to produce ferro - manganese and silico - manganese required for production of steel.
SAIL has incorporated a joint venture company with TATA Steel for joint acquisition & development of coal blocks / mines. New indigenous opportunities for coking coal development are being explored by the Joint Venture company for securing coking coal supplies.
International Coal Ventures Private Limited is a special purpose vehicle set up to achieve the target of making steel PSUs self - reliant in the area of coking coal, a joint venture company has been incorporated composed of five central PSU companies i.e. SAIL, Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited (RINL), Coal India Limited and other target countries.
A consortium comprising state - owned NMDC and RINL and private sector steel players -- JSW, JSW Ispat, Jindal Steel and Power, and Monnet Ispat and Energy and led by SAIL, plan to invest USD 75 million in first phase for the development of Hajigak iron ore mines in Afghanistan. The consortium, in November 2011, had won the mining rights for three iron ore mines which are said to contain 1.28 billion tonnes of rich reserves.
SAIL has decided to outsource development of two virgin iron ore mines at Rowghat in Chhattisgarh and Chiria in Jharkhand with an annual capacity of 14 and 15 million tonnes, respectively. The development of each mine is likely to cost between ₹ 1,000 crore (US $160 million) -- ₹ 1,200 crore (US $190 million).
A 50: 50 JV with Government of Kerala where SAIL has management control to revive the existing facilities at Steel Complex Ltd, Calicut and also to set up, develop and manage a TMT rolling mill of 65,000 MT capacity along with balancing facilities and auxiliaries.
ICVL is a joint venture of five companies owned by the Indian government. Aside from Steel Authority of India Limited, the other venturers are Coal India, Rashtriya Ispat Nigam, National Minerals Development Corporation and National Thermal Power Corporation. ICVL acquired a 65 percent stake in the Benga coal mine from the Rio Tinto Group in July 2014.
SAIL has signed a 50: 50 joint venture with Burn Standard Company Limited for setting up a wagon components manufacturing facility at Jellingham in West Bengal 's Purba Medinipur district. The total investment for this project would be ₹ 210 crore (US $33 million) in West Bengal, and commercial production would begin from 2014. It will manufacture, sell, market, distribute and export railway wagons, including high - end specialised wagons, wagon prototypes, fabricated components / parts of railway vehicles, rehabilitation of industrial locomotives, etc., for the domestic market.
The Government of India owns about 75 % of SAIL 's equity and retains voting control of the Company. However, SAIL, by virtue of its Maharatna status, enjoys significant operational and financial autonomy.
Mr. P.K Singh is the current chairman of SAIL. Prior to this, P.K Singh took over as the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Durgapur Steel Plant in 2012. Earlier in July 2015, he was given the additional charge of CEO of IISCO Steel Plant, Burnpur (West Bengal). An alumnus of IIT - Roorkee, he started his career in SAIL at its Bokaro Steel Plant in 1980. Singh also worked in IISCO Steel Plant, Durgapur Steel Plant, Bokaro Steel Plant and Bhilai Steel Plant.
As of 31 - Mar - 2015, SAIL has 93,352 employees, as compared to 170,368 (as of 31 - Mar - 2002). There has been a continuous reduction of headcount over the past few years due to enhanced productivity and rationalised manpower.
The total requirement of its main raw material, iron ore, is met through its captive mines. To meet its growing requirement, capacities of existing iron ore mines are being expanded and new iron ore mines are being developed. In addition, new iron ore deposits in the states of Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha and Karnataka are being explored. Around 24 % of its coking coal requirements are met from domestic sources, the remaining through imports. For improving coking coal security, the Company is also making efforts for development of new coking coal blocks at Tasra and Sitanalla.
SAIL produced 13.9 million tonnes of crude steel by operating at 103 % of its installed capacity, which is an increase of 1 % over the previous year. It also generated 710 MW of electricity during FY2014 - 15.
Source:
Of the 33 Prime Minister 's Shram Awards announced for 2010 by the Ministry of Labour, Government of India, 17 of which went to PSUs, SAIL employees won 11 awards. Of the total number of 76 awardees for the year, 45 belong to SAIL -- a remarkable distinction for any organisation. Maharatna SAIL has received the prestigious Golden Peacock Environment Management Award for the year 2011. The award, in recognition of SAIL 's initiatives and achievements in the field of environment management, was presented by Union Minister for Home Affairs Shri P. Chidambaram on 24 June 2011
74 of a total of 128 awardees who have won the prestigious Vishwakarma Rashtriya Puraskar (VRP) are from SAIL. The 15 out of 28 awards won by SAIL went to our 74 employees for the performance year 2008. Bhilai Steel Plant won 7 such awards involving 36 employees, Bokaro Steel Plant won 6 awards involving 29 employees. Durgapur Steel Plant and Salem Steel Plant both won 1 award each involving five and four employees respectively. SAIL employees have won 4 out of 5 awards of Class A, which is the highest number of A Class awards won by any PSU in India.
SAIL, is in the process of modernising and expanding its production units, raw material resources and other facilities to maintain its dominant position in the Indian steel market. The aim is to increase the production capacity from the base level production of 14.6 MT per annum (2006 -- 07) to 26.2 MT per annum of Hot Metal.
The following table shows the increased production of various items prior to and post expansion.
On 25 May 2012, Steel Authority of India Limited entered into a Memorandum of Understanding with the Government of West Bengal and Burn Standard Company Ltd. for setting up of a Railway Wagon factory of approximately ₹ 210 crore (US $33 million). This project will create an approximate 75,300 jobs.
The company also looking to establish one full capacity integrated plant in Andhra Pradesh or Telangana and surveying the possibilities to set up the plant. The plant, which was proposed to be the first steel plant of such scale in the state, was estimated to get an investment of Rs. 4,400 crore.
|
kenny g at last the duets album songs | At last... the Duets album - Wikipedia
At Last... The Duets Album is the second cover album by saxophonist Kenny G. It was released by Arista Records in 2004, and reached number 1 on the Contemporary Jazz chart, number 21 on the Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums chart and number 40 on the Billboard 200.
Information taken from this source.
In Indonesia, a collaboration with the Indonesian singer Glenn Fredly is included on the album. The song "Januari '' (January) appears as track 14.
|
who says a pair of star crossed lovers | Star - crossed - wikipedia
"Star - crossed '' or "star - crossed lovers '' is a phrase describing a pair of lovers whose relationship is often thwarted by outside forces. The term encompasses other meanings, but originally means the pairing is being "thwarted by a malign star '' or that the stars are working against the relationship. Astrological in origin, the phrase stems from the belief that the positions of the stars ruled over people 's fates, and is best known from the play Romeo and Juliet by the Elizabethan playwright William Shakespeare. Such pairings are often said to be doomed from the start.
The phrase was coined in the prologue of Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet:
From forth the fatal loins of these two foes, A pair of star - cross 'd lovers take their life (5 -- 6).
It also refers to destiny and the inevitability of the two characters ' paths crossing. It usually but not always refers to unlucky outcomes, since Romeo and Juliet 's affair ended tragically. Further, it connotes that the lovers entered into their union without sufficient forethought or preparation; that the lovers may not have had adequate knowledge of each other or that they were not thinking rationally.
(The original texts of the prologue, Q1 and Q2, use the spelling "starre - crost '', but the version "star - cross 'd '' is normally used in modern versions.)
Examples of famous star - crossed lovers vary in written work. Pyramus and Thisbe are usually regarded as the source for Romeo and Juliet, and is featured in A Midsummer Night 's Dream. Wuthering Heights, considered to be one of the greatest love stories in literary works, is a tale of all - encompassing and passionate, yet thwarted, love between the star - crossed Catherine Earnshaw and Heathcliff, and how this unresolved passion eventually destroys them and many around them.
Lancelot, a trusted knight of King Arthur 's Round Table, and Guinevere, the queen of Camelot and wife of Arthur, were involved in a star - crossed affair. In some versions of the tale, she is instantly smitten, and when they consummate their adulterous passion, it is an act which paves the way for the fall of Camelot and Arthur 's death.
The legend of Tristan and Iseult (also known as Tristan and Isolde) is an influential romance and tragedy, retold in numerous sources with as many variations. The tragic story is of the adulterous love between the lovers. The narrative predates and most likely influenced the Arthurian romance of Lancelot and Guinevere, and has had a substantial impact on Western art and literature since it first appeared in the 12th century. While the details of the story differ from one author to another, the overall plot structure remains much the same.
Pedro of Portugal and Inês de Castro shared a true and tragic love in the Portuguese 14th century. The dramatic circumstances of their relationship, forbidden by Peter 's father, King Afonso IV, Inês ' murder at the orders of Afonso, Peter 's bloody revenge on her killers and the legend of the coronation of her exhumed corpse by Peter, have turned their story into a frequent subject of art, music, and drama through the ages.
Hero and Leander is a Greek myth, relating the story of Hero (Greek: Ἡρώ), a priestess of Aphrodite who dwelt in a tower in Sestos, at the edge of the Hellespont, and Leander (Greek: Λέανδρος, Leandros), a young man from Abydos on the other side of the strait. Leander fell in love with Hero and would swim every night across the Hellespont to be with her. Hero would light a lamp at the top of her tower to guide his way.
Pelléas and Mélisande (French: Pelléas et Mélisande) is a Symbolist play by Maurice Maeterlinck about the forbidden, doomed love of the title characters. A classical myth, was a common subject for art during the Renaissance and Baroque eras.
Troilus and Cressida is a tragedy by Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1602. The play (also described as one of Shakespeare 's problem plays) is not a conventional tragedy, since its protagonist (Troilus) does not die. The play ends instead on a very bleak note with the death of the noble Trojan Hector and destruction of the love between Troilus and Cressida. Venus and Adonis is classical myth during the Renaissance. Heer Ranjha is one of the four popular tragic romances of the Punjab.
Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl refers to a number of mythical and folkloric explanations of the origins of the volcanoes Popocatépetl ("the Smoking Mountain '') and Iztaccíhuatl ("white woman '' in Nahuatl, sometimes called the Mujer Dormida "sleeping woman '' in Spanish) which overlook the Valley of Mexico.
Layla and Majnun (by the Persian poet Nizami Ganjavi) is a classical Arabian love story. It is based on the real story of a young man called Qays ibn al - Mulawwah from the northern Arabian Peninsula, in the Umayyad era during the 7th century. There were two Arabic versions of the story at the time. In one version, he spent his youth together with Layla, tending their flocks. In the other version, upon seeing Layla he fell passionately in love with her. In both versions, however, he went mad when her father prevented him from marrying her; for that reason he came to be called Majnun Layla, which means "Driven mad by Layla ''. To him were attributed a variety of incredibly passionate romantic Arabic poems, considered among the foremost examples of the Udhari school.
The Butterfly Lovers is a Chinese legend about the tragic romance between two lovers, Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. The legend is sometimes regarded as the Chinese equivalent to Romeo and Juliet.
Other classic star - crossed lovers include Devdas and Paro (Parvati) in Devdas, Paris of Troy and Helen of Sparta in The Iliad, Oedipus and Jocasta in Oedipus Rex, Mark Antony and Cleopatra during the time of the Roman Empire, Khosrow and Shirin during the time of Sassanid Persia, Heloise and Peter Abelard during the Middle Ages, and Emperor Jahangir and Anarkali, Cyrano and Roxane in Cyrano de Bergerac, Hagbard and Signy and Maratha Peshwa (Prime Minister) Bajirao and Mastani during the peak of Maratha Empire.
In soap opera, modern examples of star - crossed lovers have included couples such as Cliff Warner and Nina Cortlandt, JR Chandler and Babe Carey and Bianca Montgomery and Maggie Stone from All My Children.
Prime time has had various star - crossed lovers labeled as notable and "unforgettable '' love stories. IGN considers Buffy Summers and Angel from Buffy the Vampire Slayer to be one of the genre 's most tragic and notable star - crossed pairings. The Doctor bidding farewell to his companion Rose Tyler in Doctor Who has been named one of the greatest love scenes in science fiction. Cole Turner and Phoebe Halliwell from Charmed, Michael and Nikita from La Femme Nikita, Kara Thrace and Lee Adama from Battlestar Galactica, Clark Kent and Lana Lang from Smallville, as well as Lucas Scott and Peyton Sawyer from One Tree Hill are other star - crossed couples from the genre. Clarke Griffin and Commander Lexa from the TV series The 100 are considered star - crossed lovers as well.
With film or within modern novels and books, such star - crossed couples as Jack Dawson and Rose DeWitt Bukater from Titanic, Landon Carter and Jamie Sullivan from "A Walk to Remember '', Anakin Skywalker and Padmé Amidala from the Star Wars saga, Ennis Del Mar and Jack Twist from Brokeback Mountain, and Jake and Neytiri from Avatar have been included.
Video games too have featured star - crossed couples across different genres, particularly role - playing video games: Cloud Strife and Aerith Gainsborough from Final Fantasy VII have been cited as a well - known star - crossed love story. Tidus and Yuna from Final Fantasy X have also been called star - crossed lovers. Zero and Iris from Mega Man X4 are another notable example.
In 2008, a web - based reality soap opera was created based on the concept of being star - crossed. In Starcrossed, Fox News astrologer Greg Tufaro takes a couple in crisis and separates them for one cycle of the moon. Each is then set up with individuals who are a better match astrologically. The show puts the question "Is love written in the stars? '' to the test with the couple deciding on the 28th day of their separation whether they will stay together or remain apart.
|
what two technology companies are suing samsung over infringement rights | Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co.. - Wikipedia
Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd. was the first of a series of ongoing lawsuits between Apple Inc. and Samsung Electronics regarding the design of smartphones and tablet computers; between them, the companies made more than half of smartphones sold worldwide as of July 2012. In the spring of 2011, Apple began litigating against Samsung in patent infringement suits, while Apple and Motorola Mobility were already engaged in a patent war on several fronts. Apple 's multinational litigation over technology patents became known as part of the mobile device "smartphone patent wars '': extensive litigation in fierce competition in the global market for consumer mobile communications. By August 2011, Apple and Samsung were litigating 19 ongoing cases in nine countries; by October, the legal disputes expanded to ten countries. By July 2012, the two companies were still embroiled in more than 50 lawsuits around the globe, with billions of dollars in damages claimed between them. While Apple won a ruling in its favor in the U.S., Samsung won rulings in South Korea, Japan, and the UK. On June 4, 2013, Samsung won a limited ban from the U.S. International Trade Commission on sales of certain Apple products after the commission found Apple had violated a Samsung patent, but this was vetoed by U.S. Trade Representative Michael Froman.
On December 6, 2016, the United States Supreme Court decided 8 - 0 to reverse the decision from the first trial that awarded nearly $400 million to Apple and returned the case to Federal Circuit court to define the appropriate legal standard "article of manufacture '' because it is not the smartphone itself but could be just the case and screen to which the design patents relate.
On January 4, 2007, 4 days before the iPhone was introduced to the world, Apple filed a suite of 4 design patents covering the basic shape of the iPhone. These were followed up in June of that year with a massive filing of a color design patent covering 193 screen shots of various iPhone graphical user interfaces. It is from these filings along with Apple 's utility patents, registered trademarks and trade dress rights, that Apple selected the particular intellectual property to enforce against Samsung. Apple sued its component supplier Samsung, alleging in a 38 - page federal complaint on April 15, 2011 in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California that several of Samsung 's Android phones and tablets, including the Nexus S, Epic 4G, Galaxy S 4G, and the Samsung Galaxy Tab, infringed on Apple 's intellectual property: its patents, trademarks, user interface and style. Apple 's complaint included specific federal claims for patent infringement, false designation of origin, unfair competition, and trademark infringement, as well as state - level claims for unfair competition, common law trademark infringement, and unjust enrichment.
Apple 's evidence submitted to the court included side - by - side image comparisons of iPhone 3GS and i9000 Galaxy S to illustrate the alleged similarities in packaging and icons for apps. However, the images were later found to have been tampered with in order to make the dimensions and features of the two different products seem more similar, and counsel for Samsung accused Apple of submitting misleading evidence to the court.
Samsung counter-sued Apple on April 22, 2011, filing federal complaints in courts in Seoul, South Korea; Tokyo, Japan; and Mannheim, Germany, alleging Apple infringed Samsung 's patents for mobile - communications technologies. By summer, Samsung also filed suits against Apple in the British High Court of Justice, in the United States District Court for the District of Delaware, and with the United States International Trade Commission (ITC) in Washington D.C., all in June 2011.
In Seoul, Samsung filed its lawsuit in April 2011 in the Central District Court citing five patent infringements. In late August 2012, a three - judge panel in Seoul Central District Court delivered a split decision, ruling that Apple had infringed upon two Samsung technology patents, while Samsung violated one of Apple 's patents. The court awarded small damages to both companies and ordered a temporary sales halt of the infringing products in South Korea; however, none of the banned products were the latest models of either Samsung or Apple.
The court ruled that Samsung violated one of Apple 's utility patents, over the so - called "bounce - back '' effect in iOS, and that Apple was in violation of two of Samsung 's wireless patents. Apple 's claims that Samsung copied the designs of the iPhone and iPad were deemed invalid. The court also ruled that there was "no possibility '' that consumers would confuse the smartphones of the two brands, and that Samsung 's smartphone icons did not infringe upon Apple 's patents.
Samsung 's complaint in Japan 's Tokyo District Court cited two infringements. Apple has filed other patent suits in Japan against Samsung, most notably one for the "bounce - back '' feature. Samsung has also sued Apple, claiming the iPhone and iPad infringe on Samsung patents.
On August 31, 2012, The Tokyo District Court ruled that Samsung 's Galaxy smartphones and tablets did not violate an Apple patent on technology that synchronizes music and videos between devices and servers. The three - judge panel in Japan also awarded legal costs to be reimbursed to Samsung. Presiding Judge Tamotsu Shoji said: "The defendant 's products do not seem like they used the same technology as the plaintiff 's products so we turn down the complaints made by (Apple). ''
In August 2011, the Landgericht court in Düsseldorf, Germany granted Apple 's request for an EU - wide preliminary injunction barring Samsung from selling its Galaxy Tab 10.1 device on the grounds Samsung 's product infringed on two of Apple 's interface patents. After Samsung 's allegations of evidence tampering were heard, the court rescinded the EU - wide injunction and granted Apple a lesser injunction that only applied to the German market. Samsung also pulled the Galaxy Tab 7.7 from Berlin 's IFA electronics fair due to the ruling preventing marketing of the device, before the court was set to make its ruling in September 2011. According to an estimate by Strategy Analytics, the impact on Samsung, in Germany, could have cost up to half a million unit sales. In the same time period and in similar cases of related legal strategy, Apple filed contemporaneous suits against Motorola with regard to the Xoom and against German consumer electronics reseller JAY - tech in the same German court, both for design infringement claims seeking preliminary injunctions.
On September 9, 2011, the German court ruled in favor of Apple, with a sales ban on the Galaxy Tab 10.1. The court found that Samsung had infringed Apple 's patents. Presiding judge Johanna Brueckner - Hofmann said there was a "clear impression of similarity ''. Samsung would appeal the decision.
In March 2012, the Mannheim state court judges dismissed both the Apple and Samsung cases involving ownership of the "slide - to - unlock '' feature used on their respective smartphones. The New York Times reported the German courts were at the center of patent fights among technology company rivals. In July 2012, the Munich Higher Regional Court Oberlandesgericht München affirmed the lower Regional Court 's denial of Apple 's motion for a preliminary injunction on Apple 's allegation that Samsung infringed Apple 's "overscroll bounce '' patent; the appellate court 's appealable ruling affirmed the lower court 's February decision doubting the validity of Apple 's patent. On September 21, Mannheim Regional Court ruled in favour of Samsung in that it did not violate Apple 's patented features in regards to touch - screen technology.
Shortly after the release of the iPhone 4S, Samsung filed motions for injunctions in courts in Paris and Milan to block further Apple iPhone sales in France and Italy, claiming the iPhone infringed on two separate patents of the Wideband Code Division Multiple Access standard. Samsung reportedly singled out the French and Italian markets as key electronic communications markets in Europe, and by filing suit in a different court, avoided going back to the German court where it had lost a round earlier in its battle with Apple.
Apple initially sued Samsung on grounds of patent infringement, specifically European patents 2.059. 868, 2.098. 948, and 1.964. 022. On the 24th of October, 2011, a court in the Hague ruled only a photo gallery app in Android 2.3 was indeed infringing a patent (EP 2.059. 868), resulting in an import ban of three Samsung telephones (the Galaxy S, Galaxy S II, and Ace) running the infringing software. Phones operating more recent versions of Android remained unaffected. This made the import and sale of the banned phone models with updated software still legal. This ruling was widely interpreted as a favourable one for Samsung, and an appeal by Apple may still be forthcoming.
On September 26, 2011, Samsung counter-sued and asked the court for an injunction on sale Apple 's iPad and iPhones, on the grounds that Apple does not have the licenses to use 3G mobile technology. On October 14, the court ruled, denying the sales ban and stating that because 3G was an industry standard, Samsung 's licensing offer had to meet FRAND (fair, reasonable and nondiscriminatory) terms. The court found that Samsung 's fee was unreasonable, but noted that, if the companies can not make a fair and reasonable licensing fee, Samsung could open a new case against Apple.
In late October 2011, the civil court in The Hague ruled for Apple in rejecting Samsung 's infringement arguments and denied Samsung 's motion made there; Samsung appealed the decision and in January 2012, the Dutch appeals court overruled the civil court decision, rejecting Apple 's claim that Samsung 's Galaxy Tab 10.1 infringed its design rights.
Also in early 2011, an Australian federal court granted Apple 's request for an injunction against Samsung 's Galaxy Tab 10.1. Samsung agreed to an expedited appeal of the Australian decision in the hope that if it won its appeal before Christmas, it might salvage holiday sales that it would otherwise lose. Ultimately, the injunction Apple sought to block the Tab 10.1 was denied by the High Court of Australia. In July 2012 an Australian judge started hearing the companies ' evidence for a trial anticipated to take three months.
Samsung applied to the High Court of Justice, Chancery Division, in Samsung Electronics (UK) Limited & Anr v. Apple Inc., for a declaration that its Galaxy tablets were not too similar to Apple 's products. Apple counterclaimed, but Samsung prevailed after a British judge ruled Samsung 's Galaxy tablets were not similar enough to be confused with Apple 's iPad. In July 2012, British judge Birss denied Samsung 's motion for an injunction blocking Apple from publicly stating that the Galaxy infringed Apple 's design rights, but ordered Apple to publish a disclaimer on Apple 's own website and in the media that Samsung did not copy the iPad. The judge stayed the publishing order, however, until Apple 's appeal was heard in October 2012. When the case reached the court of appeal, the previous ruling was supported, meaning that Apple is required to publish a disclaimer on Apple 's own website and in the media that Samsung did not copy the iPad.
In two separate lawsuits, Apple accused Samsung of infringing on three utility patents (United States Patent Nos. 7,469,381, 7,844,915, and 7,864,163) and four design patents (United States Patent Nos. D504, 889, D593, 087, D618, 677, and D604, 305). Samsung accused Apple of infringing on United States Patent Nos. 7,675,941, 7,447,516, 7,698,711, 7,577,460, and 7,456,893. One 2005 design patent "at the heart of the dispute is Design Patent 504,889 '', which consists of a one - sentence claim about the ornamental design of an electronic device, accompanied by nine figures depicting a thin rectangular cuboid with rounded corners. A U.S. jury trial was scheduled for July 30, 2012 and calendared by the court through September 7, 2012. Both Phil Schiller and Scott Forstall testified on the Apple v. Samsung trial.
On August 24, 2012 the jury returned a verdict largely favorable to Apple. It found that Samsung had willfully infringed on Apple 's design and utility patents and had also diluted Apple 's trade dresses related to the iPhone. The jury awarded Apple $1.049 billion in damages and Samsung zero damages in its counter suit. The jury found Samsung infringed Apple 's patents on iPhone 's "Bounce - Back Effect '' (US Patent No. 7,469,381), "On - screen Navigation '' (US Patent No. 7,844,915), and "Tap To Zoom '' (US Patent No. 7,864,163), and design patents that covers iPhone 's features such as the "home button, rounded corners and tapered edges '' (US D593087) and "On - Screen Icons '' (US D604305). Design Patent 504,889 (describing the ornamental design of the iPad) was one of the few patents the jury concluded Samsung had not infringed. This amount is functionally reduced by the bond posted by Apple for the injunction granted during the trial (see below).
On October 23, 2012, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office tentatively invalidated Apple 's bounce back patent (US Patent No. ' 381) possibly affecting the ruling in the Apple v. Samsung trial. Apple 's attorneys filed a request to stop all sales of the Samsung products cited in violation of the US patents, a motion denied by Judge Lucy H. Koh on December 17, 2012, who also decided that the jury had miscalculated US $400 million in its initial damage assessment and ordered a retrial.
The injunction Apple sought in the U.S. to block Samsung smartphones such as the Infuse 4G and the Droid Charge was denied. Judge Koh ruled that Apple 's claims of irreparable harm had little merit because although Apple established a likelihood of success at trial on the merits of its claim that Samsung infringed one of its tablet patents, Apple had not shown that it could overcome Samsung 's challenges to the patent 's validity.
Apple appealed Judge Koh 's ruling, and on May 14, 2012, the appeals court reversed and ordered Judge Koh to issue the injunction. The preliminary injunction was granted in June 2012, preventing Samsung from making, using, offering to sell, selling, or importing into the U.S. the Galaxy Nexus and any other of its technology making use of the disputed patent. Simultaneously, Apple was ordered to post a US $95.6 million bond in the event that Samsung prevailed at trial.
Following the trial, in which the Nexus was found not to infringe Apple 's patents, Samsung filed an appeal to remove the preliminary injunction. On October 11, 2012, the appeals court agreed and vacated the injunction.
A new hearing was held in March 2014, in which Apple sought to prevent Samsung from selling some of its current devices in U.S. At the hearing, Judge Koh ruled against a permanent injunction.
There was an interview given by the jury foreman, where, at the 3 minute mark in the video, the jury foreman Hogan said: "the software on the Apple side could not be placed into the processor on the prior art and vice versa, and that means they are not interchangeable, '' and at the 2: 42 - 2: 45 minute mark, in which Hogan states "each patent had a different legal premise. '' Groklaw reported that this interview indicates the jury may have awarded inconsistent damages and ignored the instructions given to them. In an article on Gigaom, Jeff John Roberts contended that the case suggests that juries should not be allowed to rule on patent cases at all. Scott McKeown, however, suggested that Hogan 's comment may have been poorly phrased.
Some have claimed that there are a few oddities with Samsung 's U.S. Patent discussed by Hogan during the interview, specifically that the ' 460 patent has only one claim. Most US patents have between 10 - 20 separate claims, most of which are dependent claims. This patent was filed as a division of an earlier application, possibly in anticipation of litigation, which may explain the reduced number of claims. The specifics of this patent have not been discussed in the Groklaw review or the McKeown review because most believe that the foreman misspoke when he mentioned the number of the patent in question; a more detailed interview with the BBC made it clear that the patent (s) relevant to the prior art controversy were owned by Apple, not Samsung, meaning that his mention of the "460 patent '' was a mistake.
On Friday, September 21, 2012, Samsung requested a new trial from the judge in San Jose arguing that the verdict was not supported by evidence or testimony, that the judge imposed limits on testimony time and the number of witnesses prevented Samsung from receiving a fair trial, and that the jury verdict was unreasonable. Apple filed papers on September 21 and 22, 2012 seeking a further amount of interest and damages totaling $707 million. A hearing has been scheduled in U.S. District Court on December 6, 2012 to discuss these and other issues.
On October 2, 2012, Samsung appealed the decision to the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, requesting that Apple 's victory be thrown out, claiming that the foreman of the jury had not disclosed that he had been sued by Seagate Technology Inc., his former employer, and which has a strategic relationship with Samsung, despite having been asked during jury selection if he had been involved in lawsuits. Samsung also claimed that the foreman had not revealed a past personal bankruptcy. The foreman responded that he had been asked during jury selection whether he had been involved in any lawsuits during the past 10 years, so that the events claimed by Samsung occurred before that time frame, although his claim is not consistent with the actual question he was asked by the Judge. Apple has similarly appealed the decision vacating the injunction on Samsung 's sales.
As of December 2014, appeals in the first case remain ongoing. Leading up to a December 4, 2014 hearing at the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, Samsung had noted that the USPTO had released preliminary and / or final findings of invalidity against some of the patents relevant to the first case, namely the so - called pinch - to - zoom patent 7,844,915. Samsung argued for, at the very least, a recalculation of the damages they owe in the case. Samsung is seeking a re-trial at the District Court. Apple has not yet conceded the invalidity of the patents in question, and several options remain for them to appeal the USPTO 's decisions.
The ruling in the landmark patent case raised controversies over the impact on the consumers and the smartphone industry. The jury 's decision was described as being ' Apple - friendly ' by Wired and a possible reason for the increased costs -- because of licensing fees to Apple -- that subsequently affected Android smartphone users. A question was also raised about the validity of lay juries in the U.S. patent system, whereby the qualifications of the jury members were deemed inadequate for a complex patent case; however, it was later revealed that the jury foreman Velvin Hogan was an electrical engineer and a patent holder himself. Hogan 's post-verdict interviews with numerous media outlets raised a great deal of controversy over his role as the jury foreman. He told Bloomberg TV that his experience with patents had helped to guide the jurors ' decisions in the trial. A juror Manuel Ilagan said in an interview with CNET a day after the verdict that "Hogan was jury foreman. He had experience. He owned patents himself... so he took us through his experience. After that it was easier. '' As the jury instructions stated that jurors can make decisions based solely on the law as instructed and "not based on your understanding of the law based on your own cases, '' controversy was consequently generated.
Hogan also told the Reuters news agency that the jury wanted to make sure the message it sent was not just a "slap on the wrist '' and wanted to make sure it was sufficiently high to be painful, but not unreasonable. His remark does not corroborate with jury instructions that state: "the damages award should put the patent holder in approximately the financial position it would have been in had the infringement not occurred '' and "it is meant to compensate the patent holder and not to punish an infringer. '' Samsung appealed against the decision, claiming jury misconduct, and Samsung can be given a new trial if the appeal court finds that there was juror misconduct.
Other questions were raised about the jury 's quick decision. The jury was given more than 700 questions, including highly technical matters, to reach the verdict and awarded Apple more than US $1 billion in damages after less than three days of deliberations. Critics claimed that the nine jurors did not have sufficient time to read the jury instructions. A juror stated in an interview with CNET that the jury decided after the first day of deliberations that Samsung was in the wrong.
In a damage - only retrial court session on November 13, 2013, ordered in relation to the first U.S. trial by Judge Koh in December 2012, Samsung Electronics stated in a San Jose, U.S. courtroom that Apple 's hometown jury found Samsung copied some elements of Apple 's design. Samsung 's attorney clarified the purpose of the damage - only retrial and stated, "This is a case not where we 're disputing that the 13 phones contain some elements of Apple 's property, '' but the company disputed the US $379.8 million amount that Apple claimed that it is owed in the wake of Samsung 's -- Samsung presented a figure of US $52 million.
On November 21, 2013 the jury awarded a new figure of US $290 million. The following devices were the concern of the retrial: Captivate, Continuum, Droid Charge, Epic 4G, Exhibit 4G, Galaxy Prevail, Galaxy Tab, Gem, Indulge, Infuse 4G, Nexus S 4G, Replenish, and Transform.
On December 6, 2016, the United States Supreme Court decided 8 - 0 to reverse the decision from the first trial that awarded nearly $400 million to Apple and returned the case to Federal Circuit court to define the appropriate legal standard to define "article of manufacture '' because it is not the smartphone itself, but could be just the case and screen to which the design patents relate.
On Sunday, October 22, 2017 district court judge Lucy Koh ordered a second retrial of damages based upon the limitations imposed by the above decision of the United States Supreme Court. The parties were ordered to propose a schedule for a new trial by Wednesday, October 25.
The jury trial for damages concluded on May 24, 2018, awarding Apple $539 million, which includes $399 million for damages of Samsung 's products sold that infringed on the patents.
Apple filed a new U.S. lawsuit in February 2012, asserting Samsung 's violation of five Apple patents across Samsung 's product lines for its Admire, Galaxy Nexus, Galaxy Note, Galaxy Note II, Galaxy S II, Galaxy S II Epic 4G Touch, Galaxy S II Skyrocket, Galaxy S III, Galaxy Tab II 10.1, and Stratosphere. Samsung responded with a counterclaim, stating that two patents for nine phones and tablets have been infringed on by Apple across its iPhone 4, iPhone 4S, iPhone 5, iPad 2, iPad 3, iPad 4, iPad mini, iPod touch (5th generation), iPod touch (4th generation), and MacBook Pro lines. Samsung stood to gain US $6 million if the jury rules in its favor, while Apple was seeking US $2 billion in damages and could proceed with similar lawsuits against other Android handset makers, as the relevant patent issues extend beyond Samsung 's software technology.
The second trial was scheduled for March 2014 and jury selection occurred on March 31, 2014. Judge Koh referred to the new lawsuit as "one action in a worldwide constellation of litigation between the two companies. ''
The trial began in early April and decision was delivered on May 2, 2014 and Samsung was instructed to pay US $119.6 million to Apple for smartphone patent violations, a compensatory amount that was termed a "big loss '' by the Guardian "Technology '' team -- the media outlet described the victory as "pyrrhic. '' The jury found that Samsung had infringed upon two Apple patents and Brian Love, assistant professor at the Santa Clara University law school, explained: "This amount is less than 10 % of the amount Apple requested, and probably does n't surpass by too much the amount Apple spent litigating this case. '' Apple 's official response was a reaffirmation that "Samsung willfully stole '' from the Cupertino, US - based corporation; however, Apple 's lawyers claimed that a technical mistake has been made by the jury and Koh ordered the jurors to return on May 5, 2014 to resolve an issue that is potentially worth several hundred thousand dollars.
The jury also found Apple guilty of infringing one of Samsung 's patents and the South Korean corporation, which had initially sought US $6 million of damages, was awarded US $158,400. In the wake of the verdict, Judge Koh will be responsible for deciding whether a sales ban of Samsung products will be implemented, a decision that was deemed highly unlikely by legal experts, such as Rutgers Law School 's Michael Carrier, after the verdict announcement.
Samsung appealed the jury verdict to a three - judge panel of the United States District Court for the Northern District of California in 2015, and won in February 2016, with the panel nullifying the jury verdict. The panel unanimously argued that one patent cited by Apple was not infringed by Samsung, while two others, related to autocorrect and "slide to unlock '' features, were invalid based on existing prior art. Apple requested an en banc hearing from the full District Court panel, which ruled in favor of Apple by an 8 - 3 decision, restoring the $120 million award, in October 2016. While the original three judges maintained their opinion from the previous hearing, the remaining judges argued that the three - member panel had dismissed the body of evidence from the jury trial supporting that Apple 's patents were valid and Samsung was infringing upon them.
Samsung appealed to the Supreme Court, but the Court announced in November 2017 that it would not hear the appeal, leaving the District Court 's ruling in Apple 's favor in place.
|
who played the star spangled banner at woodstock | Jimi Hendrix - Wikipedia
James Marshall "Jimi '' Hendrix (born Johnny Allen Hendrix; November 27, 1942 -- September 18, 1970) was an American rock guitarist, singer, and songwriter. Although his mainstream career spanned only four years, he is widely regarded as one of the most influential electric guitarists in the history of popular music, and one of the most celebrated musicians of the 20th century. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame describes him as "arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music ''.
Born in Seattle, Washington, Hendrix began playing guitar at the age of 15. In 1961, he enlisted in the U.S. Army and trained as a paratrooper in the 101st Airborne Division; he was granted an honorable discharge the following year. Soon afterward, he moved to Clarksville, Tennessee, and began playing gigs on the Chitlin ' Circuit, earning a place in the Isley Brothers ' backing band and later with Little Richard, with whom he continued to work through mid-1965. He then played with Curtis Knight and the Squires before moving to England in late 1966 after being discovered by Linda Keith, who in turn interested bassist Chas Chandler of the Animals in becoming his first manager. Within months, Hendrix had earned three UK top ten hits with the Jimi Hendrix Experience: "Hey Joe '', "Purple Haze '', and "The Wind Cries Mary ''. He achieved fame in the U.S. after his performance at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967, and in 1968 his third and final studio album, Electric Ladyland, reached number one in the U.S.; it was Hendrix 's most commercially successful release and his first and only number one album. The world 's highest - paid performer, he headlined the Woodstock Festival in 1969 and the Isle of Wight Festival in 1970, before his accidental death from barbiturate - related asphyxia on September 18, 1970, at the age of 27.
Hendrix was inspired musically by American rock and roll and electric blues. He favored overdriven amplifiers with high volume and gain, and was instrumental in utilizing the previously undesirable sounds caused by guitar amplifier feedback. He helped to popularize the use of a wah - wah pedal in mainstream rock, and was the first artist to use stereophonic phasing effects in music recordings. Holly George - Warren of Rolling Stone commented: "Hendrix pioneered the use of the instrument as an electronic sound source. Players before him had experimented with feedback and distortion, but Hendrix turned those effects and others into a controlled, fluid vocabulary every bit as personal as the blues with which he began. ''
Hendrix was the recipient of several music awards during his lifetime and posthumously. In 1967, readers of Melody Maker voted him the Pop Musician of the Year, and in 1968, Rolling Stone declared him the Performer of the Year. Disc and Music Echo honored him with the World Top Musician of 1969 and in 1970, Guitar Player named him the Rock Guitarist of the Year. The Jimi Hendrix Experience was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992 and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005. Rolling Stone ranked the band 's three studio albums, Are You Experienced, Axis: Bold as Love, and Electric Ladyland, among the 100 greatest albums of all time, and they ranked Hendrix as the greatest guitarist and the sixth greatest artist of all time.
Jimi Hendrix had a diverse heritage. His paternal grandmother, Zenora "Nora '' Rose Moore, was African American and one - quarter Cherokee. Hendrix 's paternal grandfather, Bertran Philander Ross Hendrix (born 1866), was born out of an extramarital affair between a woman named Fanny, and a grain merchant from Urbana, Ohio, or Illinois, one of the wealthiest men in the area at that time. After Hendrix and Moore relocated to Vancouver, Canada, had a son they named James Allen Ross Hendrix on June 10, 1919; the family called him "Al ''.
In 1941 after moving to Seattle, Al met Lucille Jeter (1925 -- 1958) at a dance; they married on March 31, 1942. Lucille 's father (Jimi 's maternal grandfather) was Preston Jeter (born 1875), whose mother was born in similar circumstances as Bertran Philander Ross Hendrix. Lucille 's mother, née Clarice Lawson, had African American and Cherokee ancestors. Al, who had been drafted by the U.S. Army to serve in World War II, left to begin his basic training three days after the wedding. Johnny Allen Hendrix was born on November 27, 1942, in Seattle; he was the first of Lucille 's five children. In 1946, Johnny 's parents changed his name to James Marshall Hendrix, in honor of Al and his late brother Leon Marshall.
Stationed in Alabama at the time of Hendrix 's birth, Al was denied the standard military furlough afforded servicemen for childbirth; his commanding officer placed him in the stockade to prevent him from going AWOL to see his infant son in Seattle. He spent two months locked up without trial, and while in the stockade received a telegram announcing his son 's birth. During Al 's three - year absence, Lucille struggled to raise their son. When Al was away, Hendrix was mostly cared for by family members and friends, especially Lucille 's sister Delores Hall and her friend Dorothy Harding. Al received an honorable discharge from the U.S. Army on September 1, 1945. Two months later, unable to find Lucille, Al went to the Berkeley, California, home of a family friend named Mrs. Champ, who had taken care of and had attempted to adopt Hendrix; this is where Al saw his son for the first time.
After returning from service, Al reunited with Lucille, but his inability to find steady work left the family impoverished. They both struggled with alcohol, and often fought when intoxicated. The violence sometimes drove Hendrix to withdraw and hide in a closet in their home. His relationship with his brother Leon (born 1948) was close but precarious; with Leon in and out of foster care, they lived with an almost constant threat of fraternal separation. In addition to Leon, Hendrix had three younger siblings: Joseph, born in 1949, Kathy in 1950, and Pamela, 1951, all of whom Al and Lucille gave up to foster care and adoption. The family frequently moved, staying in cheap hotels and apartments around Seattle. On occasion, family members would take Hendrix to Vancouver to stay at his grandmother 's. A shy and sensitive boy, he was deeply affected by his life experiences. In later years, he confided to a girlfriend that he had been the victim of sexual abuse by a man in uniform. On December 17, 1951, when Hendrix was nine years old, his parents divorced; the court granted Al custody of him and Leon.
At Horace Mann Elementary School in Seattle during the mid-1950s, Hendrix 's habit of carrying a broom with him to emulate a guitar gained the attention of the school 's social worker. After more than a year of his clinging to a broom like a security blanket, she wrote a letter requesting school funding intended for underprivileged children, insisting that leaving him without a guitar might result in psychological damage. Her efforts failed, and Al refused to buy him a guitar.
In 1957, while helping his father with a side - job, Hendrix found a ukulele amongst the garbage that they were removing from an older woman 's home. She told him that he could keep the instrument, which had only one string. Learning by ear, he played single notes, following along to Elvis Presley songs, particularly Presley 's cover of Leiber and Stoller 's "Hound Dog ''. By the age of thirty - three, Hendrix 's mother Lucille had developed cirrhosis of the liver, and on February 2, 1958, she died when her spleen ruptured. Al refused to take James and Leon to attend their mother 's funeral; he instead gave them shots of whiskey and instructed them that was how men were supposed to deal with loss. In 1958, Hendrix completed his studies at Washington Junior High School and began attending, but did not graduate from, Garfield High School.
In mid-1958, at age 15, Hendrix acquired his first acoustic guitar, for $5. He earnestly applied himself, playing the instrument for several hours daily, watching others and getting tips from more experienced guitarists, and listening to blues artists such as Muddy Waters, B.B. King, Howlin ' Wolf, and Robert Johnson. The first tune Hendrix learned how to play was "Peter Gunn '', the theme from the television series of the same name. Around that time, Hendrix jammed with boyhood friend Sammy Drain and his keyboard playing brother. In 1959, while attending a concert by Hank Ballard & the Midnighters in Seattle, Hendrix met the group 's guitarist Billy Davis. Davis showed him some guitar licks and later got him a short gig with the Midnighters. The two remained friends until Hendrix 's death in 1970.
Soon after he acquired the acoustic guitar, Hendrix formed his first band, the Velvetones. Without an electric guitar, he could barely be heard over the sound of the group. After about three months, he realized that he needed an electric guitar in order to continue. In mid-1959, his father relented and bought him a white Supro Ozark. Hendrix 's first gig was with an unnamed band in the Jaffe Room of Seattle 's Temple De Hirsch Sinai, but after he did too much showing off, the band fired him between sets. He later joined the Rocking Kings, which played professionally at venues such as the Birdland club. When someone stole his guitar after he left it backstage overnight, Al bought him a red Silvertone Danelectro.
Before Hendrix was 19 years old, law enforcement authorities had twice caught him riding in stolen cars. When given a choice between spending time in prison or joining the Army, he chose the latter and enlisted on May 31, 1961. After completing eight weeks of basic training at Fort Ord, California, he was assigned to the 101st Airborne Division and stationed at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. He arrived there on November 8, and soon afterward he wrote to his father: "There 's nothing but physical training and harassment here for two weeks, then when you go to jump school... you get hell. They work you to death, fussing and fighting. '' In his next letter home, Hendrix, who had left his guitar at his girlfriend Betty Jean Morgan 's house in Seattle, asked his father to send it to him as soon as possible, stating: "I really need it now. '' His father obliged and sent the red Silvertone Danelectro on which Hendrix had hand - painted the words "Betty Jean '' to Fort Campbell. His apparent obsession with the instrument contributed to his neglect of his duties, which led to verbal taunting and physical abuse from his peers, who at least once hid the guitar from him until he had begged for its return.
In November 1961, fellow serviceman Billy Cox walked past an army club and heard Hendrix playing guitar. Intrigued by the proficient playing, which he described as a combination of "John Lee Hooker and Beethoven '', Cox borrowed a bass guitar and the two jammed. Within a few weeks, they began performing at base clubs on the weekends with other musicians in a loosely organized band called the Casuals.
Hendrix completed his paratrooper training in just over eight months, and Major General C.W.G. Rich awarded him the prestigious Screaming Eagles patch on January 11, 1962. By February, his personal conduct had begun to draw criticism from his superiors. They labeled him an unqualified marksman and often caught him napping while on duty and failing to report for bed checks. On May 24, Hendrix 's platoon sergeant, James C. Spears filed a report in which he stated: "He has no interest whatsoever in the Army... It is my opinion that Private Hendrix will never come up to the standards required of a soldier. I feel that the military service will benefit if he is discharged as soon as possible. '' On June 29, 1962, Captain Gilbert Batchman granted Hendrix an honorable discharge on the basis of unsuitability. Hendrix later spoke of his dislike of the army and falsely stated that he had received a medical discharge after breaking his ankle during his 26th parachute jump.
In September 1963, after Cox was discharged from the Army, he and Hendrix moved to Clarksville, Tennessee, and formed a band called the King Kasuals. Hendrix had watched Butch Snipes play with his teeth in Seattle and by now Alphonso ' Baby Boo ' Young, the other guitarist in the band, was performing this guitar gimmick. Not to be upstaged, Hendrix learned to play with his teeth. He later commented: "The idea of doing that came to me... in Tennessee. Down there you have to play with your teeth or else you get shot. There 's a trail of broken teeth all over the stage. '' Although they began playing low - paying gigs at obscure venues, the band eventually moved to Nashville 's Jefferson Street, which was the traditional heart of the city 's black community and home to a thriving rhythm and blues music scene. They earned a brief residency playing at a popular venue in town, the Club del Morocco, and for the next two years Hendrix made a living performing at a circuit of venues throughout the South that were affiliated with the Theater Owners ' Booking Association (TOBA), widely known as the Chitlin ' Circuit. In addition to playing in his own band, Hendrix performed as a backing musician for various soul, R&B, and blues musicians, including Wilson Pickett, Slim Harpo, Sam Cooke, Ike & Tina Turner and Jackie Wilson.
In January 1964, feeling he had outgrown the circuit artistically, and frustrated by having to follow the rules of bandleaders, Hendrix decided to venture out on his own. He moved into the Hotel Theresa in Harlem, where he befriended Lithofayne Pridgon, known as "Faye '', who became his girlfriend. A Harlem native with connections throughout the area 's music scene, Pridgon provided him with shelter, support, and encouragement. Hendrix also met the Allen twins, Arthur and Albert. In February 1964, Hendrix won first prize in the Apollo Theater amateur contest. Hoping to secure a career opportunity, he played the Harlem club circuit and sat in with various bands. At the recommendation of a former associate of Joe Tex, Ronnie Isley granted Hendrix an audition that led to an offer to become the guitarist with the Isley Brothers ' back - up band, the I.B. Specials, which he readily accepted.
In March 1964, Hendrix recorded the two - part single "Testify '' with the Isley Brothers. Released in June, it failed to chart. In May, he provided guitar instrumentation for the Don Covay song, "Mercy Mercy ''. Issued in August by Rosemart Records and distributed by Atlantic, the track reached number 35 on the Billboard chart.
Hendrix toured with the Isleys during much of 1964, but near the end of October, after growing tired of playing the same set every night, he left the band. Soon afterward, Hendrix joined Little Richard 's touring band, the Upsetters. During a stop in Los Angeles in February 1965, he recorded his first and only single with Richard, "I Do n't Know What You Got (But It 's Got Me) '', written by Don Covay and released by Vee - Jay Records. Richard 's popularity was waning at the time, and the single peaked at number 92, where it remained for one week before dropping off the chart. Hendrix met singer Rosa Lee Brooks while staying at the Wilcox Hotel in Hollywood, and she invited him to participate in a recording session for her single, which included the Arthur Lee penned "My Diary '' as the A-side, and "Utee '' as the B - side. Hendrix played guitar on both tracks, which also included background vocals by Lee. The single failed to chart, but Hendrix and Lee began a friendship that lasted several years; Hendrix later became an ardent supporter of Lee 's band, Love.
In July 1965, on Nashville 's Channel 5 Night Train, Hendrix made his first television appearance. Performing in Little Richard 's ensemble band, he backed up vocalists Buddy and Stacy on "Shotgun ''. The video recording of the show marks the earliest known footage of Hendrix performing. Richard and Hendrix often clashed over tardiness, wardrobe, and Hendrix 's stage antics, and in late July, Richard 's brother Robert fired him. He then briefly rejoined the Isley Brothers, and recorded a second single with them, "Move Over and Let Me Dance '' backed with "Have You Ever Been Disappointed ''. Later that year, he joined a New York - based R&B band, Curtis Knight and the Squires, after meeting Knight in the lobby of a hotel where both men were staying. Hendrix performed with them for eight months. In October 1965, he and Knight recorded the single, "How Would You Feel '' backed with "Welcome Home '' and on October 15, Hendrix signed a three - year recording contract with entrepreneur Ed Chalpin. While the relationship with Chalpin was short - lived, his contract remained in force, which later caused legal and career problems for Hendrix. During his time with Knight, Hendrix briefly toured with Joey Dee and the Starliters, and worked with King Curtis on several recordings including Ray Sharpe 's two - part single, "Help Me ''. Hendrix earned his first composer credits for two instrumentals, "Hornets Nest '' and "Knock Yourself Out '', released as a Curtis Knight and the Squires single in 1966.
Feeling restricted by his experiences as an R&B sideman, Hendrix moved in 1966 to New York City 's Greenwich Village, which had a vibrant and diverse music scene. There, he was offered a residency at the Cafe Wha? on MacDougal Street and formed his own band that June, Jimmy James and the Blue Flames, which included future Spirit guitarist Randy California. The Blue Flames played at several clubs in New York and Hendrix began developing his guitar style and material that he would soon use with the Experience. In September, they gave some of their last concerts at the Cafe au Go Go, as John Hammond Jr. 's backing group.
By May 1966, Hendrix was struggling to earn a living wage playing the R&B circuit, so he briefly rejoined Curtis Knight and the Squires for an engagement at one of New York City 's most popular nightspots, the Cheetah Club. During a performance, Linda Keith, the girlfriend of Rolling Stones guitarist Keith Richards, noticed Hendrix. She remembered: "(His) playing mesmerised me ''. She invited him to join her for a drink; he accepted and the two became friends.
While he was playing with Jimmy James and the Blue Flames, Keith recommended Hendrix to Stones manager Andrew Loog Oldham and producer Seymour Stein. They failed to see Hendrix 's musical potential, and rejected him. She then referred him to Chas Chandler, who was leaving the Animals and interested in managing and producing artists. Chandler saw the then - unknown Jimi Hendrix play in Cafe Wha?, a Greenwich Village, New York City nightclub. Chandler liked the Billy Roberts song "Hey Joe '', and was convinced he could create a hit single with the right artist. Impressed with Hendrix 's version of the song, he brought him to London on September 24, 1966, and signed him to a management and production contract with himself and ex-Animals manager Michael Jeffery. On September 24, Hendrix gave an impromptu solo performance at The Scotch of St James, and later that night he began a relationship with Kathy Etchingham that lasted for two and a half years.
Following Hendrix 's arrival in London, Chandler began recruiting members for a band designed to highlight the guitarist 's talents, the Jimi Hendrix Experience. Hendrix met guitarist Noel Redding at an audition for the New Animals, where Redding 's knowledge of blues progressions impressed Hendrix, who stated that he also liked Redding 's hairstyle. Chandler asked Redding if he wanted to play bass guitar in Hendrix 's band; Redding agreed. Chandler then began looking for a drummer and soon after, he contacted Mitch Mitchell through a mutual friend. Mitchell, who had recently been fired from Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames, participated in a rehearsal with Redding and Hendrix where they found common ground in their shared interest in rhythm and blues. When Chandler phoned Mitchell later that day to offer him the position, he readily accepted. Chandler also convinced Hendrix to change the spelling of his first name from Jimmy to the exotic looking Jimi.
On October 1, 1966, Chandler brought Hendrix to the London Polytechnic at Regent Street, where Cream was scheduled to perform, and where Hendrix and Eric Clapton met. Clapton later commented: "He asked if he could play a couple of numbers. I said, ' Of course ', but I had a funny feeling about him. '' Halfway through Cream 's set, Hendrix took the stage and performed a frantic version of the Howlin ' Wolf song "Killing Floor ''. In 1989, Clapton described the performance: "He played just about every style you could think of, and not in a flashy way. I mean he did a few of his tricks, like playing with his teeth and behind his back, but it was n't in an upstaging sense at all, and that was it... He walked off, and my life was never the same again ''.
In mid-October 1966, Chandler arranged an engagement for the Experience as Johnny Hallyday 's supporting act during a brief tour of France. Thus, the Jimi Hendrix Experience performed their very first show on October 13, 1966, at the Novelty in Evreux. Their enthusiastically received 15 - minute performance at the Olympia theatre in Paris on October 18 marks the earliest known recording of the band. In late October, Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp, managers of the Who, signed the Experience to their newly formed label, Track Records, and the group recorded their first song, "Hey Joe '', on October 23. "Stone Free '', which was Hendrix 's first songwriting effort after arriving in England, was recorded on November 2.
In mid-November, they performed at the Bag O'Nails nightclub in London, with Clapton, John Lennon, Paul McCartney, Jeff Beck, Pete Townshend, Brian Jones, Mick Jagger, and Kevin Ayers in attendance. Ayers described the crowd 's reaction as stunned disbelief: "All the stars were there, and I heard serious comments, you know ' shit ', ' Jesus ', ' damn ' and other words worse than that. '' The successful performance earned Hendrix his first interview, published in Record Mirror with the headline: "Mr. Phenomenon ''. "Now hear this... we predict that (Hendrix) is going to whirl around the business like a tornado '', wrote Bill Harry, who asked the rhetorical question: "Is that full, big, swinging sound really being created by only three people? '' Hendrix commented: "We do n't want to be classed in any category... If it must have a tag, I 'd like it to be called, ' Free Feeling '. It 's a mixture of rock, freak - out, rave and blues ''. Through a distribution deal with Polydor Records, the Experience 's first single, "Hey Joe '', backed with "Stone Free '', was released on December 16, 1966. After appearances on the UK television shows Ready Steady Go! and the Top of the Pops, "Hey Joe '' entered the UK charts on December 29 and peaked at number six. Further success came in March 1967 with the UK number three hit "Purple Haze '', and in May with "The Wind Cries Mary '', which remained on the UK charts for eleven weeks, peaking at number six. On March 12, 1967, he performed at the Troutbeck Hotel, Ilkley, West Yorkshire, where, after about 900 people turned up (the hotel was licensed for 250) the local police stopped the gig due to safety concerns.
On March 31, 1967, while the Experience waited to perform at the London Astoria, Hendrix and Chandler discussed ways in which they could increase the band 's media exposure. When Chandler asked journalist Keith Altham for advice, Altham suggested that they needed to do something more dramatic than the stage show of the Who, which involved the smashing of instruments. Hendrix joked: "Maybe I can smash up an elephant '', to which Altham replied: "Well, it 's a pity you ca n't set fire to your guitar ''. Chandler then asked road manager Gerry Stickells to procure some lighter fluid. During the show, Hendrix gave an especially dynamic performance before setting his guitar on fire at the end of a 45 - minute set. In the wake of the stunt, members of London 's press labeled Hendrix the "Black Elvis '' and the "Wild Man of Borneo ''.
After the UK chart success of their first two singles, "Hey Joe '' and "Purple Haze '', the Experience began assembling material for a full - length LP. Recording began at De Lane Lea Studios and later moved to the prestigious Olympic Studios. The album, Are You Experienced, features a diversity of musical styles, including blues tracks such as "Red House '' and "Highway Chile '', and the R&B song "Remember ''. It also included the experimental science fiction piece, "Third Stone from the Sun '' and the post-modern soundscapes of the title track, with prominent backwards guitar and drums. "I Do n't Live Today '' served as a medium for Hendrix 's guitar feedback improvisation and "Fire '' was driven by Mitchell 's drumming.
Released in the UK on May 12, 1967, Are You Experienced spent 33 weeks on the charts, peaking at number two. It was prevented from reaching the top spot by the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band. On June 4, 1967, Hendrix opened a show at the Saville Theatre in London with his rendition of Sgt. Pepper 's title track, which was released just three days previous. Beatles manager Brian Epstein owned the Saville at the time, and both George Harrison and Paul McCartney attended the performance. McCartney described the moment: "The curtains flew back and he came walking forward playing ' Sgt. Pepper '. It 's a pretty major compliment in anyone 's book. I put that down as one of the great honors of my career. '' Released in the U.S. on August 23 by Reprise Records, Are You Experienced reached number five on the Billboard 200.
In 1989, Noe Goldwasser, the founding editor of Guitar World magazine, described Are You Experienced as "the album that shook the world... leaving it forever changed ''. In 2005, Rolling Stone called the double - platinum LP Hendrix 's "epochal debut '', and they ranked it the 15th greatest album of all time, noting his "exploitation of amp howl '', and characterizing his guitar playing as "incendiary... historic in itself ''.
Although popular in Europe at the time, the Experience 's first U.S. single, "Hey Joe '', failed to reach the Billboard Hot 100 chart upon its release on May 1, 1967. The group 's fortunes improved when McCartney recommended them to the organizers of the Monterey Pop Festival. He insisted that the event would be incomplete without Hendrix, whom he called "an absolute ace on the guitar '', and he agreed to join the board of organizers on the condition that the Experience perform at the festival in mid-June.
Introduced by Brian Jones as "the most exciting performer (he had) ever heard '', Hendrix opened with a fast arrangement of Howlin ' Wolf 's song "Killing Floor '', wearing what author Keith Shadwick described as "clothes as exotic as any on display elsewhere. '' Shadwick wrote: "(Hendrix) was not only something utterly new musically, but an entirely original vision of what a black American entertainer should and could look like. '' The Experience went on to perform renditions of "Hey Joe '', B.B. King 's "Rock Me Baby '', Chip Taylor 's "Wild Thing '', and Bob Dylan 's "Like a Rolling Stone '', as well as four original compositions: "Foxy Lady '', "Can You See Me '', "The Wind Cries Mary '', and "Purple Haze ''. The set ended with Hendrix destroying his guitar and tossing pieces of it out to the audience. Rolling Stone 's Alex Vadukul wrote:
When Jimi Hendrix set his guitar on fire at the 1967 Monterey Pop Festival he created one of rock 's most perfect moments. Standing in the front row of that concert was a 17 - year - old boy named Ed Caraeff. Caraeff had never seen Hendrix before nor heard his music, but he had a camera with him and there was one shot left in his roll of film. As Hendrix lit his guitar, Caraeff took a final photo. It would become one of the most famous images in rock and roll.
Caraeff stood on a chair next to the edge of the stage while taking a series of four monochrome pictures of Hendrix burning his guitar. Caraeff was close enough to the fire that he had to use his camera as a shield to protect his face from the heat. Rolling Stone later colorized the image, matching it with other pictures taken at the festival before using the shot for a 1987 magazine cover. According to author Gail Buckland, the fourth and final frame of "Hendrix kneeling in front of his burning guitar, hands raised, is one of the most famous images in rock. '' Author and historian Matthew C. Whitaker wrote: "Hendrix 's burning of his guitar became an iconic image in rock history and brought him national attention. '' The Los Angeles Times asserted that, upon leaving the stage, Hendrix "graduated from rumor to legend ''. Author John McDermott commented: "Hendrix left the Monterey audience stunned and in disbelief at what they 'd just heard and seen. '' According to Hendrix: "I decided to destroy my guitar at the end of a song as a sacrifice. You sacrifice things you love. I love my guitar. '' The performance was filmed by D. A. Pennebaker, and later included in the concert documentary Monterey Pop, which helped Hendrix gain popularity with the U.S. public.
Immediately after the festival, the Experience were booked for a series of five concerts at Bill Graham 's Fillmore, with Big Brother and the Holding Company and Jefferson Airplane. The Experience outperformed Jefferson Airplane during the first two nights, and replaced them at the top of the bill on the fifth. Following their successful West Coast introduction, which included a free open - air concert at Golden Gate Park and a concert at the Whisky a Go Go, the Experience were booked as the opening act for the first American tour of the Monkees. They requested Hendrix as a supporting act because they were fans, but their young audience disliked the Experience, who left the tour after six shows. Chandler later admitted that he engineered the tour in an effort to gain publicity for Hendrix.
The second Experience album, Axis: Bold as Love, opens with the track "EXP '', which utilized microphonic and harmonic feedback in a new, creative fashion. It also showcased an experimental stereo panning effect in which sounds emanating from Hendrix 's guitar move through the stereo image, revolving around the listener. The piece reflected his growing interest in science fiction and outer space. He composed the album 's title track and finale around two verses and two choruses, during which he pairs emotions with personas, comparing them to colors. The song 's coda features the first recording of stereo phasing. Shadwick described the composition as "possibly the most ambitious piece on Axis, the extravagant metaphors of the lyrics suggesting a growing confidence '' in Hendrix 's songwriting. His guitar playing throughout the song is marked by chordal arpeggios and contrapuntal motion, with tremolo - picked partial chords providing the musical foundation for the chorus, which culminates in what musicologist Andy Aledort described as "simply one of the greatest electric guitar solos ever played ''. The track fades out on tremolo - picked thirty - second note double stops.
The scheduled release date for Axis was almost delayed when Hendrix lost the master tape of side one of the LP, leaving it in the back seat of a London taxi. With the deadline looming, Hendrix, Chandler, and engineer Eddie Kramer remixed most of side one in a single overnight session, but they could not match the quality of the lost mix of "If 6 Was 9 ''. Bassist Noel Redding had a tape recording of this mix, which had to be smoothed out with an iron as it had gotten wrinkled. During the verses, Hendrix doubled his singing with a guitar line which he played one octave lower than his vocals. Hendrix voiced his disappointment about having re-mixed the album so quickly, and he felt that it could have been better had they been given more time.
Axis featured psychedelic cover art that depicts Hendrix and the Experience as various avatars of Vishnu, incorporating a painting of them by Roger Law, from a photo - portrait by Karl Ferris. The painting was then superimposed on a copy of a mass - produced religious poster. Hendrix stated that the cover, which Track spent $5,000 producing, would have been more appropriate had it highlighted his American Indian heritage. He commented: "You got it wrong... I 'm not that kind of Indian. '' Track released the album in the UK on December 1, 1967, where it peaked at number five, spending 16 weeks on the charts. In February 1968, Axis: Bold as Love reached number three in the U.S.
While author and journalist Richie Unterberger described Axis as the least impressive Experience album, according to author Peter Doggett, the release "heralded a new subtlety in Hendrix 's work ''. Mitchell commented: "Axis was the first time that it became apparent that Jimi was pretty good working behind the mixing board, as well as playing, and had some positive ideas of how he wanted things recorded. It could have been the start of any potential conflict between him and Chas in the studio. ''
Recording for the Experience 's third and final studio album, Electric Ladyland, began at the newly opened Record Plant Studios, with Chandler as producer and engineers Eddie Kramer and Gary Kellgren. As the sessions progressed, Chandler became increasingly frustrated with Hendrix 's perfectionism and his demands for repeated takes. Hendrix also allowed numerous friends and guests to join them in the studio, which contributed to a chaotic and crowded environment in the control room and led Chandler to sever his professional relationship with Hendrix. Redding later recalled: "There were tons of people in the studio; you could n't move. It was a party, not a session. '' Redding, who had formed his own band in mid-1968, Fat Mattress, found it increasingly difficult to fulfill his commitments with the Experience, so Hendrix played many of the bass parts on Electric Ladyland. The album 's cover stated that it was "produced and directed by Jimi Hendrix ''.
During the Electric Ladyland recording sessions, Hendrix began experimenting with other combinations of musicians, including Jefferson Airplane 's Jack Casady and Traffic 's Steve Winwood, who played bass and organ, respectively, on the fifteen - minute slow - blues jam, "Voodoo Chile ''. During the album 's production, Hendrix appeared at an impromptu jam with B.B. King, Al Kooper, and Elvin Bishop. Electric Ladyland was released on October 25, and by mid-November it had reached number one in the U.S., spending two weeks at the top spot. The double LP was Hendrix 's most commercially successful release and his only number one album. It peaked at number six in the UK, spending 12 weeks on the chart. Electric Ladyland included Hendrix 's cover of Bob Dylan 's song, "All Along the Watchtower '', which became Hendrix 's highest - selling single and his only U.S. top 40 hit, peaking at number 20; the single reached number five in the UK. "Burning of the Midnight Lamp '', which was his first recorded song to feature the use of a wah - wah pedal, was added to the album. It was originally released as his fourth single in the UK in August 1967 and reached number 18 in the charts.
In 1989, Noe Goldwasser, the founding editor of Guitar World magazine, described Electric Ladyland as "Hendrix 's masterpiece ''. According to author Michael Heatley, "most critics agree '' that the album is "the fullest realization of Jimi 's far - reaching ambitions. '' In 2004, author Peter Doggett commented: "For pure experimental genius, melodic flair, conceptual vision and instrumental brilliance, Electric Ladyland remains a prime contender for the status of rock 's greatest album. '' Doggett described the LP as "a display of musical virtuosity never surpassed by any rock musician. ''
In January 1969, after an absence of more than six months, Hendrix briefly moved back into his girlfriend Kathy Etchingham 's Brook Street apartment, which was next door to the Handel House Museum in the West End of London. During this time, the Experience toured Scandinavia, Germany, and gave their final two performances in France. On February 18 and 24, they played sold - out concerts at London 's Royal Albert Hall, which were the last European appearances of this lineup.
By February 1969, Redding had grown weary of Hendrix 's unpredictable work ethic and his creative control over the Experience 's music. During the previous month 's European tour, interpersonal relations within the group had deteriorated, particularly between Hendrix and Redding. In his diary, Redding documented the building frustration during early 1969 recording sessions: "On the first day, as I nearly expected, there was nothing doing... On the second it was no show at all. I went to the pub for three hours, came back, and it was still ages before Jimi ambled in. Then we argued... On the last day, I just watched it happen for a while, and then went back to my flat. '' The last Experience sessions that included Redding -- a re-recording of "Stone Free '' for use as a possible single release -- took place on April 14 at Olmstead and the Record Plant in New York. Hendrix then flew bassist Billy Cox to New York; they started recording and rehearsing together on April 21.
The last performance of the original Experience lineup took place on June 29, 1969, at Barry Fey 's Denver Pop Festival, a three - day event held at Denver 's Mile High Stadium that was marked by police using tear gas to control the audience. The band narrowly escaped from the venue in the back of a rental truck, which was partly crushed by fans who had climbed on top of the vehicle. Before the show, a journalist angered Redding by asking why he was there; the reporter then informed him that two weeks earlier Hendrix announced that he had been replaced with Billy Cox. The next day, Redding quit the Experience and returned to London. He announced that he had left the band and intended to pursue a solo career, blaming Hendrix 's plans to expand the group without allowing for his input as a primary reason for leaving. Redding later commented: "Mitch and I hung out a lot together, but we 're English. If we 'd go out, Jimi would stay in his room. But any bad feelings came from us being three guys who were traveling too hard, getting too tired, and taking too many drugs... I liked Hendrix. I do n't like Mitchell. ''
Soon after Redding 's departure, Hendrix began lodging at the eight - bedroom Ashokan House, in the hamlet of Boiceville near Woodstock in upstate New York, where he had spent some time vacationing in mid-1969. Manager Michael Jeffery arranged the accommodations in the hope that the respite might encourage Hendrix to write material for a new album. During this time, Mitchell was unavailable for commitments made by Jeffery, which included Hendrix 's first appearance on U.S. TV -- on The Dick Cavett Show -- where he was backed by the studio orchestra, and an appearance on The Tonight Show where he appeared with Cox and session drummer Ed Shaughnessy.
By 1969, Hendrix was the world 's highest - paid rock musician. In August, he headlined the Woodstock Music and Art Fair that included many of the most popular bands of the time. For the concert, he added rhythm guitarist Larry Lee and conga players Juma Sultan and Jerry Velez. The band rehearsed for less than two weeks before the performance, and according to Mitchell, they never connected musically. Before arriving at the engagement, Hendrix heard reports that the size of the audience had grown to epic proportions, which gave him cause for concern as he did not enjoy performing for large crowds. He was an important draw for the event, and although he accepted substantially less money for the appearance than his usual fee, he was the festival 's highest - paid performer. As his scheduled time slot of midnight on Sunday drew closer, he indicated that he preferred to wait and close the show in the morning; the band took the stage around 8: 00 a.m. on Monday. By the time of their set, Hendrix had been awake for more than three days. The audience, which peaked at an estimated 400,000 people, was now reduced to 30 -- 40,000, many of whom had waited to catch a glimpse of Hendrix before leaving during his performance. The festival MC, Chip Monck, introduced the group as the Jimi Hendrix Experience, but Hendrix clarified: "We decided to change the whole thing around and call it Gypsy Sun and Rainbows. For short, it 's nothin ' but a Band of Gypsys ''.
Hendrix 's performance featured a rendition of the U.S. national anthem, "The Star - Spangled Banner '', during which he used copious amounts of amplifier feedback, distortion, and sustain to replicate the sounds made by rockets and bombs. Although contemporary political pundits described his interpretation as a statement against the Vietnam War, three weeks later Hendrix explained its meaning: "We 're all Americans... it was like ' Go America! '... We play it the way the air is in America today. The air is slightly static, see ''. Immortalized in the 1970 documentary film, Woodstock, his guitar - driven version would become part of the sixties Zeitgeist. Pop critic Al Aronowitz of the New York Post wrote: "It was the most electrifying moment of Woodstock, and it was probably the single greatest moment of the sixties. '' Images of the performance showing Hendrix wearing a blue - beaded white leather jacket with fringe, a red head - scarf, and blue jeans are widely regarded as iconic pictures that capture a defining moment of the era. He played "Hey Joe '' during the encore, concluding the 31⁄2 - day festival. Upon leaving the stage, he collapsed from exhaustion. In 2011, the editors of Guitar World placed his rendition of "The Star - Spangled Banner '' at Woodstock at number one in their list of his 100 greatest performances.
A legal dispute arose in 1966 regarding a record contract that Hendrix had entered into the previous year with producer Ed Chalpin. After two years of litigation, the parties agreed to a resolution that granted Chalpin the distribution rights to an album of original Hendrix material. Hendrix decided that they would record the LP, Band of Gypsys, during two live appearances. In preparation for the shows he formed an all - black power - trio with Cox and drummer Buddy Miles, formerly with Wilson Pickett, the Electric Flag, and the Buddy Miles Express. Critic John Rockwell described Hendrix and Miles as jazz - rock fusionists, and their collaboration as pioneering. Others identified a funk and soul influence in their music. Concert promoter Bill Graham called the shows "the most brilliant, emotional display of virtuoso electric guitar '' that he had ever heard. Biographers have speculated that Hendrix formed the band in an effort to appease members of the Black Power movement and others in the black communities who called for him to use his fame to speak - up for civil rights.
Hendrix had been recording with Cox since April and jamming with Miles since September, and the trio wrote and rehearsed material which they performed at a series of four shows over two nights on December 31 and January 1, at the Fillmore East. They used recordings of these concerts to assemble the LP, which was produced by Hendrix. The album includes the track "Machine Gun '', which musicologist Andy Aledort described as the pinnacle of Hendrix 's career, and "the premiere example of (his) unparalleled genius as a rock guitarist... In this performance, Jimi transcended the medium of rock music, and set an entirely new standard for the potential of electric guitar. '' During the song 's extended instrumental breaks, Hendrix created sounds with his guitar that sonically represented warfare, including rockets, bombs, and diving planes.
The Band of Gypsys album was the only official live Hendrix LP made commercially available during his lifetime; several tracks from the Woodstock and Monterey shows were released later that year. The album was released in April 1970 by Capitol Records; it reached the top ten in both the U.S. and the UK. That same month a single was issued with "Stepping Stone '' as the A-side and "Izabella '' as the B - side, but Hendrix was dissatisfied with the quality of the mastering and he demanded that it be withdrawn and re-mixed, preventing the songs from charting and resulting in Hendrix 's least successful single; it was also his last.
On January 28, 1970, a third and final Band of Gypsys appearance took place; they performed during a music festival at Madison Square Garden benefiting the anti-Vietnam War Moratorium Committee titled the "Winter Festival for Peace ''. American blues guitarist Johnny Winter was backstage before the concert; he recalled: "(Hendrix) came in with his head down, sat on the couch alone, and put his head in his hands... He did n't move until it was time for the show. '' Minutes after taking the stage he snapped a vulgar response at a woman who had shouted a request for "Foxy Lady ''. He then began playing "Earth Blues '' before telling the audience: "That 's what happens when earth fucks with space ''. Moments later, he briefly sat down on the drum riser before leaving the stage. Both Miles and Redding later stated that Jeffery had given Hendrix LSD before the performance. Miles believed that Jeffery gave Hendrix the drugs in an effort to sabotage the current band and bring about the return of the original Experience lineup. Jeffery fired Miles after the show and Cox quit, ending the Band of Gypsys.
Soon after the abruptly ended Band of Gypsys performance and their subsequent dissolution, Jeffery made arrangements to reunite the original Experience lineup. Although Hendrix, Mitchell, and Redding were interviewed by Rolling Stone in February 1970 as a united group, Hendrix never intended to work with Redding. When Redding returned to New York in anticipation of rehearsals with a re-formed Experience, he was told that he had been replaced with Cox. During an interview with Rolling Stone 's Keith Altham, Hendrix defended the decision: "It 's nothing personal against Noel, but we finished what we were doing with the Experience and Billy 's style of playing suits the new group better. '' Although the lineup of Hendrix, Mitchell, and Cox became known as the Cry of Love band, after their accompanying tour, billing, advertisements, and tickets were printed with the New Jimi Hendrix Experience or occasionally just Jimi Hendrix.
During the first half of 1970, Hendrix sporadically worked on material for what would have been his next LP. Many of the tracks were posthumously released in 1971 as The Cry of Love. He had started writing songs for the album in 1968, but in April 1970 he told Keith Altham that the project had been abandoned. Soon afterward, he and his band took a break from recording and began the Cry of Love tour at the L.A. Forum, performing for 20,000 people. Set - lists during the tour included numerous Experience tracks as well as a selection of newer material. Several shows were recorded, and they produced some of Hendrix 's most memorable live performances. At one of them, the second Atlanta International Pop Festival, on July 4, he played to the largest American audience of his career. According to authors Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz, as many as 500,000 people attended the concert. On July 17, they appeared at the New York Pop Festival; Hendrix had again consumed too many drugs before the show, and the set was considered a disaster. The American leg of the tour, which included 32 performances, ended at Honolulu, Hawaii, on August 1, 1970. This would be Hendrix 's final concert appearance in the U.S.
In 1968, Hendrix and Jeffery jointly invested in the purchase of the Generation Club in Greenwich Village. They had initially planned to reopen the establishment, but after an audit revealed that Hendrix had incurred exorbitant fees by block - booking lengthy sessions at peak rates they decided that the building would better serve them as a recording studio. With a facility of his own, Hendrix could work as much as he wanted while also reducing his recording expenditures, which had reached a reported $300,000 annually. Architect and acoustician John Storyk designed Electric Lady Studios for Hendrix, who requested that they avoid right angles where possible. With round windows, an ambient lighting machine, and a psychedelic mural, Storyk wanted the studio to have a relaxing environment that would encourage Hendrix 's creativity. The project took twice as long as planned and cost twice as much as Hendrix and Jeffery had budgeted, with their total investment estimated at $1 million.
Hendrix first used Electric Lady on June 15, 1970, when he jammed with Steve Winwood and Chris Wood of Traffic; the next day, he recorded his first track there, "Night Bird Flying ''. The studio officially opened for business on August 25, and a grand opening party was held the following day. Immediately afterwards, Hendrix left for England; he never returned to the States. He boarded an Air India flight for London with Cox, joining Mitchell for a performance as the headlining act of the Isle of Wight Festival.
When the European leg of the Cry of Love tour began, Hendrix was longing for his new studio and creative outlet, and was not eager to fulfill the commitment. On September 2, 1970, he abandoned a performance in Aarhus after three songs, stating: "I 've been dead a long time ''. Four days later, he gave his final concert appearance, at the Isle of Fehmarn Festival in Germany. He was met with booing and jeering from fans in response to his cancellation of a show slated for the end of the previous night 's bill due to torrential rain and risk of electrocution. Immediately following the festival, Hendrix, Mitchell, and Cox travelled to London.
Three days after the performance, Cox, who was suffering from severe paranoia after either taking LSD or being given it unknowingly, quit the tour and went to stay with his parents in Pennsylvania. Within days of Hendrix 's arrival in England, he had spoken with Chas Chandler, Alan Douglas, and others about leaving his manager, Michael Jeffery. On September 16, Hendrix performed in public for the last time during an informal jam at Ronnie Scott 's Jazz Club in Soho with Eric Burdon and his latest band, War. They began by playing a few of their recent hits, and after a brief intermission Hendrix joined them during "Mother Earth '' and "Tobacco Road ''. His performance was uncharacteristically subdued; he quietly played backing guitar, and refrained from the histrionics that people had come to expect from him. He died less than 48 hours later.
In July 1962, after Hendrix was discharged from the U.S. Army, he entered a small club in Clarksville, Tennessee. Drawn in by live music, he stopped for a drink and ended up spending most of the $400 he had saved. He explained: "I went in this jazz joint and had a drink. I liked it and I stayed. People tell me I get foolish, good - natured sometimes. Anyway, I guess I felt real benevolent that day. I must have been handing out bills to anyone that asked me. I came out of that place with sixteen dollars left. '' According to the authors Steven Roby and Brad Schreiber: "Alcohol would later be the scourge of his existence, driving him to fits of pique, even rare bursts of atypical, physical violence. ''
-- Kathy Etchingham
While Roby and Schreiber assert that Hendrix first used LSD when he met Linda Keith in late 1966, according to the authors Harry Shapiro and Caesar Glebbeek, the earliest that Hendrix is known to have taken it was in June 1967, while attending the Monterey Pop Festival. According to Hendrix biographer Charles Cross, the subject of drugs came up one evening in 1966 at Keith 's New York apartment; when one of Keith 's friends offered Hendrix acid, a street name for lysergic acid diethylamide, Hendrix asked for LSD instead, showing what Cross described as "his naivete and his complete inexperience with psychedelics ''. Before that, Hendrix had only sporadically used drugs, with his experimentation limited to cannabis, hashish, amphetamines and occasionally cocaine. After 1967, he regularly smoked cannabis and hashish, and used LSD and amphetamines, particularly while touring. According to Cross, by the time of his death in September 1970, "few stars were as closely associated with the drug culture as Jimi ''.
Hendrix would often become angry and violent when he drank too much alcohol or when he mixed alcohol with drugs. His friend Herbie Worthington explained: "You would n't expect somebody with that kind of love to be that violent... He just could n't drink... he simply turned into a bastard ''. According to journalist and friend Sharon Lawrence, Hendrix "admitted he could not handle hard liquor, which set off a bottled - up anger, a destructive fury he almost never displayed otherwise ''.
In January 1968, the Experience travelled to Sweden for a one - week tour of Europe. During the early morning hours of the first day, Hendrix became engaged in a drunken brawl in the Hotel Opalen, in Gothenburg, smashing a plate - glass window and injuring his right hand, for which he received medical treatment. The incident culminated in his arrest and release, pending a court appearance that resulted in a large fine.
After the 1969 burglary of a house Hendrix was renting in Benedict Canyon, California, and while he was under the influence of drugs and alcohol, he punched his friend Paul Caruso and accused him of the theft. He then chased Caruso away from the residence while throwing stones at him. A few days later, one of Hendrix 's girlfriends, Carmen Borrero, required stitches after he hit her above her eye with a vodka bottle during a drunken, jealous rage.
On May 3, 1969, while Hendrix was passing through customs at Toronto International Airport, authorities detained him after finding a small amount of what they suspected to be heroin and hashish in his luggage. Four hours later, he was formally charged with drug possession and released on $10,000 bail. He was required to return on May 5 for an arraignment hearing. The incident proved stressful for Hendrix, and it weighed heavily on his mind during the seven months that he awaited trial, which took place in December of that year. For the Crown to prove possession they had to show that Hendrix knew the drugs were there. During the jury trial he testified that a fan had given him a vial of what he thought was legal medication, which he put in his bag not knowing what was in it. He was acquitted of the charges. Mitchell and Redding later revealed that everyone had been warned about a planned drug bust the day before flying to Toronto; both men also stated they believed that the drugs had been planted in Hendrix 's bag without his knowledge.
Although the details of Hendrix 's last day and death are widely disputed, he spent much of September 17, 1970, in London with Monika Dannemann, the only witness to his final hours. Dannemann said that she prepared a meal for them at her apartment in the Samarkand Hotel, 22 Lansdowne Crescent, Notting Hill, sometime around 11 p.m., when they shared a bottle of wine. She drove Hendrix to the residence of an acquaintance at approximately 1: 45 a.m., where he remained for about an hour before she picked him up and drove them back to her flat at 3 a.m. Dannemann said they talked until around 7 a.m., when they went to sleep. She awoke around 11 a.m., and found Hendrix breathing, but unconscious and unresponsive. She called for an ambulance at 11: 18 a.m., which arrived on the scene at 11: 27 a.m. Paramedics then transported Hendrix to St Mary Abbot 's Hospital where Dr. John Bannister pronounced him dead at 12: 45 p.m. on September 18, 1970.
To determine the cause of death, coroner Gavin Thurston ordered a post-mortem examination on Hendrix 's body, which was performed on September 21 by Professor Robert Donald Teare, a forensic pathologist. Thurston completed the inquest on September 28, and concluded that Hendrix aspirated his own vomit and died of asphyxia while intoxicated with barbiturates. Citing "insufficient evidence of the circumstances '', he declared an open verdict. Dannemann later revealed that Hendrix had taken nine of her prescribed Vesparax sleeping tablets, 18 times the recommended dosage.
After Hendrix 's body had been embalmed by Desmond Henley, it was flown to Seattle, Washington, on September 29, 1970. After a service at Dunlap Baptist Church in Seattle 's Rainier Valley on October 1, it was interred at Greenwood Cemetery in Renton, Washington, the location of his mother 's grave. Hendrix 's family and friends traveled in twenty - four limousines and more than two hundred people attended the funeral, including several notable musicians such as original Experience members Mitch Mitchell and Noel Redding, as well as Miles Davis, John Hammond, and Johnny Winter.
By 1967, as Hendrix was gaining in popularity, many of his pre-Experience recordings were marketed to an unsuspecting public as Jimi Hendrix albums, sometimes with misleading later images of Hendrix. The recordings, which came under the control of producer Ed Chalpin of PPX, with whom Hendrix had signed a recording contract in 1965, were often re-mixed between their repeated reissues, and licensed to record companies such as Decca and Capitol. Hendrix publicly denounced the releases, describing them as "malicious '' and "greatly inferior '', stating: "At PPX, we spent on average about one hour recording a song. Today I spend at least twelve hours on each song. '' These unauthorized releases have long constituted a substantial part of his recording catalogue, amounting to hundreds of albums.
Some of Hendrix 's unfinished material was released as the 1971 title The Cry of Love. Although the album reached number three in the U.S. and number two in the UK, producers Mitchell and Kramer later complained that they were unable to make use of all the available songs because some tracks were used for 1971 's Rainbow Bridge; still others were issued on 1972 's War Heroes. Material from The Cry of Love was re-released in 1997 as First Rays of the New Rising Sun, along with the other tracks that Mitchell and Kramer had wanted to include.
In 1993, MCA Records delayed a multimillion - dollar sale of Hendrix 's publishing copyrights because Al Hendrix was unhappy about the arrangement. He acknowledged that he had sold distribution rights to a foreign corporation in 1974, but stated that it did not include copyrights and argued that he had retained veto power of the sale of the catalogue. Under a settlement reached in July 1995, Al Hendrix prevailed in his legal battle and regained control of his son 's song and image rights. He subsequently licensed the recordings to MCA through the family - run company Experience Hendrix LLC, formed in 1995. In August 2009, Experience Hendrix announced that it had entered a new licensing agreement with Sony Music Entertainment 's Legacy Recordings division which would take effect in 2010. Legacy and Experience Hendrix launched the 2010, Jimi Hendrix Catalog Project, starting with the release of Valleys of Neptune in March of that year. In the months before his death, Hendrix recorded demos for a concept album tentatively titled Black Gold, which are now in the possession of Experience Hendrix LLC; as of 2013, no official release date has been announced.
Hendrix played a variety of guitars throughout his career, but the instrument that became most associated with him was the Fender Stratocaster. He acquired his first Stratocaster in 1966, when a girlfriend loaned him enough money to purchase a used one that had been built around 1964. He thereafter used the model prevalently during performances and recordings. In 1967, he described the instrument as "the best all - around guitar for the stuff we 're doing ''; he praised its "bright treble and deep bass sounds ''.
With few exceptions, Hendrix played right - handed guitars that were turned upside down and restrung for left - hand playing. This had an important effect on the sound of his guitar; because of the slant of the bridge pickup, his lowest string had a brighter sound while his highest string had a darker sound, which was the opposite of the Stratocaster 's intended design. In addition to Stratocasters, Hendrix also used Fender Jazzmasters, Duosonics, two different Gibson Flying Vs, a Gibson Les Paul, three Gibson SGs, a Gretsch Corvette, and a Fender Jaguar. He used a white Gibson SG Custom for his performances on The Dick Cavett Show in September 1969, and a black Gibson Flying V during the Isle of Wight festival in 1970.
During 1965, and 1966, while Hendrix was playing back - up for soul and R&B acts in the U.S., he used an 85 - watt Fender Twin Reverb amplifier. When Chandler brought Hendrix to England in October 1966, he supplied him with 30 - watt Burns amps, which Hendrix thought were too small for his needs. After an early London gig when he was unable to use his preferred Fender Twin, he asked about the Marshall amps that he had noticed other groups using. Years earlier, Mitch Mitchell had taken drum lessons from the amp builder, Jim Marshall, and he introduced Hendrix to Marshall. At their initial meeting, Hendrix bought four speaker cabinets and three 100 - watt Super Lead amplifiers; he would grow accustomed to using all three in unison. The equipment arrived on October 11, 1966, and the Experience used the new gear during their first tour. Marshall amps were well - suited for Hendrix 's needs, and they were paramount in the evolution of his heavily overdriven sound, enabling him to master the use of feedback as a musical effect, creating what author Paul Trynka described as a "definitive vocabulary for rock guitar ''. Hendrix usually turned all of the amplifier 's control knobs to the maximum level, which became known as the Hendrix setting. During the four years prior to his death, he purchased between 50 and 100 Marshall amplifiers. Jim Marshall said that he was "the greatest ambassador '' his company ever had.
One of Hendrix 's signature effects was the wah - wah pedal, which he first heard used with an electric guitar in Cream 's "Tales of Brave Ulysses '', released in May 1967. In July of that year, while playing gigs at the Scene club in New York City, Hendrix met Frank Zappa, whose band, the Mothers of Invention were performing at the adjacent Garrick Theater. Hendrix was fascinated by Zappa 's application of the pedal, and he experimented with one later that evening. He used a wah pedal during the opening to "Voodoo Child (Slight Return) '', creating one of the best - known wah - wah riffs of the classic rock era. He can also be heard using the effect on "Up from the Skies '', "Little Miss Lover '', and "Still Raining, Still Dreaming ''.
Hendrix consistently used a Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face and a Vox wah pedal during recording sessions and live performances, but he also experimented with other guitar effects. He enjoyed a fruitful long - term collaboration with electronics enthusiast Roger Mayer, whom he once called "the secret '' of his sound. Mayer introduced him to the Octavia, an octave doubling effect pedal, in December 1966, and he first recorded with the effect during the guitar solo to "Purple Haze ''.
Hendrix also utilized the Uni-Vibe, which was designed to simulate the modulation effects of a rotating Leslie speaker by providing a rich phasing sound that could be manipulated with a speed control pedal. He can be heard using the effect during his performance at Woodstock and on the Band of Gypsys track "Machine Gun '', which prominently features the Uni-vibe along with an Octavia and a Fuzz Face. His signal flow for live performance involved first plugging his guitar into a wah - wah pedal, then connecting the wah - wah pedal to a Fuzz Face, which was then linked to a Uni-Vibe, before connecting to a Marshall amplifier.
As an adolescent during the 1950s, Hendrix became interested in rock and roll artists such as Elvis Presley, Little Richard, and Chuck Berry. In 1968, he told Guitar Player magazine that electric blues artists Muddy Waters, Elmore James, and B.B. King inspired him during the beginning of his career; he also cited Eddie Cochran as an early influence. Of Muddy Waters, the first electric guitarist of which Hendrix became aware, he said: "I heard one of his records when I was a little boy and it scared me to death because I heard all of these sounds. '' In 1970, he told Rolling Stone that he was a fan of western swing artist Bob Wills and while he lived in Nashville, the television show the Grand Ole Opry.
-- Hendrix on jazz music
Cox stated that during their time serving in the U.S. military, he and Hendrix primarily listened to southern blues artists such as Jimmy Reed and Albert King. According to Cox, "King was a very, very powerful influence ''. Howlin ' Wolf also inspired Hendrix, who performed Wolf 's "Killing Floor '' as the opening song of his U.S. debut at the Monterey Pop Festival. The influence of soul artist Curtis Mayfield can be heard in Hendrix 's guitar playing, and the influence of Bob Dylan can be heard in Hendrix 's songwriting; he was known to play Dylan 's records repeatedly, particularly Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde.
-- Guitar Player magazine, May 2012
The Experience 's Rock and Roll Hall of Fame biography states: "Jimi Hendrix was arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music. Hendrix expanded the range and vocabulary of the electric guitar into areas no musician had ever ventured before. His boundless drive, technical ability and creative application of such effects as wah - wah and distortion forever transformed the sound of rock and roll. '' Musicologist Andy Aledort described Hendrix as "one of the most creative '' and "influential musicians that has ever lived ''. Music journalist Chuck Philips wrote: "In a field almost exclusively populated by white musicians, Hendrix has served as a role model for a cadre of young black rockers. His achievement was to reclaim title to a musical form pioneered by black innovators like Little Richard and Chuck Berry in the 1950s. ''
Hendrix favored overdriven amplifiers with high volume and gain. He was instrumental in developing the previously undesirable technique of guitar amplifier feedback, and helped to popularize use of the wah - wah pedal in mainstream rock. He rejected the standard barre chord fretting technique used by most guitarists in favor of fretting the low 6th string root notes with his thumb. He applied this technique during the beginning bars of "Little Wing '', which allowed him to sustain the root note of chords while also playing melody. This method has been described as piano style, with the thumb playing what a pianist 's left hand would play and the other fingers playing melody as a right hand. Having spent several years fronting a trio, he developed an ability to play rhythm chords and lead lines together, giving the audio impression that more than one guitarist was performing. He was the first artist to incorporate stereophonic phasing effects in rock music recordings. Holly George - Warren of Rolling Stone commented: "Hendrix pioneered the use of the instrument as an electronic sound source. Players before him had experimented with feedback and distortion, but Hendrix turned those effects and others into a controlled, fluid vocabulary every bit as personal as the blues with which he began. '' Aledort wrote: "In rock guitar, there are but two eras -- before Hendrix and after Hendrix. ''
While creating his unique musical voice and guitar style, Hendrix synthesized diverse genres, including blues, R&B, soul, British rock, American folk music, 1950s rock and roll, and jazz. Musicologist David Moskowitz emphasized the importance of blues music in Hendrix 's playing style, and according to authors Steven Roby and Brad Schreiber, "(He) explored the outer reaches of psychedelic rock ''. His influence is evident in a variety of popular music formats, and he has contributed significantly to the development of hard rock, heavy metal, funk, post-punk, and hip hop music. His lasting influence on modern guitar players is difficult to overstate; his techniques and delivery have been abundantly imitated by others. Despite his hectic touring schedule and notorious perfectionism, he was a prolific recording artist who left behind numerous unreleased recordings. More than 40 years after his death, Hendrix remains as popular as ever, with annual album sales exceeding that of any year during his lifetime.
Hendrix has influenced numerous funk and funk rock artists, including Prince, George Clinton, John Frusciante, formerly of the Red Hot Chili Peppers, Eddie Hazel of Funkadelic, and Ernie Isley of the Isley Brothers. Hendrix 's influence also extends to many hip hop artists, including De La Soul, A Tribe Called Quest, Digital Underground, Beastie Boys, and Run -- D.M.C. Miles Davis was deeply impressed by Hendrix, and he compared Hendrix 's improvisational abilities with those of saxophonist John Coltrane. Hendrix also influenced industrial artist Marilyn Manson, blues legend Stevie Ray Vaughan, Metallica 's Kirk Hammett, instrumental rock guitarist Joe Satriani, Frank Zappa / David Bowie / Talking Heads / King Crimson / Nine Inch Nails hired gun Adrian Belew, and heavy metal virtuoso Yngwie Malmsteen, who said: "(Hendrix) created modern electric playing, without question... He was the first. He started it all. The rest is history. ''
Hendrix received several prestigious rock music awards during his lifetime and posthumously. In 1967, readers of Melody Maker voted him the Pop Musician of the Year. In 1968, Rolling Stone declared him the Performer of the Year. Also in 1968, the City of Seattle gave him the Keys to the City. Disc & Music Echo newspaper honored him with the World Top Musician of 1969 and in 1970 Guitar Player magazine named him the Rock Guitarist of the Year.
Rolling Stone ranked his three non-posthumous studio albums, Are You Experienced (1967), Axis: Bold as Love (1967), and Electric Ladyland (1968) among the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. They ranked Hendrix number one on their list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time, and number six on their list of the 100 greatest artists of all time. Guitar World 's readers voted six of Hendrix 's solos among the top 100 Greatest Guitar Solos of All Time: "Purple Haze '' (70), "The Star - Spangled Banner '' (52; from Live at Woodstock), "Machine Gun '' (32; from Band of Gypsys), "Little Wing '' (18), "Voodoo Child (Slight Return) '' (11), and "All Along the Watchtower '' (5). Rolling Stone placed seven of his recordings in their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time: "Purple Haze '' (17), "All Along the Watchtower '' (47) "Voodoo Child (Slight Return) '' (102), "Foxy Lady '' (153), "Hey Joe '' (201), "Little Wing '' (366), and "The Wind Cries Mary '' (379). They also included three of Hendrix 's songs in their list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time: "Purple Haze '' (2), "Voodoo Child '' (12), and "Machine Gun '' (49).
A star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame was dedicated to Hendrix on November 14, 1991, at 6627 Hollywood Boulevard. November 27, 1992 was made Jimi Hendrix Day in Seattle. This was largely due to the efforts of his boyhood friend Sammy Drain. He approached the Seattle mayor Norm Rice and talked to him about it. Mayor Rice being aware of the contribution to music Hendrix had made, readily agreed and on November 27, 1992 which would have been the 50th birthday for the guitarist, the mayor issued a proclamation making it Jimi Hendrix Day. The Jimi Hendrix Experience was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992, and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005. In 1999, readers of Rolling Stone and Guitar World ranked Hendrix among the most important musicians of the 20th century. In 2005, his debut album, Are You Experienced, was one of 50 recordings added that year to the United States National Recording Registry in the Library of Congress, "(to) be preserved for all time... (as) part of the nation 's audio legacy ''.
The blue plaque identifying his former residence at 23 Brook Street, London, (next door to the former residence of George Frideric Handel) was the first one issued by English Heritage to commemorate a pop star. A memorial statue of Hendrix playing a Stratocaster stands near the corner of Broadway and Pine Streets in Seattle. In May 2006, the city renamed a park near its Central District Jimi Hendrix Park, in his honor. In 2012, an official historic marker was erected on the site of the July 1970 Second Atlanta International Pop Festival near Byron, Georgia. The marker text reads, in part: "Over thirty musical acts performed, including rock icon Jimi Hendrix playing to the largest American audience of his career. ''
Hendrix 's music has received a number of Hall of Fame Grammy awards, starting with a Lifetime Achievement Award in 1992, followed by two Grammys in 1999 for his albums Are You Experienced and Electric Ladyland; Axis: Bold as Love received a Grammy in 2006. In 2000, he received a Hall of Fame Grammy award for his original composition, "Purple Haze '', and in 2001, for his recording of Dylan 's "All Along the Watchtower ''. Hendrix 's rendition of "The Star - Spangled Banner '' was honored with a Grammy in 2009.
The United States Postal Service issued a commemorative postage stamp honoring Hendrix in 2014.
On August 21, 2016, Jimi Hendrix was officially inducted into the R&B Hall of Fame in Dearborn, Michigan.
The Jimi Hendrix Experience
Jimi Hendrix / Band of Gypsys
Posthumous albums
|
florida georgia line here's to the good times deluxe album songs | Here 's to the Good Times - wikipedia
Here 's to the Good Times is the debut studio album by American country music duo Florida Georgia Line. It was released on December 4, 2012, by Republic Nashville. The album includes the five tracks from their It'z Just What We Do EP; including "Cruise '', along with six new songs. The deluxe edition, titled Here 's to the Good Times... This Is How We Roll, was released on November 25, 2013. The album was the sixth best - selling album of 2013 in the United States, and it became a certified two - times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on July 1, 2014.
Here 's to the Good Times has received generally positive reviews by music critics. Robert Silva of About.com found that the album "may not be built to last, but it 's built to be blast. '' Allmusic 's Steve Leggett told that the release is "based on summer energy, drinking beer, taking shots, driving back roads, and the romantic glories and possibilities of Friday and Saturday nights with nothing to do but look for those good times. '' At Music Is My Oxygen Weekly, Rob Burkhardt evoked that "Here 's To the Good Times is only going to add to Florida Georgia Line 's rapidly growing popularity. '' Matt Bjorke of Roughstock praised the album because "is chock full of hits '', and said that "it 's the work of a band who not only has captured an audience seemingly overnight but also has the potential to be the biggest duo in Country Music ''.
The album debuted at No. 3 on the Billboard Top Country Albums, and No. 10 on the Billboard 200 with 63,000 copies sold in the United States. The album eventually reached No. 1 on the Top Country Albums chart in June 2013.
The album was the sixth best - selling album of 2013 in the United States, with 1,350,000 copies sold for the year. The album reached its 2 million sales mark in August 2014. As of September 2018, the album has sold 5,109,696 copies in the US.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
|
indian scientists who won nobel prize in chemistry | Venkatraman Ramakrishnan - wikipedia
Venkatraman "Venki '' Ramakrishnan (born 1952) is an American and British structural biologist of Indian origin. He is the current President of the Royal Society, having held the position since November 2015. In 2009 he shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Thomas A. Steitz and Ada Yonath, "for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome ''.
Since 1999, he has worked as a group leader at the Medical Research Council (MRC) Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB) on the Cambridge Biomedical Campus, UK, where he is also the Deputy Director.
Ramakrishnan was born in Chidambaram in Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu, India to C.V. Ramakrishnan and Rajalakshmi Ramakrishnan in a Tamil Iyer family. Both his parents were scientists, and his father was head of the Department of Biochemistry at the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda. At the time of his birth, Ramakrishnan 's father was away from India doing postdoctoral research with David E. Green at the University of Wisconsin -- Madison in the US.
His mother obtained a PhD in Psychology from McGill University in 1959 which she completed in only 18 months, and was mentored by Donald O. Hebb. Lalita Ramakrishnan, his younger sister, is professor of immunology and infectious diseases at the Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, and is a member of the National Academy of Sciences.
Ramakrishnan moved to Vadodara (previously also known as Baroda) in Gujarat at the age of three, where he had his schooling at Convent of Jesus and Mary, except for spending 1960 -- 61 in Adelaide, Australia. Following his pre-science at the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, he did his undergraduate studies in the same university on a National Science Talent Scholarship, graduating with a Bachelor of Science degree in Physics in 1971. At the time, the physics course at Baroda was new, and based in part on The Berkeley Physics Course and The Feynman Lectures on Physics.
Immediately after graduation he moved to the U.S., where he obtained his PhD degree in Physics from Ohio University in 1976 for research into the ferroelectric phase transition of potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP) supervised by Tomoyasu Tanaka. He then spent two years studying biology as a graduate student at the University of California, San Diego while making a transition from theoretical physics to biology.
Ramakrishnan began work on ribosomes as a postdoctoral fellow with Peter Moore at Yale University. After his post-doctoral fellowship, he initially could not find a faculty position even though he had applied to about 50 universities in the U.S.
He continued to work on ribosomes from 1983 - 95 as a staff scientist at Brookhaven National Laboratory. In 1995 he moved to the University of Utah as a Professor of Biochemistry, and in 1999, he moved to his current position at the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, England, where he had also been a sabbatical visitor during 1991 - 92.
In 1999, Ramakrishnan 's laboratory published a 5.5 Angstrom resolution structure of the 30S subunit. The following year, his laboratory determined the complete molecular structure of the 30S subunit of the ribosome and its complexes with several antibiotics. This was followed by studies that provided structural insights into the mechanism that ensures the fidelity of protein biosynthesis. More recently in 2007 his laboratory has determined the atomic structure of the whole ribosome in complex with its tRNA and mRNA ligands. Ramakrishnan is also known for his past work on histone and chromatin structure. He has supervised several PhD students and postdoctoral researchers including Nathan James.
As of 2015 his most cited papers (according to Scopus) have been published in Nature, Science, and Cell.
Ramakrishnan was elected a Member of the European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) in 2002, a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2003 and an Honorary Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences in 2010. He was elected a Member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences in 2004. In 2007, Ramakrishnan was awarded the Louis - Jeantet Prize for Medicine and the Datta Lectureship and Medal of the Federation of European Biochemical Societies (FEBS). In 2008, he won the Heatley Medal of the British Biochemical Society. Since 2008, he is a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge and a foreign Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy.
In 2009, Ramakrishnan was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry along with Thomas A. Steitz and Ada Yonath. He received India 's second highest civilian honor, the Padma Vibhushan, in 2010. Ramakrishnan was knighted in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to Molecular Biology, but does not generally use the title ' Sir '. In the same year, he was awarded the Sir Hans Krebs Medal by the FEBS. In 2014, he was awarded the XLVI Jiménez - Díaz Prize by the Fundación Conchita Rábago (Spain). Ramakrishnan was included as one of 25 Greatest Global Living Indians by NDTV Channel, India on 14 December 2013. His certificate of election to the Royal Society reads:
Ramakrishnan married Vera Rosenberry, an author and illustrator of children 's books, in 1975. His stepdaughter Tanya Kapka is a doctor in Oregon, and his son Raman Ramakrishnan is a cellist based in New York.
|
what was the longest shot to win the kentucky derby | Kentucky Derby - wikipedia
The Kentucky Derby / ˈdɜːrbi /, is a horse race that is held annually in Louisville, Kentucky, United States, on the first Saturday in May, capping the two - week - long Kentucky Derby Festival. The race is a Grade I stakes race for three - year - old Thoroughbreds at a distance of one and a quarter miles (2 km) at Churchill Downs. Colts and geldings carry 126 pounds (57 kilograms) and fillies 121 pounds (55 kilograms).
The race is often called "The Run for the Roses '' for the blanket of roses draped over the winner. It is also known in the United States as "The Most Exciting Two Minutes In Sports '' or "The Fastest Two Minutes in Sports '' in reference to its approximate duration. It is the first leg of the American Triple Crown and is followed by the Preakness Stakes, then the Belmont Stakes. Unlike the Preakness and Belmont Stakes, which took hiatuses in 1891 -- 1893 and 1911 -- 1912, respectively, the Kentucky Derby has been run every consecutive year since 1875. The Derby, Preakness and Belmont all were run even every year throughout both World Wars, when the Olympics and nearly all professional sports seasons were canceled, due to the fact that nearly all the athletes enlisted. A horse must win all three races to win the Triple Crown. In the 2015 listing of the International Federation of Horseracing Authorities (IFHA), the Kentucky Derby tied with the Whitney Handicap as the top Grade 1 race in the United States outside the Breeders ' Cup races.
The attendance at the Kentucky Derby ranks first in North America and usually surpasses the attendance of all other stakes races including the Preakness Stakes, Belmont Stakes, and the Breeders ' Cup.
In 1872, Col. Meriwether Lewis Clark, Jr., grandson of William Clark of the Lewis and Clark expedition, traveled to England, visiting Epsom in Surrey where The Derby had been running annually since 1780. From there, Clark went on to Paris, France, where in 1863, a group of racing enthusiasts had formed the French Jockey Club and had organized the Grand Prix de Paris at Longchamp, which at the time was the greatest race in France.
Returning home to Kentucky, Clark organized the Louisville Jockey Club for the purpose of raising money to build quality racing facilities just outside the city. The track would soon become known as Churchill Downs, named for John and Henry Churchill, who provided the land for the racetrack. Officially, the racetrack was incorporated as Churchill Downs in 1937.
The Kentucky Derby was first run at 1 1 / 2 miles (12 furlongs; 2.4 km) the same distance as the Epsom Derby. The distance was changed in 1896 to its current 1 1 / 4 miles (10 furlongs; 2 km). On May 17, 1875, in front of an estimated crowd of 10,000 people, a field of 15 three - year - old horses contested the first Derby. Under jockey Oliver Lewis, a colt named Aristides, who was trained by future Hall of Famer Ansel Williamson, won the inaugural Derby. Later that year, Lewis rode Aristides to a second - place finish in the Belmont Stakes.
Although the first race meeting proved a success, the track ran into financial difficulties and in 1894 the New Louisville Jockey Club was incorporated with new capitalization and improved facilities. Despite this, the business floundered until 1902 when Col. Matt Winn of Louisville put together a syndicate of businessmen to acquire the facility. Under Winn, Churchill Downs prospered and the Kentucky Derby then became the preeminent stakes race for three - year - old thoroughbred horses in North America.
Thoroughbred owners began sending their successful Derby horses to compete later in the Preakness Stakes at the Pimlico Race Course, in Baltimore, Maryland, followed by the Belmont Stakes in Elmont, New York. The three races offered large purses and in 1919 Sir Barton became the first horse to win all three races. However, the term Triple Crown did n't come into use for another eleven years. In 1930, when Gallant Fox became the second horse to win all three races, sportswriter Charles Hatton brought the phrase into American usage. Fueled by the media, public interest in the possibility of a "superhorse '' that could win the Triple Crown began in the weeks leading up to the Derby. Two years after the term was coined, the race, which had been run in mid-May since inception, was changed to the first Saturday in May to allow for a specific schedule for the Triple Crown races. Since 1931, the order of Triple Crown races has been the Kentucky Derby first, followed by the Preakness Stakes and then the Belmont Stakes. Prior to 1931, eleven times the Preakness was run before the Derby. On May 12, 1917 and again on May 13, 1922, the Preakness and the Derby were run on the same day. On eleven occasions the Belmont Stakes was run before the Preakness Stakes.
On May 16, 1925, the first live radio broadcast of the Kentucky Derby was originated by WHAS and was also carried by WGN in Chicago. On May 7, 1949, the first television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, produced by WAVE - TV, the NBC affiliate in Louisville. This coverage was aired live in the Louisville market and sent to NBC as a kinescope newsreel recording for national broadcast. On May 3, 1952, the first national television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, aired from then - CBS affiliate WHAS - TV. In 1954, the purse exceeded $ 100,000 for the first time. In 1968, Dancer 's Image became the first (and to this day the only) horse to win the race and then be disqualified after traces of phenylbutazone, an analgesic and anti-inflammatory drug, were found in the horse 's urinalysis; Forward Pass won after a protracted legal battle by the owners of Dancer 's Image (which they lost). Forward Pass thus became the eighth winner for Calumet Farm. Unexpectedly, the regulations at Kentucky thoroughbred race tracks were changed some years later, allowing horses to run on phenylbutazone. In 1970, Diane Crump became the first female jockey to ride in the Derby, finishing 15th aboard Fathom.
The fastest time ever run in the Derby was set in 1973 at 1: 59.4 minutes when Secretariat broke the record set by Northern Dancer in 1964. Not only has Secretariat 's record time yet to be topped, in the race itself, he did something unique in Triple Crown races: each successive quarter, his times were faster. Though times for non-winners were not recorded, in 1973 Sham finished second, two and a half lengths behind Secretariat in the same race. Using the thoroughbred racing convention of one length equaling one - fifth of a second to calculate Sham 's time, he also finished in under two minutes. Another sub-two - minute finish, only the third, was set in 2001 by Monarchos at 1: 59.97.
In 2005, the purse distribution for the Derby was changed, so that horses finishing fifth would henceforth receive a share of the purse; previously only the first four finishers did so.
Since the Kentucky Derby is the biggest race in the world, millions of people from around the world bet at various live tracks and online sportsbooks. In 2017, a crowd of 158,070 watched Always Dreaming win the Derby, making it the seventh biggest attendance in the history of the racetrack. The track reported a wagering total of $209.2 million from all the sources on all the races on the Kentucky Derby Day program. It was a 9 percent increase compared to the total of $192.6 million in 2016 and an increase of 8 percent over the previous record set in 2015 of $194.3 million. TwinSpires, a platform for betting online and a partner of the Kentucky Derby and the Breeders ' Cup, recorded $32.8 million in handle on the Churchill Down races for the Kentucky Derby Day program. This was a 22 percent increase over the preceding year. On the Kentucky Derby race alone, the handle of TwinSpires was $20.1 million, which is a 22 percent rise compared to the prior year.
The race often draws celebrities. HM Queen Elizabeth II, on a visit to the United States, joined the racegoers at Churchill Downs in 2007.
The 2004 Derby marked the first time that jockeys -- as a result of a court order -- were allowed to wear corporate advertising logos on their clothing.
Norman Adams has been the designer of the Kentucky Derby Logo since 2002. On February 1, 2006, the Louisville - based fast - food company Yum! Brands, Inc. announced a corporate sponsorship deal to call the race "The Kentucky Derby presented by Yum! Brands. '' In 2018, Woodford Reserve replaced Yum Brands as the presenting sponsor.
In addition to the race itself, a number of traditions play a large role in the Derby atmosphere. The mint julep -- an iced drink consisting of bourbon, mint, and a sugar syrup -- is the traditional beverage of the race. The historic drink can be served in an ice - frosted silver julep cup, but most Churchill Downs patrons sip theirs from souvenir glasses (first offered in 1939 and available in revised form each year since) printed with all previous Derby winners. Also, burgoo, a thick stew of beef, chicken, pork, and vegetables, is a popular Kentucky dish served at the Derby.
The infield -- a spectator area inside the track -- offers general admission prices but little chance of seeing much of the race, particularly prior to the jumbotron installation in 2014. Instead, revelers show up in the infield to party with abandon. By contrast, "Millionaire 's Row '' refers to the expensive box seats that attract the rich, the famous and the well - connected. Women appear in fine outfits lavishly accessorized with large, elaborate hats. Following the Call to the Post, as the horses are paraded before the grandstands, the University of Louisville Cardinal Marching Band plays Stephen Foster 's "My Old Kentucky Home, '' a tradition which began in 1921. The event attracts spectators from a large area, flying in hundreds of private aircraft to Louisville International Airport.
The Derby is frequently referred to as "The Run for the Roses, '' because a lush blanket of 554 red roses is awarded to the Kentucky Derby winner each year. The tradition originated in 1883 when New York socialite E. Berry Wall presented roses to ladies at a post-Derby party that was attended by Churchill Downs founder and president, Col. M. Lewis Clark. This gesture is believed to have led Clark to the idea of making the rose the race 's official flower. However, it was not until 1896 that any recorded account referred to roses being draped on the Derby winner. The Governor of Kentucky awards the garland and the Kentucky Derby Trophy. Pop vocalist Dan Fogelberg composed the song "Run for the Roses '' which was released in time for the 1980 running of the race.
"Riders Up! '' is the traditional command from the Paddock Judge for jockeys to mount their horses in advance of the upcoming race. Since 2012, it was recited by a dignitary or celebrity attendee.
In the weeks preceding the race, numerous activities are held for the Kentucky Derby Festival. Thunder Over Louisville -- an airshow and fireworks display -- generally begins the festivities in earnest two weeks prior to the Derby.
Speed record:
Margin of Victory:
Most wins by a jockey:
Most wins by a trainer:
Most wins by an owner:
Longest shot to win the Derby:
Miscellaneous:
designates a Triple Crown Winner. designates a filly.
Legend -- ₩ = Triple Crown winners, ♥ = Filly
|
who said war is politics by other means | Carl von Clausewitz - wikipedia
French Revolutionary Wars
Napoleonic Wars
Carl Philipp Gottfried (or Gottlieb) von Clausewitz (/ ˈklaʊzəvɪts /; 1 June 1780 -- 16 November 1831) was a Prussian general and military theorist who stressed the "moral '' (meaning, in modern terms, psychological) and political aspects of war. His most notable work, Vom Kriege (On War), was unfinished at his death. Clausewitz was a realist in many different senses and, while in some respects a romantic, also drew heavily on the rationalist ideas of the European Enlightenment.
Clausewitz 's thinking is often described as Hegelian because of his dialectical method; but, although he was probably personally acquainted with Hegel, there remains debate as to whether or not Clausewitz was in fact influenced by him. He stressed the dialectical interaction of diverse factors, noting how unexpected developments unfolding under the "fog of war '' (i.e., in the face of incomplete, dubious, and often completely erroneous information and high levels of fear, doubt, and excitement) call for rapid decisions by alert commanders. He saw history as a vital check on erudite abstractions that did not accord with experience. In contrast to the early work of Antoine - Henri Jomini, he argued that war could not be quantified or reduced to mapwork, geometry, and graphs. Clausewitz had many aphorisms, of which the most famous is "War is the continuation of politics by other means. ''
Clausewitz 's Christian names are sometimes given in non-German sources as Karl, "Carl Philipp Gottlieb, '' or "Carl Maria. '' He spelled his own given name with a "C '' in order to identify with the classical Western tradition; writers who use "Karl '' are often seeking to emphasize his German (rather than European) identity. "Carl Philipp Gottfried '' appears on Clausewitz 's tombstone. Nonetheless, sources such as military historian Peter Paret and Encyclopædia Britannica use Gottlieb instead of Gottfried.
Clausewitz was born on 1 June 1780 in Burg bei Magdeburg in the Prussian Duchy of Magdeburg as the fourth and youngest son of a middle - class family, though it made claims to noble status that Carl accepted. Clausewitz 's family claimed descent from the Barons of Clausewitz in Upper Silesia, though scholars question the connection. His grandfather, the son of a Lutheran pastor, had been a professor of theology. Clausewitz 's father, once a lieutenant in the Prussian army of Frederick II of Prussia (Frederick the Great), held a minor post in the Prussian internal - revenue service. Clausewitz entered the Prussian military service at the age of twelve as a Lance - Corporal, eventually attaining the rank of Major - General.
Clausewitz served in the Rhine Campaigns (1793 -- 1794) including the Siege of Mainz, when the Prussian army invaded France during the French Revolution, and fought in the Napoleonic Wars from 1806 to 1815. He entered the Kriegsakademie (also cited as "The German War School '', the "Military Academy in Berlin '', and the "Prussian Military Academy '') in Berlin in 1801 (aged 21), probably studied the writings of the philosopher Immanuel Kant, and won the regard of General Gerhard von Scharnhorst, the future first chief - of - staff of the newly reformed Prussian Army (appointed 1809). Clausewitz, Hermann von Boyen (1771 -- 1848) and Karl von Grolman (1777 -- 1843) were among Scharnhorst 's primary allies in his efforts to reform the Prussian army between 1807 and 1814.
Clausewitz served during the Jena Campaign as aide - de-camp to Prince August. At the Battle of Jena - Auerstedt on 14 October 1806 -- when Napoleon invaded Prussia and defeated the massed Prussian - Saxon army commanded by Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick -- he was captured, one of the 25,000 prisoners taken that day as the Prussian army disintegrated. He was 26. Clausewitz was held prisoner with his prince in France from 1807 to 1808. Returning to Prussia, he assisted in the reform of the Prussian army and state.
On 10 December 1810 he married the socially prominent Countess Marie von Brühl, whom he had first met in 1803. She was a member of the noble German von Brühl family originating in Thuringia. The couple moved in the highest circles, socializing with Berlin 's political, literary and intellectual élite. Marie was well - educated and politically well - connected -- she played an important role in her husband 's career progress and intellectual evolution. She also edited, published, and introduced his collected works.
Opposed to Prussia 's enforced alliance with Napoleon I, Clausewitz left the Prussian army and served in the Imperial Russian Army from 1812 to 1813 during the Russian Campaign, taking part in the Battle of Borodino (1812). Like many Prussian officers serving in Russia, he joined the Russian - German Legion in 1813. In the service of the Russian Empire, Clausewitz helped negotiate the Convention of Tauroggen (1812), which prepared the way for the coalition of Prussia, Russia, and the United Kingdom that ultimately defeated Napoleon and his allies.
In 1815 the Russian - German Legion became integrated into the Prussian Army and Clausewitz re-entered Prussian service as a colonel. He was soon appointed chief - of - staff of Johann von Thielmann 's III Corps. In that capacity he served at the Battle of Ligny and the Battle of Wavre during the Waterloo Campaign in 1815. An army led personally by Napoleon defeated the Prussians at Ligny (south of Mont - Saint - Jean and the village of Waterloo) on 16 June 1815, but Napoleon 's failure to destroy the Prussian forces led to his defeat a few days later at the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815), when the Prussian forces unexpectedly arrived on his right flank late in the afternoon to support the Anglo - Dutch - Belgian forces pressing his front. Clausewitz 's unit fought at Wavre (18 -- 19 June 1815), preventing large reinforcements from reaching Napoleon at Waterloo. After the war Clausewitz served as the director of the Kriegsakademie, where he served until 1830. In that year he returned to duty with the army. Soon afterwards, the outbreak of several revolutions around Europe and a crisis in Poland appeared to presage another major European war. Clausewitz was appointed chief of staff of the only army Prussia was able to mobilize in this emergency, which was sent to the Polish border. Its commander, Gneisenau, died of cholera (August 1831), and Clausewitz took command of the Prussian army 's efforts to construct a cordon sanitaire to contain the great cholera outbreak (the first time cholera had appeared in modern heartland Europe, causing a continent - wide panic). Clausewitz himself died of the same disease shortly afterwards, on 17 November 1831.
His widow edited, published, and wrote the introduction to his magnum opus on the philosophy of war in 1832. (He had started working on the text in 1816, but had not completed it.) She wrote the preface for On War and by 1835 had published most of his collected works. She died in January 1836.
Clausewitz was a professional combat soldier who was involved in numerous military campaigns, but he is famous primarily as a military theorist interested in the examination of war, utilizing the campaigns of Frederick the Great and Napoleon as frames of reference for his work. He wrote a careful, systematic, philosophical examination of war in all its aspects. The result was his principal book, On War, a major work on the philosophy of war. It was unfinished when Clausewitz died and contains material written at different stages in his intellectual evolution, producing some significant contradictions between different sections. The sequence and precise character of that evolution is a source of much debate, as are exact meaning behind his seemingly contradictory claims (discussions pertinent to the tactical, operational and strategic levels of war are one example). Clausewitz constantly sought to revise the text, particularly between 1827 and his departure on his last field assignments, to include more material on "people 's war '' and forms of war other than high - intensity warfare between states, but relatively little of this material was included in the book. Soldiers before this time had written treatises on various military subjects, but none had undertaken a great philosophical examination of war on the scale of those written by Clausewitz and Leo Tolstoy, both of which were inspired by the events of the Napoleonic Era.
Clausewitz 's work is still studied today, demonstrating its continued relevance. More than sixteen major English - language books that focused specifically on his work were published between 2005 and 2014, whereas his 19th - century rival Jomini faded from influence. Historian Lynn Montross said the outcome, "may be explained by the fact that Jomini produced a system of war, Clausewitz a philosophy. The one has been outdated by new weapons, the other still influences the strategy behind those weapons. '' Jomini did not attempt to define war. Clausewitz did, providing (and dialectically comparing) a number of definitions. The first is his dialectical thesis: "War is thus an act of force to compel our enemy to do our will. '' The second, often treated as Clausewitz 's ' bottom line, ' is in fact merely his dialectical antithesis: "War is merely the continuation of policy by other means. '' The synthesis of his dialectical examination of the nature of war is his famous "trinity, '' saying that war is "a fascinating trinity -- composed of primordial violence, hatred, and enmity, which are to be regarded as a blind natural force; the play of chance and probability, within which the creative spirit is free to roam; and its element of subordination, as an instrument of policy, which makes it subject to pure reason. '' Christopher Bassford says the best shorthand for Clausewitz 's trinity should be something like "violent emotion / chance / rational calculation. '' However, it is frequently presented as "people / army / government, '' a misunderstanding based on a later paragraph in the same chapter. This misrepresentation was popularized by U.S. Army Colonel Harry Summers ' Vietnam - era interpretation, facilitated by weaknesses in the 1976 Howard / Paret translation.
The degree to which Clausewitz managed to revise his manuscript to reflect that synthesis is the subject of much debate. His final reference to war and Politik, however, goes beyond his widely quoted antithesis: "War is simply the continuation of political intercourse with the addition of other means. We deliberately use the phrase ' with the addition of other means ' because we also want to make it clear that war in itself does not suspend political intercourse or change it into something entirely different. In essentials that intercourse continues, irrespective of the means it employs. The main lines along which military events progress, and to which they are restricted, are political lines that continue throughout the war into the subsequent peace. ''
Clausewitz introduced systematic philosophical contemplation into Western military thinking, with powerful implications not only for historical and analytical writing but also for practical policy, military instruction, and operational planning. He relied on his own experiences, contemporary writings about Napoleon, and on deep historical research. His historiographical approach is evident in his first extended study, written when he was 25, of the Thirty Years War. He rejects the Enlightenment 's view of the war as a chaotic muddle and instead explains its drawn - out operations by the economy and technology of the age, the social characteristics of the troops, and the commanders ' politics and psychology. In On War, Clausewitz sees all wars as the sum of decisions, actions, and reactions in an uncertain and dangerous context, and also as a socio - political phenomenon. He also stressed the complex nature of war, which encompasses both the socio - political and the operational and stresses the primacy of state policy.
The word "strategy '' had only recently come into usage in modern Europe, and Clausewitz 's definition is quite narrow: "the use of engagements for the object of war. '' Clausewitz conceived of war as a political, social, and military phenomenon which might -- depending on circumstances -- involve the entire population of a nation at war. In any case, Clausewitz saw military force as an instrument that states and other political actors use to pursue the ends of policy, in a dialectic between opposing wills, each with the aim of imposing his policies and will upon his enemy.
Clausewitz 's emphasis on the inherent superiority of the defense suggests that habitual aggressors are likely to end up as failures. The inherent superiority of the defense obviously does not mean that the defender will always win, however: there are other asymmetries to be considered. He was interested in cooperation between the regular army and militia or partisan forces, or citizen soldiers, as one possible -- sometimes the only -- method of defense. In the circumstances of the Wars of the French Revolution and with Napoleon, which were energized by a rising spirit of nationalism, he emphasized the need for states to involve their entire populations in the conduct of war. This point is especially important, as these wars demonstrated that such energies could be of decisive importance and for a time led to a democratization of the armed forces much as universal suffrage democratized politics.
While Clausewitz was intensely aware of the value of intelligence at all levels, he was also very skeptical of the accuracy of much military intelligence: "Many intelligence reports in war are contradictory; even more are false, and most are uncertain... In short, most intelligence is false. '' This circumstance is generally described as part of the fog of war. Such skeptical comments apply only to intelligence at the tactical and operational levels; at the strategic and political levels he constantly stressed the requirement for the best possible understanding of what today would be called strategic and political intelligence. His conclusions were influenced by his experiences in the Prussian Army, which was often in an intelligence fog due partly to the superior abilities of Napoleon 's system but even more to the nature of war. Clausewitz acknowledges that friction creates enormous difficulties for the realization of any plan, and the fog of war hinders commanders from knowing what is happening. It is precisely in the context of this challenge that he develops the concept of military genius, whose capabilities are seen above all in the execution of operations. ' Military genius ' is not simply a matter of intellect, but a combination of qualities of intellect, experience, personality, and temperament (and there are many possible such combinations) that create a very highly developed mental aptitude for the waging of war.
Key ideas discussed in On War include:
Clausewitz used a dialectical method to construct his argument, leading to frequent misinterpretation of his ideas. British military theorist B.H. Liddell Hart contends that the enthusiastic acceptance by the Prussian military establishment -- especially Moltke the Elder, a former student of his -- of what they believed to be Clausewitz 's ideas, and the subsequent widespread adoption of the Prussian military system worldwide, had a deleterious effect on military theory and practice, due to their egregious misinterpretation of his ideas:
As so often happens, Clausewitz 's disciples carried his teaching to an extreme which their master had not intended... (Clausewitz 's) theory of war was expounded in a way too abstract and involved for ordinary soldier - minds, essentially concrete, to follow the course of his argument -- which often turned back from the direction in which it was apparently leading. Impressed yet befogged, they grasped at his vivid leading phrases, seeing only their surface meaning, and missing the deeper current of his thought.
As described by Christopher Bassford, then - professor of strategy at the National War College of the United States:
One of the main sources of confusion about Clausewitz 's approach lies in his dialectical method of presentation. For example, Clausewitz 's famous line that "War is a mere continuation of politics by other means, '' ("Der Krieg ist eine bloße Fortsetzung der Politik mit anderen Mitteln '') while accurate as far as it goes, was not intended as a statement of fact. It is the antithesis in a dialectical argument whose thesis is the point -- made earlier in the analysis -- that "war is nothing but a duel (or wrestling match, a better translation of the German Zweikampf) on a larger scale. '' His synthesis, which resolves the deficiencies of these two bold statements, says that war is neither "nothing but '' an act of brute force nor "merely '' a rational act of politics or policy. This synthesis lies in his "fascinating trinity '' (wunderliche Dreifaltigkeit): a dynamic, inherently unstable interaction of the forces of violent emotion, chance, and rational calculation.
Another example of this confusion is the idea that Clausewitz was a proponent of total war as used in the Third Reich 's propaganda in the 1940s. In fact, he never used the term "total war '': rather, he discussed "absolute war '' or "ideal war '' as the purely logical result of the forces underlying a "pure, '' Platonic "ideal '' of war. In what he called a "logical fantasy, '' war can not be waged in a limited way: the rules of competition will force participants to use all means at their disposal to achieve victory. But in the real world, he said, such rigid logic is unrealistic and dangerous. As a practical matter, the military objectives in real war that support political objectives generally fall into two broad types: "war to achieve limited aims ''; and war to "disarm '' the enemy, "to render (him) politically helpless or militarily impotent. '' Thus the complete defeat of the enemy may not be necessary, desirable, or even possible.
In modern times the reconstruction of Clausewitzian theory has been a matter of much dispute. One analysis was that of Panagiotis Kondylis, a Greek - German writer and philosopher, who opposed the interpretations of Raymond Aron in Penser la Guerre, Clausewitz, and other liberal writers. According to Aron, Clausewitz was one of the first writers to condemn the militarism of the Prussian general staff and its war - proneness, based on Clausewitz 's argument that "war is a continuation of politics by other means. '' In Theory of War, Kondylis claims that this is inconsistent with Clausewitzian thought. He claims that Clausewitz was morally indifferent to war (though this probably reflects a lack of familiarity with personal letters from Clausewitz, which demonstrate an acute awareness of war 's tragic aspects) and that his advice regarding politics ' dominance over the conduct of war has nothing to do with pacifist ideas. For Clausewitz, war is simply one unique means that is sometimes applied to the eternal quest for power, of raison d'État in an anarchic and unsafe world.
Other notable writers who have studied Clausewitz 's texts and translated them into English are historians Peter Paret of the Institute for Advanced Study and Sir Michael Howard, and the philosopher, musician, and game theorist Anatol Rapoport. Howard and Paret edited the most widely used edition of On War (Princeton University Press, 1976 / 1984) and have produced comparative studies of Clausewitz and other theorists, such as Tolstoy. Bernard Brodie 's A Guide to the Reading of "On War '', in the 1976 Princeton translation, expressed his interpretations of the Prussian 's theories and provided students with an influential synopsis of this vital work.
The British military historian John Keegan attacked Clausewitz 's theory in his book A History of Warfare. Keegan argued that Clausewitz assumed the existence of states, yet ' war antedates the state, diplomacy and strategy by many millennia. '
Clausewitz died without completing On War, but despite this his ideas have been widely influential in military theory and have had a strong influence on German military thought specifically. Later Prussian and German generals, such as Helmuth Graf von Moltke, were clearly influenced by Clausewitz: Moltke 's widely quoted statement that "No campaign plan survives first contact with the enemy '' is a classic reflection of Clausewitz 's insistence on the roles of chance, friction, "fog, '' uncertainty, and interactivity in war.
Clausewitz 's influence spread to British thinking as well, though at first more as a historian and analyst than as a theorist. See for example Wellington 's extended essay discussing Clausewitz 's study of the Campaign of 1815 -- Wellington 's only serious written discussion of the battle, which was widely discussed in 19th - century Britain. Clausewitz 's broader thinking came to the fore following Britain 's military embarrassments in the Boer War (1899 -- 1902). One example of a heavy Clausewitzian influence in that era is Spenser Wilkinson, journalist, the first Chichele Professor of Military History at Oxford University, and perhaps the most prominent military analyst in Britain from c. 1885 until well into the interwar period. Another is naval historian Julian Corbett (1854 -- 1922), whose work reflected a deep if idiosyncratic adherence to Clausewitz 's concepts and frequently an emphasis on Clausewitz 's ideas about ' limited war ' and the inherent strengths of the defensive form of war. Corbett 's practical strategic views were often in prominent public conflict with Wilkinson 's -- see, for example, Wilkinson 's article "Strategy at Sea, '' The Morning Post, 12 February 1912. Following the First World War, however, the influential British military commentator B.H. Liddell Hart in the 1920s erroneously attributed to him the doctrine of "total war '' that during the First World War had been embraced by many European general staffs and emulated by the British. More recent scholars typically see that war as so confused in terms of political rationale that it in fact contradicts much of On War. One of the most influential British Clausewitzians today is Colin S. Gray; historian Hew Strachan (like Wilkinson also the Chichele Professor of Military History at Oxford University, since 2001) has been an energetic proponent of the study of Clausewitz, but his own views on Clausewitz 's ideas are somewhat ambivalent.
With some interesting exceptions (e.g., John McAuley Palmer, Robert M. Johnston, Hoffman Nickerson), Clausewitz had little influence on American military thought before 1945 other than via British writers, though Generals Eisenhower and Patton were avid readers. He did influence Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky and Mao Zedong, and thus the Communist Soviet and Chinese traditions, as Lenin emphasized the inevitability of wars among capitalist states in the age of imperialism and presented the armed struggle of the working class as the only path toward the eventual elimination of war. Because Lenin was an admirer of Clausewitz and called him "one of the great military writers '', his influence on the Red Army was immense. The Russian historian A.N. Mertsalov commented that "It was an irony of fate that the view in the USSR was that it was Lenin who shaped the attitude towards Clausewitz, and that Lenin 's dictum that war is a continuation of politics is taken from the work of this (allegedly) anti-humanist anti-revolutionary. '' The American mathematician Anatol Rapoport wrote in 1968 that Clausewitz as interpreted by Lenin formed the basis of all Soviet military thinking since 1917, and quoted the remarks by Marshal V.D. Sokolovsky:
In describing the essence of war, Marxism - Leninism takes as its point of departure the premise that war is not an aim in itself, but rather a tool of politics. In his remarks on Clausewitz 's On War, Lenin stressed that "Politics is the reason, and war is only the tool, not the other way around. Consequently, it remains only to subordinate the military point of view to the political ''.
Henry A. Kissinger, however, described Lenin 's approach as being that politics is a continuation of war by other means, thus turning Clausewitz 's argument "on its head. ''
Rapoport argued that:
As for Lenin 's approval of Clausewitz, it probably stems from his obsession with the struggle for power. The whole Marxist conception of history is that of successive struggles for power, primarily between social classes. This was constantly applied by Lenin in a variety of contexts. Thus the entire history of philosophy appears in Lenin 's writings as a vast struggle between "idealism '' and "materialism ''. The fate of the socialist movement was to be decided by a struggle between the revolutionists and the reformers. Clausewitz 's acceptance of the struggle for power as the essence of international politics must had impressed Lenin as starkly realistic.
Clausewitz directly influenced Mao Zedong, who read On War in 1938 and organized a seminar on Clausewitz for the Party leadership in Yan'an. Thus the "Clausewitzian '' content in many of Mao 's writings is not merely a regurgitation of Lenin but reflects Mao 's own in - depth study. The idea that war involves inherent "friction '' that distorts, to a greater or lesser degree, all prior arrangements, has become common currency in fields such as business strategy and sport. The phrase fog of war derives from Clausewitz 's stress on how confused warfare can seem while immersed within it. The term center of gravity, used in a military context derives from Clausewitz 's usage, which he took from Newtonian Mechanics. In U.S. military doctrine, "center of gravity '' refers to the basis of an opponent 's power at the operational, strategic, or political level, though this is only one aspect of Clausewitz 's use of the term.
The deterrence strategy of the United States in the 1950s was closely inspired by President Dwight Eisenhower 's reading of Clausewitz as a young officer in the 1920s. Eisenhower was greatly impressed by Clausewitz 's example of a theoretical, idealized "absolute war '' in Vom Krieg as a way of demonstrating how absurd it would be to attempt such a strategy in practice. For Eisenhower, the age of nuclear weapons had made what was for Clausewitz in the early 19th century only a theoretical vision an all too real possibility in the mid-20th century. From Eisenhower 's viewpoint, the best deterrent to war was to show the world just how appalling and horrific a nuclear "absolute war '' would be if it should ever occur, hence a series of much publicized nuclear tests in the Pacific, giving first priority in the defense budget to nuclear weapons and delivery systems over conventional weapons, and making repeated statements in public that the United States was able and willing at all times to use nuclear weapons. In this way through the Massive retaliation doctrine and the closely related foreign policy concept of Brinkmanship, Eisenhower hoped to hold out a creditable vision of Clausewitzian nuclear "absolute war '' in order to deter the Soviet Union and / or China from ever risking a war or even conditions that might lead to a war with the United States.
After 1970, some theorists claimed that nuclear proliferation made Clausewitzian concepts obsolete after the 20th - century period in which they dominated the world. John E. Sheppard, Jr., argues that by developing nuclear weapons, state - based conventional armies simultaneously both perfected their original purpose, to destroy a mirror image of themselves, and made themselves obsolete. No two powers have used nuclear weapons against each other, instead using conventional means or proxy wars to settle disputes. If such a conflict did occur, presumably both combatants would be annihilated. Heavily influenced by the war in Vietnam and by antipathy to American strategist Henry Kissinger, the American biologist, musician, and game - theorist Anatol Rapoport argued in 1968 that a Clausewitzian view of war was not only obsolete in the age of nuclear weapons, but also highly dangerous as it promoted a "zero - sum paradigm '' to international relations and a "dissolution of rationality '' amongst decision - makers.
The end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century have seen many instances of state armies attempting to suppress insurgencies, terrorism, and other forms of asymmetrical warfare. Clausewitz did not focus solely on wars between countries with well - defined armies. The era of the French Revolution and Napoleon was full of revolutions, rebellions, and violence by "non-state actors '', such as the wars in the French Vendée and in Spain. Clausewitz wrote a series of "Lectures on Small War '' and studied the rebellion in the Vendée (1793 -- 1796) and the Tyrolean uprising of 1809. In his famous "Bekenntnisdenkschrift '' of 1812, he called for a "Spanish war in Germany '' and laid out a comprehensive guerrilla strategy to be waged against Napoleon. In On War he included a famous chapter on "The People in Arms. ''
One prominent critic of Clausewitz is the Israeli military historian Martin van Creveld. In his book The Transformation of War, Creveld argued that Clausewitz 's famous "Trinity '' of people, army, and government was an obsolete socio - political construct based on the state, which was rapidly passing from the scene as the key player in war, and that he (Creveld) had constructed a new "non-trinitarian '' model for modern warfare. Creveld 's work has had great influence. Daniel Moran replied, ' The most egregious misrepresentation of Clausewitz 's famous metaphor must be that of Martin van Creveld, who has declared Clausewitz to be an apostle of Trinitarian War, by which he means, incomprehensibly, a war of ' state against state and army against army, ' from which the influence of the people is entirely excluded. '' Christopher Bassford went further, noting that one need only read the paragraph in which Clausewitz defined his Trinity to see "that the words ' people, ' ' army, ' and ' government ' appear nowhere at all in the list of the Trinity 's components... Creveld 's and Keegan 's assault on Clausewitz 's Trinity is not only a classic ' blow into the air, ' i.e., an assault on a position Clausewitz does n't occupy. It is also a pointless attack on a concept that is quite useful in its own right. In any case, their failure to read the actual wording of the theory they so vociferously attack, and to grasp its deep relevance to the phenomena they describe, is hard to credit. ''
Some have gone further and suggested that Clausewitz 's best - known aphorism, that war is a continuation of policy by other means, is not only irrelevant today but also inapplicable historically. For an opposing view see the sixteen essays presented in Clausewitz in the Twenty - First Century edited by Hew Strachan and Andreas Herberg - Rothe.
In military academies, schools, and universities worldwide, Clausewitz 's literature is often mandatory reading.
Literature
Film
Video games
August Otto Rühle von Lilienstern -- Prussian officer from whom Clausewitz allegedly took, without acknowledgment, several important ideas (including that about war as pursuing political aims) made famous in On War. However, such ideas as Clausewitz and Lilienstern shared in common derived from a common influence, i.e., Scharnhorst, who was Clausewitz 's "second father '' and professional mentor.
Informational notes
Citations
Further reading
|
perry como it's beginning to look like christmas | It 's Beginning to Look a Lot Like Christmas - Wikipedia
"It 's Beginning to Look a Lot Like Christmas '' is a Christmas song written in 1951 by Meredith Willson. The song was originally titled "It 's Beginning to Look Like Christmas ''. The song has been recorded by many artists, but was a hit for Perry Como and The Fontane Sisters with Mitchell Ayres & His Orchestra on September 10, 1951, and released on RCA Victor as 47 - 4314 (45 rpm) and 20 - 4314 (78 rpm). Bing Crosby recorded a version on October 1, 1951, which was also widely played.
A popular belief in Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, holds that Willson wrote the song while staying in Yarmouth 's Grand Hotel. The song makes reference to a "tree in the Grand Hotel, one in the park as well... ''; the park being Frost Park, directly across the road from the Grand Hotel, which still operates in a newer building on the same site as the old hotel.
It is also possible that the "Grand Hotel '' Wilson mentions in the song was inspired by the Historic Park Inn Hotel in his hometown of Mason City, Iowa. The Park Inn Hotel is the last remaining hotel in the world designed by architect Frank Lloyd Wright, and is situated in downtown Mason City overlooking central park.
"It 's Beginning to Look a Lot Like Christmas '' was later incorporated into the pre-Broadway version of the score of Willson 's 1963 musical Here 's Love and can be heard on that show 's original cast recording, where it is sung in counterpoint to a new melody and lyric, "Pine Cones and Holly Berries. ''
Alvin and the Chipmunks covered the song for their 1961 album Christmas with The Chipmunks and 1981 album A Chipmunk Christmas.
The Sesame Street character Big Bird (performed by Caroll Spinney) sang the song as part of medley on the 1975 album Merry Christmas from Sesame Street.
Johnny Mathis recorded the song for his 1986 album Christmas Eve with Johnny Mathis; this version gained popularity after its inclusion in the 1992 film Home Alone 2: Lost in New York. Gradually, Mathis 's recording began to receive wide radio airplay, and for the past several years this version has been a Top 10 Christmas hit.
"It 's Beginning to Look a Lot Like Christmas '' is featured in the DVD version of Very Merry Christmas Songs, which is part of the Disney Sing - Along Songs franchise.
The song was briefly featured in the 2003 film Duplex, in a scene showing how much Alex and Nancy had to sell in order to obtain enough money for a hired hitman.
|
who shows up drunk to the wedding party in oklahoma | Oklahoma! - Wikipedia
Oklahoma! is the first musical written by the team of composer Richard Rodgers and librettist Oscar Hammerstein II. The musical is based on Lynn Riggs ' 1931 play, Green Grow the Lilacs. Set in Oklahoma Territory outside the town of Claremore in 1906, it tells the story of cowboy Curly McLain and his romance with farm girl Laurey Williams. A secondary romance concerns cowboy Will Parker and his flirtatious fiancée, Ado Annie.
The original Broadway production opened on March 31, 1943. It was a box - office smash and ran for an unprecedented 2,212 performances, later enjoying award - winning revivals, national tours, foreign productions and an Academy Award - winning 1955 film adaptation. It has long been a popular choice for school and community productions. Rodgers and Hammerstein won a special Pulitzer Prize for Oklahoma! in 1944.
This musical, building on the innovations of the earlier Show Boat, epitomized the development of the "book musical '', a musical play where the songs and dances are fully integrated into a well - made story with serious dramatic goals that are able to evoke genuine emotions other than laughter. In addition, Oklahoma! features musical themes, or motifs, that recur throughout the work to connect the music and story. A fifteen - minute "dream ballet '' reflects Laurey 's struggle with her feelings about two men, Curly and Jud.
By the early 1940s, Rodgers and Hammerstein were each well known for creating Broadway hits with other collaborators. Rodgers, with Lorenz Hart, had produced over two dozen musicals since the 1920s, including such popular successes as Babes in Arms (1937), The Boys from Syracuse (1938) and Pal Joey (1940). Among other successes, Hammerstein had written the words for Rose - Marie (1924), The Desert Song (1926), The New Moon (1927) and Show Boat (1927). Though less productive in the 1930s, he wrote musicals, songs and films, sharing an Academy Award for his song with Jerome Kern, "The Last Time I Saw Paris '', which was included in the 1941 film Lady Be Good. By the early 1940s, Hart had sunk into alcoholism and emotional turmoil, and he became unreliable, prompting Rodgers to approach Hammerstein to ask if he would consider working with him.
In 1931, the Theatre Guild produced Lynn Riggs 's Green Grow the Lilacs, a play about settlers in Oklahoma 's Indian Territory. Though the play was not successful, ten years later in 1941, Theresa Helburn, one of the Guild 's producers, saw a summer - stock production supplemented with traditional folk songs and square dances and decided the play could be the basis of a musical that might revive the struggling Guild. She contacted Richard Rodgers and Lorenz Hart, whose first successful collaboration, The Garrick Gaieties, had been produced by the Theatre Guild in 1925. Rodgers wanted to work on the project and obtained the rights for himself and Hart. Rodgers had asked Oscar Hammerstein II to collaborate with him and Hart. During the tryouts of Rodgers and Hart 's By Jupiter in 1941, Hammerstein had assured Rodgers that if Hart was ever unable to work, he would be willing to take his place. Coincidentally in 1942, Hammerstein had thought of musicalizing Green Grow the Lilacs, but when he had approached Jerome Kern about it, the latter declined. Hammerstein learned that Rodgers was seeking someone to write the book, and he eagerly took the opportunity. Hart lost interest in the musical; he preferred contemporary, urbane shows that would showcase his witty lyric writing, and he found the farmers and cowhands in Green Grow the Lilacs corny and uninspiring. Moreover, spiraling downward, consumed by his longstanding alcoholism, Hart no longer felt like writing. He embarked on a vacation to Mexico, advising Rodgers that Hammerstein would be a good choice of a new collaborator.
This partnership allowed both Rodgers and Hammerstein to follow their preferred writing methods: Hammerstein preferred to write a complete lyric before it was set to music, and Rodgers preferred to set completed lyrics to music. In Rodgers ' previous collaborations with Hart, Rodgers had always written the music first, since the unfocused Hart needed something on which to base his lyrics. Hammerstein 's previous collaborators included composers Rudolf Friml, Herbert Stothart, Vincent Youmans, and Kern, who all wrote music first, for which Hammerstein then wrote lyrics. The role reversal in the Rodgers and Hammerstein partnership permitted Hammerstein to craft the lyrics into a fundamental part of the story so that the songs could amplify and intensify the story instead of diverting it. As Rodgers and Hammerstein began developing the new musical, they agreed that their musical and dramatic choices would be dictated by the source material, Green Grow the Lilacs, not by musical comedy conventions. Musicals of that era featured big production numbers, novelty acts, and show - stopping specialty dances; the libretti typically focused on humor, with little dramatic development, punctuated with songs that effectively halted the story for their duration.
Between the world wars, roles in musicals were usually filled by actors who could sing, but Rodgers and Hammerstein chose, conversely, to cast singers who could act. Though Theresa Helburn, codirector of the Theatre Guild, suggested Shirley Temple as Laurey and Groucho Marx as Ali Hakim, Rodgers and Hammerstein, with director Rouben Mamoulian 's support, insisted that performers more dramatically appropriate for the roles be cast. As a result, there were no stars in the production, another unusual step. The production was choreographed by Agnes de Mille (her first time choreographing a musical on Broadway), who provided one of the show 's most notable and enduring features: a 15 - minute first - act ballet finale (often referred to as the dream ballet) depicting Laurey 's struggle to evaluate her suitors, Jud and Curly.
The first title given to the work was Away We Go! which opened for out - of - town - tryouts in New Haven 's Shubert Theatre on March 11, 1943. Expectations for the show were low; Hammerstein had written six flops in a row, and the show had no star power. Producer Mike Todd walked out after the first act during the tryout and wisecracked, "No legs, no jokes, no chance. '' But Rodgers and Hammerstein were confident. The New Haven and Boston audiences were enthusiastic, although the reviews were only fair. Of the changes made before the show went to Broadway, two would prove significant: the addition of the show - stopping musical number, "Oklahoma! '' and the decision to retitle the musical after that number.
Todd had been wrong; the show opened on Broadway to raves from the critics, sold out, and won a special Pulitzer Prize. Brooks Atkinson wrote in The New York Times that the show 's opening number, "Oh, What a Beautiful Mornin ' '' changed the history of musical theater: "After a verse like that, sung to a buoyant melody, the banalities of the old musical stage became intolerable. '' The New York Post was the only major paper to give Oklahoma! a mixed review. Its critic felt that while the songs were pleasant enough, they sounded much alike. The show 's creativity stimulated Rodgers and Hammerstein 's contemporaries and ushered in the "Golden Age '' of American musical theatre.
In Oklahoma territory in 1906, cowboy Curly McLain looks forward to the beautiful day ahead as he wanders into farm girl Laurey Williams 's yard ("Oh, What a Beautiful Mornin ' ''). He and Laurey tease each other, while her Aunt Eller looks on. There will be a box social dance that night, which includes an auction of lunch baskets prepared by the local women to raise funds for a schoolhouse. The man who wins each basket will eat the lunch with the lady who prepared it. Curly asks Laurey to go with him, but she refuses, feeling that he has waited too long. He attempts to persuade her by telling her that he will take her in the finest carriage money can buy ("The Surrey with the Fringe on Top ''), but she teases him about it until he says he made it up to get back at her. She flounces off, not realizing that he really has rented such a rig.
The lonely, disturbed farm hand Jud Fry has become obsessed with Laurey and asks her to the dance. She accepts to spite Curly, although she is afraid of Jud. Meanwhile, cowboy Will Parker returns bedazzled and souvenir - laden from a trip to modern Kansas City ("Kansas City ''). He won $50 at the fair, which, according to his girlfriend Ado Annie 's father, Andrew Carnes, is the money he needs to marry Ado Annie. Unfortunately, he spent all the money on gifts for her. Will also purchased a "Little Wonder '' (a metal tube used for looking at pictures, but with a hidden blade inside) for Ado Annie 's father, unaware of its deadly secret. Later, Ado Annie confesses to Laurey that while Will has been away, she has been spending a lot of time with Ali Hakim, a Persian peddler. Laurey tells her she 'll have to choose between them, but Ado Annie insists she loves them both ("I Cai n't Say No ''). Laurey and her friends prepare for the social, while Gertie Cummings flirts with Curly (her obnoxious laugh floating in to taunt Laurey). Laurey tells her friends that she does n't really care about Curly ("Many a New Day '').
Andrew Carnes discovers Annie with Ali Hakim. After questioning Ado Annie about their relationship, he forces Hakim at gunpoint to agree to marry her. Hakim and the other men lament the unfairness of the situation ("It 's a Scandal! It 's a Outrage! ''). Curly discovers that Laurey is going to the box social with Jud and tries to convince her to go with him instead. Afraid to tell Jud she wo n't go with him, Laurey tries to convince Curly (and herself) that she does not love him ("People Will Say We 're in Love ''). Hurt by her refusal, Curly goes to the smokehouse where Jud lives to talk with him. Curly suggests that since Jud does not feel appreciated, he could hang himself, and everyone would realize how much they care about him ("Pore Jud Is Daid ''). Their talk turns into an ominous confrontation about Laurey. After Curly leaves, Jud 's resolve to win Laurey becomes even stronger, and he vows to make her his bride ("Lonely Room '').
Confused by her feelings for Curly and her fear of Jud, Laurey purchases a "magic potion '' (referred to as smelling salts, but actually laudanum) from Ali Hakim, which the unscrupulous peddler guarantees will reveal her true love. She muses on leaving her dreams of love behind and joining the man she loves ("Out of My Dreams ''), then falls asleep under the influence of the opiate ("Dream Sequence ''). In an extended dream ballet sequence, Laurey first dreams of what marriage to Curly would be like. Her dream takes a nightmarish turn when Jud appears and kills Curly. She can not escape him, confused by her desires. The dream makes her realize that Curly is the right man for her, but it is too late to change her mind about going to the dance with Jud; he has come for her, and they leave for the box social.
At the social, during an upbeat square dance ("The Farmer and the Cowman ''), the rivalry between the local farmers and cowboys over fences and water rights has led to fighting, which Aunt Eller ends by firing a gun to silence everyone. Laurey is upset when she sees Curly at the dance with Gertie. In an effort to rid himself of Ado Annie, Ali Hakim buys Will 's souvenirs from Kansas City for $50. Jud also contributes to this by purchasing Will 's Little Wonder, knowing of the blade concealed within it. The auction starts and Will bids $50 on Ado Annie 's basket, not realizing that without the $50, he would no longer have the money her father insisted he needs to "purchase '' marriage with her. Desperate to be rid of Ado Annie, the peddler bids $51 to get the basket so that Will can approach Andrew Carnes with the $50 and claim Ado Annie as his bride. The auction becomes much more serious when Laurey 's basket comes up for auction. Jud has saved all his money so he can win Laurey 's basket. Various men bid, trying to protect Laurey, but Jud outbids them all. Curly and Jud engage in a ferocious bidding war, and Curly sells his saddle, his horse, and even his gun to raise money. Curly outbids Jud and wins the basket. Jud discreetly tries to kill Curly with the Little Wonder, but his plan is foiled when Aunt Eller (knowing what is happening) loudly asks Curly for a dance. Later that night, Will and Annie work out their differences, as she reluctantly agrees not to flirt with other men ("All Er Nuthin ' '').
Jud confronts Laurey about his feelings for her. When she admits that she does not return them, he threatens her. She then fires him as her farm hand, screaming at him to get off her property. Jud furiously threatens Laurey before he departs; Laurey bursts into tears and calls for Curly. She tells him that she has fired Jud and is frightened by what Jud might do now. Curly, seeing that she has turned to him for guidance and safety, reassures her and proposes to her, and she accepts ("People Will Say We 're In Love (Reprise) ''). He then realizes that he must now become a farmer. Afterwards, Ali Hakim decides to leave the territory and bids Ado Annie goodbye after telling her Will is the man she should marry.
Three weeks later, Laurey and Curly are married and everyone rejoices in celebration of the territory 's impending statehood ("Oklahoma! ''). During the celebration, Ali Hakim returns with his new wife, Gertie, whom he unwillingly married after being threatened by her father with a shotgun. A drunken Jud reappears, harasses Laurey by kissing her and attacks Curly with a knife. As Curly dodges a blow, Jud falls on his own knife and soon dies. The wedding guests hold a makeshift trial for Curly, at Aunt Eller 's urging, as the couple is due to leave for their honeymoon. The judge, Andrew Carnes, declares the verdict: "not guilty! '' Curly and Laurey depart on their honeymoon in the surrey with the fringe on top ("Finale Ultimo '').
° denotes original Broadway cast
The original Broadway production opened on March 31, 1943 at the St. James Theatre in New York City. It was directed by Rouben Mamoulian and choreographed by Agnes de Mille. It starred Alfred Drake (Curly), Joan Roberts (Laurey), Celeste Holm (Ado Annie), Howard Da Silva (Jud Fry), Betty Garde (Aunt Eller), Lee Dixon (Will Parker), Joseph Buloff (Ali Hakim), Jane Lawrence (Gertie), Barry Kelley (Ike) and George S. Irving (Joe). Marc Platt danced the role of "Dream Curly '', Katharine Sergava danced the part of "Dream Laurey '' and the small dancing part of Aggie was played by Bambi Linn. George Church danced the part of "Dream Jud '' but was replaced by Vladimir Kostenko only two months after the premiere.
The production ran for 2,212 performances, finally closing on May 29, 1948. "The demand for tickets was unprecedented as the show became more popular in the months that followed '' the opening. Oklahoma! ran for over five years, a Broadway record that "would not be bested until My Fair Lady (1956). '' The Tony Awards and other awards now given for achievement in musical theatre were not in existence in 1943, and therefore the original production of Oklahoma! received no theatrical awards.
The "first of several '' national tours began in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1944. A 1953 article in The New York Times reported that the show was "believed to be the only musical to have enjoyed a consecutive run of ten years. It ran on Broadway for five years and two months, grossing $7,000,000. The tour of the national company, which started late in 1943, has grossed $15,000,000. '' John Raitt played Curly in the original production in Chicago. The United Service Organizations sponsored a tour to U.S. military bases in 1945 that lasted for several years. The New York Times reported:
The tenth anniversary of the Broadway opening of Oklahoma! will be celebrated in Washington, where the Theatre Guild 's touring company of the phenomenal musical will be playing at that time... According to a Guild estimate, "upwards of 20,000,000 people thus far have seen the show in the United States, England, Sweden, Denmark, South Africa, Australia and through (the U.S.O. shows) during the war ''.
Oklahoma! was the first of a post-war wave of Broadway musicals to reach London 's West End. It starred Howard Keel (then known as Harold Keel) and Betty Jane Watson, opening at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane on April 30, 1947 to rave press reviews and sellout houses, running for 1,543 performances. A pre-London run opened a day late at the Manchester Opera House on April 18, 1947, after the ship carrying the cast, scenery, and costumes ran aground on a sandbank off Southampton.
A 1951 revival produced by the Theatre Guild opened at The Broadway Theatre on May 9, 1951, and ran for 100 performances. Ridge Bond played Curly, Patricia Northrop played Laurey, Henry Clarke was Jud, and Jacqueline Sundt played Ado Annie. Mamoulian and de Mille returned to direct and choreograph, and the production was restaged by Jerome Whyte. In 1953, a 10th anniversary revival opened on August 31 at the New York City Center Theatre. It ran for a limited engagement of 40 performances before going on tour. The cast included Florence Henderson as Laurey, Ridge Bond as Curly and Barbara Cook as Annie. Mamoulian and De Mille directed and choreographed.
A 1979 revival opened at the Palace Theatre on Broadway on December 13, 1979 and closed on August 24, 1980, running for 293 performances and nine previews. William Hammerstein (Oscar 's son) directed, and Gemze de Lappe recreated Agnes De Mille 's choreography. The show starred Christine Andreas as Laurey, Laurence Guittard as Curly, Mary Wickes as Aunt Eller, Christine Ebersole as Ado Annie, Martin Vidnovic as Jud Fry, Harry Groener as Will Parker and Bruce Adler as Ali Hakim. Andreas and Groener both received Tony Award nominations for their performances, and Vidnovic won a Drama Desk Award. This production started as a cross-country national tour, beginning at the Pantages Theater in Los Angeles on May 1, 1979.
The following year, James Hammerstein directed a production at the Haymarket Theatre, Leicester, in January 1980, produced by Cameron Mackintosh. The De Mille choreography was again adapted by de Lappe. A UK tour followed, and it eventually settled in the West End, opening at the Palace Theatre, London, on September 17, 1980, and running until September 19, 1981. This production starred John Diedrich as Curly and Alfred Molina as Jud Fry, both of whom were nominated for Olivier Awards. Rosamund Shelley played Laurey, and Madge Ryan was Aunt Eller. The production was Maria Friedman 's debut in the West End, initially in the chorus role of Doris, but she was eventually promoted to the leading role. John Owen Edwards was the musical director. He would later reprise his work for Mackintosh 's 1998 London revival. A cast recording of this production was issued by JAY Records and on the Showtime! label.
A new production of the musical was presented by the National Theatre in London at the Olivier Theatre, opening on July 15, 1998. The production team included Trevor Nunn (director), Susan Stroman (choreographer) and William David Brohn (orchestrator). The international cast included Hugh Jackman as Curly, Maureen Lipman as Aunt Eller, Josefina Gabrielle as Laurey, Shuler Hensley as Jud Fry, Vicki Simon as Ado Annie, Peter Polycarpou as Ali Hakim and Jimmy Johnston as Will Parker. Musical director John Owen Edwards, Brohn and dance arranger David Krane adapted Robert Russell Bennett 's original orchestrations and extended some of the dance sequences. A brand new Dream Ballet was composed for Susan Stroman 's new choreography and the dances to "Kansas City '', "Many a New Day '' and "The Farmer and the Cowman '' were all radically redesigned. The overture was also altered, at the request of Nunn.
The production received numerous Olivier Award nominations, winning for Outstanding Musical Production, supporting actor (Hensley), set design (Anthony Ward) and choreography (Stroman). According to the Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization, the limited engagement was a sell - out and broke all previous box office records, and so the show was transferred to the Lyceum Theatre in the West End for a six - month run. Plans to transfer to Broadway with the London cast were thwarted by Actors ' Equity, which insisted that American actors must be cast. Eventually a U.S. cast was selected. The production was filmed and issued on DVD, as well as being broadcast on U.S. Public Television in November 2003.
The London production was repeated on Broadway at the George Gershwin Theatre on March 21, 2002, with direction by Nunn. The production closed on February 23, 2003 after 388 performances. Only two of the London cast, Josefina Gabrielle as Laurey and Shuler Hensley as Jud, were in the production, which also featured Patrick Wilson as Curly and Andrea Martin as Aunt Eller. It was nominated for seven Tony Awards, including Best Revival of a Musical, Best Featured Actress in a Musical and Best Featured Actor in a Musical (which was awarded to Hensley). The musical was also nominated for nine Drama Desk Awards, with Hensley winning as Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical and Susan Stroman winning for choreography.
Ben Brantley wrote in The New York Times: "At its best, which is usually when it 's dancing, this resurrection of Rodgers and Hammerstein 's epochal show is dewy with an adolescent lustiness, both carnal and naive, exuberant and confused. '' The review stated that "Anthony Ward 's harmoniously curved set, in which the sky seems to stretch into eternity, again pulses with the promise of a land on the verge of transformation. '' The New York Daily News review commented that "Visually, this one is stunning -- at times, Anthony Ward 's sets have a pastoral, idyllic quality, like Thomas Hart Benton 's paintings. At other times, especially in lighting designer David Hersey 's lustrous palette, they convey the bleakness of the frontier. '' The review also stated that the Royal National Theatre "brought it back to us in a way that makes it seem fresh and vital. '' However, USA Today gave the production a tepid assessment, its reviewer writing that "A cold breeze blows through this beautiful mornin ', and that golden haze is never quite bright enough. '' The production went on to tour nationally from 2003 -- 2006.
Oklahoma! was presented nightly except Sundays each summer at the Discoveryland amphitheater, an outdoor theatre in Sand Springs, Oklahoma, from 1977 until 2011. In 1993, Mary Rodgers (daughter of Richard Rodgers) and William Hammerstein (son of Oscar Hammerstein II) designated Discoveryland the "National Home of Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Oklahoma! ''
In 2006, Oklahoma! was performed in Japan by the all - female Takarazuka Revue. This revival starred Yuu Todoroki, Ai Shirosaki, and Hiromu Kiriya.
In the summer of 2009, British director John Doyle directed the musical at the Chichester Festival Theatre. The production was dark in concept and featured new orchestrations by Jonathan Tunick. On a spare stage, decorated only with blue sheets, "Confetti of rose petals stains the floor like drops of blood, and a nightmarish dream - dance sequence has Freudian overtones as Laurey 's bridal gown becomes her shroud. '' It received mixed reviews. The Times reviewer wrote: "This is a very stylised, overdrilled production, no friend of intimate moments or quiet depth of emotion. '' The Guardian liked it the most, stating that "it 's a delight, with one brilliant tippy - tappy - toed song after another and a nugget of darkness lodged in its sweet heart. '' Whats On Stage, like most of the papers, gave the show three out of five stars and wrote that this is a "downbeat vision '' and that "all told it 's a somewhat disappointing show '', but their "average reader rating '' was four stars. A review in The Telegraph commented, "Doyle uses shadow and silhouette to bring out the musical 's nightmarish aspects but does n't over-labour them. There are enough sunny spots -- no more so than in Act 2 's rousing title song -- to keep the tone evenly textured. ''
The show toured England for nine months in 2010 in a new staging by Julian Woolford, with Marti Webb as Aunt Eller and Mark Evans as Curly.
Oklahoma! opened in October 2010 at the Arena Stage to critical acclaim. Artistic Director Molly Smith cast African - American actresses as Laurey and Aunt Eller to mirror both modern Washington, D.C. demographics and the diverse population of the musical 's 1906 Oklahoma territory setting. The production received ten 2011 Helen Hayes Award nominations, winning as Outstanding Resident Musical (tying with Shakespeare Theatre 's Candide) and for choreography (Parker Esse), lead actor (Nicholas Rodriguez as Curly) and musical direction (George Fulginiti - Shakar). The production returned to the Arena Stage for a second run in 2011.
The 5th Avenue Theatre 's 2012 production, directed by Peter Rothstein, included African - American dancers and an African - American actor as Jud. The choice was intended, as in the Arena Stage production, to reflect the historical presence of African Americans in the Oklahoma territory, but it "has some audience members squirming in their seats... they 're seeing on stage one of the ugliest stereotypes in our history: an imposing black man ravaging a petite white woman (and) the white hero... all but urges Jud to hang himself -- and even pantomimes the act. Some see a clear reference to lynching. '' The "Dream Ballet '' had a sinister, sexual tone and ended with Jud dragging Laurey away to be raped. One critic noted the historical "license taken when an African - American farmhand is allowed to escort a white woman to the box dance... Maybe some people... left with not so much a song in their head, but a question in their heart. And is n't that part of what theater is supposed to do? '' Another wrote: "Rothstein 's Oklahoma! is now the story of a crazy, sex obsessed black man... lusting violently after his white mistress, who ends up murdered at the hands of a white man, who gets off scot free after a mock trial. ''
A UK tour ran from February to August 2015, directed by Rachel Kavanaugh and starring Ashley Day as Curly, Charlotte Wakefield as Laurey, Belinda Lang as Aunt Eller and Gary Wilmot as Ali Hakim.
The 1955 film adaptation starred Gordon MacRae, Shirley Jones (in her film debut), Rod Steiger, Charlotte Greenwood, Gloria Grahame, Gene Nelson, James Whitmore and Eddie Albert. It was the only musical film directed by Fred Zinnemann, and Agnes de Mille choreographed. It was the first feature film photographed in the Todd - AO 70 mm widescreen process.
Rodgers and Hammerstein personally oversaw the film to prevent the studio from making the changes that were then typical of stage - to - film musical adaptations, such as interpolating new songs by others. The film followed the stage version more closely than any other Rodgers and Hammerstein stage - to - film adaptation, although it divided the long first scene into several shorter scenes, changing the locations of several of the songs. For example, "Kansas City '' is performed at the train station, where Aunt Eller and other cowboys meet Will Parker just after he returns from Kansas City. Lyrics in the song about a burlesque stripteaser were slightly changed to pass film censorship. In a nod to Green Grow the Lilacs, which was the basis of the musical, Jud attempts revenge on Curly and Laurey by burning a haystack they stand on, before Curly jumps down, landing on Jud and causing him to fall on his own knife. The film omits only "It 's a Scandal, It 's an Outrage '' and "Lonely Room ''. The film won Academy Awards for Best Music, Scoring of a Musical Picture and Best Sound, Recording.
Most of the songs from Oklahoma! were released on a record album by Decca Records in 1943 containing six 10 - inch double - sided discs in 78 RPM format. It was the first U.S. cast album featuring the original Broadway cast of a musical. It sold over a million copies, prompting the label to call the cast back into the studio to record three additional selections that had been left out of the first set. These were issued as Oklahoma! Volume Two. In 1949, Decca re-released the first set on LP but not the second set, which soon became a very rare collectors ' item. All subsequent LP releases were similarly incomplete. Finally in 2000, Decca Broadway went back to the original glass masters to generate a new high fidelity transfer of the complete song program and released it on CD, utilizing the original 78 album artwork.
The success of the original Oklahoma! cast album set a precedent for the production of original cast recordings of Broadway musicals, which became an essential part of a musical 's dissemination and endurance in popular culture. Later cast recordings of Oklahoma! include the 1979 Broadway revival cast recording, the 1980 London revival cast recording, the 1998 Royal National Theatre revival cast recording, and a soundtrack album of the 1955 film. There have also been more than 20 studio cast recordings of the show, featuring stars such as Nelson Eddy, John Raitt and Florence Henderson in the leading roles.
The original production of Oklahoma! was an unprecedented critical and popular success. John Anderson of the New York Journal American pronounced the musical "a beautiful and delightful show, fresh and imaginative, as enchanting to the eye as Richard Rodgers 's music is to the ear. It has, at a rough estimate, practically everything ''. In the New York Herald Tribune, Howard Barnes wrote, "Songs, dances, and a story have been triumphantly blended... The Richard Rodgers score is one of his best, and that is saying plenty. Oscar Hammerstein 2nd has written a dramatically imaginative libretto and a string of catchy lyrics; Agnes de Mille has worked small miracles in devising original dances to fit the story and the tunes, while Rouben Mamoulian has directed an excellent company with great taste and craftsmanship. '' Louis Kronenberger of PM opined that "Mr. Hammerstein 's lyrics have less crispness and wit than Lorenz Hart 's at their best, but the songs in Oklahoma! call for less sophisticated words, and Mr. Hammerstein has found very likeable ones. ''
In the New York Daily News, Burns Mantle declared that "Oklahoma! really is different -- beautifully different. With the songs that Richard Rodgers has fitted to a collection of unusually atmospheric and intelligible lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein 2nd, Oklahoma! seems to me to be the most thoroughly and attractively American musical comedy since Edna Ferber 's Show Boat ''. New York World - Telegram critic Burton Rascoe particularly emphasized the groundbreaking choreography, stating that "Richard Rodgers has written for the show one of the finest musical scores any musical play ever had. Next to Mr. Rodgers, however, must stand the amazing Agnes de Mille, whose choreography, carried out to perfection by her ballet (corps), is actually the biggest hit of the show. The "Out of My Dreams '' and "All Er Nuthin ' '' dances are such supreme aesthetic delights... They are spinetingling, out of this world. '' In The New York Sun, Ward Morehouse commented that "Oklahoma! is charming and leisurely. And tunely. And certainly not topical, '' as other shows had been in the early years of World War II. "It reveals Mr. Rodgers, shorn only for the moment of Larry Hart, in good form indeed. And nobody in last night 's audience seemed to have a better time than Mr. Hart himself, who applauded the proceedings from a seat in Row B. '' Lorenz Hart himself "pushed his way through the crowd at the after - show party in Sardi 's restaurant and threw his arms around his ex-partner, grinning from ear to ear. He told Rodgers he had never had a better evening at the theater in his life. ''
The only negative review of the musical appeared in the New York Post: The critic wrote that "it all seemed just a trifle too cute '', stating that the score consisted of "a flock of Mr. Rodgers 's songs that are pleasant enough, but still manage to sound quite a bit alike... without much variety in the presentation. '' She concluded that the show was "very picturesque in a studied fashion, reminding us that life on a farm is apt to become a little tiresome. ''
According to playwright and theatre writer Thomas Hischak, "Not only is ' Oklahoma! ' the most important of the Rodgers and Hammerstein musicals, it is also the single most influential work in the American musical theatre... It is the first fully integrated musical play and its blending of song, character, plot and even dance would serve as the model for Broadway shows for decades. '' William Zinsser observed that Oklahoma! broke the old "musical comedy conventions '', with the songs "delving into character '' and advancing the plot. The show "became a milestone, so that later historians writing about important moments in twentieth - century theatre would begin to identify eras according to their relationship to Oklahoma! '' Oklahoma! made Rodgers and Hammerstein "the most important contributors to the musical - play form... The examples they set in creating vital plays, often rich with social thought, provided the necessary encouragement for other gifted writers to create musical plays of their own ''.
Theater historian Ethan Mordden points out that, although Oklahoma! has been called "the first integrated musical, the first American folk musical '', Show Boat "got there first on both counts. '' Even earlier, the Princess Theatre musicals, following Gilbert and Sullivan and French opéra bouffe, began the reintegration of song and story after decades of thinly plotted British and American musicals, paving the way for Show Boat and Oklahoma! by showing that a musical could combine popular entertainment with continuity between its story and songs. These Princess Theatre shows, which featured modern American settings, "built and polished the mold from which almost all later major musical comedies evolved... The characters and situations were, within the limitations of musical comedy license, believable and the humor came from the situations or the nature of the characters. Kern 's exquisitely flowing melodies were employed to further the action or develop characterization. '' Mordden also notes that Oklahoma! was called the first great dance musical, but other musicals had earlier focused on dance, among them Gay Divorce and On Your Toes. He concludes: "But Oklahoma! was the first American musical with an ethnic sound, words and music entirely in the folk idiom. ''
Oklahoma! has frequently been quoted or parodied in films, television and other media. The following list includes some of the more notable references.
Films
Television
Other media
|
the black key to the right of g is called | Musical keyboard - wikipedia
A musical keyboard is the set of adjacent depressible levers or keys on a musical instrument. Keyboards typically contain keys for playing the twelve notes of the Western musical scale, with a combination of larger, longer keys and smaller, shorter keys that repeats at the interval of an octave. Depressing a key on the keyboard causes the instrument to produce sounds, either by mechanically striking a string or tine (piano, electric piano, clavichord), plucking a string (harpsichord), causing air to flow through a pipe (organ), striking a bell (carillon), or, on electric and electronic keyboards, completing a circuit (Hammond organ, digital piano, synthesizer). Since the most commonly encountered keyboard instrument is the piano, the keyboard layout is often referred to as the "piano keyboard ''.
The twelve notes of the Western musical scale are laid out with the lowest note on the left; The longer keys (for the seven "natural '' notes of the C major scale: C, D, E, F, G, A, B) jut forward. Because these keys were traditionally covered in ivory they are often called the white notes or white keys. The keys for the remaining five notes -- which are not part of the C major scale -- (i.e., C ♯ / D ♭, D ♯ / E ♭, F ♯ / G ♭, G ♯ / A ♭, A ♯ / B ♭) (see Sharp and Flat) are raised and shorter. Because these keys receive less wear, they are often made of black colored wood and called the black notes or black keys. The pattern repeats at the interval of an octave.
The arrangement of longer keys for C major with intervening, shorter keys for the intermediate semitones dates to the 15th century. Many keyboard instruments dating from before the nineteenth century, such as harpsichords and pipe organs, have a keyboard with the colours of the keys reversed: the white notes are made of ebony and the black notes are covered with softer white bone. A few electric and electronic instruments from the 1960s and subsequent decades have also done this; Vox 's electronic organs of the 1960s, Farfisa 's FAST portable organs, Hohner 's Clavinet L, one version of Korg 's Poly - 800 synthesizer and Roland 's digital harpsichords.
Some 1960s electronic organs used reverse colors or gray sharps or naturals to indicate the lower part (s) of a split keyboard: one divided into two parts, each of which produces a different registration or sound. Such keyboards allow melody and contrasting accompaniment to be played without the expense of a second manual and were a regular feature in Spanish and some English organs of the renaissance and baroque. The break was between middle C and C - sharp, or outside of Iberia between B and C. Broken keyboards reappeared in 1842 with the harmonium, the split occurring at E4 / F4.
The reverse - colored keys on Hammond organs such as the B3, C3 and A100 are latch - style radio buttons for selecting pre-set sounds.
The chromatic compass of keyboard instruments has tended to increase. Harpsichords often extended over five octaves (61 + keys) in the 18th century, while most pianos manufactured since about 1870 have 88 keys. Some modern pianos have even more notes (a Bösendorfer 225 has 92 and a Bösendorfer 290 "Imperial '' has 97 keys). While modern synthesizer keyboards commonly have either 61, 76 or 88 keys, small MIDI controllers are available with 25 notes. (Digital systems allow shifting octaves, pitch, and "splitting '' ranges dynamically, reducing the need for dedicated keys.) Organs normally have 61 keys per manual, though some spinet models have 44 or 49. An organ pedalboard is a keyboard with long pedals that are played by the organist 's feet. Pedalboards vary in size from 12 to 32 notes.
In a typical keyboard layout, black note keys have uniform width, and white note keys have uniform width and uniform spacing at the front of the keyboard. In the larger gaps between the black keys, the width of the natural notes C, D and E differ slightly from the width of keys F, G, A and B. This allows close to uniform spacing of 12 keys per octave while maintaining uniformity of seven "natural '' keys per octave.
Over the last three hundred years, the octave span distance found on historical keyboard instruments (organs, virginals, clavichords, harpsichords, and pianos) has ranged from as little as 125 mm to as much as 170 mm. Modern piano keyboards ordinarily have an octave span of 164 -- 165 mm; resulting in the width of black keys averaging 13.7 mm and white keys about 23.5 mm wide at the base, disregarding space between keys. Several reduced - size standards have been proposed and marketed. A 15 / 16 size (152 mm octave span) and the 7 / 8 DS Standard (140 mm octave span) keyboard developed by Christopher Donison in the 1970s and developed and marketed by Steinbuhler & Company. U.S. pianist Hannah Reimann has promoted piano keyboards with narrower octave spans and has a U.S. patent on the apparatus and methods for modifying existing pianos to provide interchangeable keyboards of different sizes.
There have been variations in the design of the keyboard to address technical and musical issues. The earliest designs of keyboards were based heavily on the notes used in Gregorian chant (the seven diatonic notes plus B - flat) and as such would often include B ♭ and B ♮ both as diatonic "white notes, '' with the B ♮ at the leftmost side of the keyboard and the B ♭ at the rightmost. Thus, an octave would have eight "white keys '' and only four "black keys. '' The emphasis on these eight notes would continue for a few centuries after the "seven and five '' system was adopted, in the form of the short octave: the eight aforementioned notes were arranged at the leftmost side of the keyboard, compressed in the keys between E and C (at the time, accidentals that low were very uncommon and thus not needed). During the sixteenth century, when instruments were often tuned in meantone temperament, some harpsichords were constructed with the G ♯ and E ♭ keys split into two. One portion of the G ♯ key operated a string tuned to G ♯ and the other operated a string tuned to A ♭, similarly one portion of the E ♭ key operated a string tuned to E ♭, the other portion operating a string tuned to D ♯. This type of keyboard layout, known as the enharmonic keyboard, extended the flexibility of the harpsichord, enabling composers to write keyboard music calling for harmonies containing the so - called wolf fifth (G - sharp to E-flat), but without producing aural discomfort in the listeners (see: Split sharp). The "broken octave, '' a variation of the aforementioned short octave, similarly used split keys to add accidentals left out of the short octave. Other examples of variations in keyboard design include the Jankó keyboard and the chromatic keyboard systems on the chromatic button accordion and bandoneón.
Simpler electronic keyboards have switches under each key. Depressing a key connects a circuit, which triggers tone generation. Most keyboards use a keyboard matrix circuit, in which eight rows and eight columns of wires cross -- thus, 16 wires can provide (8x8 =) 64 crossings, which the keyboard controller scans to determine which key was pressed. The problem with this system is that it provides only a crude binary on / off signal for each key. Better electronic keyboards employ two sets of switches for each key that are slightly offset. By determining the timing between the activation of the first and second switches, the velocity of a key press can be determined -- greatly improving the performance dynamic of a keyboard. The best electronic keyboards have dedicated circuits for each key, providing polyphonic aftertouch.
Advanced electronic keyboards may provide hundreds of key touch levels and have 88 keys, as most pianos do.
Despite their apparent similarity, keyboard instruments of different types require different techniques. The piano hammer mechanism produces a louder note the faster the key is pressed while the harpsichord 's plectrum mechanism does not perceptibly vary the volume of the note with different touch on the keyboard. The pipe organ 's volume and timbre are controlled by the flow of air from the bellows and the stops preselected by the player. Players of these instruments therefore use different techniques to color the sound. An arranger keyboard may be preset to produce any of a range of voices as well as percussion and other accompaniments that respond to chords played by the left hand.
Even though the keyboard layout is simple and all notes are easily accessible, playing requires skill. A proficient player has undertaken much training to play accurately and in tempo. Beginners seldom produce a passable rendition of even a simple piece due to lack of technique. The sequences of movements of the player 's hands can be very complicated. Problems include wide - spanned chords, which can be difficult for people with small hands, chords requiring unusual hand positions that can initially be uncomfortable, and fast scales, trills and arpeggios.
Playing instruments with velocity sensitive (or dynamic) keyboards (i.e., that respond to varying playing velocity) may require finger independence, so that some fingers play "harder '' while others play more softly. Keyboardists speak of playing harder and softer, or with more or less force. This may accurately describe the player 's experience -- but in the mechanics of the keyboard, velocity controls musical dynamics. The faster the player depresses the key, the louder the note. Players must learn to coordinate two hands and use them independently. Most music is written for two hands; typically the right hand plays the melody in the treble range, while the left plays an accompaniment of bass notes and chords in the bass range. Examples of music written for the left hand alone include several of Leopold Godowsky 's 53 Studies on Chopin 's Etudes, Maurice Ravel 's Piano Concerto for the Left Hand and Sergei Prokofiev 's Piano Concerto No. 4 for the left hand. In music that uses counterpoint technique, both hands play different melodies at the same time.
A number of percussion instruments share the keyboard layout, although they are not keyboard instruments with levers that are depressed to sound the notes. Instead, the performer of instruments such as the xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, and glockenspiel strikes the separate - sounding tone bar of metal or wood for each note using a mallet. These bars are laid out in the same configuration as a common keyboard.
There are some examples of a musical keyboard layout used for non-musical devices. For example, some of the earliest printing telegraph machines used a layout similar to a piano keyboard.
There are some rare variations of keyboards with more or fewer than 12 keys per octave, mostly used in microtonal music, after the discoveries and theoretical developments of musician and inventor Julián Carrillo (1875 -- 1965).
Some free - reed instrument keyboards such as accordions and Indian harmoniums include microtones. Electronic music pioneer Pauline Oliveros plays one of these. Egyptian belly - dance musicians like Hassam Ramzy use custom - tuned accordions so they can play traditional scales. The small Garmon accordion played in the Music of Azerbaijan sometimes has keys that can play microtones when a "shift '' key is pressed.
|
when will the 2018-19 nhl schedule be released | 2018 -- 19 NHL season - wikipedia
The 2018 -- 19 NHL season will be the 102nd season of operation (101st season of play) of the National Hockey League. 31 teams will be competing in an 82 - game regular season. The regular season is scheduled to begin in October 2018, and will end in April 2019. The 2019 Stanley Cup playoffs will then begin a few days afterwards, with the Stanley Cup Finals held in early June.
On December 9, 2017, the National Hockey League Players ' Association announced that the salary cap would be set at between $78 -- 82 million per team for the 2018 -- 19 season.
This is the eighth season under the NHL 's ten year U.S. rights deal with NBC Sports and fifth season of its twelve year Canadian rights deals with Sportsnet and TVA Sports. The CBC 's rights to air Hockey Night in Canada which was due to expire after last season was renewed through the end of the current Rogers deal.
The 2018 NHL Entry Draft will be held June 22 and 23, 2018. The Buffalo Sabres, by virtue of winning the draft lottery on April 28, hold the first overall selection.
Two preseason games will be played in China. The Calgary Flames and Boston Bruins will play one game at the Shenzhen Universiade Sports Center in Shenzhen on September 15, 2018 and another game at Cadillac Arena in Beijing on September 19, 2018.
The regular season will begin in October 2018, and will end in April 2019. Each team will receive a five - day "bye week '', all of which will take place in mid-January. The regular season schedule will be released in June.
Three regular season games will be played in Europe. The Edmonton Oilers will play against the New Jersey Devils at Scandinavium in Gothenburg, Sweden on October 6, 2018. The Florida Panthers and Winnipeg Jets will play two games at Hartwall Arena in Helsinki, Finland on November 1 and 2, 2018. All three games will be branded as the NHL Global Series.
The 64th National Hockey League All - Star Game will be held in San Jose, California, at SAP Center, home of the San Jose Sharks, on January 26, 2019, the first time it will be held on a Saturday after many years of the All - Star game being played on a Sunday.
|
what was the acropolis used for in athens | Acropolis of Athens - wikipedia
The Acropolis of Athens (Ancient Greek: Ἀκρόπολις, tr. Akrópolis; Modern Greek: Ακρόπολη Αθηνών, tr. Akrópoli Athenón (aˈkropoli aθiˈnon)) is an ancient citadel located on an extremely rocky outcrop above the city of Athens and contains the remains of several ancient buildings of great architectural and historic significance, the most famous being the Parthenon. The word acropolis comes from the Greek words ἄκρον (akron, "highest point, extremity '') and πόλις (polis, "city ''). Although there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as "The Acropolis '' without qualification.
While there is evidence that the hill was inhabited as far back as the fourth millennium BC, it was Pericles (c. 495 -- 429 BC) in the fifth century BC who coordinated the construction of the site 's most important buildings including the Parthenon, the Propylaia, the Erechtheion and the Temple of Athena Nike. The Parthenon and the other buildings were seriously damaged during the 1687 siege by the Venetians in the Morean War when gunpowder being stored in the Parthenon was hit by a cannonball and exploded.
The Acropolis is located on a flat - topped rock that rises 150 m (490 ft) above sea level in the city of Athens, with a surface area of about 3 hectares (7.4 acres). It was also known as Cecropia, after the legendary serpent - man, Cecrops, the first Athenian king. While the earliest artifacts date to the Middle Neolithic era, there have been documented habitations in Attica from the Early Neolithic (6th millennium BC). There is little doubt that a Mycenaean megaron stood upon the hill during the late Bronze Age. Nothing of this megaron survives except, probably, a single limestone column - base and pieces of several sandstone steps. Soon after the palace was constructed, a Cyclopean massive circuit wall was built, 760 meters long, up to 10 meters high, and ranging from 3.5 to 6 meters thick. This wall would serve as the main defense for the acropolis until the 5th century. The wall consisted of two parapets built with large stone blocks and cemented with an earth mortar called emplekton (Greek: ἔμπλεκτον). The wall follows typical Mycenaean convention in that it followed the natural contour of the terrain and its gate was arranged obliquely, with a parapet and tower overhanging the incomers ' right - hand side, thus facilitating defense. There were two lesser approaches up the hill on its north side, consisting of steep, narrow flights of steps cut in the rock. Homer is assumed to refer to this fortification when he mentions the "strong - built House of Erechtheus '' (Odyssey 7.81). At some point before the 13th century BC, an earthquake caused a fissure near the northeastern edge of the Acropolis. This fissure extended some 35 meters to a bed of soft marl in which a well was dug. An elaborate set of stairs was built and the well served as an invaluable, protected source of drinking water during times of siege for some portion of the Mycenaean period. There is no conclusive evidence for the existence of a Mycenean palace on top of the Athenian Acropolis. However, if there was such a palace, it seems to have been supplanted by later building activity.
Not a lot is known about the architectural appearance of the Acropolis until the Archaic era. In the 7th and the 6th centuries BC, the site was taken over by Kylon during the failed Kylonian revolt, and twice by Peisistratos: all attempts directed at seizing political power by coups d'état. Peisistratos built an entry gate or Propylaea and perhaps embarked on the construction of an earlier temple on the site of the Parthenon where fragments of sculptured limestone have been found as well as the foundations of a large unfinished temple. Nevertheless, it seems that a nine-gate wall, the Enneapylon, had been built around the biggest water spring, the "Clepsydra '', at the northwestern foot.
A temple to Athena Polias, the tutelary deity of the city, was erected around 570 -- 550 BC. This Doric limestone building, from which many relics survive, is referred to as the Hekatompedon (Greek for "hundred -- footed ''), Ur - Parthenon (German for "original Parthenon '' or "primitive Parthenon ''), H -- Architecture or Bluebeard temple, after the pedimental three - bodied man - serpent sculpture, whose beards were painted dark blue. Whether this temple replaced an older one, or just a sacred precinct or altar, is not known. Probably, the Hekatompedon was built where the Parthenon now stands.
Between 529 -- 520 BC yet another temple was built by the Peisistratids, the Old Temple of Athena, usually referred to as the Arkhaios Neōs (ἀρχαῖος νεώς, "ancient temple ''). This temple of Athena Polias was built upon the Doerpfeld foundations, between the Erechtheion and the still - standing Parthenon. Arkhaios Neōs was destroyed by the Persian invasion in 480 BC, however, the temple probably was reconstructed since in 454 BC the treasury of the Delian League was transferred in its opisthodomos. The temple may have been burnt down in 406 / 405 BC as Xenophon mentions that the old temple of Athena was set on fire. Pausanias does not mention it in his 2nd century AD Description of Greece.
Around 500 BC the Ur - Parthenon was dismantled to make place for a newer and grander building, the "Older Parthenon '' (often called Pre-Parthenon, "early Parthenon ''). Athenians decided to stop the construction of the Olympieion which was related with the tyrant Peisistratos and his sons and instead used the Piraeus limestone destined for the Olympieion to build the Older Parthenon. To accommodate it, the south part of the summit was cleared, made level by adding some 8,000 two - ton blocks of limestone, a foundation 11 m (36 ft) deep at some points, and the rest filled with earth kept in place by the retaining wall. However, after the victorious Battle of Marathon in 490 BC, the plan was revised and marble was used instead. The limestone phase of the building is referred to as Pre-Parthenon I, the marble phase as Pre-Parthenon II. In 485 BC, construction stalled to save resources as Xerxes took the throne. The Older Parthenon was still under construction when the Persians sacked the city in 480 BC. The building was burned and looted, along with the Ancient Temple and practically everything else on the rock. After the Persian crisis had subsided, the Athenians incorporated many of the unfinished temple 's architectural members (unfluted column drums, triglyphs, metopes, etc.) into the newly built northern curtain wall of the Acropolis, where they serve as a prominent "war memorial '' and can still be seen today. The devastated site was cleared of debris. Statuary, cult objects, religious offerings and unsalvageable architectural members were buried ceremoniously in several deeply dug pits on the hill, serving conveniently as a fill for the artificial plateau created around the classic Parthenon. This "Persian debris '' is the richest archaeological deposit excavated on the Acropolis and is well known throughout Greece.
After winning at Eurymedon in 468 BC, Cimon and Themistocles ordered the reconstruction of the southern and northern walls of the Acropolis. Most of the major temples, including the Parthenon, were rebuilt under the leadership of Pericles during the Golden Age of Athens (460 -- 430 BC). Phidias, an Athenian sculptor, and Ictinus and Callicrates, two famous architects, were responsible for the reconstruction.
In 437 BC, Mnesicles started building the Propylaea, a monumental gate at the western end of the Acropolis with Doric columns of Pentelic marble, partly built upon the old propylaea of Peisistratos. These colonnades were almost finished in 432 BC and had two wings, the northern one decorated with paintings by Polygnotus. Around the same time, south of the Propylaea, building started on the small Ionic Temple of Athena Nike in Pentelic marble with tetrastyle porches, preserving the essentials of Greek temple design. After an interruption caused by the Peloponnesian War, the temple was finished in the time of Nicias ' peace, between 421 BC and 409 BC.
Construction of the elegant temple of Erechtheion in Pentelic marble (421 -- 406 BC) was in accordance with a complex plan which took account of the extremely uneven ground and the need to circumvent several shrines in the area. The entrance, facing east, is lined with six Ionic columns. Unusually, the temple has two porches, one on the northwest corner borne by Ionic columns, the other, to the southwest, supported by huge female figures or Caryatids. The eastern part of the temple was dedicated to Athena Polias, while the western part, serving the cult of the archaic king Poseidon - Erechtheus, housed the altars of Hephaestus and Voutos, brother of Erechtheus. Little is known about the original plan of the interior which was destroyed by fire in the first century BC and has been rebuilt several times.
During the same period, a combination of sacred precincts including the temples of Athena Polias, Poseidon, Erechtheus, Cecrops, Herse, Pandrosos and Aglauros, with its Kore Porch (Porch of the Maidens) or Caryatids ' balcony was begun. Between the temple of Athena Nike and the Parthenon, there was the Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia (or the Brauroneion), the goddess represented as a bear and worshipped in the deme of Brauron. According to Pausanias, a wooden statue or xoanon of the goddess and a statue of Artemis made by Praxiteles in the 4th century BC were both in the sanctuary.
Behind the Propylaea, Phidias ' gigantic bronze statue of Athena Promachos ("Athena who fights in the front line ''), built between 450 BC and 448 BC, dominated. The base was 1.50 m (4 ft 11 in) high, while the total height of the statue was 9 m (30 ft). The goddess held a lance whose gilt tip could be seen as a reflection by crews on ships rounding Cape Sounion, and a giant shield on the left side, decorated by Mys with images of the fight between the Centaurs and the Lapiths. Other monuments that have left almost nothing visible to the present day are the Chalkotheke, the Pandroseion, Pandion 's sanctuary, Athena 's altar, Zeus Polieus 's sanctuary and, from Roman times, the circular temple of Augustus and Rome.
During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many of the existing buildings in the area of the Acropolis were repaired., due to damage from age, and occasionally, war. Monuments to foreign kings were erected, notably those of the Attalid kings of Pergamon Attalos II (in front of the NW corner of the Parthenon), and Eumenes II, in front of the Propylaia. These were rededicated during the early Roman Empire to Augustus or Claudius (uncertain), and Agrippa, respectively. Eumenes was also responsible for constructing a stoa on the South slope, not unlike that of Attalos in the Agora below.
During the Julio - Claudian period, the Temple of Rome and Augustus, a small, round edifice, about 23 meters from the Parthenon, was to be the last significant ancient construction on the summit of the rock. Around the same time, on the North slope, in a cave next to the one dedicated to Pan since the classical period, a sanctuary was founded where the archons dedicated to Apollo on taking office. In 161 AD, on the South slope, the Roman Herodes Atticus built his grand amphitheatre or Odeon. It was destroyed by the invading Herulians a century later but was reconstructed in the 1950s.
During the 3rd century, under threat from a Herulian invasion, repairs were made to the Acropolis walls, and the "Beulé Gate '' was constructed to restrict entrance in front of the Propylaia, thus returning the Acropolis to use as a fortress.
In the Byzantine period, the Parthenon was turned into a church, dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Under the Latin Duchy of Athens, the Acropolis functioned as the city 's administrative center, with the Parthenon as its cathedral, and the Propylaia as part of the Ducal Palace. A large tower was added, the "Frankopyrgos '', demolished in the 19th century.
After the Ottoman conquest of Greece, the Parthenon was used as the garrison headquarters of the Turkish army, and the Erechtheum was turned into the Governor 's private Harem. The buildings of the Acropolis suffered significant damage during the 1687 siege by the Venetians in the Morean War. The Parthenon, which was being used as a gunpowder magazine, was hit by artillery fire and severely damaged.
In subsequent years, the Acropolis was a site of bustling human activity with many Byzantine, Frankish, and Ottoman structures. The dominant feature during the Ottoman period was a mosque inside the Parthenon, complete with a minaret. Following the Greek War of Independence, most features that dated from the Byzantine, Frankish and Ottoman periods were cleared from the site in an attempt to restore the monument to its original form, "cleansed '' of all later additions.
The entrance to the Acropolis was a monumental gateway called the Propylaea. To the south of the entrance is the tiny Temple of Athena Nike. At the centre of the Acropolis is the Parthenon or Temple of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). East of the entrance and north of the Parthenon is the temple known as the Erechtheum. South of the platform that forms the top of the Acropolis there are also the remains of the ancient, though often remodelled, Theatre of Dionysus. A few hundred metres away, there is the now partially reconstructed Odeon of Herodes Atticus.
All the valuable ancient artifacts are situated in the Acropolis Museum, which resides on the southern slope of the same rock, 280 metres from the Parthenon.
Site plan of the Acropolis at Athens showing the major archaeological remains
The Project began in 1975 and is now nearing completion. The aim of the restoration was to reverse the decay of centuries of attrition, pollution, destruction stemming from military use, and misguided past restorations. The project included collection and identification of all stone fragments, even small ones, from the Acropolis and its slopes and the attempt was made to restore as much as possible using reassembled original material (anastylosis), with new marble from Mount Penteli used sparingly. All restoration was made using titanium dowels and is designed to be completely reversible, in case future experts decide to change things. A combination of cutting - edge modern technology and extensive research and reinvention of ancient techniques were used.
The Parthenon colonnades, largely destroyed by Venetian bombardment in the 17th century, were restored, with many wrongly assembled columns now properly placed. The roof and floor of the Propylaea were partly restored, with sections of the roof made of new marble and decorated with blue and gold inserts, as in the original. Restoration of the Temple of Athena Nike was completed in 2010.
A total of 2,675 tons of architectural members were restored, with 686 stones reassembled from fragments of the originals, 905 patched with new marble, and 186 parts made entirely of new marble. A total of 530 cubic meters of new Pentelic marble were used.
Every four years, the Athenians held a festival called the Panathenaea that rivaled the Olympic Games in popularity. During the festival, a procession (believed to be depicted on the Parthenon frieze) traveled through the city via the Panathenaic Way and culminated on the Acropolis. There, a new robe of woven wool (peplos) was placed on either the statue of Athena Polias in the Erechtheum (during a regular Panathenaea) or on the statue of Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon (during the Great Panathenaea, held every four years).
Within the later tradition of Western Civilization and classical revival the Acropolis, from at least the mid-18th century on, has often been invoked as a key symbol of the Greek legacy and of the glories of Classical Greece.
|
difference between journaling and non journaling file system | Journaling file system - wikipedia
A journaling file system is a file system that keeps track of changes not yet committed to the file system 's main part by recording the intentions of such changes in a data structure known as a "journal '', which is usually a circular log. In the event of a system crash or power failure, such file systems can be brought back online more quickly with a lower likelihood of becoming corrupted.
Depending on the actual implementation, a journaling file system may only keep track of stored metadata, resulting in improved performance at the expense of increased possibility for data corruption. Alternatively, a journaling file system may track both stored data and related metadata, while some implementations allow selectable behavior in this regard.
In 1990 IBM JFS was one of the first UNIX commercial filesystems running under AIX operating systems to implement Journaling. Later in 1993 Microsoft NTFS filesystem and in 2001 ext3 implemented journaling.
Updating file systems to reflect changes to files and directories usually requires many separate write operations. This makes it possible for an interruption (like a power failure or system crash) between writes to leave data structures in an invalid intermediate state.
For example, deleting a file on a Unix file system involves three steps:
If a crash occurs after step 1 and before step 2, there will be an orphaned inode and hence a storage leak. On the other hand, if only step 2 is performed first before the crash, the not - yet - deleted file will be marked free and possibly be overwritten by something else.
Detecting and recovering from such inconsistencies normally requires a complete walk of its data structures, for example by a tool such as fsck (the file system checker). This must typically be done before the file system is next mounted for read - write access. If the file system is large and if there is relatively little I / O bandwidth, this can take a long time and result in longer downtimes if it blocks the rest of the system from coming back online.
To prevent this, a journaled file system allocates a special area -- the journal -- in which it records the changes it will make ahead of time. After a crash, recovery simply involves reading the journal from the file system and replaying changes from this journal until the file system is consistent again. The changes are thus said to be atomic (not divisible) in that they either succeed (succeeded originally or are replayed completely during recovery), or are not replayed at all (are skipped because they had not yet been completely written to the journal before the crash occurred).
Some file systems allow the journal to grow, shrink and be re-allocated just as a regular file, while others put the journal in a contiguous area or a hidden file that is guaranteed not to move or change size while the file system is mounted. Some file systems may also allow external journals on a separate device, such as a solid - state drive or battery - backed non-volatile RAM. Changes to the journal may themselves be journaled for additional redundancy, or the journal may be distributed across multiple physical volumes to protect against device failure.
The internal format of the journal must guard against crashes while the journal itself is being written to. Many journal implementations (such as the JBD2 layer in ext4) bracket every change logged with a checksum, on the understanding that a crash would leave a partially written change with a missing (or mismatched) checksum that can simply be ignored when replaying the journal at next remount.
A physical journal logs an advance copy of every block that will later be written to the main file system. If there is a crash when the main file system is being written to, the write can simply be replayed to completion when the file system is next mounted. If there is a crash when the write is being logged to the journal, the partial write will have a missing or mismatched checksum and can be ignored at next mount.
Physical journals impose a significant performance penalty because every changed block must be committed twice to storage, but may be acceptable when absolute fault protection is required.
A logical journal stores only changes to file metadata in the journal, and trades fault tolerance for substantially better write performance. A file system with a logical journal still recovers quickly after a crash, but may allow unjournaled file data and journaled metadata to fall out of sync with each other, causing data corruption.
For example, appending to a file may involve three separate writes to:
In a metadata - only journal, step 3 would not be logged. If step 3 was not done, but steps 1 and 2 are replayed during recovery, the file will be appended with garbage.
The write cache in most operating systems sorts its writes (using the elevator algorithm or some similar scheme) to maximize throughput. To avoid an out - of - order write hazard with a metadata - only journal, writes for file data must be sorted so that they are committed to storage before their associated metadata. This can be tricky to implement because it requires coordination within the operating system kernel between the file system driver and write cache. An out - of - order write hazard can also exist if the underlying storage can not write blocks atomically, or does not honor requests to flush its write cache.
To complicate matters, many mass storage devices have their own write caches, in which they may aggressively reorder writes for better performance. (This is particularly common on magnetic hard drives, which have large seek latencies that can be minimized with elevator sorting.) Some journaling file systems conservatively assume such write - reordering always takes place, and sacrifice performance for correctness by forcing the device to flush its cache at certain points in the journal (called barriers in ext3 and ext4).
Some UFS implementations avoid journaling and instead implement soft updates: they order their writes in such a way that the on - disk file system is never inconsistent, or that the only inconsistency that can be created in the event of a crash is a storage leak. To recover from these leaks, the free space map is reconciled against a full walk of the file system at next mount. This garbage collection is usually done in the background.
In log - structured file systems, the write - twice penalty does not apply because the journal itself is the file system: it occupies the entire storage device and is structured so that it can be traversed as would a normal file system.
Full copy - on - write file systems (such as ZFS and Btrfs) avoid in - place changes to file data by writing out the data in newly allocated blocks, followed by updated metadata that would point to the new data and disown the old, followed by metadata pointing to that, and so on up to the superblock, or the root of the file system hierarchy. This has the same correctness - preserving properties as a journal, without the write - twice overhead.
|
why was the us fearful of the soviet union in the cold war | Cold War - wikipedia
The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its satellite states) and powers in the Western Bloc (the United States, its NATO allies and others). Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine, a U.S. foreign policy pledging to aid nations threatened by Soviet expansionism, was announced, and either 1989, when communism fell in Eastern Europe, or 1991, when the Soviet Union collapsed. The term "cold '' is used because there was no large - scale fighting directly between the two sides, but they each supported major regional wars known as proxy wars.
The Cold War split the temporary wartime alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union and the United States as two superpowers with profound economic and political differences. The USSR was a Marxist -- Leninist state led by its Communist Party, which in turn was dominated by a leader with different titles over time, and a small committee called the Politburo. The Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and many organizations. It also controlled the other states in the Eastern Bloc, and funded Communist parties around the world, sometimes in competition with Communist China, particularly following the Sino - Soviet split of the 1960s. In opposition stood the capitalist West, led by the United States, a federal republic with a two - party presidential system. The First World nations of the Western Bloc were generally liberal democratic with a free press and independent organizations, but were economically and politically entwined with a network of banana republics and other authoritarian regimes throughout the Third World, most of which were the Western Bloc 's former colonies. Some major Cold War frontlines such as Vietnam, Indonesia, and the Congo were still Western colonies in 1947.
A small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement; it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full - scale armed combat, but they were heavily armed in preparation for a possible all - out nuclear world war. Each side had a nuclear strategy that discouraged an attack by the other side, on the basis that such an attack would lead to the total destruction of the attacker -- the doctrine of mutually assured destruction (MAD). Aside from the development of the two sides ' nuclear arsenals, and their deployment of conventional military forces, the struggle for dominance was expressed via proxy wars around the globe, psychological warfare, massive propaganda campaigns and espionage, rivalry at sports events, and technological competitions such as the Space Race.
The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945. The USSR consolidated its control over the states of the Eastern Bloc, while the United States began a strategy of global containment to challenge Soviet power, extending military and financial aid to the countries of Western Europe (for example, supporting the anti-communist side in the Greek Civil War) and creating the NATO alliance. The Berlin Blockade (1948 -- 49) was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War (1950 -- 53), the conflict expanded. The USSR and the USA competed for influence in Latin America and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets. The expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis (1956), the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Following the Cuban Missile Crisis, a new phase began that saw the Sino - Soviet split complicate relations within the communist sphere, while US allies, particularly France, demonstrated greater independence of action. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, and the Vietnam War (1955 -- 75) ended with the defeat of the US - backed Republic of Vietnam, prompting further adjustments.
By the 1970s, both sides had become interested in making allowances in order to create a more stable and predictable international system, ushering in a period of détente that saw Strategic Arms Limitation Talks and the US opening relations with the People 's Republic of China as a strategic counterweight to the Soviet Union. Détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet -- Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 (1983), and the "Able Archer '' NATO military exercises (1983). The United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the liberalizing reforms of perestroika ("reorganization '', 1987) and glasnost ("openness '', c. 1985) and ended Soviet involvement in Afghanistan. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland. Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully (with the exception of the Romanian Revolution) overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central and Eastern Europe. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the formal dissolution of the USSR in December 1991 and the collapse of communist regimes in other countries such as Mongolia, Cambodia and South Yemen. The United States remained as the world 's only superpower.
The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy. It is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage (notably the internationally successful James Bond film franchise) and the threat of nuclear warfare.
Part of a series on the History of the Cold War
At the end of World War II, English writer George Orwell used cold war, as a general term, in his essay "You and the Atomic Bomb '', published 19 October 1945 in the British newspaper Tribune. Contemplating a world living in the shadow of the threat of nuclear warfare, Orwell looked at James Burnham 's predictions of a polarized world, writing:
In The Observer of 10 March 1946, Orwell wrote, "after the Moscow conference last December, Russia began to make a ' cold war ' on Britain and the British Empire. ''
The first use of the term to describe the specific post-war geopolitical confrontation between the USSR and the United States came in a speech by Bernard Baruch, an influential advisor to Democratic presidents, on 16 April 1947. The speech, written by journalist Herbert Bayard Swope, proclaimed, "Let us not be deceived: we are today in the midst of a cold war. '' Newspaper columnist Walter Lippmann gave the term wide currency with his book The Cold War; when asked in 1947 about the source of the term, Lippmann traced it to a French term from the 1930s, la guerre froide.
While most historians trace its origins to the period immediately following World War II, others argue that it began with the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 when the Bolsheviks took power. In 1919 Lenin stated that his new state was surrounded by a "hostile capitalist encirclement '', and he viewed diplomacy as a weapon that should be used in order to keep the Soviet Union 's enemies divided, beginning with the establishment of the Communist International, which called for revolutionary upheavals abroad. Historian Max Beloff argues that the Soviets saw "no prospect of permanent peace '', with the 1922 Soviet Constitution proclaiming:
Since the time of the formation of the soviet republics, the states of the world have divided into two camps: the camp of capitalism and the camp of socialism. There - in the camp of capitalism - national enmity and inequality, colonial slavery, and chauvinism, national oppression and pogroms, imperialist brutalities and wars. Here - in the camp of socialism - mutual confidence and peace, national freedom and equality, a dwelling together in peace and the brotherly collaboration of peoples.
According to British historian Christopher Sutton:
In what some have called the First Cold War, from Britain 's intervention in the Russian Civil War in 1918 to its uneasy alliance with the Soviet Union against the Axis powers in 1941, British distrust of the revolutionary and regicidal Bolsheviks resulted in domestic, foreign, and colonial policies aimed at resisting the spread of communism. This conflict after 1945 took on new battlefields, new weapons, new players, and a greater intensity, but it was still fundamentally a conflict against Soviet imperialism (real and imagined).
The idea of long - term continuity is a minority scholarly view that has been challenged. Frank Ninkovich writes:
As for the two cold wars thesis, the chief problem is that the two periods are incommensurable. To be sure, they were joined together by enduring ideological hostility, but in the post-World War I years Bolshevism was not a geopolitical menace. After World War II, in contrast, the Soviet Union was a superpower that combined ideological antagonism with the kind of geopolitical threat posed by Germany and Japan in the Second World War. Even with more amicable relations in the 1920s, it is conceivable that post-1945 relations would have turned out much the same.
After signing the Molotov - Ribbentrop pact and German -- Soviet Frontier Treaty, the Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries -- Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania -- to allow it to station Soviet troops in their countries under pacts of "mutual assistance ''. Finland rejected territorial demands, prompting a Soviet invasion in November 1939. The resulting Winter War ended in March 1940 with Finnish concessions. Britain and France, treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tantamount to its entering the war on the side of the Germans, responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting the USSR 's expulsion from the League of Nations.
In June 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, and the disputed Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and Hertza. But after the German Army invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 and the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the Soviet Union and the Allied powers formed an alliance of convenience. Britain signed a formal alliance and the United States made an informal agreement. In wartime, the United States supplied Britain, the Soviet Union and other Allied nations through its Lend - Lease Program. However, Stalin remained highly suspicious and he believed that the British and the Americans had conspired to ensure that the Soviets bore the brunt of the fighting against Nazi Germany. According to this view, the Western Allies had deliberately delayed opening a second anti-German front in order to step in at the last minute and shape the peace settlement. Thus, Soviet perceptions of the West left a strong undercurrent of tension and hostility between the Allied powers.
The Allies disagreed about how the European map should look, and how borders would be drawn, following the war. Each side held dissimilar ideas regarding the establishment and maintenance of post-war security. Some scholars contend that all the Western Allies desired a security system in which democratic governments were established as widely as possible, permitting countries to peacefully resolve differences through international organizations. Others note that the Atlantic powers were divided in their vision of the new post-war world. Roosevelt 's goals -- military victory in both Europe and Asia, the achievement of global American economic supremacy over the British Empire, and the creation of a world peace organization -- were more global than Churchill 's, which were mainly centered on securing control over the Mediterranean, ensuring the survival of the British Empire, and the independence of Central and Eastern European countries as a buffer between the Soviets and the United Kingdom.
The Soviet Union sought to dominate the internal affairs of countries that bordered it. During the war, Stalin had created special training centers for communists from different countries so that they could set up secret police forces loyal to Moscow as soon as the Red Army took control. Soviet agents took control of the media, especially radio; they quickly harassed and then banned all independent civic institutions, from youth groups to schools, churches and rival political parties. Stalin also sought continued peace with Britain and the United States, hoping to focus on internal reconstruction and economic growth.
In the American view, Stalin seemed a potential ally in accomplishing their goals, whereas in the British approach Stalin appeared as the greatest threat to the fulfillment of their agenda. With the Soviets already occupying most of Central and Eastern Europe, Stalin was at an advantage and the two western leaders vied for his favors.
The differences between Roosevelt and Churchill led to several separate deals with the Soviets. In October 1944, Churchill traveled to Moscow and proposed the "percentages agreement '' to divide the Balkans into respective spheres of influence, including giving Stalin predominance over Romania and Bulgaria and Churchill carte blanche over Greece. At the Yalta Conference of February 1945, Roosevelt signed a separate deal with Stalin in regard of Asia and refused to support Churchill on the issues of Poland and the Reparations. Roosevelt ultimately approved the percentage agreement, but there was still apparently no firm consensus on the framework for a post-war settlement in Europe.
At the Second Quebec Conference, a high - level military conference held in Quebec City, 12 -- 16 September 1944, Churchill and Roosevelt reached agreement on a number of matters, including a plan for Germany, based on Henry Morgenthau Jr. 's original proposal. The memorandum drafted by Churchill provided for "eliminating the warmaking industries in the Ruhr and the Saar... looking forward to converting Germany into a country primarily agricultural and pastoral in its character. '' However, it no longer included a plan to partition the country into several independent states. On 10 May 1945, President Truman signed the U.S. occupation directive JCS 1067. The directive, which was in effect for over two years, and was enthusiastically supported by Stalin, directed the U.S. forces of occupation to "... take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany ''.
Some historians have argued that the Cold War began when the US negotiated a separate peace with Nazi SS General Karl Wolff in northern Italy. The Soviet Union was not allowed to participate and the dispute led to heated correspondence between Franklin Roosevelt and Stalin. General Wolff, a war criminal, appears to have been guaranteed immunity at the Nuremberg trials by Office of Strategic Services (OSS) commander (and later CIA director) Allen Dulles when they met in March 1945. Wolff and his forces were being considered to help implement Operation Unthinkable, a secret plan to invade the Soviet Union which Winston Churchill advocated during this period.
In April 1945, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry S. Truman, who distrusted Stalin and turned for advice to an elite group of foreign policy intellectuals. Both Churchill and Truman opposed, among other things, the Soviets ' decision to prop up the Lublin government, the Soviet - controlled rival to the Polish government - in - exile in London, whose relations with the Soviets had been severed.
Following the Allies ' May 1945 victory, the Soviets effectively occupied Central and Eastern Europe, while strong US and Western allied forces remained in Western Europe. In Germany and Austria, France, Britain, the Soviet Union and the United States established zones of occupation and a loose framework for parceled four - power control.
The 1945 Allied conference in San Francisco established the multi-national United Nations (UN) for the maintenance of world peace, but the enforcement capacity of its Security Council was effectively paralyzed by individual members ' ability to use veto power. Accordingly, the UN was essentially converted into an inactive forum for exchanging polemical rhetoric, and the Soviets regarded it almost exclusively as a propaganda tribune.
At the Potsdam Conference, which started in late July after Germany 's surrender, serious differences emerged over the future development of Germany and the rest of Central and Eastern Europe. Moreover, the participants ' mounting antipathy and bellicose language served to confirm their suspicions about each other 's hostile intentions and entrench their positions. At this conference Truman informed Stalin that the United States possessed a powerful new weapon.
Stalin was aware that the Americans were working on the atomic bomb and, given that the Soviets ' own rival program was in place, he reacted to the news calmly. The Soviet leader said he was pleased by the news and expressed the hope that the weapon would be used against Japan. One week after the end of the Potsdam Conference, the US bombed Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Shortly after the attacks, Stalin protested to US officials when Truman offered the Soviets little real influence in occupied Japan.
During the opening stages of World War II, the Soviet Union laid the foundation for the Eastern Bloc by invading and then annexing several countries as Soviet Socialist Republics, by agreement with Nazi Germany in the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact. These included eastern Poland (incorporated into two different SSRs), Latvia (which became the Latvian SSR), Estonia (which became the Estonian SSR), Lithuania (which became the Lithuanian SSR), part of eastern Finland (which became the Karelo - Finnish SSR) and eastern Romania (which became the Moldavian SSR).
The Central and Eastern European territories liberated from the Nazis and occupied by the Soviet armed forces were added to the Eastern Bloc by converting them into satellite states, such as:
The Soviet - style regimes that arose in the Bloc not only reproduced Soviet command economies, but also adopted the brutal methods employed by Joseph Stalin and the Soviet secret police in order to suppress both real and potential opposition. In Asia, the Red Army had overrun Manchuria in the last month of the war, and it went on to occupy the large swathe of Korean territory located north of the 38th parallel.
As part of consolidating Stalin 's control over the Eastern Bloc, the People 's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD), led by Lavrentiy Beriya, supervised the establishment of Soviet - style secret police systems in the Bloc that were supposed to crush anti-communist resistance. When the slightest stirrings of independence emerged in the Bloc, Stalin 's strategy matched that of dealing with domestic pre-war rivals: they were removed from power, put on trial, imprisoned, and in several instances, executed.
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was concerned that, given the enormous size of Soviet forces deployed in Europe at the end of the war, and the perception that Soviet leader Joseph Stalin was unreliable, there existed a Soviet threat to Western Europe. After World War II, US officials guided Western European leaders in establishing their own secret security force to prevent subversion in the Western bloc, which evolved into Operation Gladio.
In February 1946, George F. Kennan 's "Long Telegram '' from Moscow helped to articulate the US government 's increasingly hard line against the Soviets, and became the basis for US strategy toward the Soviet Union for the duration of the Cold War. That September, the Soviet side produced the Novikov telegram, sent by the Soviet ambassador to the US but commissioned and "co-authored '' by Vyacheslav Molotov; it portrayed the US as being in the grip of monopoly capitalists who were building up military capability "to prepare the conditions for winning world supremacy in a new war ''.
On 6 September 1946, James F. Byrnes delivered a speech in Germany repudiating the Morgenthau Plan (a proposal to partition and de-industrialize post-war Germany) and warning the Soviets that the US intended to maintain a military presence in Europe indefinitely. As Byrnes admitted a month later, "The nub of our program was to win the German people... it was a battle between us and Russia over minds... ''
A few weeks after the release of this "Long Telegram '', former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill delivered his famous "Iron Curtain '' speech in Fulton, Missouri. The speech called for an Anglo - American alliance against the Soviets, whom he accused of establishing an "iron curtain '' from "Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic ''. Only a week later, on 13 March Stalin responded vigorously to the speech, saying that Churchill could be compared to Hitler insofar as he advocated the racial superiority of English - speaking nations so that they could satisfy their hunger for world domination, and that such a declaration was "a call for war on the U.S.S.R. '' The Soviet leader also dismissed the accusation that the USSR was exerting increasing control over the countries lying in its sphere. He argued that there was nothing surprising in "the fact that the Soviet Union, anxious for its future safety, (was) trying to see to it that governments loyal in their attitude to the Soviet Union should exist in these countries ''. 1
By 1947, US president Harry S. Truman was outraged by the Soviet Union 's perceived resistance to American demands in Iran, Turkey and Greece, as well as their rejection of the Baruch Plan on nuclear weapons. In February 1947, the British government announced that it could no longer afford to finance the Kingdom of Greece in its civil war against Communist - led insurgents.
The US government 's response to this announcement was the adoption of containment, the goal of which was to stop the spread of Communism. Truman delivered a speech that called for the allocation of $400 million to intervene in the war and unveiled the Truman Doctrine, which framed the conflict as a contest between free peoples and totalitarian regimes. American policymakers accused the Soviet Union of conspiring against the Greek royalists in an effort to expand Soviet influence even though Stalin had told the Communist Party to cooperate with the British - backed government. (The insurgents were helped by Josip Broz Tito 's Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia against Stalin 's wishes.)
Enunciation of the Truman Doctrine marked the beginning of a US bipartisan defense and foreign policy consensus between Republicans and Democrats focused on containment and deterrence that weakened during and after the Vietnam War, but ultimately persisted thereafter. Moderate and conservative parties in Europe, as well as social democrats, gave virtually unconditional support to the Western alliance, while European and American Communists, financed by the KGB and involved in its intelligence operations, adhered to Moscow 's line, although dissent began to appear after 1956. Other critiques of the consensus policy came from anti-Vietnam War activists, the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and the anti-nuclear movement.
In early 1947, France, Britain and the United States unsuccessfully attempted to reach an agreement with the Soviet Union for a plan envisioning an economically self - sufficient Germany, including a detailed accounting of the industrial plants, goods and infrastructure already removed by the Soviets. In June 1947, in accordance with the Truman Doctrine, the United States enacted the Marshall Plan, a pledge of economic assistance for all European countries willing to participate, including the Soviet Union. Under the plan, which President Harry S. Truman signed on 3 April 1948, the US government gave to Western European countries over $13 billion (equivalent to $189.39 billion in 2016) to rebuild the economy of Europe. Later, the program led to the creation of the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation.
The plan 's aim was to rebuild the democratic and economic systems of Europe and to counter perceived threats to Europe 's balance of power, such as communist parties seizing control through revolutions or elections. The plan also stated that European prosperity was contingent upon German economic recovery. One month later, Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947, creating a unified Department of Defense, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the National Security Council (NSC). These would become the main bureaucracies for US policy in the Cold War.
Stalin believed that economic integration with the West would allow Eastern Bloc countries to escape Soviet control, and that the US was trying to buy a pro-US re-alignment of Europe. Stalin therefore prevented Eastern Bloc nations from receiving Marshall Plan aid. The Soviet Union 's alternative to the Marshall Plan, which was purported to involve Soviet subsidies and trade with central and eastern Europe, became known as the Molotov Plan (later institutionalized in January 1949 as the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance). Stalin was also fearful of a reconstituted Germany; his vision of a post-war Germany did not include the ability to rearm or pose any kind of threat to the Soviet Union.
In early 1948, following reports of strengthening "reactionary elements '', Soviet operatives executed a coup d'état in Czechoslovakia, the only Eastern Bloc state that the Soviets had permitted to retain democratic structures. The public brutality of the coup shocked Western powers more than any event up to that point, set in a motion a brief scare that war would occur and swept away the last vestiges of opposition to the Marshall Plan in the United States Congress.
The twin policies of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan led to billions in economic and military aid for Western Europe, Greece, and Turkey. With the US assistance, the Greek military won its civil war. Under the leadership of Alcide De Gasperi the Italian Christian Democrats defeated the powerful Communist - Socialist alliance in the elections of 1948. At the same time there was increased intelligence and espionage activity, Eastern Bloc defections and diplomatic expulsions.
In September 1947, the Soviets created Cominform, the purpose of which was to enforce orthodoxy within the international communist movement and tighten political control over Soviet satellites through coordination of communist parties in the Eastern Bloc. Cominform faced an embarrassing setback the following June, when the Tito -- Stalin Split obliged its members to expel Yugoslavia, which remained communist but adopted a non-aligned position.
The United States and Britain merged their western German occupation zones into "Bizonia '' (1 January 1947, later "Trizonia '' with the addition of France 's zone, April 1949). As part of the economic rebuilding of Germany, in early 1948, representatives of a number of Western European governments and the United States announced an agreement for a merger of western German areas into a federal governmental system. In addition, in accordance with the Marshall Plan, they began to re-industrialize and rebuild the German economy, including the introduction of a new Deutsche Mark currency to replace the old Reichsmark currency that the Soviets had debased.
Shortly thereafter, Stalin instituted the Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 -- 12 May 1949), one of the first major crises of the Cold War, preventing food, materials and supplies from arriving in West Berlin. The United States, Britain, France, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and several other countries began the massive "Berlin airlift '', supplying West Berlin with food and other provisions.
The Soviets mounted a public relations campaign against the policy change. Once again the East Berlin communists attempted to disrupt the Berlin municipal elections (as they had done in the 1946 elections), which were held on 5 December 1948 and produced a turnout of 86.3 % and an overwhelming victory for the non-communist parties. The results effectively divided the city into East and West versions of its former self. 300,000 Berliners demonstrated and urged the international airlift to continue, and US Air Force pilot Gail Halvorsen created "Operation Vittles '', which supplied candy to German children. In May 1949, Stalin backed down and lifted the blockade.
In 1952, Stalin repeatedly proposed a plan to unify East and West Germany under a single government chosen in elections supervised by the United Nations if the new Germany were to stay out of Western military alliances, but this proposal was turned down by the Western powers. Some sources dispute the sincerity of the proposal.
Britain, France, the United States, Canada and other eight western European countries signed the North Atlantic Treaty of April 1949, establishing the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). That August, the first Soviet atomic device was detonated in Semipalatinsk, Kazakh SSR. Following Soviet refusals to participate in a German rebuilding effort set forth by western European countries in 1948, the US, Britain and France spearheaded the establishment of West Germany from the three Western zones of occupation in April 1949. The Soviet Union proclaimed its zone of occupation in Germany the German Democratic Republic that October.
Media in the Eastern Bloc was an organ of the state, completely reliant on and subservient to the communist party, with radio and television organizations being state - owned, while print media was usually owned by political organizations, mostly by the local communist party. Soviet propaganda used Marxist philosophy to attack capitalism, claiming labor exploitation and war - mongering imperialism were inherent in the system.
Along with the broadcasts of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and the Voice of America to Central and Eastern Europe, a major propaganda effort begun in 1949 was Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty, dedicated to bringing about the peaceful demise of the communist system in the Eastern Bloc. Radio Free Europe attempted to achieve these goals by serving as a surrogate home radio station, an alternative to the controlled and party - dominated domestic press. Radio Free Europe was a product of some of the most prominent architects of America 's early Cold War strategy, especially those who believed that the Cold War would eventually be fought by political rather than military means, such as George F. Kennan.
American policymakers, including Kennan and John Foster Dulles, acknowledged that the Cold War was in its essence a war of ideas. The United States, acting through the CIA, funded a long list of projects to counter the communist appeal among intellectuals in Europe and the developing world. The CIA also covertly sponsored a domestic propaganda campaign called Crusade for Freedom.
In the early 1950s, the US worked for the rearmament of West Germany and, in 1955, secured its full membership of NATO. In May 1953, Beria, by then in a government post, had made an unsuccessful proposal to allow the reunification of a neutral Germany to prevent West Germany 's incorporation into NATO.
In 1949, Mao Zedong 's People 's Liberation Army defeated Chiang Kai - shek 's United States - backed Kuomintang (KMT) Nationalist Government in China, and the Soviet Union promptly created an alliance with the newly formed People 's Republic of China. According to Norwegian historian Odd Arne Westad, the communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai - Shek made, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Moreover, his party was weakened during the war against Japan. Meanwhile, the communists told different groups, such as the peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and they cloaked themselves under the cover of Chinese nationalism.
Chiang and his KMT government retreated to the island of Taiwan. Confronted with the communist revolution in China and the end of the American atomic monopoly in 1949, the Truman administration quickly moved to escalate and expand its containment policy. In NSC 68, a secret 1950 document, the National Security Council proposed to reinforce pro-Western alliance systems and quadruple spending on defense.
United States officials moved thereafter to expand containment into Asia, Africa, and Latin America, in order to counter revolutionary nationalist movements, often led by communist parties financed by the USSR, fighting against the restoration of Europe 's colonial empires in South - East Asia and elsewhere. In the early 1950s (a period sometimes known as the "Pactomania ''), the US formalized a series of alliances with Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand and the Philippines (notably ANZUS in 1951 and SEATO in 1954), thereby guaranteeing the United States a number of long - term military bases.
One of the more significant impacts of containment was the outbreak of the Korean War. In June 1950, Kim Il - sung 's North Korean People 's Army invaded South Korea. Stalin approved and sent advisers to plan the North Korean invasion. To Stalin 's surprise, the UN Security Council backed the defense of South Korea, though the Soviets were then boycotting meetings in protest that Taiwan and not Communist China held a permanent seat on the Council. A UN force of personnel from South Korea, the United States, the United Kingdom, Turkey, Canada, Colombia, Australia, France, South Africa, the Philippines, the Netherlands, Belgium, New Zealand and other countries joined to stop the invasion.
Among other effects, the Korean War galvanised NATO to develop a military structure. Public opinion in countries involved, such as Great Britain, was divided for and against the war. Many feared an escalation into a general war with Communist China, and even nuclear war. The strong opposition to the war often strained Anglo - American relations. For these reasons British officials sought a speedy end to the conflict, hoping to unite Korea under United Nations auspices and withdrawal of all foreign forces.
Even though the Chinese and North Koreans were exhausted by the war and were prepared to end it by late 1952, Stalin insisted that they continue fighting, and the Armistice was approved only in July 1953, after Stalin 's death. North Korean leader Kim Il Sung created a highly centralized, totalitarian dictatorship -- which continues to date -- according himself unlimited power and generating a formidable cult of personality. In the South, the American - backed strongman Syngman Rhee ran a significantly less brutal but deeply corrupt and authoritarian regime. After Rhee was overthrown in 1960, South Korea fell within a year under a period of military rule that lasted until the re-establishment of a multi-party system in the late 1980s.
In 1953, changes in political leadership on both sides shifted the dynamic of the Cold War. Dwight D. Eisenhower was inaugurated president that January. During the last 18 months of the Truman administration, the American defense budget had quadrupled, and Eisenhower moved to reduce military spending by a third while continuing to fight the Cold War effectively.
After the death of Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev became the Soviet leader following the deposition and execution of Lavrentiy Beria and the pushing aside of rivals Georgy Malenkov and Vyacheslav Molotov. On 25 February 1956, Khrushchev shocked delegates to the 20th Congress of the Soviet Communist Party by cataloguing and denouncing Stalin 's crimes. As part of a campaign of de-Stalinization, he declared that the only way to reform and move away from Stalin 's policies would be to acknowledge errors made in the past.
On 18 November 1956, while addressing Western ambassadors at a reception at the Polish embassy in Moscow, Khrushchev used his famous "Whether you like it or not, history is on our side. We will bury you '' expression, shocking everyone present. He later claimed that he had not been talking about nuclear war, but rather about the historically determined victory of communism over capitalism. In 1961, Khrushchev declared that even if the USSR was behind the West, within a decade its housing shortage would disappear, consumer goods would be abundant, and within two decades, the "construction of a communist society '' in the USSR would be completed "in the main ''.
Eisenhower 's secretary of state, John Foster Dulles, initiated a "New Look '' for the containment strategy, calling for a greater reliance on nuclear weapons against US enemies in wartime. Dulles also enunciated the doctrine of "massive retaliation '', threatening a severe US response to any Soviet aggression. Possessing nuclear superiority, for example, allowed Eisenhower to face down Soviet threats to intervene in the Middle East during the 1956 Suez Crisis. US plans for nuclear war in the late 1950s included the "systematic destruction '' of 1200 major urban centers in the Eastern Bloc and China, including Moscow, East Berlin and Beijing, with their civilian populations among the primary targets.
While Stalin 's death in 1953 slightly relaxed tensions, the situation in Europe remained an uneasy armed truce. The Soviets, who had already created a network of mutual assistance treaties in the Eastern Bloc by 1949, established a formal alliance therein, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955.
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 occurred shortly after Khrushchev arranged the removal of Hungary 's Stalinist leader Mátyás Rákosi. In response to a popular uprising, the new regime formally disbanded the secret police, declared its intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and pledged to re-establish free elections. The Soviet Army invaded. Thousands of Hungarians were arrested, imprisoned and deported to the Soviet Union, and approximately 200,000 Hungarians fled Hungary in the chaos. Hungarian leader Imre Nagy and others were executed following secret trials. From 1957 through 1961, Khrushchev openly and repeatedly threatened the West with nuclear annihilation. He claimed that Soviet missile capabilities were far superior to those of the United States, capable of wiping out any American or European city. However, Khrushchev rejected Stalin 's belief in the inevitability of war, and declared his new goal was to be "peaceful coexistence ''. This formulation modified the Stalin - era Soviet stance, where international class conflict meant the two opposing camps were on an inevitable collision course where communism would triumph through global war; now, peace would allow capitalism to collapse on its own, as well as giving the Soviets time to boost their military capabilities, which remained for decades until Gorbachev 's later "new thinking '' envisioning peaceful coexistence as an end in itself rather than a form of class struggle.
The events in Hungary produced ideological fractures within the communist parties of the world, particularly in Western Europe, with great decline in membership as many in both western and communist countries felt disillusioned by the brutal Soviet response. The communist parties in the West would never recover from the effect the Hungarian Revolution had on their membership, a fact that was immediately recognized by some, such as the Yugoslavian politician Milovan Đilas who shortly after the revolution was crushed said that "The wound which the Hungarian Revolution inflicted on communism can never be completely healed ''.
America 's pronouncements concentrated on American strength abroad and the success of liberal capitalism. However, by the late 1960s, the "battle for men 's minds '' between two systems of social organization that Kennedy spoke of in 1961 was largely over, with tensions henceforth based primarily on clashing geopolitical objectives rather than ideology.
During November 1958, Khrushchev made an unsuccessful attempt to turn all of Berlin into an independent, demilitarized "free city '', giving the United States, Great Britain, and France a six - month ultimatum to withdraw their troops from the sectors they still occupied in West Berlin, or he would transfer control of Western access rights to the East Germans. Khrushchev earlier explained to Mao Zedong that "Berlin is the testicles of the West. Every time I want to make the West scream, I squeeze on Berlin. '' NATO formally rejected the ultimatum in mid-December and Khrushchev withdrew it in return for a Geneva conference on the German question.
More broadly, one hallmark of the 1950s was the beginning of European integration -- a fundamental by - product of the Cold War that Truman and Eisenhower promoted politically, economically, and militarily, but which later administrations viewed ambivalently, fearful that an independent Europe would forge a separate détente with the Soviet Union, which would use this to exacerbate Western disunity.
Nationalist movements in some countries and regions, notably Guatemala, Indonesia and Indochina were often allied with communist groups, or perceived in the West to be allied with communists. In this context, the United States and the Soviet Union increasingly competed for influence by proxy in the Third World as decolonization gained momentum in the 1950s and early 1960s; additionally, the Soviets saw continuing losses by imperial powers as presaging the eventual victory of their ideology. Both sides were selling armaments to gain influence.
The United States made use of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to do away with a string of unfriendly Third World governments and to support allied ones. In 1953, President Eisenhower 's CIA implemented Operation Ajax, a covert operation aimed at the overthrow of the Iranian prime minister, Mohammad Mosaddegh. The popularly elected and non-aligned Mosaddegh had been a Middle Eastern nemesis of Britain since nationalizing the British - owned Anglo - Iranian Oil Company in 1951. Winston Churchill told the United States that Mosaddegh was "increasingly turning towards communism. '' The pro-Western shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, assumed control as an autocratic monarch. The shah 's policies included the banning of the communist Tudeh Party of Iran and general suppression of political dissent by SAVAK, the shah 's domestic security and intelligence agency.
In Guatemala, a CIA - backed military coup ousted the left - wing President Jacobo Árbenz in 1954. The post-Arbenz government -- a military junta headed by Carlos Castillo Armas -- repealed a progressive land reform law, returned nationalized property belonging to the United Fruit Company, set up a National Committee of Defense Against Communism, and decreed a Preventive Penal Law Against Communism at the request of the United States.
The non-aligned Indonesian government of Sukarno was faced with a major threat to its legitimacy beginning in 1956, when several regional commanders began to demand autonomy from Jakarta. After mediation failed, Sukarno took action to remove the dissident commanders. In February 1958, dissident military commanders in Central Sumatera (Colonel Ahmad Hussein) and North Sulawesi (Colonel Ventje Sumual) declared the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia - Permesta Movement aimed at overthrowing the Sukarno regime. They were joined by many civilian politicians from the Masyumi Party, such as Sjafruddin Prawiranegara, who were opposed to the growing influence of the communist Partai Komunis Indonesia party. Due to their anti-communist rhetoric, the rebels received arms, funding, and other covert aid from the CIA until Allen Lawrence Pope, an American pilot, was shot down after a bombing raid on government - held Ambon in April 1958. The central government responded by launching airborne and seaborne military invasions of rebel strongholds Padang and Manado. By the end of 1958, the rebels were militarily defeated, and the last remaining rebel guerilla bands surrendered by August 1961.
In the Republic of the Congo, newly independent from Belgium since June 1960, the CIA - cultivated President Joseph Kasa - Vubu ordered the dismissal of the democratically elected Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and the Lumumba cabinet in September; Lumumba called for Kasa - Vubu 's dismissal instead. In the ensuing Congo Crisis, the CIA - backed Colonel Mobutu Sese Seko quickly mobilized his forces to seize power through a military coup d'état.
In British Guiana, the leftist People 's Progressive Party (PPP) candidate Cheddi Jagan won the position of chief minister in a colonially administered election in 1953, but was quickly forced to resign from power after Britain 's suspension of the still - dependent nation 's constitution. Embarrassed by the landslide electoral victory of Jagan 's allegedly Marxist party, the British imprisoned the PPP 's leadership and maneuvered the organization into a divisive rupture in 1955, engineering a split between Jagan and his PPP colleagues. Jagan again won the colonial elections in 1957 and 1961; despite Britain 's shift to a reconsideration of its view of the left - wing Jagan as a Soviet - style communist at this time, the United States pressured the British to withhold Guyana 's independence until an alternative to Jagan could be identified, supported, and brought into office.
Worn down by the communist guerrilla war for Vietnamese independence and handed a watershed defeat by communist Viet Minh rebels at the 1954 Battle of Dien Bien Phu, the French accepted a negotiated abandonment of their colonial stake in Vietnam. In the Geneva Conference, peace accords were signed, leaving Vietnam divided between a pro-Soviet administration in North Vietnam and a pro-Western administration in South Vietnam at the 17th parallel north. Between 1954 and 1961, Eisenhower 's United States sent economic aid and military advisers to strengthen South Vietnam 's pro-Western regime against communist efforts to destabilize it.
Many emerging nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America rejected the pressure to choose sides in the East - West competition. In 1955, at the Bandung Conference in Indonesia, dozens of Third World governments resolved to stay out of the Cold War. The consensus reached at Bandung culminated with the creation of the Belgrade - headquartered Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. Meanwhile, Khrushchev broadened Moscow 's policy to establish ties with India and other key neutral states. Independence movements in the Third World transformed the post-war order into a more pluralistic world of decolonized African and Middle Eastern nations and of rising nationalism in Asia and Latin America.
The period after 1956 was marked by serious setbacks for the Soviet Union, most notably the breakdown of the Sino - Soviet alliance, beginning the Sino - Soviet split. Mao had defended Stalin when Khrushchev attacked him after his death in 1956, and treated the new Soviet leader as a superficial upstart, accusing him of having lost his revolutionary edge. For his part, Khrushchev, disturbed by Mao 's glib attitude toward nuclear war, referred to the Chinese leader as a "lunatic on a throne ''.
After this, Khrushchev made many desperate attempts to reconstitute the Sino - Soviet alliance, but Mao considered it useless and denied any proposal. The Chinese - Soviet animosity spilled out in an intra-communist propaganda war. Further on, the Soviets focused on a bitter rivalry with Mao 's China for leadership of the global communist movement.
Historian Lorenz M. Lüthi argues:
On the nuclear weapons front, the United States and the USSR pursued nuclear rearmament and developed long - range weapons with which they could strike the territory of the other. In August 1957, the Soviets successfully launched the world 's first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) and in October, launched the first Earth satellite, Sputnik 1. The launch of Sputnik inaugurated the Space Race. This culminated in the Apollo Moon landings, which astronaut Frank Borman later described as "just a battle in the Cold War. ''
In Cuba, the 26th of July Movement seized power in 1 January 1959, toppling President Fulgencio Batista, whose unpopular regime had been denied arms by the Eisenhower administration.
Diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States continued for some time after Batista 's fall, but President Eisenhower deliberately left the capital to avoid meeting Cuba 's young revolutionary leader Fidel Castro during the latter 's trip to Washington in April, leaving Vice President Richard Nixon to conduct the meeting in his place. Cuba began negotiating arms purchases from the Eastern Bloc in March 1960.
In January 1961, just prior to leaving office, Eisenhower formally severed relations with the Cuban government. In April 1961, the administration of newly elected American President John F. Kennedy mounted an unsuccessful CIA - organized ship - borne invasion of the island at Playa Girón and Playa Larga in Santa Clara Province -- a failure that publicly humiliated the United States. Castro responded by publicly embracing Marxism -- Leninism, and the Soviet Union pledged to provide further support.
The Berlin Crisis of 1961 was the last major incident in the Cold War regarding the status of Berlin and post -- World War II Germany. By the early 1950s, the Soviet approach to restricting emigration movement was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. However, hundreds of thousands of East Germans annually emigrated to West Germany through a "loophole '' in the system that existed between East and West Berlin, where the four occupying World War II powers governed movement.
The emigration resulted in a massive "brain drain '' from East Germany to West Germany of younger educated professionals, such that nearly 20 % of East Germany 's population had migrated to West Germany by 1961. That June, the Soviet Union issued a new ultimatum demanding the withdrawal of Allied forces from West Berlin. The request was rebuffed, and on 13 August, East Germany erected a barbed - wire barrier that would eventually be expanded through construction into the Berlin Wall, effectively closing the loophole.
Continuing to seek ways to oust Castro following the Bay of Pigs Invasion, Kennedy and his administration experimented with various ways of covertly facilitating the overthrow of the Cuban government. Significant hopes were pinned on a covert program named the Cuban Project, devised under the Kennedy administration in 1961.
In February 1962, Khrushchev learned of the American plans regarding Cuba: a "Cuban project '' -- approved by the CIA and stipulating the overthrow of the Cuban government in October, possibly involving the American military -- and yet one more Kennedy - ordered operation to assassinate Castro. Preparations to install Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba were undertaken in response.
Alarmed, Kennedy considered various reactions, and ultimately responded to the installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba with a naval blockade and presented an ultimatum to the Soviets. Khrushchev backed down from a confrontation, and the Soviet Union removed the missiles in return for an American pledge not to invade Cuba again. Castro later admitted that "I would have agreed to the use of nuclear weapons... we took it for granted that it would become a nuclear war anyway, and that we were going to disappear. ''
The Cuban Missile Crisis (October -- November 1962) brought the world closer to nuclear war than ever before. The aftermath of the crisis led to the first efforts in the nuclear arms race at nuclear disarmament and improving relations, although the Cold War 's first arms control agreement, the Antarctic Treaty, had come into force in 1961.
In 1964, Khrushchev 's Kremlin colleagues managed to oust him, but allowed him a peaceful retirement. Accused of rudeness and incompetence, he was also credited with ruining Soviet agriculture and bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war. Khrushchev had become an international embarrassment when he authorized construction of the Berlin Wall, a public humiliation for Marxism -- Leninism.
In the course of the 1960s and 1970s, Cold War participants struggled to adjust to a new, more complicated pattern of international relations in which the world was no longer divided into two clearly opposed blocs. From the beginning of the post-war period, Western Europe and Japan rapidly recovered from the destruction of World War II and sustained strong economic growth through the 1950s and 1960s, with per capita GDPs approaching those of the United States, while Eastern Bloc economies stagnated.
As a result of the 1973 oil crisis, combined with the growing influence of Third World alignments such as the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the Non-Aligned Movement, less - powerful countries had more room to assert their independence and often showed themselves resistant to pressure from either superpower. Meanwhile, Moscow was forced to turn its attention inward to deal with the Soviet Union 's deep - seated domestic economic problems. During this period, Soviet leaders such as Leonid Brezhnev and Alexei Kosygin embraced the notion of détente.
The unity of NATO was breached early in its history, with a crisis occurring during Charles de Gaulle 's presidency of France from 1958 onwards. De Gaulle protested at the United States ' strong role in the organization and what he perceived as a special relationship between the United States and the United Kingdom. In a memorandum sent to President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Prime Minister Harold Macmillan on 17 September 1958, he argued for the creation of a tripartite directorate that would put France on an equal footing with the United States and the United Kingdom, and also for the expansion of NATO 's coverage to include geographical areas of interest to France, most notably French Algeria, where France was waging a counter-insurgency and sought NATO assistance.
Considering the response given to be unsatisfactory, de Gaulle began the development of an independent French nuclear deterrent and in 1966 withdrew from NATO 's military structures and expelled NATO troops from French soil.
In 1968, a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia called the Prague Spring took place that included "Action Program '' of liberalizations, which described increasing freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of movement, along with an economic emphasis on consumer goods, the possibility of a multiparty government, limiting the power of the secret police and potentially withdrawing from the Warsaw Pact.
In answer to the Prague Spring, on 20 August 1968, the Soviet Army, together with most of their Warsaw Pact allies, invaded Czechoslovakia. The invasion was followed by a wave of emigration, including an estimated 70,000 Czechs and Slovaks initially fleeing, with the total eventually reaching 300,000. The invasion sparked intense protests from Yugoslavia, Romania, China, and from Western European communist parties.
In September 1968, during a speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers ' Party one month after the invasion of Czechoslovakia, Brezhnev outlined the Brezhnev Doctrine, in which he claimed the right to violate the sovereignty of any country attempting to replace Marxism -- Leninism with capitalism. During the speech, Brezhnev stated:
When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries.
The doctrine found its origins in the failures of Marxism -- Leninism in states like Poland, Hungary and East Germany, which were facing a declining standard of living contrasting with the prosperity of West Germany and the rest of Western Europe.
Under the Lyndon B. Johnson Administration, which gained power after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the U.S. took a more hardline stance on Latin America -- sometimes called the "Mann Doctrine ''. In 1964, the Brazilian military overthrew the government of president João Goulart with U.S. backing. In late April 1965, the U.S. sent some 22,000 troops to the Dominican Republic for a one - year occupation in an invasion codenamed Operation Power Pack, citing the threat of the emergence of a Cuban - style revolution in Latin America. Héctor García - Godoy acted as provisional president, until conservative former president Joaquín Balaguer won the 1966 presidential election against non-campaigning former President Juan Bosch. Activists for Bosch 's Dominican Revolutionary Party were violently harassed by the Dominican police and armed forces.
In Indonesia, the hardline anti-communist General Suharto wrested control of the state from his predecessor Sukarno in an attempt to establish a "New Order ''. From 1965 to 1966, with the aid of the United States and other Western governments, the military led the mass killing of more than 500,000 members and sympathizers of the Indonesian Communist Party and other leftist organizations, and detained hundreds of thousands more in prison camps around the country under extremely inhumane conditions. A top - secret CIA report stated that the massacres "rank as one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century, along with the Soviet purges of the 1930s, the Nazi mass murders during the Second World War, and the Maoist bloodbath of the early 1950s. '' These killings served U.S. strategic interests and constitute a major turning point in the Cold War as the balance of power shifted in Southeast Asia.
Escalating the scale of American intervention in the ongoing conflict between Ngô Đình Diệm 's South Vietnamese government and the communist National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) insurgents opposing it, Johnson deployed some 575,000 troops in Southeast Asia to defeat the NLF and their North Vietnamese allies in the Vietnam War, but his costly policy weakened the US economy and, by 1975, it ultimately culminated in what most of the world saw as a humiliating defeat of the world 's most powerful superpower at the hands of one of the world 's poorest nations.
In Chile, the Socialist Party candidate Salvador Allende won the presidential election of 1970, becoming the first democratically elected Marxist to become president of a country in the Americas. The CIA targeted Allende for removal and operated to undermine his support domestically, which contributed to a period of unrest culminating in General Augusto Pinochet 's coup d'état on 11 September 1973. Pinochet consolidated power as a military dictator, Allende 's reforms of the economy were rolled back, and leftist opponents were killed or detained in internment camps under the Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional (DINA). The Pinochet regime would go on to be one of the leading participants in Operation Condor, an international campaign of political assassination and state terrorism organized by right - wing military dictatorships in the Southern Cone of South America that was covertly supported by the US government.
The Middle East remained a source of contention. Egypt, which received the bulk of its arms and economic assistance from the USSR, was a troublesome client, with a reluctant Soviet Union feeling obliged to assist in both the 1967 Six - Day War (with advisers and technicians) and the War of Attrition (with pilots and aircraft) against pro-Western Israel. Despite the beginning of an Egyptian shift from a pro-Soviet to a pro-American orientation in 1972 (under Egypt 's new leader Anwar Sadat), rumors of imminent Soviet intervention on the Egyptians ' behalf during the 1973 Yom Kippur War brought about a massive American mobilization that threatened to wreck détente. Although pre-Sadat Egypt had been the largest recipient of Soviet aid in the Middle East, the Soviets were also successful in establishing close relations with communist South Yemen, as well as the nationalist governments of Algeria and Iraq. Iraq signed a 15 - year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union in 1972. According to historian Charles R.H. Tripp, the treaty upset "the U.S. - sponsored security system established as part of the Cold War in the Middle East. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States. '' In response, the U.S. covertly financed Kurdish rebels led by Mustafa Barzani during the Second Iraqi -- Kurdish War; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians. Indirect Soviet assistance to the Palestinian side of the Israeli -- Palestinian conflict included support for Yasser Arafat 's Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).
In Africa, Somali army officers led by Siad Barre carried out a bloodless coup in 1969, creating the socialist Somali Democratic Republic. The Soviet Union vowed to support Somalia. Four years later, the pro-American Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie was overthrown in a 1974 coup by the Derg, a radical group of Ethiopian army officers led by the pro-Soviet Mengistu Haile Mariam, who built up relations with the Cubans and the Soviets. When fighting between the Somalis and Ethiopians broke out in the 1977 -- 1978 Somali - Ethiopian Ogaden War, Barre lost his Soviet support and turned to the Safari Club -- a group of pro-American intelligence agencies including Iran, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia -- for support and weapons. The Ethiopian military was supported by Cuban soldiers along with Soviet military advisors and armaments.
The 1974 Portuguese Carnation Revolution against the authoritarian Estado Novo returned Portugal to a multi-party system and facilitated the independence of the Portuguese colonies Angola and East Timor. In Africa, where Angolan rebels had waged a multi-faction independence war against Portuguese rule since 1961, a two - decade civil war replaced the anti-colonial struggle as fighting erupted between the communist People 's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), backed by the Cubans and the Soviets, and the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), backed by the United States, the People 's Republic of China, and Mobutu 's government in Zaire. The United States, the apartheid government of South Africa, and several other African governments also supported a third faction, the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). Without bothering to consult the Soviets in advance, the Cuban government sent a number of combat troops to fight alongside the MPLA. Foreign mercenaries and a South African armoured column were deployed to support UNITA, but the MPLA, bolstered by Cuban personnel and Soviet assistance, eventually gained the upper hand.
During the Vietnam War, North Vietnam invaded and occupied parts of Cambodia to use as military bases, which contributed to the violence of the Cambodian Civil War between the pro-American government of Lon Nol and communist Khmer Rouge insurgents. Documents uncovered from the Soviet archives reveal that the North Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia in 1970 was launched at the request of the Khmer Rouge after negotiations with Nuon Chea. US and South Vietnamese forces responded to these actions with a bombing campaign and ground incursion, the effects of which are disputed by historians. Under the leadership of Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge would eventually kill 1 -- 3 million Cambodians in the killing fields, out of a 1975 population of roughly 8 million. Martin Shaw described these atrocities as "the purest genocide of the Cold War era. '' Backed by the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation, an organization of Khmer pro-Soviet Communists and Khmer Rouge defectors led by Heng Samrin, Vietnam invaded Cambodia on 22 December 1978. The invasion succeeded in deposing Pol Pot, but the new state would struggle to gain international recognition beyond the Soviet Bloc sphere -- despite the previous international outcry at Pol Pot 's DK regime 's gross human rights violations, and it would be bogged down in a guerrilla war led from refugee camps located in the border with Thailand. Following Khmer Rouge 's destruction, Cambodia 's national reconstruction would be severely hampered and Vietnam would suffer a punitive Chinese attack.
As a result of the Sino - Soviet split, tensions along the Chinese -- Soviet border reached their peak in 1969, and United States President Richard Nixon decided to use the conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the Cold War. The Chinese had sought improved relations with the Americans in order to gain advantage over the Soviets as well.
In February 1972, Nixon announced a stunning rapprochement with Mao 's China by traveling to Beijing and meeting with Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai. At this time, the USSR achieved rough nuclear parity with the United States; meanwhile, the Vietnam War both weakened America 's influence in the Third World and cooled relations with Western Europe. Although indirect conflict between Cold War powers continued through the late 1960s and early 1970s, tensions were beginning to ease.
Following his visit to China, Nixon met with Soviet leaders, including Brezhnev in Moscow. These Strategic Arms Limitation Talks resulted in two landmark arms control treaties: SALT I, the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. These aimed to limit the development of costly anti-ballistic missiles and nuclear missiles.
Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence '' and established the groundbreaking new policy of détente (or cooperation) between the two superpowers. Meanwhile, Brezhnev attempted to revive the Soviet economy, which was declining in part because of heavy military expenditures. Between 1972 and 1974, the two sides also agreed to strengthen their economic ties, including agreements for increased trade. As a result of their meetings, détente would replace the hostility of the Cold War and the two countries would live mutually.
Meanwhile, these developments coincided with the "Ostpolitik '' of West German Chancellor Willy Brandt. Other agreements were concluded to stabilize the situation in Europe, culminating in the Helsinki Accords signed at the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe in 1975.
In the 1970s, the KGB, led by Yuri Andropov, continued to persecute distinguished Soviet personalities such as Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov, who were criticising the Soviet leadership in harsh terms. Indirect conflict between the superpowers continued through this period of détente in the Third World, particularly during political crises in the Middle East, Chile, Ethiopia, and Angola.
Although President Jimmy Carter tried to place another limit on the arms race with a SALT II agreement in 1979, his efforts were undermined by the other events that year, including the Iranian Revolution and the Nicaraguan Revolution, which both ousted pro-US regimes, and his retaliation against Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in December.
The term second Cold War refers to the period of intensive reawakening of Cold War tensions and conflicts in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Tensions greatly increased between the major powers with both sides becoming more militaristic. Diggins says, "Reagan went all out to fight the second cold war, by supporting counterinsurgencies in the third world. '' Cox says, "The intensity of this ' second ' Cold War was as great as its duration was short. ''
In April 1978, the communist People 's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power in Afghanistan in the Saur Revolution. Within months, opponents of the communist government launched an uprising in eastern Afghanistan that quickly expanded into a civil war waged by guerrilla mujahideen against government forces countrywide. The Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen insurgents received military training and weapons in neighboring Pakistan and China, while the Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA government. Meanwhile, increasing friction between the competing factions of the PDPA -- the dominant Khalq and the more moderate Parcham -- resulted in the dismissal of Parchami cabinet members and the arrest of Parchami military officers under the pretext of a Parchami coup. By mid-1979, the United States had started a covert program to assist the mujahideen.
In September 1979, Khalqist President Nur Muhammad Taraki was assassinated in a coup within the PDPA orchestrated by fellow Khalq member Hafizullah Amin, who assumed the presidency. Distrusted by the Soviets, Amin was assassinated by Soviet special forces in December 1979. A Soviet - organized government, led by Parcham 's Babrak Karmal but inclusive of both factions, filled the vacuum. Soviet troops were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal in more substantial numbers, although the Soviet government did not expect to do most of the fighting in Afghanistan. As a result, however, the Soviets were now directly involved in what had been a domestic war in Afghanistan.
Carter responded to the Soviet intervention by withdrawing the SALT II treaty from the Senate, imposing embargoes on grain and technology shipments to the USSR, and demanding a significant increase in military spending, and further announced that the United States would boycott the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. He described the Soviet incursion as "the most serious threat to the peace since the Second World War ''.
In January 1977, four years prior to becoming president, Ronald Reagan bluntly stated, in a conversation with Richard V. Allen, his basic expectation in relation to the Cold War. "My idea of American policy toward the Soviet Union is simple, and some would say simplistic, '' he said. "It is this: We win and they lose. What do you think of that? '' In 1980, Ronald Reagan defeated Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election, vowing to increase military spending and confront the Soviets everywhere. Both Reagan and new British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher denounced the Soviet Union and its ideology. Reagan labeled the Soviet Union an "evil empire '' and predicted that Communism would be left on the "ash heap of history, '' while Thatcher inculpated the Soviets as "bent on world dominance. ''
By early 1985, Reagan 's anti-communist position had developed into a stance known as the new Reagan Doctrine -- which, in addition to containment, formulated an additional right to subvert existing communist governments. Besides continuing Carter 's policy of supporting the Islamic opponents of the Soviet Union and the Soviet - backed PDPA government in Afghanistan, the CIA also sought to weaken the Soviet Union itself by promoting Islamism in the majority - Muslim Central Asian Soviet Union. Additionally, the CIA encouraged anti-communist Pakistan 's ISI to train Muslims from around the world to participate in the jihad against the Soviet Union.
Pope John Paul II provided a moral focus for anti-communism; a visit to his native Poland in 1979 stimulated a religious and nationalist resurgence centered on the Solidarity movement that galvanized opposition and may have led to his attempted assassination two years later. In December 1981, Poland 's Wojciech Jaruzelski reacted to the crisis by imposing a period of martial law. Reagan imposed economic sanctions on Poland in response. Mikhail Suslov, the Kremlin 's top ideologist, advised Soviet leaders not to intervene if Poland fell under the control of Solidarity, for fear it might lead to heavy economic sanctions, representing a catastrophe for the Soviet economy.
Moscow had built up a military that consumed as much as 25 percent of the Soviet Union 's gross national product at the expense of consumer goods and investment in civilian sectors. Soviet spending on the arms race and other Cold War commitments both caused and exacerbated deep - seated structural problems in the Soviet system, which saw at least a decade of economic stagnation during the late Brezhnev years.
Soviet investment in the defense sector was not driven by military necessity, but in large part by the interests of massive party and state bureaucracies dependent on the sector for their own power and privileges. The Soviet Armed Forces became the largest in the world in terms of the numbers and types of weapons they possessed, in the number of troops in their ranks, and in the sheer size of their military -- industrial base. However, the quantitative advantages held by the Soviet military often concealed areas where the Eastern Bloc dramatically lagged behind the West. For example, the Persian Gulf War demonstrated how the armor, fire control systems and firing range of the Soviet 's most common main battle tank, the T - 72, were drastically inferior to the American M1 Abrams, yet the USSR fielded almost three times as many T - 72 's as the US deployed M1 's.
By the early 1980s, the USSR had built up a military arsenal and army surpassing that of the United States. Soon after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, president Carter began massively building up the United States military. This buildup was accelerated by the Reagan administration, which increased the military spending from 5.3 percent of GNP in 1981 to 6.5 percent in 1986, the largest peacetime defense buildup in United States history.
Tensions continued intensifying in the early 1980s when Reagan revived the B - 1 Lancer program that was canceled by the Carter administration, produced LGM - 118 Peacekeepers, installed US cruise missiles in Europe, and announced his experimental Strategic Defense Initiative, dubbed "Star Wars '' by the media, a defense program to shoot down missiles in mid-flight.
With the background of a buildup in tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States, and the deployment of Soviet RSD - 10 Pioneer ballistic missiles targeting Western Europe, NATO decided, under the impetus of the Carter presidency, to deploy MGM - 31 Pershing and cruise missiles in Europe, primarily West Germany. This deployment would have placed missiles just 10 minutes ' striking distance from Moscow.
After Reagan 's military buildup, the Soviet Union did not respond by further building its military because the enormous military expenses, along with inefficient planned manufacturing and collectivized agriculture, were already a heavy burden for the Soviet economy. At the same time, Saudi Arabia increased oil production, even as other non-OPEC nations were increasing production. These developments contributed to the 1980s oil glut, which affected the Soviet Union, as oil was the main source of Soviet export revenues. Issues with command economics, oil price decreases and large military expenditures gradually brought the Soviet economy to stagnation.
On 1 September 1983, the Soviet Union shot down the Korean Air Lines Flight 007, a Boeing 747 with 269 people aboard, including sitting Congressman Larry McDonald, when it violated Soviet airspace just past the west coast of Sakhalin Island near Moneron Island -- an act which Reagan characterized as a "massacre ''. This act increased support for military deployment, overseen by Reagan, which stood in place until the later accords between Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev. The Able Archer 83 exercise in November 1983, a realistic simulation of a coordinated NATO nuclear release, was perhaps the most dangerous moment since the Cuban Missile Crisis, as the Soviet leadership feared that a nuclear attack might be imminent.
American domestic public concerns about intervening in foreign conflicts persisted from the end of the Vietnam War. The Reagan administration emphasized the use of quick, low - cost counter-insurgency tactics to intervene in foreign conflicts. In 1983, the Reagan administration intervened in the multisided Lebanese Civil War, invaded Grenada, bombed Libya and backed the Central American Contras, anti-communist paramilitaries seeking to overthrow the Soviet - aligned Sandinista government in Nicaragua. While Reagan 's interventions against Grenada and Libya were popular in the United States, his backing of the Contra rebels was mired in controversy. The Reagan administration 's backing of the military government of Guatemala during the Guatemalan Civil War, in particular the regime of Efraín Ríos Montt, was also controversial.
Meanwhile, the Soviets incurred high costs for their own foreign interventions. Although Brezhnev was convinced in 1979 that the Soviet war in Afghanistan would be brief, Muslim guerrillas, aided by the US, China, Britain, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, waged a fierce resistance against the invasion. The Kremlin sent nearly 100,000 troops to support its puppet regime in Afghanistan, leading many outside observers to dub the war "the Soviets ' Vietnam ''. However, Moscow 's quagmire in Afghanistan was far more disastrous for the Soviets than Vietnam had been for the Americans because the conflict coincided with a period of internal decay and domestic crisis in the Soviet system.
A senior US State Department official predicted such an outcome as early as 1980, positing that the invasion resulted in part from a "domestic crisis within the Soviet system... It may be that the thermodynamic law of entropy has... caught up with the Soviet system, which now seems to expend more energy on simply maintaining its equilibrium than on improving itself. We could be seeing a period of foreign movement at a time of internal decay ''.
By the time the comparatively youthful Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary in 1985, the Soviet economy was stagnant and faced a sharp fall in foreign currency earnings as a result of the downward slide in oil prices in the 1980s. These issues prompted Gorbachev to investigate measures to revive the ailing state.
An ineffectual start led to the conclusion that deeper structural changes were necessary and in June 1987 Gorbachev announced an agenda of economic reform called perestroika, or restructuring. Perestroika relaxed the production quota system, allowed private ownership of businesses and paved the way for foreign investment. These measures were intended to redirect the country 's resources from costly Cold War military commitments to more productive areas in the civilian sector.
Despite initial skepticism in the West, the new Soviet leader proved to be committed to reversing the Soviet Union 's deteriorating economic condition instead of continuing the arms race with the West. Partly as a way to fight off internal opposition from party cliques to his reforms, Gorbachev simultaneously introduced glasnost, or openness, which increased freedom of the press and the transparency of state institutions. Glasnost was intended to reduce the corruption at the top of the Communist Party and moderate the abuse of power in the Central Committee. Glasnost also enabled increased contact between Soviet citizens and the western world, particularly with the United States, contributing to the accelerating détente between the two nations.
In response to the Kremlin 's military and political concessions, Reagan agreed to renew talks on economic issues and the scaling - back of the arms race. The first summit was held in November 1985 in Geneva, Switzerland. At one stage the two men, accompanied only by an interpreter, agreed in principle to reduce each country 's nuclear arsenal by 50 percent. A second summit, was held in October 1986, Reykjavík, Iceland. Talks went well until the focus shifted to Reagan 's proposed Strategic Defense Initiative, which Gorbachev wanted eliminated. Reagan refused. The negotiations failed, but the third summit in 1987 led to a breakthrough with the signing of the Intermediate - Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF). The INF treaty eliminated all nuclear - armed, ground - launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers (300 to 3,400 miles) and their infrastructure.
East -- West tensions rapidly subsided through the mid-to - late 1980s, culminating with the final summit in Moscow in 1989, when Gorbachev and George H.W. Bush signed the START I arms control treaty. During the following year it became apparent to the Soviets that oil and gas subsidies, along with the cost of maintaining massive troops levels, represented a substantial economic drain. In addition, the security advantage of a buffer zone was recognised as irrelevant and the Soviets officially declared that they would no longer intervene in the affairs of allied states in Central and Eastern Europe.
In 1989, Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan and by 1990 Gorbachev consented to German reunification, the only alternative being a Tiananmen Square scenario. When the Berlin Wall came down, Gorbachev 's "Common European Home '' concept began to take shape.
On 3 December 1989, Gorbachev and Reagan 's successor, George H.W. Bush, declared the Cold War over at the Malta Summit; a year later, the two former rivals were partners in the Gulf War against Iraq (August 1990 -- February 1991).
By 1989, the Soviet alliance system was on the brink of collapse, and, deprived of Soviet military support, the communist leaders of the Warsaw Pact states were losing power. Grassroots organizations, such as Poland 's Solidarity movement, rapidly gained ground with strong popular bases. In 1989, the communist governments in Poland and Hungary became the first to negotiate the organizing of competitive elections. In Czechoslovakia and East Germany, mass protests unseated entrenched communist leaders. The communist regimes in Bulgaria and Romania also crumbled, in the latter case as the result of a violent uprising. Attitudes had changed enough that US Secretary of State James Baker suggested that the American government would not be opposed to Soviet intervention in Romania, on behalf of the opposition, to prevent bloodshed. The tidal wave of change culminated with the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, which symbolized the collapse of European communist governments and graphically ended the Iron Curtain divide of Europe. The 1989 revolutionary wave swept across Central and Eastern Europe and peacefully overthrew all of the Soviet - style communist states: East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria; Romania was the only Eastern - bloc country to topple its communist regime violently and execute its head of state.
In the USSR itself, glasnost weakened the bonds that held the Soviet Union together and by February 1990, with the dissolution of the USSR looming, the Communist Party was forced to surrender its 73 - year - old monopoly on state power. At the same time freedom of press and dissent allowed by glasnost and the festering "nationalities question '' increasingly led the Union 's component republics to declare their autonomy from Moscow, with the Baltic states withdrawing from the Union entirely.
Gorbachev 's permissive attitude toward Central and Eastern Europe did not initially extend to Soviet territory; even Bush, who strove to maintain friendly relations, condemned the January 1991 killings in Latvia and Lithuania, privately warning that economic ties would be frozen if the violence continued. The USSR was fatally weakened by a failed coup and a growing number of Soviet republics, particularly Russia, who threatened to secede from the USSR. The Commonwealth of Independent States, created on 21 December 1991, is viewed as a successor entity to the Soviet Union but, according to Russia 's leaders, its purpose was to "allow a civilized divorce '' between the Soviet Republics and is comparable to a loose confederation. The USSR was declared officially dissolved on 26 December 1991.
US President at that time, George H.W. Bush, expressed his emotions: "The biggest thing that has happened in the world in my life, in our lives, is this: By the grace of God, America won the Cold War. ''
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia drastically cut military spending, and restructuring the economy left millions unemployed. The capitalist reforms culminated in a recession in the early 1990s more severe than the Great Depression as experienced by the United States and Germany.
The Cold War continues to influence world affairs. The post-Cold War world is considered to be unipolar, with the United States the sole remaining superpower. The Cold War defined the political role of the United States after World War II -- by 1989 the United States had military alliances with 50 countries, with 526,000 troops stationed abroad, with 326,000 in Europe (two - thirds of which in west Germany) and 130,000 in Asia (mainly Japan and South Korea). The Cold War also marked the zenith of peacetime military -- industrial complexes, especially in the United States, and large - scale military funding of science. These complexes, though their origins may be found as early as the 19th century, snowballed considerably during the Cold War.
Cumulative U.S. military expenditures throughout the entire Cold War amounted to an estimated $8 trillion. Further nearly 100,000 Americans lost their lives in the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Although Soviet casualties are difficult to estimate, as a share of their gross national product the financial cost for the Soviet Union was much higher than that incurred by the United States.
In addition to the loss of life by uniformed soldiers, millions died in the superpowers ' proxy wars around the globe, most notably in Southeast Asia. Most of the proxy wars and subsidies for local conflicts ended along with the Cold War; interstate wars, ethnic wars, revolutionary wars, as well as refugee and displaced persons crises have declined sharply in the post-Cold War years. Left over from the Cold War are numbers stations, which are shortwave radio stations thought to be used to broadcast covert messages, some of which can still be heard today.
However, the aftermath of the Cold War is not always easily erased, as many of the economic and social tensions that were exploited to fuel Cold War competition in parts of the Third World remain acute. The breakdown of state control in a number of areas formerly ruled by communist governments produced new civil and ethnic conflicts, particularly in the former Yugoslavia. In Central and Eastern Europe, the end of the Cold War has ushered in an era of economic growth and an increase in the number of liberal democracies, while in other parts of the world, such as Afghanistan, independence was accompanied by state failure.
During the Cold War itself, with the United States and the Soviet Union invested heavily in propaganda designed to influence the hearts and minds of people around the world, especially using motion pictures.
The Cold War endures as a popular topic reflected extensively in entertainment media, and continuing to the present with numerous post-1991 Cold War - themed feature films, novels, television, and other media. In 2013, a KGB - sleeper - agents - living - next - door action drama series, The Americans, set in the early 1980s, was ranked # 6 on the Metacritic annual Best New TV Shows list; its final season will begin airing in March 2018. At the same time, movies like Crimson Tide (1995) are shown in their entirety to educate college students about the Cold War.
As soon as the term "Cold War '' was popularized to refer to post-war tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, interpreting the course and origins of the conflict has been a source of heated controversy among historians, political scientists, and journalists. In particular, historians have sharply disagreed as to who was responsible for the breakdown of Soviet -- US relations after the Second World War; and whether the conflict between the two superpowers was inevitable, or could have been avoided. Historians have also disagreed on what exactly the Cold War was, what the sources of the conflict were, and how to disentangle patterns of action and reaction between the two sides.
Although explanations of the origins of the conflict in academic discussions are complex and diverse, several general schools of thought on the subject can be identified. Historians commonly speak of three differing approaches to the study of the Cold War: "orthodox '' accounts, "revisionism '', and "post-revisionism ''.
"Orthodox '' accounts place responsibility for the Cold War on the Soviet Union and its expansion further into Europe. "Revisionist '' writers place more responsibility for the breakdown of post-war peace on the United States, citing a range of US efforts to isolate and confront the Soviet Union well before the end of World War II. "Post-revisionists '' see the events of the Cold War as more nuanced, and attempt to be more balanced in determining what occurred during the Cold War. Much of the historiography on the Cold War weaves together two or even all three of these broad categories.
|
yeh rishta kya kehlata hai lead actress name | Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai - Wikipedia
Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai (English: What Is This Relationship Called?) is a Hindi language television drama that premiered on January 12, 2009 in India and aired every Monday through Friday at 9: 30 pm on Star Plus. The show focuses on the daily life of an Udaipur based Rajasthani family. It is produced by Rajan Shahi 's Director 's Kut Productions, and is the longest running Indian television series based on episode count, surpassing Balika Vadhu. The show 's lead characters are Naira (Shivangi Joshi), Kartik (Mohsin Khan), Keerti (Mohena Singh) and Naksh (Rishi Dev). The series initially focused on Naira 's parents Akshara (Hina Khan) and Naitik (Karan Mehra).
Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai was initially the story of a young couple, Akshara and Naitik Singhania where they lived in a Marwari joint family in Udaipur. The story showcases their journey as a married couple going through adjustment issues, as parents of young children, and how they learn to love each other and their respective extended families while becoming mature members of their household but now the story focuses on Naira and Kartik Goenka facing the same journey that Naira 's parents faced but with a youthful twist.
After an accident, Naitik falls into a coma. Naksh (Akshara and Naitik 's son) is now 5 and does n't know about his father. One day, Naitik comes back and although at first Naksh does n't welcome his father, he later accepts him into his life. Soon the family travel and Gayatri (Naitik 's mother) dies. Now Rajsekhar (Naitik 's dad) is asked to marry someone, and he marries Devyani, who comes with her two children from a divorced marriage. Later, Bhabimaa 's husband died, and Bhabimaa (Naitik 's aunt) blames it on Akshara and kicks her out of the house, after Akshara 's daughter Naira is born. Akshara, Naitik, Naksh and Naira leave the house.
Naksh is now a mature adult and Naira is a diva teenager. Akshara and Naitik, along with Naksh and Naira, live in Cape Town. Naksh returns to Udaipur. He tries to clear up the misunderstanding with Bhabimaa. After many days, Akshara is forgiven and is allowed to return. The story then focuses on Naksh. He falls in love with Tara, and preparations for their wedding are made. Just minutes before the ceremony, she breaks up with him.
The show focuses on teenage Naira, who flees from her house and now lives in Rishikesh, nursing hatred for her mother. After finding Naira, the story takes a new twist: a love triangle that forms between Kartik (Naitik 's employee), Naira and Gayu (Naitik 's niece). Naira and Kartik have feelings for each other but do n't know that it 's love. Meanwhile, Gayu loves Kartik, unaware that Kartik does n't love her back. When Kartik proposes Naira, she initially rejects him, but by the time she realizes that Gayu also loves him, she thinks of sacrificing her happiness in favor of Gayu. When Mishti (Naira 's cousin) reveals that Kartik loves only Naira, Kartik and Naira confess their love for each other; Gayatri understands. Kartik does n't want to talk about his family as he hates them. Meanwhile, on Akshara 's birthday, everyone goes for a veneration, but Akshara dies in a car accident. Singhanias blame Kartik for Akshara 's death as Kartik was found drunk and injured at the accident site. Kartik 's family shows up and supports Kartik. Later, Naira finds that Kartik is not the culprit. She proves Kartik 's innocence by finding the real culprit. Kartik does n't like his father and stepmother as he thinks they were responsible for his mother 's death. Seeing Kartik 's feelings towards a Singhanias, his family approves of their relationship in spite of not being much in favor of it.
The two families (Goenka and Singhania) start making preparations for their wedding. Just before the wedding, Kartik discovers the real culprit who ran Akshara over and yearns to tell Naira, but his uncle convinces him that he will tell her. He reneges and tells Naira only that Kartik is missing his mother. Finally, the wedding takes place. Few days later, Naira meets the man whose brother is in jail for killing her mother and learns that Akshara 's accident was caused by Mansi (Kartik 's cousin). The news reaches the Singhanias and they are heartbroken. The Goenkas come to apologize. Naira is initially very hurt and angry with Kartik, but she understands that it 's not his fault. She takes Akshara 's accident case back and forgives Mansi. On Karthik 's birthday, he comes to know that Aditya (Kartik 's brother in law) tortures Keerti (Kartik 's sister) and, along with Naira, decides to expose him. Eventually, Aditya 's truth comes out and Keerti and Aditya gets divorced.
Suhasini Goenka (Kartik 's grandmother) wants to find a suitable match for Keerti and later forces Naira to get Naksh and Keerti married. Naksh accepts the proposal for the sake of Naira.
Another parallel story about Manish And Saumya Goenka (Kartik 's mother) gets revealed. Saumya was a mental patient and committed suicide long back. Manish (Kartik 's father) kept the fact hidden keeping his promise to Saumya. Later, Kartik learns the truth and his misunderstandings regarding Manish gets cleared up.
Naksh and Keerti get married.
Parallel with Akshara and Naitik 's stories, the stories of their respective siblings also form significant story arcs in the series. Past plots have been built around the lives of Naitik 's sisters Nandini and Rashmi. The series has also focused on Naitik 's step - siblings. The series also paralleled the story of Akshara - Naitik with that of Varsha - Shaurya. Varsha is Akshara 's best friend, and Shaurya is Akshara 's older brother. The shows also focus on Naksh, Kartik, Naira, Gayatri "Gayu '' Deora and Tara. Naksh is Naitik and Akshara 's son; Gayu is Nikhil - Rashmi 's daughter (Sameer 's stepdaughter). Naira, the youngest child and only daughter of Akshara and Naitik, is now the main female lead character of the show. Kartik, Naitik 's employee and Naira 's love interest, is the new male lead character of the show. Tara was Naksh 's fiancée until she leaves him.
Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai had several crossover episodes with various shows. In 2009, the show had a connection with Sapna Babul Ka... Bidaai. In 2012, the show had a crossover episode with Diya Aur Baati Hum. In 2016, Diya Aur Baati Hum 's lead actress Deepika Singh made an entry.
The show is one of the most often awarded shows of Indian Television and is India 's longest running television series by episode count. Hina Khan participated in the ' Power of 49 ' campaign in which soap opera actors used their influence to urge women to vote.
Shoma Munshi said the show has "simplicity and highly emotional content '' and was noted for placing female characters in the historical tradition of a large joint family.
The show is also broadcast by Urdu 1 and Star Plus sister channel STAR Utsav. The show always maintained the top spot among Indian TV serials that aired in Pakistan. The show was beaten three to four times by Kumkum Bhagya that aired on Geo Kahani but recovered its leading position. The show also recorded one of the highest TRP in Pakistan.
Star Parivaar Awards
New Talent Awards
Indian Television Academy Awards
Indian Telly Awards
Kalakar Awards
Lions Gold Awards
Star Guild Awards
Garv Indian TV Awards
BIG Star Young Entertainers Awards
BIG Star Entertainment Awards
FICCI Excellence Awards and Frames Honours
ref name = "KA '' / > - rowspan = "2 '' 2015 Best Actress Hina Khan rowspan = "2 '' style = "background: # 99FF99; color: black; vertical - align: middle; text - align: center; '' class = "yes table - yes2 '' Won
|
def leppard - historia / in the round in your face | Historia / live: in the Round, in Your Face - wikipedia
Historia / Live: In the Round, in Your Face is a DVD from Def Leppard. The DVD is a double feature which includes the original Historia and Live: In the Round, in Your Face VHS releases combined onto a single disc. The DVD also includes brand new interviews and previously unreleased music videos as extra features. The original footage was not remastered, however the soundtrack was remastered to enhanced stereo.
The instrumental played during the opening montage of the audience entering the arena while the band warms up backstage is an edit of the "Lunar Mix '' of "Rocket '' (found on the 2006 "Deluxe Edition '' of Hysteria) while the instrumental "Switch 625 '' is played over the credits, along with backstage clips of the band.
The 2001 DVD release contains errors not present on the original VHS and Laserdisc releases. According to sources close to the band, there are no plans to fix the errors at this time:
|
when was the last time congress declared war on another nation | Declaration of war by the United States - wikipedia
A declaration of war is a formal declaration issued by a national government indicating that a state of war exists between that nation and another. The document Declarations of War and Authorizations for the Use of Military Force: Historical Background and Legal Implications gives an extensive listing and summary of statutes which are automatically engaged upon the US declaring war.
For the United States, Article One, Section Eight of the Constitution says "Congress shall have power to... declare War ''. However, that passage provides no specific format for what form legislation must have in order to be considered a "declaration of war '' nor does the Constitution itself use this term. In the courts, the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, in Doe v. Bush, said: "(T) he text of the October Resolution itself spells out justifications for a war and frames itself as an ' authorization ' of such a war. '' in effect saying an authorization suffices for declaration and what some may view as a formal Congressional "Declaration of War '' was not required by the Constitution.
This article will use the term "formal declaration of war '' to mean Congressional legislation that uses the phrase "declaration of war '' in the title. Elsewhere, this article will use the terms "authorized by Congress '', "funded by Congress '' or "undeclared war '' to describe other such conflicts.
The United States has formally declared war against foreign nations five separate times, each upon prior request by the President of the United States. Four of those five declarations came after hostilities had begun. James Madison reported that in the Federal Convention of 1787, the phrase "make war '' was changed to "declare war '' in order to leave to the Executive the power to repel sudden attacks but not to commence war without the explicit approval of Congress. Debate continues as to the legal extent of the President 's authority in this regard. Public opposition to American involvement in foreign wars, particularly during the 1930s, was expressed as support for a Constitutional Amendment that would require a national referendum on a declaration of war. Several Constitutional Amendments, such as the Ludlow Amendment, have been proposed that would require a national referendum on a declaration of war.
After Congress repealed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in January 1971 and President Richard Nixon continued to wage war in Vietnam, Congress passed the War Powers Resolution (Pub. L. 93 -- 148) over the veto of Nixon in an attempt to rein in some of the president 's claimed powers. The War Powers Resolution proscribes the only power of the president to wage war which is recognized by Congress.
The table below lists the five wars in which the United States has formally declared war against eleven foreign nations. The only country against which the United States has declared war more than once is Germany, against which the United States has declared war twice (though a case could be made for Hungary as a successor state to Austria - Hungary).
In World War II, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Germany and Italy, led respectively by Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, declared war on the United States, and the U.S. Congress responded in kind.
Mexico
In other instances, the United States has engaged in extended military combat that was authorized by Congress.
Tripolitania
Commune of Estonia Far Eastern Republic Latvia Mongolian People 's Party Russia Ukraine
Laotian Civil War
Cambodian Civil War
China National United Front of Kampuchea
North Korea North Vietnam Pathet Lao South Vietnam
al - Qaeda insurgency in Yemen
Somali Civil War
War in North - West Pakistan
Moro conflict
Iraqi Civil War
Syrian Civil War
Second Libyan Civil War
al - Qaeda
Harakat Ahrar al - Sham al - Islamiyya Hezb - e Islami Gulbuddin Islamic Jihad Union Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan Jamaat - ul - Ahrar Jundallah Lashkar - e-Islam Lashkar - e-Jhangvi Tehreek - e-Nafaz - e-Shariat - e-Mohammadi Turkistan Islamic Party Tehrik - i - Taliban Pakistan
High Council of the Islamic Emirate Fidai Mahaz
al - Itihaad al - Islamiya Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia Harakat al - Shabaab Mujahedeen Hizbul Islam Islamic Courts Union Jabhatul Islamiya Mu'askar Anole Ras Kamboni Brigades
Abu Sayyaf Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters Islamic State Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan Maute group Khalifa Islamiyah Mindanao
In many instances, the United States has engaged in extended military engagements that were authorized by United Nations Security Council Resolutions and funded by appropriations from Congress.
North Korea Soviet Union
UNSCR 426, 1978
UNSCR 1542, 2004
German auxiliaries
Native Americans
On at least 125 occasions, the President has acted without prior express military authorization from Congress. These include instances in which the United States fought in the Philippine -- American War from 1898 -- 1903, in Nicaragua in 1927, as well as the NATO bombing campaign of Yugoslavia in 1999, and the 2017 missile strikes on Syria.
The United States ' longest war was fought between approximately 1840 and 1886 against the Apache Nation. During that entire 46 - year period, there was never more than 90 days of peace.
The Indian Wars comprise at least 28 conflicts and engagements. These localized conflicts, with Native Americans, began with European colonists coming to North America, long before the establishment of the United States. For the purpose of this discussion, the Indian Wars are defined as conflicts with the United States of America. They begin as one front in the American Revolutionary War in 1775 and had concluded by 1918. The United States Army still maintains a campaign streamer for Pine Ridge 1890 -- 1891 despite opposition from certain Native American groups.
The American Civil War was not an international conflict under the laws of war, because the Confederate States of America was not a government that had been granted full diplomatic recognition as a sovereign nation by other sovereign states. The CSA was recognized by the United States government as a belligerent power, a different status of recognition that authorized Confederate warships to visit non-U.S. ports. This recognition of the CSA 's status as a belligerent power did not impose any duty upon the United States to recognize the sovereignty of the Confederacy, and the United States never did so.
In 1973, following the withdrawal of most American troops from the Vietnam War, a debate emerged about the extent of presidential power in deploying troops without a declaration of war. A compromise in the debate was reached with the War Powers Resolution. This act clearly defined how many soldiers could be deployed by the President of the United States and for how long. It also required formal reports by the President to Congress regarding the status of such deployments, and limited the total amount of time that American forces could be deployed without a formal declaration of war.
Although the constitutionality of the act has never been tested, it is usually followed, most notably during the Grenada Conflict, the Panamanian Conflict, the Somalia Conflict, the Persian Gulf War, and the Iraq War. The only exception was President Clinton 's use of U.S. troops in the 78 - day NATO air campaign against Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War. In all other cases, the President asserted the constitutional authority to commit troops without the necessity of Congressional approval, but in each case the President received Congressional authorization that satisfied the provisions of the War Powers Act.
On March 21, 2011, a number of lawmakers expressed concern that the decision of President Barack Obama to order the U.S. military to join in attacks of Libyan air defenses and government forces exceeded his constitutional authority because the decision to authorize the attack was made without Congressional permission. Obama explained his rationale in a two - page letter, stating that as commander in chief, he had constitutional authority to authorize the strikes, which would be limited in scope and duration, and necessary to prevent a humanitarian disaster in Libya.
|
who is the girl from the priceline commercial | Kaley Cuoco - wikipedia
Kaley Christine Cuoco (/ ˈkeɪli ˈkwoʊkoʊ / KAY - lee KWOH - koh; born November 30, 1985) is an American actress. After a series of supporting film and television roles in the late 1990s, she landed her breakthrough role as Bridget Hennessy on the ABC sitcom 8 Simple Rules, on which she starred from 2002 to 2005. Thereafter, Cuoco appeared as Billie Jenkins on the final season of the television series Charmed (2005 -- 2006). Since 2007, she has starred as Penny on the CBS sitcom The Big Bang Theory, for which she has received Satellite, Critics ' Choice, and People 's Choice Awards. Cuoco 's film work includes roles in To Be Fat like Me (2007), Hop (2011) and Authors Anonymous (2014). She received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2014. In October 2017, Cuoco founded Yes, Norman Productions.
Cuoco was born in Camarillo, California, the elder daughter of Layne Ann (Wingate), a homemaker, and Gary Carmine Cuoco, a realtor. Her father is of Italian descent while her mother is of English and German ancestry. Her sister, Briana, competed on the fifth season of The Voice. As a child, Cuoco was a regionally ranked amateur tennis player, a sport she took up when she was 3 years old. She stopped playing at the age of 16.
Cuoco made her first feature film appearance as the young Karin Carter in the 1995 action thriller Virtuosity. From 2000 to 2001, Cuoco appeared on the CBS sitcom Ladies Man and in 2000 she portrayed former The Brady Bunch star Maureen McCormick in the TV movie Growing Up Brady as well as starring in the Disney Channel original film Alley Cats Strike. In September 2002, Cuoco began a starring role as Bridget Hennessy on the ABC sitcom 8 Simple Rules. Bridget was the oldest child, despite Cuoco being six years younger than Amy Davidson, who played her younger sister. Because of low ratings, ABC canceled the series on May 17, 2005.
In addition to the final season of 8 Simple Rules, Cuoco had starring roles on the NBC miniseries 10.5, the ABC Family original movie Crimes of Fashion, the independent film Debating Robert Lee, and in the film The Hollow at the same time She also voiced the character of Brandy Harrington, a 14 - year - old anthropomorphic mixed - breed dog, on the Disney Channel cartoon Brandy and Mr. Whiskers. Cuoco voiced the character of Kirstee Smith in Bratz from 2004 to 2005. In the eighth season of the TV show Charmed, Cuoco appeared as Billie Jenkins, a powerful young witch with the powers of telekinesis and projection. Executive producer Brad Kern stated that Cuoco 's character was initially brought in as a possible spin - off.
In September 2007, Cuoco began starring in the CBS sitcom The Big Bang Theory, playing Penny, a Cheesecake Factory employee and aspiring actress who lives across the hall from physicists Dr. Leonard Hofstadter and Dr. Sheldon Cooper. Prior to the 2010 -- 2011 season, she earned $60,000 an episode for the series, the same as her co-stars. In 2010, the cast negotiated a raise for each actor to make $200,000 per episode. On September 13, 2010, she broke her leg in a horse - riding accident and missed two episodes of the series. In late October 2012, Cuoco enlisted the help of her sister Briana to organize a flash mob on the set of the show, in which she and the cast and crew surprised the studio audience by suddenly lip syncing and dancing to Carly Rae Jepsen 's song "Call Me Maybe ''. A video of the event was posted on YouTube and became a viral success. A clip from the performance was also played during Cuoco 's January 8, 2013 appearance on the late night talk show Conan. As of August 2014, Cuoco and her co-stars from The Big Bang Theory Johnny Galecki and Jim Parsons, each earn an estimated $1 million per episode.
Cuoco starred in the Lifetime film To Be Fat like Me, which premiered on January 8, 2007. She played a minor role in the Prison Break episodes "The Message '' and "Chicago '', as well as starring in the comedy horror spoof Killer Movie in 2008. She also appeared in the 2010 film The Penthouse. In 2011, Cuoco appeared in Allure magazine 's annual "Naked Truth '' feature. That same year, she appeared in the films Hop and The Last Ride. She was also chosen to host the Teen Choice Awards in 2011, as well as the People 's Choice Awards in 2012 and 2013. Cuoco is a regular on Priceline.com commercials as the daughter of William Shatner 's character.
In October 2017, Cuoco founded Yes, Norman Productions, a film and television production company which entered an exclusive multi-year first look production deal with Warner Bros. Television. The company optioned the rights to The Flight Attendant, a book written by author Chris Bohjalian, which will be developed into an limited series, with Cuoco to star and executive produce.
While working on The Big Bang Theory, Cuoco privately dated co-star Johnny Galecki for roughly two years until December 2009, while their characters on the show were also dating. She told CBS Watch in September 2010 that they have remained on good terms since ending their relationship. She became engaged to addiction specialist Josh Resnik in October 2011, but they ended their engagement by March 2012.
Cuoco subsequently became engaged to professional tennis player Ryan Sweeting in September 2013, after three months of dating. They married on December 31, 2013, in Santa Susana, California.
Cuoco received significant media attention surrounding a remark she made in an interview with Redbook magazine while married to Ryan Sweeting. When asked if she considered herself a feminist, Cuoco responded:
Is it bad if I say no? I was never that feminist girl demanding equality, but maybe that 's because I 've never really faced inequality... I cook for Ryan five nights a week: it makes me feel like a housewife. I love that. I know it sounds old - fashioned, but I like the idea of women taking care of their men.
In subsequent interviews, Cuoco has apologized for and retracted these statements, telling Cosmopolitan magazine, "of course I 'm a fucking feminist. Look at me. I bleed feminism. ''
On September 25, 2015, it was announced that she and Sweeting had decided to divorce. The divorce was finalized in May 2016.
Following the split, she began dating equestrian Karl Cook in late 2016. They became engaged on November 30, 2017, Cuoco 's 32nd birthday.
|
who won the popular vote 2016 presidential election | United states presidential Election, 2016 - wikipedia
Barack Obama Democratic
Donald Trump Republican
The United States presidential election of 2016 was the 58th quadrennial American presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 8, 2016. In a surprise victory, the Republican ticket of businessman Donald Trump and Indiana Governor Mike Pence defeated the Democratic ticket of former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and U.S. Senator from Virginia Tim Kaine despite losing the popular vote. Trump took office as the 45th President, and Pence as the 48th Vice President, on January 20, 2017. Incumbent Democratic President Barack Obama was ineligible to run for a third term due to the term limits established by the 22nd Amendment. Concurrent with the presidential election, Senate, House, and many gubernatorial and state and local elections were also held on November 8.
Clinton secured the Democratic nomination after fending off a strong primary challenge from Senator Bernie Sanders. Amidst a wide Republican field, Trump emerged as the front - runner, defeating Ted Cruz, Marco Rubio, John Kasich, Jeb Bush and other candidates. Clinton ran on a platform of continuing and expanding President Obama 's policies, emphasizing issues of racial, LGBT, and women 's rights, and "inclusive capitalism ''; whereas Trump promised to "Make America Great Again '' by implementing a populist and nationalist agenda, opposing political correctness, illegal immigration, and many free - trade agreements. The tone of the general election campaign was widely characterized as divisive and negative, with both candidates beleaguered by controversy. Trump made numerous controversial remarks about race and immigration, was accused of inciting violence against protestors at his rallies, and faced multiple allegations of sexual misconduct (which he denied), but was also able to garner extensive free media coverage. Clinton, whose public approval ratings had declined sharply since the end of her tenure as Secretary of State, was dogged by an FBI investigation of her improper use of a private email server, while her assertion that "half '' of Trump 's supporters were bigoted "deplorables '' met with polarized reactions. Clinton held the lead in nearly every pre-election nationwide poll and in most swing state polls.
Voters selected members of the Electoral College in each state, in most cases by "winner - takes - all '' plurality; those state electors in turn voted for a new president and vice president on December 19, 2016. While Clinton received over 2.8 million more votes nationwide, a margin of 2.1 %, Trump won 30 states with a total of 306 electors, or 57 % of the 538 available. He won two perennial swing states which typically decide an election, in Florida and Ohio. Trump also won three "blue wall '' stronghold states that had not gone Republican since the 1980s: Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. He also won Maine 's 2nd congressional district, which had also not been won by a Republican presidential candidate since 1988. Leading up to the election, a Trump victory was considered unlikely by almost all media forecasts. After his victory was assured, some commentators compared the election to President Harry S. Truman 's victorious campaign in 1948 as one of the greatest political upsets in modern American history.
In the Electoral College vote on December 19, seven electors voted against their pledged candidates: two against Trump and five against Clinton. A further three electors attempted to vote against Clinton but were replaced or forced to vote again. Ultimately, Trump received 304 electoral votes and Clinton garnered 227, while Colin Powell won three, and John Kasich, Ron Paul, Bernie Sanders, and Faith Spotted Eagle each received one. Trump is the fifth person in U.S. history to become president while losing the nationwide popular vote. He is the first president without any prior experience in public service or the military, as well as the wealthiest and the oldest at inauguration, while Clinton was the first woman to be the presidential nominee of a major American party and the first woman to win the popular vote.
On January 6, 2017, the United States government 's intelligence agencies concluded that the Russian government had interfered in the 2016 United States elections. A joint U.S. intelligence community review stated with high confidence that "Russian President Vladimir Putin ordered an influence campaign in 2016 aimed at the US presidential election. Russia 's goals were to undermine public faith in the US democratic process, denigrate Secretary Clinton, and harm her electability and potential presidency. '' President Trump repeatedly criticized these intelligence claims, citing a lack of evidence and calling the issue a "hoax '' and "fake news ''. Investigations about potential collusion between the Trump campaign and Russian officials were started by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Senate Intelligence Committee, and the House Intelligence Committee. Former FBI Director Robert Mueller was appointed as special counsel in May 2017 by Acting Attorney General Rod Rosenstein to oversee the ongoing investigation into "any links and / or coordination '' between the Trump campaign and the Russian government in its election interference, and any related illegal acts.
Article Two of the United States Constitution provides that the President and Vice President of the United States must be natural - born citizens of the United States, at least 35 years old, and residents of the United States for a period of at least 14 years. Candidates for the presidency typically seek the nomination of one of the political parties, in which case each party devises a method (such as a primary election) to choose the candidate the party deems best suited to run for the position. Traditionally, the primary elections are indirect elections where voters cast ballots for a slate of party delegates pledged to a particular candidate. The party 's delegates then officially nominate a candidate to run on the party 's behalf. The general election in November is also an indirect election, where voters cast ballots for a slate of members of the Electoral College; these electors in turn directly elect the President and Vice President.
President Barack Obama, a Democrat and former U.S. Senator from Illinois, was ineligible to seek reelection to a third term due to the restrictions of the Twenty - second Amendment; in accordance with Section 1 of the Twentieth Amendment, his term expired at noon on January 20, 2017.
The series of presidential primary elections and caucuses took place between February and June 2016, staggered among the 50 states, the District of Columbia and U.S. territories. This nominating process was also an indirect election, where voters cast ballots for a slate of delegates to a political party 's nominating convention, who in turn elected their party 's presidential nominee.
Speculation about the 2016 campaign began almost immediately following the 2012 campaign, with New York magazine declaring the race had begun in an article published on November 8, two days after the 2012 election. On the same day, Politico released an article predicting the 2016 general election would be between Clinton and former Florida Governor Jeb Bush, while a New York Times article named New Jersey Governor Chris Christie and Senator Cory Booker from New Jersey as potential candidates.
With seventeen major candidates entering the race, starting with Ted Cruz on March 23, 2015, this was the largest presidential primary field for any political party in American history.
Prior to the Iowa caucuses on February 1, 2016, Perry, Walker, Jindal, Graham, and Pataki withdrew due to low polling numbers. Despite leading many polls in Iowa, Trump came in second to Cruz, after which Huckabee, Paul and Santorum withdrew due to poor performances at the ballot box. Following a sizable victory for Trump in the New Hampshire primary, Christie, Fiorina and Gilmore abandoned the race. Bush followed suit after scoring fourth place to Trump, Rubio and Cruz in South Carolina. On March 1, 2016, the first of four "Super Tuesday '' primaries, Rubio won his first contest in Minnesota, Cruz won Alaska, Oklahoma and his home of Texas and Trump won the other seven states that voted. Failing to gain traction, Carson suspended his campaign a few days later. On March 15, 2016, the second "Super Tuesday '', Kasich won his only contest in his home state of Ohio and Trump won five primaries including Florida. Rubio suspended his campaign after losing his home state.
Between March 16 and May 3, 2016, only three candidates remained in the race: Trump, Cruz and Kasich. Cruz won the most delegates in four Western contests and in Wisconsin, keeping a credible path to denying Trump the nomination on first ballot with 1,237 delegates. Trump then augmented his lead by scoring landslide victories in New York and five Northeastern states in April, followed by a decisive victory in Indiana on May 3, 2016, securing all 57 of the state 's delegates. Without any further chances of forcing a contested convention, both Cruz and Kasich suspended their campaigns. Trump remained the only active candidate and was declared the presumptive Republican nominee by Republican National Committee chairman Reince Priebus on the evening of May 3, 2016.
Major candidates were determined by the various media based on common consensus. The following were invited to sanctioned televised debates based on their poll ratings.
Trump received 14,010,177 total votes in the primary. Trump, Cruz, Rubio and Kasich each won at least one primary, with Trump receiving the highest number of votes and Ted Cruz receiving the second highest.
Trump turned his attention towards selecting a running mate after he became the presumptive nominee on May 4, 2016. In mid-June, Eli Stokols and Burgess Everett of Politico reported that the Trump campaign was considering New Jersey Governor Chris Christie, former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich from Georgia, Senator Jeff Sessions of Alabama, and Oklahoma Governor Mary Fallin. A June 30 report from The Washington Post also included Senators Bob Corker from Tennessee, Richard Burr from North Carolina, Tom Cotton from Arkansas, Joni Ernst from Iowa, and Indiana Governor Mike Pence as individuals still being considered for the ticket. Trump also stated that he was considering two military generals for the position, including retired Lieutenant General Michael Flynn.
In July 2016, it was reported that Trump had narrowed his list of possible running mates down to three: Christie, Gingrich, and Pence.
On July 14, 2016, several major media outlets reported that Trump had selected Pence as his running mate. Trump confirmed these reports in a message on Twitter on July 15, 2016, and formally made the announcement the following day in New York. On July 19, the second night of the 2016 Republican National Convention, Pence won the Republican vice presidential nomination by acclamation.
U.S. Secretary of State
U.S. Senator from New York
First Lady of the United States
Former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, who also served in the U.S. Senate and was the First Lady of the United States, became the first woman to formally launch a major candidacy for the presidency. Clinton made the announcement on April 12, 2015, via a video message. While nationwide opinion polls in 2015 indicated that Clinton was the front - runner for the 2016 Democratic presidential nomination, she faced extreme challenges from Independent Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont, who became the second major candidate when he formally announced on April 30, 2015, that he was running for the Democratic nomination. September 2015 polling numbers indicated a narrowing gap between Clinton and Sanders. On May 30, 2015, former Governor of Maryland Martin O'Malley was the third major candidate to enter the Democratic primary race, followed by former Independent Governor and Republican Senator of Rhode Island Lincoln Chafee on June 3, 2015, former Virginia Senator Jim Webb on July 2, 2015, and former Harvard law professor Lawrence Lessig on September 6, 2015.
On October 20, 2015, Webb announced his withdrawal from the Democratic primaries, and explored a potential Independent run. The next day Vice-President Joe Biden decided not to run, ending months of speculation, stating, "While I will not be a candidate, I will not be silent. '' On October 23, Chafee withdrew, stating that he hoped for "an end to the endless wars and the beginning of a new era for the United States and humanity ''. On November 2, after failing to qualify for the second DNC - sanctioned debate after adoption of a rule change negated polls which before might have necessitated his inclusion in the debate, Lessig withdrew as well, narrowing the field to Clinton, O'Malley, and Sanders.
On February 1, 2016, in an extremely close contest, Clinton won the Iowa caucuses by a margin of 0.2 points over Sanders. After winning no delegates in Iowa, O'Malley withdrew from the presidential race that day. On February 9, Sanders bounced back to win the New Hampshire primary with 60 % of the vote. In the remaining two February contests, Clinton won the Nevada caucuses with 53 % of the vote and scored a decisive victory in the South Carolina primary with 73 % of the vote. On March 1, 11 states participated in the first of four "Super Tuesday '' primaries. Clinton won Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Massachusetts, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia and 504 pledged delegates, while Sanders won Colorado, Minnesota, Oklahoma and his home state of Vermont and 340 delegates. The following weekend, Sanders won victories in Kansas, Nebraska and Maine with 15 -- 30 - point margins, while Clinton won the Louisiana primary with 71 % of the vote. On March 8, despite never having a lead in the Michigan primary, Sanders won by a small margin of 1.5 points and outperforming polls by over 19 points, while Clinton won 83 % of the vote in Mississippi. On March 15, the second "Super Tuesday '', Clinton won in Florida, Illinois, Missouri, North Carolina and Ohio. Between March 22 and April 9, Sanders won six caucuses in Idaho, Utah, Alaska, Hawaii, Washington and Wyoming, as well as the Wisconsin primary, while Clinton won the Arizona primary. On April 19, Clinton won the New York primary with 58 % of the vote. On April 26, in the third "Super Tuesday '' dubbed the "Acela primary '', she won contests in Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland and Pennsylvania, while Sanders won in Rhode Island. Over the course of May, Sanders accomplished another surprise win in the Indiana primary and also won in West Virginia and Oregon, while Clinton won the Guam caucus and Kentucky primary.
On June 4 and 5, Clinton won two victories in the Virgin Islands caucus and Puerto Rico primary. On June 6, 2016, the Associated Press and NBC News reported that Clinton had become the presumptive nominee after reaching the required number of delegates, including pledged delegates and superdelegates, to secure the nomination, becoming the first woman to ever clinch the presidential nomination of a major United States political party. On June 7, Clinton secured a majority of pledged delegates after winning primaries in California, New Jersey, New Mexico and South Dakota, while Sanders only won in Montana and North Dakota. Clinton also won the final primary in the District of Columbia on June 14. At the conclusion of the primary process, Clinton had won 2,204 pledged delegates (54 % of the total) awarded by the primary elections and caucuses, while Sanders had won 1,847 (46 %). Out of the 714 unpledged delegates or "superdelegates '' who were set to vote in the convention in July, Clinton received endorsements from 560 (78 %), while Sanders received 47 (7 %).
Although Sanders had not formally dropped out of the race, he announced on June 16, 2016, that his main goal in the coming months would be to work with Clinton to defeat Trump in the general election. On July 8, appointees from the Clinton campaign, the Sanders campaign, and the Democratic National Committee negotiated a draft of the party 's platform. On July 12, Sanders formally endorsed Clinton at a rally in New Hampshire in which he appeared with her.
The following candidates were frequently interviewed by major broadcast networks and cable news channels, or were listed in publicly published national polls. Lessig was invited to one forum, but withdrew when rules were changed which prevented him from participating in officially sanctioned debates.
Clinton received 16,849,779 votes in the primary.
In April 2016, the Clinton campaign began to compile a list of 15 to 20 individuals to vet for the position of running mate, even though Sanders continued to challenge Clinton in the Democratic primaries. In mid-June, The Wall Street Journal reported that Clinton 's shortlist included Representative Xavier Becerra from California, Senator Cory Booker from New Jersey, Senator Sherrod Brown from Ohio, Housing and Urban Development Secretary Julián Castro from Texas, Mayor of Los Angeles Eric Garcetti from California, Senator Tim Kaine from Virginia, Labor Secretary Tom Perez from Maryland, Representative Tim Ryan from Ohio, and Senator Elizabeth Warren from Massachusetts. Subsequent reports stated that Clinton was also considering Secretary of Agriculture Tom Vilsack, retired Admiral James Stavridis, and Governor John Hickenlooper of Colorado. In discussing her potential vice presidential choice, Clinton stated that the most important attribute she looked for was the ability and experience to immediately step into the role of president.
On July 22, Clinton announced that she had chosen Senator Tim Kaine from Virginia as her running mate. The delegates at the 2016 Democratic National Convention, which took place July 25 -- 28, formally nominated the Democratic ticket.
Third party and independent candidates that have obtained more than 100,000 votes nationally and one percent of the vote in at least one state, are listed separately.
Governor of New Mexico
Our America Initiative
New York gubernatorial campaign
U.S. Senate campaign
Governor of Massachusetts
U.S. Attorney for Massachusetts
Ballot access to all 538 electoral votes
Nominees
Political Parties
Ballot access to 480 electoral votes (522 with write - in): -- map
Nominees
Ballot access to 84 electoral votes (451 with write - in): -- map
In some states, Evan McMullin 's running mate was listed as Nathan Johnson on the ballot rather than Mindy Finn, although Nathan Johnson was intended to only be a placeholder until an actual running mate was chosen.
Ballot access to 207 electoral votes (451 with write - in): -- map
Nominees
(Alabama, Arizona, Connecticut, Delaware, Indiana, Kansas, Maryland, Missouri, Nebraska, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia)
Peace and Freedom Liberty Union Party
(Alabama, Connecticut, Delaware, Kansas, Maryland, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, West Virginia)
(Alabama, Iowa, New Hampshire, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Indiana, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Montana, New Hampshire, New, York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Texas, Vermont, Washington, West Virginia)
Natural Law Party
(Alabama, Indiana, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Wisconsin)
(Alabama, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Maryland, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia)
(Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington. West Virginia)
(Alabama, Alaska, Delaware, Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia)
(Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, California, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin)
(Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin)
(Alabama, Alaska, Idaho, Iowa, Kentucky, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin)
(Alabama, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Delaware, Idaho, Kansas, Maryland, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Washington, West Virginia)
(Alabama, Alaska, California, Georgia, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin)
(Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin)
(Alabama, Delaware, Iowa, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Connecticut, Iowa, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Iowa, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Iowa, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Iowa, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Iowa, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, California, Delaware, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia)
(Alabama, Iowa, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Iowa, Kansas, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Iowa, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
Gary Johnson Libertarian Party (campaign)
Jill Stein Green Party (campaign)
Evan McMullin Independent (campaign)
Darrell Castle Constitution Party (campaign)
Hillary Clinton focused her candidacy on several themes, including raising middle class incomes, expanding women 's rights, instituting campaign finance reform, and improving the Affordable Care Act. In March 2016, she laid out a detailed economic plan basing her economic philosophy on inclusive capitalism, which proposed a "clawback '' which would rescind tax relief and other benefits for companies that move jobs overseas; with provision of incentives for companies that share profits with employees, communities and the environment, rather than focusing on short - term profits to increase stock value and rewarding shareholders; as well as increasing collective bargaining rights; and placing an "exit tax '' on companies that move their headquarters out of America in order to pay a lower tax rate overseas. Clinton promoted equal pay for equal work to address current alleged shortfalls in how much women are paid to do the same jobs men do, promoted explicitly focus on family issues and support of universal preschool, expressed support for the right to same - sex marriage, and proposed allowing undocumented immigrants to have a path to citizenship stating that it "(i) s at its heart a family issue. ''
Donald Trump 's campaign drew heavily on his personal image, enhanced by his previous media exposure. The primary slogan of the Trump campaign, extensively used on campaign merchandise, was Make America Great Again. The red baseball cap with the slogan emblazoned on the front became a symbol of the campaign, and has been frequently donned by Trump and his supporters. Trump 's right - wing populist positions -- reported by The New Yorker to be nativist, protectionist, and semi-isolationist -- differ in many ways from traditional conservatism. He opposed many free trade deals and military interventionist policies that conservatives generally support, and opposed cuts in Medicare and Social Security benefits. Moreover, he has insisted that Washington is "broken '' and can only be fixed by an outsider. Trump support was high among working and middle - class white male voters with annual incomes of less than $50,000 and no college degree. This group, particularly those with less than a high - school education, suffered a decline in their income in recent years. According to The Washington Post, support for Trump is higher in areas with a higher mortality rate for middle - age white people. A sample of interviews with more than 11,000 Republican - leaning respondents from August to December 2015 found that Trump at that time found his strongest support among Republicans in West Virginia, followed by New York, and then followed by six Southern states.
Clinton had an uneasy, and at times adversarial relationship with the press throughout her life in public service. Weeks before her official entry as a presidential candidate, Clinton attended a political press corps event, pledging to start fresh on what she described as a "complicated '' relationship with political reporters. Clinton was initially criticized by the press for avoiding taking their questions, after which she provided more interviews.
In contrast, Trump benefited from free media more than any other candidate. From the beginning of his campaign through February 2016, Trump received almost $2 billion in free media attention, twice the amount that Clinton received. According to data from the Tyndall Report, which tracks nightly news content, through February 2016, Trump alone accounted for more than a quarter of all 2016 election coverage on the evening newscasts of NBC, CBS and ABC, more than all the Democratic campaigns combined. Observers noted Trump 's ability to garner constant mainstream media coverage "almost at will ''. However, Trump frequently criticized the media for writing what he alleged to be false stories about him and he has called upon his supporters to be "the silent majority ''. Trump also said the media "put false meaning into the words I say '', and says he does not mind being criticized by the media as long as they are honest about it.
Both Clinton and Trump were seen unfavorably by the general public, and their controversial nature set the tone of the campaign.
Clinton 's practice during her time as Secretary of State of using a private email address and server, in lieu of State Department servers, gained widespread public attention back in March 2015. Concerns were raised about security and preservation of emails, and the possibility that laws may have been violated. After allegations were raised that some of the emails in question fell into this so - called "born classified '' category, an FBI probe was initiated regarding how classified information was handled on the Clinton server. The FBI probe was concluded on July 5, 2016, with a recommendation of no charges, a recommendation that was followed by the Justice Department. On October 28, eleven days before the election, FBI Director James Comey informed Congress that the FBI was analyzing additional emails obtained during its investigation of an unrelated case. On November 6, he notified Congress that the new emails did not change the FBI 's earlier conclusion.
Also, on September 9, 2016, Clinton stated: "You know, just to be grossly generalistic, you could put half of Trump 's supporters into what I call the basket of deplorables. They 're racist, sexist, homophobic, xenophobic, Islamaphobic -- you name it. '' Donald Trump criticized Clinton 's remark as insulting his supporters. The following day Clinton expressed regret for saying "half '', while insisting that Trump had deplorably amplified "hateful views and voices ''. Previously on August 25, 2016, Clinton gave a speech criticizing Trump 's campaign for using "racist lies '' and allowing the alt - right to gain prominence.
On the other side, on October 7, 2016, video and accompanying audio were released by The Washington Post in which Trump referred obscenely to women in a 2005 conversation with Billy Bush while they were preparing to film an episode of Access Hollywood. The audio was met with a reaction of disbelief and disgust from the media. Following the revelation, Trump 's campaign issued an apology, stating that the video was of a private conversation from "many years ago ''. The incident was condemned by numerous prominent Republicans like Reince Priebus, Mitt Romney, John Kasich, Jeb Bush and the Speaker of the House Paul Ryan. By October 8 several dozen Republicans had called for Trump to withdraw from the campaign and let Pence head the ticket. Trump insisted he would never drop out.
The ongoing controversy of the election made third parties attract voters ' attention. On March 3, 2016, Libertarian Gary Johnson addressed the Conservative Political Action Conference in Washington DC, touting himself as the third - party option for anti-Trump Republicans. In early May, some commentators opined that Johnson was moderate enough to pull votes away from both Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump who were very disliked and polarizing. Both conservative and liberal media noted that Johnson could get votes from "Never Trump '' Republicans and disaffected Bernie Sanders supporters. Johnson also began to get time on national television, being invited on ABC News, NBC News, CBS News, CNN, Fox News, MSNBC, Bloomberg, and many other networks. In September and October 2016, Johnson suffered a "string of damaging stumbles when he has fielded questions about foreign affairs. '' On September 8, Johnson, when he appeared on MSNBC 's Morning Joe, was asked by panelist Mike Barnicle, "What would you do, if you were elected, about Aleppo? '' (referring to a war - torn city in Syria). Johnson responded, "And what is Aleppo? '' Johnson 's "what is Aleppo? '' question prompted widespread attention, much of it negative. Later that day, Johnson said that he had "blanked '' and that he did "understand the dynamics of the Syrian conflict -- I talk about them every day. ''
On the other hand, Green Party candidate Jill Stein stated that the Democratic and Republican parties are "two corporate parties '' that have converged into one. Concerned by the rise of the far right internationally and the tendency towards neoliberalism within the Democratic Party, she has said, "The answer to neofascism is stopping neoliberalism. Putting another Clinton in the White House will fan the flames of this right - wing extremism. ''
In response to Johnson 's growing poll numbers, the Hillary Clinton campaign and Democratic allies increased their criticism of Johnson in September 2016, warning that "a vote for a third party is a vote for Donald Trump '' and deploying Senator Bernie Sanders (Clinton 's former primary rival, who supported her in the general election) to win over voters who might be considering voting for Johnson or for Stein.
This is an overview of the money used in the campaign as it is reported to Federal Election Commission (FEC) and released in September 2016. Outside groups are independent expenditure only committees -- also called PACs and SuperPACs. The sources of the numbers are the FEC and Center for Responsive Politics. Some spending totals are not available, due to withdrawals before the FEC deadline. As of September 2016, ten candidates with ballot access have filed financial reports with the FEC.
Clinton was endorsed by The New York Times, the Los Angeles Times, the Houston Chronicle, the San Jose Mercury News, the Chicago Sun - Times and the New York Daily News editorial boards. Trump, who has frequently criticized the mainstream media, was not endorsed by the vast majority of newspapers, with the Las Vegas Review - Journal, The Florida Times - Union, and the tabloid National Enquirer his highest profile supporters. Several papers which endorsed Clinton, such as the Houston Chronicle, The Dallas Morning News, The San Diego Union - Tribune, The Columbus Dispatch and The Arizona Republic, endorsed their first Democratic candidate for many decades. USA Today, which had not endorsed any candidate since it was founded in 1982, broke tradition by giving an anti-endorsement against Trump, declaring him "unfit for the presidency ''. The Atlantic, which has been in circulation since 1857, gave Clinton its third - ever endorsement (after Abraham Lincoln and Lyndon Johnson).
Other traditionally Republican papers, including the New Hampshire Union Leader, which had endorsed the Republican nominee in every election for the last 100 years, The Detroit News, which had not endorsed a non-Republican in its 143 years, and the Chicago Tribune, endorsed Gary Johnson.
On December 9, 2016, the Central Intelligence Agency issued an assessment to lawmakers in the US Senate, stating that a Russian entity hacked the DNC and John Podesta 's emails to assist Donald Trump. The Federal Bureau of Investigation agreed. President Barack Obama ordered a "full enquiry '' into such possible intervention. Director of National Intelligence James R. Clapper in early January 2017 testified before a Senate committee that Russia 's meddling in the 2016 presidential campaign went beyond hacking, and included disinformation and the dissemination of fake news, often promoted on social media.
President - elect Trump originally called the report fabricated, and Wikileaks denied any involvement by Russian authorities. Days later, Trump said he could be convinced of the Russian hacking "if there is a unified presentation of evidence from the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies. ''
Several U.S. senators -- including Republicans John McCain, Richard Burr, and Lindsey Graham -- demanded a congressional investigation. The Senate Intelligence Committee announced the scope of their official inquiry on December 13, 2016, on a bipartisan basis; work began on January 24, 2017.
The Commission on Presidential Debates (CPD), a non-profit organization, hosted debates between qualifying presidential and vice-presidential candidates. According to the commission 's website, to be eligible to opt to participate in the anticipated debates, "... in addition to being Constitutionally eligible, candidates must appear on a sufficient number of state ballots to have a mathematical chance of winning a majority vote in the Electoral College, and have a level of support of at least 15 percent of the national electorate as determined by five selected national public opinion polling organizations, using the average of those organizations ' most recently publicly - reported results at the time of the determination. ''
The three locations chosen to host the presidential debates, and the one location selected to host the vice presidential debate, were announced on September 23, 2015. The site of the first debate was originally designated as Wright State University in Dayton, Ohio; however, due to rising costs and security concerns, the debate was moved to Hofstra University in Hempstead, New York.
On August 19, Kellyanne Conway, Trump 's campaign manager confirmed that Trump would participate in a series of three debates. Trump had complained two of the scheduled debates, one on September 26 and the other October 9, would have to compete for viewers with National Football League games, referencing the similar complaints made regarding the dates with low expected ratings during the Democratic Party presidential debates.
The Free & Equal Elections Foundation announced plans to host an open debate among all presidential candidates who had ballot access sufficient to represent a majority of electoral votes. In October 2016 Free & Equal extended the invitation to all candidates with ballot lines representing at least 15 % of the electoral vote. The nominees of the Democratic, Republican, Libertarian, Green, Constitution, Reform, and Socialism and Liberation parties, as well as independent candidate Evan McMullin, were invited to participate. The debate was held at the University of Colorado Boulder 's Macky Auditorium on October 25, 2016. It was moderated by Ed Asner and Christina Tobin, with Darrell Castle, Rocky De La Fuente, and Gloria La Riva participating.
PBS hosted a debate moderated by Tavis Smiley between Libertarian candidate Gary Johnson and Green Party candidate Jill Stein.
The election was held on November 8, 2016. Clinton cast her vote in Chappaqua, Westchester County, New York, while Trump voted in a Manhattan public school. Throughout the day, the election process went more smoothly than many had expected, with only a few reports of long lines and equipment problems.
The news media and election experts were surprised twice, at Trump 's winning the GOP nomination and in winning the electoral college. English political scientist Lloyd Gruber says, "One of the major casualties of the 2016 election season has been the reputation of political science, a discipline whose practitioners had largely dismissed Donald Trump 's chances of gaining the Republican nomination. '' The final polls showed a lead by Clinton -- and, in the end, she did receive more votes. Trump himself expected to lose the election based on polling, and rented a small hotel ballroom to make a brief concession speech; "I said if we 're going to lose I do n't want a big ballroom '', he said. The Republican candidate performed surprisingly well in all battleground states, especially Florida, Iowa, Ohio and North Carolina. Even Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, and Michigan, states that had been predicted to vote Democratic, were won by Trump. Cindy Adams, present at Trump Tower, reported that "Trumptown knew they 'd won by 5: 30. Math, calculations, candidate dislike causing voter abstention begat the numbers. '' Trump said that he was surprised by how "that map was getting red as hell. That map was bleeding red... I always used to believe in (polls). I do n't believe them anymore. ''
On November 9, 2016, at 3: 00 AM Eastern Time, Trump secured over 270 electoral votes, the majority of the 538 electors in the Electoral College, enough to make him the president - elect of the United States.
According to the authors of Shattered: Inside Hillary Clinton 's Doomed Campaign, by late Tuesday night the White House had decided that Trump had won the election. Obama aide David Simas called Clinton campaign manager Robby Mook to unsuccessfully persuade Clinton to concede the election. Obama then called Clinton herself, citing the importance of continuity of government, to publicly acknowledge that Trump had won; believing that she was still unwilling to concede the president called Podesta, telling him that the election was over, but the call to Clinton had likely already persuaded her. Clinton called Trump early on Wednesday morning to concede defeat, and later that day asked her supporters to accept the result and hoped that Trump would be "a successful president for all Americans. '' In his victory speech Trump appealed for unity saying "it is time for us to come together as one united people '' and praised Clinton who was owed "a major debt of gratitude for her service to our country. ''
Six states plus a portion of Maine that Obama won in 2012 switched to Trump. These are (with Electoral College votes in parentheses): Florida (29), Pennsylvania (20), Ohio (18), Michigan (16), Wisconsin (10), Iowa (6), and Maine 's second congressional district (1). Initially, Trump won exactly 100 more Electoral College votes than Mitt Romney in 2012, with two lost to faithless electors the following month. Thirty - nine states swung more Republican compared to the previous Presidential election, while eleven states and the District of Columbia swung more Democratic.
Based on U.S. Census Bureau estimates of the voting age population (VAP), turnout of voters casting a vote for President was nearly 1 % higher than 2012. Examining overall turnout in the 2016 election, University of Florida Prof. Michael McDonald estimated that 138.8 million Americans cast a ballot in 2016. 65.9 million of those ballots have been counted for Clinton and just under 63 million for Trump, representing 20.3 % (Clinton) and 19.4 % (Trump) of a census estimate of U.S. population that day of 324 million. Considering a VAP of 250.6 million people and voting eligible population (VEP) of 230.6 million people, this is a turnout rate of 55.4 % VAP and 60.2 % VEP. Based on this estimate, voter turnout was up compared to 2012 (54.1 % VAP) but down compared to 2008 (57.4 % VAP). A FEC report of the 2016 Presidential General Election recorded an official total of 136.7 million votes cast for President -- more than any prior election.
Data scientist Azhar Hamdan, explained the paradoxes of the 2016 outcome compared Trump 's 30 states against Clinton 's 20 states and the District of Columbia, saying "chief among them the discrepancy between the popular vote, which Hillary Clinton won by 2.8 million votes, and the electoral college, where Trump won 304 - 227 ''. He said Trump outperformed Mitt Romney 's 2012 results, while Clinton only just matched Barack Obama 's 2012 totals. Hamdan also said Trump was "the highest vote earner of any Republican candidate ever, '' exceeding George W. Bush 's 62.04 million votes in 2004, though neither reached Clinton 's 65.9 million, nor Obama 's 69.5 million votes in 2008, the overall record. He concluded, with help from The Cook Political Report, that the election hinged not on Clinton 's large 2.8 million overall vote margin over Trump, but rather on about 78,000 votes from only three counties in Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, and Michigan.
Source (Popular Vote):
Nationwide: Leip, David. "2016 Presidential Election Results ''. Dave Leip 's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections. Retrieved February 4, 2018.
For Bernie Sanders and John Kasich: CA: and NH: VT: NC: PA: RI:
Received electoral vote (s) from a faithless elector.
Two faithless electors from Texas cast their presidential votes for Ron Paul and John Kasich, respectively. Chris Suprun stated that he cast his presidential vote for John Kasich and his vice presidential vote for Carly Fiorina. The other faithless elector in Texas, Bill Greene, cast his presidential vote for Ron Paul but cast his vice presidential vote for Mike Pence, as pledged. John Kasich received recorded write - in votes in Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Vermont.
Candidate received votes as a write - in. The exact numbers of write - in votes for Sanders have been published for three states. In California, his official running mate was Tulsi Gabbard and in New Hampshire and Vermont there was not a running mate attached to Sanders. It was possible to vote Sanders as a write - in candidate in 14 states.
The table below displays the official vote tallies by each state 's Electoral College voting method. The source for the results of all states is the official Federal Election Commission report. The column labeled "Margin '' shows Trump 's margin of victory over Clinton (the margin is negative for every state the Clinton won).
A total of 29 third party and independent presidential candidates appeared on the ballot in at least one state. Former Governor of New Mexico Gary Johnson and physician Jill Stein repeated their 2012 roles as the nominees for the Libertarian Party and the Green Party, respectively. With ballot access to the entire national electorate, Johnson received nearly 4.5 million votes (3.27 %), the highest nationwide vote share for a third - party candidate since Ross Perot in 1996, while Stein received almost 1.45 million votes (1.06 %), the most for a Green nominee since Ralph Nader in 2000.
Independent candidate Evan McMullin, who appeared on the ballot in 11 states, received over 732,000 votes (0.53 %). He won 21.4 % of the vote in his home state of Utah, the highest share of the vote for a third - party candidate in any state since 1992. Despite dropping out of the election following his defeat in the Democratic primary, Senator Bernie Sanders received 5.7 % of the vote in his home state of Vermont, the highest write - in draft campaign percentage for a presidential candidate in American history. Johnson and McMullin were the first third party candidates since Nader to receive at least 5 % of the vote in one or more states, with Johnson crossing the mark in 11 states and McMullin crossing it in two.
Aside from Florida and North Carolina, the states which secured Trump 's victory are situated in the Great Lakes / Rust Belt region. Wisconsin went Republican for the first time since 1984, while Pennsylvania and Michigan went Republican for the first time since 1988. Stein petitioned for a recount in these states. The Clinton campaign pledged to participate in the Green Party recount efforts, while Trump backers challenged them in court. Meanwhile, American Delta Party / Reform Party presidential candidate Rocky De La Fuente petitioned for and was granted a partial recount in Nevada.
Electoral methods
Two states (Maine and Nebraska) allow for their electoral votes to be split between candidates. The winner within each congressional district gets one electoral vote for the district. The winner of the statewide vote gets two additional electoral votes. Results are from The New York Times.
Red denotes states (or congressional districts whose electoral votes are awarded separately) won by Republican Donald Trump; blue denotes those won by Democrat Hillary Clinton.
States where the margin of victory was under 1 % (50 electoral votes; 46 won by Trump, 4 by Clinton):
States / districts where the margin of victory was between 1 % and 5 % (83 electoral votes; 56 won by Trump, 27 by Clinton):
States where the margin of victory was between 5 % and 10 % (94 electoral votes; 76 won by Trump, 18 by Clinton):
Most media outlets announced the beginning of the presidential race about twenty months prior to Election Day. Soon after the first contestants declared their candidacy, Larry Sabato listed Virginia, Colorado, Iowa, New Hampshire, Florida, Nevada, and Ohio as the seven states most likely to be contested in the general election. After Donald Trump clinched the Republican presidential nomination, many pundits felt that the major campaign locations might be different from what had originally been expected.
Rust Belt states such as Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and even Michigan were thought to be in play with Trump as the nominee, while states with large minority populations, such as Colorado and Virginia, were expected to shift towards Clinton. By the conventions period and the debates, however, it did not seem as though the Rust Belt states could deliver a victory to Trump. According to Politico and the 538 online blog, his path to victory went through states such as Florida, North Carolina, Nevada, New Hampshire, and possibly Colorado.
Early polling indicated a closer - than - usual race in former Democratic strongholds such as Washington, Delaware, New Jersey, Connecticut, Maine (for the two statewide electoral votes), and New Mexico. Meanwhile, research indicators from inside of a host of Republican - leaning states such as Arizona, Indiana, Georgia, South Carolina, Alaska, Utah, Texas, Kansas, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, and South Dakota reported weaker support for Trump than expected, although the nominee 's position solidified in a few other areas. Some reviews took this information as evidence of an expanded ' swing - state map '.
A consensus among political pundits developed throughout the primary election season regarding swing states. From the results of presidential elections from 2004 through to 2012, the Democratic and Republican parties would generally start with a safe electoral vote count of about 150 to 200. However, the margins required to constitute a swing state are vague, and can vary between groups of analysts. It was thought that left - leaning states in the Rust Belt could become more conservative, as Trump had strong appeal among many blue - collar workers. They represent a large portion of the American populace and were a major factor in Trump 's eventual nomination. Trump 's primary campaign was propelled by victories in Democratic states, and his supporters often did not identify as Republican. In addition, local factors may come into play. For example, Utah was the reddest state in 2012, although the Republican share was boosted significantly by the candidacy of Mormon candidate Mitt Romney. Despite its partisan orientation, some reports suggested a victory there by independent candidate Evan McMullin, particularly if there was a nationwide blowout.
Media reports indicated that both candidates planned to concentrate on Florida, Pennsylvania, Ohio and North Carolina. Among the Republican - leaning states, potential Democratic targets included Nebraska 's second congressional district, Georgia, and Arizona. Trump 's relatively poor polling in some traditionally Republican states, such as Utah, raised the possibility that they could vote for Clinton, despite easy wins there by recent Republican nominees. However, many analysts asserted that these states were not yet viable Democratic destinations. Several sites and individuals publish electoral predictions. These generally rate the race by the likelihood for each party to win a state. The "tossup '' label is usually used to indicate that neither party has an advantage, "lean '' to indicate a party has a slight edge, "likely '' to indicate a party has a clear but not overwhelming advantage, and "safe '' to indicate a party has an advantage that can not be overcome.
As the parameters of the race established themselves, analysts converged on a narrower list of contested states, which were relatively similar to those of recent elections. On November 7, the Cook Political Report categorized Arizona, Colorado, Florida, Iowa, Michigan, Nevada, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin as states with close races. Additionally, a district from each of Maine and Nebraska were considered to be coin flips. Meanwhile, FiveThirtyEight listed twenty - two states as potentially competitive about a month before the election -- Maine 's two at - large electoral votes, New Mexico, Minnesota, Michigan, Colorado, Virginia, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire, Nevada, Florida, North Carolina, Ohio, Iowa, Arizona, Georgia, Alaska, South Carolina, Texas, Indiana, Missouri, and Utah -- as well as Maine 's second and Nebraska 's second congressional districts. Nate Silver, the publication 's editor - in - chief, subsequently removed Texas, South Carolina, Missouri, and Indiana from the list after the race tightened significantly. These conclusions were supported by models such as the Princeton Elections Consortium, the New York Times Upshot, and punditry evaluations from Sabato 's Crystal Ball and the Cook Political Report.
Clinton won states like New Mexico by less than 10 percentage points. Among the states where the candidates finished at a margin of within 7 percent, Clinton won Virginia (13 electoral votes), Colorado (9), Maine (2), Minnesota (10), and New Hampshire (4). On the other hand, Trump won Michigan (16), Pennsylvania (20), Wisconsin (10), Florida (29), North Carolina (15), Arizona (11), Nebraska 's second district (1), and Georgia (16). States won by Obama in the 2012 contest, such as Ohio (18), Iowa (6), and Maine 's second district (1), were also won by Trump. The close result in Maine was not expected by most commentators, nor were Trump 's victory of over 10 points in the second district and their disparities. The dramatic shift of Midwestern states towards Trump were contrasted in the media against the relative movement of Southern states towards the Democrats. For example, former Democratic strongholds such as Minnesota, Maine, and Nevada leaned towards the GOP. Meanwhile, Iowa voted more Republican than Texas did, Georgia was more Democratic than Ohio, and the margin of victory for Trump was greater in North Carolina than Arizona. Trump 's smaller victories in Alaska and Utah also took some experts by surprise.
After the conventions of the national parties, candidates from the main parties carried out trips to the states: Florida - 72, Pennsylvania - 59, North Carolina - 52, Ohio - 43, Virginia - 25, Michigan - 24, Iowa - 23, New Hampshire - 22, Colorado - 19, Nevada - 16, Wisconsin - 15, Arizona - 10.
Results by state, shaded according to winning candidate 's percentage of the vote
Results by vote distribution among states. The size of each state 's pie chart is proportional to its number of electoral votes.
Results by county. Red denotes counties that went to Trump; blue denotes counties that went to Clinton.
Results by county, shaded according to winning candidate 's percentage of the vote
Results by county, shaded according to winning candidate 's percentage of the vote (Red - Purple - Blue view)
Results by state and DC, scaled by number of Electors per state.
United States presidential election, 2016 cartogram
United States presidential election, 2016 cartogram
Results of 2016 U.S. presidential election by congressional district, shaded by vote margin
County swing from 2012 to 2016
Results by county, shaded according to percentage of the vote for Trump
Results by county, shaded according to percentage of the vote for Clinton
Results by county, shaded according to percentage of the vote for Johnson (0 % -- 10 % scale)
Voter demographic data for 2016 were collected by Edison Research for the National Election Pool, a consortium of ABC News, CBS News, MSNBC, CNN, Fox News and the Associated Press. The voter survey is based on exit polls completed by 24,537 voters leaving 350 voting places throughout the United States on Election Day, in addition to 4,398 telephone interviews with early and absentee voters. Trump 's crucial victories in the Midwest were aided in large part by his strong margins among non-college whites -- while Obama lost those voters by a margin of 10 points in 2012, Clinton lost this group by 20 percent. The election also represented the first time that Republicans performed better among lower - income whites than among affluent white voters. To some analysts ' surprise, Trump narrowed Clinton 's margin compared to Obama by 7 points among blacks and African - Americans, 8 points among Latinos, and 11 points among Asian - Americans. Meanwhile, Trump increased his lead with non-Hispanic white voters through 1 percent over Mitt Romney 's performance, and American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Pacific Islanders shifted their support towards the Republican candidate using the same relative amount. Additionally, although 74 percent of Muslim voters supported Clinton, Trump nearly doubled his support among those voters compared to Mitt Romney, according to the Council on American -- Islamic Relations exit poll.
However, "more convincing data '' from the polling firm Latino Decisions indicates that Clinton received a higher share of the Hispanic vote, and Trump a lower share, than the Edison exit polls showed. Using wider, more geographically and linguistically representative sampling, Latino Decisions concluded that Clinton won 79 % of Hispanic voters (also an improvement over Obama 's share in 2008 and 2012), while Trump won only 18 % (lower than previous Republicans such as Romney and McCain). Additionally, the 2016 Cooperative Congressional Election Study found that Clinton 's share of the Hispanic vote was 1 percentage point higher than Obama 's in 2012, while Trump 's was 7 percentage points lower than Romney 's.
Similarly, a large, multi-lingual study by the Asian American Legal Defense and Education Fund found that Clinton won 79 % of Asian - American voters, higher than the Edison exit poll showed, while Trump only won 18 %, a decrease from McCain 's and Romney 's numbers. Furthermore, according to the AALDEF 's report, Trump received merely 2 % of the Muslim - American vote, whereas Clinton received 97 %.
Various methods were used to forecast the outcome of the 2016 election. For the 2016 election, there were many competing election forecast approaches including Nate Silver 's FiveThirtyEight, The Upshot at The New York Times, Daily Kos, Princeton Election Consortium, Cook Political Report, Rothenberg and Gonzales, PollyVote, Sabato 's Crystal Ball and Electoral - Vote. These models mostly showed a Democratic advantage since the nominees were confirmed, and were supported by pundits and statisticians, including Nate Silver of FiveThirtyEight, Nate Cohn at The New York Times, and Larry Sabato from the Crystal Ball newsletter, who predicted a Democratic victory in competitive presidential races and projected consistent leads in several battleground states around the country. The near - unanimity of forecasters in predicting a Clinton victory may have been the result of groupthink. However, FiveThirtyEight 's model pointed to the possibility of an Electoral College - popular vote split widening in the final weeks based on Trump 's improvement in swing states like Florida or Pennsylvania. This was due to the demographics targeted by Trump 's campaign which lived in big numbers there, in addition to Clinton 's poor performance in several of those swing states in comparison with Obama 's performance in 2012, as well as having a big number of her potential voters in very populated traditionally ' blue ' states, but also in some very populated states traditionally ' red ', like Texas, which were projected safe for Trump.
Early exit polls generally favored Clinton. After the polls closed and some of the results came in, the forecasts were found to be inaccurate, as Trump performed better in the competitive Midwestern states, such as Iowa, Ohio, and Minnesota, than expected. Three states (Pennsylvania, Wisconsin and Michigan) which were considered to be part of Clinton 's firewall, were won by Trump. Of the states in the Great Lakes region, Clinton won the swing state of Minnesota by 1 point, as well as traditional Democratic strongholds such as New York and Illinois with populous urban centers. This result stands in contrast to the 2012 results, when President Obama won all but Indiana, which he carried in 2008. This table displays the final polling average published by Real Clear Politics on November 7, the actual electoral margin, and the over-performance by either candidate relative to the polls.
Many pollsters were puzzled by the failure of mainstream forecasting models to predict the outcome of the 2016 election. Some journalists compared the 2016 election to the failure of prognosticator Arthur Henning in the "Dewey Defeats Truman '' incident from the 1948 presidential election. Sean Trende, writing for RealClearPolitics, wrote that many of the polls were accurate, but that the pundits ' interpretation of these polls neglected polling error. Nate Silver found that the high number of undecided and third - party voters in the election was neglected in many of these models, and that many of these voters decided to vote for Trump. According to a February 2018 study by Public Opinion Quarterly, the main sources of polling error were "a late swing in vote preference toward Trump and a pervasive failure to adjust for over-representation of college graduates (who favored Clinton), '' whereas the share of "shy '' Trump voters (who declined to admit their support for Trump to the pollsters) proved to be negligible.
FiveThirtyEight 's final polls - plus forecast predicted 18 states, plus the second congressional districts of Maine and Nebraska, with an interval of confidence lower than 90 %. However, every major forecaster, including FiveThirtyEight, the New York Times Upshot, prediction markets aggregator PredictWise, ElectionBettingOdds from Maxim Lott and John Stossel, the DailyKos, the Princeton Election Consortium, the Huffington Post, the Cook Political Report, Larry Sabato 's Crystal Ball, and the Rothenberg and Gonzales Report, called every state the same way (although Cook and Rothenberg - Gonzales left two and five states as toss - ups, respectively). The sole exception was Maine 's 2nd congressional district. Of the forecasters who published results on the district, the Times gave Trump a 64 % chance of winning and PredictWise a 52 % chance, FiveThirtyEight gave Clinton a 51 % chance of winning in polls - only and 54 % in polls - plus, Princeton gave her a 60 % chance, Cook labelled it a toss - up, and Sabato leaned it towards Trump. The following table displays the final winning probabilities given by each outlet, along with the final electoral result. The states shown have been identified by Politico, WhipBoard, the New York Times, and the Crystal Ball as battlegrounds.
Legend
Total television viewers 8: 00 to 11: 00 PM Eastern
Total cable TV viewers 2: 00 to 3: 00 AM Eastern
Cable TV viewers 25 to 54 2: 00 to 3: 00 AM Eastern
Trump 's victory, considered unlikely by most forecasts, was characterized as an "upset '' and as "shocking '' by the media.
Following the announcement of Trump 's election, large protests broke out across the United States with some continuing for several days.
Protesters have held up a number of different signs and chanted various shouts including "Not my president '' and "We do n't accept the president - elect ''. The movement organized on Twitter under the hashtags # Antitrump and # NotMyPresident.
High school and college students walked out of classes to protest. The protests were peaceful for the most part. At some protests fires were lit, flags and other items were burned and people yelled derogatory remarks about Trump. Rioters also broke glass at certain locations. Celebrities such as Madonna, Cher, and Lady Gaga took part in New York. Some protesters took to blocking freeways in Los Angeles, San Diego, and Portland, Oregon, and were dispersed by police in the early hours of the morning. In a number of cities, protesters were dispersed with rubber bullets, pepper spray and bean - bags fired by police. In New York City, calls were made to continue the protests over the coming days after the election. Former New York mayor Rudy Giuliani called protesters "a bunch of spoiled cry - babies. '' Los Angeles mayor Eric Garcetti expressed understanding of the protests and praised those who peacefully wanted to make their voices heard.
After the election, computer scientists, including J. Alex Halderman, the director of the University of Michigan Center for Computer Security and Society, urged the Clinton campaign to request an election recount in Wisconsin, Michigan, and Pennsylvania (three swing states where Trump had won narrowly) for the purpose of excluding the possibility that the hacking of electronic voting machines had influenced the recorded outcome. However, statistician Nate Silver performed a regression analysis which demonstrated that the alleged discrepancy between paper ballots and electronic voting machines "completely disappears once you control for race and education level ''. On November 25, 2016, the Obama administration said the results from November 8 "accurately reflect the will of the American people. '' The following day, the White House released another statement, saying: "the federal government did not observe any increased level of malicious cyberactivity aimed at disrupting our electoral process on Election Day. ''
On November 23, Green Party presidential candidate Jill Stein launched a public fundraiser to pay for recounts in Wisconsin, Michigan, and Pennsylvania, asserting that the election 's outcome had been affected by hacking in those states; Stein did not provide evidence for her claims. Changing the outcome of these three states would make Clinton the winner, and this would require showing that fewer than 60 000 votes had been counted for Trump which should have been counted for Clinton. Stein filed for a recount in Wisconsin on November 25, after which Clinton campaign general counsel Marc Elias stated that their campaign would join Stein 's recount efforts in that state and possibly others "in order to ensure the process proceeds in a manner that is fair to all sides. '' Stein subsequently filed for a recount in Pennsylvania on November 28, and in Michigan on November 30. Concurrently, American Delta Party / Reform Party presidential candidate Rocky De La Fuente sought and was granted a partial recount in Nevada that was unrelated to Stein 's efforts.
President - elect Donald Trump issued a statement denouncing Stein 's Wisconsin recount request saying, "The people have spoken and the election is over. '' Trump further commented that the recount "is a scam by the Green Party for an election that has already been conceded. '' The Trump campaign and Republican Party officials moved to block Stein 's three recount efforts through state and federal courts.
U.S. District Judge Mark Goldsmith ordered a halt to the recount in Michigan on December 7, dissolving a previous temporary restraining order against the Michigan Board of Elections that allowed the recount to continue, stating in his order: "Plaintiffs have not presented evidence of tampering or mistake. Instead, they present speculative claims going to the vulnerability of the voting machinery -- but not actual injury. '' On December 12, U.S. District Judge Paul Diamond rejected an appeal by the Green Party and Jill Stein to force a recount in Pennsylvania, stating that suspicion of a hacked Pennsylvania election "borders on the irrational '' and that granting the Green Party 's recount bid could "ensure that no Pennsylvania vote counts '' given the December 13, 2016, federal deadline to certify the vote for the Electoral College. Meanwhile, the Wisconsin recount was allowed to continue as it was nearing completion and had uncovered no significant irregularities.
The recounts in Wisconsin and Nevada were completed on schedule, resulting in only minor changes to vote tallies. A partial recount of Michigan ballot found some precinct imbalances in Detroit, which were corrected. A subsequent state audit found no evidence of voter fraud and concluded that the mistakes, which were "almost entirely '' caused by poll - worker mistakes attributed to poor training, did not impair "the ability of Detroit residents to cast a ballot and have their vote counted. '' The overall outcome of the election remained unchanged by the recount efforts.
Intense lobbying (in one case involving claims of harassment and death threats) and grass - roots campaigns have been directed at various GOP electors of the United States Electoral College to convince a sufficient number of them (37) to not vote for Trump, thus precluding a Trump presidency. Members of the Electoral College themselves started a campaign for other members to "vote their conscience for the good of America '' in accordance with Alexander Hamilton 's Federalist Paper No. 68. This group 's members may have become faithless electors in the presidential election.
On December 5, former candidate Lawrence Lessig and attorney Laurence Tribe established The Electors Trust under the aegis of EqualCitizens.US to provide pro bono legal counsel as well as a secure communications platform for members of the Electoral College who are regarding a vote of conscience against Trump.
On December 6, Colorado Secretary of State Wayne W. Williams castigated Democratic electors who had filed a lawsuit in Federal court to have the state law binding them to the popular vote (in their case for Hillary Clinton) overturned.
On December 10, ten electors, in an open letter headed by Christine Pelosi to the Director of National Intelligence James Clapper, demanded an intelligence briefing in light of Russian interference in the election to help Trump win the presidency. Fifty - eight additional electors subsequently added their names to the letter, bringing the total to 68 electors from 17 different states. On December 16, the briefing request was denied.
On December 19, several electors voted against their pledged candidates: two against Trump and five against Clinton. A further three electors attempted to vote against Clinton but were replaced or forced to vote again.
The 115th United States Congress officially certified the results on January 6, 2017.
In the Electoral College vote on December 19, for the first time since 1808, multiple faithless electors voted against their pledged qualified presidential candidate. Five Democrats rebelled in Washington and Hawaii, while two Republicans rebelled in Texas. Two Democratic electors, one in Minnesota and one in Colorado, were replaced after voting for Bernie Sanders and John Kasich, respectively. Electors in Maine conducted a second vote after one of its members voted for Sanders; the elector then voted for Clinton.
Likewise, for the first time since 1896, multiple faithless electors voted against the pledged qualified vice presidential candidate.
Of the faithless votes, Colin Powell and Elizabeth Warren were the only two to receive more than one; Powell received three electoral votes for President and Warren received two for Vice President. Receiving one valid electoral vote each were Sanders, John Kasich, Ron Paul and Faith Spotted Eagle for President, and Carly Fiorina, Susan Collins, Winona LaDuke and Maria Cantwell for Vice President. Sanders is the first Jewish American to receive an electoral vote for President. LaDuke is the first Green Party member to receive an electoral vote, and Paul is the third member of the Libertarian Party to do so, following the party 's presidential and vice-presidential nominees each getting one vote in 1972. It is the first election with faithless electors from more than one political party. The seven people to receive electoral votes for president were the most in a single election since 1796, and more than any other election since the enactment of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804.
|
who sings the song sealed with a kiss | Sealed with a Kiss - wikipedia
"Sealed with a Kiss '' is a song written by Peter Udell and Gary Geld. It was first recorded by The Four Voices in 1960 and released as a single, but their recording was not a hit.
In 1962, Brian Hyland, who often performed Udell and Geld 's material, covered the song. Hyland 's single began its run on June 6, 1962 and became a hit, reaching No. 3 on both the Billboard Hot 100 and the UK Singles Chart. The personnel on the original Brian Hyland recording included Mundell Lowe, Al Caiola on guitar, Gary Geld on piano, George Duvivier on bass, Blackie Shackner on harmonica and Gary Chester on drums and Sticks Evans and Al Rogers on percussion.
When re-released in 1975, Hyland 's recording charted in the UK at No. 7. Hyland also recorded a version in German.
Gary Lewis & the Playboys covered the song in 1968 on the album Gary Lewis Now!. Their cover version of the single was a Billboard Hot 100 No. 19 hit.
A third Top 40 Hot 100 version came in 1972, when Bobby Vinton released a single, reaching No. 19 in the Billboard singles chart. This version also placed high on Billboard 's adult contemporary chart. Vinton arranged the song himself, with a modern sound including a unique bongo opening that made the song stand out from the pack. The success of the single led to the release of an album, also titled Sealed With A Kiss that charted as a best seller. This single, which was a follow up to "Every Day of My Life '' marked a Vinton comeback in 1972, with the artist appearing on American Bandstand and other television shows on the strength of the single. Billboard ranked it as the No. 87 song for 1972. Vinton 's recording was used in both the trailer and end credits of the 2007 horror film All the Boys Love Mandy Lane.
In 1989, Jason Donovan released a cover version as the third single from his debut album, Ten Good Reasons. His version went straight into the UK Singles Chart at number one and stayed there for two weeks, also reaching the top in Finland and Ireland.
The American R&B all - girl trio The Toys covered it in 1968 reaching number 43 on the U.S. R&B charts.
|
who sang by the time i get to phoenix | By the Time I Get to Phoenix - wikipedia
"By the Time I Get to Phoenix '' is a song written by Jimmy Webb. Originally recorded by Johnny Rivers in 1965, it was covered by American country music singer Glen Campbell on his album of the same name. Released on Capitol Records in 1967, Campbell 's version topped RPM 's Canada Country Tracks, reached number two on Billboard 's Hot Country Singles chart, and won two awards at the 10th Annual Grammys. Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) named it the third most performed song from 1940 to 1990. The song was ranked number 20 on BMI 's Top 100 Songs of the Century. Frank Sinatra called it "the greatest torch song ever written. ''
The inspiration for "By the Time I Get to Phoenix '' originated in Jimmy Webb 's breakup with Susan Horton. They remained friends after her marriage to Bobby Ronstadt, a cousin of singer Linda Ronstadt. Their relationship, which peaked in mid-1965, was also the primary influence for "MacArthur Park '', another Webb composition.
Webb stated that the song was not intended to be geographically literal. "A guy approached me one night after a concert (...) and he showed me how it was impossible for me to drive from L.A. to Phoenix, and then how far it was to Albuquerque. In short, he told me, ' This song is impossible. ' And so it is. It 's a kind of fantasy about something I wish I would have done, and it sort of takes place in a twilight zone of reality. ''
However, the drive is actually possible, diving at an average of about an average of 65 mph. If he leaves Los Angeles around midnight, he can drive the 373 miles to Phoenix in about six hours to arrive when she "rises '' at 6: 00 am. If she "stops at lunch '' to "give him a call '' at 12: 30 p.m. when he is in Albuquerque, it gives him six - and - a-half hours to make the 420 - mile drive. The drive from Albuquerque to the Oklahoma border is about 390 miles, giving her plenty of time to get home and go to sleep.
Webb called the song a "succinct tale '' with an "O. Henry-esque twist at the end, which consists merely of the guy saying, ' She did n't really think that I would go, ' but he did. '' Although the protagonist in the song left his lover, Webb did not leave Horton.
"By the Time I Get to Phoenix '' was named the third-most performed song from the period between 1940 and 1990, by Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) on September 14, 1990. Many cover versions have been recorded. Charted versions include:
Hundreds of other cover versions exist. Engelbert Humperdinck covered the song in 1968 for his album A Man Without Love. Harry James released a version in 1981 on his album For Listening And Dancing (Reader 's Digest RD4A 213). Nick Cave covered the song in the 1980s and later. John Peel, the British ' alternative music ' radio disc jockey, considered Cave 's version to be "by some considerable distance '' the best version of the song ever recorded. Brídín Brennan, sister of singer Enya, sampled the song for her second single on her Eyes of Innocence album. Country singer Reba McEntire recorded the song for her 20th anniversary album in 1995, Starting Over.
|
the first king and queen in the world | Monarchy of Denmark - wikipedia
The Monarchy of Denmark, colloquially known as the Danish Monarchy, is a constitutional institution and a historic office of the Kingdom of Denmark. The Kingdom includes not only Denmark, but the autonomous regions of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Kingdom of Denmark were already consolidated in the late 8th century, whose rulers are consistently referred to in Frankish sources as Kings (Reges). Under the rule of King Gudfred in 804 the Kingdom may have included all the major provinces of medieval Denmark The current unified kingdom of Denmark was founded by the Viking kings Gorm the Old and Harald Bluetooth in the 10th century, making the monarchy of Denmark the oldest in Europe. Originally an elective monarchy, it became hereditary only in the 17th century during the reign of Frederick III. A decisive transition to a constitutional monarchy occurred in 1849 with the writing of the first Constitution. The current Royal House is a branch of the princely family of Glücksburg, originally from Schleswig - Holstein in modern - day Germany, the same royal house as the Norwegian and former Greek royal families.
The Danish Monarchy is constitutional and as such, the role of the monarch is defined and limited by the Constitution of Denmark. According to the constitution, the ultimate executive authority over the government of Denmark is still by and through the monarch 's royal reserve powers; in practice these powers are only used according to laws enacted in Parliament or within the constraints of convention. The monarch is, in practice, limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic and representational duties.
Queen Margrethe II ascended the throne on the death of her father, King Frederick IX, on 14 January 1972. On her accession, Queen Margrethe II became the first female monarch of Denmark since Margrethe I, ruler of the Scandinavian countries in 1375 ‒ 1412, during the Kalmar Union. Danish regnal names have traditionally alternated between "Frederick '' (Frederik) and "Christian ''; Margrethe has taken the place of a Christian, and accordingly her heir apparent is Crown Prince Frederik.
The Danish monarchy is over 1000 years old, making it the oldest monarchy in Europe and the second oldest continuous monarchy in the world still existing today, the oldest being the Imperial House of Japan. The modern Kingdom of Denmark dates back to Harthacnut 's son, Gorm the Old (Gorm den Gamle), who reigned in the early 10th century.
The Danes were united and officially Christianized in 965 CE by Harald Bluetooth, the story of which is recorded on the Jelling stones. The exact extent of Harald 's kingdom is unknown, although it is reasonable to believe that it stretched from the defensive line of Dannevirke, including the Viking city of Hedeby, across Jutland, the Danish isles and into southern present day Sweden; Scania and perhaps Halland. Furthermore, the Jelling stones attests that Harald had also "won '' Norway. The son of Harald, Sweyn Forkbeard, mounted a series of wars of conquest against England, which was completed by Sweyn 's son Cnut the Great by the middle of the eleventh century. The reign of Cnut represented the peak of the Danish Viking age; his North Sea Empire included England (1016), Denmark (1018), Norway (1028) and held strong influence over the north - eastern coast of Germany.
The last monarch descended from Valdemar IV, Christopher III of Denmark, died in 1448. Count Christian of Oldenburg, descendant of Valdemar IV 's aunt Richeza, was chosen as his successor and became the next monarch of Denmark, ruling under the name Christian I.
Originally the Danish monarchy was elective, but in practice the eldest son of the reigning monarch was elected. Later a Coronation Charter was signed by the king to restrict the powers of the Danish monarch.
In 1657, during the Second Northern War, King Frederick III launched a war of revenge against Sweden which turned into a complete disaster. The war became a disaster for two reasons: Primarily, because Denmark 's new powerful ally, the Netherlands, remained neutral as Denmark was the aggressor and Sweden the defender. Secondly, the Belts froze over in a rare occurrence during the winter of 1657 - 1658, allowing King Charles X Gustav of Sweden to lead his armies across the ice to invade Zealand. In the following Treaty of Roskilde, Denmark -- Norway capitulated and gave up all of Eastern Denmark (i.e. Skåne, Halland, Blekinge and Bornholm), in addition to the counties of Bohuslän and Trøndelag in Norway.
But the Second Northern War was not yet over. Three months after the peace treaty was signed, Charles X Gustav held a council of war where he decided to simply wipe Denmark from the map and unite all of Scandinavia under his rule. Once again the Swedish army arrived outside Copenhagen. However, this time the Danes did not panic or surrender. Instead, they decided to fight and prepared to defend Copenhagen. Frederick III had stayed in his capital and now encouraged the citizens of Copenhagen to resist the Swedes, by saying he would "die in his nest '', rather than to evacuate to safety in Norway. Furthermore, this unprovoked declaration of war by Sweden finally triggered the alliance that Denmark -- Norway had with the Netherlands, and a powerful Dutch fleet was sent to Copenhagen with vital supplies and reinforcements, which saved the city from being captured during the Swedish attack.
Charles X Gustav suddenly died of an illness in early 1660, while planning an invasion of Norway. Following his death, Sweden made peace in the Treaty of Copenhagen. The Swedes returned Trøndelag to Norway and Bornholm to Denmark, but kept the other territories gained two years earlier. The Netherlands and other European powers accepted the settlement, not wanting both coasts of the Sound controlled by Denmark. This treaty established the boundaries between Norway, Denmark, and Sweden that still exist today. Absolutism was introduced in 1660 -- 1661 and the elective monarchy was de jure transformed into an hereditary monarchy. Male primogeniture succession was laid down in law in the Royal Decree of 1665.
When he succeeded to the throne in January 1848, King Frederick VII was almost at once met by the demands for a constitution and an end to absolutism. The Schleswig - Holsteiners wanted an independent state while the Danes wished to maintain South Jutland as a Danish area. Frederick VII soon yielded to the Danish demands, and in March he accepted the end of absolutism, which resulted in the June Constitution of 1849. During the First War of Schleswig against the German powers in 1848 -- 51, Frederick appeared as '' the national leader '' and was regarded almost as a war hero, despite having never taken any active part in the struggles. On 5 June 1849 the constitution, known as the June Constitution, was altered to create the framework of a constitutional monarchy for Denmark. As King Frederick VII was without legtimate issue, Prince Christian of Glücksborg was chosen in 1853 as heir presumptive to the Danish throne, with the approval of the great powers of Europe, in light of the expected extinction of the senior line of the House of Oldenburg. A justification for this choice was his marriage to Louise of Hesse - Kassel, who as a niece of Christian VIII, was a more close relative to the incumbent king than her husband.
Upon the death of King Frederick VII of Denmark in 1863, Christian IX acceded to the throne as the first Danish monarch of the House of Glücksburg. Christian IX eventually became known as Father - in - law of Europe due to his family ties with most other ruling dynasties of Europe: His daughter Princess Alexandra married Edward VII of the United Kingdom, another daughter Princess Dagmar married Alexander III of Russia and Princess Thyra married Crown Prince Ernst August of Hanover. His son Vilhelm went on to become George I of Greece. Further, his grandson Carl became Haakon VII of Norway. To this day the Danish Royal Family are related to most other reigning European dynasties.
The Easter Crisis of 1920 was a constitutional crisis which began with the dismissal of the elected government by King Christian X, a reserve power which was granted to him by the Danish constitution. The immediate cause was a conflict between the king and the cabinet over the reunification with Denmark of Schleswig, a former Danish fiefdom which had been lost to Prussia during the Second War of Schleswig. According to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the disposition of Schleswig was to be determined by two Schleswig Plebiscites: one in Northern Schleswig (today Denmark 's South Jutland County), the other in Central Schleswig (today part of the German state of Schleswig - Holstein). Many Danish nationalists felt that Central Schleswig should be returned to Denmark regardless of the plebiscite 's results, generally motivated by a desire to see Germany permanently weakened in the future. Christian X agreed with these sentiments, and ordered Prime Minister Carl Theodor Zahle to include Central Schleswig in the re-unification process. As Denmark had been operating as a parliamentary democracy since the Cabinet of Deuntzer in 1901, Zahle felt he was under no obligation to comply. He refused the order and resigned several days later after a heated exchange with the king.
Subsequently, Christian X dismissed the rest of the government and replaced it with a de facto conservative care - taker cabinet under Otto Liebe. The dismissal caused demonstrations and an almost revolutionary atmosphere in Denmark, and for several days the future of the monarchy seemed very much in doubt. In light of this, negotiations were opened between the king and members of the Social Democrats. Faced with the potential overthrow of the Danish monarchy, Christian X backed down and dismissed his own government. This was the most recent time that a sitting Danish monarch made an executive decision without the support of a cabinet accountable to the legislature; following the crisis, Christian X accepted his drastically reduced role as symbolic head of state.
The Act of Succession of 27 March 1953 was promulgated after a 1953 referendum introduced the possibility of female succession and, in effect, made the current Queen regnant, Margrethe II, the heir presumptive and eventual successor to her father, Frederick IX upon his death in 1972, rather than her uncle Prince Knud.
Following a referendum in 2009, the Act of Succession was amended so that primogeniture no longer puts males over females. In other words, the first - born child would become heir to the throne regardless of gender.
According to the Danish Constitution, the Danish Monarch, as the de facto head of state, is the holder of executive and, co-jointly with the Folketing, legislative power. The Monarch has the ability to deny giving a bill royal assent as well as to choose and dismiss the Prime Minister or any Minister of Government with or without cause; however, no Monarch has exercised the latter powers since King Christian X dismissed the government on 28 March 1920, sparking the 1920 Easter Crisis.
However, when reading the Danish Constitution of 1953, it is important to bear in mind that the usage of the word king, in the context of exercising acts of state, is understood by Danish jurists to be read as the Government (consisting of the Prime Minister and other ministers). This is a logical consequence of articles 12, 13 and 14, all of which in essence stipulate that the powers vested in the monarch can only be exercised through ministers, who are responsible for all acts, thus removing any political or legal liability from the Monarch.
Today the Queen delegates much royal authority to Ministers in government, allowing the Queen to engage in the ceremonial role outlined by the Danish constitution. The Prime Minister and Cabinet attend the regular meetings of the Council of State, at which the Monarch presides and gives royal assent to laws. The Prime Minister and the Minister of Foreign Affairs report regularly to the Queen to advise her of the latest political developments. The Queen hosts official visits by foreign Heads of State, pays state visits abroad, receives letters of credence from foreign ambassadors and signs those of Danish ambassadors. The convention for appointment of a new prime minister after a general election is that after consultation with representatives of the political parties, the Queen invites the party leader who has the support of the largest number of seats in the Folketing to form a government. Once it has been formed, the Queen formally appoints it.
Greenland and the Faroe Islands are two Danish dependencies which enjoy Home - rule and their head of state is also the monarch of Denmark, in accordance with the Danish Constitution.
After a referendum in Greenland in 2009, the Danish Parliament implemented a new Danish Law called Act on Greenlandic Self - rule, which, unlike any other case with the Indigenous Peoples around the world, acknowledges Greenlanders as a people in accordance to the International Law, and hereby giving the Greenlanders ability to obtain sovereignty.
Denmark has had absolute primogeniture since 2009. The Danish Act of Succession adopted on 27 March 1953 restricts the throne to those descended from King Christian X and his wife, Alexandrine of Mecklenburg - Schwerin, through approved marriages.
Dynasts lose their right to the throne if they marry without the permission of the monarch given in the Council of State. Individuals born to unmarried dynasts or to former dynasts that married without royal permission, and their descendants, are excluded from the throne. Further, when approving a marriage, the monarch can impose conditions that must be met in order for any resulting offspring to have succession rights. Part II, Section 9 of the Danish Constitution of 5 June 1953 provides that the parliament will elect a king and determine a new line of succession should a situation arise where there are no eligible descendants of King Christian X and Queen Alexandrine.
The monarch of Denmark must be a member of the Danish National Church, or Evangelical Lutheran Church of Denmark (Danish Constitution, II, 6). The National Church is by law the State Church, though the monarch is not its head.
Princes and princesses in the line of succession use the style prince / princess to Denmark, where all those not in line use the style princes / princess of Denmark.
The first law governing the succession to the Danish throne as a hereditary monarchy was the Kongeloven (Latin: Lex Regia), enacted 14 November 1665, and published in 1709. It declared that the crown of Denmark shall descend by heredity to the legitimate descendants of King Frederick III, and that the order of succession shall follow semi-Salic primogeniture, according to which the crown is inherited by an heir, with preference among the Monarch 's children to males over females; among siblings to the elder over the younger; and among Frederick III 's remoter descendants by substitution, senior branches over junior branches. Female descendants were eligible to inherit the throne in the event there were no eligible surviving male dynasts born in the male line. As for the duchies, Holstein and Lauenburg where the King ruled as duke, these lands adhered to Salic law (meaning that only males could inherit the ducal throne), and by mutual agreement were permanently conjoined. The duchies of Schleswig (a Danish fief), Holstein and Lauenburg (German fiefs) were joined in personal union with the Crown of Denmark.
This difference caused problems when Frederick VII of Denmark proved childless, making a change in dynasty imminent, and causing the lines of succession for the duchies on one hand and for Denmark on the other to diverge. That meant that the new King of Denmark would not also be the new Duke of Schleswig or Duke of Holstein. To ensure the continued adhesion of the Elbe duchies to the Danish Crown, the line of succession to the duchies was modified in the London Protocol of 1852, which designated Prince Christian IX of Schleswig - Holstein - Sonderburg - Glücksburg, as the new heir apparent, although he was, strictly, the heir neither to the Crown of Denmark nor to the Duchies of Schleswig, Holstein or Lauenburg by primogeniture. Originally, the Danish prime minister Christian Albrecht Bluhme wanted to keep the separate hereditary principles, but in the end the government decided on a uniform agnatic primogeniture, which was accepted by the Parliament.
This order of succession remained in effect for a hundred years, then the Salic law was changed to male - preference primogeniture in 1953, meaning that females could inherit, but only if they had no brothers. In 2009, the mode of inheritance of the throne was once more changed, this time into an absolute primogeniture.
Following the transformation of Denmark 's monarchy from elective (at least theoretically, although it had generally descended to the eldest son of the House of Oldenburg since 1448) to hereditary in 1660, the so - called Kongelov (Latin: Lex Regia) established the right to rule "by the grace of God '' for King Frederick III and his posterity. Out of the articles in this law, all except for Article 21 and Article 25 have since been repealed.
Article 21 states "No Prince of the Blood, who resides here in the Realm and in Our territory, shall marry, or leave the Country, or take service under foreign Masters, unless he receives Permission from the King ''. Under this provision, princes of Denmark who permanently reside in other realms by express permission of the Danish Crown (i.e. members of the dynasties of Greece, Norway and the United Kingdom) do not thereby forfeit their royalty in Denmark, nor are they bound to obtain prior permission to travel abroad or to marry from its sovereign, although since 1950 those not descended in male - line from King Christian IX are no longer in the line of succession to the Danish throne. However, those who do reside in Denmark or its territories continue to require the monarch 's prior permission to travel abroad and to marry.
Article 25 of the Kongelov stipulates, with respect to members of the Royal dynasty: "They should answer to no Magistrate Judges, but their first and last Judge shall be the King, or to whomsoever He decrees. '' Although all other articles of the Kongelov have been repealed by amendments to the Constitution in 1849, 1853 and 1953, these two articles have thus far been left intact.
The royal palaces of Denmark became property of the state with the introduction of the constitutional monarchy in 1849. Since then, a varying number of these has been put at the disposal of the monarchy. The agreement on which is renewed at the accession of every new monarch.
The monarch has the use of the four palaces at Amalienborg in Copenhagen as a residence and work palace. Currently, the Queen herself resides in Christian IX 's Palace and the Crown Prince in Frederik VIII 's Palace. Christian VIII 's Palace has apartments for other members of the royal family, whereas Christian VII 's Palace is used for official events and to accommodate guests.
Amalienborg was originally built in the 1750s by architect Nicolai Eigtved for four noble families; however, when Christiansborg Palace burned in 1794, the royal family bought the palaces and moved in.
The state rooms of Christian VIII 's Palace and Christian VII 's Palace may be visited by the public on guided tours.
In addition, parts of Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen is also at the disposal of the monarch. It is the site of official functions such as banquets, state dinners, diplomatic accreditations, public audiences, meetings of the Council of State, receptions, royal christenings, lyings - in - state and other ceremonies. Also, the Royal Stables which provide the ceremonial transport by horse - drawn carriage for the royal family, is located here.
The present building, the third with this name, is the last in a series of successive castles and palaces constructed on the same site since the erection of the first castle in 1167. The palace today bears witness to three eras of architecture, as the result of two serious fires in 1794 and in 1884. The main part of the current palace, finished in 1928, is in the historicist Neo-Baroque style. The chapel dates to 1826 and is in a Neoclassical style. The showgrounds were built 1738 - 46, in a Baroque style.
The royal parts of the palace are open to the public when not in use.
Another residence is Fredensborg Palace north of Copenhagen which is used principally in Spring and Autumn. It is often the site of state visits and ceremonial events in the royal family.
The palace may be visited by the public on guided tours when not in use.
In Jutland, Graasten Palace is at the disposal of the monarch. It was used as the summer residence of King Frederick IX and Queen Ingrid. Since the death of Queen Ingrid in 2000, the Queen has stayed at Graasten for a yearly vacation in summer.
The hunting lodge the Eremitage Palace in the Dyrehaven deer park north of Copenhagen is used during royal hunts in Dyrehaven.
Finally, Sorgenfri Palace is at the disposal of the monarch. It was the residence of Hereditary Prince Knud and Hereditary Princess Caroline Mathilde and is not in official use at all at this time.
Apart from these state - owned palaces, Marselisborg Palace in Aarhus is privately owned by the Queen. It functions as the summer residence of the Queen, as well as during the Easter and Christmas holidays.
In the Kingdom of Denmark all members of the ruling dynasty that hold the title Prince or Princess of Denmark are said to be members of the Danish Royal Family. As with other European monarchies, distinguishing who is a member of the national Royal Family is difficult due to lack of strict legal or formal definition of who is or is not a member. The Queen and her siblings belong to the House of Glücksburg, a branch of the House of Oldenburg. The Queen 's children and male - line descendants belong agnatically to the family de Laborde de Monpezat.
The Danish Royal Family includes:
The extended Danish Royal Family which includes people who do not hold the title of Prince or Princess of Denmark but have close connections to the Queen could be said to include:
Most members of the Greek Royal Family are members of the Danish Royal Family and bear the title of Prince or Princess of Greece and Denmark, as descendants of Christian IX of Denmark. Due to the morganatic status of her marriage, Marina, Consort of Prince Michael, and their children, Princesses Alexandra and Olga, are exceptions.
The monarchs of Denmark have a long history of royal and noble titles. Historically Danish monarchs also used the titles ' King of the Wends ' and ' King of the Goths '. Upon her accession to the throne in 1972 Queen Margrethe II abandoned all titles except the title ' Queen of Denmark '. The kings and queens of Denmark are addressed as ' Your Majesty ', whereas princes and princesses are referred to as His or Her Royal Highness (Hans or Hendes Kongelige Højhed), or His or Her Highness (Hans or Hendes Højhed).
|
contracts are governed primarily by statute including the ucc | Uniform Commercial Code - wikipedia
The Uniform Commercial Code (UCC), first published in 1952, is one of a number of uniform acts that have been put into law with the goal of harmonizing the law of sales and other commercial transactions across the United States of America (U.S.) through UCC adoption by all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and the U.S. territories.
While largely successful at achieving this ambitious goal, some U.S. jurisdictions (e.g., Louisiana and Puerto Rico) have not adopted all of the articles contained in the UCC, while other U.S. jurisdictions (e.g., American Samoa) have not adopted any articles in the UCC. Also, adoption of the UCC often varies, although to different degrees, from one U.S. jurisdiction to another. Sometimes this variation is due to alternative language found in the official UCC itself. At other times, adoption of different revisions to the official UCC contributes to further variation. Additionally, some jurisdictions deviate from the official UCC by tailoring the language to meet their unique needs and preferences. Lastly, even identical language adopted by any two U.S. jurisdictions may nonetheless be subject to different statutory interpretation by each jurisdiction 's courts.
The goal of harmonizing state law is important because of the prevalence of commercial transactions that extend beyond one state. For example, goods may be manufactured in State A, warehoused in State B, sold from State C and delivered in State D. The UCC therefore achieved the goal of substantial uniformity in commercial laws and, at the same time, allowed the states the flexibility to meet local circumstances by modifying the UCC 's text as enacted in each state. The UCC deals primarily with transactions involving personal property (movable property), not real property (immovable property).
Other goals of the UCC were to modernize contract law and to allow for exceptions from the common law in contracts between merchants.
The UCC is the longest and most elaborate of the uniform acts. The Code has been a long - term, joint project of the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws (NCCUSL) and the American Law Institute (ALI), who began drafting its first version in 1942. Judge Herbert F. Goodrich was the Chairman of the Editorial Board of the original 1952 edition, and the Code itself was drafted by some of the top legal scholars in the United States, including Karl N. Llewellyn, William A. Schnader, Soia Mentschikoff, and Grant Gilmore.
The Code, as the product of private organizations, is not itself the law, but only a recommendation of the laws that should be adopted in the states. Once enacted by a state, the UCC is codified into the state 's code of statutes. A state may adopt the UCC verbatim as written by ALI and NCCUSL, or a state may adopt the UCC with specific changes. Unless such changes are minor, they can seriously obstruct the Code 's express objective of promoting uniformity of law among the various states. Thus persons doing business in different states must check local law.
The ALI and NCCUSL have established a permanent editorial board for the Code. This board has issued a number of official comments and other published papers. Although these commentaries do not have the force of law, courts interpreting the Code often cite them as persuasive authority in determining the effect of one or more provisions. Courts interpreting the Code generally seek to harmonize their interpretations with those of other states that have adopted the same or a similar provision.
In one or another of its several revisions, the UCC has been fully enacted with only minimal changes in 49 states, as well as in the District of Columbia, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. In addition, both Louisiana and Puerto Rico have enacted most provisions of the UCC with only minimal changes, except Articles 2 and 2A, preferring instead to maintain their own civil law tradition for governing the sale and lease of goods. Also, some Native American tribes have adopted portions of the UCC, including the Navajo Nation that adopted Articles 1, 2, 3, and 9 with only minimal changes.
Although the substantive content is largely similar, some states have made structural modifications to conform to local customs. For example, Louisiana jurisprudence refers to the major subdivisions of the UCC as "chapters '' instead of articles, since the term "articles '' is used in that state to refer to provisions of the Louisiana Civil Code. Arkansas has a similar arrangement as the term "article '' in that state 's law generally refers to a subdivision of the Arkansas Constitution. In California, they are titled "divisions '' instead of articles, because in California, articles are a third - or fourth - level subdivision of a code, while divisions or parts are always the first - level subdivision. Also, California does not allow the use of hyphens in section numbers because they are reserved for referring to ranges of sections; therefore, the hyphens used in the official UCC section numbers are dropped in the California implementation.
The 1952 Uniform Commercial Code was released after ten years of development, and revisions were made to the Code from 1952 to 1999. The Uniform Commercial Code deals with the following subjects under consecutively numbered Articles:
In 2003, amendments to Article 2 modernizing many aspects (as well as changes to Article 2A and Article 7) were proposed by the NCCUSL and the ALI. Because no states adopted the amendments and, due to industry opposition, none were likely to, in 2011 the sponsors withdrew the amendments. As a result, the official text of the UCC now corresponds to the law that most states have enacted.
In 1989, the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws recommended that Article 6 of the UCC, dealing with bulk sales, be repealed as obsolete. Approximately 45 states have done so. Two others have followed the alternative recommendation of revising Article 6.
A major revision of Article 9, dealing primarily with transactions in which personal property is used as security for a loan or extension of credit, was enacted in all states. The revision had a uniform effective date of July 1, 2001 although in a few states it went into effect shortly after that date. In 2010, NCCUSL and the ALI proposed modest amendments to Article 9. Several states have already enacted these amendments, which have a uniform effective date of July 1, 2013.
The controversy surrounding with what is now termed the Uniform Computer Information Transactions Act (UCITA) originated in the process of revising Article 2 of the UCC. The provisions of what is now UCITA were originally meant to be "Article 2B '' within a revised Article 2 on Sales. As the UCC is the only uniform law that is a joint project of NCCUSL and the ALI, both associations must agree to any revision of the UCC (i.e., the model act; revisions to the law of a particular state only require enactment in that state). The proposed final draft of Article 2B met with controversy within the ALI, and as a consequence the ALI did not grant its assent. The NCCUSL responded by renaming Article 2B and promulgating it as the UCITA. As of October 12, 2004, only Maryland and Virginia have adopted UCITA.
The overriding philosophy of the Uniform Commercial Code is to allow people to make the contracts they want, but to fill in any missing provisions where the agreements they make are silent. The law also seeks to impose uniformity and streamlining of routine transactions like the processing of checks, notes, and other routine commercial paper. The law frequently distinguishes between merchants, who customarily deal in a commodity and are presumed to know well the business they are in, and consumers, who are not.
The UCC also seeks to discourage the use of legal formalities in making business contracts, in order to allow business to move forward without the intervention of lawyers or the preparation of elaborate documents. This last point is perhaps the most questionable part of its underlying philosophy; many in the legal profession have argued that legal formalities discourage litigation by requiring some kind of ritual that provides a clear dividing line that tells people when they have made a final deal over which they could be sued.
Article 2 deals with sales, and Article 2A deals with leases.
One of the most confusing and fiercely litigated sections of the UCC is Section 2 - 207, which Professor Grant Gilmore called "arguably the greatest statutory mess of all time. '' It governs a "battle of the forms '' as to whose boilerplate terms, those of the offeror or the offeree, will survive a commercial transaction where multiple forms with varying terms are exchanged. This problem frequently arises when parties to a commercial transaction exchange routine documents like requests for proposals, invoices, purchase orders, and order confirmations, all of which may contain conflicting boilerplate provisions.
The first step in the analysis is to determine whether the UCC or the common law governs the transaction. If the UCC governs, courts will usually try to find which form constitutes the offer. Next, offeree 's acceptance forms bearing the different terms is examined. One should note whether the acceptance is expressly conditional on its own terms. If it is expressly conditional, it is a counteroffer, not an acceptance. If performance is accepted after the counteroffer, even without express acceptance, under 2 - 207 (3), a contract will exist under only those terms on which the parties agree, together with UCC gap - fillers.
If the acceptance form does not expressly limit acceptance to its own terms, and both parties are merchants, offeror 's acceptance of offeree 's performance, though offeree 's forms contain additional or different terms, forms a contract. At this point, if offeree 's terms can not coexist with offeror 's terms, both terms are "knocked out '' and UCC gap - fillers step in. If offeree 's terms are simply additional, they will be considered part of the contract unless (a) the offeror expressly limits acceptance to the terms of the original offer, (b) the new terms materially alter the original offer or (c) notification of objection to the new terms has already been given or is given within a reasonable time after they are promulgated by the offeree.
Because of the massive confusion engendered by Section 2 - 207, a revised version was promulgated in 2003, but the revision has never been enacted by any state.
The ownership of securities is governed by Article 8 of the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC). This Article 8, a text of about thirty pages, underwent important recasting in 1994. That update of the UCC treats the majority of the transfers of dematerialized securities as mere reflections of their respective initial issue registered by the two American central securities depositories, respectively the Depository Trust Company (DTC) for the securities issued by corporations and the Federal reserve for the securities issued by the Treasury Department. In this centralised system, the title transfer of the securities does not take place at the time of the registration on the account of the investor, but within the systems managed by the DTC or by the Federal reserve.
This centralization is not accompanied by a centralized register of the investors / owners of the securities, such as the systems established in Sweden and in Finland (so - called "transparent systems ''). Neither the DTC nor the Federal Reserve hold an individual register of the transfers of property. The consequence for an investor is that proving ownership of its securities relies entirely on the accurate replication of the transfer recorded by the DTC and FED at the lower tiers of the holding chain of the securities.
Each one of these links is composed respectively of an account provider (or intermediary) and of an account holder.
The rights created through these links, are purely contractual claims: these rights are of two kinds:
1) For the links where the account holder is itself an account provider at a lower tier, the right on the security during the time where it is credited there is characterized as a "securities entitlement '', which is an "ad hoc '' concept invented in 1994: i.e. designating a claim that will enable the account holder to take part to a prorate distribution in the event of bankruptcy of its account provider.
2) For the last link of the chain, in which the account holder is at the same time the final investor, its "security entitlement '' is enriched by the "substantial '' rights defined by the issuer: the right to receive dividends or interests and, possibly, the right to take part in the general meetings, when that was laid down in the account agreement concluded with the account provider. The combination of these reduced material rights and of these variable substantial rights is characterised by article 8 of the UCC as a "beneficial interest ''.
This decomposition of the rights organized by Article 8 of the UCC results in preventing the investor to revindicate the security in case of bankruptcy of the account provider, that is to say the possibility to claim the security as its own asset, without being obliged to share it at its prorate value with the other creditors of the account provider. As a consequence, it also prevents the investor from asserting its securities at the upper level of the holding chain, either up to the DTC or up to a sub-custodian. Such a "security entitlement, '' unlike a normal ownership right, is no longer enforceable "erga omnes '' to any person supposed to have the security in its custody. The "security entitlement '' is a mere relative right, therefore a contractual right.
This re-characterization of the proprietary right into a simple contractual right may enable the account provider, to "re-use '' the security without having to ask for the authorization of the investor. This is especially possible within the framework of temporary operations such as security lending, option to repurchase, buy to sell back or repurchase agreement. This system the distinction between the downward holding chain which traces the way in which the security was subscribed by the investor and the horizontal and ascending chains which trace the way in which the security has been transferred or sub-deposited.
Contrary to claims suggesting that Article 8 denies American investors their security rights held through intermediaries such as banks, Article 8 has also helped US negotiators during the negotiations of the Geneva Securities Convention, also known as the Unidroit convention on substantive rules for intermediated securities.
Article 9 governs security interests in personal property as collateral to secure a debt. A creditor with a security interest is called a secured party.
Fundamental concepts under Article 9 include how a security interest is created (called attachment); how to give notice of a security interest to the public, which makes the security interest enforceable against others who may claim an interest in the collateral (called perfection); when multiple claims to the same collateral exist, determining which interests prevail over others (called priority); and what remedies a secured party has if the debtor defaults in payment or performance of the secured obligation.
Article 9 does not govern security interests in real property, except fixtures to real property. Security interests in real property include mortgages, deeds of trusts, and installment land contracts. There may be significant legal issues around security interests in Bitcoin.
The Model Tribal Secured Transactions Act (MTSTA), a model act tailored to provide Native American tribes with a legal system to govern secured transactions in Indian country, was derived from the UCC, primarily Article 9.
Certain portions of the UCC have been highly influential outside of the United States. Article 2 had some influence on the drafting of the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG), though the end result departed from the UCC in many respects (such as refusing to adopt the mailbox rule). Article 5, governing letters of credit, has been influential in international trade finance simply because so many major financial institutions operate in New York. Article 9, which established a unified framework for security interests in personal property, directly inspired the enactment of Personal Property Security Acts in every Canadian province and territory but Quebec from 1990 onward, followed by the New Zealand Personal Property Securities Act 1999 and then the Australia Personal Property Securities Act 2009.
|
what kind of bills must start in the house not the senate why | Origination Clause - wikipedia
The Origination Clause, sometimes called the Revenue Clause, is part of Article I of the United States Constitution. This clause says that all bills for raising revenue must start in the House of Representatives, but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as in the case of other bills.
The Origination Clause stemmed from a British parliamentary practice that all money bills must have their first reading (and any other initial readings) in the House of Commons before being sent to the House of Lords. This practice was intended to ensure that the power of the purse is possessed by the legislative body most responsive to the people, although the British practice was modified in America by allowing the Senate to amend these bills.
This clause was part of the Great Compromise between small and large states. The large states were unhappy with the lopsided power of small states in the Senate, and so the Origination Clause theoretically offsets the unrepresentative nature of the Senate, compensating the large states for allowing equal voting rights to Senators from small states.
The Origination Clause, also known as the Revenue Clause, reads as follows:
All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.
The federal Constitution was written in 1787 and adopted in 1789. Prior to 1787, several state constitutions followed British practice by providing that "money bills '' must start in the more representative branch of the state legislature.
Vesting the power of origination in the U.S. House of Representatives was part of the Great Compromise, in which the framers also agreed to allow equality in the Senate regardless of a state 's population, while creating representation based on a State 's population in the House. The framers adopted the Great Compromise on July 16, 1787. At that point, the draft clause stated: "all bills for raising or appropriating money... shall originate in the (representative house), and shall not be altered or amended by the (other house)... ''
The Origination Clause was modified later in 1787 to reduce the House 's power by allowing the Senate to amend revenue bills, and by removing appropriation bills from the scope of the clause (the House and Senate have disagreed on the latter point). However, a proposal was defeated that would have reduced the House 's power even more by changing "bills for raising revenue '' to "bills for raising money for the purpose of revenue ''. James Madison explained:
In many acts, particularly in the regulations of trade, the object would be twofold. The raising of revenue would be one of them. How could it be determined which was the primary or predominant one; or whether it was necessary that revenue shd: be the sole object, in exclusion even of other incidental effects.
Regarding the decision to allow Senate amendments, some of the reasoning was given by Theophilus Parsons during the convention in Massachusetts that ratified the Constitution; Parsons said that, otherwise, "representatives might tack any foreign matter to a money - bill, and compel the Senate to concur or lose the supplies. '' Madison believed that the difference between a permissible Senate amendment and an impermissible Senate amendment would, "turn on the degree of connection between the matter & object of the bill and the alteration or amendment offered to it. ''
During that era, the Continental Congress had a rule stating: "No new motion or proposition shall be admitted under color of amendment as a substitute for a question or proposition under debate until it is postponed or disagreed to. '' At the Virginia convention to ratify the Constitution, delegate William Grayson was concerned that a substitute amendment could have the same effect as an origination: "the Senate could strike out every word of the bill except the word whereas, or any other introductory word, and might substitute new words of their own. '' Grayson was not convinced by Madison 's argument that "the first part of the clause is sufficiently expressed to exclude all doubts '' about where the origination must occur.
In its final form, the Origination Clause was a major selling point for ratification of the Constitution. James Madison, who supported the final version during and after the 1787 Convention, wrote the following in Federalist 58 as the debate over ratification was raging:
The house of representatives can not only refuse, but they alone can propose the supplies requisite for the support of government. They in a word hold the purse; that powerful instrument by which we behold, in the history of the British constitution, an infant and humble representation of the people, gradually enlarging the sphere of its activity and importance, and finally reducing, as far as it seems to have wished, all the overgrown prerogatives of the other branches of the government. This power over the purse, may in fact be regarded as the most compleat and effectual weapon with which any constitution can arm the immediate representatives of the people, for obtaining a redress of every grievance, and for carrying into effect every just and salutary measure.
This clause resonated with a citizenry opposed to taxation without representation.
Many scholars have written about the Origination Clause. Among the most widely influential was Joseph Story, who wrote in 1833 that the clause refers only to bills that levy taxes:
(The clause) has been confined to bills to levy taxes in the strict sense of the words, and has not been understood to extend to bills for other purposes, which may incidentally create revenue. No one supposes, that a bill to sell any of the public lands, or to sell public stock, is a bill to raise revenue, in the sense of the constitution. Much less would a bill be so deemed, which merely regulated the value of foreign or domestic coins, or authorized a discharge of insolvent debtors upon assignments of their estates to the United States, giving a priority of payment to the United States in cases of insolvency, although all of them might incidentally bring, revenue into the treasury.
The U.S. Supreme Court has decided several cases involving this clause, and all of those challenges to federal statutes failed. For example, in the 1911 case of Flint v. Stone Tracy Company, the Court held: "The amendment was germane to the subject - matter of the bill and not beyond the power of the Senate to propose. '' But, the plaintiffs in one lower court decision succeeded in striking down a federal statute on Origination Clause grounds. The Supreme Court stated in the 1990 case of United States v. Munoz - Flores:
Both parties agree that "revenue bills are those that levy taxes in the strict sense of the word, and are not bills for other purposes which may incidentally create revenue. '' Twin City Bank v. Nebeker, 167 U.S. 196, 202 (1897) (citing 1 J. Story, Commentaries on the Constitution § 880, pp. 610 -- 611 (3d ed. 1858)). The Court has interpreted this general rule to mean that a statute that creates a particular governmental program and that raises revenue to support that program, as opposed to a statute that raises revenue to support Government generally, is not a "Bil (l) for raising Revenue '' within the meaning of the Origination Clause.
What this means exactly is disputed. According to one scholar, a statute is outside the scope of the Origination Clause if it, "imposes an exaction not to raise revenue, but to enforce a statute passed under the Commerce Clause or other enumerated power. '' However, according to another scholar, even exactions imposed only under the taxing powers of Congress are outside the scope of the Origination Clause if Congress "earmarks revenues to fund a program it creates. '' Regarding the latter view, Justice John Paul Stevens suggested in 1990 that its tendency was to "convert the Origination Clause into a formal accounting requirement... ''
A bill that lowers taxes instead of raises taxes may still be a bill for raising revenue, according to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Assuming that a bill is for raising revenue, a further ambiguity in the clause involves how far the Senate 's right to amend extends. According to law professor Jack Balkin, the Senate may take a House - originated revenue bill, and "substitute a different bill on a different subject. '' On the other hand, law professor Randy Barnett says: "The Supreme Court has never approved the ' strike - and - replace ' procedure... ''
Not only the House of Representatives, but also the Senate and the judiciary have sometimes tried to guard the role of the House with regard to origination of revenue bills. For example, as early as 1789, the Senate deemed itself helpless to pass a law levying a tax. And, as mentioned, a federal court in 1915 struck down legislation contrary to the clause. The U.S. Supreme Court has expressed willingness to address such issues, according to its 1990 opinion by Justice Thurgood Marshall in Munoz - Flores:
A law passed in violation of the Origination Clause would thus be no more immune from judicial scrutiny because it was passed by both Houses and signed by the President than would be a law passed in violation of the First Amendment.
In 2012, the joint dissent in the U.S. Supreme Court case National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius mentioned that "the Constitution requires tax increases to originate in the House of Representatives '' per the Origination Clause, though that issue was not addressed by the majority opinion. In 2014, Sissel v. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, a challenge to the Affordable Care Act brought by the Pacific Legal Foundation based upon this clause, was rejected by a panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, and that court later declined a request to put the matter before all of its judges ("en banc '') over a lengthy dissent authored by Judge Brett Kavanaugh.
In 2013, during the United States federal government shutdown of 2013 and the United States debt - ceiling crisis of 2013, the Republican - led House of Representatives could not agree on or pass an originating resolution to end the government crisis, as had been agreed, so the Democratic - led Senate used bill H.R. 2775 to resolve the impasse by using the Continuing Appropriations Act, 2014, an insignificant bill that originated in the House, which it amended all the tax and appropriation measures so to satisfy the formal requirements of the Originating Clause.
|
who made the movie chitty chitty bang bang | Chitty Chitty Bang Bang - wikipedia
Chitty Chitty Bang Bang is a 1968 British musical adventure fantasy film, directed by Ken Hughes and written by Roald Dahl and Hughes, loosely based on Ian Fleming 's 1964 novel Chitty - Chitty - Bang - Bang: The Magical Car. The film stars Dick Van Dyke, Sally Ann Howes, Adrian Hall, Heather Ripley, Lionel Jeffries, James Robertson Justice, Robert Helpmann and Gert Fröbe.
The film was produced by Albert R. Broccoli, the regular co-producer of the James Bond series of films (also based on Ian Fleming novels). John Stears supervised the special effects. Irwin Kostal supervised and conducted the music, while the musical numbers, written by Richard M. and Robert B. Sherman of Mary Poppins, were staged by Marc Breaux and Dee Dee Wood. The song "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang '' was nominated for an Academy Award.
Set in circa 1910, the story opens with a montage of European Grand Prix races in which one particular car appears to win every race. In the final race, the car crashes and catches fire, ending its racing career. The car ends up in an old garage in rural England, where two children, Jeremy (Adrian Hall) and Jemima Potts (Heather Ripley), have grown fond of it. However, a man in the junkyard intends to buy the car from the garage owner, Mr. Coggins (Desmond Llewelyn), for scrap. The children, who live with their widowed father Caractacus Potts (Dick Van Dyke), an eccentric inventor, and the family 's equally peculiar grandfather, implore their father to buy the car, but Caractacus ca n't afford it. While playing truant from school, they meet Truly Scrumptious (Sally Ann Howes), a beautiful upper - class woman with her own motor car, who brings them home to report their truancy to their father. After she leaves, Caractacus promises the children that he will save the car, but is taken aback at the cost he has committed himself to. He looks for ways to raise money to avoid letting them down.
The next morning, Potts discovers that the sweets produced by a machine he has invented can be played like a flute. He tries to sell the "Toot Sweets '' to Truly 's father, Lord Scrumptious (James Robertson Justice), a major confectionery manufacturer. He is almost successful until the whistle attracts a pack of dogs who overrun the factory, resulting in Caractacus 's proposition being rejected.
Caractacus next takes his automatic hair - cutting machine to a carnival to raise money, but his invention accidentally ruins the hair of a customer. Potts eludes the man by joining a song - and - dance act. He becomes the centre of the show and earns enough in tips to buy the car and rebuild it. They name the car "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang '' for the unusual noise of its engine. In the first trip in the car, Caractacus, the children, and Truly picnic on the beach. Caractacus tells them a tale about nasty Baron Bomburst (Gert Fröbe), the tyrant of fictional Vulgaria, who wants to steal Chitty Chitty Bang Bang.
As Potts tells his story, the quartet and the car are stranded by high tide and are attacked by pirates working for the Baron. All of a sudden, Chitty deploys huge flotation devices and transforms into a power boat, and they escape Bomburst 's yacht and return to shore. The Baron sends two spies to capture the car, but they capture Lord Scrumptious, then Grandpa Potts (Lionel Jeffries), mistaking each for the car 's creator. Caractacus, Truly, and the children see Grandpa being taken away by airship, and they give chase. When they accidentally drive off a cliff, Chitty sprouts wings and propellers and begins to fly. They follow the airship to Vulgaria and find a land without children; the Baroness Bomburst (Anna Quayle) abhors them and imprisons any she finds. Grandpa has been ordered by the Baron to make another floating car, and he bluffs his abilities to avoid being executed. The Potts ' party is hidden by the local Toymaker (Benny Hill), who now works only for the childish Baron. Chitty is discovered and taken to the castle. While Caractacus and the toymaker search for Grandpa and Truly searches for food, the children are caught by the Baron 's Child Catcher (Robert Helpmann).
The Toymaker takes Truly and Caractacus to a grotto beneath the castle where the townspeople have been hiding their children. They concoct a scheme to free the children and the village from the Baron. The Toymaker sneaks them into the castle disguised as life - size dolls for the Baron 's birthday. Caractacus snares the Baron, and the children swarm into the banquet hall, overcoming the Baron 's palace guards and guests. In the ensuing chaos, the Baron, Baroness, and the evil Child Catcher are captured. The Pottses and Truly fly back to England. When they arrive home, Lord Scrumptious surprises Caractacus with an offer to buy the Toot Sweet as a canine confection. Caractacus, realising that he will be rich, rushes to tell Truly the news. They kiss, and Truly agrees to marry him. As they drive home, he acknowledges the importance of pragmatism, as the car takes off into the air again.
The cast includes:
The part of Truly Scrumptious had originally been offered to Julie Andrews, to reunite her with Van Dyke after their success in Mary Poppins. Andrews rejected the role specifically because she considered that the part was too close to the Poppins mould. Instead, Sally Ann Howes was given the role. Dick Van Dyke was cast after he turned down the role of Fagin from another 1968 musical Oliver! (which ended up going to Ron Moody).
The Caractacus Potts inventions in the film were created by Rowland Emett; by 1976, Time magazine, describing Emett 's work, said no term other than "Fantasticator... could remotely convey the diverse genius of the perky, pink - cheeked Englishman whose pixilations, in cartoon, watercolor and clanking 3 - D reality, range from the celebrated Far Tottering and Oyster Creek Railway to the demented thingamabobs that made the 1968 movie Chitty Chitty Bang Bang a minuscule classic. ''
Six Chitty - Chitty Bang - Bang cars were created for the film, only one of which was fully functional. At a 1973 auction in Florida, one of them sold for $37,000, equal to $203,972 today. The original "hero '' car, in a condition described as fully functional and road - going, was offered at auction on 15 May 2011 by a California - based auction house. The car sold for $805,000, less than the $1 -- 2 million it was expected to reach. It was purchased by New Zealand film director Sir Peter Jackson.
The film was the tenth most popular at the US box office in 1969.
Time began its review saying the film is a "picture for the ages -- the ages between five and twelve '' and ends noting that "At a time when violence and sex are the dual sellers at the box office, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang looks better than it is simply because it 's not not all all bad bad ''; the film 's "eleven songs have all the rich melodic variety of an automobile horn. Persistent syncopation and some breathless choreography partly redeem it, but most of the film 's sporadic success is due to Director Ken Hughes 's fantasy scenes, which make up in imagination what they lack in technical facility. ''
The New York Times critic Renata Adler wrote, "in spite of the dreadful title, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang... is a fast, dense, friendly children 's musical, with something of the joys of singing together on a team bus on the way to a game ''; Adler called the screenplay "remarkably good '' and the film 's "preoccupation with sweets and machinery seems ideal for children ''; she ends her review on the same note as Time: "There is nothing coy, or stodgy or too frightening about the film; and this year, when it has seemed highly doubtful that children ought to go to the movies at all, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang sees to it that none of the audience 's terrific eagerness to have a good time is betrayed or lost. ''
Film critic Roger Ebert reviewed the film (Chicago Sun Times, 24 December 1968). He wrote: "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang contains about the best two - hour children 's movie you could hope for, with a marvelous magical auto and lots of adventure and a nutty old grandpa and a mean Baron and some funny dances and a couple of (scary) moments. ''
Film critic and historian Leonard Maltin considered the picture "one big Edsel, with totally forgettable score and some of the shoddiest special effects ever. '' In 2008, Entertainment Weekly called Helpmann 's depiction of the Child Catcher one of the "50 Most Vile Movie Villains. ''
As of March 2014, the film has a 65 % "Fresh '' rating (17 of 26 reviews) on Rotten Tomatoes.
The film was nominated for the American Film Institute 's 2006 AFI 's Greatest Movie Musicals list.
The original soundtrack album, as was typical of soundtrack albums, presented mostly songs with very few instrumental tracks. The songs were also edited, with specially recorded intros and outros and most instrumental portions removed, both because of time limitations of the vinyl LP and the belief that listeners would not be interested in listening to long instrumental dance portions during the songs.
The soundtrack has been released on CD four times, the first two releases using the original LP masters rather than going back to the original music masters to compile a more complete soundtrack album with underscoring and complete versions of songs. The 1997 Rykodisc release included several quick bits of dialogue from the film between some of the tracks and has gone out of circulation. On 24 February 2004, a few short months after MGM released the movie on a 2 - Disc Special Edition DVD, Varèse Sarabande reissued a newly remastered soundtrack album without the dialogue tracks, restoring it to its original 1968 LP format.
In 2011, Kritzerland released the definitive soundtrack album, a 2 - CD set featuring the Original Soundtrack Album plus bonus tracks, music from the Song and Picture Book Album on disc 1, and the Richard Sherman Demos, as well as six Playback Tracks (including a long version of international covers of the theme song). Inexplicably, this release was limited to only 1,000 units.
In April 2013, Perseverance Records re-released the Kritzerland double CD set with expansive new liner notes by John Trujillo and a completely new designed booklet by Perseverance regular James Wingrove.
Chitty Chitty Bang Bang was released numerous times in the VHS format. In 1998 the film saw its first DVD release. The year 2003 brought a two - disc "Special Edition '' release. On 2 November 2010, 20th Century Fox released a two - disc Blu - ray and DVD combination set featuring the extras from the 2003 release as well as new features. The 1993 LaserDisc release by MGM / UA Home Video was the first home video release with the proper 2.20: 1 Super Panavision 70 aspect ratio.
The film did not follow Fleming 's novel closely. A separate novelisation of the film was published at the time of the film 's release. It basically followed the film 's story but with some differences of tone and emphasis, e.g. it mentioned that Caractacus Potts had had difficulty coping after the death of his wife, and it made it clearer that the sequences including Baron Bomburst were extended fantasy sequences. It was written by John Burke.
|
when is my friend dahmer coming out movie | My Friend Dahmer (film) - wikipedia
My Friend Dahmer is a 2017 American biographical drama film written and directed by Marc Meyers about the American serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer. It is based on the 2012 graphic novel of the same name by cartoonist John "Derf '' Backderf, who had been friends with Dahmer in high school in the 1970s, soon before Dahmer began his killing spree. The film stars Ross Lynch, Alex Wolff, Dallas Roberts, and Anne Heche.
The film premiered at the 2017 Tribeca Film Festival.
The script appeared on 2014 's Black List. Ross Lynch was cast as the teenage Dahmer in 2016. Later in the month Alex Wolff, Vincent Kartheiser and Anne Heche joined the cast, with Heche playing Dahmer 's mother. The movie was filmed in Akron, Ohio.
My Friend Dahmer premiered at the 2017 Tribeca Film Festival on April 21, 2017. On May 15, 2017, FilmRise acquired distribution rights to the film, planning to release it in the fall.
|
when does the new season of whose line is it anyway start | Whose Line Is It Anyway? (U.S. TV series) - Wikipedia
Whose Line Is It Anyway? (often known as simply Whose Line?) is an American improvisational comedy show, which was originally hosted by Drew Carey on ABC and ABC Family and ran from August 5, 1998 to December 15, 2007. A revival of the show, hosted by Aisha Tyler, began airing on The CW on July 16, 2013.
The series is an official adaptation of the British show of the same name and features Ryan Stiles, Colin Mochrie, and Wayne Brady as its regular performers with the fourth seat occupied by a guest panelist. All three regulars appeared on the British series; Stiles and Mochrie were both regulars (first appearing in the second and third series ' respectively, and both appearing in every episode from series 8 onwards), with Brady a frequent guest in the final series which moved production from London to Hollywood. Ryan Stiles is the most prolific performer in the history of Whose Line?, having made 76 appearances in the British version, and only having missed two episodes since the start of the run in the U.S. Colin Mochrie is the only performer to have appeared in every episode of the U.S. version of the show.
The show consists of a panel of four performers who create characters, scenes, and songs on the spot, in the style of short - form improvisation games. Topics for the games are based on either audience suggestions or predetermined prompts from the host, who would set up a game and situation that the performers would improvise. The original host Drew Carey awarded arbitrary point values after each game, often citing a humorous reason for his decision. The points were purely decorative and served no practical purpose. He would reiterate this at the beginning of, and multiple times throughout, each episode by describing Whose Line as "the show where everything 's made up and the points do n't matter ''. The style of the games were varied (see Games, below). Some featured all four performers, while others featured fewer. Between games, the performers sat in four chairs facing the audience. The performers who were not involved in a game remained in their seats. Additionally, the show was marked by humorous banter among the performers and host.
At the conclusion of each episode, a winner or several winners were chosen arbitrarily by Carey. The "prize '' was either to play a game with the host, or to sit out while the other performers did so. After this game during the first season of the series, credits simply rolled under the show 's theme. In the second season, the reading of the credits was performed by one or more cast members in a comedic fashion, based on a theme announced by Carey that often derived from a successful joke earlier in the show.
The show 's "short - form '' approach to improv received criticism from some improv actors. However, performer Colin Mochrie has stated the show was never intended to be the "be-all and end - all '' of improv, but that it was meant to introduce improv to the masses.
Like the UK original, the U.S. version of Whose Line Is It Anyway? features four performers, two of whom, Colin Mochrie and Ryan Stiles, were regular, permanent performers throughout the original format, having featured prominently in the UK original; Stiles since his first appearance in its second season in 1989, while Mochrie since his first appearance in the following season in 1991, with both making regular appearances in the UK version from 1995 until its end in 1999. Another performer who made frequent, recurring appearances was Wayne Brady, who appeared in the majority of episodes of the original format. During his tenure as host, Drew Carey also took part, though only in one game, after one of the performers was declared the "winner '' and allowed to take his place at his desk in the studio; host Aisha Tyler did not take part in games when the show was revived, but has occasionally joined in for a quick scene during the Scenes from a Hat game. As of 2017, Mochrie is the only performer to have appeared on every single episode of the American version.
Alongside Mochrie and Stiles, other veterans of the UK series appeared on the U.S. version included Greg Proops, Brad Sherwood, and Chip Esten, with the show introducing several newcomers that took part, including Denny Siegel, Kathy Greenwood, Jeff Davis, Patrick Bristow, Stephen Colbert, Kathy Kinney, and Ian Gomez, though mainly in the early seasons of the show. Unlike the UK original, the US version occasionally featured a celebrity guest performer, such as Robin Williams, Kathy Griffin, and Whoopi Goldberg, while on other occasions, a celebrity made a guest appearance for individual games; such appearance have included Sid Caesar, David Hasselhoff, Florence Henderson, Jerry Springer, Joanie "Chyna '' Laurer, Richard Simmons, Katie Harman, Jayne Trcka, the Loyola Marymount University cheerleaders, Hugh Hefner, and Lassie. Celebrity guests became a regular feature of the show beginning with season 9.
Improvisational musician Laura Hall, who appeared in the final season of the UK original, joined the original U.S. format for its entire run and performed piano and keyboards in games featuring improvisational singing by the cast members. From the second season onward, other musicians joined Hall -- Linda Taylor made frequent appearances playing guitar and occasionally keyboards, while Cece Worrall - Rubin, Anne King, Candy Girard, and Anna Wanselius appeared alongside Hall (and sometimes also Taylor) on occasion.
The number and type of games played varied from episode to episode, yet while some games became more common over time, others faded from use. Some games are based on traditional improv games, with a considerable number brought over from the UK original, including Scenes from a Hat, Greatest Hits, Props, Hoedown, Helping Hands, Questions Only and Party Quirks. Others were new and uniquely created for both the U.S. original format, and the revived show, with several only receiving 1 or 2 playings due to them not having been well received by audiences.
^ Note 1: Played with Greg instead of Ryan for 1 episode in season 10. Played with Brad instead of Wayne for 2 episodes in season 1 and season 12.
^ Note 2: Played with Brad instead of Wayne for 2 episodes in season 12.
^ Note 3: Played with Brad instead of Wayne for 3 episodes in seasons 1 and 8.
^ Note 4: Played with Cedric The Entertainer instead of Gary for 1 episode in season 11.
^ Note 5: Played with Drew instead of Colin for 1 episode in season 1.
^ Note 6: Played with Greg instead of Ryan for 1 episode in season 10.
^ Note 7: Played with Brad instead of Ryan in season 12.
All games were designed with the same principle of those from the UK original -- to test the performers ' improvisational comedy skills, with some games requiring the host to ask the studio audience for suggestions for specific topics or situations, while at other times these suggestions were written by the production staff, or submitted by the audience in advance, and chosen from among these. In addition, the host would control a buzzer which would signify the end of most games, or the end of individual sections of rapid - fire games such as "Scenes from a Hat ''.
In addition to being tested on their comedy skills in improv games, the performers are also tested on other skills, such as singing, dancing, or impressions, as Whose Line features a number of musical games, with one or more of the show 's resident musicians playing live backing music for them, except on a few occasions when pre-recorded music was also used. Although they had no bad feelings about these sort of games, many of the performers disliked them; while Wayne Brady turned out to be well suited to them, having Chip Esten, Jeff Davis, Brad Sherwood and Gary Anthony Williams making frequent appearances as his duet partner, Stiles frequently expressed open disdain towards the "Hoedown '' game, which became a bit of a running gag, while Mochrie rarely sings any lyrics, mainly preferring to deliver his lines in a spoken word fashion, much like in the UK original.
Whose Line Is It Anyway? was created by Dan Patterson and Mark Leveson in 1988 as a radio show on BBC Radio 4 in the United Kingdom. This early incarnation of the show is notable as being the origin of its tradition of having the performers read the credits in an amusing style; as it was a radio show, it was necessary for somebody to read the credits, and it was decided that it might as well be done as part of the program, rather than being done by a traditional BBC Radio announcer. This approach to reading credits was pioneered by the earlier BBC radio show I 'm Sorry, I 'll Read That Again. Indeed, the title of the show itself is a comedic riposte to another radio show, What 's My Line, merged with the title of a 1972 teleplay (and eventual theatrical play) Whose Life Is It Anyway?.
The radio series lasted for six episodes, after which Channel 4 developed the franchise for television. The British television version lasted for a total of 10 seasons, with 136 episodes, all of which were hosted by Clive Anderson. Colin Mochrie and Ryan Stiles, who would later star in the U.S. version, became regular cast members in the seventh and eighth seasons.
The UK series was brought to the attention of Drew Carey, who worked with regular Whose Line? performer Ryan Stiles, a co-star on The Drew Carey Show. Carey convinced ABC to air test episodes in the United States. The show turned into an inexpensive hit (though less so than the British version), and ABC kept Carey on as host. In its first season, the show aired on Wednesday nights at 9: 30, right after The Drew Carey Show. It ranked 29th for the season, and averaged 13.1 million viewers per episode. The show ran on ABC for six seasons, benefiting from the low expectations of its Thursday night time slot, as ABC was not expected to mount a serious threat to what was then NBC 's longtime Thursday dominance in the Nielsen ratings. While the network would regularly premiere two new episodes in one night, there were several occurrences in which some episodes were skipped or postponed until a later date because of the airing of other new shows or specials.
The format of the American version was very similar to the British program. A major difference was Carey 's use of the game - show facade, explicitly stating at the start of each episode that "the points do n't matter, '' and sometimes emphasizing this throughout the episodes. The difference in standards in the UK compared to U.S. prime time meant stricter censoring of both language and content on the U.S. series.
Production of the American version was canceled by ABC in 2003 because of low ratings, with already - produced episodes airing first - run into 2004. The ABC Family cable channel, which had been airing repeats of the show since 2002, also showed "new '' episodes from 2005 to 2006, formed from previously filmed but unaired performances.
Following the cancellation, Drew Carey went on to create the short - lived Drew Carey 's Green Screen Show, which premiered in 2004 on the WB. The series was very similar to Whose Line?, and featured many of the same cast. The major gimmick on that series was that the acting was done in front of a green screen, and animators later added cartoon imagery to the scenes.
Carey and several cast members also started touring North America with a live - action show called (Drew Carey 's) Improv All - Stars. The show was a live stage show similar to Whose Line?, and featuring many of the same games, though also with some new ones. The live shows started in 2003, and since 2006, are only seen on occasion, mostly due to Carey 's current television obligations. Colin Mochrie, Brad Sherwood and Drew Carey performed at the Just for Laughs festival in Montreal as "Improv All - Stars '' in 2003 and 2004. Since 2005, Mochrie and Sherwood have toured semi-regularly as An Evening With Colin and Brad.
The show was recorded on Stage 29 at Paramount Studios.
Greg Proops and Ryan Stiles presented Stiles & Proops Unplanned which was a live improv comedy show based on the successful Baddiel and Skinner Unplanned format that took place at Centaur Theatre in Montreal, Canada in July 2008. They also tour with former co-star Jeff Davis under the name Whose Live Anyway? doing live improv. Proops appeared as Max Madigan on Nickelodeon 's True Jackson, VP, and is currently hosting Head Games on The Science Channel and was the host of "Odd News '' segments for Yahoo! (now called Broken News Daily) while Esten has made multiple appearances in various TV series including The Office, ER (also produced by Warner Bros.) and Big Love and guest - starred in Enlightened. In 2007, Mochrie was host of a five - episode run of Are You Smarter Than a Canadian 5th Grader? on Global TV in Canada.
Carey, Stiles, Brady, and Esten were all later employed by American television network CBS; Carey succeeded Bob Barker as the host of the long - running game show The Price Is Right (after a short stint as host of another game show, Power of 10). In addition, Sherwood and Davis served as guest announcers for the 2010 - 11 season of The Price Is Right, after the departure of Rich Fields, who was eventually replaced by George Gray. Stiles appeared as a supporting character on the sitcom Two and a Half Men. Esten had a recurring role on The New Adventures of Old Christine and made a guest appearance in NCIS: Los Angeles, before moving to star in the ABC drama Nashville.
Brady had a summer variety show on ABC in 2001, The Wayne Brady Show and then hosted a daytime talk show of the same name for two seasons, starting in September 2002. He also was the host of Fox 's Do n't Forget the Lyrics. In 2007, he made a guest appearance in one episode of 30 Rock, and has made several appearances on How I Met Your Mother as Barney Stinson 's homosexual brother. He also had a couple of guest appearances on Chappelle 's Show. Since October 5, 2009, Brady has been the host of CBS ' revival of the classic game show Let 's Make a Deal. Featuring Jonathan Mangum as announcer and Co-Host, this new iteration utilized some classic elements of improv from Whose Line, most notably Brady 's singing and comedic abilities, occasionally breaking out into spontaneous musical improv in front of or involving contestants, and not being a stipulated aspect of the particular game to be played. As of 2009, every main Whose Line participant has hosted at least one game show except Ryan Stiles.
On November 18, 2010, Variety announced that Drew Carey would start a primetime improv show on GSN. The series, entitled Drew Carey 's Improv - A-Ganza, debuted on April 11, 2011 and featured most of the Whose Line regular cast before ending in June 2011; Rich Fields was the announcer for the series. A second season was not ordered and the show was terminated.
On July 10, 2012, ABC premiered a new improv comedy series featuring several of the Whose Line alumni called Trust Us With Your Life. Some of the players included Colin Mochrie, Wayne Brady, Greg Proops, Jonathan Mangum, and Nicole Parker. However, on July 30, after only six episodes had aired, ABC pulled the remaining episodes after its host Fred Willard was arrested on a lewd - conduct charge at the Tiki Theater, an adult movie theater in Hollywood, California.
In February 2013, Ryan Stiles revealed in an interview that he would be returning to Los Angeles in April for a new season of Whose Line, hosted by Aisha Tyler and featuring the original cast of the U.S. version. Colin Mochrie would later confirm the revival.
Whose Line Is It Anyway? returned to television, this time on The CW, with Colin Mochrie, Ryan Stiles, and Wayne Brady, and Aisha Tyler taking the role of the host. In addition to the traditional rotating fourth improv player (often drawn from same pool of regulars that appeared on the original show), a new feature was that of a "special guest ''. This fifth player would not necessarily have an improv background, but would still participate in some of the improv games.
The initial summer run was made up of twelve half - hour episodes with the three veteran players joined by a featured player, along with a different special guest for each episode who would play in some of the games.
On July 29, 2013, The CW announced that it had renewed the show for a 24 - episode season, airing Fridays at 8 ET / PT starting March 21, 2014, due to solid ratings. Illness prevented Stiles from appearing in two season 10 episodes, the first Whose Line shows he had missed in nearly 20 years, dating back to the original British series. Frequent guest Greg Proops filled in for Stiles on these occasions.
On July 18, 2014, The CW announced that the show will be returning for a 24 - episode eleventh season (and third season on The CW) which started airing on April 17, 2015. On August 11, 2015 the series was renewed for a twelfth season (fourth on The CW) to start airing May 23, 2016. On October 24, 2016 The CW renewed the show for a thirteenth season (fifth season on The CW) to start airing May 29, 2017.
Several of the performers, including the three regulars Brady, Mochrie and Stiles, had previously appeared in the original run of Whose Line in the UK; other performers who had made appearances in the British version are Greg Proops, Brad Sherwood, Chip Esten, Karen Maruyama and Josie Lawrence, as well as musician Laura Hall. Mochrie and Stiles have been regulars since the show started, whilst Brady became a regular from season 2 - 7, appearing as a recurring performer in seasons 1 and 8. Mochrie is the only performer to have appeared in every episode of the US series of Whose Line?, appearing in all 302 episodes thus far.
The original host of the U.S. show was Drew Carey, who appeared in every episode of series 1 - 8. Carey notably took more of an active role in the show than his predecessor Clive Anderson, as following the announcement of the "winner '' of each show, Carey would perform a game with the other performers. After the CW revival in 2013, Aisha Tyler took over as host, as Carey was the host of The Price is Right, which ran at the same time as Whose Line, however Carey is mentioned numerous times by Tyler and the other performers. Unlike Carey, Tyler does not perform full games with the other performers, however does occasionally interject in quick fire games such as Scenes from a Hat with her own suggestions.
Seasons 1 -- 8
Season 9
Season 10
Season 11
Season 12
Season 13
Won:
Nominated:
The U.S. version of Whose Line? has been broadcast in the UK, originally on Channel 4. Challenge was the first non-terrestrial channel to broadcast the show for a brief period in 2005. From 2007 to 2012, 5USA aired the show.
In Canada, the show also ran on the CTV network from 1998 to 2003, and then on The Comedy Network from 2003 onwards.
The show 's original run in Australia was on the Nine Network in an early morning time slot; One repeated the program from 2011. It also airs on The Comedy Channel.
In New Zealand, the show was broadcast on the Box.
From 2014, South African youth channel Vuzu started airing the CW revival.
In India, the earlier seasons were aired on FX while the revived series has been aired on Comedy Central.
The first DVD, Season 1, Volume 1, of the U.S. version of Whose Line? was released on September 26, 2006. It comes in "censored '' or "uncensored '' versions. Both releases include the first ten episodes of the first season, with the episodes being the same on either version. The first seven episodes have had their original theme music (including all credits and ad bumpers) replaced with the version used for the rest of the episodes. Warner Home Video released Season 1, Volume 2 on October 9, 2007, but only in an "uncensored '' version.
Warner Home Video released a two - disc "best of '' compilation with ten episodes on June 9, 2009. Featured in this release were celebrity guest episodes including appearances by David Hasselhoff, Florence Henderson, Jerry Springer, Richard Simmons and bodybuilder Jayne Trcka, along with the hour - long "Best of Whose Line '' compilation episode aired at the beginning of season three.
|
once upon a time season 6 ep 22 | Once Upon a Time (season 6) - wikipedia
The sixth season of the American ABC fantasy - drama Once Upon a Time was ordered on March 3, 2016. It debuted on September 25, 2016, and concluded on May 14, 2017. In January 2017, it was stated that the sixth season would end the main storyline, and for a seventh season, the series would be softly rebooted with a new storyline.
Existing fictional characters introduced to the series during the season include Aladdin, Princess Jasmine, the Count of Monte Cristo, Captain Nemo, Lady Tremaine, Beowulf, Tiger Lily and the Tin Man. Original new characters include Gideon, the Black Fairy, Mary Lydgate, and Robert. The show also reintroduced Jafar and Dr. Arthur Lydgate, who previously appeared in Once Upon a Time in Wonderland.
This season also marks the final appearance of Emma Swan (Jennifer Morrison) as a series regular. Morrison announced she would be departing the series after the sixth - season finale, but if the series receives a seventh season renewal she has agreed to appear in at least one episode. After serving as a series regular for two seasons, Rebecca Mader also announced that season six would be her last on the show as a regular. Shortly after, Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis announced that original cast members Ginnifer Goodwin, Josh Dallas, and Jared Gilmore, as well as Emilie de Ravin who joined the main cast in season two, would also exit the show at the end of the season.
The residents of Storybrooke are faced with threats from the Evil Queen and Mr. Hyde, both with different agendas following the arrival of refugees from the Land of Untold Stories. This leads to events to test Emma 's savior abilities that results in the arrival of the Black Fairy to begin the Final Battle that was prophesied centuries ago. As dark and light collides, a new, and darker curse is unleashed, leading to the fall of all the realms with magic. The Final Battle is fought and won, leading to the heroes earning their happy beginnings, but a new adventure begins in the far future for an adult Henry involving his daughter Lucy, and another curse looming across the New Enchanted Forest inhabitants.
Executive producers Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis announced that they were ending the half - season arc structure that was seen in seasons three through five, with Horowitz saying, "We 're also planning a 22 - episode story as opposed to breaking it up into two halves this year. It has been really exciting and fun. '' Kitsis added: "We are changing around what we 're doing this year and going back to that season 1 mentality of small town stories and smaller arcs. '' This season will focus on Storybrooke as the main setting, but will also show new realms and there will be the exploration of the Savior 's mythology. Kitsis and Horowitz hired two directors from their Freeform series Dead of Summer, Norman Buckley, Mairzee Almas, and Michael Schultz helm episodes of the season. Jennifer Lynch directed the eighth episode of the season, "I 'll Be Your Mirror ''.
In January 2017, ABC president Channing Dungey had been the first to suggest that the current narrative of the show would end with season six, regardless of whether or not there is a season seven. Shortly after this news, Jennifer Morrison revealed that the contracts for the original main cast members were expiring in April, expressing uncertainty about the future of the show and her participation in it beyond the current season. Robert Carlyle also expressed that he 'd have to make a decision about his future on the show by the end of that month. In March 2017, several sources had reported that four of the current main cast members in particular - Morrison, Carlyle, Lana Parrilla, and Colin O'Donoghue - were in negotiations to renew their contracts for a potential seventh season. In April 2017, Horowitz and Kitsis confirmed that a group of characters will indeed have their stories wrapped up by the end of the season in acknowledging the potential cast changes, saying: "We planned this finale from the beginning of the year, so whoever stays and whoever goes... all those questions have already been dealt with. The audience does not have to fear (anything feeling) incomplete. '' On May 8, Morrison confirmed that she had declined an offer to remain on the show and that the sixth season would be her last, signaling the end of Emma 's time on the show as the main protagonist. On May 11, Rebecca Mader announced that she would also be leaving the show at the end of the season, citing creative decisions beyond her control. On May 12, season six was announced to be the last for four additional main actors: Ginnifer Goodwin, Josh Dallas, Jared Gilmore, and Emilie de Ravin. Thus, characters seeing their storylines wrapped up in the season six finale include Emma Swan, Snow White, Prince Charming, Belle, and Zelena. The season finale revealed that Henry Mills will remain a series protagonist, with the setting shifting to a later time period in which he is portrayed as an adult by Andrew J. West.
In January 2017, TV Line reported that the series would feature a musical episode later in the season. Creators Kitsis and Horowitz had spoken about the desire to do a musical installment previously, but did n't "even know where to begin. '' Kitsis and Horowitz confirmed the report in February. They have also since confirmed that the episode will feature 7 original songs, including solos by Jennifer Morrison and Rebecca Mader, as well as a "sing - off '' musical number featuring the Evil Queen and the Charmings. Composers Alan Zachary and Michael Weiner will be writing the original numbers featured, with arrangements provided by the show 's long - time composer Mark Isham. Kitsis and Hororwitz spoke about the nature of the episode saying, "It actually is a huge part of the mythology of the show and there are some big things that happen in the episode, frankly, it 's been one of the challenges of doing the musical because we never wanted to do something where it was just like a to - the - side, one - off thing, and then get back to the main story. We want to see it part of the main story, which meant we had to really plan out this season with some great detail. ''
-- Executive producers Kitsis and Horowitz on Once 's interpretation of Aladdin.
Emilie de Ravin told fans that she will be returning for the sixth season. It was also announced later that Sam Witwer and Hank Harris have signed a contract to play two new recurring characters on the sixth season of the show. On March 29, 2016, Lana Parrilla confirmed she would be returning for the sixth season. Robert Carlyle was confirmed to be returning for the sixth season as Rumplestiltskin along with Rebecca Mader as Zelena and Jared Gilmore as Henry Mills.
It was announced that Giles Matthey was cast as Morpheus, who is slated to appear in the first episode of the season. On July 20, it was announced that Craig Horner would be portraying the Count of Monte Cristo, who was introduced in the second episode of the season. At the 2016 San Diego Comic Con International it was revealed that the season would see the introduction of Aladdin (Deniz Akdeniz), and his story featuring the return of Jafar, now portrayed by Oded Fehr (the role had been previously played by Naveen Andrews on Once Upon a Time in Wonderland). Andrews was unavailable due to his previous commitment to Netflix 's Sense8. It was also announced that Galavant 's Karen David was cast as Princess Jasmine. She made her debut in the fourth episode of the season.
In early July, it was announced that Raphael Sbarge would be reprising his role as Jiminy Cricket / Dr. Archie Hopper in the season premiere. The character 's last appearance was in the season 4 episode "Rocky Road. '' On July 20, it was announced that Jessy Schram would be reprising her role as Cinderella in the third episode of the season. The episode explored a connection that her character has to someone from the Land of Untold Stories, as well as the start of her friendship with Snow White. That same episode also introduced Cinderella 's stepmother and stepsisters. David Anders returned this season as Victor Frankenstein. The character has a connection with Jekyll and Hyde. On August 15, it was announced that Jonny Coyne would be reprising his role as Dr. Lydgate from Once Upon a Time in Wonderland, in the fourth episode of the season. On August 26, it was announced that Faran Tahir was cast as Captain Nemo, and would have ties to Captain Hook. On September 22, it was announced that Tzi Ma would be reprising his role as the Dragon sometime in the season. Gabrielle Rose would also be returning as David 's mother, Ruth, who appeared via flashback in episode 7. On September 27, it was announced that Sean Maguire would be returning as Robin Hood. The former main character, who died on - screen near the end of season 5, will not be brought back from the dead but would appear in a multi-episode arc in a different capacity.
For the second half of the season, Wil Traval would be returning for multiple episodes, starting in episode 11, as the Sheriff of Nottingham. On October 31, it was announced that Mckenna Grace would be returning as a younger version of Emma. On December 11, Robert Carlyle revealed that Brandon Spink would be portraying a young Baelfire in episode 13. On January 6, 2017, it was announced that JoAnna Garcia would be returning as Ariel. The story line involves a team - up between Ariel, Jasmine, and Hook. On January 7, Horowitz confirmed that Gil McKinney would also be returning as Prince Eric. Two days later, it was announced that Rose McIver would also be coming back as Tinker Bell. On January 20, it was revealed that Sara Tomko was cast as Tiger Lily. The recurring character appears in at least two episodes starting in episode 17. On January 23, Horowitz announced that Patrick Fischler would return as former author Isaac Heller at some point in the second half of the season. On March 14, it was announced that episode 18 would introduce the Tin Man, played by Alex Désert, and the Cowardly Lion from the Wizard of Oz tale.
On February 16, TVLine released casting call descriptions for two characters who appear in the season 6 finale, with potential to continue into season 7 if the show is to be renewed. One is a man in his late 20s - early 30s who "was once optimistic and hopeful but now is a friendless, cynical recluse '' but "still possesses a dormant, deep - seated spark of hope that waits for the right person to reignite it. '' The other is a 10 - year - old girl who "comes from a broken home '' but "those struggles have only made her stronger -- something which will come in handy when darkness threatens everything she holds dear. '' On March 8, it was announced that Andrew J. West had been cast in the unidentified male role, later revealed in "The Final Battle '' as an adult Henry Mills. On March 9, it was announced that Alison Fernandez had been cast in the unidentified female role, also revealed to be Henry 's daughter, Lucy.
On May 8, 2017, Jennifer Morrison announced that she had declined an offer to remain on the show through season 7 and would not be returning to Once Upon a Time as a series regular in the event the series was renewed by ABC. However, Morrison noted that she had signed a contract to appear in one episode in season 7.
On May 12, 2017, showrunners Horowitz and Kitsis confirmed that five more cast members, in addition to Morrison, would not be returning to the show for a seventh season: Ginnifer Goodwin, Josh Dallas, Jared Gilmore, Emilie de Ravin, and Rebecca Mader. In their personal goodbyes to fans, both de Ravin and Mader cited the show 's decision to move forward in a new creative direction as the reason for their departures. Gilmore expressed similar sentiments. Meanwhile, Goodwin and Dallas had informed the showrunners a year prior that they intended to leave the show at the end of the sixth season.
|
when did the first passenger plane take off | History of aviation - wikipedia
The history of aviation has extended over more than two thousand years, from the earliest forms of aviation, kites and attempts at tower jumping, to supersonic, and hypersonic flight by powered, heavier - than - air jets.
Kite flying in China dates back to several hundred years BC and slowly spread around the world. It is thought to be the earliest example of man - made flight.
Leonardo da Vinci 's 15th - century dream of flight found expression in several rational but unscientific designs, though he did not attempt to construct any of them.
The discovery of hydrogen gas in the 18th century led to the invention of the hydrogen balloon, at almost exactly the same time that the Montgolfier brothers rediscovered the hot - air balloon and began manned flights. Various theories in mechanics by physicists during the same period of time, notably fluid dynamics and Newton 's laws of motion, led to the foundation of modern aerodynamics, most notably by Sir George Cayley.
Balloons, both free - flying and tethered, began to be used for military purposes from the end of the 18th century, with the French government establishing Balloon Companies during the Revolution.
The term aviation, noun of action from stem of Latin avis "bird '' with suffix - ation meaning action or progress, was coined in 1863 by French pioneer Guillaume Joseph Gabriel de La Landelle (1812 -- 1886) in "Aviation ou Navigation aérienne sans ballons ''.
Experiments with gliders provided the groundwork for heavier - than - air craft, and by the early - 20th century, advances in engine technology and aerodynamics made controlled, powered flight possible for the first time. The modern aeroplane with its characteristic tail was established by 1909 and from then on the history of the aeroplane became tied to the development of more and more powerful engines.
The first great ships of the air were the rigid dirigible balloons pioneered by Ferdinand von Zeppelin, which soon became synonymous with airships and dominated long - distance flight until the 1930s, when large flying boats became popular. After World War II, the flying boats were in their turn replaced by land planes, and the new and immensely powerful jet engine revolutionised both air travel and military aviation.
In the latter part of the 20th century the advent of digital electronics produced great advances in flight instrumentation and "fly - by - wire '' systems. The 21st century saw the large - scale use of pilotless drones for military, civilian and leisure use. With digital controls, inherently unstable aircraft such as flying wings became possible.
The origin of mankind 's desire to fly is lost in the distant past. From the earliest legends there have been stories of men strapping birdlike wings, stiffened cloaks or other devices to themselves and attempting to fly, typically by jumping off a tower. The Greek legend of Daedalus and Icarus is one of the earliest known; others originated from India, China and the European Middle Age. During this early period the issues of lift, stability and control were not understood, and most attempts ended in serious injury or death.
In medieval Europe, the earliest recorded tower jump dates from 852 AD, when Armen Firman, also known as Abbas ibn Firnas (810 -- 887 A.D.), made a jump in Cordoba, Spain, reportedly covering his body with vulture feathers and attaching two wings to his arms. Eilmer of Malmesbury soon followed and many others have continued to do so over the centuries. As late as 1811, Albrecht Berblinger constructed an ornithopter and jumped into the Danube at Ulm.
The kite may have been the first form of man - made aircraft. It was invented in China possibly as far back as the 5th century BC by Mozi (Mo Di) and Lu Ban (Gongshu Ban). Later designs often emulated flying insects, birds, and other beasts, both real and mythical. Some were fitted with strings and whistles to make musical sounds while flying. Ancient and medieval Chinese sources describe kites being used to measure distances, test the wind, lift men, signal, and communicate and send messages.
Kites spread from China around the world. After its introduction into India, the kite further evolved into the fighter kite, where an abrasive line is used to cut down other kites.
Man - carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China, for both civil and military purposes and sometimes enforced as a punishment. An early recorded flight was that of the prisoner Yuan Huangtou, a Chinese prince, in the 6th Century AD. Stories of man - carrying kites also occur in Japan, following the introduction of the kite from China around the seventh century AD. It is said that at one time there was a Japanese law against man - carrying kites.
The use of a rotor for vertical flight has existed since 400 BC in the form of the bamboo - copter, an ancient Chinese toy. The similar "moulinet à noix '' (rotor on a nut) appeared in Europe in the 14th century AD.
From ancient times the Chinese have understood that hot air rises and have applied the principle to a type of small hot air balloon called a sky lantern. A sky lantern consists of a paper balloon under or just inside which a small lamp is placed. Sky lanterns are traditionally launched for pleasure and during festivals. According to Joseph Needham, such lanterns were known in China from the 3rd century BC. Their military use is attributed to the general Zhuge Liang (180 -- 234 AD, honorific title Kongming), who is said to have used them to scare the enemy troops.
There is evidence that the Chinese also "solved the problem of aerial navigation '' using balloons, hundreds of years before the 18th century.
Eventually some investigators began to discover and define some of the basics of rational aircraft design. Most notable of these was Leonardo da Vinci, although his work remained unknown until 1797, and so had no influence on developments over the next three hundred years. While his designs were at least rational, they were not based on particularly good science.
Leonardo studied bird flight, analyzing it and anticipating many principles of aerodynamics. He did at least understand that "An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the object. '' Newton would not publish the Third law of motion until 1687.
From the last years of the 15th century on he wrote about and sketched many designs for flying machines and mechanisms, including ornithopters, fixed - wing gliders, rotorcraft and parachutes. His early designs were man - powered types including ornithopters and rotorcraft, however he came to realise the impracticality of this and later turned to controlled gliding flight, also sketching some designs powered by a spring.
In 1670 Francesco Lana de Terzi published a work that suggested lighter than air flight would be possible by using copper foil spheres that, containing a vacuum, would be lighter than the displaced air to lift an airship. While theoretically sound, his design was not feasible: the pressure of the surrounding air would crush the spheres. The idea of using vacuum to produce lift is now known as vacuum airship but remains unfeasible with any current materials.
In 1709 Bartolomeu de Gusmão presented a petition to King John V of Portugal, begging for support for his invention of an airship, in which he expressed the greatest confidence. The public test of the machine, which was set for June 24, 1709, did not take place. According to contemporary reports, however, Gusmão appears to have made several less ambitious experiments with this machine, descending from eminences. It is certain that Gusmão was working on this principle at the public exhibition he gave before the Court on August 8, 1709, in the hall of the Casa da Índia in Lisbon, when he propelled a ball to the roof by combustion.
1783 was a watershed year for ballooning and aviation. Between June 4 and December 1, five aviation firsts were achieved in France:
Ballooning became a major "rage '' in Europe in the late 18th century, providing the first detailed understanding of the relationship between altitude and the atmosphere.
Non-steerable balloons were employed during the American Civil War by the Union Army Balloon Corps. The young Ferdinand von Zeppelin first flew as a balloon passenger with the Union Army of the Potomac in 1863.
In the early 1900s ballooning was a popular sport in Britain. These privately owned balloons usually used coal gas as the lifting gas. This has half the lifting power of hydrogen so the balloons had to be larger, however coal gas was far more readily available and the local gas works sometimes provided a special lightweight formula for ballooning events.
Airships were originally called "dirigible balloons '' and are still sometimes called dirigibles today.
Work on developing a steerable (or dirigible) balloon continued sporadically throughout the 19th century. The first powered, controlled, sustained lighter - than - air flight is believed to have taken place in 1852 when Henri Giffard flew 15 miles (24 km) in France, with a steam engine driven craft.
Another advance was made in 1884, when the first fully controllable free - flight was made in a French Army electric - powered airship, La France, by Charles Renard and Arthur Krebs. The 170 - foot (52 m) long, 66,000 - cubic - foot (1,900 m) airship covered 8 km (5.0 mi) in 23 minutes with the aid of an 81⁄2 horsepower electric motor.
However, these aircraft were generally short - lived and extremely frail. Routine, controlled flights would not occur until the advent of the internal combustion engine (see below.)
The first aircraft to make routine controlled flights were non-rigid airships (sometimes called "blimps ''.) The most successful early pioneering pilot of this type of aircraft was the Brazilian Alberto Santos - Dumont who effectively combined a balloon with an internal combustion engine. On October 19, 1901 he flew his airship "Number 6 '' over Paris from the Parc de Saint Cloud around the Eiffel Tower and back in under 30 minutes to win the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize. Santos - Dumont went on to design and build several aircraft. Subsequent controversy surrounding his and others ' competing claims with regard to aircraft overshadowed his great contribution to the development of airships.
At the same time that non-rigid airships were starting to have some success, the first successful rigid airships were also being developed. These would be far more capable than fixed - wing aircraft in terms of pure cargo carrying capacity for decades. Rigid airship design and advancement was pioneered by the German count Ferdinand von Zeppelin.
Construction of the first Zeppelin airship began in 1899 in a floating assembly hall on Lake Constance in the Bay of Manzell, Friedrichshafen. This was intended to ease the starting procedure, as the hall could easily be aligned with the wind. The prototype airship LZ 1 (LZ for "Luftschiff Zeppelin '') had a length of 128 m (420 ft) was driven by two 10.6 kW (14.2 hp) Daimler engines and balanced by moving a weight between its two nacelles.
Its first flight, on July 2, 1900, lasted for only 18 minutes, as LZ 1 was forced to land on the lake after the winding mechanism for the balancing weight had broken. Upon repair, the technology proved its potential in subsequent flights, bettering the 6 m / s speed attained by the French airship La France by 3 m / s, but could not yet convince possible investors. It would be several years before the Count was able to raise enough funds for another try.
Although airships were used in both World War I and II, and continue on a limited basis to this day, their development has been largely overshadowed by heavier - than - air craft.
Italian inventor Tito Livio Burattini, invited by the Polish King Władysław IV to his court in Warsaw, built a model aircraft with four fixed glider wings in 1647. Described as "four pairs of wings attached to an elaborate ' dragon ' '', it was said to have successfully lifted a cat in 1648 but not Burattini himself. He promised that "only the most minor injuries '' would result from landing the craft. His "Dragon Volant '' is considered "the most elaborate and sophisticated aeroplane to be built before the 19th Century ''.
The first published paper on aviation was "Sketch of a Machine for Flying in the Air '' by Emanuel Swedenborg published in 1716. This flying machine consisted of a light frame covered with strong canvas and provided with two large oars or wings moving on a horizontal axis, arranged so that the upstroke met with no resistance while the downstroke provided lifting power. Swedenborg knew that the machine would not fly, but suggested it as a start and was confident that the problem would be solved. He wrote: "It seems easier to talk of such a machine than to put it into actuality, for it requires greater force and less weight than exists in a human body. The science of mechanics might perhaps suggest a means, namely, a strong spiral spring. If these advantages and requisites are observed, perhaps in time to come some one might know how better to utilize our sketch and cause some addition to be made so as to accomplish that which we can only suggest. Yet there are sufficient proofs and examples from nature that such flights can take place without danger, although when the first trials are made you may have to pay for the experience, and not mind an arm or leg. '' Swedenborg would prove prescient in his observation that a method of powering of an aircraft was one of the critical problems to be overcome.
Throughout the 19th century, tower jumping was replaced by the equally fatal but equally popular balloon jumping as a way to demonstrate the continued uselessness of man - power and flapping wings. Meanwhile, the scientific study of heavier - than - air flight began in earnest.
Sir George Cayley was first called the "father of the aeroplane '' in 1846. During the last years of the previous century he had begun the first rigorous study of the physics of flight and would later design the first modern heavier - than - air craft. Among his many achievements, his most important contributions to aeronautics include:
Cayley 's first innovation was to study the basic science of lift by adopting the whirling arm test rig for use in aircraft research and using simple aerodynamic models on the arm, rather than attempting to fly a model of a complete design.
In 1799 he set down the concept of the modern aeroplane as a fixed - wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control.
In 1804 Cayley constructed a model glider which was the first modern heavier - than - air flying machine, having the layout of a conventional modern aircraft with an inclined wing towards the front and adjustable tail at the back with both tailplane and fin. A movable weight allowed adjustment of the model 's centre of gravity.
In 1809, goaded by the farcical antics of his contemporaries (see above), he began the publication of a landmark three - part treatise titled "On Aerial Navigation '' (1809 -- 1810). In it he wrote the first scientific statement of the problem, "The whole problem is confined within these limits, viz. to make a surface support a given weight by the application of power to the resistance of air. '' He identified the four vector forces that influence an aircraft: thrust, lift, drag and weight and distinguished stability and control in his designs. He also identified and described the importance of the cambered aerofoil, dihedral, diagonal bracing and drag reduction, and contributed to the understanding and design of ornithopters and parachutes.
In 1848 he had progressed far enough to construct a glider in the form of a triplane large and safe enough to carry a child. A local boy was chosen but his name is not known.
He went on to publish in 1852 the design for a full - size manned glider or "governable parachute '' to be launched from a balloon and then to construct a version capable of launching from the top of a hill, which carried the first adult aviator across Brompton Dale in 1853.
Minor inventions included the rubber - powered motor, which provided a reliable power source for research models. By 1808 he had even re-invented the wheel, devising the tension - spoked wheel in which all compression loads are carried by the rim, allowing a lightweight undercarriage.
Drawing directly from Cayley 's work, Henson 's 1842 design for an aerial steam carriage broke new ground. Although only a design, it was the first in history for a propeller - driven fixed - wing aircraft.
1866 saw the founding of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain and two years later the world 's first aeronautical exhibition was held at the Crystal Palace, London, where John Stringfellow was awarded a £ 100 prize for the steam engine with the best power - to - weight ratio. In 1848 Stringfellow achieved the first powered flight using an unmanned 10 ft wingspan steam - powered monoplane built in a disused lace factory in Chard, Somerset. Employing two contra - rotating propellers on the first attempt, made indoors, the machine flew ten feet before becoming destabilised, damaging the craft. The second attempt was more successful, the machine leaving a guide wire to fly freely, achieving some thirty yards of straight and level powered flight. Francis Herbert Wenham presented the first paper to the newly formed Aeronautical Society (later the Royal Aeronautical Society), On Aerial Locomotion. He advanced Cayley 's work on cambered wings, making important findings. To test his ideas, from 1858 he had constructed several gliders, both manned and unmanned, and with up to five stacked wings. He realised that long, thin wings are better than bat - like ones because they have more leading edge for their area. Today this relationship is known as the aspect ratio of a wing.
The latter part of the 19th century became a period of intense study, characterized by the "gentleman scientists '' who represented most research efforts until the 20th century. Among them was the British scientist - philosopher and inventor Matthew Piers Watt Boulton, who studied lateral flight control and was the first to patent an aileron control system in 1868.
In 1871 Wenham and Browning made the first wind tunnel.
Meanwhile, the British advances had galvanised French researchers. In 1857 Félix du Temple proposed a monoplane with a tail plane and retractable undercarriage. Developing his ideas with a model powered first by clockwork and later by steam, he eventually achieved a short hop with a full - size manned craft in 1874. It achieved lift - off under its own power after launching from a ramp, glided for a short time and returned safely to the ground, making it the first successful powered glide in history.
In 1865 Louis Pierre Mouillard published an influential book The Empire Of The Air (l'Empire de l'Air).
In 1856, Frenchman Jean - Marie Le Bris made the first flight higher than his point of departure, by having his glider "L'Albatros artificiel '' pulled by a horse on a beach. He reportedly achieved a height of 100 meters, over a distance of 200 meters.
Alphonse Pénaud, a Frenchman, advanced the theory of wing contours and aerodynamics and constructed successful models of aeroplanes, helicopters and ornithopters. In 1871 he flew the first aerodynamically stable fixed - wing aeroplane, a model monoplane he called the "Planophore '', a distance of 40 m (130 ft). Pénaud 's model incorporated several of Cayley 's discoveries, including the use of a tail, wing dihedral for inherent stability, and rubber power. The planophore also had longitudinal stability, being trimmed such that the tailplane was set at a smaller angle of incidence than the wings, an original and important contribution to the theory of aeronautics. Pénaud 's later project for an amphibian aeroplane, although never built, incorporated other modern features. A tailless monoplane with a single vertical fin and twin tractor propellers, it also featured hinged rear elevator and rudder surfaces, retractable undercarriage and a fully enclosed, instrumented cockpit.
Equally authoritative as a theorist was Pénaud 's fellow countryman Victor Tatin. In 1879 he flew a model which, like Pénaud 's project, was a monoplane with twin tractor propellers but also had a separate horizontal tail. It was powered by compressed air. Flown tethered to a pole, this was the first model to take off under its own power.
In 1884 Alexandre Goupil published his work La Locomotion Aérienne (Aerial Locomotion), although the flying machine he later constructed failed to fly.
In 1890 the French engineer Clément Ader completed the first of three steam - driven flying machines, the Éole. On October 9, 1890 Ader made an uncontrolled hop of around 50 m (165 ft); this was the first manned airplane to take off under its own power. His Avion III of 1897, notable only for having twin steam engines, failed to fly: Ader would later claim success and was not debunked until 1910 when the French Army published its report on his attempt.
Sir Hiram Maxim was an American engineer who had moved to England. He built his own whirling arm rig and wind tunnel, and constructed a large machine with a wingspan of 105 feet (32 m), a length of 145 feet (44 m), fore and aft horizontal surfaces and a crew of three. Twin propellers were powered by two lightweight compound steam engines each delivering 180 hp (130 kW). Overall weight was 8,000 pounds (3,600 kg). It was intended as a test rig to investigate aerodynamic lift: lacking flight controls it ran on rails, with a second set of rails above the wheels to restrain it. Completed in 1894, on its third run it broke from the rail, became airborne for about 200 yards at two to three feet of altitude and was badly damaged upon falling back to the ground. It was subsequently repaired, but Maxim abandoned his experiments shortly afterwards.
In the last decade or so of the 19th century, a number of key figures were refining and defining the modern aeroplane. Lacking a suitable engine, aircraft work focused on stability and control in gliding flight. In 1879 Biot constructed a bird - like glider with the help of Massia and flew in it briefly. It is preserved in the Musee de l'Air, France, and is claimed to be the earliest man - carrying flying machine still in existence.
The Englishman Horatio Phillips made key contributions to aerodynamics. He conducted extensive wind tunnel research on aerofoil sections, proving the principles of aerodynamic lift foreseen by Cayley and Wenham. His findings underpin all modern aerofoil design.
Otto Lilienthal became known as the "Glider King '' or "Flying Man '' of Germany. He duplicated Wenham 's work and greatly expanded on it in 1884, publishing his research in 1889 as Birdflight as the Basis of Aviation (Der Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fliegekunst). He also produced a series of hang gliders, including bat - wing, monoplane and biplane forms, such as the Derwitzer Glider and Normal soaring apparatus. Starting in 1891 he became the first person to make controlled untethered glides routinely, and the first to be photographed flying a heavier - than - air machine, stimulating interest around the world. He rigorously documented his work, including photographs, and for this reason is one of the best known of the early pioneers. Lilienthal made over 2,000 glides until his death in 1896 from injuries sustained in a glider crash.
Picking up where Lilienthal left off, Octave Chanute took up aircraft design after an early retirement, and funded the development of several gliders. In the summer of 1896 his team flew several of their designs eventually deciding that the best was a biplane design. Like Lilienthal, he documented and photographed his work.
In Britain Percy Pilcher, who had worked for Maxim, built and successfully flew several gliders during the mid to late 1890s.
The invention of the box kite during this period by the Australian Lawrence Hargrave would lead to the development of the practical biplane. In 1894 Hargrave linked four of his kites together, added a sling seat, and flew 16 feet (4.9 m). Later pioneers of manned kite flying included Samuel Franklin Cody in England and Captain Génie Saconney in France.
After a distinguished career in astronomy and shortly before becoming Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Samuel Pierpont Langley started a serious investigation into aerodynamics at what is today the University of Pittsburgh. In 1891 he published Experiments in Aerodynamics detailing his research, and then turned to building his designs. He hoped to achieve automatic aerodynamic stability, so he gave little consideration to in - flight control. On May 6, 1896, Langley 's Aerodrome No. 5 made the first successful sustained flight of an unpiloted, engine - driven heavier - than - air craft of substantial size. It was launched from a spring - actuated catapult mounted on top of a houseboat on the Potomac River near Quantico, Virginia. Two flights were made that afternoon, one of 1,005 metres (3,297 ft) and a second of 700 metres (2,300 ft), at a speed of approximately 25 miles per hour (40 km / h). On both occasions the Aerodrome No. 5 landed in the water as planned, because in order to save weight, it was not equipped with landing gear. On November 28, 1896, another successful flight was made with the Aerodrome No. 6. This flight, of 1,460 metres (4,790 ft), was witnessed and photographed by Alexander Graham Bell. The Aerodrome No. 6 was actually Aerodrome No. 4 greatly modified. So little remained of the original aircraft that it was given a new designation.
With the successes of the Aerodrome No. 5 and No. 6, Langley started looking for funding to build a full - scale man - carrying version of his designs. Spurred by the Spanish -- American War, the U.S. government granted him $50,000 to develop a man - carrying flying machine for aerial reconnaissance. Langley planned on building a scaled - up version known as the Aerodrome A, and started with the smaller Quarter - scale Aerodrome, which flew twice on June 18, 1901, and then again with a newer and more powerful engine in 1903.
With the basic design apparently successfully tested, he then turned to the problem of a suitable engine. He contracted Stephen Balzer to build one, but was disappointed when it delivered only 8 hp (6.0 kW) instead of 12 hp (8.9 kW) he expected. Langley 's assistant, Charles M. Manly, then reworked the design into a five - cylinder water - cooled radial that delivered 52 hp (39 kW) at 950 rpm, a feat that took years to duplicate. Now with both power and a design, Langley put the two together with great hopes.
To his dismay, the resulting aircraft proved to be too fragile. Simply scaling up the original small models resulted in a design that was too weak to hold itself together. Two launches in late 1903 both ended with the Aerodrome immediately crashing into the water. The pilot, Manly, was rescued each time. Also, the aircraft 's control system was inadequate to allow quick pilot responses, and it had no method of lateral control, and the Aerodrome 's aerial stability was marginal.
Langley 's attempts to gain further funding failed, and his efforts ended. Nine days after his second abortive launch on December 8, the Wright brothers successfully flew their Flyer. Glenn Curtiss made 93 modifications to the Aerodrome and flew this very different aircraft in 1914. Without acknowledging the modifications, the Smithsonian Institution asserted that Langley 's Aerodrome was the first machine "capable of flight ''.
Gustave Weißkopf was a German who emigrated to the U.S., where he soon changed his name to Whitehead. From 1897 to 1915 he designed and built early flying machines and engines. On August 14, 1901, two and a half years before the Wright Brothers ' flight, he claimed to have carried out a controlled, powered flight in his Number 21 monoplane at Fairfield, Connecticut. The flight was reported in the Bridgeport Sunday Herald local newspaper. About 30 years later, several people questioned by a researcher claimed to have seen that or other Whitehead flights.
In March 2013 Jane 's All the World 's Aircraft, an authoritative source for contemporary aviation, published an editorial which accepted Whitehead 's flight as the first manned, powered, controlled flight of a heavier - than - air craft. The Smithsonian Institution (custodians of the original Wright Flyer) and many aviation historians continue to maintain that Whitehead did not fly as suggested.
Using a methodological approach and concentrating on the controllability of the aircraft, the brothers built and tested a series of kite and glider designs from 1900 to 1902 before attempting to build a powered design. The gliders worked, but not as well as the Wrights had expected based on the experiments and writings of their 19th - century predecessors. Their first glider, launched in 1900, had only about half the lift they anticipated. Their second glider, built the following year, performed even more poorly. Rather than giving up, the Wrights constructed their own wind tunnel and created a number of sophisticated devices to measure lift and drag on the 200 wing designs they tested. As a result, the Wrights corrected earlier mistakes in calculations regarding drag and lift. Their testing and calculating produced a third glider with a higher aspect ratio and true three - axis control. They flew it successfully hundreds of times in 1902, and it performed far better than the previous models. By using a rigorous system of experimentation, involving wind - tunnel testing of airfoils and flight testing of full - size prototypes, the Wrights not only built a working aircraft, the Wright Flyer, but also helped advance the science of aeronautical engineering.
The Wrights appear to be the first to make serious studied attempts to simultaneously solve the power and control problems. Both problems proved difficult, but they never lost interest. They solved the control problem by inventing wing warping for roll control, combined with simultaneous yaw control with a steerable rear rudder. Almost as an afterthought, they designed and built a low - powered internal combustion engine. They also designed and carved wooden propellers that were more efficient than any before, enabling them to gain adequate performance from their low engine power. Although wing - warping as a means of lateral control was used only briefly during the early history of aviation, the principle of combining lateral control in combination with a rudder was a key advance in aircraft control. While many aviation pioneers appeared to leave safety largely to chance, the Wrights ' design was greatly influenced by the need to teach themselves to fly without unreasonable risk to life and limb, by surviving crashes. This emphasis, as well as low engine power, was the reason for low flying speed and for taking off in a head wind. Performance, rather than safety, was the reason for the rear - heavy design, because the canard could not be highly loaded; anhedral wings were less affected by crosswinds and were consistent with the low yaw stability.
According to the Smithsonian Institution and Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the Wrights made the first sustained, controlled, powered heavier - than - air manned flight at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, four miles (8 km) south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on December 17, 1903.
The first flight by Orville Wright, of 120 feet (37 m) in 12 seconds, was recorded in a famous photograph. In the fourth flight of the same day, Wilbur Wright flew 852 feet (260 m) in 59 seconds. The flights were witnessed by three coastal lifesaving crewmen, a local businessman, and a boy from the village, making these the first public flights and the first well - documented ones.
Orville described the final flight of the day: "The first few hundred feet were up and down, as before, but by the time three hundred feet had been covered, the machine was under much better control. The course for the next four or five hundred feet had but little undulation. However, when out about eight hundred feet the machine began pitching again, and, in one of its darts downward, struck the ground. The distance over the ground was measured to be 852 feet (260 m); the time of the flight was 59 seconds. The frame supporting the front rudder was badly broken, but the main part of the machine was not injured at all. We estimated that the machine could be put in condition for flight again in about a day or two. '' They flew only about ten feet above the ground as a safety precaution, so they had little room to maneuver, and all four flights in the gusty winds ended in a bumpy and unintended "landing ''. Modern analysis by Professor Fred E.C. Culick and Henry R. Rex (1985) has demonstrated that the 1903 Wright Flyer was so unstable as to be almost unmanageable by anyone but the Wrights, who had trained themselves in the 1902 glider.
The Wrights continued flying at Huffman Prairie near Dayton, Ohio in 1904 -- 05. In May 1904 they introduced the Flyer II, a heavier and improved version of the original Flyer. On June 23, 1905 they first flew a third machine, the Flyer III. After a severe crash on 14 July 1905, they rebuilt the Flyer III and made important design changes. They almost doubled the size of the elevator and rudder and moved them about twice the distance from the wings. They added two fixed vertical vanes (called "blinkers '') between the elevators, and gave the wings a very slight dihedral. They disconnected the rudder from the wing - warping control, and as in all future aircraft, placed it on a separate control handle. When flights resumed the results were immediate. The serious pitch instability that hampered Flyers I and II was significantly reduced, so repeated minor crashes were eliminated. Flights with the redesigned Flyer III started lasting over 10 minutes, then 20, then 30. Flyer III became the first practical aircraft (though without wheels and needing a launching device), flying consistently under full control and bringing its pilot back to the starting point safely and landing without damage. On 5 October 1905, Wilbur flew 24 miles (39 km) in 39 minutes 23 seconds. ''
According to the April 1907 issue of the Scientific American magazine, the Wright brothers seemed to have the most advanced knowledge of heavier - than - air navigation at the time. However, the same magazine issue also claimed that no public flight had been made in the United States before its April 1907 issue. Hence, they devised the Scientific American Aeronautic Trophy in order to encourage the development of a heavier - than - air flying machine.
This period saw the development of practical aeroplanes and airships and their early application, alongside balloons and kites, for private, sport and military use.
Although full details of the Wright Brothers ' system of flight control had been published in l'Aerophile in January 1906, the importance of this advance was not recognised, and European experimenters generally concentrated on attempting to produce inherently stable machines.
Short powered flights were performed in France by Romanian engineer Traian Vuia on March 18 and August 19, 1906 when he flew 12 and 24 meters, respectively, in a self - designed, fully self - propelled, fixed - wing aircraft, that possessed a fully wheeled undercarriage. He was followed by Jacob Ellehammer who built a monoplane which he tested with a tether in Denmark on September 12, 1906, flying 42 meters.
On September 13, 1906, a day after Ellehammer 's tethered flight and three years after the Wright Brothers ' flight, the Brazilian Alberto Santos - Dumont made a public flight in Paris with the 14 - bis, also known as Oiseau de proie (French for "bird of prey ''). This was of canard configuration with pronounced wing dihedral, and covered a distance of 60 m (200 ft) on the grounds of the Chateau de Bagatelle in Paris ' Bois de Boulogne before a large crowd of witnesses. This well - documented event was the first flight verified by the Aéro - Club de France of a powered heavier - than - air machine in Europe and won the Deutsch - Archdeacon Prize for the first officially observed flight greater than 25 m (82 ft). On November 12, 1906, Santos - Dumont set the first world record recognized by the Federation Aeronautique Internationale by flying 220 m (720 ft) in 21.5 seconds. Only one more brief flight was made by the 14bis in March 1907, after which it was abandoned.
In March 1907 Gabriel Voisin flew the first example of his Voisin biplane. On 13 January 1908 a second example of the type was flown by Henri Farman to win the Deutsch - Archdeacon Grand Prix d'Aviation prize for a flight in which the aircraft flew a distance of more than a kilometer and landed at the point where it had taken off. The flight lasted 1 minute and 28 seconds.
In 1914, just before the start of World War I, Romania completed the world 's first metal - built aircraft, Vlaicu III. It was captured by the Germans in 1916 and last seen at a 1942 aviation exhibition in Berlin.
Santos - Dumont later added ailerons, between the wings in an effort to gain more lateral stability. His final design, first flown in 1907, was the series of Demoiselle monoplanes (Nos. 19 to 22). The Demoiselle No 19 could be constructed in only 15 days and became the world 's first series production aircraft. The Demoiselle achieved 120 km / h. The fuselage consisted of three specially reinforced bamboo booms: the pilot sat a seat between the main wheels of a conventional landing gear whose pair of wire - spoked mainwheels were located at the lower front of the airframe, with a tailskid half - way back beneath the rear fuselage structure. The Demoiselle was controlled in flight by a cruciform tail unit hinged on a form of universal joint at the aft end of the fuselage structure to function as elevator and rudder, with roll control provided through wing warping (No. 20), with the wings only warping "down ''.
In 1908 Wilbur Wright travelled to Europe, and starting in August gave a series of flight demonstrations at Le Mans in France. The first demonstration, made on 8 August, attracted an audience including most of the major French aviation experimenters, who were astonished by the clear superiority of the Wright Brothers ' aircraft, particularly its ability to make tight controlled turns. The importance of using roll control in making turns was recognised by almost all the European experimenters: Henri Farman fitted ailerons to his Voisin biplane and shortly afterwards set up his own aircraft construction business, whose first product was the influential Farman III biplane.
The following year saw the widespread recognition of powered flight as something other than the preserve of dreamers and eccentrics. On 25 July Louis Blériot won worldwide fame by winning a £ 1,000 prize offered by the British Daily Mail newspaper for a flight across the English Channel, and in August around half a million people, including the President of France Armand Fallières and David Lloyd George, attended one of the first aviation meetings, the Grande Semaine d'Aviation at Reims.
In 1877, Enrico Forlanini developed an unmanned helicopter powered by a steam engine. It rose to a height of 13 meters, where it remained for some 20 seconds, after a vertical take - off from a park in Milan.
The first time a manned helicopter is known to have risen off the ground was on a tethered flight in 1907 by the Breguet - Richet Gyroplane. Later the same year the Cornu helicopter, also French, made the first rotary - winged free flight at Lisenux, France. However, these were not practical designs.
Almost as soon as they were invented, airplanes were used for military purposes. The first country to use them for military purposes was Italy, whose aircraft made reconnaissance, bombing and artillery correction flights in Libya during the Italian - Turkish war (September 1911 -- October 1912). The first mission (a reconnaissance) occurred on 23 October 1911. The first bombing mission was flown on 1 November 1911. Then Bulgaria followed this example. Its airplanes attacked and reconnoitered the Ottoman positions during the First Balkan War 1912 -- 13. The first war to see major use of airplanes in offensive, defensive and reconnaissance capabilities was World War I. The Allies and Central Powers both used airplanes and airships extensively.
While the concept of using the airplane as an offensive weapon was generally discounted before World War I, the idea of using it for photography was one that was not lost on any of the major forces. All of the major forces in Europe had light aircraft, typically derived from pre-war sporting designs, attached to their reconnaissance departments. Radiotelephones were also being explored on airplanes, notably the SCR - 68, as communication between pilots and ground commander grew more and more important.
It was not long before aircraft were shooting at each other, but the lack of any sort of steady point for the gun was a problem. The French solved this problem when, in late 1914, Roland Garros attached a fixed machine gun to the front of his plane, but while Adolphe Pegoud would become known as the first "ace '', getting credit for five victories, before also becoming the first ace to die in action, it was German Luftstreitkräfte Leutnant Kurt Wintgens, who, on July 1, 1915, scored the very first aerial victory by a purpose - built fighter plane, with a synchronized machine gun.
Aviators were styled as modern - day knights, doing individual combat with their enemies. Several pilots became famous for their air - to - air combat; the most well known is Manfred von Richthofen, better known as the Red Baron, who shot down 80 planes in air - to - air combat with several different planes, the most celebrated of which was the Fokker Dr. I. On the Allied side, René Paul Fonck is credited with the most all - time victories at 75, even when later wars are considered.
France, Britain, Germany and Italy were the leading manufacturers of fighter planes that saw action during the war, with German aviation technologist Hugo Junkers showing the way to the future through his pioneering use of all - metal aircraft from late 1915.
The years between World War I and World War II saw great advancements in aircraft technology. Airplanes evolved from low - powered biplanes made from wood and fabric to sleek, high - powered monoplanes made of aluminum, based primarily on the founding work of Hugo Junkers during the World War I period and its adoption by American designer William Bushnell Stout and Soviet designer Andrei Tupolev. The age of the great rigid airships came and went. The first successful rotorcraft appeared in the form of the autogyro, invented by Spanish engineer Juan de la Cierva and first flown in 1919. In this design, the rotor is not powered but is spun like a windmill by its passage through the air. A separate powerplant is used to propel the aircraft forwards.
After World War I, experienced fighter pilots were eager to show off their skills. Many American pilots became barnstormers, flying into small towns across the country and showing off their flying abilities, as well as taking paying passengers for rides. Eventually the barnstormers grouped into more organized displays. Air shows sprang up around the country, with air races, acrobatic stunts, and feats of air superiority. The air races drove engine and airframe development -- the Schneider Trophy, for example, led to a series of ever faster and sleeker monoplane designs culminating in the Supermarine S. 6B. With pilots competing for cash prizes, there was an incentive to go faster. Amelia Earhart was perhaps the most famous of those on the barnstorming / air show circuit. She was also the first female pilot to achieve records such as crossing of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
Other prizes, for distance and speed records, also drove development forwards. For example, on June 14, 1919, Captain John Alcock and Lieutenant Arthur Brown co-piloted a Vickers Vimy non-stop from St. John 's, Newfoundland to Clifden, Ireland, winning the £ 13,000 ($65,000) Northcliffe prize. The first flight across the South Atlantic and the first aerial crossing using astronomical navigation, was made by the naval aviators Gago Coutinho and Sacadura Cabral in 1922, from Lisbon, Portugal, to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, with only internal means of navigation, in an aircraft specifically fitted for himself with an artificial horizon for aeronautical use, an invention that revolutionized air navigation at the time (Gago Coutinho invented a type of sextant incorporating two spirit levels to provide an artificial horizon). Five years later Charles Lindbergh took the Orteig Prize of $25,000 for the first solo non-stop crossing of the Atlantic. Months after Lindbergh, Paul Redfern was the first to solo the Caribbean Sea and was last seen flying over Venezuela.
Australian Sir Charles Kingsford Smith was the first to fly across the larger Pacific Ocean in the Southern Cross. His crew left Oakland, California to make the first trans - Pacific flight to Australia in three stages. The first (from Oakland to Hawaii) was 2,400 miles, took 27 hours 25 minutes and was uneventful. They then flew to Suva, Fiji 3,100 miles away, taking 34 hours 30 minutes. This was the toughest part of the journey as they flew through a massive lightning storm near the equator. They then flew on to Brisbane in 20 hours, where they landed on 9 June 1928 after approximately 7,400 miles total flight. On arrival, Kingsford Smith was met by a huge crowd of 25,000 at Eagle Farm Airport in his hometown of Brisbane. Accompanying him were Australian aviator Charles Ulm as the relief pilot, and the Americans James Warner and Captain Harry Lyon (who were the radio operator, navigator and engineer). A week after they landed, Kingsford Smith and Ulm recorded a disc for Columbia talking about their trip. With Ulm, Kingsford Smith later continued his journey being the first in 1929 to circumnavigate the world, crossing the equator twice.
The first lighter - than - air crossings of the Atlantic were made by airship in July 1919 by His Majesty 's Airship R34 and crew when they flew from East Lothian, Scotland to Long Island, New York and then back to Pulham, England. By 1929, airship technology had advanced to the point that the first round - the - world flight was completed by the Graf Zeppelin in September and in October, the same aircraft inaugurated the first commercial transatlantic service. However, the age of the rigid airship ended following the destruction by fire of the zeppelin LZ 129 Hindenburg just before landing at Lakehurst, New Jersey on May 6, 1937, killing 35 of the 97 people aboard. Previous spectacular airship accidents, from the Wingfoot Express disaster (1919) to the loss of the R101 (1930), the Akron (1933) and the Macon (1935) had already cast doubt on airship safety, but with the disasters of the U.S. Navy 's rigids showing the importance of solely using helium as the lifting medium; following the destruction of the Hindenburg, the remaining airship making international flights, the Graf Zeppelin was retired (June 1937). Its replacement, the rigid airship Graf Zeppelin II, made a number of flights, primarily over Germany, from 1938 to 1939, but was grounded when Germany began World War II. Both remaining German zeppelins were scrapped in 1940 to supply metal for the German Luftwaffe; the last American rigid airship, the Los Angeles, which had not flown since 1932, was dismantled in late 1939.
Meanwhile, Germany, which was restricted by the Treaty of Versailles in its development of powered aircraft, developed gliding as a sport, especially at the Wasserkuppe, during the 1920s. In its various forms, in the 21st century sailplane aviation now has over 400,000 participants.
In 1929 Jimmy Doolittle developed instrument flight.
1929 also saw the first flight of by far the largest plane ever built until then: the Dornier Do X with a wing span of 48 m. On its 70th test flight on October 21 there were 169 people on board, a record that was not broken for 20 years.
Less than a decade after the development of the first practical rotorcraft of any type with the autogyro, in the Soviet Union, Boris N. Yuriev and Alexei M. Cheremukhin, two aeronautical engineers working at the Tsentralniy Aerogidrodinamicheskiy Institut, constructed and flew the TsAGI 1 - EA single rotor helicopter, which used an open tubing framework, a four blade main rotor, and twin sets of 1.8 - meter (5.9 ft) diameter anti-torque rotors; one set of two at the nose and one set of two at the tail. Powered by two M - 2 powerplants, up - rated copies of the Gnome Monosoupape rotary radial engine of World War I, the TsAGI 1 - EA made several successful low altitude flights. By 14 August 1932, Cheremukhin managed to get the 1 - EA up to an unofficial altitude of 605 meters (1,985 feet) with what is likely to be the first successful single - lift rotor helicopter design ever tested and flown.
Only five years after the German Dornier Do - X had flown, Tupolev designed the largest aircraft of the 1930s era, the Maksim Gorky in the Soviet Union by 1934, as the largest aircraft ever built using the Junkers methods of metal aircraft construction.
In the 1930s development of the jet engine began in Germany and in Britain -- both countries would go on to develop jet aircraft by the end of World War II.
World War II saw a great increase in the pace of development and production, not only of aircraft but also the associated flight - based weapon delivery systems. Air combat tactics and doctrines took advantage. Large - scale strategic bombing campaigns were launched, fighter escorts introduced and the more flexible aircraft and weapons allowed precise attacks on small targets with dive bombers, fighter - bombers, and ground - attack aircraft. New technologies like radar also allowed more coordinated and controlled deployment of air defense.
The first jet aircraft to fly was the Heinkel He 178 (Germany), flown by Erich Warsitz in 1939, followed by the world 's first operational jet aircraft, the Me 262, in July 1942 and world 's first jet - powered bomber, the Arado Ar 234, in June 1943. British developments, like the Gloster Meteor, followed afterwards, but saw only brief use in World War II. The first cruise missile (V - 1), the first ballistic missile (V - 2), the first (and to date only) operational rocket - powered combat aircraft Me 163 -- with attained velocities of up to 1,130 km / h (700 mph) in test flights -- and the first vertical take - off manned point - defense interceptor, the Bachem Ba 349 Natter, were also developed by Germany. However, jet and rocket aircraft had only limited impact due to their late introduction, fuel shortages, the lack of experienced pilots and the declining war industry of Germany.
Not only airplanes, but also helicopters saw rapid development in the Second World War, with the introduction of the Focke Achgelis Fa 223, the Flettner Fl 282 synchropter in 1941 in Germany and the Sikorsky R - 4 in 1942 in the USA.
After World War II, commercial aviation grew rapidly, using mostly ex-military aircraft to transport people and cargo. This growth was accelerated by the glut of heavy and super-heavy bomber airframes like the B - 29 and Lancaster that could be converted into commercial aircraft. The DC - 3 also made for easier and longer commercial flights. The first commercial jet airliner to fly was the British de Havilland Comet. By 1952, the British state airline BOAC had introduced the Comet into scheduled service. While a technical achievement, the plane suffered a series of highly public failures, as the shape of the windows led to cracks due to metal fatigue. The fatigue was caused by cycles of pressurization and depressurization of the cabin, and eventually led to catastrophic failure of the plane 's fuselage. By the time the problems were overcome, other jet airliner designs had already taken to the skies.
USSR 's Aeroflot became the first airline in the world to operate sustained regular jet services on September 15, 1956 with the Tupolev Tu - 104. The Boeing 707 and DC - 8 which established new levels of comfort, safety and passenger expectations, ushered in the age of mass commercial air travel, dubbed the Jet Age.
In October 1947 Chuck Yeager took the rocket - powered Bell X-1 through the sound barrier. Although anecdotal evidence exists that some fighter pilots may have done so while dive bombing ground targets during the war, this was the first controlled, level flight to exceed the speed of sound. Further barriers of distance fell in 1948 and 1952 with the first jet crossing of the Atlantic and the first nonstop flight to Australia.
The 1945 invention of nuclear bombs briefly increased the strategic importance of military aircraft in the Cold War between East and West. Even a moderate fleet of long - range bombers could deliver a deadly blow to the enemy, so great efforts were made to develop countermeasures. At first, the supersonic interceptor aircraft were produced in considerable numbers. By 1955 most development efforts shifted to guided surface - to - air missiles. However, the approach diametrically changed when a new type of nuclear - carrying platform appeared that could not be stopped in any feasible way: intercontinental ballistic missiles. The possibility of these was demonstrated in 1957 with the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union. This action started the Space Race between the nations.
In 1961, the sky was no longer the limit for manned flight, as Yuri Gagarin orbited once around the planet within 108 minutes, and then used the descent module of Vostok I to safely reenter the atmosphere and reduce speed from Mach 25 using friction and converting the kinetic energy of the velocity into heat. The United States responded by launching Alan Shepard into space on a suborbital flight in a Mercury space capsule. With the launch of the Alouette I in 1963, Canada became the third country to send a satellite into space. The space race between the United States and the Soviet Union would ultimately lead to the landing of men on the moon in 1969.
In 1967, the X-15 set the air speed record for an aircraft at 4,534 mph (7,297 km / h) or Mach 6.1. Aside from vehicles designed to fly in outer space, this record was renewed by X-43 in the 21st century.
The Harrier Jump Jet, often referred to as just "Harrier '' or "the Jump Jet '', is a British designed military jet aircraft capable of Vertical / Short Takeoff and Landing (V / STOL) via thrust vectoring. It first flew in 1969, the same year that Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin set foot on the moon, and Boeing unveiled the Boeing 747 and the Aérospatiale - BAC Concorde supersonic passenger airliner had its maiden flight. The Boeing 747 was the largest commercial passenger aircraft ever to fly, and still carries millions of passengers each year, though it has been superseded by the Airbus A380, which is capable of carrying up to 853 passengers. In 1975 Aeroflot started regular service on the Tu - 144 -- the first supersonic passenger plane. In 1976 British Airways and Air France began supersonic service across the Atlantic, with Concorde. A few years earlier the SR - 71 Blackbird had set the record for crossing the Atlantic in under 2 hours, and Concorde followed in its footsteps.
In 1979 the Gossamer Albatross became the first human powered aircraft to cross the English channel. This achievement finally saw the realization of centuries of dreams of human flight.
The last quarter of the 20th century saw a change of emphasis. No longer was revolutionary progress made in flight speeds, distances and materials technology. This part of the century instead saw the spreading of the digital revolution both in flight avionics and in aircraft design and manufacturing techniques.
In 1986 Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager flew an aircraft, the Rutan Voyager, around the world unrefuelled, and without landing. In 1999 Bertrand Piccard became the first person to circle the earth in a balloon.
Digital fly - by - wire systems allow an aircraft to be designed with relaxed static stability. Initially used to increase the manoeuvrability of military aircraft such as the General Dynamics F - 16 Fighting Falcon, this is now being used to reduce drag on commercial airliners.
The U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission was established in 1999 to encourage the broadest national and international participation in the celebration of 100 years of powered flight. It publicized and encouraged a number of programs, projects and events intended to educate people about the history of aviation.
21st century aviation has seen increasing interest in fuel savings and fuel diversification, as well as low cost airlines and facilities. Additionally, much of the developing world that did not have good access to air transport has been steadily adding aircraft and facilities, though severe congestion remains a problem in many up and coming nations. Some 20,000 city pairs are served by commercial aviation, up from less than 10,000 as recently as 1996.
There appears to be newfound interest in returning to the supersonic era whereby waning demand and bureaucratic hurdles in the turn of the 20th century made flights unprofitable, as well as the final commercial stoppage of the Concorde due to a fatal accident.
In the beginning of the 21st century, digital technology allowed subsonic military aviation to begin eliminating the pilot in favor of remotely operated or completely autonomous unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). In April 2001 the unmanned aircraft Global Hawk flew from Edwards AFB in the US to Australia non-stop and unrefuelled. This is the longest point - to - point flight ever undertaken by an unmanned aircraft, and took 23 hours and 23 minutes. In October 2003 the first totally autonomous flight across the Atlantic by a computer - controlled model aircraft occurred. UAVs are now an established feature of modern warfare, carrying out pinpoint attacks under the control of a remote operator.
Major disruptions to air travel in the 21st century included the closing of U.S. airspace due to the September 11 attacks, and the closing of most of European airspace after the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull.
In 2015, André Borschberg flew a record distance of 4481 miles (7212 km) from Nagoya, Japan to Honolulu, Hawaii in a solar - powered plane, Solar Impulse 2. The flight took nearly five days; during the nights the aircraft used its batteries and the potential energy gained during the day.
|
what is the name of the articulation between the mandible and the cranium | Temporomandibular joint - wikipedia
The temporomandibular joints (TMJ) are the two joints connecting the jawbone to the skull. It is a bilateral synovial articulation between the temporal bone of the skull above and the mandible below; it is from these bones that its name is derived. This joint is unique in that it is a bilateral joint that functions as one unit. Since the TMJ is connected to the mandible, the right and left joints must function together and therefore are not independent of each other.
The main components are the joint capsule, articular disc, mandibular condyles, articular surface of the temporal bone, temporomandibular ligament, stylomandibular ligament, sphenomandibular ligament, and lateral pterygoid muscle.
The capsule is a dense fibrous membrane that surrounds the joint and incorporates the articular eminence. It attaches to the articular eminence, the articular disc and the neck of the mandibular condyle.
The unique feature of the temporomandibular joint is the articular disc. The disc is composed of dense fibrocartilagenous tissue that is positioned between the head of the mandibular condyle and the glenoid fossa of the temporal bone. The temporomandibular joints are one of the few synovial joints in the human body with an articular disc, another being the sternoclavicular joint. The disc divides each joint into two compartments, the lower and upper compartments. These two compartments are synovial cavities, which consists of an upper and a lower synovial cavity. The synovial membrane lining the joint capsule produces the synovial fluid that fills these cavities.
The central area of the disc is avascular and lacks innervation, thus getting its nutrients from the surrounding synovial fluid. In contrast, the posterior ligament and the surrounding capsules along has both blood vessels and nerves. Few cells are present, but fibroblasts and white blood cells are among these. The central area is also thinner but of denser consistency than the peripheral region, which is thicker but has a more cushioned consistency. The synovial fluid in the synovial cavities provides the nutrition for the avascular central area of the disc. With age, the entire disc thins and may undergo addition of cartilage in the central part, changes that may lead to impaired movement of the joint.
The lower joint compartment formed by the mandible and the articular disc is involved in rotational movement -- this is the initial movement of the jaw when the mouth opens. The upper joint compartment formed by the articular disc and the temporal bone is involved in translational movement -- this is the secondary gliding motion of the jaw as it is opened widely. The part of the mandible which mates to the under - surface of the disc is the condyle and the part of the temporal bone which mates to the upper surface of the disk is the articular fossa or glenoid fossa or mandibular fossa.
The articular disc is a fibrous extension of the capsule in between the two bones of the joint. The disc functions as articular surfaces against both the temporal bone and the condyles and divides the joint into two sections, as already described. It is biconcave in structure and attaches to the condyle medially and laterally. The anterior portion of the disc splits in the vertical dimension, coincident with the insertion of the superior head of the lateral pterygoid. The posterior portion also splits in the vertical dimension, and the area between the split continues posteriorly and is referred to as the retrodiscal tissue. Unlike the disc itself, this piece of connective tissue is vascular and innervated, and in some cases of anterior disc displacement, the pain felt during movement of the mandible is due to the condyle compressing this area against the articular surface of the temporal bone.
There are three ligaments associated with the temporomandibular joints: one major and two minor ligaments. These ligaments are important in that they define the border movements, or in other words, the farthest extents of movements, of the mandible. Movements of the mandible made past the extents functionally allowed by the muscular attachments will result in painful stimuli, and thus, movements past these more limited borders are rarely achieved in normal function.
Other ligaments, called "oto - mandibular ligaments '', connect the middle ear (malleus) with the temporomandibular joint:
Sensory innervation of the temporomandibular joint is derived from the auriculotemporal and masseteric branches of V or mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve. These are only sensory innervation. Recall that motor is to the muscles.
The specific mechanics of proprioception in the temporomandibular joint involve four receptors. Ruffini endings function as static mechanoreceptors which position the mandible. Pacinian corpuscles are dynamic mechanoreceptors which accelerate movement during reflexes. Golgi tendon organs function as static mechanoreceptors for protection of ligaments around the temporomandibular joint. Free nerve endings are the pain receptors for protection of the temporomandibular joint itself.
Free nerve endings, many of which act as nociceptors, innervate the bones, ligaments, and muscles of the TMJ. The fibrocartilage that overlays the TMJ condyle is not innervated and is avascular in healthy TMJs. When bone tissue, ligaments, or muscles become inflamed or injured, sensory signals are relayed along small - diameter primary afferent nerve fibers that form the trigeminal nerve. Signals are directed through the trigeminal nerve and modulated by neuronal cell bodies in the trigeminal ganglion. Nociceptive signals are subsequently routed to the spinal trigeminal nucleus, which contains second - order sensory neurons. From the trigeminal nucleus, sensory signals are relayed to higher - order brain regions, including the somatosensory cortex and thalamus.
Its arterial blood supply is provided by branches of the external carotid artery, predominately the superficial temporal branch. Other branches of the external carotid artery, namely the deep auricular artery, anterior tympanic artery, ascending pharyngeal artery, and maxillary artery, may also contribute to the arterial blood supply of the joint.
Formation of the temporomandibular joints occurs at around 12 weeks in utero when the joint spaces and the articular disc develop. At approximately 10 weeks the component of the fetus future joint becomes evident in the mesenchyme between condylar cartilage of the mandible and the developing temporal bone. Two slits like joint cavities and intervening disk make their appearance in this region by 12 weeks. The mesenchyme around the joint begins to form the fibrous joint capsule. Very little is known about the significance of newly forming muscles in joint formation. The developing superior head of the lateral pterygoid muscle attaches to the anterior portion of the fetal disk. The disk also continues posterior through the petrotympanic fissure and attaches to the malleus of middle ear.
A growth center is located in the head of each mandibular condyle before an individual reaches maturity. This growth center consists of hyaline cartilage underneath the periosteum on the articulating surface of the condyle. This is the last growth center of bone in the body and is multidirectional in its growth capacity, unlike a typical long bone. This area of cartilage within the bone grows in length by appositional growth as the individual grows to maturity. Over time, the cartilage is replaced by bone, using endochondral ossification. This mandibular growth center in the condyle allows the increased length of the mandible needed for the larger permanent teeth, as well as for the larger brain capacity of the adult. This growth of the mandible also influences the overall shape of the face, and thus is charted and referred to during orthodontic therapy. When an individual reaches full maturity, the growth center of bone within the condyle has disappeared.
Each temporomandibular joint is classed as a "ginglymoarthrodial '' joint since it is both a ginglymus (hinging joint) and an arthrodial (sliding) joint. The condyle of the mandible articulates with the temporal bone in the mandibular fossa. The mandibular fossa is a concave depression in the squamous portion of the temporal bone.
These two bones are actually separated by an articular disc, which divides the joint into two distinct compartments. The inferior compartment allows for rotation of the condylar head around an instantaneous axis of rotation, corresponding to the first 20mm or so of the opening of the mouth. After the mouth is open to this extent, the mouth can no longer open without the superior compartment of the temporomandibular joints becoming active.
At this point, if the mouth continues to open, not only are the condylar heads rotating within the lower compartment of the temporomandibular joints, but the entire apparatus (condylar head and articular disc) translates. Although this had traditionally been explained as a forward and downward sliding motion, on the anterior concave surface of the glenoid fossa and the posterior convex surface of the articular eminence, this translation actually amounts to a rotation around another axis. This effectively produces an evolute which can be termed the resultant axis of mandibular rotation, which lies in the vicinity of the mandibular foramen, allowing for a low - tension environment for the vasculature and innervation of the mandible.
The necessity of translation to produce further opening past that which can be accomplished with sole rotation of the condyle can be demonstrated by placing a resistant fist against the chin and trying to open the mouth more than 20 or so mm.
The resting position of the temporomandibular joint is not with the teeth biting together. Instead, the muscular balance and proprioceptive feedback allow a physiologic rest for the mandible, an interocclusal clearance or freeway space, which is 2 to 4 mm between the teeth.
Normal full jaw opening is 40 - 50 millimeters as measured from edge of lower front teeth to edge of upper front teeth.
When measuring the vertical range of motion, the measurement must be adjusted for the overbite. For example, if the measurement from the edge of the lower front teeth to the edge of the upper front teeth is 40 millimeters and the overbite is 3 millimeters, then the jaw opening is 43 millimeters.
During jaw movements, only the mandible moves.
Normal movements of the mandible during function, such as mastication, or chewing, are known as excursions. There are two lateral excursions (left and right) and the forward excursion, known as protrusion. The reversal of protrusion is retrusion.
When the mandible is moved into protrusion, the mandibular incisors, or front teeth of the mandible, are moved so that they first come edge to edge with the maxillary (upper) incisors and then surpass them, producing a temporary underbite. This is accomplished by translation of the condyle down the articular eminence (in the upper portion of the joint) without any more than the slightest amount of rotation taking place (in the lower portion of the joint), other than that necessary to allow the mandibular incisors to come in front of the maxillary incisors without running into them. (This is all assuming an ideal Class I or Class II occlusion, which is not entirely important to the lay reader.)
During chewing, the mandible moves in a specific manner as delineated by the two temporomandibular joints. The side of the mandible that moves laterally is referred to as either the working or rotating side, while the other side is referred to as either the balancing or orbiting side. The latter terms, although a bit outdated, are actually more precise, as they define the sides by the movements of the respective condyles.
When the mandible is moved into a lateral excursion, the working side condyle (the condyle on the side of the mandible that moves outwards) only performs rotation (in the horizontal plane), while the balancing side condyle performs translation. During actual functional chewing, when the teeth are not only moved side to side, but also up and down when biting of the teeth is incorporated as well, rotation (in a vertical plane) also plays a part in both condyles.
The mandible is moved primary by the four muscles of mastication: the masseter, medial pterygoid, lateral pterygoid and the temporalis. These four muscles, all innervated by V, or the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve, work in different groups to move the mandible in different directions. Contraction of the lateral pterygoid acts to pull the disc and condyle forward within the glenoid fossa and down the articular eminence; thus, action of this muscle serves to protrude the jaw, it with assistance of gravity and the digastricus muscle also opens the jaw. The other three muscles close the mouth; the masseter and the medial pterygoid by pulling up the angle of the mandible and the temporalis by pulling up on the coronoid process of the mandible.
Temporomandibular joint pain is generally due to one of four reasons.
Pain or dysfunction of the temporomandibular joint is sometimes referred to as "TMJ '', and temporomandibular joint disorder (or dysfunction) may be abbreviated TMD. This term is used to refer to a group of problems involving the temporomandibular joints and the muscles, tendons, ligaments, blood vessels, and other tissues associated with them.
Although rare, other pathologic conditions may also affect the function of temporomandibular joints, causing pain and swelling. These conditions include chondrosarcoma, osteosarcoma, giant cell tumor and aneurysmal bone cyst.
The temporomandibular joints can be felt in front of or within the external acoustic meatus during movements of the mandible. Auscultation of the joint can also be done.
The most common disorder of a temporomandibular joint is disc displacement. In essence, this is when the articular disc, attached anteriorly to the superior head of the lateral pterygoid muscle and posteriorly to the retrodiscal tissue, moves out from between the condyle and the fossa, so that the mandible and temporal bone contact is made on something other than the articular disc. This, as explained above, is usually very painful, because unlike these adjacent tissues, the central portion of the disc contains no sensory innervation.
In most instances of disorder, the disc is displaced anteriorly upon translation, or the anterior and inferior sliding motion of the condyle forward within the fossa and down the articular eminence. On opening, a "pop '' or "click '' can sometimes be heard and usually felt also, indicating the condyle is moving back onto the disk, known as "reducing the joint '' (disc displacement with reduction). Upon closing, the condyle will slide off the back of the disc, hence another "click '' or "pop '' at which point the condyle is posterior to the disc. Upon clenching, the condyle compresses the bilaminar area, and the nerves, arteries and veins against the temporal fossa, causing pain and inflammation.
In disc displacement without reduction the disc stays anterior to the condylar head upon opening. Mouth opening is limited and there is no "pop '' or "click '' sound on opening.
|
the deoband program of study was reduced to | Darul Uloom Deoband - wikipedia
The Darul Uloom Deoband In Urdu language (دارلعلوم دیوبند) is the Darul uloom Islamic school in India where the Deobandi Islamic movement began. It is located at Deoband, a town in Saharanpur district, Uttar Pradesh. The school was founded in 1866 by the ulema (Islamic scholars) Muhammad Qasim Nanotvi, Rasheed Ahmed Gangohi and ' Abid Husaiyn.
The school teaches manqulat (revealed Islamic sciences) according to the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence. In this seminary, Nanautawi instituted modern methods of learning such as teaching in classrooms, a fixed and carefully selected curriculum, lectures by academics who were leaders in their fields, exam periods, merit prizes, and a publishing press. Students were taught in Urdu, and sometimes in Arabic for theological reasons or Persian, for cultural and literary reasons. The curriculum is based on a highly modified version of the 17th century Indo - Islamic syllabus known as Dars - e-Nizami. The students learn the Quran and its exegesis; Hadith and its commentary; and juristic rulings with textual and rational proofs. They also study the biography of Muhammad, Arabic grammar, language and literature, and Farsi (Persian).
The syllabus consists of many stages. The five - year Nazirah (primary course) teaches Urdu, Persian, Hindi and English. The next level is the Hifze Quran. This involves the memorization of the Quran over two to four years. A few students will then choose Tajwid e Hafs (melodious recitation). The student is taught the detailed recitation rules of the Quran as laid down by Qari Hafs. Still fewer will take up the next course, the Sab'ah and ' Asharah Qira'at (study of all the ten Quran recitations.
A post graduate studies equivalent is the Fazilat course taken over eight years. It commences with Arabi Awwal, in which the basics of the Arabic language is the main aim, and finishes with Daura e Hadith, in which the main books of the saying of the Holy Prophet are taught. A prerequisite for this course is completion of primary education. Memorization of the Quran is also recommended. Students who complete the Fazilat may use the title Alim or Maulvi. The Daurae Hadith (final year) class is taught in the basement of the large Masjid Rasheed (Rasheed Mosque) which was constructed in the style of the Taj Mahal. In the 2017 - 2018 academic year (1438 - 1439 AH), 1664 students attended the Daurae Hadith class.
Almost a quarter of the students who complete the Daurae Hadith continue their studies. These advanced courses include Takmil Ifta (Jurisprudence); Takmil Adab (Arabic literature); and Takhassus fil Hadith (Hadith). Students who complete the Takmil Ifta take the title Mufti.
The political ideals of Darul - Uloom Deoband were founded up to ten years prior to the opening of the seminary. In 1857 (AH 1274), Imdadullah Muhajir Makki (a spiritual leader) and his followers, Muhammad Yaqoob Nanautavi and Rasheed Ahmad Gangohi and others, gathered at Thana Bhawan in violent protest against British rule and continued their call for the independence of India.
In 1913 AD (1333 HD), Nanautavi 's pupil, Mahmud al - Hasan was a leader in the independence movement. He incited revolution through a scheme which the Rowlatt committee called the Silken Letters. However, the scheme failed and al - Hasan and his followers were arrested and exiled. In 1920 AD (1338HD), al - Hasan was returned from exile in Malta. His group, Jami'atul - Ulama, which included Husain Ahmad Madani, Kifayatullah Dehlavi, Fakhrud - Deen Ahmad, and later on, Hifzur Rahman, Ateequr - Rahman Usmani, Minnatullah Rahmani, Habibur - Rahman Ludhyanvi, and Muhammad Miyan Deobandi joined with the Indian National Congress. In 1926 AD (1345 HD) and 1927 AD (1346 HD), graduates of the school called for Indian independence at Jami'atul - Ulama meetings in Calcutta and Peshawar. Madani opposed the suggestion of the All - India Muslim League for the partition of India along sectarian lines. He also advocated democratic government with religious freedoms and tolerance.
On 29 December 1929 AD, Majlis - e-Ahrar - ul - Islam (Majlis - e-Ah'rãr - e-Islam, Urdu: مجلس احرارلأسلام , or Ahrar), a conservative Sunni Muslim Deobandi political party was founded in Lahore, Punjab,. The founding members of the party were Chaudhry Afzal Haq, Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari, Maulana Habib - ur - Rehman Ludhianvi, Maulana Mazhar Ali Azhar, Maulana Zafar Ali Khan and Dawood Ghaznavi. The founding members were disillusioned by the Khilafat Movement, which had aligned with the Indian National Congress. The party gathered support from the urban lower - middle class. It opposed Muhammad Ali Jinnah, leader of the All - India Muslim League and it objected to the persecution of the Ahmadiyya religious community.
In 1969 AD (1389 HD), Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, the Pashtun independence activist, addressed the students of the school and said, "I have had relation with Darul - Uloom since the time the Shaikhul - Hind Maulana Mahmood Hasan was alive. Sitting here we used to make plans for the independence movement as to how we might drive away the English from this country and how we could make India free from the yoke of slavery of the English. This institution has made great efforts for the freedom of this country ''.
In January 2012, scholars from a Deobandi school issued a fatwa (religious edict) calling for the author Salman Rushdie to be barred from entering India to attend a literature festival because he had offended Muslim sentiments.
In May 2010, clerics from a Deobandi school issued a fatwa stating that men and women can not work together in public offices unless the women are properly clothed.
In September 2013, scholars from a Deobandi school issued a fatwa banning photography as un-Islamic.
The spread of the Deobandi movement in the United Kingdom has produced some criticism concerning their views on interfaith dialogue and values like democracy or the rule of (secular) law. In September 2007 Andrew Norfolk of The Times published an article titled "the hardline takeover of British mosques '' about the influence of the Deobandis whom the author called a "hardline islamic sect ''.
In February 2008, an anti-terrorism conference, organized by the seminary, denounced all forms of terrorism.
The school has links to national and international Islamic educational and theological organizations. Graduates of the school have established seminaries such as Darul Uloom Sabeelus Salam in Hyderabad; Camperdown, near Durban in South Africa; Darul ' Uloom Karachi, Jami'ah Ashrafiyah Lahore,; Jami'ah Ziyaul - Qur'an (Al - Ma'ruf Bagh - Wali Masjid), Faisalabad; and Al - Jamiatul Ahlia Darul Ulum Moinul Islam, Chittagong, Bangladesh.
Notable alumni of the school include:
The following journals and magazines are published under the aegis of Darul ' Uloom Deoband and its alumni.
Coordinates: 29 ° 41 ′ 32 '' N 77 ° 40 ′ 39 '' E / 29.69222 ° N 77.67750 ° E / 29.69222; 77.67750
|
bolland & bolland you're in the army now | In the Army Now (song) - wikipedia
"In the Army Now '' is a song by the South African - born Dutch duo Bolland & Bolland, released in 1982. The song spent 6 consecutive weeks on the top of the Norwegian singles chart. The song was also later recorded by the British rock band Status Quo on their 1986 album, In the Army Now, and their version peaked at number 2 in the UK Singles Chart.
A-Side
B - Side
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
In 2009, Les Enfoirés covered the song under the title "Ici Les Enfoirés '', using the same tune, but changing the lyrics to ones in the French language (about the 25th anniversary of the Restos du Coeur, instead of the original topic). In September 2010, Status Quo released a new version of the song with the Corps of Army Choir through their label Universal / UMC as a special release. All profits from this updated and lyrically changed version will be donated equally to the British Forces Foundation and Help for Heroes charities. This charted at no. 31 in the UK Singles charts upon its release. The lyrics were changed to a pro-war version. In 2012, Sabaton released a cover under the same title as a bonus track for their 6th album, Carolus Rex. In 2017, the German Eurodance band Captain Jack released a cover single entitled "In the Army Now 2017 '' accompanied by an official music video.
|
when does andi mack season 2 episode 24 come out | List of Andi Mack episodes - Wikipedia
Andi Mack is an American family comedy - drama television series created by Terri Minsky that premiered on Disney Channel on April 7, 2017. The series stars Peyton Elizabeth Lee, Joshua Rush, Sofia Wylie, Asher Angel, Lilan Bowden, and Lauren Tom. It follows 13 - year - old Andi Mack and her best friends, Cyrus Goodman and Buffy Driscoll, as they attend middle school.
Andi Mack is the top - rated series on American television among all girls and in its time period among all children ages 6 -- 14. It is the first Disney Channel series to feature a gay middle school boy (Cyrus Goodman) as one of its main characters, which has drawn considerable media attention and was reported in the news as being "historic ''. The series has been nominated for and won awards for its coming out storyline, the introduction of which caused a ratings surge.
As Andi Mack celebrates her 13th birthday, she gets a surprise visit from her older sister, Bex, who announces she will be moving back in with their parents, Celia and Ham. Andi is thrilled about the news and wants to know what Bex has been up to. Bex shares a box of her memories with Andi, though before she does, Celia warns her about the secrets inside, which she wants to keep from Andi. When Bex later discovers Andi is smitten with a boy named Jonah Beck, she arranges to have Jonah give her a Frisbee lesson. Jonah realizes how skilled at Frisbee Andi becomes and asks her to join the Frisbee team at school, but as she decides whether to do so, she discovers he has a girlfriend named Amber. Feeling humiliated, Andi gets upset at Bex, who tells her it is okay not to be perfect. Andi feels better after Jonah texts her. Meanwhile, against Celia 's warning, Bex shows Andi a picture hidden deep inside the box which shows Andi as a baby and Bex holding her. Andi finds out the truth: her sister is actually her mother. This infuriates Celia and Ham, but they know they must come to terms with this revelation. After taking time to process this huge change in her life, Andi eventually becomes curious about who her father is, but Bex is not ready to tell her yet. It prompts Andi to take the box to see whether her father 's picture is inside it.
Andi tells her friends Cyrus and Buffy that she has joined the school frisbee team with Jonah, but has yet to tell them about the more important, life - changing discovery concerning her and Bex. While hanging with Andi in her shack, Cyrus and Buffy come across the picture of Bex with the newborn Andi, concluding Bex has a "secret baby '' but not knowing that baby is Andi. Meanwhile, Bex tries to fit in at dinner when Andi, Celia and Ham play a memory game during the meal. Andi tries to impress Jonah by giving him a bracelet she made, a gesture which upsets Amber as she sees the two together. Later, when Cyrus and Buffy keep harping about the secret baby, Andi reveals to them that she is the secret baby while also telling them that Amber is wearing the bracelet she gave to Jonah. Both Andi and Amber stare at each other for several minutes, diverting the attention away from the secret baby talk. Cyrus and Buffy eventually get back to Andi 's revelation and have some questions about it.
Guest stars: Stoney Westmoreland as Ham, Emily Skinner as Amber, Anson Bagley as Gus
Since the revelation that Bex is Andi 's mother, Celia still does not want Andi to call her by different grandmother names. After seeing Mrs. Devlin is the librarian at Andi 's school, and recalling that has not changed since she went there, Bex encourages Andi into watching scary movies, which Celia has kept Andi from experiencing. That evening, Andi watches a movie called Shhh!, with Bex there in case she gets too scared, though Bex ends up falling asleep. The movie indeed scares Andi so much, that the next day, she falls asleep in class and receives detention, which prevents her from attending her first Space Otters frisbee match with Jonah. Andi finds out detention is held in the library with Mrs. Devlin, whose "shhh '' to quiet her winds up re-triggering her frightened state from the movie. Meanwhile, Buffy joins the track and field relay team and her obsession with winning becomes costly. Later, as Bex goes through a box of things from her youth, and Andi learns more about her, Andi also stumbles across a picture of someone from Bex 's past whom she believes to be her father.
After Andi questions Bex about the identify of the man in the photo she found, Bex is hesitant and continues avoiding discussion about Andi 's father. Cyrus reveals the truth about Bex being Andi 's mother to his mother, who later spreads the word across town. Andi receives supportive comments from Jonah and other students at her school, while Celia has an even harder time coping with the relationship change after her neighbor calls her "grandma '', which leads her and Ham to take time away from home. In their absence, Bex persuades Andi to have her first party at the house. The party is attended by Andi 's schoolmates, Jonah, and even Amber. It turns sour when Amber wants to know who Andi 's real father is and asks Andi to reveal him to the guests, causing Andi to retreat to Andi Shack. As Bex starts talking to Andi, Cyrus warns them that Celia and Ham have returned, and the partygoers are told to leave.
After Ham sends Andi to bed, Bex tells him that Andi has been persistent with questions about her father. Ham tells Bex that the man who fathered Andi knows she exists, because he told him.
Bex is shocked that Ham informed Andi 's father about Andi, but Ham made it clear that he needed to know and Andi needs to know about him. When Andi later questions Ham about her father, however, she gets no information. Although Ham has given Bex the email address of Andi 's father, all that comes out of any communication is "hey ''.
Meanwhile, Jonah sets up Cyrus on a date with a girl named Iris, as part of a double date with Jonah and Amber. It goes sour when Cyrus gets sick on a carnival ride.
Buffy gets into trouble at school over her curly hair and is told by the vice principal to change it. This leads to her not hanging out with Andi, who starts asking questions after she sees Buffy and Bex talking at the Fringe. It boils over when Andi sees the two in the bathroom at home, but she finds out none of what is going on is about her. Buffy reveals to Andi that she messed up her hair while using a flatiron to straighten it and she went to Bex to have her hair fixed, since Buffy 's mother is overseas.
Andi later gives Bex a lesson on how to properly throw a frisbee. After Bex lets one fly, Andi goes to retrieve it and then sees Amber with a guy, but it is not Jonah.
Guest stars: Stoney Westmoreland as Ham, Emily Skinner as Amber, Molly Jackson as Iris
After Andi tells Jonah about seeing Amber with another guy, Jonah tells her he will be okay. When she later receives texts to see him at his school locker, Andi rushes to meet him but also confronts Amber, who actually texted her from Jonah 's phone and makes her out to be a liar. Hurt by Amber 's actions, Andi questions whether she should be talking to Jonah, even though he feels bad about what happened. She contemplates staying home from school and gets help from Cyrus and Buffy to make her sick.
Meanwhile, Celia sees Bex is becoming more responsible around the house and later notices her working at the Fringe. Celia also notices Brittany, whom Bex babysat years ago, is Bex 's boss.
While running track, Buffy meets a familiar face from Andi 's party, Marty, who informs her that she is the fastest female runner at school. She finds herself in competition with Marty, who has the school 's overall fastest time.
As Andi, Bex and Celia argue over Andi 's going to school, they hear the doorbell. Bex answers to find a man at the door; it is Bowie, Andi 's father. Bex introduces the two, informing them of their relationship, and they look at each other in surprise.
Bowie is excited to know his daughter Andi by spending the day with her, but Celia reminds them it is a school day. Bowie manages to get Andi excused from school, right after she learns from Cyrus and Buffy that Jonah and Amber have broken up, and Jonah approaches her with news she hopes is good. When Cyrus and Buffy later realize Andi is not around, they text her to ask where she is and what Jonah told her, but Andi is wondering as much about Jonah and asks her friends to find out. They end up meddling instead, with Cyrus convincing Jonah to follow his heart, despite his insecurities from the break - up, hoping it will lead him to Andi. Meanwhile, Bowie makes the most of his day with Andi, but when she worries about Jonah, Bowie drives her back to school. After she discovers Jonah and Amber have reconciled, she asks Cyrus and Buffy how this could happen, but the two keep silent about their involvement. Andi also tells them she spent the day with her father, while feeling guilty about cutting their day short, realizing he had only the one day, since he is a traveling musician. After Andi talks with Bex about Bowie and learns more about their relationship, the two discover Bowie in Andi 's shack.
Bowie decides to delay joining his 40 - city tour with The Renaissance Boys to be with Andi and Bex, but Celia allows him to stay at the Mack house for only two days. During his extended stay, Bowie meets Andi 's friends at school and her teammates on the Space Otters. He records a video with them in it and asks Andi about the boy she keeps talking about, but she feels uncomfortable about her father being around her all the time. On the other hand, Celia is having a change of heart about Bowie after he cooks one of her mother 's recipes. Bex and Bowie later have a serious talk at the place the two were last together before their split, with Bowie wanting to be in Andi and Bex 's lives more; Bex assures him that he is already a part of their lives. Meanwhile, Cyrus gets offended over a text from Jonah which called him "girly ''. Buffy works on making Cyrus more like a man, but when Cyrus later asks Jonah about the text, Jonah tells him that autocorrect messed up the text and he really meant to send "gnarly ''.
Bowie starts to realize he has overstayed his welcome after Andi catches him in her bedroom on her computer and wants him not to invade her privacy. When Bex looks at Andi 's computer, she sees the video that Bowie made and gets emotional. That prompts Andi to take a look as well and to talk with Bowie afterward, only to find him gone.
Andi misses Bowie, and Bex helps to cheer her up. The two buy a variety of vintage clothes, which Celia disapproves, causing her to start questioning Bex 's being back home. After enjoying quality time with Bex, Andi begins to wonder why her mother left home at the time of her birth, and while Bex does not reveal any details to Andi, things come out at home when Celia suggests that Bex move out.
Meanwhile, Andi is concerned after Jonah passes her in the hallway at school without saying anything. She talks to him to find things are still okay between them. She also offers to help him come up with something for Amber 's birthday, including how to express his emotions on her birthday card, but Andi is taken aback when Jonah thinks of her as a "pal '' instead of something more.
Buffy 's competitive nature hits a new low when she discovers one of her track shoes is missing and assumes Marty stole it. She retaliates by taking Marty 's shoes and inflicting water damage on them. As for the missing shoe, Cyrus reveals it was in his mother 's car, coming out of Buffy 's bag during one of her rides home with him.
The episode concludes with Andi and Bex moving into a new apartment.
Andi and Bex struggle with adjusting to their new home, and problems with the electricity and appliances are making matters worse. Andi has been removed from the home she has known for 13 years, and it is taking a toll, from issues about her laundry and the warm meals to her ability to work on her art. With her crafting supplies in the Andi Shack, she and Bex head back to the Mack house to retrieve them. Celia and Ham notice the two and are willing to welcome them back into their home, but Bex stands by her decision to move out, though she does apologize to Celia for taking Andi without giving her any notice. Ultimately, as Andi 's mother, Bex begins to realize what is best for Andi and allows her to go back to Celia and Ham. After Celia returns Andi to be in her new home with Bex, Andi starts to embrace Bex as her mother.
Meanwhile, Cyrus wonders where he stands with Iris, thinking their relationship is over. Intending to spend the day at a sporting event with her, Jonah and Amber, he winds up going with just Jonah after Buffy declines to be his date and the other girls think he has moved on.
A new principal, Dr. Metcalf, takes over at Andi 's school. He meets Andi, Cyrus and Buffy, and tells Andi her leggings violate the school 's dress code. Unaware at first about this dress code, the three eventually object to it when they see all the clothing prohibited. With Bex 's help, they stage a protest at the school, with the participating students wearing prison outfits. As this is also happening on picture day, Cyrus gets concerned over how he will look, but Buffy convinces him to go with what they are wearing. Jonah reminds Andi about the team picture for the Space Otters, but when she shows up, he does not see her in the team 's uniform and tells her to change into it. With Jonah so focused on the picture, Andi quickly realizes his indifference to her standing up to the dress code -- a fight she wins after negotiating with Dr. Metcalf about making the policy more reasonable. Andi and her friends later find out the school will redo picture day in light of the protest.
Andi and Jonah have a more serious talk about what has happened, leading her to quit the Space Otters. She stands up to Jonah, wanting him to stop asking her to do things for him. When Jonah asks if they are still friends, Andi responds, "Were we ever? ''
Guest star: Oliver Vaquer as Dr. Metcalf
Jonah is feeling down following Andi 's quitting the Space Otters and all but ignoring him after their talk. Even Amber can not cheer him up, with her friend Kip belittling the sport he loves. Cyrus encourages Jonah to talk to Andi, but when it appears Jonah will have a chance to do so in the school hallway, he notices Andi 's excitement about Bowie 's return instead. Jonah becomes so depressed that he cancels the Space Otters practice. This also leads to his unequivocal break - up with Amber.
Meanwhile, Buffy gives Marty a new pair of shoes, her way of apologizing for what she did to his old ones, though Marty has wanted her to actually say she is sorry. They set a time to race each other to resolve who is faster, but when they worry about how they will react to the result, they call the race off.
Andi discovers the reason Bowie came back is tied to Bex, whom he noticed in pictures across several stops on his tour with The Renaissance Boys. Andi arranges for her parents to have a romantic evening, and she also hears a song Bowie wrote for Bex. The next morning, Andi asks Bex how the evening went and hopes the two will get back together, but Bex tells Andi it is unlikely because Bowie 's unpredictability makes him inclined not to stay in one place. When Andi talks to Bowie, she realizes his feelings for Bex have changed little over the years, but Bowie agrees with what Bex told Andi. Still, there is hope when Andi sees Bowie unexpectedly take a ring out of one of the blazers he is trying on at a vintage store.
Guest stars: Emily Skinner as Amber, Trent Garrett as Bowie, Garren Stitt as Marty, CJ Strong as Kip
Andi talks to Bowie about proposing to Bex, while Cyrus introduces Iris as his girlfriend to Andi and Buffy, and Jonah invites Andi, Cyrus and Buffy to a pizza party for the Space Otters. At first, Andi does not want to go to the party, but later changes her mind after talking with Bex. Following the party, Jonah reveals to Andi that he broke up with Amber for good, though Andi had some idea prior to the party when he returned the bracelet she made for him. Andi gives Jonah back the bracelet and gets serious about being with him.
While Cyrus is somewhat happy about seeing Andi and Jonah together again, he reveals to Buffy that he is also unhappy because he has romantic feelings for Jonah.
Bowie comes over to Andi and Bex 's apartment with a pizza and, with Andi 's help, finally asks Bex to marry him. Bex 's response is simply "um... '', but Andi is hopeful she will eventually say yes. Later, while at work, Bex receives another pizza from Bowie, who is also hopeful she will accept his proposal.
As Andi and her friends discover Amber as a waitress at The Spoon, Andi tells Buffy about how that is making her uncomfortable but also how nervous she is around Jonah. Buffy thinks Andi is not ready for a serious relationship yet. While the two are talking, Jonah is with Amber outside, which further upsets Andi. Although Jonah says nothing is going on, Buffy warns him not to hurt Andi, causing him to leave the diner. Andi later talks to Jonah and wants their relationship to grow without Amber standing in the way.
After having some time to think about Bowie 's proposal, Bex reveals to Andi that she is not going to marry him.
Guest stars: Stoney Westmoreland as Ham, Trent Garrett as Bowie, Emily Skinner as Amber, Chelsea T. Zhang as Brittany, Molly Jackson as Iris
Andi is disappointed about Bex saying no to Bowie 's marriage proposal and wants Bex to tell Bowie as soon as possible, as he is unaware. With the approach of the Chinese New Year, and Andi and Bex 's aunt Mei and cousin Ronald coming over to Celia 's house, the news will have to wait. Andi invites Jonah to the new year event, but his not understanding the customs puts Celia on edge, as well as the idea of Andi even having a boyfriend. Meanwhile, Celia wants to show Mei that she can successfully host a Chinese New Year feast and is quite appreciative of Bowie 's contributions for the occasion. After Bowie announces that he may have some good news to share, Celia uses the opportunity to make the event special, until Andi hints to Bowie what she already knows and announces to the rest that Bex and Bowie are not getting married. Bowie is saddened by this and leaves.
With track season over, Buffy decides to try out for basketball, but with no girls ' team at Jefferson Middle School, she signs up for the boys ' team. After some practice with Marty, Buffy lets him know how confident she is of making the team, despite her actually being nervous. She feels she needs to outperform the boys to secure a spot.
Andi continues to be upset that Bex let Bowie go, but when finding something to eat, she rediscovers that picture which Bex tore up, making her even more upset. She wants to know whether the person in that picture is the reason behind Bex 's decision not to marry Bowie.
Andi grows suspicious when Amber starts having a normal conversation with her. Jonah tells Andi that Amber just wants to be friends, but Andi thinks Amber has not gotten over Jonah. Andi, Cyrus and Buffy try another hangout place to avoid Amber at The Spoon.
Meanwhile, Buffy and Marty go through tryouts to make the basketball team, but Buffy gets annoyed by TJ, the team 's captain. Despite feeling she will not make the team because of him, Buffy shares the good news with Andi and Cyrus when she does. Marty fails to make the team but is happy for Buffy.
Cyrus and Iris spend an evening together at her house and watch a movie, but he becomes uncomfortable following a kiss with her and decides to leave.
Andi finds out more about the man in the picture Bex tore up, an ex-boyfriend named Gabriel. Bex has trouble letting him go and tells Andi he is the reason she is insecure about marrying anyone, including Bowie. Andi helps Bex find closure with Gabriel by placing his picture with those of her other ex-boyfriends in her box of memories, which leads to them taking out Bowie 's picture.
Guest stars: Emily Skinner as Amber, Garren Stitt as Marty, Molly Jackson as Iris, Luke Mullen as TJ
Celia informs Andi and Bex about a closet clean - out at the Mack house, which is on the anniversary of a day Bex wishes never happened -- the day she left 13 years earlier. Bex and Celia tell Andi completely different versions of the story behind that day. Bex eventually reveals that her leaving was tied to Andi 's first word as a baby, "mama '', directed at Celia. Upon hearing that, Andi feels regret that she caused Bex to leave. Bex tells Andi that her decision was for the best as she wanted her to be happy, and Celia is thankful for the sacrifice Bex made.
Meanwhile, Jonah teaches Cyrus how to skateboard, but Cyrus ' inability to control the skateboard leads to his going to the hospital. Buffy becomes a friend to her neighbor Millie through a community service project she is doing for school.
Later, Celia reveals to Bex that the clean - out was about more than their opportunity to reconcile about that day 13 years ago. She plans to sell the house and leaves it to Bex to tell Andi, news which will devastate her particularly because of Andi Shack. Bex delays mentioning it to Andi.
After overhearing part of a phone conversation Amber is having with her father, Andi decides to spend time with her by inviting her to a sleepover. Having warned Andi before about Amber by comparing her to a snake in one story, Buffy relays another story to Andi about a frog and a scorpion, and compares Amber to the scorpion -- leading to the term "snorpion ''. At the sleepover, Amber tells Andi that her father lost his job, which is why she is working at The Spoon. With Andi enjoying Amber 's company, the two decide to sneak out to an amusement park, where Amber convinces Andi to ride the ferris wheel. When Amber sees a call from Jonah on Andi 's phone, she becomes furious and leaves Andi stranded. This lands Andi in police custody, and Bex and Bowie are left to discipline her after they get home, though Andi ends up deciding her punishment when they can not come up with one. Meanwhile, Buffy is upset over her teammates not giving her the ball during a basketball game. When she confronts TJ about what she needs to do to change this, she realizes he simply does not want her on the team at all. Also, Bex is working toward her cosmetology certification. Her makeup skills also help Andi fool Amber by thinking that Andi injured herself trying to get down the ferris wheel.
Guest stars: Emily Skinner as Amber, Trent Garrett as Bowie, Luke Mullen as TJ
Andi is nervous about holding hands with Jonah at school, but just as she is about to, the principal, Dr. Metcalf, splits the students into two separate groups, with Andi and Cyrus in group A, and Buffy and Jonah in group B. When Andi figures out that her group has luxuries while Jonah 's group struggles over what they are dealt, she decides to switch groups and encourages the rest in her group to do the same, despite Dr. Metcalf 's order for the two groups to stay separate. After chaos ensues in the cafeteria over cookies, Dr. Metcalf ends his exercise, getting across to the students that what group they belong in does not give them any advantage or disadvantage. He also asks them how he decided what group they went to, and while Andi contends it was random, she realizes his selections were alphabetically based. The school day ends with Andi and Jonah both holding hands, though Jonah admits having sweaty palms like Andi. When Andi returns home, Bex finally tells her that Celia and Ham are selling the house. The news devastates Andi, prompting her to return to Andi Shack.
To help Andi take her mind off of Celia and Ham 's plans to sell the Mack house, Jonah asks her on a date by inviting her to a virtual reality arcade. Buffy is also invited, but she brings Marty with her so she does not feel like a third wheel, making the occasion a double date, even though the two are not really dating. During his virtual reality adventure, Jonah slips and gets hurt. When Jonah refuses Andi 's aid, she worries that he is upset with her after she briefly laughed at his mishap. Andi continues to worry and feels Jonah is avoiding her when she later gets no response to her texts. Despite Jonah denying that he is upset with her after she asked him twice, Andi turns to Bex, who tells her to ask a third time. Andi becomes frustrated waiting for Jonah at school, but when she finally has the chance, she trips and falls as she approaches him to ask the question again. Jonah briefly laughs but assures Andi that he is not upset with her. Meanwhile, Buffy feels comfortable being just friends with Marty but finds out he wants more in their relationship. Also, Cyrus asks Bex for her opinion about a screenplay he has written, but Bex 's hesitation to tell him the truth about the script has him setting his sights on making the movie.
Guest stars: Garren Stitt as Marty, Chelsea T. Zhang as Brittany
Andi decorates her shack with numerous paper cranes, hoping Celia and Ham will notice and change their mind about selling the house. While talking with Celia, Andi springs a deal of coming over to the house more often, news which delights Celia to the point of allowing Andi to choose her breakfast or dance to loud music. Celia even invites Andi to a tape tunnel exhibit which has her missing school and worrying Bex. When Ham finds out the true reason Andi has been spending more time at the house, he wonders why Celia did not fill him in, but when Bex comes up with a better idea to save Andi Shack, and Celia and Ham explain their plans of seeing the world, Andi begins to accept that selling the house may not be a bad idea. It turns out Celia and Ham need more time to decide where they will live, so they postpone selling the house.
Meanwhile, Buffy is asked by her math teacher to tutor a failing student. She bails when she discovers it is TJ, but as he is in jeopardy of being kicked off the basketball team, she will help him if, in return, he starts passing the ball to her during games. Also, Cyrus struggles with getting his chocolate chip muffin at school, but as another concession to Buffy, TJ gives Cyrus tips on claiming it.
After Andi, Bex and Celia have fun at a dance class Celia is taking, the three stop at The Spoon. Just as they are about to order some food, Andi sees Jonah enter the diner with a girl named Natalie.
Andi finds out from Jonah that Natalie heads the ultimate frisbee team for another school in town, but is wary after Jonah says that Natalie is "just a friend ''. Amber warns Andi that while she was dating Jonah, he used the same words to refer to Andi. Buffy and Cyrus spy on both Jonah and Natalie at a gathering with "Furious George '', one of the top ultimate discheads in the world, but can not find anything that would make the two more than just friends. Meanwhile, Andi and Jonah have plans to go on a school trip to a Grease singalong, which Buffy and Cyrus are also attending, but Andi learns Jonah has been asked to take part in a video with Natalie and "Furious George '', though Jonah says he can get out of it. Unsure whether he does, Andi races over to where the video is being shot, only to hear from Natalie that Jonah is going to the singalong, so she races back to catch the bus, which she almost misses.
Bex meets a woman named Miranda, who works at the same plant nursery Bowie does. When Miranda decides she wants to ask Bowie out and wonders how much Bex knows about him, Bex appears supportive, yet uncomfortable.
Guest stars: Emily Skinner as Amber, Trent Garrett as Bowie, Shelby Simmons as Natalie, Chloe Hurst as Miranda
While Andi and Bowie are having breakfast at The Spoon, Andi discovers from Bowie 's driver 's license that it is his birthday. Bowie does not want to make a big deal out of it, but Andi wants to throw him a huge surprise party at Celia and Ham 's place. She has Bex work out the details, while she attends a Renaissance Festival for most of the day with her friends. Bex sees Bowie at work and tries to get him to Celia and Ham 's for a "plant emergency '', but Bowie realizes she is trying to get him to the surprise party. Bex finds out the reason Bowie is not in a celebrating mood, as his father 's birthday was on the same day but he died three years ago. Despite this, Bex encourages Bowie to come to the party for Andi 's sake. He does and has a wonderful time, but he is greatly touched after Andi calls him "dad '' for the first time.
Meanwhile, Buffy shows Jonah her competitive side in arm wrestling, where he also matches quite well, and later at the Renaissance Festival, they square off in a medieval - style tug o ' war, which ends in a draw. Cyrus tries to tell Iris that he does not have any romantic feelings for her, with Iris figuring out he does not like her like a girlfriend; the two agree to just be friends.
While Andi, Bex and Bowie are playing miniature golf, Bowie receives a phone call and Andi wonders who he is talking to. Sensing the body language from both of her parents, Andi is sure Bowie is seeing someone and tries to get information about it. Eventually, she finds out Bowie is dating Miranda and wants to meet her, but Bowie says it is too soon. Andi later has second thoughts about seeing Miranda because it may be too much for her to have possibly another parent - figure. When Andi and Bex go miniature golfing again, by themselves, Andi spots Bowie with Miranda and a little girl, whom she deduces is Miranda 's daughter. Meanwhile, Cyrus is tapped by Dr. Metcalf to make an orientation video for new students of Jefferson Middle School and has Jonah film him, but Cyrus gets nervous in front of the camera. Also, Buffy 's tutoring TJ gets nowhere as she realizes he is having difficulty even with basic math.
Guest stars: Trent Garrett as Bowie, Luke Mullen as TJ, Chloe Hurst as Miranda, Eden Grace Redfield as Morgan
Andi notices Jonah is not wearing the bracelet she gave him because it is falling apart. She offers to fix it, but Jonah tells her "no rush ''. After Celia and Ham sense something is wrong with Andi, Celia has Andi consult the I Ching and discovers her hexagram is one of a serious nature; Andi is left to interpret what that means.
Bex receives her cosmetology certificate and delivers the speech at her graduation. Celia and Ham attend the ceremony, and while Bex is shocked they are there after telling Andi not to invite them, she is pleased when they say they are proud of her.
Cyrus prepares for his bar mitzvah and has Jonah look over his wardrobe of suits. TJ is desperate to get his math homework done ahead of a basketball game, by attempting to cheat when he asks Buffy to do it for him. At the basketball game, TJ continues his stubbornness of not passing the ball to Buffy, but when he finally does, Buffy gets a huge surprise from her mother, who is briefly home from a tour of duty and appears at the game.
After Andi fixes the bracelet, Jonah tells her that it represents the two being "boyfriend '' and "girlfriend '', and he does not want to wear it because he is not into labels. This devastates Andi, and after she reflects on what Jonah has done for her, she feels they were never together in the first place.
Andi continues to be troubled by Jonah when he avoids her during Cyrus ' bar mitzvah and party. Cyrus tells Andi that Jonah has not actually broken up with her, but she feels otherwise. Cyrus then tells Andi that he too has romantic feelings for Jonah, which previously only Buffy had known.
Later at the party, Andi, Cyrus and Buffy see a fortune teller and discover one thing about each of their futures. Buffy is the most disturbed about what she finds out and hopes it will not come true, about her mother being deployed again. After Buffy confirms her mother is home for a while, she returns to the fortune teller, who reminds her about the whole vision, which suggests she is moving.
Andi wonders about having a real boyfriend, and the fortune teller indicates she will, soon. Cyrus and Buffy think it is Jonah, but Andi is not ready to talk to him. She starts spending time with Walker, a caricature artist at the party who gives her a beautiful picture he has drawn of her. Jonah becomes jealous, not knowing who this guy is, and when he asks Cyrus and Buffy about him, they have no clue either. Andi and Jonah finally talk about what is going on, but after Andi says her feelings for him have changed, Jonah suffers a panic attack. After the party, Jonah comes over to Andi 's place and despite his opposition to labels, he asks her if she will be his girlfriend, to which she replies, "um... ''.
Meanwhile, Bowie works on discussing Miranda with both Andi and Bex. Despite his new relationship, he tells Andi, in writing he jotted down on a napkin during the party, that he could live without the "universe '', but not her.
Guest stars: Stoney Westmoreland as Ham, Trent Garrett as Bowie, Luke Mullen as TJ, Darius Marcell as Walker, Peggy Ann Blow as Madame Le Doux, Danny Jacobs as Norman
Buffy discovers the fortune teller 's prediction has come true, with her mother, Pat, being assigned to work in Phoenix. Andi comes up with an idea that will allow Buffy to stay, by having her live with Celia and Ham. While Andi waits to inform Celia about this arrangement, Pat appears to be all right with Buffy being with her friends, except she does not want to miss her any more after all the time they have been apart. Buffy shares that feeling, making Andi and Cyrus realize that moving is for the best. The three plan to make the most of the remaining time they have together, before Buffy moves in 10 days. Meanwhile, Jonah tries to find the right gift for Andi, who does appreciate his thinking of her but is unimpressed by the gifts he comes up with. Bex attempts to reach out to Amber, who has been feeling like an outsider lately, with no friends; things go wrong when Bex gives Amber a makeover.
With a week to go until Buffy moves, Andi seeks to recreate the "perfect '' day that she, Buffy and Cyrus experienced years ago, which included their first alpine slide. They travel by bicycle to a cider and donut shop they all remember fondly and stop for a treat. Just as they are ready to head for the alpine slide, Buffy and Cyrus discover their bikes are missing. The three later try to get to the slide by police escort, which gets cut short. With Andi and Buffy leaving their stuff in the police car, the three end up completely stranded, and Cyrus ' phone, with an almost drained battery, is their only hope. They use it to call Bex, and although Andi indicates nothing wrong on their trip, Bex manages to find them and give them a ride back home. Meanwhile, Bowie finds out about Jonah 's panic attacks, but also realizes Jonah has a musical gift after giving him a guitar lesson.
Guest star: Trent Garrett as Bowie
A power outage at school means a day off for Andi and her friends. Bex sets up a "fort '' for Andi in their living room where the two can spend time together by themselves. The two try a BFF quiz from a magazine, and one of the questions frustrates Andi, who wants to know Bex 's biggest regret but gets no answer from her. Eventually, Bex reveals to Andi that she regrets not saying yes to Bowie 's marriage proposal. Andi wants Bex to relay that to Bowie, but Bex refuses to do so, pointing out that he has moved on. This leads to their first fight, with Andi becoming so hurt that she leaves home and asks Bowie if she can stay with him.
Meanwhile, Cyrus coaxes Buffy into playing a board game on their day off. Jonah joins in, and while the three get immersed into the game, Jonah is also becoming increasingly worried about Andi, who is not returning any of his texts. Cyrus and Buffy, who find out Jonah and Andi are truly together, try to assure him that Andi is dealing with something else for the day, because she has not texted them either.
When TJ becomes ineligible to play basketball due to his math grades, Cyrus gives him advice about his learning disability to allow him to play. This does not sit well with Buffy, who is starting to make a name for herself on the basketball team. When she discovers TJ told his math teacher about his disability, she becomes more suspicious about Cyrus ' motives. TJ 's actions end up costing Buffy her spot on the basketball team and her friendship with Cyrus.
Meanwhile, Andi gets a surprise phone call from someone not on her contacts list and finds out it is Walker. As the two spend time together at an art gallery, Walker asks for Andi 's help with artwork he is trying to create, and they develop a masterpiece. Bowie gets Jonah an appointment with a professional music teacher, but Jonah misses that appointment when he is sidetracked by the artwork both Andi and Walker did.
Guest stars: Trent Garrett as Bowie, Luke Mullen as TJ, Darius Marcell as Walker
When Andi and Bowie are about to head to Celia 's house, they see Miranda and her daughter Morgan. Since Miranda needs to do some errands, Andi and Bowie are willing to look after Morgan, and Andi gives her a look at Andi Shack. The girls do some crafting in there until Miranda comes to pick up Morgan, but after they leave, Andi discovers a special bracelet she is making for Bex is missing. She accuses Morgan of taking it after searching thoroughly and tells Bowie, who has a hard time believing her. It turns out Morgan did not take the bracelet, as Bowie finds it later, misplaced in Andi Shack. Though Andi apologizes to Morgan, she is convinced that Miranda is not right for Bowie.
Jonah holds a fundraiser breakfast for the Space Otters but struggles with the event because Gus forgot to send the invitations. Cyrus and Buffy eventually show up to help, but their continued fighting about their friendship threatens the fundraiser. As the two learn about Jonah 's recent panic attacks, they talk through what has happened, including when TJ first talked to Cyrus and wanted to be his friend, and they end their fighting.
Jonah tells Bowie that Andi may not like him anymore, so Bowie encourages him to sing at an open mic night at the Red Rooster and helps him to write the song. Andi, meanwhile, gets another call from Walker, who wants to see her again, but Andi tells him she needs to be with Buffy as her moving day draws near. Walker surprises Andi at The Spoon and also meets Cyrus and Buffy, drawing a picture of the three as Buffy 's going - away gift. While Andi enjoys spending time with Walker, she also thinks about Jonah, who later invites her, as well as Cyrus and Buffy, to the open mic night. When it comes time for Jonah to perform, he nervously struggles through his song until he looks at Andi. She reacts favorably to the song by kissing him.
Meanwhile, The Fringe suddenly picks up multiple positive reviews, all of which Bex discovers her mother is behind, as well as negative ones against the competition. When that backfires, Celia finds another way to get her daughter noticed, by buying The Fringe, which has been struggling financially.
On the last day before Buffy and her mother move to Phoenix, Andi and Cyrus are faced with saying goodbye. After Buffy makes a casual comment about bottling her memories with her friends in a time capsule, Andi and Cyrus decide they want to do that as a way to remember her. Despite her comment, Buffy is against the idea and feels disinclined to say goodbye to her friends. Andi and Cyrus work on building the capsule anyway, hoping Buffy will see it before she leaves the next morning. Jonah also contributes to it, adding a basketball signed by Buffy 's teammates, as well as her team jersey. When Andi, Cyrus and Jonah go to Buffy 's house that night to surprise her with the time capsule, they discover the Driscolls have already left, without a goodbye. Meanwhile, Ham is upset after finding out from Bex that Celia bought The Fringe, which leads Celia to opt out of the purchase.
Andi and Cyrus miss Buffy and try to cope by talking to her time capsule, since they are not hearing from her. Later, Andi invites Walker to her apartment, intending to tell him that she is seeing Jonah. Complicating matters is a pair of shoes Walker gives to her, which he designed from their earlier painting. Although Andi is not inclined to accept the shoes, she reluctantly does after Walker insists she keep them. When Jonah sees Andi wearing the shoes, he becomes upset, aware they came from Walker without her mentioning him by name. Andi worries over Jonah avoiding her afterward, and her anxiety is not eased by his being with Natalie. She wants to talk to Bex about her problem, but with Bex and Celia working on a redesign project for The Fringe, which becomes known as Cloud Ten, Andi feels left out with no one else to talk to. Despite things looking bleak, Andi gets a big surprise when she notices Buffy right outside her apartment. Meanwhile, TJ helps Cyrus deal with his inability to do somersaults.
With Buffy 's return, Andi and Cyrus find out she lives only one hour away from them, much closer than Phoenix, due to government budget cuts changing Pat 's assignment. Buffy appreciates her time capsule and wants to peek inside, but the lid is on tight. Andi informs her about the contents, including her basketball jersey and a ball signed by her teammates, which Andi mentions was Jonah 's idea. Jonah, meanwhile, tries out for the elite Ultimate team at school, with Cyrus there to support him, and to comfort him when he does not make the team. Cyrus later tells Buffy that he no longer has romantic feelings for Jonah, as his feelings have become those of friendship. That leads Buffy to reveal that she has romantic feelings for someone; when she wants to keep it from Andi, Cyrus immediately believes it is Jonah.
Andi works on a new bracelet for Jonah, and while she does, Bex reminds her about the old one, which she thought was discarded but discovers in a memory box Bex started for her. Andi gives Jonah the original bracelet back; they enter into a romantic relationship.
Ham informs Andi and Bex that he plans to travel overseas by himself, and while shocked by the news, the women understand he needs the adventure. He lets Celia know during a family dinner.
When Bowie discovers that Morgan is about leave Red Rooster with an unpaid music box, he questions Miranda 's handling of the situation. Miranda has Morgan return the item, but Bowie is disturbed over Miranda 's not reprimanding her daughter for stealing. In remembering the incident over Andi 's missing bracelet which she accused Morgan of taking from Andi Shack, Bowie was sure the bracelet had been misplaced but finds out Miranda planted it back in Andi Shack to cover her daughter 's theft. That leads Bowie to break up with Miranda, as he can no longer trust her -- and to apologize to Andi for not believing her.
Meanwhile, Cyrus notices Amber with one of his therapist parents for counseling, and while he promises to honor the doctor - patient confidentiality, Amber tests him to ensure she can trust him not to reveal any of her secrets. Andi is uncomfortable over Walker 's original drawing of her being on exhibit at an art festival, despite its first - place award, but seems relieved after Jonah and Walker 's first meeting, at the festival, turns out to be amicable. When Cyrus sees Buffy talking to Walker at the festival, her body language prompts him to think she is attracted to Walker instead of Jonah.
Andi, Bex and Celia are getting word out about the opening of Cloud Ten, formerly The Fringe. Jonah asks Andi on their first true date there, and they spend it at a place with a bunch of trampolines. Andi enjoys the date and asks Jonah on another one, but he declines because he is going to an eight - week camp to improve his Ultimate skills. The news comes as a shock to Andi, who finds out he is leaving the next day. After they say goodbye, she resigns to Andi Shack and finds Celia in there, who is dealing with Ham being away, so the two console each other.
With Andi out on her date with Jonah, Bex and Bowie spend time together, rekindling their relationship. Later, while seeing Bex asleep, Bowie tells her he loves her, unaware that she hears him. Bex tells Andi the next day that she is going to propose to Bowie.
Meanwhile, Cyrus is seeing animosity between Buffy and Amber, which he discovers after talking to them is superficial hatred, with neither actually holding a grudge against each other.
Bex decides to propose to Bowie, and Andi assists Bex in choosing a ring. They see one with the yin - yang symbol, which they believe perfectly represents Bowie. They decide to hide the ring inside a cake, which they will serve at a dinner party for Bowie, but they are surprised when Bowie brings along his old band mates from The Renaissance Boys with him. Just as Bex is ready to propose to Bowie, one of his band mates asks him to return to The Renaissance Boys for their six - month international tour. Andi and Bex both want him to join the tour, even if it means Bex will have to wait a while longer before she proposes.
Meanwhile, Cyrus attempts to encourage Buffy to return to the Jefferson Middle School basketball team by having her face off against TJ in order to remind her how good a player she is. Buffy ends up winning the match against TJ and announces that she is founding the school 's first - ever girls ' basketball team. Additionally, TJ apologizes to Buffy for the way he treated her when she was on the team and the two ultimately come to a truce.
Bowie uncovers the ring that Andi and Bex hid in the cake, but when he inquires about it, both Andi and Bex reply, "um... ''.
Guest stars: Trent Garrett as Bowie, Luke Mullen as TJ, Adam Chambers as Rafe
|
who is wright patterson air force base named after | Wright - Patterson Air Force Base - wikipedia
Wright - Patterson Air Force Base (WPAFB) (IATA: FFO, ICAO: KFFO, FAA LID: FFO) is a United States Air Force base and census - designated place just east of Dayton, Ohio, in Greene and Montgomery counties. It includes both Wright and Patterson Fields, which were originally Wilbur Wright Field and Fairfield Aviation General Supply Depot. Patterson Field is approximately 10 miles (16 km) northeast of Dayton; Wright Field is approximately 5 miles (8.0 km) northeast of Dayton.
The host unit at Wright - Patterson AFB is the 88th Air Base Wing (88 ABW), assigned to the Air Force Life Cycle Management Center and Air Force Materiel Command. The 88 ABW operates the airfield, maintains all infrastructure and provides security, communications, medical, legal, personnel, contracting, finance, transportation, air traffic control, weather forecasting, public affairs, recreation and chaplain services for more than 60 associate units.
The base 's origins begin with the establishment of Wilbur Wright Field on 22 May and McCook Field in November 1917, both established by the Army Air Service as World War I installations. McCook was used as a testing field and for aviation experiments. Wright was used as a flying field (renamed Patterson Field in 1931); Fairfield Aviation General Supply Depot; armorers ' school, and a temporary storage depot. McCook 's functions were transferred to Wright Field when it was closed in October 1927. Wright - Patterson AFB was established in 1948 as a merger of Patterson and Wright Fields.
In 1995, negotiations to end the Bosnian War were held at the base, resulting in the Dayton Agreement that ended the war.
The 88th Air Base Wing is commanded by Col. John M. Devillier Its Command Chief Master Sergeant is Chief Master Sergeant John M. Mazza. The base had a total of 27,406 military, civilian and contract employees in 2010. The Greene County portion of the base is a census - designated place (CDP), with a resident population of 1,821 at the 2010 census.
Wright - Patterson AFB is "one of the largest, most diverse, and organizationally complex bases in the Air Force '' with a long history of flight tests spanning from the Wright Brothers into the Space Age.
It is the headquarters of the Air Force Materiel Command, one of the major commands of the Air Force. "Wright - Patt '' (as the base is colloquially called) is also the location of a major USAF Medical Center (hospital), the Air Force Institute of Technology, and the National Museum of the United States Air Force, formerly known as the U.S. Air Force Museum.
It is also the home base of the 445th Airlift Wing of the Air Force Reserve Command, an Air Mobility Command - gained unit which flies the C - 17 Globemaster heavy airlifter. Wright - Patterson is also the headquarters of the Air Force Life Cycle Management Center and the Air Force Research Laboratory.
Wright - Patterson is the host of the annual United States Air Force Marathon which occurs the weekend closest to the Air Force 's anniversary.
Prehistoric Indian mounds of the Adena culture at Wright - Patterson are along P Street and, at the Wright Brothers Memorial, a hilltop mound group.
Aircraft operations on land now part of Wright - Patterson Air Force Base began in 1904 -- 1905 when Wilbur and Orville Wright used an 84 - acre (340,000 m) plot of Huffman Prairie for experimental test flights with the Wright Flyer III. Their flight exhibition company and the Wright Company School of Aviation returned 1910 -- 1916 to use the flying field.
World War I transfers of land that later became WPAFB include 2,075 - acre (8.40 km) (including the Huffman Prairie Flying Field) along the Mad River leased to the Army by the Miami Conservancy District, the adjacent 40 acres (160,000 m) purchased by the Army from the District for the Fairfield Aviation General Supply Depot, and a 254 - acre (1.03 km) complex for McCook Field just north of downtown Dayton between Keowee Street and the Great Miami River. In 1918, Wilbur Wright Field agreed to let McCook Field use hangar and shop space as well as its enlisted mechanics to assemble and maintain airplanes and engines.
After World War I, 347 German aircraft were brought to the United States -- some were incorporated into the Army Aeronautical Museum (in 1923 the Engineering Division at McCook Field "first collected technical artifacts for preservation ''). The training school at Wilbur Wright Field was discontinued. Wilbur Wright Field and the depot merged after World War I to form the Fairfield Air Depot. The Patterson family formed the Dayton Air Service Committee, Inc which held a campaign that raised $425,000 in two days and purchased 4,520.47 acres (18.2937 km) northeast of Dayton, including Wilbur Wright Field and the Huffman Prairie Flying Field. In 1924, the Committee presented the deeds to president Calvin Coolidge for the construction of a new aviation engineering center. The entire acreage (including the Fairfield Air Depot) was designated Wright Field, which had units such as the Headquarters, 5th Division Air Service (redesignated 5th Division Aviation in 1928), and its 88th Observation Squadron and 7th Photo Section. New facilities were built 1925 -- 27 on the portion of Wright Field west of Huffman Dam to house all of the McCook Field functions being relocated.
Wright Field was "formally dedicated '' on 12 October 1927 when "the Materiel Division moved from McCook Field to the new site '' The ceremonies included the John L. Mitchell Trophy Race (won by Lt. I.A. Woodring of the 1st Pursuit Group -- Speed: 158.968 mph) and Orville Wright raising the flag over the new engineering center. On 1 July 1931, the portion of Wright Field east of Huffman Dam (land known today as Areas A and C of Wright - Patterson Air Force Base which included the Fairfield Air Depot and the Huffman Prairie Flying Field) was redesignated "Patterson Field '' in honor of Lieutenant Frank Stuart Patterson. Lt. Patterson was the son of Frank J. Patterson, co-founder of National Cash Register. 1Lt Patterson was killed shortly before the end of World War I when his plane crashed at Wright Field when he and observer 2Lt LeRoy Swan, both of the 137th Aero Squadron, were killed in the crash of their DeHaviland - 4 after its wings collapsed during a dive while firing at ground targets with a new synchronized - through -- the -- propeller machine gun. Patterson 's grave and memorial arch is at Woodland Cemetery and Aborateum in Dayton, Ohio.
The area 's World War II Army Air Fields had employment increase from approximately 3,700 in December 1939 to over 50,000 at the war 's peak. Wright Field grew from approximately 30 buildings to a 2,064 - acre (8.35 km) facility with some 300 buildings and the Air Corps ' first modern paved runways. The original part of the field became saturated with office and laboratory buildings and test facilities. The Hilltop area was acquired from private landowners in 1943 -- 1944 to provide troop housing and services. The portion of Patterson Field from Huffman Dam through the Brick Quarters (including the command headquarters in Building 10262) at the south end of Patterson Field along Route 4 was administratively reassigned from Patterson Field to Wright Field. To avoid confusing the two areas of Wright Field, the south end of the former Patterson Field portion was designated "Area A '', the original Wright Field became "Area B '', and the north end of Patterson Field, including the flying field, "Area C. ''
In February 1940 at Wright Field, the Army Air Corps established the Technical Data Branch (Technical Data Section in July 1941, Technical Data Laboratory in 1942). After Air Corps Ferrying Command was established on 29 May 1941, on 21 June an installation point of the command opened at Patterson Field. The Flight Test Training unit of Air Technical Command was established at Wright Field on 9 September 1944 (moved to Patterson Field in 1946, Edwards AFB on 4 February 1951). Two densely populated housing and service areas across Highway 444, Wood City and Skyway Park, were geographically separated from the central core of Patterson Field and developed almost self - sufficient community status. (Wood City was acquired in 1924 as part of the original donation of land to the government but was used primarily as just a radio range until World War II. Skyway Park was acquired in 1943.) They supported the vast numbers of recruits who enlisted and were trained at the two fields as well as thousands of civilian laborers, especially single women recruited to work at the depot. Skyway Park was demolished after the war. Wood City was eventually transformed into Kittyhawk Center, the base 's modern commercial and recreation center.
In the fall of 1942, the first twelve "Air Force '' officers to receive ATI field collection training were assigned to Wright Field for training in the technical aspects of "crash '' intelligence (RAF Squadron Leader Colley identified how to obtain information from equipment marking plates and squadron markings. In July 1944 during the Robot Blitz, Wright Field fired a reconstructed German pulse - jet engine (an entire V - 1 flying bomb was "reversed engineered '' (sic) by September 8 at Republic Aviation.) The first German and Japanese aircraft arrived in 1943, and captured equipment soon filled six buildings, a large outdoor storage area, and part of a flight - line hangar for Technical Data Lab study (TDL closed its Army Aeronautical Museum). The World War II Operation Lusty returned 86 German aircraft to Wright Field for study, e.g., the Messerschmitt 262 jet fighter, while the post-war Operation Paperclip brought German scientists and technicians to Wright Field, e.g., Ernst R.G. Eckert (most of the scientists eventually went to work in the various Wright Field labs.)
Project Sign (Project Grudge in 1949, Project Blue Book in March 1952) was WPAFB 's T - 2 Intelligence investigations of unidentified flying objects (UFO) reports that began in July 1947. In 1951, the Air Technical Intelligence Center (ATIC) began analysis of crashed Soviet aircraft from the Korean war. In March 1952, ATIC established an Aerial Phenomena Group to study reported UFO sightings, including those in Washington, DC, in 1952. By 1969 the Foreign Technology Division (FTD) and its predecessor organizations had studied 12,618 reported sightings: 701 remained unexplained when the Air Force closed its UFO investigations, and a 1968 report concluded that "there seems to be no reason to attribute (the unexplained sightings) to an extraterrestrial source without much more convincing evidence. '' FTD sent all of its case files to the USAF Historical Research Center, which transferred them in 1976 to the National Archives and Records Service in Washington, DC, which became the permanent repository of the Project Sign / Grudge / Blue Book records. In a 1988 interview, Senator Barry Goldwater claimed he had asked Gen. Curtis LeMay for access to a secret UFO room at WPAFB and an angry LeMay said, "Not only ca n't you get into it but do n't you ever mention it to me again. ''
The Army Air Forces Technical Base (Air Force Technical Base before being designated a USAF base) was formed on 15 December 1945, under Brig Gen Joseph T. Morris, during the World War II drawdown by merging Wright Field, Patterson Field, Dayton Army Air Field, and -- acquired by Wright Field for 1942 glider testing -- Clinton Army Air Field. The Jamestown Radar Annex became a leased installation of the Technical Base in 1946, and the "custodial units at Dayton and Clinton County AAFlds were discontinued in 1946 ''. An 8000 - foot concrete runway with 1000 - foot runoffs at each end was built 1946 -- 1947 in Area C to accommodate very heavy bombers, initially referred to locally as the "B - 36 runway ''. The 1947 All - Altitude Speed Course at Vandalia became a detached installation of the Technical Base and after the USAF was created in September 1947, Morris ' base headquarters was redesignated Headquarters, Air Force Technical Base, on 15 December 1947.
Wright - Patterson Air Force Base was redesignated from the Air Force Technical Base on 13 January 1948 -- the former Wright Field Areas A and B remained, while Patterson Field became "Area C '' and Skyway Park became "Area D '' of the installation. In 1951 all locally based flying activities were moved to the Area B flight line. The 1948 All - Altitude Speed Course, later the Missile Tracking Annex, at Sulphur Grove, Ohio became a detached installation of Wright - Patt.
Headquarters, Air Engineering Development Division, was at WPAFB from 1 January 1950 to 14 November 1950, followed by the Air Research and Development Command from 16 November 1950 to 24 June 1951 (began move to Baltimore on 11 May 1951). By 1952 the WPAFB headquarters of the Wright Air Development Center (WADC) included a Plans and Operations Department (WOO) and Divisions for Aeronautics (WCN), Flight Test (WCT), Research (WCR), Weapons Components (WCE), Weapons Systems (WCS). On February 15, WADC medical examinations "for the final selection of the Mercury astronauts were started '' at the Aerospace Medical Laboratory (Wright - Patt test pilots Neil Armstrong and Ed White became NASA astronauts.)
From 6 March 1950 to 1 December 1951, Clinton County Air Force Base was assigned as a sub-base of WPAFB, and from 1950 to 1955, Wright - Patt had two Central Air Defense Force fighter - interceptor squadrons (1 from 1955 -- 1960).
In 1954, 465 acres (188 ha) of land adjacent to the Mad River at the northeast boundary of the base, near the former location of the village of Osborn, were purchased for a Strategic Air Command dispersal site. Area D structures were demolished in 1957 (donated to the state in 1963 for Wright State University). In February 1958 the Wright Field (Area B) runways were closed to all jet traffic (1959 Area C operations included 139,276 takeoffs and landings, Area B had 44,699.) The West Ramp complex was built between August 1958 and July 1960. The 4043rd Strategic Wing began KC - 135 Stratotanker operations in February 1960 and B - 52 Stratofortress operations in June 1960. On 1 July 1963, the wing was re-designated the 17th Bombardment Wing (Heavy) and continued its mission under this unit until 7 July 1975, when the last of its 11 B - 52s was transferred to Beale Air Force Base, California. From 1957 - 1962, WADC 's Hurricane Supersonic Research Site in Utah was a detached installation of Wright - Patt.
The NORAD Manual Air Defense Control Center for 58th Air Division interceptors was at Wright - Patterson AFB by 1958, and Brookfield Air Force Station near the Pennsylvania state line became operational as an April 1952 - January 1963 sub-base of WPAFB. The 1954 - 79 "Wright - Patterson Communications Facility # 4 '' was at Yellow Springs, Ohio (which also had the 1965 - 77 Celestial Guidance Research Site.) WPAFB also had an Army Air Defense Command Post for nearby Project Nike surface - to - air missile sites of the Cincinnati - Dayton Defense Area were at Wilmington (CD - 27, 39 ° 24 ′ 03 '' N 083 ° 52 ′ 54 '' W / 39.40083 ° N 83.88167 ° W / 39.40083; - 83.88167); Felicity (CD - 46, 38 ° 50 ′ 37 '' N 084 ° 08 ′ 33 '' W / 38.84361 ° N 84.14250 ° W / 38.84361; - 84.14250); Dillsboro (CD - 63), and Oxford (CD - 78, 39 ° 33 ′ 30 '' N 084 ° 47 ′ 31 '' W / 39.55833 ° N 84.79194 ° W / 39.55833; - 84.79194). The AADCP activated in the spring of 1960 and moved to Wilmington -- with BIRDIE CCCS -- by 1965 (closed March 1971). Wilkins Air Force Station was a 1961 - 8 Air Defense Command station of Wright - Patt, and Gentile Air Force Station (later the Gentile Defense Electronics Supply Center) was assigned to the base on 1 July 1962.
In December 1975, Advanced Range Instrumentation Aircraft transferred to the 4950th Test Wing at WPAFB. Following the July 1992 merging of WPAFB labs, the base 's Wright Laboratory included a Flight Dynamics Directorate. Superfund sites (39 initial areas) of WPAFB were found to be contaminated with chlorinated volatile organic compounds and benzene compounds (soils and groundwater), and an EPA / USAF Federal Facilities Agreement was signed in 1981 for remediation and continued investigation (the Installation Restoration Program for WPAFB identified 65 areas, including 13 landfills, 12 earth fill disposal zones, 9 fuel or chemical spill sites, 6 coal storage piles, 5 fire - training areas, 4 chemical burial sites, and 2 underground storage tanks). In November 1995, the "Dayton Peace Accords '' held at WPAFB created the "Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina '' signed in Paris on 14 December.
Huffman Prairie was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1990 and named part of the 1992 Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park. The West Ramp facility switched from the 4950th Test Wing to AFRC 's 445th Airlift Wing with C - 17 Globemaster III transports. The permanent party work force at WPAFB as of 30 September 2005, numbered 5,517 military and 8,102 civilian.
In 1995, Alija Izetbegović, the President of Bosnia and Herzegovina; Franjo Tuđman, the President of Croatia; and Slobodan Milošević, the President of Serbia, arrived at Wright - Patterson AFB to commence negotiations to end the Bosnian War, an ethnic conflict that by 1995 was between the Bosnia and Herzegovina 's Bosniaks and the Croats (who had put aside their differences) on one side versus Bosnia and Herzegovina 's Serbs on the other side. American diplomat Richard Holbrooke led the negotiations. Eventually an agreement was made to have Bosnia and Herzegovina have two internal entities, a Bosniak - Croat federation known as the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and a Serb territory known as Republika Srpska.
In addition to the command headquarters, major units formerly assigned to Wright - Patterson Air Force Base include:
Wright - Patterson Air Force Base includes Area A (south end of the former Patterson Field), Area B (former Wright Field), Area C (north end of Patterson Field, including the airfield), and the Kittyhawk area (former Wood City area of Patterson Field). The USGS Geographic Names Information System separately designates the military installation, the airport, and the census - designated place (CDP). The CDP area, entirely in Greene County, primarily in Bath Township and extending south into Beavercreek Township, is 10.0 square miles (25.9 km), with 0.1 square miles (0.2 km) of it (0.80 %) being water. The southwest end of the base, now the National Museum of the United States Air Force, is within the city of Riverside in Montgomery County.
In 2010, Wright - Patt had a total of 27,406 military, civilian and contract employees. As of the census of 2000, there were 6,656 people, 1,754 households, and 1,704 families residing on the base. The population density was 219.8 / km2 (569.2 / sq mi). There are 2,096 housing units at an average density of 69.2 / km2 (179.2 / sq mi). The racial makeup of the base was 76.11 % White, 15.25 % Black or African American, 0.45 % Native American, 2.30 % Asian, 0.12 % Pacific Islander, 2.09 % from other races, and 3.68 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.45 % of the population.
There were 1,754 households out of which 78.1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 89.0 % were married couples living together, 6.1 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 2.8 % were non-families. 2.6 % of all households were made up of individuals and none had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.60 and the average family size was 3.64.
On the base the population was spread out with 42.5 % under the age of 18, 11.6 % from 18 to 24, 41.5 % from 25 to 44, 4.2 % from 45 to 64, and 0.2 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 23 years. For every 100 females there were 105.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.1 males.
The median income for a household on the base was $43,342, and the median income for a family was $43,092. Males had a median income of $30,888 versus $21,044 for females. The per capita income for the base was $15,341. About 1.6 % of families and 1.8 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.4 % of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.
As of 30 September 2005, Wright - Patterson had base housing amounting to 2,012 single - family units, 300 units for unaccompanied enlisted personnel, and 455 visitor or temporary living units.
In May 2016 the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency ordered a drinking water well on the base to be shut down because of water contamination with perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), a persistent chemical used in firefighting foam. April 2016 water samples from two wells showed 110 parts per trillion of PFOS, which is above the new EPA lifetime threshold of 70 parts per trillion. In June 2016, the EPA asked the base commander to speedily clean up the wells to prevent the contaminants from reaching more wells on base and Dayton 's seven drinking water wells at Huffman Dam.
|
where is the home town show on hgtv filmed | Home Town (TV series) - Wikipedia
Home Town is an American television series starring husband and wife team Ben and Erin Napier that premiered on March 21, 2017 on HGTV. The married couple restores Southern homes in Laurel, Mississippi.
|
the case fisher v bell established the following point of law | Fisher v Bell - wikipedia
Fisher v Bell (1961) 1 QB 394 is an English contract law case concerning the requirements of offer and acceptance in the formation of a contract. The case established that, where goods are displayed in a shop together with a price label, such display is treated as an invitation to treat by the seller, and not an offer. The offer is instead made when the customer presents the item to the cashier together with payment. Acceptance occurs at the point the cashier takes payment.
The Defendant displayed a flick knife in the window of his shop next to a ticket bearing the words "Ejector knife -- 4s, '' (i.e. four shillings). Under the Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1959, section 1 (1), it was illegal to manufacture, sell, hire, or offer for sale or hire, or lend to any other person, amongst other things, any knife "which has a blade which opens automatically by hand pressure applied to a button, spring or other device in or attached to the handle of the knife ''. On 14 December 1959, the Claimant, a chief inspector of police force, brought forward information against the Defendant alleging the Defendant has contravened section 1 (1) by offering the flick knife for sale.
At first instance, the Prosecutor submitted that the Defendant has displayed the knife and ticket in the window with the objective of attracting a buyer, and that this constituted an offer of sale sufficient to create a criminal liability under section 1 (1) of the Act. Mr Obby Simakampa submitted that this was not sufficient to constitute an offer. The judges at first instance found that displaying the knife was merely an invitation to treat, not an offer, and thus no liability arose. The Prosecutor appealed the judges ' decision.
Lord Parker CJ in the Divisional Court held there was no offence because there was no "offer for sale ''. Although the display of a knife in a window might at first appear to "lay people '' to be an offer inviting people to buy it, and that it would be "nonsense to say that (it) was not offering it for sale '', whether an item is offered for the purpose of the statute in question must be construed in the context of the general law of the country. He stated that the general law of the country clearly established that merely displaying an item constituted an invitation to treat. He also read the statute on an exclusive construction (inclusio unius est exclusio alterius), noting that other legislation prohibiting the sale of weapons referred to "offering or exposing for sale '' (emphasis added). The lack of the words exposing for sale in the Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1959 suggested that only a true offer would be prohibited by the Act. The court dismissed the appeal. Goods displayed in a shop are merely an invitation to treat or invitation to trade.
Ashworth J and Elwes J agreed.
The 1959 Act was almost immediately amended by the Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1961 section 1 to add "Any person who manufactures, sells or hires or offers for sale or hire, or exposes or has in his possession for the purpose of sale or hire or lends to gives to any other person '' a flick or other dangerous knife would commit an offence. The case remains good law, although a similar shopkeeper would today be successfully prosecuted.
Parliamentary draftsmen appear to be slow learners, having made almost identical drafting mistakes in Partridge v Crittenden and British Car Auctions v Wright.
|
who won a million on who wants to be a millionaire | List of who Wants to be a Millionaire? Top prize winners - wikipedia
Below is a list of the winners of the top prize for each international versions of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?. This list contains 221 winners.
Some players had answered the top prize question correctly, but did not actually win the prize because of ineligibility, legal issues, or elimination from a contest.
|
when does rachel get a job at bloomingdales | Rachel Green - wikipedia
Rachel Karen Green is a fictional character, one of the six main characters who appeared in the American sitcom Friends. Portrayed by actress Jennifer Aniston, the character was created by show creators David Crane and Marta Kauffman, and appeared in each of the show 's 236 episodes during its decade - long run, from its premiere on September 22, 1994 to its finale on May 6, 2004. Introduced in the show 's pilot as a naive runaway bride who reunites with her childhood best friend Monica and relocates to New York City, Rachel gradually evolves from a spoiled, inexperienced "daddy 's girl '' into a successful businesswoman. During the show 's second season, the character becomes romantically involved with her friend Ross, with whom she maintains a complicated on - again, off - again relationship throughout the entire series. Together, the characters have a daughter, Emma.
The role of Rachel was originally offered to actresses Téa Leoni, the producer 's first choice, and Courteney Cox, both of whom declined, Leoni in favor of starring in the sitcom The Naked Truth, and Cox in favor of playing Rachel 's best friend Monica in Friends. A virtually unknown actress at the time who had previously starred in five short - lived sitcoms, Aniston auditioned for the role of Rachel after turning down an offer as a cast member on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live. After acquiring the role and before Friends aired, Aniston was temporarily at risk of being recast because she had also been involved with another sitcom, Muddling Through, at the time, which was ultimately canceled and allowed Aniston to remain on Friends.
Critical reception towards Rachel has remained consistently positive throughout Friends ' decade - long run, with The A.V. Club attributing much of the show 's early success to the character. However, some of her storylines have been criticized, specifically her romantic relationship with her friend Joey during season ten. Rachel 's popularity established her as the show 's breakout character, who has since been named one of the greatest television characters of all - time, while the character 's second season haircut spawned an international phenomenon of its own. Named the "Rachel '' after her, the character 's shag continues to be imitated by millions of women around the world and remains one of the most popular hairstyles in history, in spite of Aniston 's own resentment towards it. Rachel is also regarded as a style icon due to her influence on womenswear during the 1990s. Meanwhile, the character 's relationship with Ross is often cited among television 's most beloved.
Rachel is considered to be Aniston 's breakout role, credited with making her the show 's most famous cast member and for spawning her successful film career. Praised for her performance as Rachel, Aniston won both an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series and a Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress In A Television Series -- Comedy Or Musical.
Rachel debuts in the pilot episode of Friends as a runaway bride who is distraught after abandoning her fiancé Barry Farber (Mitchell Whitfield) at the altar. She locates her high school best friend Monica Geller (Courteney Cox), the only person she knows in New York City, who agrees to let Rachel reside with her while she attempts to reorganize her life. Rachel meets and befriends Monica 's friends Phoebe Buffay (Lisa Kudrow), Joey Tribbiani (Matt LeBlanc), and Chandler Bing (Matthew Perry), while reuniting with Monica 's older brother Ross Geller (David Schwimmer), who has harbored unrequited romantic feelings for her since high school. Having previously relied on her parents ' money her entire life with a sole goal of marrying wealthy, Rachel attempts to reinvent herself as an independent young woman by waitressing at Central Perk, a coffeehouse where her new friends regularly socialize. She is terrible at the job, but remains employed because the owner, Gunther (James Michael Tyler), is in love with her.
As season one concludes, Rachel finds out that Ross is in love with her, and realizes that she loves him, too. When she goes to tell him, however, she finds that he has begun a relationship with a woman named Julie (Lauren Tom). However, Ross eventually chooses Rachel over Julie, and the couple dates for the remainder of the second season. However, their relationship begins to deteriorate towards the end of the third season after Rachel quits her job at the coffeehouse in favor of working in fashion. While Rachel becomes increasingly preoccupied with her new job, Ross grows jealous of her companionship with her coworker Mark (Steven Eckholdt), culminating in Rachel deciding that they should "take a break '' from their relationship. Ross takes this to mean that they 've broken up, and sleeps with another woman. Rachel gets back together with Ross the next day, but breaks up with him upon learning of his infidelity.
In the episodes following the break up, Rachel and Ross are initially hostile towards each other, but continue to harbor feelings for each other. During a beach house vacation with their friends, Rachel and Ross briefly reconcile when he ends his relationship with Bonnie (Christine Taylor), only to break up once again due to a disagreement. During season four, Rachel dates her customer Joshua (Tate Donovan), while Ross dates her boss ' niece Emily (Helen Baxendale), to whom he eventually gets engaged. Competitively, Rachel proposes to recent divorcee Joshua, frightening him off. Rachel indirectly contributes to the demise of Ross and Emily 's relationship when he accidentally utters Rachel 's name while exchanging their wedding vows. Ross ultimately divorces a jealous Emily, choosing his friendship with Rachel instead.
At the end of season five, Ross and Rachel drunkenly get married while vacationing with their friends in Las Vegas. In season six, their annulment request is denied because of Rachel having leveled unfounded allegations against Ross, forcing the two to file for a divorce instead. In season seven, Ross and Rachel have sex, and Rachel gets pregnant. Rachel gives birth to a girl in season eight, naming the baby Emma Geller - Green; the name Emma is a gift from Monica, who had previously been reserving the name for her own child. Rachel and Ross live together as non-romantic roommates during the first half of season nine.
At the end of season nine, Joey confesses that he has feelings for Rachel, and they decide to try dating. They break up in season ten, however, both because their romance upsets Ross and because they realize that they do n't work as a couple.
Rachel eventually finds a job opportunity in France, but has second thoughts when Ross tells her he still loves her. Rachel ultimately decides to stay and reignite her relationship with Ross, getting off the plane at the last minute.
After their short - lived television series Family Album was canceled, television writers David Crane and Marta Kauffman pitched Friends to then - NBC president Warren Littlefield as a sitcom about "that special time in your life when your friends are your family, '' basing the show on their own experiences as young people living in New York; the main characters themselves were inspired by their own friends. Conceived as a young woman who is unprepared for adulthood, the character Rachel Green was originally named Rachel Robbins. Although critics and audiences initially perceived Monica as the show 's main character when Friends premiered, the writers had actually given Rachel the pilot 's most prominent storyline. Before deciding that Rachel and Ross would be an item for the entire series, the writers had originally intended for the show 's defining couple to be Joey and Monica. However, after the success of the pilot, in which Rachel and Ross ' developing romance is first hinted at, and witnessing Aniston and co-star David Schwimmer 's on - screen chemistry for the first time, Crane and Kauffman determined that the entire series relied on "finding all the wonderful roadblocks for them to be with each other. ''
Audiences began rooting for Rachel and Ross ' union since the very beginning of Friends, openly voicing their frustration with Rachel 's obliviousness to Ross ' feelings for her. The episode that would ultimately transform the friends ' relationship for the remainder of the series was the first - season finale "The One Where Rachel Finds Out '', in which Rachel finally learns of Ross ' true feelings for her, at the same time discovering she actually feels the same. However, the episode nearly went unwritten because, at the time, few Friends writers were expecting the couple 's relationship to morph into the phenomenon that it ultimately became. The episode was first suggested by director James Burrows; the writers felt that it was time to alter the couple 's dynamic in order to avoid the repetitive "he 's pining, she 's oblivious '' pattern, using the work of author Jane Austen as inspiration on how to finally shift the pining arc from Ross to Rachel. Because stakes for the episode were unprecedentedly high, "The One Where Rachel Finds Out '' became Friends ' most reworked episode. The couple 's first kiss at the end of season two 's "The One Where Ross Finds Out '' was met with deafening applause from the studio audience. Crane admitted that keeping viewers interested in their relationship for ten years was challenging. Jonathan Bernstein of The Daily Telegraph believes that they accomplished this by "dangl (ing) the possibility of a Ross and Rachel recoupling through several cliffhangers without ever putting them back together. '' According to Encyclopedia of Television author Horace Newcomb, Ross and Rachel 's ever - changing relationship "converted the traditional amnesic plotlines of the situation comedy into ones akin to episodic drama. '' Meanwhile, writing for The New York Review of Books, Elaine Blair agreed that Friends created "a sense of chemistry between two characters while also putting obstacles in their way, setting us up for a long - deferred union. ''
After Rachel and Ross drunkenly get married while on vacation in Las Vegas during season five, Schwimmer had initially objected to the idea of having his character Ross divorce her -- his third divorce -- because he felt that it was taking it "too far. '' The actor explained that "The whole arc of the relationship was weird then... because for (Ross) to be able to move on enough to marry someone else and then go back to being in love with Rachel later just went a bit too far. '' Rachel and Joey 's romantic storyline was conceived because the writers wanted to delay Ross and Rachel 's reunion further. Crane felt that pairing Rachel and Joey during season ten "was for the greater good '' because "It was inappropriate. '' However, the cast initially protested the idea, fearing that Rachel, Joey, and Ross would ultimately become unlikeable characters and audiences would either "resent Joey for going after a pregnant woman, or resent Rachel for rejecting him, or resent Ross for standing between the two of them. '' Meanwhile, the writers also approached the concept of Rachel 's pregnancy and baby tentatively, worrying about how they would include it in the show because they did not want Friends "to become a show about a baby '' while "On the other hand, we do n't want to pretend that there is n't one. '' According to Robert Bianco of USA Today, the critical success and popularity of Rachel 's pregnancy is ultimately responsible for "propel (ling) the show to the top of the ratings ''. When it finally came time to write the series finale, "The only thing (Crane and Kauffman) absolutely knew from very early on was that we had to get Ross and Rachel together, '' deciding, "We had dicked the audience around for 10 years with their ' will they or wo n't they, ' and we did n't see any advantage in frustrating them '' any longer. However, at one point the writers had deliberated ending the series with Ross and Rachel in "a gray area of where they are n't together, but we hint there 's a sense that they might be down the road. '' Ultimately, Crane and Kauffman relented in favor of giving the audience what they want.
The final character to be cast, Rachel is portrayed by actress Jennifer Aniston, who auditioned for the role shortly after declining a position as a cast member on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live. Her decision was initially ridiculed by both her friends as well as actor Adam Sandler, a Saturday Night Live alum. Actress Téa Leoni, who at the time was being referred to by the media as "the next Lucille Ball '', was offered the role of Rachel as the studio 's first choice, but she declined in favor of starring in the sitcom The Naked Truth. Actress Elizabeth Berkley also auditioned for the role prior to being cast in the teen sitcom Saved by the Bell. Other actresses who auditioned for Rachel include Denise Richards, Melissa Rivers, Nicollette Sheridan, Parker Posey, and Jami Gertz. Originally, the producers wanted to cast actress Courteney Cox as Rachel, who Crane and Kauffman were particularly drawn to because of her "cheery, upbeat energy. '' Additionally, Cox was the most famous cast member at the time amidst an ensemble of relatively unknown actors. However, the actress lobbied for the role of Rachel 's best friend Monica, as whom she was ultimately cast, because she felt that she was not "quirky '' enough to play Rachel. At the same time, although unbeknownst to each other, Aniston was being considered for the role of Monica, but fought to play Rachel because she felt that the character suited her better. At one point, Cox had begun to regret her decision to play Monica until her own character 's storylines started improving.
Friends was Aniston 's sixth sitcom; each of her previous ventures had been canceled prematurely. Feeling vulnerable, Aniston had begun to doubt herself as an actress and personally approached Littlefield for reassurance on her career, who encouraged her to audition for Friends, which was being referred to as Friends Like These at the time. Crane and Kauffman had worked with Aniston prior to this. However, casting her as Rachel posed a challenge for the network because, at the time, Aniston was simultaneously starring in a developing CBS sitcom called Muddling Through, in which she plays a young woman whose mother is returning home from jail after two years. CBS was initially reluctant to release Aniston from her contract, which required the actress to balance both roles simultaneously, traveling back - and - forth between Muddling Through and Friends for two weeks. Meanwhile, NBC risked having to recast the role of Rachel, replace Aniston, and reshoot several episodes if CBS ' series proved successful, which would have potentially cost the network millions of dollars. However, Littlefield remained confident that Muddling Through would fail. Essentially, the producers of Friends hoped that Muddling Through would be canceled before Friends premiered, while Aniston feared that Muddling Through would be the more successful of the two sitcoms in spite of her preference towards Friends. During this time of uncertainty, Aniston was forced not to participate in several Friends - related promotions and photo shoots; the network excluded her from these in case she would be replaced. Aniston explained, "When we were shooting the first grouping of cast photos... I was asked to step out of a bunch because they did n't know if I was going to be still playing Rachel. '' Director James Burrows admitted that Aniston had been cast in second position. The producers had already begun auditioning other actresses for the part, while Aniston also received phone calls from her own friends warning her, "I 'm auditioning for your part in Friends. '' Ultimately, Muddling Through was canceled after only three months and ten episodes, two weeks before the pilot of Friends aired, thus allowing Aniston to keep her role on the show, becoming its second youngest cast member at the age of 25. Crane appreciated Aniston 's interpretation of Rachel because "in the wrong hands Rachel is kind of annoying and spoiled and unlikable, '' commending the actress for "breathing life into a difficult character. ''
Crane and Kauffman strongly envisioned Friends as an ensemble comedy, and Warner Bros. initially marketed the show as such by having the cast appear in their entirety for all press, interviews and photo shoots. One of few sitcoms at the time to be neither a workplace comedy, family sitcom or star a famous comedian, Elizabeth Kolbert of The New York Times explained that each of the show 's main characters are "of equal importance. '' As a writer, Crane preferred it this way because "utilizing six equal players, rather than emphasizing one or two, would allow for myriad story lines. '' Kauffman echoed "that Friends worked best when the entire ensemble was onstage. '' The only reason Aniston is credited first during the show 's title sequence is because the cast is listed alphabetically. The show 's ensemble format is also believed to have prevented jealous conflicts among the cast. Famously, the Friends cast became the first in television history to negotiate as a group for equal salaries, refusing to work until their demands of $100,000 per episode were met during season three, which eventually increased to $1 million per episode by seasons nine and ten -- approximately $25 million per year. Alongside Cox and actress Lisa Kudrow, who portrays Phoebe, Aniston became the highest - paid television actress of all time. By then, Aniston had surpassed Cox as the show 's most famous cast member due to having launched an international hair trend with the "Rachel '' and successfully transitioning into a film career, combined with her high - profile relationship with her then - husband, actor Brad Pitt, who had once guest starred in an episode of the show. At times the producers would use the actress ' popularity to boost the show 's ratings, notably her character 's seventh season kiss with actress Winona Ryder and pregnancy arc. Aniston had been telling the press that the show 's ninth season would be her last, and was initially hesitant to return to Friends to film its tenth and final season. She explained to NBC 's Matt Lauer, "I wanted it to end when people still loved us and we were on a high. And then I was also feeling like, ' How much more of Rachel do I have in me? ' '' However, the actress ultimately agreed to complete the tenth season of Friends, which was reduced from 24 to 18 episodes to accommodate Aniston 's busy film schedule.
Rachel is the youngest of Friends six main characters. The term "spoiled '' is often used to describe the character 's personality during her early appearances. Encyclopædia Britannica describes Rachel as a spoiled and funny character. According to Rachel 's original character description, written by Crane and Kauffman themselves for the show 's pilot, the character is a spoiled yet courageous young woman who "has worked for none of what she has '', unlike best friend Monica, and is initially "equipped to do nothing ''. James Endrst of the Hartford Courant identified her as "a spoiled rich kid '', while the Daily News dubbed Rachel an "endearingly spoiled Daddy 's girl. '' Author Kim Etingoff wrote about Rachel in her book Jennifer Aniston: From Friends to Films that the character is "spunky and sometimes spoiled '', while TV Land called her "naive. '' Citing the differences between Rachel and her two female friends, The Guardian 's Ryan Gilbey observed that the character "was n't insulated by self - regard, like Monica, or swaddled in gormlessness, like Phoebe. '' Frequently identified as fitting the "girl next door '' archetype, Anne Bilson of The Telegraph described Rachel as "funny but not too funny, pretty but not too pretty, sexy but not too sexy, scatterbrained but not too scatterbrained. '' TalkTalk 's Dominic Wills described the character as "smart but ditzy, determined but undisciplined. '' Meanwhile, Liat Kornowski, writing for The Huffington Post, scribed that Rachel is a "beautiful, coveted, slightly neurotic, borderline egocentric '' character.
Observing that the show 's main characters are each based on a stereotype, Jonathan Bernstein of The Daily Telegraph identified Rachel as "the self - absorbed one who goes from riches to rags. '' According to Reign Magazine, Rachel is "a human being full of vulnerability, humor and strength while aesthetically donning an undeniable beauty and allure. '' Originally depicted as a character who is unprepared for "the world as an adult '', Rachel 's personality was gradually tailored to suit Aniston as the series progressed, becoming "more self - sufficient and sympathetic. '' According to Shining in the Shadows: Movie Stars of the 2000s author Murray Pomerance, "The more boundary collapsed between the ' real ' Jennifer Aniston and Rachel, the more ' authentic ' Aniston became. '' Pomerance also noted that the character 's "well - roundedness, normalcy and relatability '' is similar to Aniston 's, while both the character and the actress herself are very expressive, talking "with (their) hands a good deal. '' In her book How To Write For Television, author Madeline Dimaggio wrote that although "Rachel grew within the context of the series... she would always struggle with the spoiled, image - conscious Daddy 's girl who fled from her wedding in the pilot. '' Similarly, BuddyTV wrote that although Rachel "eventually evolves into being less absorbed in later series, she (remains) the most image - centric among the six '', while Vogue 's Edward Barsamian opined, "She might have been self - centered and bratty, but Rachel Green was perhaps the most stylish and unabashedly fashion - obsessed character on the show. '' TV Land summarized the character 's arc and development in the website 's biography of her, writing, "Rachel is a born shopper, but... she 's not necessarily a born worker. In fact, before moving in with Monica, she 's never had to work at all, thanks to the generosity of her parents. Luckily, Rachel is smart, resourceful and chic, so her future is bright, both as a member of the workforce and with her newfound tribe. '' Examining the character 's sexuality, Splitsider 's Mike D'Avria determined that Rachel has had the third most sexual partners, 14, as well as the highest percentage of serious monogamous relationships at 71 %. D'Avria opined, "Throughout the whole series Rachel is continually meeting men she wants to impress. Her flirtations typically fail, but she somehow winds up in a serious relationship with them. '' Additionally, Rachel is also the only character to admit to having had a homosexual experience.
In an interview with the Jewish Telegraph, Kauffman confirmed that Rachel is Jewish. On the character 's "Jewish ties '', Kauffman told j. that Rachel had always been Jewish "in our minds '', explaining, "You ca n't create a character with the name ' Rachel Green ' and not from the get - go make some character choices ''. Prior to this, critics and fans had long speculated whether or not Rachel is Jewish; there are entire websites entirely devoted to discussing this. Vulture 's Lindsey Weber, who identifies herself as Jewish, observed several similarities and Jewish stereotypes she shares with the character, citing the facts that Rachel refers to her grandmother Ida Green as "Bubbe '', Long Island origin, and engagement to a Jewish doctor as allusions to the character 's Jewish culture. In her book Changed for Good: A Feminist History of the Broadway Musical, author Stacy Wolf identified Rachel as one of several popular female television characters who embodied Jewish stereotypes during the 1990s and often served as "the butt of the shows ' jokes. '' Meanwhile, JDate 's Rebecca Frankel cited Rachel as one of the earliest and most prominent examples of the Jewish American Princess stereotype on screen. Writing for the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Alicia R. Korenman also acknowledged Rachel 's initial Jewish American Princess qualities, describing her as "spoiled, dependent on her father 's money and her fiance 's, is horrified at the thought of working for a living and generally inept in her attempts to do so, and is eventually revealed to have had a nose job '', which she eventually overcomes as they become less "evident in later seasons of the show ''. In his article "Princesses, Schlemiels, Punishers and Overbearing Mothers '', Evan Cooper described Rachel as a "de-semitized '' Jew because, aside from her name, "there is never any discussion of experiences of growing up in a Jewish culture, no use of Yiddish, and few, if any, references to family members with distinctively Jewish surnames ''. Cooper continued to write that although Rachel possesses some Jewish American Princess traits, she is more similar to the "little woman '' stereotype. The New York Post 's Robert Rorke labeled Rachel "a rehabilitated Jewish American Princess '', in contrast to her sister Amy (Christina Applegate) who remains "selfish, condescending and narcissistic. ''
Critical response towards Rachel remained mostly positive throughout the show 's ten - season run. Writing for The A.V. Club, John Reid believes that Rachel is responsible for the success of the pilot, explaining, "The story of this group of friends must start with a stranger coming to town, '' describing Rachel as "the perfect stranger for this plot ''. Reid also holds Rachel responsible for spurring character development in the show 's five other main characters, calling her arrival "a catalyst for all of them to grow, because unlike the rest of them, Rachel is interested in finding meaning for her life ''. Also writing for The A.V. Club, Sonia Saraiya enjoyed Rachel 's first awkward encounter with Ross because, for the first time, "Rachel displays a moment of true empathy for another human being ''. Saraiya went on to hail Rachel as "as a model for women coming of age in the 1990s -- the popular, pretty girl dissatisfied with where those illusions have taken her but also unwilling to embrace the more aggressively ' feminist ' career - woman strategy ''. The New York Times ' Joseph Hanania enjoyed Rachel 's telephone conversation with her father during the pilot, describing it as "hilarious. '' The Los Angeles Times Bob Shayne admitted his attraction towards Rachel, joking, "my feelings for Rachel, I say with some embarrassment, mirror those of Gunther ''. Cosmopolitan touted Rachel "the best fictional gal pal we 've ever had ''. While People called her "spoiled - but - lovable '', TV Guide described Rachel as "neurotic and adorable ''. Writing for Heat, Ellen Kerry hailed Rachel 's gradual transformation from waitress to businesswoman as arguably "the best thing on tv. ''
USA Today 's Robert Bianco credits Rachel 's pregnancy storyline with saving Friends, observing that the arc increased the show 's ratings while ultimately "reversing the show 's decline in ways... that no one watching ' The One With Monica & Chandler 's Wedding ' could ever have imagined. '' Bianco concluded, "Indeed, without that fortune - altering twist, Friends probably would have ended sooner ''. BDCwire ranked "The One With The Ball '', "The One With Rachel 's Inadvertent Kiss '', "The One With The Football '', "The One With The Fake Party '' and "The One In Vegas, Part One '' Rachel 's five strongest episodes. Meanwhile, TVLine criticized Rachel for sleeping with ex-fiancé Barry in season one 's "The One With the Evil Orthodontist '', panning the episode as "cringeworthy ''. TVLine similarly criticized the character 's role in season four 's "The One With The Fake Party ''. At times the character would generate mild controversy, specifically the second - season episode "The One Where Dr. Ramoray Dies '', during which Rachel and Monica argue over who will get to use the last remaining condom in the apartment, which Rachel ultimately wins via a game of rock - paper - scissors. Additionally, fans would often approach Aniston and scold her for decisions that Rachel makes within the show that they do not particularly agree with.
Within the first two seasons of Friends, the character became extremely popular among women. Viewers ' perpetual desire to see Rachel succeed helped her remain a fan favorite throughout all ten seasons of the show. Writing for TalkTalk, Dominic Wills agreed that while Rachel established herself as "the general favourite... No one had a bad word to say about Jennifer Aniston '', with whose performance audiences instantly fell in love. Aniston 's performance has been consistently praised since her debut in the pilot, about which Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker wrote that the actress portrays Rachel with "prickly intelligence ''. Writing for The Baltimore Sun, David Zurawik cited Aniston among the show 's "very strong cast '', while Variety 's Tony Scott agreed that "All six of the principals... appear resourceful and display sharp sitcom skills ''; Robert Bianco of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette praised the work of show 's female cast equally. TV Guide wrote that Aniston "instantly charmed audiences with her perfect looks and endearingly flawed persona '', while Kevin Fallon of The Daily Beast referred to Aniston 's tenure on Friends as not "a leading lady performance '' but instead "the work of a brilliant character actress. '' The Guardian 's Ryan Gilbey highlighted Aniston as the cast member "least reliant on goofball caricature '', observing that "Playing the only character with whom a sane viewer might reasonably identify also meant that she got the lion 's share of attention ''. Writing that the actress "quickly stole our hearts as the daddy 's girl and aspiring fashionista, '' Andrew Collins of Radio Times hailed Aniston as a "natural comic performer, as adept with a subtle nose wrinkle as a full - on pratfall, and fluent in quick - fire patter ''. In 2002, Aniston won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series. In 2003, the actress won the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress In A Television Series -- Comedy Or Musical. Dominc Willis of TalkTalk believes that Aniston won these awards because of "her brilliant comic performances in the show. ''
Rachel has had several romantic relationships throughout Friends decade - long run, the most famous and prominent of which remains her on - again, off - again relationship with friend Ross. Although wildly popular among audiences, the couple has been met with mixed reviews from critics. Katherine Hassel of the Daily Express described the characters ' relationship as "the heart of the show ''. China Daily cited Ross and Rachel 's reunion during the series finale "The Last One '' among the episode 's highlights, while Gary Susman of Rolling Stone believes that audiences would not have been happy had the couple not ultimately reunited. Contrastingly, The Wire 's Joe Reid is of the opinion that the show 's second season is "the only time Ross / Rachel was truly great ''. Virgin Media wrote that the couple 's dynamics "had grown mightily tedious '' by season ten. E! cable network ranked Rachel and Ross the ninth greatest Friends couple, writing that their relationship gave "Friends fans enough iconic quotes to fill a book '', considering Phoebe 's line "See? (Ross is) her lobster! '' to be among show 's most iconic. Ross and Rachel 's season three breakup has spawned a debate among Friends fans, who continue to argue over which of the two was at fault: Rachel for suggesting that they take a break from their relationship, or Ross for sleeping with another woman immediately afterwards. Writing for E!, Jenna Mullins ruled in favor of Rachel, elaborating, "there is no excuse for Ross sleeping with someone else after his lobster suggested taking a break '', concluding that Ross "blew it ''. The Jewish community was particularly receptive to the fact that a Jewish - American couple existed on prime time television, described by Lilith magazine as "a televisual first ''.
Rachel and Ross are considered to be among television 's greatest and most beloved couples. Ninemsn referred to them as "everyone 's favourite on... off... on (a break!) duo, '' while Us Weekly and BuzzFeed ranked them the first and second best television couple, respectively. TV Guide ranked Ross and Rachel the third greatest television couple, dubbing them "the most iconic TV couple in recent memory ''. Extra placed the couple at number eight, writing, "Never did we want two people to get together more than Ross... and Rachel ''. Refinery29 included Rachel and Ross in the website 's "16 TV Couples We Want To Be Together Forever '' list. The pair is also often ranked among television 's greatest "will they or wo n't they '' couples. Naming Ross and Rachel the greatest "will they, wo n't they '' couple, Network Ten believes they defined the term, while Suggest dubbed them "The quintessential will they / wo n't they couple. '' According to Sarah Doran of Radio Times, the couple "became synonymous with the phrase ' we 're on a break ' ''. Phoebe 's line, in which she refers to the couple as each other 's lobsters, has become one of the show 's most popular and oft - quoted. Kaitlin Reilly of Bustle magazine defined the term as "the person of whom another is meant to be with forever ''. Tara Aquino of Complex magazine believes that "Every other person can tell you what exactly a ' Ross and Rachel ' relationship means ''. Ultimately, Rachel 's season eight pregnancy arc is credited with reviving the show 's ratings and reviews.
During season ten, Rachel 's brief romance with friend Joey drew strong criticism from both critics and fans, although the contested relationship did not harm viewership. Joshua Kurp of Splitsider believes that the Rachel / Joey / Ross love triangle is the main reason the show 's final two seasons continued to perform well despite mediocre reviews. Eric Goldman of IGN referred to the Rachel - Joey storyline as "questionable. '' Entertainment Tonight Canada ranked "The One After Rachel and Joey Kiss '' among the show 's ten worst episodes at number five, with author I.P. Johnson panning it as "desperate '', concluding, "Jeers for even conceiving this romantic plot; cheers for abandoning it ''. Contrarily, E! enjoyed Rachel and Joey as a couple because they brought out positive aspects in each other 's personalities and share a similar sense of humor. Their relationship also spawned a debate among fans, who argued over whether making Rachel and Joey a couple was a bad idea. Jenna Mullins of E! determined that it is because "It was too far into the series to throw these two together. They did n't make sense and their romantic scenes felt forced ''.
After Ross and Rachel 's break up, there were many hints that they would eventually reunite forever, especially seasons 8 - 10. In the final season, Rachel wants to sleep with Ross when her father has a heart attack and wants "sympathy sex '', which he turns down, not wanting to take advantage of her in the state she is in. However, Ross and Rachel do sleep together again the night before she leaves for Paris, which results in him admitting he still loves her and wants to get back together in the series finale. Rachel turns down the Paris job in order to be with Ross when she realizes she still loves him too, and the two agree "this is it '', getting back together for good. Jennifer Aniston, who played Rachel, confirmed that after the series finale, Ross and Rachel got remarried, happily and had at least one more child.
Both Rachel and Aniston became fashion icons due to their combined influence on womenswear during the 1990s, particularly among British women. Vogue 's Edward Barsamian credits Rachel with inspiring "the cool New York look ''. According to Stylist, Rachel "revived (a) love of denim shirts and dungarees '', while Mahogany Clayton of StyleBlazer believes that the character "managed to dominate every fashion trend that passed by her radar in the most stylish ways possible ''. Hailing her as the "Fash Queen '', Heat magazine observed the character 's influence on plaid skirts, denim and overalls. Citing every costume the character wore during the first season of Friends, BuzzFeed determined that Rachel popularized the mullet dress. TV Guide published a list of "The 17 Ways Rachel from Friends Changed ' 90s Fashion ''. Rachel is often considered to be one of television 's best dressed characters. Elle included Rachel in the magazine 's "50 Best Dressed Women on TV '' list. PopSugar ranked Friends 15th on the website 's list of "50 TV Shows That Changed the Way We Dress '', citing Rachel 's "impressive '' wardrobe. InStyle ranked Friends the 36th most fashionable television show of all - time, praising Rachel, Monica and Phoebe 's costumes. StyleCaster ranked Rachel among "The 50 Most Stylish TV Characters Of All Time '' at number 28. Cosmopolitan magazine compiled a list of "16 things Rachel Green wore to work that we 'd totally wear today '', while Virgin Media ranked the character among television 's sexiest. Brides magazine ranked Rachel 's wedding dress among "The Best TV Wedding Dresses '', with contributor Jane Frankfort commending the dress with "set (ting) the tone for the following 10 years together and the many milestones our favorite friends will bring. ''
Named after the character, the "Rachel '' refers to a bouncy layered shag inspired by the way in which Aniston wore her hair on Friends between 1994 and 1996, during the first and second seasons of the series. The "Rachel '' debuted in the show 's 20th episode, "The One With the Evil Orthodontist ''. Aniston believes that her hair stylist, Chris McMillan, created the haircut while he was under the influence of marijuana. The "Rachel '' immediately became popular among women, launching an international hair trend. The popularity of the "Rachel '' coincided with the popularity of Friends during the mid-to - late - 1990s. Marie Claire estimates that 11 million women donned the hairstyle throughout the decade, while the Daily Express determined that the hairstyle was most popular among British women, who went to hair salons "clutching magazine pictures of Aniston '' and asking hairdressers to give them the look.
According to Vanity Fair, the hairstyle 's "widespread popularity... in the show 's very first year cemented the sitcom early on as heavily influential when it came to style. '' The "Rachel '' remains one of the most popular hairstyles in history, and became the most popular hairstyle in the United States since actress Farrah Fawcett 's. Hair stylists credit its appeal and popularity to its medium length and volume, combined with its tendency to frame the face flatteringly. Hairdresser Mark Woolley described it as "a cut that flatters almost everyone, designed to make women look beautiful ''. The "Rachel '' is often ranked among the greatest and most iconic hairstyles of all - time, with Redbook placing it at number four and Time ranking it ninth. The Huffington Post determined that the hairstyle is one of "The Most Famous TV Hairstyles Of All Time ''. US Weekly ranked the "Rachel '' the 17th most iconic hairstyle. Glamour magazine ranked the "Rachel '' fourth on the magazine 's list of "The 100 Best Hairstyles of All Time ''. The magazine also cited it among "The very best hair to have graced the small screen '', while ranking it the most memorable hairstyle in television history. The Sydney Morning Herald ranked it the second greatest television hairstyle, while Metro ranked the "Rachel '' the character 's second - best hairstyle. Ranked sixth on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the "25 Fashion Moments That Changed Entertainment '', the haircut was declared the most "desired '' hairstyle of the Clinton era.
Zahra Barnes of Self joked that Rachel 's hair has always been the "true star of the show ''. Lauding the "Rachel '' as one of television 's greatest hairstyles, Sarah Carrillo of Elle magazine believed that its popularity "helped make Friends the phenomenon it was ''. Opining that Friends spawned few memorable catchphrases in comparison to its contemporaries, Tom Jicha of The Baltimore Sun attributes much of the show 's legacy to the hairstyle, calling it the show 's "only cultural trend ''. Josh Robertson of Complex magazine felt that "With the haircut, the TV fame, and a true gift for comedy... combined, Aniston became a big star '', replacing Courteney Cox. Hannah Lyons Powell of Glamour agreed that the hairstyle made Aniston "the definitive hair icon of the ' 90s and the proud owner of arguably the most infamous and influential hairstyle of all time. '' According to Jim Vorel of Paste magazine, "' the Rachel ' hairstyle became the decade 's defining ' do, calling it "the definition of influence ''. However, Rebecca Cox of Glamour is grateful that the hairstyle remained in the 1990s.
In the second - season episode "The One With The Lesbian Wedding '', Rachel references the popularity of her haircut when she complains that her own overbearing mother is trying to reinvent her life after hers, lamenting, "Could n't she just copy my haircut? '' Despite her association with the cut, Aniston disliked the hairstyle. She found maintaining the hairstyle without McMillan 's help difficult, stating "I 'd curse Chris every time I had to blowdry. It took three brushes -- it was like doing surgery! '' and that she would rather shave her head than have to wear it for the rest of her life. Since Aniston, several other celebrities have worn variations of the "Rachel '', among them actresses Cameron Diaz, Rachel McAdams, Emma Watson, Reese Witherspoon, Julia Roberts, comedian Tina Fey, model Tyra Banks, and singer Lily Allen.
Rachel 's popularity would ultimately lead her to becoming the show 's breakout character; she is often ranked among the greatest characters in television history. Us Weekly ranked Rachel the most beloved television character of the past two decades, citing her as "one of TV 's most endearing personalities ''. Entertainment Weekly ranked the character sixth on a similar countdown, while AOL TV included Rachel among television 's hundred "Greatest Women '' at number 23, with author Kim Potts observing that "Rachel became one of viewers ' favorite Friends because she grew from what could have been a one - note character... into a more independent, caring pal ''. BuddyTV ranked Rachel the 15th funniest female character in sitcom history, while ChaCha collectively ranked Rachel, Monica and Phoebe 11th, 12th and 13th on the website 's list of the "Top 16 Female TV Characters of All Time ''. According to The Hollywood Reporter, Hollywood professionals voted Rachel the 29th best female character in 2016. Writing for Entertainmentwise, Georgina Littlejohn believes Rachel inspired the character Penny in the sitcom The Big Bang Theory, noting that the characters, both waitresses, are "blonde, cute, funny, likeable girls - next - door ''. Several baby name books and websites commonly associate the name "Rachel '' with the character.
Like her character, Aniston became the show 's breakout star. Karen Thomas of USA Today dubbed Aniston "our favorite Friend ''. According to Turner Classic Movies, Aniston ultimately became "One of the most popular television actresses of her era ''. According to Jennifer Aniston: From Friends to Films author Kim Etingoff, the actress ' own fame "outshone '' those of her co-stars, becoming the first cast member to "rise to prominence ''; the actress continues to experience the most post-Friends success. Aniston 's performance in Friends led to a successful film career. According to The Inquisitr News, Rachel is "the role that would end up launching (Aniston 's) success '', while Bradford Evans of Splitsider believes "that Jennifer Aniston likely would n't have become a major movie star without Friends ''. While ranking Aniston the most attractive sitcom star of the 1990s, Josh Robertson of Complex magazine wrote that "With the haircut, the TV fame, and a true gift for comedy... combined, Aniston became a big star '', replacing Cox as the show 's "established hottie ''. According to Steve Charnock of Yahoo! Movies, Aniston is "the series ' only main cast member to become a bona fide movie star since the end of the show ''. While agreeing that Aniston 's film career has been successful, several critics believe that the actress ' filmography remains limited to playing Rachel - like roles in romantic comedies, save for some exceptions. Ryan Gilbey of The Guardian noted that "Consequently, many of Aniston 's movie roles... have been Rachel in all but name. '' Andrew Collins of Radio Times agreed, writing that Aniston "seems trapped, perpetually playing variations of Rachel ''. According to TV Guide, Aniston is "usually called upon to play a variation of her neurotic and adorable Friends character ''. Aniston cites Rachel as one of three roles for which she is most grateful, to whom she "owe (s) everything ''. On being typecast in the aftermath of Rachel, Aniston admits that at times it "gives you more of a challenge, to shape people 's perceptions of you ''. as audiences struggle "to lose the Rachel tag that has made her one of the world 's most recognisable faces ''.
|
which country in africa have reached semi final in world cup | African nations at the FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
Association football is the most popular sport in nearly every African country, and 13 members of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) have competed at the sport 's biggest event -- the men 's FIFA World Cup.
The team ranking in each tournament is according to FIFA. The rankings, apart from the top four positions (top two in 1930), are not a result of direct competition between the teams; instead, teams eliminated in the same round are ranked by their full results in the tournament. In recent tournaments, FIFA has used the rankings for seedings for the final tournament draw.
For each tournament, the number of teams in each finals tournament (in brackets) are shown.
As per statistical convention in football, matches decided in extra time are counted as wins and losses, while matches decided by penalty shoot - outs are counted as draws. 3 points per win, 1 point per draw and 0 points per loss.
Results through World Cup 2018
Each successive World Cup has had at least one team appearing for the first time. This table shows the national associations in alphabetical order per year.
41 of the 54 active FIFA and CAF members have never qualified for the final tournament.
The inaugural 1930 FIFA World Cup was the only one without any qualification process. No African teams entered.
The Pharaohs of Egypt were the only African team to apply to feature at the 1934 FIFA World Cup. As there were 32 countries competing for 16 places, FIFA organized the first qualification round. Egypt was placed in a group with Turkey and Palestine, then a British mandate. Turkey withdrew, and Egypt beat Palestine 7 -- 1 in Cairo and 4 -- 1 in Jerusalem to qualify for the World Cup finals. The 1934 FIFA World Cup finals was organized as a straight knock - out. Egypt lost 2 -- 4 to Hungary in Naples with Abdulrahman Fawzi scoring twice to become the first African to score at the World Cup finals. However, a third goal by Fawzi was ruled offside by the Italian referee despite the player having dribbled from the middle of the pitch, and the fourth Hungarian goal involved a scuffle where the Hungarian striker broke the Egyptian goalkeeper 's nose with his elbow. The Italian newspapers heavily criticized their referee, but Egypt sailed home and only returned to the World Cup finals 56 years later.
Egypt was the only African country to apply to compete at the 1938 FIFA World Cup, but withdrew before playing any matches.
No African countries applied to compete at the 1950 FIFA World Cup.
Egypt was the only African country to apply to compete at the 1954 World Cup. They were placed in a two - team group with Italy, but lost 1 -- 2 in Cairo and 1 -- 5 in Milan, and thus did not qualify for the World Cup.
Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan all applied to enter the qualification process for the 1958 FIFA World Cup, but Ethiopia 's entry was rejected by FIFA.
Egypt and Sudan competed in an Africa / Asia zone with ten Asian countries for one spot at the World Cup. Egypt progressed to the next round after Cyprus withdrew, but then itself withdrew. Sudan defeated Syria 2 -- 1 on aggregate but eventually withdrew in protest at having to play Israel. (Eventually, the spot originally reserved for Africa and Asia was taken by Wales.)
Seven African countries entered the qualification process for the 1962 FIFA World Cup: Ghana, United Arab Republic (a joint football association by Egypt and Syria, who were politically united between 1958 and 1961), Ethiopia, Morocco, Nigeria, Sudan and Tunisia. Ethiopia entered through the UEFA qualification process, where it was eliminated by Israel, while the rest entered through the CAF qualification process. Both Sudan and U.A.R. withdrew as FIFA would not allow them to rearrange matches to avoid the monsoon season, so the four teams formed two two - team groups. In the first group, Morocco and Tunisia both beat each other 2 -- 1 at home, and then played a third match at a neutral location (Palermo, Italy) which ended in a 1 -- 1 draw after extra time. Since penalty shootouts were not used by FIFA till the 1970s, Morocco advanced by drawing lots to eliminate Tunisia. Morocco then eliminated Ghana with a draw and a win to proceed to a UEFA / CAF playoff with Spain. They lost both legs of this playoff, meaning that no African nation made it to the World Cup finals for the fifth time in a row.
Seventeen African countries entered the qualification process for the 1966 FIFA World Cup: Algeria, Cameroon, French Congo, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Libya, Mali, Morocco, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan, and Tunisia. FIFA rejected the application of French Congo, and had already suspended South Africa for apartheid, resulting in their disqualification.
FIFA 's allocation of only one place to three continents (Africa, Asia, Oceania) was subject to significant criticism, especially given the large increase in applications from newly independent African countries. After FIFA confirmed the allocation, the remaining fifteen African nations withdrew in protest.
Fourteen African countries entered the qualification process for the 1970 World Cup: Algeria, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Libya, Morocco, Nigeria, Rhodesia, Senegal, Sudan, Tunisia, Zaire, and Zambia. FIFA rejected the applications of Guinea and Zaire. The Atlas Lions of Morocco played ten matches to qualify for the single CAF spot at the World Cup, advancing along the way past Tunisia by virtue of a coin toss.
Rhodesia, having been expelled from CAF for having a white minority government, entered through the Asia / Oceania qualifying group, where they had to play against Australia in Portuguese - held Mozambique (there was a boycott against playing matches in Rhodesia). The first two matches were drawn, thanks in large part to the excellent Rhodesian goalkeeper Robin Jordan, and the desperate Australians hired a Mozambican sangoma to ' curse ' him. In the third match, Jordan was taken off injured after a collision with another player, Australia won 3 -- 1, then refused to pay the sangoma, got ' cursed ' by the irate man, and were eliminated two weeks later by Israel. Meanwhile, Rhodesia 's CAF expulsion was soon followed by a FIFA expulsion, with Zimbabwe readmitted in 1980.
At the 1970 World Cup, Morocco was placed in Group 4 along with West Germany, Peru, and Bulgaria. They lost 1 -- 2 to eventual semi-finalists West Germany, lost 0 -- 3 to Peru, and drew 1 -- 1 with Bulgaria. The two goalscorers were Houmane Jarir (against West Germany) and Maouhoub Ghazouani (against Bulgaria), who were thus the second and third ever African goalscorers at the World Cup. Morocco finished bottom of the group, on goal difference, with one point -- the first African point in the World Cup.
24 African countries entered the qualification process for the 1974 FIFA World Cup, with the Leopards of Zaire eventually qualifying quite comfortably, scoring 18 goals and conceding 5 in the ten matches they played to qualify.
At the 1974 FIFA World Cup, Zaire were placed in Group 2 along with Scotland, Yugoslavia (home of Zaire coach and 1970 Morocco coach Blagoje Vidinić), and Brazil. In their first match against Scotland, they impressed with their fast attacking style, and lost just 0 -- 2. Scottish centre - half Jim Holton said after the match "Let 's face it, we underestimated them. For fifteen minutes I wondered what the hell was going on, where the devil had this lot come from, playing stuff like that! ''
The next opponents Yugoslavia had noted holes in the Zairean defence, and fully exploited them to hammer Zaire 9 -- 0 in a then record win for World Cup finals, with all but three of their outfield players getting on the scoresheet. Zaire striker Mulamba Ndaye, who was sent off for protesting that a goal by the Yugoslavians was offside, said after the match, "The management had made off with our match bonuses, and we 'd threatened not to play the game. Frankly we 'd lost our morale. We could easily have let in 20 goals. ''
After the defeat, the Zairean team were told by the country 's dictator Mobutu Sese Seko -- who had rewarded the players for qualifying with a house and a car each -- not to come home if defending champions Brazil beat them 4 -- 0 or worse. Zaire managed to keep Brazil to merely a 0 -- 3 defeat with Zairean defender Mwepu Ilunga receiving a yellow card for interfering with a free kick. Zaire left the tournament without scoring a goal.
26 African countries entered the qualification process for 1 spot at the 1978 FIFA World Cup. In comparison, 22 Asia / Oceania countries also competed for 1 spot, while 31 European countries competed for 8.5 spots. Les Aigles de Carthage (The Carthage Eagles) of Tunisia eventually qualified, along the way eliminating Morocco in the first ever penalty shootout in World Cup qualification history. This was a major change for Tunisia, who had been eliminated by Morocco quite literally by chance on three previous occasions in the 1960s.
Tunisia were placed in Group 2 with West Germany, Poland, and Mexico. After Zaire 's fate in 1974, they were not expected to do well. They were 0 -- 1 down to Mexico at half - time when their Tunisian coach Abdelmajid Chetali told them that they treated their opponents with too much respect, and that they could still win the game if they tackled hard and imposed their belief and self - confidence. Buoyed by the pep talk, the North Africans scored thrice in the second half to win 3 -- 1 and become the first African team to win a match at the World Cup. They lost their next match to Poland 1 -- 0, missing several chances, and held West Germany to a goalless draw. While this was not enough to progress to the next round, African football pride had been restored.
This was the first World Cup with 24 teams, and Africa 's representation was doubled. So 29 African countries competed for 2 spots in World Cup qualification. In comparison, 21 Asian nations also competed for 2 spots, but 33 European nations competed for 13 spots. 1978 finalists Tunisia were eliminated in the first round by Nigeria on penalties. Four series of knockout rounds were played, with the final two spots going down to Nigeria vs Algeria, and Morocco vs Cameroon. Both Les Fennecs (The Desert Foxes) of Algeria and Les Lions Indomptables (The Indomitable Lions) of Cameroon won 2 -- 0 away and 2 -- 1 at home and qualified for the World Cup for the first time.
Cameroon were placed in Group 1, where they surprised everyone by remaining undefeated. They drew 0 -- 0 with Peru, 0 -- 0 with Poland, and 1 -- 1 with Italy. Grégoire Mbida scored Cameroon 's first World Cup finals goal. Italy had also drawn its three matches, so also had a goal difference of 0, but had scored two goals to Cameroon 's one, so Cameroon were eliminated. This was especially painful because in their opening match against Peru, Cameroon striker Roger Milla had a goal wrongly disallowed for offside.
Algeria were placed in Group 2 with West Germany, Austria, and Chile. The Africans produced a major upset in the first match, beating West Germany 2 -- 1 with goals by Rabah Madjer and Lakhdar Belloumi. They lost their second match 0 -- 2 to Austria, then produced another surprise by beating Chile 3 -- 2. The day after the Algeria vs Chile match, West Germany and Austria played the final group match in Gijón knowing that a 1 -- 0 or 2 -- 0 win for West Germany would result in both European teams qualifying at the expense of Algeria on goal difference. West Germany scored after ten minutes, and then both teams appeared to pass the ball aimlessly around for the remaining 80 minutes.
This performance was widely deplored by all observers. The Spanish crowd shouted, "Fuera, fuera! '' ("Out, out! '') while angry Algerian supporters waved banknotes at the players to suggest that the game was fixed. Even the two sides ' fans were disgusted, with an Austrian television commentator advising viewers to turn off their TV sets, a German television commentator refusing to commentate further, and a German fan burning his national flag in protest. Furious Algerian football officials lodged an official protest, but the two teams denied any collusion. As nothing could be proved and the two teams had technically broken no rules, FIFA allowed the result to stand. FIFA did change the rules -- in future World Cups, the final two games in each group are played simultaneously. Thus Algeria were eliminated from the 1982 FIFA World Cup at the first hurdle despite two wins.
As with 1982, 29 African countries entered the qualification process for two spots at the World Cup. There were four series of knockout rounds, with four Mediterranean countries making the final round. Algeria beat neighbours Tunisia 7 -- 1 on aggregate and becomes the first African team to qualify consecutively for the second time to World Cup. Morocco beat Libya 3 -- 1 on aggregate and also qualified for their second World Cup.
Algeria were placed in Group D with Brazil, Spain, and Northern Ireland. They did not reach the heights of its previous finals appearance, drawing 1 -- 1 with Northern Ireland, losing 0 -- 1 to Brazil, and losing 0 -- 3 to Spain.
Morocco shocked both Poland and England with goalless draws, and then defeated Portugal 3 -- 1 to become the first African team to progress beyond the first round. In the second round, they faced a West German side that had seven survivors from the Shame of Gijón match. Goalkeeper Badou Zaki kept Morocco in the game with a series of excellent saves, but was finally beaten in the 87th minute by Disgrace of Gijón substitute Lothar Matthäus. West Germany won 1 -- 0 and went on to reach their second successive final.
26 African countries entered the qualification process for 2 spots at the 1990 FIFA World Cup. This was the first time African qualification moved from a mostly straight home - away knockout format to include group stages early on. Finally it came down to four teams playing in two playoffs for the final: Algeria vs Egypt and Tunisia vs Cameroon. Cameroon beat Tunisia 2 -- 0 at home and 1 -- 0 away, and qualified for their second World Cup. However, the playoff between the two North African sides was significantly more ill - tempered.
After a goalless draw in Constantine, Egypt beat Algeria 1 -- 0 in Cairo to qualify for the World Cup. After the Cairo match, an Algerian player gouged out an Egyptian team doctor 's eye with a broken bottle. The player blamed, Lakhdar Belloumi (who scored the winning goal in Algeria 's 2 -- 1 defeat of West Germany in 1982), was not allowed to travel outside Algeria owing to an Interpol international arrest warrant for twenty years till the (financially compensated) Egyptian doctor dropped the charges in 2009. Belloumi always claimed innocence in the incident, with him and other players pointing the finger at Algerian goalkeeper Kamel Kadri instead.
There was tragedy during the second round Group C match between Nigeria and Angola on 12 August 1989 at the Lagos National Stadium when 24 - year - old Nigerian midfielder (and qualified lawyer) Samuel Okwaraji collapsed and died of congestive heart failure in the 77th minute.
Egypt were placed in Group F with England, Netherlands, and Ireland. It turned out to be one of the tightest groups in World Cup history, with five draws in six games. Egypt drew 1 -- 1 with the Netherlands, drew 0 -- 0 with Ireland, but lost their final match 0 -- 1 to England. Egypt 's only goal of the tournament was a penalty by Magdi Abdelghani against the Netherlands. Egypt were thus eliminated from World Cup, still without a win after losing their only match in 1930.
Cameroon were undoubtedly the surprise package of the tournament. In their first match, they shocked Diego Maradona 's defending champions Argentina 1 -- 0 through a goal by François Omam - Biyik, despite finishing their match with nine men. In their next match, they defeated Romania 2 -- 1 thanks to two goals from 38 - year - old substitute Roger Milla. These were Milla 's first official goals in the World Cup; he had had a goal against Peru wrongly disallowed for offside during the 1982 FIFA World Cup. Having already qualified for the next round, Cameroon then suffered their first loss (after three draws and two wins) in World Cup history, losing 0 -- 4 to the already eliminated Soviet Union. In the second round, Cameroon defeated Colombia 2 -- 1, with Milla again coming on as a second - half substitute to score twice, famously dispossessing Colombian goalkeeper René Higuita for one of them. By this time, Roger Milla, his post-goal celebrations, and Cameroon had firmly implanted themselves in the global footballing consciousness. In the quarter finals, they were seven minutes from qualifying for the semi-finals when England were awarded a penalty. England won the match 3 -- 2 after extra time, with three of the five goals coming from penalties (1 for Cameroon, 2 for England).
40 African countries entered the qualification process for 3 spots at the 1994 FIFA World Cup. The extra spot was awarded after the strong performances of Cameroon and Egypt at Italia 90. However, only 28 played all their matches after FIFA rejected Libya (due to UN sanctions) and 11 other nations withdrew at various stages. There was a new qualification format, with two group stages. The big casualty of the first stage was 1990 finalists Egypt, as crowd trouble in Cairo turned a 2 -- 1 home victory over Zimbabwe into a crucial 0 -- 0 draw when FIFA ordered the match replayed at a neutral location.
In the new second stage of qualification were three groups of three, with winners qualifying for the World Cup. The Super Eagles of Nigeria won Group A on goal difference, beating both Côte d'Ivoire and Algeria 4 -- 1 in Lagos. In Group C, Cameroon won the group with 3 wins and a loss away to second placed Zimbabwe, with Guinea coming third.
In Group B were Morocco, Senegal, and Zambia. In the first match, Morocco beat Senegal 1 -- 0. In the second match, Zambia were to face Senegal in Dakar. However, the plane carrying the Zambian team crashed en route on 28 April 1993. The crash, attributed to mechanical problems and pilot error, killed all thirty people on board, including nearly the entire football team -- 18 players -- and coaches, support staff, and plane crew. (The Zambian government had yet to release a report on the investigation of the crash of the military plane even ten years later.) Only two European - based players from the original squad missed the flight -- Charles Musonda of Anderlecht, who was injured, and captain Kalusha Bwalya, who was flying in from Europe where he played with PSV Eindhoven. All matches in the group were postponed for a month. Zambia hastily put together a new team, captained by Bwalya, and defeated Morocco 2 -- 1 in Lusaka in the first match with the new team with goals from Kalusha Bwalya and Johnson Bwalya (not related). However, they lost their final group match 0 -- 1 to Morocco in Casablanca and Morocco won Group B by one point. Amazingly, the rebuilt Chipolopolo (Copper Bullets) also went on to reach the finals of the 1994 African Cup of Nations.
At the 1994 FIFA World Cup finals in the U.S., Cameroon drew their first game in Group B with eventual semi-finalists Sweden 2 -- 2 and lost their second to eventual winners Brazil 0 -- 3. They were 0 -- 3 down to Russia in their third match when half - time substitute Roger Milla scored in the 46th minute (becoming at 42 the oldest man ever to score at the World Cup finals) and sparked brief hopes of a miracle comeback. However, the final score was a 1 -- 6 loss to Russia, with Oleg Salenko netting a record - breaking five goals in vain. In Group F, Morocco lost its three matches by a goal each, 0 -- 1 to Belgium, 1 -- 2 to Saudi Arabia, and 1 -- 2 to the Netherlands.
In Group D, Nigeria thumped eventual semi-finalists Bulgaria 3 -- 0, then fell to a 1 -- 2 loss to Argentina before beating Greece 2 -- 0. Nigeria, Bulgaria, and Argentina all finished on six points and qualified for the second round. In the second round, Nigeria faced Italy. Emmanuel Amuneke scored in the 25th minute, leaving Nigeria with a 1 -- 0 lead two minutes from the next round when Roberto Baggio scored in the 88th minute. Baggio scored again in extra time to send Nigeria home.
This was the third successive World Cup where an African team progressed beyond the first stage, after Morocco in 1986 and Cameroon in 1990. This was a major factor in FIFA increasing Africa 's allocation from 3 to 5 spots as the World Cup expanded from 24 to 32 four years later.
38 African countries entered the qualification process for 5 spots at the 1998 FIFA World Cup, the two new spots resulting from the tournament 's expansion from 24 to 32 teams. This was the first time that three points, instead of two, were awarded for a win. Burundi won both their first round qualification matches but then had to withdraw due to civil war. Sierra Leone, who they had just eliminated, took their place in the second round, and then became the first nation in World Cup qualifying history to be eliminated twice in the same qualifying campaign. Eventually, Cameroon, Morocco, Nigeria, and Tunisia qualified for the World Cup finals along with newcomers Bafana Bafana of South Africa, who had only been readmitted to FIFA in 1992.
The five African teams all took European coaches (three French men, one Serb, one Pole) to the finals, making it the first time since 1974 that there was no African coach at the World Cup.
In Group A, Morocco drew their first match 2 -- 2 with Norway and then lost 0 -- 3 to Brazil. The last two matches in the group were played simultaneously (as they had after the Disgrace of Gijón in 1982) -- with ten minutes left, Morocco were leading Scotland 2 -- 0 while Brazil led Norway 1 -- 0. But Norway scored twice in the 83rd and 88th minutes to beat Brazil 2 -- 1. Morocco also scored once more to beat Scotland 3 -- 0, but went home.
In Group B, Cameroon drew their first match 1 -- 1 with Austria (the Austrians equalizing in the 90th minute) but then lost 0 -- 3 to Italy. Cameroon could have progressed if they won their final group match against Chile, but they drew 1 -- 1 and went home. During the final match, Cameroon 's Rigobert Song became the first man to pick up red cards at two World Cups -- he was sent off as a 17 - year - old against Brazil in 1994. (The second man to be red carded at two World Cups would be Zinedine Zidane eight years later.)
In Group C, South Africa began their debut World Cup finals campaign with a 0 -- 3 loss to hosts and eventual champions France. They then drew 1 -- 1 with Denmark, Benni McCarthy scoring their first World Cup finals goal. They needed to win big in their final match against Saudi Arabia but could only manage a 2 -- 2 draw, giving away two penalties and only managing to equalize late into injury time with their own penalty, taken by brace - scorer Shaun Bartlett.
In Group D, Nigeria opened with a 3 -- 2 win over fancied Spain and another 1 -- 0 win over Bulgaria. Having qualified for the next stage, they then lost 1 -- 3 to Paraguay. Both Nigeria and Paraguay qualified for the next stage, with Spain losing out despite thumping Bulgaria 6 -- 1. However, in the Round of 16, Nigeria were beaten 1 -- 4 by Denmark. All Nigeria 's six goals in the tournament came from six different players.
In Group G, Tunisia lost their first two matches 0 -- 2 to England and 0 -- 1 to Colombia. They then managed to draw 1 -- 1 with Romania, who had won their first two matches and topped the group. Thus Tunisia 's second appearance at the World Cup (after 1978) ended in them scoring only one goal, a penalty.
Thus only 2 of Africa 's 5 representatives came away with at least one win. However, there was an African representative in the second round for the fourth time in succession.
51 African countries entered the qualification process for five spots at the 2002 FIFA World Cup. Four of the five 1998 finalists again made it through, with Les Lions de la Teranga (Teranga Lions) of Senegal replacing Morocco. Senegal and Morocco topped the same qualification group each with four wins, three draws, and a loss, but Senegal had a seven - goal superior goal difference thanks to their 9 -- 0 aggregate thrashings of group minnows Namibia. In contrast, the Namibians had managed to hold Morocco to a goalless draw in Windhoek.
Like Cameroon 12 years earlier, Senegal started with a shock 1 -- 0 win over the defending champions and went on to reach the quarter finals. In Group A, after beating France 1 -- 0 with a goal from Papa Bouba Diop, they drew 1 -- 1 with eventual group winners Denmark. In their final match against Uruguay, they were leading 3 -- 0 at half - time. In the second half, the South Americans -- for whom a win would have them progress at Senegal 's expense -- scored twice, and then a third time with an 88th - minute penalty kick. Senegal survived the frenetic final minutes of the game to hang on to a 3 -- 3 result. Thus Denmark and Senegal progressed to the next round while former champions Uruguay and France went home. In the Round of 16, a golden goal in extra time (to add to his 37th - minute strike) from Henri Camara took Senegal 2 -- 1 past Sweden after extra time. But in the quarter - finals against Turkey, they were eliminated by a golden goal four minutes into extra time.
In Group B, South Africa drew 2 -- 2 with Paraguay with an injury time penalty, then scored their first ever World Cup win by beating Slovenia 1 -- 0. However a 2 -- 3 loss to Spain then sent South Africa home. In Group E, Cameroon drew 1 -- 1 with Republic of Ireland, beat Saudi Arabia 1 -- 0, and then lost 0 -- 2 to Germany. In Group F, Nigeria lost 0 -- 1 to Argentina, lost 1 -- 2 to Sweden, and having been eliminated, held England to a 0 -- 0 draw. In Group H, Tunisia lost 0 -- 2 to Russia, drew 1 -- 1 with Belgium, and lost 0 -- 2 to co-hosts Japan.
Of Africa 's five representatives, three won at least once, but only one progressed beyond the first round. Still, Senegal 's surprise run made it the fifth successive time an African nation had made it to the Round of 16, and the second time an African country had reached the quarter finals. Three of the five African nations (South Africa, Nigeria, Tunisia) took a local coach to the World Cup; only one of those three scored a win.
51 African countries entered the race for 5 spots at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in a qualification process that doubled as one for the 2006 Africa Cup of Nations. In the final qualification round, teams were organized into five groups of six teams, with winners qualifying for the World Cup and the top three for the continental tournament. More matches were needed to qualify -- while at both the 1998 and 2002 32 - team World Cups, 3 of the 5 African teams played only 6 matches to get to the finals, here 3 of the 5 teams that qualified played 12 matches. Four of Africa 's five representatives to the 2006 FIFA World Cup finals were debutants, in contrast to 2002 when four of five had appeared at the previous World Cup.
In Group 1, Togo beat 2002 World Cup quarterfinalists Senegal by two points. The Black Stars of Ghana won Group 2 by five points while in Group 3, Les Éléphants of Côte d'Ivoire lost both its matches to Cameroon but won the group since Cameroon drew too often. In Group 5, Tunisia won the group one point ahead of 1998 finalists and perennial rivals Morocco. Although Morocco was the only African team (of those who played a match) to remain undefeated, it drew half its matches. In Group 4, Angola and Nigeria both finished with 21 points after 10 matches, with Nigeria having a far superior goal difference thanks largely to scoring five goals against both Algeria and 3rd placed Zimbabwe in their last two matches. However, it had already been decided that head to head results were to be used to break such ties in 2006 World Cup Qualification before goal difference. The Palancas Negras (Black Antelopes) of Angola, having beaten Nigeria 2 -- 1 on aggregate, qualified for the World Cup.
At the World Cup Finals, Côte d'Ivoire lost its first two Group C matches 1 -- 2 to Argentina and 1 -- 2 to the Netherlands before coming back from 0 -- 2 down to beat Serbia and Montenegro 3 -- 2. In Group D, Angola -- the only African team at the finals with a local coach (Luís Oliveira Gonçalves) -- lost their first match 0 -- 1 to Portugal, then drew 0 -- 0 with Mexico and 1 -- 1 with Iran. In Group G, Togo made more news off the pitch with disputes over team bonuses causing coach Otto Pfister to walk out on the team until just before the first match and FIFA officials having to step in to stop players threatening to boycott the second match. Togo lost 1 -- 2 to South Korea, lost 0 -- 2 to Switzerland, and 0 -- 2 to eventual finalists France. In Group H, Tunisia drew 2 -- 2 with Saudi Arabia, lost 1 -- 3 to Spain (including an injury time penalty from Fernando Torres), and 0 -- 1 to Ukraine.
In Group E, Ghana began with up a 0 -- 2 loss to eventual winners Italy with a 2 -- 0 win over the Czech Republic and a 2 -- 1 win over the U.S.. Thus the debutants ensured an African representative in the Round of 16 for the sixth successive World Cup. They lost 0 -- 3 to Brazil in the Round of 16. The match was later alleged to have been fixed, charges immediately denied by the Ghana Football Association.
While for the sixth successive time there was an African team in the Round of 16, Africa remained the only continent (other than Oceania) to never have two teams reach the Round of 16 at the same World Cup.
The 2010 FIFA World Cup was the first time the World Cup was staged in Africa, with South Africa being the hosts. Their national team became the first World Cup hosts to get knocked out in the first round. Nigeria, Algeria, Ivory Coast and Cameroon also exited the tournament after the Group stages
However, Ghana progressed beyond the group stages of the FIFA World Cup for the second time in a row, and defeated the U.S. 2 -- 1 after extra time in the Round of 16, which saw them reach the quarter - finals, becoming the third African nation to do so. In the quarter - finals, they were eliminated by Uruguay. Ghana were defeated by Uruguay on penalties after Luis Suárez controversially handballed on the goal line deep into extra time, denying Ghana an almost certain winning goal. The penalty that followed, was missed by Asamoah Gyan. Had Ghana won their quarter final they would have become the very first African nation to progress to the semifinals of the world cup. Of the 32 countries that participated in the 2010 FIFA World Cup, FIFA ranked Ghana 7th.
The 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil marked the first time more than one African team went beyond the group stages. While Ghana and Cameroon both collected disappointing results (apart from Ghana 's 2 -- 2 draw with later champions Germany, which saw them becoming the only team not to lose against the Germans in the entire tournament) and eventually ended fourth in their group, Ivory Coast were also knocked out in the first round after a last - minute penalty kick against Greece and ended third in Group C, above Japan, whom they had defeated 2 -- 1 in their first match.
Africa 's pride, however, was saved by both Nigeria and Algeria. The Nigerians kicked off their Group F campaign with a disappointing 0 -- 0 draw against Iran, before eventually defeating debutants Bosnia and Herzegovina 1 -- 0. Stephen Keshi 's team went down 3 -- 2 to later finalists Argentina in their final match, leaving them on the brink of elimination, but Iran lost to the Bosnians 3 -- 1 and Nigeria went through to the Round of 16 for the third time in history, after 1998 and 1994.
Algeria lost 2 -- 1 to a strong Belgium in their opening match in Group H, a loss which was followed by an unexpected 4 -- 2 victory over the Korean Republic in Porto Alegre in their second match. In their final Group H encounter, a hard - won 1 -- 1 draw with Russia was enough to send the North Africans through to the next round.
In the Round of 16, both African teams fell just short to beat the likes of France (Nigeria) and Germany (Algeria), but the fact that two African nations had reached that far, was a reason to be optimistic about the future of African football.
During the 2014 edition, Ghana striker Asamoah Gyan became Africa 's all - time leading topscorer at the FIFA World Cup, having scored 6 goals in 3 World Cups, thus exceeding Cameroon veteran Roger Milla 's 5 goals.
The 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia saw early elimination for Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia who all lost their first two group games. Nigeria also lost their first group game, but got a win in their second game, over Iceland, leaving them with a chance if they could get a result against 2014 finalists Argentina. However, they lost the decisive game, and were eliminated after finishing third in the group.
Senegal won their opening game against Poland, and drew their second game against Japan, leaving them needing a draw in their final game against Colombia to be sure of progressing. However, they went down 0 -- 1, and because Japan lost 0 -- 1 as well, Senegal bowed out due to the fair play tiebreaker.
France beat Croatia 4 - 2.
|
when did car seat laws start in california | Child safety seat - wikipedia
A child safety seat (infant safety seat, child restraint system, child seat, baby seat, restraining car seat, car seat, etc.) is a seat designed specifically to protect children from injury or death during collisions. Most commonly these seats are purchased and installed by consumers, but car manufacturers may integrate them directly into their vehicle 's design and generally are required to provide anchors and to ensure seat belt compatibility. Many jurisdictions require children defined by age, weight, and / or height to use a government - approved child safety seat when riding in a vehicle. Child safety seats provide passive restraints and must be properly used to be effective. However, research indicates many child safety restraints are often not used properly. To tackle this negative trend, health officials and child safety experts produce child safety videos to teach proper car seat installation to parents and caregivers.
Baby car seats are legally required in many countries, including most Western developed countries, to safely transport children up to the age of 2 or more years in cars and other vehicles.
Other car seats, also known as "booster seats, '' are required until the child is large enough to use an adult seat belt. This is usually, but not always, when the child is 1.45 m (4 ft 9 in) tall. The child needs to meet five criteria before moving out of the booster seat, including the child 's seating position, shoulder belt position, lap belt position, knee position, and ability to sit properly for the length of the trip.
Generally, countries that regulate passenger safety have child safety laws that require a child to be restrained appropriately depending on their age and weight. These regulations and standards are often minimums, and with each graduation to the next kind of safety seat, there is a step down in the amount of protection a child has in a collision. Some countries, such as Australia and the United States, forbid rear - facing child seats in a front seat that has an airbag. A rear - facing infant restraint put in the front seat of a vehicle places an infant 's head close to the airbag, which can cause severe head injuries or death if the airbag deploys. Some modern cars include a switch to disable the front passenger airbag for child - supporting seat use.
In 2003, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) suggested that infants "should spend minimal time in car seats (when not a passenger in a vehicle) or other seating that maintains supine positioning '' to avoid developing positional plagiocephaly ("flat head syndrome '').
In 1990, the ISO standard ISOFIX was launched in an attempt to provide a standard for fixing car seats into different makes of car. The standard now includes a top tether; the U.S. version of this system is called LATCH. Generally, the ISOFIX system can be used with Groups 0, 0 + and 1.
In 2013, a new car seat regulation was introduced: "i - Size '' is the name of a new European safety regulation that affects car seats for children under 15 months of age. It came into effect in July 2013 and provides extra protection in several ways, most notably by providing rearward facing travel for children up to 15 months instead of 9 to 12 months, which the previous EU regulation advised.
Since the first car was manufactured and put on the market in the early 1900s, many modifications and adjustments have been implemented to protect those that drive and ride in motorized vehicles. Most restraints were put into place to protect adults without regard for young children. Though child seats were beginning to be manufactured in the early 1930s, their purpose was not the safety of children. The purpose was to act as booster seats to bring the child to a height easier for the driving parent to see them. It was not until 1962 that two designs with the purpose of protecting a child were developed independently. British inventor Jean Ames created a rear - facing child seat with a Y - shaped strap similar to today 's models. American Leonard Rivkin, of Denver Colorado, designed a forward - facing seat with a metal frame to protect the child. It is noted that seat belts for adults were not standard equipment in automobiles until the 1960s.
There are several types of car seats, which vary in the position of the child and size of the seat. The United Nations standard ECE R44 / 04 categorizes these into 4 groups: 0 - 3. Many car seats combine the larger groups 1, 2 and 3. Some new car models includes stock restraint seats by default.
Group 0 baby seats, or infant carriers, keep the baby locked up in a rear - facing position and are secured in place by a standard adult seat belt and / or an ISOFIX fitting.
Group 0 carrycots hold the baby lying on its back.
Carrycots are secured by both seat belts in the rear seat of the car. Both types have handles to allow them to be easily moved into and out of the car.
Car Seat - Middle Back Seat
Car Seat - Not in Front Seat
Carrycots or infant car beds are used for children that can not sit in a regular baby seat, such as premature infants or infants that suffer from apnea. A carrycot is a restraint system intended to accommodate and restrain the child in a supine or prone position with the child 's spine perpendicular to the median longitudinal plane of the vehicle. Carrycots are designed to distribute the restraining forces over the child 's head and body, excluding its limbs, in the event of a big crash. It must be put on the rear seat of the car. Some models can be changed to face forward after the baby has reached the weight limit which is normally about 15 - 20 kilograms.
Carrycots generally include a stomach belt and a connection to the (three points) safety belt.
' Infant carrier ' means a restraint system intended to accommodate the child in a rearward - facing semi-recumbent position. This design distributes the restraining forces over the child 's head and body, excluding its limbs, in the event of the frontal collision.
For young infants, the seat used is an infant carrier with typical weight recommendations of 5 - 20 lb. Most infant seats made in the US can now be used up to at least 22 pounds (10.0 kg) and 29 inches (74 cm), with some going up to 35 pounds (16 kg). In the past, most infant seats in the US went to 20 pounds (9.1 kg) and 26 inches (66 cm). Infant carriers are often also called "Bucket Seats '' as they resemble a bucket with a handle. Some (but not all) seats can be used with the base secured, or with the carrier strapped in alone. Some seats do not have bases. Infant carriers are mounted rear - facing and are designed to "cocoon '' against the back of the vehicle seat in the event of a collision, with the impact being absorbed in the outer shell of the restraint. Rear - facing seats are deemed the safest, and in the US children must remain in this position until they are at least 1 year of age and at least 20 pounds (9.1 kg). although it is recommended to keep them rear - facing until at least 2 years old or until they outgrow the rear - facing car seat height and weight, whichever is longer.
Group 0 + car seats commonly have a chassis permanently fixed into the car by an adult seat belt and can be placed into some form of baby transport using the integral handle if it is the specific model. Rear - facing child seats are inherently safer than forward - facing child seats because they provide more support for the child 's head in the event of a sudden deceleration. Although some parents are eager to switch to a forward - facing child seat because it seems more "grown up, '' various countries and car seat manufacturers recommend that children continue to use a rear - facing child seat for as long as physically possible
Convertible seats can be used throughout many stages. Many convertible seats will transition from a rear - facing seat, to a forward - facing seat, and some then can be used as a booster seat. Many convertible seats allow for 2.3 -- 18 kg (5 - 40 lb.) rear - facing, allowing children to be in the safer rear - facing position up to a weight of 18 kg (40 lbs).
Convertible safety seats can be installed as either rear - facing or forward - facing. There is a large selection available to choose from and weight limits, height limits, and extra features vary from seat to seat and by manufacturer. Seats with a 5 - point harness are considered safer than those with an overhead shield
Convertibles are n't considered the best choice for a newborn because the bottom harness slots are often above the shoulders of most newborns. A seat with low bottom harness slots can be used if it is desired to use a convertible from birth.
Rear - facing weight limits range from 20 to 50 lb (9.1 to 22.7 kg) depending on the manufacturer and country of origin. Forward - facing limits range from 20 to 90 lb (9.1 to 40.8 kg) depending on the seat model and the manufacturer and country of origin.
Most convertible seats in the U.S. have at least a 35 pounds (16 kg) rear - facing weight limit, most now to go to 40 pounds (18 kg), some 45 pounds (20 kg) and a few 50 pounds (23 kg). The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that children remain rear - facing until they outgrow their convertible seat, regardless of how old they are. Children can remain in a rear - facing seat until they have either outgrown the weight limit for their seat, or the top of their head is within 1 inch (25 mm) of the top of the shell of the car seat.
A permanent fixture in the car using an adult seat belt to hold it in place and a five - point baby harness to hold the infant.
It is recommended that children sit rear - facing for as long as possible. In Scandinavian countries, for example, children sit rear - facing until around 4 years old. Rear - facing car seats are significantly safer in frontal collisions, which are the most likely to cause severe injury and death. Rear - facing group 1 car seats are becoming more widespread but are still difficult to source in many countries.
A larger seat than the Group 1 design. These seats use an adult seat belt to hold the child in place.
Also known as booster seats, these position the child so that the adult seat belt is held in the correct position for safety and comfort.
Booster seats are recommended for children until they are big enough to properly use a seat belt. Seat belts are engineered for adults, and are thus too big for small children. In the United States, for children under the age of 4 and / or under 40 pounds (18 kg), a seat with a 5 - point harness is suggested instead of a booster seat.
Booster seats lift the child and allow the seat belt to sit firmly across the collar bone and chest, with the lap portion fitted to the hips. If the seat belt is not across the collar bone and the hips, it will ride across the neck and the stomach and cause internal injuries in the event of a collision.
There are two main types of boosters: high back (some of which have energy absorbing foam) and no back. A new generation of booster seats comes with rigid Isofix (Latch) connectors that secure to the vehicle 's anchors, improving the seat 's stability in the event of a collision.
The consumer group Which? is calling on manufacturers and retailers to phase out backless boosters, as it says they do n't provide enough protection in side - impact crashes and could put children at risk. So while backless booster cushions are better than using no child seat at all, they do not provide adequate protection in all circumstances.
Used for Groups I, II and III.
After reaching one year of age and 20 pounds (9.1 kg), children may travel in forward - facing seats. Most Scandinavian countries require children to sit rear - facing until at least the age of 4 years. This has contributed to Sweden having the lowest rate of children killed in traffic in international comparisons.
By law (in Canada and some US states), children need to be restrained until they are 4 - years old and 40 pounds (18 kg). After the requirement is met, they can move into a booster seat.
All child restraints have an expiration date. On average, most seats expire 6 years from the date of manufacture, although this can vary by manufacturer. Expiration dates are highly debated, with proponents and manufacturers claiming that older car seats can degrade over time to be less effective and that changing laws and regulations necessitate an expiration date. In addition, maintenance and parts are often not available for older models. Opponents argue that it is simply for their legal protection and to sell more car seats, and point out that manufacturers have noted that the plastics in most car seats long outlast the expiration date.
Like motorcycle and race car helmets, child restraints are tested for use in just one crash event. This means that if the restraint is compromised in any way (with or without the child in it), owners are strongly suggested to replace it. This is due to the uncertainty with how a compromised child restraint will perform in subsequent crashes.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) provides guidance on the reuse of child restraint systems after a crash. Replacement of child restraints is recommended following a moderate or severe crash in order to ensure a continued high level of protection for child passengers. However, recent studies demonstrate that child restraints can withstand minor crash impacts without any documented degradation in subsequent performance.
A minor crash is defined by the NHTSA as one in which all of the following apply:
Crashes that meet all of these criteria are much less severe than the dynamic testing requirement for compliance with Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) 213 and are highly unlikely to affect future child safety seat performance.
Child restraints are sometimes the subject of manufacturing recalls. Recalls vary in severity; sometimes the manufacturer will send an additional part for the seat, other times they will provide an entirely new seat.
The purchase of a used seat is not recommended. Due to the aforementioned concerns regarding expiry dates, crash testing, and recalls, it is often impossible to determine the history of the child restraint when it is purchased second - hand.
Children traveling by plane are safer in a child safety seat than in a parent 's arms. The FAA and the AAP recommend that all children under 40 lb use a child safety seat on a plane. Booster seats can not be used on airplanes because they do n't have shoulder belts.
Parents should not put children into safety seats with thick winter coats on. The coat will flatten in an accident and the straps will not be snug enough to keep the child safe. An alternative would be placing a coat on the child backwards after buckling the child in.
Straps on the harness should be snug on the child, parents should not be able to pinch the straps away from the shoulders of the child. The straps also need to be placed at the proper height for the child.
A study of car crash data from 16 U.S. states found that children under the age of 3 were 43 % less likely to be injured in a car crash if their car seat was fastened in the center of the back seat rather than on one side. Results were based on data from 4,790 car crashes involving children aged 3 and younger between 1998 and 2006. According to data, the center position was the safest but least used position. However, economist Steven Levitt (see below) has demonstrated that car seats do not reduce fatalities when compared to regular seat belts.
The move from having car seats in the front passenger seat to having them in the back seat, facing backwards, may make it easier for a busy, distracted parent to leave an infant in the car. Each year, between 30 and 50 infants die of heat illness and hypothermia in the United States after being left in a car.
Directive 2003 / 20 / EC of the European Parliament and the Council has mandated the use of child - restraint systems in vehicles effective May 5, 2006. Children less than 135 centimetres (53 in) tall in vehicles must be restrained by an approved child restraint system suitable for the child 's size. In practice, child restraint systems must be able to be fitted to the front, or other rows of seats. Children may not be transported using a rearward - facing child restraint system in a passenger seat protected by a front air bag, unless the air bag has been deactivated.
For a child restraint to be sold or used within any of the 56 UNECE member states it must be approved by the standards of UNECE Regulation 44 / 04, Directive 77 / 541 / EEC or any other subsequent adaptation thereto. In order to be granted ECE R44 approval the child restraint must comply with several design, construction and production conformity standards. If approval is granted the seat can display an orange label with the unique approval license number, the type of approval, the mass group approved for and the details of the manufacturer.
However, until May 9, 2008 member states may have permitted the use of child restraint systems approved in accordance with their national standards. EuroNCAP has developed a child - safety - protection rating to encourage improved designs. Points are awarded for universal child - restraint anchorages ISOFIX, the quality of warning labels and deactivation systems for front - passenger airbags.
2013: New EU I - Size regulation is introduced: "i - Size '' is the name of a new European safety regulation, UNECE Regulation 129 that affects car seats for children under 15 months of age. It came into effect in July 2013 and provides extra protection in several ways, most notably by providing rearward facing travel for children up to 15 months instead of 9 to 12 months, which the previous EU regulation advised. Read more about I - Size. This new regulation is to be phased in between 2013 and 2018 and will be run in parallel to UNECE R44 / 04 until 2018 when it completely supersedes it.
Australian laws regarding infants in motor vehicles were revised on November 9, 2009.
By law every child restraint sold in Australia must carry the Australian Standard AS / NZ1754 sticker (pictured right). Most overseas child restraints, including restraints from Europe and the USA, do not comply with these Standards and can not legally be used in Australia. This also applies for ISOFIX child restraints imported from Europe or the USA.
In Australia there are six different types (Type A to Type F) of child restraints under the mandatory standard. Note: these restraints are NOT based on weight but on HEIGHT. All car seats with the AS / NZ1754 sticker will have height markers. These markers show clearly for what height the seat is appropriate.
The six types are:
Combination Type A / B: Child restraints can also be a combination of the above types. For example, a Type A / B converter seat.
The responsibility for children under the age of 16 using restraints or safety belts correctly rests with the driver. In Queensland, penalties for drivers not ensuring that passengers under the age of 16 are properly restrained involve a fine of A $300 and three demerit points. In Victoria the penalty is a fine of A $234 and three demerit points. Possible suspension or cancellation of license may also apply.
The Israeli regulation states that a Sal Kal (he: סל קל lit. easy basket) is equal to European group 0 and group 0 + regulations
An Urban legend in Israel states that nursery homes and hospitals will not allow exit with an infant if a SalKal (infant carry one safety seat) is not presented.
NZ Transport Agency governs the rules and sets standards for the health and safety aspects with respect to child restraints in New Zealand. Their guidelines dictate the minimum legal requirements for a New Zealand vehicle from the safety perspective. The correct fitting of a car seat can protect individuals and can be a lifesaver. This page provides details on qualified seat installation processes and approved standardized marks to look out for in child restraints. The Agency trains and certifies NZTA certified child restraint technicians who are authorized to install child safety seats.
Special rules apply to children travelling in vehicles first registered (in New Zealand or elsewhere) before 1 November 1979 since these vehicles are not required to be fitted with seat belts on all seats.
All child restraints must meet the standards set by the NZ Transport Agency. There are different marks to indicate this approval from the safety perspective. Approved marks / symbols are shown in the table below:
The number after ' E ' in the ECE 44 standard indicates as to which country certifies the child restraint. Hence the number differs between countries. The EU (European Union) also has similar symbols to indicate safety standards for children travelling in a vehicle.
From September 18, 2006, All children under the age of 12 have to use some form of child car seat, unless they are taller than 135 cm (4 ft 5in).
Though there are hundreds of variations of makes and models in the world of child safety seats, the materials used in the manufacturing process are basically the same. Factories in which the seats are put together receive loads of polypropylene pellets. Foam makes up the padding of the individual seats, while vinyl and fabrics are used to make up the covers for the seats as well as the harnesses.
A safety seat increases the safety of a properly restrained child in the case of a motor vehicle accident. The safety seat includes foam padding, fabric covers, a harness, and buckles or attaching mechanisms. Labels and instructions are also attached. Every child safety seat will have an expiration date on it. The Safe Kids USA organization does not recommend using a child safety seat that is more than 6 years old. Periodically, child safety seats are recalled by manufacturers for safety reasons. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration posts a link to recent recall information at nhtsa.gov.
There are different types of child safety seats for children of different sizes and ages.
Manufacturers have quality controls to ensure seats are properly put together and packaged. However, it is not guaranteed that the included instructions are always adhered to and correctly followed. Up to 95 % of the safety seats that are installed may not be the right seat for the child, may be hooked into the vehicle loosely, may be hooked with an incompatible belt in the vehicle, may have harnesses incorrectly fastened in some way, or may be incorrectly placed in front of air bags. In 1997, six out of ten children who were killed in vehicle crashes were not correctly restrained.
Along with the problem of instructions not being followed properly, there are other hazards that can affect children involving these safety seats. A recent study attributed many cases of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) to the prolonged sitting or lying position these infants are in when putting the safety seats to use. When researchers reviewed more than 500 infant deaths, it was found that 17 of these deaths occurred while the infant was in a device such as a child safety seat. The age of the most occurring rates of death by SIDS in a child safety device was found to be under one month, having six of the 17 deaths happen in this age group. Although SIDS has been found to be a high risk regarding child safety seats, a coroner in Quebec also stated that "putting infants in car seats... causes breathing problems and should be discouraged. '' His warning came after the death of a two - month - old boy who was left to nap in a child safety seat positioned inside his crib rather than the crib itself. The death was linked to positional asphyxiation. This means that the child was in a position causing him to slowly lose his supply of oxygen. Coroner Jacques Robinson said it 's common for a baby 's head to slump forward while in a car seat that is not properly installed in a car and that can diminish a baby 's ability to take in oxygen. "The car seat is for the car, '' he said. "It 's not for a bed or sleeping. '' Robinson added, however, he has nothing against car seats when they are properly used. The coroner said that it is common for a baby 's head to "slump forward while in a car seat and that it diminishes oxygen ''.
The American Academy of Pediatrics says to "make sure the seat is at the correct angle so your infant 's head does not flop forward. Many seats have angle indicators or adjusters that can help prevent this. If your seat does not have an angle adjuster, tilt the car safety seat back by putting a rolled towel or other firm padding (such as a pool noodle) under the base near the point where the back and bottom of the vehicle seat meet. '' Safety seats come with an instruction booklet with additional information on the appropriate angle for the seat.
There has been some criticism of forward - facing child safety seats, in particular by the economist Steven D. Levitt, author of the popular book Freakonomics. In a 2005 article in the New York Times, Levitt suggests that the available data does not support the necessity of forward - facing child safety seats for children over two years old, arguing that the cheaper and simpler alternative of seat belts offers similar protection as forward - facing seats. Levitt was a guest at the TED conference in the same year, and gave a lecture making the same case. Levitt 's study and findings have been criticized and refuted by subsequent peer reviewed studies, which found child safety seats offer a considerable safety advantage over seat belts alone.
|
who does the voice for mickey mouse clubhouse | Mickey Mouse Clubhouse - Wikipedia
Mickey Mouse Clubhouse is an American computer - animated interactive children 's television series which aired from May 5, 2006 to November 6, 2016. The series, Disney Television Animation 's first computer animated series, is aimed at preschoolers. Bobs Gannaway, the Disney veteran who created it, is also responsible for other preschool shows, such as Jake and the Never Land Pirates and for DisneyToon Studios films including Secret of the Wings, The Pirate Fairy, and Planes: Fire & Rescue. The final episode aired on November 6, 2016.
Mickey, Minnie, Donald, Daisy, Goofy, Pluto, and a mechanical assistant "Mouseketool '' called Toodles, interact with the viewer to stimulate problem solving during each episode 's story. Disney says that each episode has the characters help children "solve a specific age - appropriate problem utilizing basic math skills, such as identifying shapes and counting through ten ''. The series uses "Disney Junior 's ' whole child ' curriculum of cognitive, social and creative learning opportunities ''. Once the problem of the episode has been explained, Mickey invites viewers to join him at the Mousekadoer, a giant Mickey - head - shaped computer whose main function is to distribute the day 's Mouseketools, a collection of objects needed to solve the day 's problem, to Mickey, one of them being a "Mystery Mouskatool '' represented by a question mark, which, when the words "Mystery Mouskatool '' are said, and the question mark change into the Mouseketool you get to use. Once the tools have been shown to Mickey on the Mousekadoer screen, they are quickly downloaded to Toodles, a small, Mickey - head - shaped flying extension of the Mousekedoer. By calling, "Oh Toodles! '' Mickey summons him to pop up from where he is hiding and fly up to the screen so the viewer can pick which tool Mickey needs for the current situation. The show features two original songs performed by American alternative rock band They Might Be Giants, including the opening theme song, in which a variant of a Mickey Mouse Club chant ("Meeska Mooska Mickey Mouse! '') is used to summon the Clubhouse. They Might Be Giants also perform the song used at the end of the show, "Hot Dog! '' which echoes Mickey 's first spoken words in the 1929 short The Karnival Kid. This is the first time the major Disney characters have regularly appeared on television in computer - animated form. The characters debuted in CG form in 2003 at the Magic Kingdom theme park attraction Mickey 's PhilharMagic, then in the 2004 home video Mickey 's Twice Upon a Christmas.
Bill Farmer, the voice actor for Goofy and Pluto, stated in February 2014 that the recording of dialogue for new episodes has ceased, but that "it will be quite a while before the show runs out of new episodes for TV. We have been on the air consistently since 2006 and we started recording in 2004. So there is always a long lead - in time between recording and seeing it on TV. So do n't worry more is still to come, we just are not making any more ''.
Mickey Mouse Clubhouse received mixed to positive reviews, Common Sense Media rated the show a 4 out of 5 stars, stating "Parents need to know that Mickey Mouse Clubhouse is a lively series designed to help preschoolers acquire problem - solving and early mathematics skills -- and does so in a fun, exciting way. Although the show is very learning - focused, it 's engaging without being intimidating ''.
Minnie 's Bow - Toons is a spinoff series which premiered in the fall of 2011 on Disney Channel. It usually airs in the daytime Disney Junior programming block for younger audiences. It is based on the Mickey Mouse Clubhouse episode "Minnie 's Bow - tique '' and depicts Minnie 's continuing adventures in business as proprietor of her own store which makes and sells bows for apparel and interior decoration. She interacts with many of the characters seen in the Mickey Mouse Clubhouse series.
A second spin - off, Mickey and the Roadster Racers, debuted in January 2017.
|
list of all credit unions in the us | List of Credit unions in the United States - wikipedia
This is a list of credit unions in the United States, in which mostly notable credit unions and related organizations are included. A credit union is a member - owned financial cooperative, democratically controlled by its members, and operated for the purpose of promoting thrift, providing credit at competitive rates, and providing other financial services to its members. Credit unions in the United States may either be chartered by the federal government or a state government. The National Credit Union Administration is the U.S. independent federal agency that supervises and charters federal credit unions. As of 2016, in the United States, there were 5,757 credit unions with 103.992 million members comprising 45.4 percent of the economically active population.
|
why is there a moon on the outhouse door | Outhouse - wikipedia
An outhouse, also known by many other names, is a small structure, separate from a main building, which covers one or more toilets. This is typically either a pit latrine (long drop) or a bucket toilet, but other forms of dry (non-flushing) toilets may be encountered. The term may also be used to denote the toilet itself, not just the superstructure.
Outhouses were in use in cities of developed countries (e.g. Australia) well into the second half of the twentieth century. They are still common in rural areas and also in cities of developing countries. Outhouses that are covering pit latrines in densely populated areas can cause groundwater pollution.
In some localities and varieties of English, particularly outside North America, the term "outhouse '' refers not to a toilet, but to outbuildings in a general sense: sheds, barns, workshops, etc.
Outhouses vary in design and construction. They are by definition outside the dwelling, and are not connected to plumbing, sewer, or septic system. The World Health Organization recommends they be built a reasonable distance from the house balancing issues of easy access versus that of smell.
The superstructure exists to shelter the user, and also to protect the toilet itself. The primary purpose of the building is for privacy and human comfort, and the walls and roof provide a visual screen and some protection from the elements. The outhouse also has the secondary role of protecting the toilet hole from sudden influxes of rainwater, which would flood the hole and flush untreated wastes into the underlying soils before they can decompose.
Outhouses are commonly humble and utilitarian, made of lumber or plywood. This is especially so they can easily be moved when the earthen pit fills up. Depending on the size of the pit and the amount of use, this can be fairly frequent, sometimes yearly. As pundit "Jackpine '' Bob Cary wrote: "Anyone can build an outhouse, but not everyone can build a good outhouse. '' Floor plans typically are rectangular or square, but hexagonal outhouses have been built.
The arrangements inside the outhouse vary by culture. In Western societies, many, though not all, have at least one seat with a hole in it, above a small pit. Others, often in more rural, older areas in European countries, simply have a hole with two indents on either side for your feet. In Eastern societies, there is a hole in the floor, over which the user crouches. A roll of toilet paper is usually available. Old corn cobs, leaves, or other types of paper may instead be used.
The decoration on the outhouse door has no standard. The well - known crescent moon on American outhouses was popularized by cartoonists and had a questionable basis in fact. There are authors who claim the practice began during the colonial period as an early "mens '' / "ladies '' designation for an illiterate populace (the sun and moon being popular symbols for the sexes during those times). Others dismiss the claim as an urban legend. What is certain is that the purpose of the hole is for venting and light and there were a wide variety of shapes and placements employed.
The shelter may cover very different sorts of toilets.
An outhouse often provides the shelter for a pit latrine, which collects human feces in a hole in the ground. When properly built and maintained they can decrease the spread of disease by reducing the amount of human feces in the environment from open defecation. When the pit fills to the top, it should be either emptied or a new pit constructed and the shelter moved or re-built at the new location. The management of the fecal sludge removed from the pit is complicated. There are both environment and health risks if not done properly. As of 2013 pit latrines are used by an estimated 1.77 billion people. This is mostly in the developing world as well as in rural and wilderness areas.
Another system is the bucket toilet, consisting of a seat and a portable receptacle (bucket or pail). These may be emptied by their owners into composting piles in the garden (a low - tech composting toilet), or collected by contractors for larger - scale disposal. Historically, this was known as the pail closet; the municipality employed workers, often known as "nightmen '' (from night soil), to empty and replace the buckets. This system was associated in particular with the English town of Rochdale, to the extent that it was described as the "Rochdale System '' of sanitation. 20th century books report that similar systems were in operation in parts of France and elsewhere in continental Europe.
The system of municipal collection was widespread in Australia; "dunny cans '' persisted well into the second half of the twentieth century, see below. In Scandinavia and some other countries, outhouses are built over removable containers that enable easy removal of the waste and enable much more rapid composting in separate piles. A similar system operates in India, where hundreds of thousands of workers engage in manual scavenging, i.e. emptying pit latrines and bucket toilets without any personal protective equipment.
A variety of systems are used in some national parks and popular wilderness areas, to cope with the increased volume of people engaged in activities such as mountaineering and kayaking. The growing popularity of paddling, hiking, and climbing has created special waste disposal issues throughout the world. It is a dominant topic for outdoor organizations and their members. For example, in some places the human waste is collected in drums which need to be helicoptered in and out at considerable expense.
Alternatively, some parks mandate a "pack it in, pack it out '' rule. Many reports document the use of containers for the removal of excrement, which must be packed in and packed out on Mount Everest. Also known as "expedition barrels '' or "bog barrels '', the cans are weighed to make sure that groups do not dump them along the way. "Toilet tents '' are erected. There has been an increasing awareness that the mountain needs to be kept clean, for the health of the climbers at least.
Worm hold privies, another variant of the composting toilet, are being used by Vermont 's Green Mountain Club. These simple outhouses are stocked with red worms (a staple used by home composters). Despite their environmental benefits, composting toilets are likewise subject to regulations.
The "Clivus Multrum '' is another type of composting toilet which can be inside of an outhouse.
There are other types of toilet that may be covered by an outhouse superstructure, or a toilet tent (e.g. in humanitarian relief operations), or even be installed inside a house that is beyond the reach of sewers. The Swedish Pacto toilet uses a continuous roll of plastic to collect and dispose of waste. Incinerating toilets are installed in several thousand cabins in Norway. These toilets incinerate waste into ashes, using only propane and 12 volt electricity.
Outhouse design, placement, and maintenance has long been recognized as being important to the public health. See posters created by the Works Progress Administration.
Some types of flying insects such as the housefly are attracted to the odor of decaying material, and will use it for food for their offspring, laying eggs in the decaying material. Other insects such as mosquitoes seek out standing water that may be present in the pit for the breeding of their offspring.
Both of these are undesirable pests to humans, but can be easily controlled without chemicals by enclosing the top of the pit with tight - fitting boards or concrete, using a sufficiently sealed toilet hole cover that is closed after every use, and by using fine - grid insect screen to cover the inlet and outlet vent holes. This prevents flying insect entry by all potential routes.
It is common (at least in the United States) for outhouses to have a bucket or a bag of powdered lime with a scoop of some kind in it. Either before or after using the outhouse (usually after but sometimes both) a scoop or two of lime was sprinkled into the lid holes to cover the waste as to suppress the odor which also can help with the insect issues. This method of using powdered lime was also used (and for the same reasons) in common / mass graves.
One of the purposes of outhouses is to avoid spreading parasites such as intestinal worms, notably hookworms, which might otherwise be spread via open defecation.
Old outhouse pits are seen as excellent places for archeological and anthropological excavations, offering up a trove of common objects from the past -- a veritable inadvertent time capsule -- which yields historical insight into the lives of the bygone occupants. This is also called privy digging. It is especially common to find old bottles, which seemingly were secretly stashed or trashed, so their content could be privately imbibed. Fossilised feces (coprolites) yield much information about diet and health.
"Dunny '' or "dunny can '' are Australian and New Zealand words for a toilet, particularly an outhouse. For other uses of the word, see Dunny (disambiguation).
In suburban areas not connected to the sewerage, outhouses were not always built over pits. Instead, these areas utilized a pail closet, where waste was collected into large cans positioned under the toilet seat, to be collected by contractors (or night soil collectors) hired by property owners or the local council. The used cans were replaced with empty, cleaned cans. Brisbane relied on "dunny carts '' until the 1950s (one source says until the 1970s); because the population was so dispersed, it was difficult to install sewerage. Tar, creosote, and disinfectant kept the smell down. Academic George Seddon claimed that "the typical Australian back yard in the cities and country towns '' had, throughout the first half of the twentieth century, "a dunny against the back fence, so that the pan could be collected from the dunny lane through a trap - door '' The person who appeared weekly to empty the buckets beneath the seats was known as the "dunnyman '', see gong farmer.
The "dunny lanes '' provided access to collectors. These access lanes can now be worth considerable sums see Ransom strip.
The Great Australian Dunny Race has become an icon during the Weerama Festival at Werribee.
The remains of a thousand year old Viking outhouse were discovered in 2017. This is the oldest known outhouse in the country, even though evidence can not establish it to be "the first. '' This discovery was considered to be culturally significant.
Outhouses are typically built on one level, but two - story models are to be found in unusual circumstances. One double - decker was built to serve a two - story building in Cedar Lake, Michigan. The outhouse was connected by walkways. It still stands (but not the building). The waste from "upstairs '' is directed down a chute separate from the "downstairs '' facility in these instances, so contrary to various jokes about two - story outhouses, the user of the lower level has nothing to fear if the upper level is in use at the same time. The Boston Exchange Coffee House (1809 -- 1818) was equipped with a four - story outhouse with windows on each floor
Some outhouses were built surprisingly ornately, considering the time and the place. For example, an opulent 19th century antebellum example (a three - holer) is at the plantation area at the state park in Stone Mountain, Georgia. The outhouses of Colonial Williamsburg varied widely, from simple expendable temporary wood structures to high - style brick. Thomas Jefferson designed and had built two brick octagons at his vacation home. Such outhouses are sometimes considered to be overbuilt, impractical and ostentatious, giving rise to the simile "built like a brick shithouse. '' That phrase 's meaning and application is subject to some debate; but (depending upon the country) it has been applied to men, women, or inanimate objects.
With regards to anal cleansing, old newspapers and mail order catalogs, such as those from Montgomery Ward or Sears Roebuck, were common before toilet paper was widely available. Paper was often kept in a can or other container to protect it from mice, etc. The catalogs served a dual purpose, also giving one something to read.
These outdoor toilets are referred to by many terms throughout the English - speaking world. It is not always easy to determine whether a given term was restricted to an outdoor toilet, or whether the meaning had extended, over time and with the development of indoor plumbing, to any toilet. The term "outhouse '' is used in North American English for the structure over a toilet, usually a pit latrine ("long drop ''). However, in British English "outhouse '' means any outbuilding, such as a shed or barn.
"Privy '', an archaic variant of "private '', is used in North America, Scotland, and northern England. "Bog '' is common throughout Britain (used to coin the neologism "tree bog ''). In Australia and New Zealand, an outdoor toilet is known as a "dunny ''. The name "little house '' (as ty bach) continues as a euphemism for any toilet in both the Welsh language and the Welsh English dialect. Other terms include "back house '', "house of ease '', and "house of office ''. The last was common in 17th - century England and appeared in Samuel Pepys 's Diary on numerous occasions.
In the Scouting Movement in North America, a widespread term for outhouse is "kybo ''. This appears to have originated from camps which used Kybo brand coffee cans to hold lye or lime which was sprinkled down the hole to reduce odor. "Keep Your Bowels Open '' may be a backronym. Temporary encampments may use a tent or tarpaulin over a shallow pit; one name for this is a "hudo ''.
Tsi - Ku, also known as Tsi Ku Niang, is described as the Chinese goddess of the outhouse and divination. It is said that a woman could uncover the future by going to the outhouse to ask Tsi - Ku. See toilet god.
Construction and maintenance of outhouses in the US is subject to state and local governmental restriction, regulation and prohibition. It is potentially both a public health issue, which has been addressed both by law and by education of the public as to good methods and practices (e.g., separation from drinking water sources). This also becomes a more prevalent issue as urban and suburban development encroaches on rural areas, and is an external manifestation of a deeper cultural conflict. See also urban sprawl, urban planning, regional planning, suburbanization, urbanization and counterurbanization.
An outhouse display in an Old West setting on a Colorado ranch
Outhouse used in the 19th century: Manistee Ranch in Glendale, Arizona, US
Outhouse used in the 19th century: Sahuaro Ranch in Glendale, Arizona, US
Triple - seated outhouse, Wauchope, New South Wales, Australia
Outhouse at Walcha, New South Wales, Australia
|
where was monty python life of brian filmed | Monty Python 's Life of Brian - wikipedia
Monty Python 's Life of Brian, also known as Life of Brian, is a 1979 British religious satire comedy film starring and written by the comedy group Monty Python (Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Terry Gilliam, Eric Idle, Terry Jones and Michael Palin). It was also directed by Jones. The film tells the story of Brian Cohen (played by Chapman), a young Jewish man who is born on the same day as, and next door to, Jesus Christ, and is subsequently mistaken for the Messiah.
Following the withdrawal of funding by EMI Films just days before production was scheduled to begin, long - time Monty Python fan and former member of the Beatles, George Harrison, arranged financing for Life of Brian through the formation of his company HandMade Films.
The film contains themes of religious satire that were controversial at the time of its release, drawing accusations of blasphemy, and protests from some religious groups. Thirty - nine local authorities in the United Kingdom either imposed an outright ban, or imposed an X (18 years) certificate, effectively preventing the film from being shown, since the distributors said it could not be shown unless it was unedited and carried the original AA (14) certificate. Some countries, including Ireland and Norway, banned its showing, with a few of these bans lasting decades. The filmmakers used such notoriety to benefit their marketing campaign, with posters in Sweden reading, "So funny, it was banned in Norway! ''
The film was a box office success, the fourth - highest - grossing film in the United Kingdom in 1979, and highest grosser of any British film in the United States that year. It has remained popular, receiving positive reviews. The film was named "greatest comedy film of all time '' by several magazines and television networks, and it would later receive a 96 % "Fresh '' rating on Rotten Tomatoes with the consensus, "One of the more cutting - edge films of the 1970s, this religious farce from the classic comedy troupe is as poignant as it is funny and satirical. ''
Brian Cohen is born in a stable next door to the one in which Jesus is born, which initially confuses the three wise men who come to praise the future King of the Jews. Brian grows up an idealistic young man who resents the continuing Roman occupation of Judea. While attending Jesus ' Sermon on the Mount, Brian becomes infatuated with an attractive young rebel, Judith. His desire for her and hatred for the Romans lead him to join the "People 's Front of Judea '', one of many fractious and bickering independence movements, who spend more time fighting each other than the Romans.
After several misadventures, and escaping from Pontius Pilate, Brian winds up in a line - up of would - be mystics and prophets who harangue the passing crowd in a plaza. Forced to come up with something plausible in order to blend in and keep the guards off his back, Brian repeats some of what he had heard Jesus say, and quickly attracts a small but intrigued audience. Once the guards have left, Brian tries to put the episode behind him, but he has unintentionally inspired a movement. He grows frantic when he finds that some people have started to follow him around, with even the slightest unusual occurrence being hailed as a miracle. Their responses grow in fervour and intensity, making it harder and harder for him to get away from them, yet because of the mob 's excitement over the ' miracles ' they discover, they ultimately end up completely ignoring Brian himself. Judith is the only one that does n't leave; Brian and Judith then spend the night together. In the morning, Brian, completely naked, opens the curtains to discover an enormous crowd outside his mother 's house which proclaims him to be the Messiah. Brian 's mother protests, telling the crowd that "He 's not the Messiah, he 's a very naughty boy '' and, "There 's no Messiah in here. There 's a mess, all right, but no Messiah. '' All of her attempts at dispersing the crowd are rebuffed. Furthermore, once Brian addresses them, he also finds that he is unable to change their minds. His followers are completely committed to their belief in Brian 's divinity. They immediately seize upon everything he says and does as points of doctrine.
The hapless Brian is unable to escape his unwanted ' disciples '; even his mother 's house is surrounded by an enormous, enraptured crowd. They fling their afflicted bodies at him, demanding miracle cures and divine secrets. After sneaking out the back, Brian is then finally captured and scheduled to be crucified. Meanwhile, yet another huge crowd has assembled outside the palace. Pontius Pilate (together with the visiting Biggus Dickus) tries to quell the feeling of revolution by granting them the choice of one person to be pardoned. The crowd, however, shouts out names containing the letter "r '', mocking Pilate 's rhotacistic speech impediment. Eventually, Judith appears in the crowd and calls for the release of Brian, which the crowd echoes since the name also contains an "r ''. Pilate agrees to "welease Bwian ''.
His order is eventually relayed to the guards, but in a scene that parodies the climax of the film Spartacus, various crucified people all claim to be "Brian of Nazareth '' and the wrong man is released. Various other opportunities for a reprieve for Brian are denied as, one by one, his "allies '' (including Judith and his mother) step forward to explain why they are leaving the "noble freedom fighter '' hanging in the hot sun. Hope is renewed when a crack suicide squad from the "Judean People 's Front '' (not to be confused with the People 's Front of Judea) come charging towards the Romans, but rather than fighting to release Brian or the other prisoners, they commit mass suicide as a political protest. Condemned to a long and painful death, Brian finds his spirits lifted by his fellow sufferers, who break into song with "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life. ''
Several characters remained unnamed during the film but do have names that are used in the soundtrack album track listing and elsewhere. There is no mention in the film of the fact that Eric Idle 's ever - cheerful joker is called ' Mr Cheeky ', or that the Roman guard played by Michael Palin is named ' Nisus Wettus '.
Spike Milligan plays a prophet, ignored because his acolytes are chasing after Brian. By coincidence he was visiting his old World War II battlefields in Tunisia where the film was being made. The Pythons were alerted to this one morning and he was promptly included in the scene that just happened to be being filmed. He disappeared again in the afternoon before he could be included in any of the close - up or publicity shots for the film.
There are various stories about the origins of Life of Brian. Shortly after the release of Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975), Eric Idle flippantly suggested that the title of the Pythons ' forthcoming feature would be Jesus Christ -- Lust for Glory (a play on the UK title for the 1970 American film Patton). This was after he had become frustrated at repeatedly being asked what it would be called, despite the troupe not having given the matter of a third film any consideration. However, they shared a distrust of organised religion, and, after witnessing the critically acclaimed Holy Grail 's enormous financial turnover, confirming an appetite among the fans for more cinematic endeavours, they began to seriously consider a film lampooning the New Testament era in the same way that Holy Grail had lampooned Arthurian legend. All they needed was an idea for a plot. Eric Idle and Terry Gilliam, while promoting Holy Grail in Amsterdam, had come up with a sketch in which Jesus ' cross is falling apart because of the idiotic carpenters who built it and he angrily tells them how to do it correctly. However, after an early brainstorming stage, and despite being non-believers, they agreed that Jesus was "definitely a good guy '' and found nothing to mock in his actual teachings: "He 's not particularly funny, what he 's saying is n't mockable, it 's very decent stuff '', said Idle later. After settling on the name Brian for their new protagonist, one idea considered was that of "the 13th disciple ''. The focus eventually shifted to a separate individual born at a similar time and location who would be mistaken for the Messiah, but had no desire to be followed as such.
Writing began in December 1976, with a first draft completed by mid-1977. The final pre-production draft was ready in January 1978, following "a concentrated two - week writing and water - skiing period in Barbados ''. The film would not have been made without Python fan former Beatle George Harrison, who set up HandMade Films to help fund it at a cost of £ 3 million. Harrison put up the money for it as he "wanted to see the movie '' (this was later described by Terry Jones as the "world 's most expensive cinema ticket ''). The original backers, EMI Films, had been scared off at the last minute by the subject matter, particularly Bernard Delfont. The very last words in the film are: "I said to him, ' Bernie, they 'll never make their money back on this one ' '', teasing Delfont for his lack of faith in the project. Terry Gilliam later said, "They pulled out on the Thursday. The crew was supposed to be leaving on the Saturday. Disastrous. It was because they read the script... finally. '' As a reward for his help, Harrison appears in a cameo appearance as Mr. Papadopoulos, "owner of the Mount '', who briefly shakes hands with Brian in a crowd scene (at 1: 09 in the film). His one word of dialogue (a cheery but out of place Scouse "' ullo '') had to be dubbed in later.
Terry Jones was solely responsible for directing, having amicably agreed with Gilliam (who co-directed Holy Grail) that Jones ' approach to film - making was better suited for Python 's general performing style. Holy Grail 's production had often been stilted by their differences behind the camera. Gilliam again contributed two animated sequences (one being the opening credits) and took charge of set design. However, this did not put an absolute end to their feuding. On the DVD commentary, Gilliam expresses pride in one set in particular, the main hall of Pilate 's fortress, which had been designed so that it looked like an old Judean temple that the Romans had converted by dumping their structural artefacts (such as marble floors and columns) on top. He reveals his consternation at Jones for not paying enough attention to it in the cinematography. Gilliam also worked on the matte paintings, useful in particular for the very first shot of the three wise men against a star - scape and in giving the illusion of the whole of the outside of the fortress being covered in graffiti. Perhaps the most significant contribution from Gilliam was the scene in which Brian accidentally leaps off a high building and lands inside a starship about to engage in an interstellar war. This was done "in camera '' using a hand - built model starship and miniature pyrotechnics, likely influenced by the then recently released Star Wars. Afterwards, George Lucas met Terry Gilliam in San Francisco and praised him for his work.
The film was shot on location in Monastir, Tunisia, which allowed the production to reuse sets from Franco Zeffirelli 's Jesus of Nazareth (1977). The Tunisian shoot was documented by Iain Johnstone for his BBC film The Pythons. Many locals were employed as extras on Life of Brian. Director Jones noted, "They were all very knowing because they 'd all worked for Franco Zeffirelli on Jesus of Nazareth, so I had these elderly Tunisians telling me, ' Well, Mr Zeffirelli would n't have done it like that, you know. ' '' Further location shooting took place in Sousse (Jerusalem outer walls and gateway), Carthage (Roman amphitheatre) and Matmata, Tunisia (Sermon on the Mount and Crucifixion). Graham Chapman, suffering from alcoholism, was so determined to play the lead role -- at one point coveted by Cleese -- that he dried out in time for filming, so much so that he also acted as the on - set doctor. Following shooting between 16 September and 12 November 1978, a two - hour rough cut of the film was put together for its first private showing in January 1979. Over the next few months Life of Brian was re-edited and re-screened a number of times for different preview audiences, losing a number of entire filmed sequences (see § Lost scenes below).
Richard Webster comments in A Brief History of Blasphemy (1990) that "internalised censorship played a significant role in the handling '' of Monty Python 's Life of Brian. In his view, "As a satire on religion, this film might well be considered a rather slight production. As blasphemy it was, even in its original version, extremely mild. Yet the film was surrounded from its inception by intense anxiety, in some quarters of the Establishment, about the offence it might cause. As a result it gained a certificate for general release only after some cuts had been made. Perhaps more importantly still, the film was shunned by the BBC and ITV, who declined to show it for fear of offending Christians in the UK. Once again a blasphemy was restrained -- or its circulation effectively curtailed -- not by the force of law but by the internalisation of this law. '' On its initial release in the UK, the film was banned by several town councils -- some of which had no cinemas within their boundaries, or had not even seen the film. A member of Harrogate council, one of those that banned the film, revealed during a television interview that the council had not seen the film, and had based their opinion on what they had been told by the Nationwide Festival of Light, a grouping with an evangelical Christian base, of which they knew nothing.
Some bans continued into the 21st century. In 2008, Torbay Council finally permitted the film to be shown after it won an online vote for the English Riviera International Comedy Film Festival. In 2009, it was announced that a thirty - year - old ban of the film in the Welsh town of Aberystwyth had finally been lifted, and the subsequent showing was attended by Terry Jones and Michael Palin alongside mayor Sue Jones - Davies (who portrayed Judith Iscariot in the film). However, before the showing, an Aberystwyth University student discovered that a ban had only been discussed by the council and in fact that it had been shown (or scheduled to be shown) at a cinema in the town in 1981. In 2013, a German official in the state of North Rhine - Westphalia considered the film to be possibly offensive to Christians and hence subject to a local regulation prohibiting its public screening on Good Friday, despite protests by local atheists.
In New York (the film 's release in the US preceded British distribution), screenings were picketed by both rabbis and nuns ("Nuns with banners! '' observed Michael Palin). It was also banned for eight years in Ireland and for a year in Norway (it was marketed in Sweden as "The film so funny that it was banned in Norway ''). During the film 's theatrical run in Finland, a text explaining that the film was a parody of Hollywood historical epics was added to the opening credits.
In the UK, Mary Whitehouse, and other traditionalist Christians, pamphleteered and picketed locations where the local cinema was screening the film, a campaign that was felt to have boosted publicity. Leaflets arguing against the film 's representation of the New Testament (for example, suggesting that the Wise Men would not have approached the wrong stable as they do in the opening of the film) were documented in Robert Hewison 's book Monty Python: The Case Against.
One of the most controversial scenes was the film 's ending: Brian 's crucifixion. Many Christian protesters said that it was mocking Jesus ' suffering by turning it into a "Jolly Boys Outing '' (such as when Mr Cheeky turns to Brian and says: "See, not so bad once you 're up! ''), capped by Brian 's fellow sufferers suddenly bursting into song. This is also reinforced by the fact that several characters throughout the film claim crucifixion is not as bad as it seems, such as when Brian asks his cellmate in prison what will happen to him, and he replies: "Oh, you 'll probably get away with crucifixion '', and when Matthias, the old man who works with the PFJ, dismisses crucifixion as "a doddle '' and says being stabbed would be worse. The director, Terry Jones, issued the following riposte to this criticism: "Any religion that makes a form of torture into an icon that they worship seems to me a pretty sick sort of religion quite honestly. '' Religious figures later responded by saying that Jones did not seem to understand the meaning of the crucifix symbol or its significance to Christians as a reminder of the suffering and death Christ endured for their sake. The Pythons also argued that crucifixion was a standard form of execution in ancient times and not just one especially reserved for Jesus.
The Pythons prided themselves on the depths of the historical research they had taken before writing the script. They all believe that, as a consequence, the film portrays 1st - century Judea more accurately than actual Biblical epics, with its focus centred more on the average person of the era.
Shortly after the film was released, Cleese and Palin engaged in debate on the BBC2 discussion programme Friday Night, Saturday Morning with Malcolm Muggeridge and Mervyn Stockwood, the Bishop of Southwark, who put forward arguments against the film. Muggeridge and the Bishop, it was later claimed, had arrived 15 minutes late to see a screening of the picture prior to the debate, missing the establishing scenes demonstrating that Brian and Jesus were two different characters, and hence contended that it was a send - up of Christ himself. Both Pythons later felt that there had been a strange role reversal in the manner of the debate, with two young upstart comedians attempting to make serious, well - researched points, while the Establishment figures engaged in cheap jibes and point scoring. They also expressed disappointment in Muggeridge, whom all in Python had previously respected as a satirist (he had recently converted to Christianity after meeting Mother Teresa and experiencing what he described as a miracle). Cleese expressed that his reputation had "plummeted '' in his eyes, while Palin commented that, "He was just being Muggeridge, preferring to have a very strong contrary opinion as opposed to none at all. '' Muggeridge 's verdict on the film was that it was "Such a tenth - rate film that it could n't possibly destroy anyone 's genuine faith. ''
The Pythons unanimously deny that they were ever out to destroy people 's faith. On the DVD audio commentary, they contend that the film is heretical because it lampoons the practices of modern organised religion, but that it does not blasphemously lampoon the God that Christians and Jews worship. When Jesus does appear in the film (on the Mount, speaking the Beatitudes), he is played straight (by actor Kenneth Colley) and portrayed with respect. The music and lighting make it clear that there is a genuine aura around him. The comedy begins when members of the crowd mishear his statements of peace, love and tolerance ("I think he said, ' blessed are the cheese makers ' ''). Importantly, he is distinct from the character of Brian, which is also evident in the scene where an annoying and ungrateful ex-leper pesters Brian for money, while moaning that since Jesus cured him, he has lost his source of income in the begging trade (referring to Jesus as a "bloody do - gooder '').
James Crossley, however, has argued that the film makes the distinction between Jesus and the character of Brian to make a contrast between the traditional Christ of both faith and cinema and the historical figure of Jesus in critical scholarship and how critical scholars have argued that ideas later got attributed to Jesus by his followers. Crossley points out that the film uses a number of potentially controversial scholarly theories about Jesus but now with reference to Brian, such as the Messianic Secret, the Jewishness of Jesus, Jesus the revolutionary, and having a single mother.
Not all the Pythons agree on the definition of the movie 's tone. There was a brief exchange that occurred when the surviving members reunited in Aspen, Colorado, in 1998. In the section where Life of Brian is discussed, Terry Jones says, "I think the film is heretical, but it 's not blasphemous. '' Eric Idle can be heard to concur, adding, "It 's a heresy. '' However, John Cleese, disagreeing, counters, "I do n't think it 's a heresy. It 's making fun of the way that people misunderstand the teaching. '' Jones responds, "Of course it 's a heresy, John! It 's attacking the Church! And that has to be heretical. '' Cleese replies, "No, it 's not attacking the Church, necessarily. It 's about people who can not agree with each other. ''
In a later interview, Jones said the film "is n't blasphemous because it does n't touch on belief at all. It is heretical, because it touches on dogma and the interpretation of belief, rather than belief itself. ''
The film continues to cause controversy; in February 2007, the Church of St Thomas the Martyr in Newcastle upon Tyne held a public screening in the church itself, with song - sheets, organ accompaniment, stewards in costume and false beards for female members of the audience (alluding to an early scene where a group of women disguise themselves as men so that they are able to take part in a stoning). Although the screening was a sell - out, some Christian groups, notably the conservative Christian Voice, were highly critical of the decision to allow the screening to go ahead. Stephen Green, the head of Christian Voice, insisted that "You do n't promote Christ to the community by taking the mick out of him. '' The Reverend Jonathan Adams, one of the church 's clergy, defended his taste in comedy, saying that it did not mock Jesus, and that it raised important issues about the hypocrisy and stupidity that can affect religion. Again on the film 's DVD commentary, Cleese also spoke up for religious people who have come forward and congratulated him and his colleagues on the film 's highlighting of double standards among purported followers of their own faith.
The film pokes fun at revolutionary groups and 1970s British left - wing politics. "What the film does do is place modern stereotypes in a historical setting, which enables it to indulge in a number of sharp digs, particularly at trade unionists and guerilla organisations ''. The groups in the film all oppose the Roman occupation of Judea, but fall into the familiar pattern of intense competition among factions that appears, to an outsider, to be over ideological distinctions so small as to be invisible, thus portraying the phenomenon of the narcissism of small differences. Michael Palin says that the various separatist movements were modelled on "modern resistance groups, all with obscure acronyms which they can never remember and their conflicting agendas ''.
The People 's Front of Judea, composed of the Pythons ' characters, harangue their "rivals '' with cries of "splitters '' and stand vehemently opposed to the Judean People 's Front, the Campaign for a Free Galilee, and the Judean Popular People 's Front (the last composed of a single old man, mocking the size of real revolutionary Trotskyist factions). The infighting among revolutionary organisations is demonstrated most dramatically when the PFJ attempts to kidnap Pontius Pilate 's wife, but encounters agents of the Campaign for a Free Galilee, and the two factions begin a violent brawl over which of them conceived of the plan first. When Brian exhorts them to cease their fighting to struggle "against the common enemy, '' the revolutionaries stop and cry in unison, "the Judean People 's Front! '' However, they soon resume their fighting and, with two Roman legionaries watching bemusedly, continue until Brian is left the only survivor, at which point he is captured.
Other scenes have the freedom fighters wasting time in debate, with one of the debated items being that they should not waste their time debating so much. There is also a famous scene in which Reg gives a revolutionary speech asking, "What have the Romans ever done for us? '' at which point the listeners outline all forms of positive aspects of the Roman occupation such as sanitation, medicine, education, wine, public order, irrigation, roads, a fresh water system, public health and peace, followed by "what have the Romans ever done for us except sanitation, medicine, education... ''. Python biographer George Perry notes, "The People 's Liberation Front of Judea conducts its meetings as though they have been convened by a group of shop stewards ''.
A number of scenes were cut during the editing process. Five deleted scenes, a total of 13 minutes, including the controversial "Otto '', were first made available in 1997 on the Criterion Collection Laserdisc. An unknown amount of raw footage was destroyed in 1998 by the company that bought Handmade Films. However, a number of them (of varying quality) were shown the following year on the Paramount Comedy Channel in the UK; it has not been disclosed how these scenes were saved or where they came from; possibly the source was the Criterion laserdisc. The scenes shown included three shepherds discussing sheep and completely missing the arrival of the angel heralding Jesus 's birth, which would have been at the very start of the film; a segment showing the attempted kidnap of Pilate 's wife (a large woman played by John Case) whose escape results in a fistfight; a scene introducing hardline Zionist Otto, leader of the Judean People 's Front (played by Eric Idle) and his men who practise a suicide run in the courtyard; and a brief scene in which Judith releases some birds into the air in an attempt to summon help. The shepherds ' scene has badly distorted sound, and the kidnap scene has poor colour quality. The same scenes that were on the Criterion laserdisc can now be found on the Criterion Collection DVD.
The most controversial cuts were the scenes involving Otto, initially a recurring character, who had a thin Adolf Hitler moustache and spoke with a German accent, shouting accusations of "racial impurity '' at people whose conceptions were similar to Brian 's (Roman centurion rape of native Judean women), and other Nazi phrases. The logo of the Judean People 's Front, designed by Terry Gilliam, was a Star of David with a small line added to each point so it resembled a swastika, most familiar in the West as the symbol of the anti-Semitic Nazi movement. The rest of this faction also all had the same thin moustaches, and wore a spike on their helmets, similar to those on Imperial German helmets. The official reason for the cutting was that Otto 's dialogue slowed down the narrative. However, Gilliam, writing in The Pythons Autobiography by The Pythons, said he thought it should have stayed, saying "Listen, we 've alienated the Christians, let 's get the Jews now ''. Idle himself was said to have been uncomfortable with the character; "It 's essentially a pretty savage attack on rabid Zionism, suggesting it 's rather akin to Nazism, which is a bit strong to take, but certainly a point of view ''. Michael Palin 's personal journal entries from the period when various edits of Brian were being test - screened consistently reference the Pythons ' and filmmakers ' concerns that the Otto scenes were slowing the story down and thus were top of the list to be chopped from the final cut of the film. However, Oxford Brookes University historian David Nash says the removal of the scene represented "a form of self - censorship '' and the Otto sequence "which involved a character representative of extreme forms of Zionism '' was cut "in the interests of smoothing the way for the film 's distribution in America. ''
The only scene with Otto that remains in the film is during the crucifixion sequence. Otto arrives with his "crack suicide squad '', sending the Roman soldiers fleeing in terror. Instead of doing anything useful, they "attack '' by committing mass suicide in front of the cross ("Zat showed ' em, huh? '' says the dying Otto, to which Brian despondently replies "You silly sods! ''), ending Brian 's hope of rescue (they do however show some signs of life during the famous rendition of "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life '' when they are seen waving their toes in unison in time to the music). Terry Jones once mentioned that the only reason this excerpt was not cut too was due to continuity reasons, as their dead bodies were very prominently placed throughout the rest of the scene. He acknowledged that some of the humour of this sole remaining contribution was lost through the earlier edits, but felt they were necessary to the overall pacing.
Otto 's scenes, and those with Pilate 's wife, were cut from the film after the script had gone to the publishers, and so they can be found in the published version of the script. Also present is a scene where, after Brian has led the Fifth Legion to the headquarters of the People 's Front of Judea, Reg (John Cleese) says "You cunt!! You stupid, bird - brained, flat - headed... '' The profanity was overdubbed to "you klutz '' before the film was released. Cleese approved of this editing as he felt the reaction to the four - letter word would "get in the way of the comedy ''.
An early listing of the sequence of sketches reprinted in Monty Python: The Case Against by Robert Hewison reveals that the film was to have begun with a set of sketches at an English public school. Much of this material was first printed in the MONTYPYTHONSCRAPBOOK that accompanied the original script publication of The Life of Brian and then subsequently reused. The song "All Things Dull and Ugly '' and the parody scripture reading "Martyrdom of St. Victor '' were performed on Monty Python 's Contractual Obligation Album (1980). The idea of a violent rugby match between school masters and small boys was filmed in Monty Python 's The Meaning of Life (1983). A sketch about a boy who dies at school appeared on the unreleased The Hastily Cobbled Together for a Fast Buck Album (1981).
For the original British and Australian releases, a spoof travelogue narrated by John Cleese, Away From It All, was shown before the film itself. It consisted mostly of stock travelogue footage and featured arch comments from Cleese. For instance, a shot of Bulgarian girls in ceremonial dresses was accompanied by the comment "Hard to believe, is n't it, that these simple happy folk are dedicated to the destruction of Western Civilisation as we know it! '', Communist Bulgaria being a member of the Warsaw Pact at the time. Not only was this a spoof of travelogues per se, it was a protest against the then common practice in Britain of showing cheaply made banal short features before a main feature.
Life of Brian opened on 17 August 1979 in five North American theatres and grossed US $140,034 ($28,007 per screen) in its opening weekend. Its total gross was $19,398,164. It was the highest grossing British film in North America that year. Released on 8 November 1979 in the UK, the film was the fourth highest - grossing film in Britain in 1979.
On 30 April 2004, Life of Brian was re-released on five North American screens to "cash in '' (as Terry Jones put it) on the box office success of Mel Gibson 's The Passion of the Christ. It grossed $26,376 ($5,275 per screen) in its opening weekend. It ran until October 2004, playing at 28 screens at its widest point, eventually grossing $646,124 during its re-release. By comparison, a re-release of Monty Python and the Holy Grail had earned $1.8 million three years earlier. A DVD of the film was also released that year.
An album was also released by Monty Python in 1979 in conjunction with the film. In addition to the "Brian Song '' and "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life '', it contains scenes from the film with brief linking sections performed by Eric Idle and Graham Chapman. The album opens with a brief rendition of "Hava Nagila '' on Scottish bagpipes. A CD version was released in 1997.
Life of Brian has regularly been cited as a significant contender for the title "greatest comedy film of all time '', and has been named as such in polls conducted by Total Film magazine in 2000, the British TV network Channel 4 in 2006 and The Guardian newspaper in 2007. Rotten Tomatoes lists it as one of the best reviewed comedies, with a 96 % approval rating from 44 published reviews. A 2011 poll by Time Out magazine ranked it as the third greatest comedy film ever made, behind Airplane! and This is Spinal Tap.
The BFI declared Life of Brian to be the 28th best British film of all time, in their equivalent of the original AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies list. It was the seventh highest ranking comedy on this list (four of the better placed efforts were classic Ealing Films). Another Channel 4 poll in 2001 named it the 23rd greatest film of all time (the only comedy that came higher on this occasion was Billy Wilder 's Some Like It Hot, which was ranked 5th).
The line, "He 's not the Messiah, he 's a very naughty boy! '', spoken by Brian 's mother Mandy to the crowd assembled outside her house, has been voted by readers of BOL.com the funniest line in film history. This poll also featured two of the film 's other famous lines ("What have the Romans ever done for us? '' and "I 'm Brian and so 's my wife '') in the top 10.
Spin - offs include a script - book The Life of Brian of Nazareth, which was printed back - to - back with MONTYPYTHONSCRAPBOOK as a single book. The printing of this book also caused problems, due to rarely used laws in the United Kingdom against blasphemy, dictating what can and can not be written about religion. The publisher refused to print both halves of the book, and original prints were by two companies.
An album of the songs sung in Monty Python 's Life of Brian was released on the Disky label. "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life '' was later re-released with great success, after being sung by British football fans. Its popularity became truly evident in 1982 during the Falklands War when sailors aboard the destroyer HMS Sheffield, severely damaged in an Argentinean Exocet missile attack on 4 May, started singing it while awaiting rescue. Many people have come to see the song as a life - affirming ode to optimism. One of its more famous renditions was by the dignitaries of Manchester 's bid to host the 2000 Olympic Games, just after they were awarded to Sydney. Idle later performed the song as part of the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony. "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life '' is also featured in Eric Idle 's Spamalot, a Broadway musical based upon Monty Python and the Holy Grail, and was sung by the rest of the Monty Python group at Graham Chapman 's memorial service and at the Monty Python Live At Aspen special. The song is a staple at Iron Maiden concerts, where the recording is played after the final encore.
Julian Doyle, the film 's editor, wrote The Life of Brian / Jesus, a book which not only describes the filmmaking and editing process but argues that it is the most accurate Biblical film ever made. In October 2008, a memoir by Kim "Howard '' Johnson titled Monty Python 's Tunisian Holiday: My Life with Brian was released. Johnson became friendly with the Pythons during the filming of Life of Brian and his notes and memories of the behind - the - scenes filming and make - up.
With the success of Eric Idle 's musical retelling of Monty Python and the Holy Grail, called Spamalot, Idle announced that he would be giving Life of Brian a similar treatment. The oratorio, called Not the Messiah (He 's a Very Naughty Boy), was commissioned to be part of the festival called Luminato in Toronto in June 2007, and was written / scored by Idle and John Du Prez, who also worked with Idle on Spamalot. Not the Messiah is a spoof of Handel 's Messiah. It runs approximately 50 minutes, and was conducted at its world premiere by Toronto Symphony Orchestra music director Peter Oundjian, who is Idle 's cousin. Not the Messiah received its US premiere at the Caramoor International Music Festival in Katonah, New York. Oundjian and Idle joined forces once again for a double performance of the oratorio in July 2007.
In October 2011, BBC Four premiered the made - for - television comedy film Holy Flying Circus, written by Tony Roche and directed by Owen Harris. The "Pythonesque '' film explores the events surrounding the 1979 television debate on talk show Friday Night, Saturday Morning between John Cleese and Michael Palin and Malcolm Muggeridge and Mervyn Stockwood, then Bishop of Southwark.
In a Not the Nine O'Clock News sketch, a bishop who has made a scandalous film called The Life of Christ is hauled over the coals by a representative of the "Church of Python '', claiming that the film is an attack on "Our Lord, John Cleese '' and on the members of Python, who, in the sketch, are the objects of Britain 's true religious faith. This was a parody of the infamous Friday Night, Saturday Morning programme, broadcast a week previously. The director of the film (played by Rowan Atkinson) claims that the reaction to the film has surprised him, as he "did n't expect the Spanish Inquisition. ''
Radio host John Williams of Chicago 's WGN 720 AM has used "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life '' in a segment of his Friday shows. The segment is used to highlight good events from the past week in listeners ' lives and to generally celebrate the end of the work week. In the 1997 film As Good as It Gets, the misanthropic character played by Jack Nicholson sings "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life '' as evidence of the character 's change in attitude.
A BBC history series What the Romans Did for Us, written and presented by Adam Hart - Davis and first broadcast in 2000, takes its title from John Cleese 's rhetorical question "What have the Romans ever done for us? '' in one of the film 's scenes. (Cleese himself parodied this line in a 1986 BBC advert defending the Television Licence Fee: "What has the BBC ever given us? '')
Former British Prime Minister Tony Blair in his Prime Minister 's Questions of 3 May 2006 made a shorthand reference to the types of political groups, "Judean People 's Front '' or "People 's Front of Judea '', lampooned in Life of Brian. This was in response to a question from the MP David Clelland, asking "What has the Labour government ever done for us? '' -- itself a parody of John Cleese 's "What have the Romans ever done for us? ''
On New Year 's Day 2007, and again on New Year 's Eve, UK television station Channel 4 dedicated an entire evening to the Monty Python phenomenon, during which an hour - long documentary was broadcast called The Secret Life of Brian about the making of The Life of Brian and the controversy that was caused by its release. The Pythons featured in the documentary and reflected upon the events that surrounded the film. This was followed by a screening of the film itself. The documentary (in a slightly extended form) was one of the special features on the 2007 DVD re-release -- the "Immaculate Edition '', also the first Python release on Blu - ray.
Most recently, in June 2014 King 's College London, UK, hosted an academic conference on the film, in which internationally renowned Biblical scholars and historians discussed the film and its reception, looking both at how the Pythons had made use of scholarship and texts, and how the film can be used creatively within modern scholarship on the Historical Jesus. In a panel discussion including Terry Jones and Richard Burridge, John Cleese described the event as "the most interesting thing to come out of Monty Python ''. The papers from the conference have gone on to prompt the publication of a book, edited by Joan E. Taylor, the conference organiser, Jesus and Brian: Exploring the Historical Jesus and His Times via Monty Python 's Life of Brian, published by Bloomsbury in 2015.
|
several cranial nerves innervate structures of the tongue | Hypoglossal nerve - wikipedia
The hypoglossal nerve is the twelfth cranial nerve, and innervates all the extrinsic and intrinsic muscles of the tongue, except for the palatoglossus which is innervated by the vagus nerve. It is a nerve with a solely motor function. The nerve arises from the hypoglossal nucleus in the brain stem as a number of small rootlets, passes through the hypoglossal canal and down through the neck, and eventually passes up again over the tongue muscles it supplies into the tongue. There are two hypoglossal nerves in the body: one on the left, and one on the right.
The nerve is involved in controlling tongue movements required for speech and swallowing, including sticking out the tongue and moving it from side to side. Damage to the nerve or the neural pathways which control it can affect the ability of the tongue to move and its appearance, with the most common sources of damage being injury from trauma or surgery, and motor neuron disease. The first recorded description of the nerve is by Herophilos in the third century BC. The name hypoglossus springs from the fact that its passage is below the tongue, from hypo (Greek: "under '') and glossa (Greek: "tongue '').
The hypoglossal nerve arises as a number of small rootlets from the front of the medulla, the bottom part of the brainstem, in the preolivary sulcus, which separates the olive and the pyramid. The nerve passes through the subarachnoid space and pierces the dura mater near the hypoglossal canal, an opening in the occipital bone of the skull.
After emerging from the hypoglossal canal, the hypoglossal nerve gives off a meningeal branch and picks up a branch from the anterior ramus of C1. It then travels close to the vagus nerve and spinal division of the accessory nerve, spirals downwards behind the vagus nerve and passes between the internal carotid artery and internal jugular vein lying on the carotid sheath.
At a point at the level of the angle of the mandible, the hypoglossal nerve emerges from behind the posterior belly of the digastric muscle. It then loops around a branch of the occipital artery and travels forward into the region beneath the mandible. The hypoglossal nerve moves forward lateral to the hyoglossus and medial to the stylohyoid muscles and lingual nerve. It continues deep to the genioglossus muscle and continues forward to the tip of the tongue. It distributes branches to the intrinsic and extrinsic muscle of the tongue innervates as it passes in this direction, and supplies several muscles (hyoglossus, genioglossus and styloglossus) that it passes.
The rootlets of the hypoglossal nerve arise from the hypoglossal nucleus near the bottom of the brain stem. The hypoglossal nucleus receives input from both the motor cortices but the contralateral input is dominant; innervation of the tongue is essentially lateralized. Signals from muscle spindles on the tongue travel through the hypoglossal nerve, moving onto the lingual nerve which synapses on the trigeminal mesencephalic nucleus.
The hypoglossal nerve emerges as several rootlets (labelled here as number 12) from the olives of the medulla (labelled 13), part of the brainstem.
The hypoglossal nerve leaves the skull through the hypoglossal canal, which is situated near the large opening for the spinal cord, the foramen magnum.
After leaving the skull, the hypoglossal nerve spirals around the vagus nerve and then passes behind the deep belly of the digastric muscle.
The hypoglossal nerve then travels deep to the hyoglossus muscle, which it supplies. It then continues on and supplies the genioglossus muscle, and towards the tip of the tongue, where it divides into branches supplying the tongue muscles.
The hypoglossal nerve is derived from the first pair of occipital somites, collections of mesoderm that form next to the main axis of an embryo during development. The musculature it supplies develop as the hypoglossal cord from the myotomes of the first four pairs of occipital somites. The nerve is first visible as a series of roots in the fourth week of development, which have formed a single nerve and link to the tongue by the fifth week.
The hypoglossal nucleus is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic medulla oblongata.
The hypoglossal nerve provides motor control of the extrinsic muscles of the tongue: genioglossus, hyoglossus, styloglossus, and the intrinsic muscles of the tongue. These represent all muscles of the tongue except the palatoglossus muscle. The hypoglossal nerve is of a general somatic efferent (GSE) type.
These muscles are involved in moving and manipulating the tongue. The left and right genioglossus muscles in particular are responsible for protruding the tongue. The muscles, attached to the underside of the top and back parts of the tongue, cause the tongue to protrude and deviate towards the opposite side. The hypoglossal nerve also supplies movements including clearing the mouth of saliva and other involuntary activities. The hypoglossal nucleus interacts with the reticular formation, involved in the control of several reflexive or automatic motions, and several corticonuclear originating fibers supply innervation aiding in unconscious movements relating to speech and articulation.
Reports of damage to the hypoglossal nerve are rare. The most common causes of injury in one case series were compression by tumours and gunshot wounds. A wide variety of other causes can lead to damage of the nerve. These include surgical damage, medullary stroke, multiple sclerosis, Guillain - Barre syndrome, infection, sarcoidosis, and presence of an ectatic vessel in the hypoglossal canal. Damage can be on one or both sides, which will affect symptoms that the damage causes. Because of the close proximity of the nerve to other structures including nerves, arteries, and veins, it is rare for the nerve to be damaged in isolation. For example, damage to the left and right hypoglossal nerves may occur with damage to the facial and trigeminal nerves as a result of damage from a clot following arteriosclerosis of the vertebrobasilar artery. Such a stroke may result in tight oral musculature, and difficulty speaking, eating and chewing.
Progressive bulbar palsy, a form of motor neuron disease, is associated with combined lesions of the hypoglossal nucleus and nucleus ambiguus with wasting (atrophy) of the motor nerves of the pons and medulla. This may cause difficulty with tongue movements, speech, chewing and swallowing caused by dysfunction of several cranial nerve nuclei. Motor neuron disease is the most common disease affecting the hypoglossal nerve.
The hypoglossal nerve is tested by examining the tongue and its movements. At rest, if the nerve is injured a tongue may appear to have the appearance of a "bag of worms '' (fasciculations) or wasting (atrophy). The nerve is then tested by sticking the tongue out. If there is damage to the nerve or its pathways, the tongue will usually but not always deviate to one side. When the nerve is damaged, the tongue may feel "thick '', "heavy '', or "clumsy. '' Weakness of tongue muscles can result in slurred speech, affecting sounds particularly dependent on the tongue for generation (i.e., lateral approximants, dental stops, alveolar stops, velar nasals, rhotic consonants etc.). Tongue strength may be tested by poking the tongue against the inside of their cheek, while an examiner feels or presses from the cheek.
The hypoglossal nerve carries lower motor neurons that synapse with upper motor neurons at the hypoglossal nucleus. Symptoms related to damage will depend on the position of damage in this pathway. If the damage is to the nerve itself (a lower motor neuron lesion), the tongue will curve toward the damaged side, owing to weakness of the genioglossus muscle of affected side. If the damage is to the nerve pathway (an upper motor neuron lesion) the tongue will curve away from the side of damage, due to action of the affected genioglossus muscle, and will occur without fasciculations or wasting, with speech difficulties more evident. Damage to the hypoglossal nucleus will lead to wasting of muscles of the tongue and deviation towards the affected side when it is stuck out. This is because of the weaker genioglossal muscle.
The hypoglossal nerve may be connected (anastamosed) to the facial nerve to attempt to restore function when the facial nerve is damaged. Attempts at repair by either wholly or partially connecting nerve fibres from the hypoglossal nerve to the facial nerve may be used when there is focal facial nerve damage (for example, from trauma or cancer).
The first recorded description of the hypoglossal nerve was by Herophilos (335 -- 280 BC), although it was not named at the time. The first use of the name hypoglossal in Latin as nervi hypoglossi externa was used by Winslow in 1733. This was followed though by several different namings including nervi indeterminati, par lingual, par gustatorium, great sub-lingual by different authors, and gustatory nerve and lingual nerve (by Winslow). It was listed in 1778 as nerve hypoglossum magnum by Soemmering. It was then named as the great hypoglossal nerve by Cuvier in 1800 as a translation of Winslow and finally named in English by Knox in 1832.
The hypoglossal nerve is one of twelve cranial nerves found in amniotes including reptiles, mammals and birds. As with humans, damage to the nerve or nerve pathway will result in difficulties moving the tongue or lap ping water, decreased tongue strength, and generally cause deviation away from the affected side initially, and then to the affected side as contractures develop. The evolutionary origins of the nerve have been explored through studies of the nerve in rodents and reptiles. The nerve is regarded as arising evolutionarily from nerves of the cervical spine, which has been incorporated into a separate nerve over the course of evolution.
The size of the hypoglossal nerve, as measured by the size of the hypoglossal canal, has been hypothesised to be associated with the progress of evolution of primates, with reasoning that larger nerves would be associated with improvements in speech associated with evolutionary changes. This hypothesis has been refuted.
|
when was the last time 2 dollar bills were made | United States two - dollar bill - wikipedia
The United States two - dollar bill ($2) is a current denomination of U.S. currency. The third U.S. President (1801 -- 09), Thomas Jefferson, is featured on the obverse of the note. The reverse features an engraving of the painting The Declaration of Independence by John Trumbull. Throughout the $2 bill 's pre-1929 life as a large - sized note, it was issued as a United States Note, National Bank Note, silver certificate, Treasury or "Coin '' Note and Federal Reserve Bank Note. When U.S. currency was changed to its current size, the $2 bill was issued only as a United States Note. Production went on until 1966, when the series was discontinued. Ten years passed before the $2 bill was reissued as a Federal Reserve Note with a new reverse design. $2 bills are seldom seen in circulation as a result of banking policies with businesses which has resulted in low production numbers due to lack of demand. This comparative scarcity in circulation, coupled with a lack of public knowledge that the bill is still in production and circulation, has also inspired urban legends and occasionally has created problems for people trying to use the bill to make purchases.
The denomination of two dollars was authorized under a congressional act, and first used in March 1862. The denomination was continuously used until the 1960s; by this time the United States Note was the only remaining class of U.S. currency the two dollar bill was assigned to. In 1966 it was decided to discontinue all two dollar United States Notes from production. The $2 bill initially was not reassigned to the Federal Reserve Note class of United States currency and was thus fully discontinued; the Treasury Department cited the $2 bill 's low use and unpopularity as the reason for not immediately resuming use of the denomination. In 1976 production of the two - dollar denomination was resumed and the two - dollar bill was finally assigned as a Federal Reserve Note, with a new reverse design featuring John Trumbull 's depiction of the drafting of the United States Declaration of Independence replacing the previous design of Monticello. It has remained a current denomination since then. It was estimated that if the two - dollar bill replaced approximately half of the one - dollar bills in circulation, the federal government would be able to save about $26 million in 1976 dollars ($109 million adjusted for inflation) over the period from 1976 to 1981, due to reduced production, storage, and shipping costs.
However, due to their limited use, two - dollar bills are not frequently reissued in a new series like other denominations which are printed according to demand. Though some cash registers accommodate it, its slot is often used for things like checks and rolls of coins. Some bill acceptors found in vending machines, self checkout lanes, and other automated kiosks are configured to accommodate two - dollar bills, even if the fact is not stated on the label. Although they usually are not handed out arbitrarily, two - dollar bills are usually available at banks. Many banks stocking $2 bills will not use them except upon specific request by the customer, and even then, may cause a delay with a trip to the vault.
The seeming rarity of a $2 bill can be attributed to its low printing numbers as a Federal Reserve Note. Hoarding of the series due to lack of public knowledge of the $2 bill has resulted in very few bills seen in circulation. After its initial release, supplies of the Series 1976 $2 bill were allowed to dwindle until August 1996 when a new series dated 1995 began to be printed. This series was only printed for the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta.
Today, there is a common misconception by the general public that the $2 bill is no longer in production. According to the Treasury, it "receives many letters asking why the $2 bill is no longer in circulation ''. In response, the Treasury stated: "The $2 bill remains one of our circulating currency denominations... As of April 30, 2007 there were $1,549,052,714 worth of $2 bills in circulation worldwide. ''
Things such as unusual serial numbers (example: A11111111A), and replacement notes designated by a star in the serial number can raise the collector value. "Collectible '' $2 bills have been made and sold by coin dealers and others in recent years merely by adding colors and special graphics to regular issue bills by using computer printers. However, these bills are not authorized by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) and are not worth anything more than face value on the collectors ' market.
Certain conventions and tourism / convention bureaus capitalize on the rarity of $2 bills in circulation, encouraging convention attendees and tourists to spend $2 bills in order to illustrate to the host communities the economic impact that the conventions and tourism bring. Sometimes known as "SpendTom '' campaigns, the $2 bills linger in the community as a constant reminder. Some campaigns encourage people to participate in a hunt for the bills in order to win prizes.
(approximately 7.4218 × 3.125 in ≅ 189 × 79 mm)
In March 1862, the first $2 bill was issued as a Legal Tender Note (United States Note) with a portrait of Alexander Hamilton; the portrait of Hamilton used was a profile view and is not the same portrait used currently for the $10 bill. The continental congress based on defending the United States, released on June 25, 1776, began to authorize $2 credit, the circulation of 49000 copies. Pass two dollars bill was first used in March 1862. Between 1966 and 1976, two dollar notes were not printed.
By 1869, the $2 United States Note was redesigned with the now familiar portrait of Thomas Jefferson to the left and a vignette of the United States Capitol in the center of the obverse. This note also featured green tinting on the top and left side of the obverse. Although this note is technically a United States Note, TREASURY NOTE appeared on it instead of UNITED STATES NOTE. The reverse was completely redesigned. This series was again revised in 1874, changes on the obverse included removing the green tinting, adding a red floral design around WASHINGTON D.C., and changing the term TREASURY NOTE to UNITED STATES NOTE. The 1874 design was also issued as Series of 1875 and 1878 and by 1880 the red floral design around WASHINGTON D.C. on the United States Note was removed and the serial numbers were changed to blue. This note with the red floral design was also issued as Series of 1917 but with red serial numbers by that time.
National Bank Notes were issued in 1875 and feature a woman unfurling a flag and a big 2 (Lazy Duce) on the obverse, the reverse has the king of England smoking tobacco and an eagle with a shield.
In 1886, the first $2 silver certificate with a portrait of United States Civil War General Winfield Scott Hancock on the left of the obverse was issued. This design went on until 1891 when a new $2 Silver Certificate was issued with a portrait of U.S. Treasury Secretary William Windom in the center of the obverse.
Two - dollar Treasury or "Coin Notes '' were first issued for government purchases of silver bullion in 1890 from the silver mining industry. The reverse featured large wording of TWO in the center and a numeral 2 to the right surrounded by an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note. In 1891 the reverse of the Series of 1890 Treasury Note was redesigned because the treasury felt that it was too "busy '' which would make it too easy to counterfeit. More open space was incorporated into the new design.
In 1896, the "Educational Series '' Silver Certificate was issued. The entire obverse of the note was covered in artwork with an allegorical figure of science presenting steam and electricity to commerce and manufacture. The reverse of the note featured portraits of Robert Fulton and Samuel F.B. Morse surrounded by an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note. By 1899, however, The $2 Silver Certificate was redesigned with a small portrait of George Washington surrounded by allegorical figures representing agriculture and mechanics.
The only large - sized, Federal Reserve Note -- like $2 bill was issued in 1918 as a Federal Reserve Bank Note. Each note was an obligation of the issuing Federal Reserve Bank and could only be redeemed at the corresponding bank. The obverse of the note featured a border-less portrait of Thomas Jefferson to left and wording in the entire center. The reverse featured a World War I battleship.
Beginning in the 1950s, production of $2 bills began to decrease. The relative scarcity of the bills lead some to start saving any they found, with the inevitable result that the notes became rarer in circulation. Currently, the circulation of $2 bills accounts for around 1 % of the U.S. currency in circulation.
Because they are scarce in circulation, many believe the myth that $2 bills are no longer being produced, but the Bureau of Engraving and Printing Web site lists the $2 bill as one of the US Currency Small Denominations.
(6.14 × 2.61 in ≅ 156 × 66 mm)
In 1928, when all U.S. currency was changed to its current size, the $2 bill was issued only as a United States Note. The obverse featured a cropped version of Thomas Jefferson 's portrait that had been on previous $2 bills. The reverse featured Jefferson 's home, Monticello. The note 's seal and serial numbers were red. The Series of 1928 $2 bill featured the treasury seal superimposed by the United States Note obligation to the left and a large gray TWO to the right.
In 1953 the $2 bill received minor design changes analogous to the $5 United States Note. The treasury seal was made smaller and moved to the right side of the bill; it was superimposed over the gray word TWO. The United States Note obligation now became superimposed over a gray numeral 2. The reverse remained unchanged.
The final change to $2 United States Notes came in 1963 when the motto IN GOD WE TRUST was added to the reverse over the Monticello. And, because dollar bills were soon to no longer be redeemable in silver, WILL PAY TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND was removed from the obverse. These $2 bills were officially discontinued in August 1966, although they remain legal tender.
On April 13, 1976, the Treasury Department reintroduced the $2 bill as a cost - saving measure. Series 1976 $2 bills were redesigned and issued as a Federal Reserve Note. The obverse design remains basically unchanged since 1928 and features the same portrait of Jefferson. A green treasury seal and serial numbers replace the red used on the previous United States Notes. Since the reissue of the bill coincided with the United States Bicentennial, it was decided to use a bicentennial themed design on the reverse. An engraved rendition (not an exact reproduction) of John Trumbull 's The Declaration of Independence replaced Monticello on the reverse. First day issues of the new $2 bills could be taken to a post office and stamped with the date "APR 13 1976 ''. In all, 590,720,000 notes from Series 1976 were printed.
Currently, stamped series 1976 $2 bills typically trade for about twice their face value. If the bills were stamped in an exotic place, the value may be slightly higher. However, no first day issued 1976 $2 bills with stamps are especially rare or valuable.
Despite their age, crisp, uncirculated series 1976 $2 bills are not uncommon and are not particularly valuable. These notes were saved and hoarded upon their original issue and are plentiful today. A typical single uncirculated 1976 $2 bill is worth only slightly above face value. If the note is circulated, then it is only worth its $2 face value.
In 1996 and 1997, 153,600,000 bills were printed as Series 1995 for the Federal Reserve District of Atlanta. In 2004, 121,600,000 of the Series 2003 bills were printed for the Minneapolis Federal Reserve Bank. An issue of Series 2003A $2 bills was printed from July to September 2006 for all 12 Federal Reserve Banks. In all, 220,800,000 notes were printed.
In February 2012, the B.E.P. printed 512,000 Series 2009 $2 Star Notes, in anticipation of more regular runs being printed later in 2012. Series 2009 $2 bills were issued to banks during the summer of 2012.
In November 2013, the B.E.P. began printing series 2013 $2 bills for the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta; these notes entered circulation in early 2014. A total of 44,800,000 notes were ordered for fiscal year 2014, which ran from October 2013 through September 2014.
A chronological display of the American two - dollar bill.
Over 4.3 million $2 bills are entered into the database of the American currency - tracking website Where 's George?. Because $2 bills are uncommon in daily use, their use can make a particular group of spenders visible. A documented case of using two - dollar bills to send a message to a community is the case of Geneva Steel and the communities in surrounding Utah County. In 1989, Geneva Steel paid its employee bonuses in $2 bills. When the bills began to appear in different places, people recognized the importance of the company to the local economy.
Use of the two - dollar bill is also being suggested by some gun rights activists to show support for Second Amendment rights, particularly at stores that allow Open Carry or Concealed carry of weapons on their premises. Two dollar notes have also seen increased usage in situations where tipping is encouraged, especially in strip clubs. This is due to the idea that tips will increase because of the ease of use of a single, higher - denomination bill as the lowest common note in use.
The use of the two - dollar bill is popular among fans and alumni of Clemson University who often bring notes with them when traveling to university athletic events in other localities as a demonstration of their economic impact in an area. The idea was first popularized in 1977 when Georgia Tech had threatened to no longer play the Tigers in football and has since caught on as a token of fandom when traveling to other locations. Fans will often stamp an orange tiger paw (Clemson 's logo) on the note as a sign of its origin.
During the 1930s, the $2 bill was often used at East Coast horse race tracks to make a bet. Because of the German and Jewish influence, the bill was locally known in parts of New Jersey as a "zwei - buck '', and the upper right corner "2 '' was sometimes torn off to increase the luck.
The relative scarcity of the $2 bill in everyday circulation has led to confusion at points of sale, as well as overreaction and prosecution of the individual attempting to tender the bill.
In 2005, a man was jailed for attempting to use legally circulating $2 bills to pay a car stereo installation fee that Best Buy originally agreed to waive in the first place.
In 2016, a 13 - year - old girl was detained by police, and prevented from eating lunch that day, for attempting to use a legally circulating $2 bill to pay for chicken nuggets in the school cafeteria.
Uncut currency sheets are available from the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Some of the recent $2 uncut sheets from Series 1995 and Series 2003 have been collectibles as they come from special non-circulation printings. Most of the Series 1995 $2 uncut sheets had a higher suffix letter in the serial number than regular circulation $2 bills. Uncut $2 sheets from Series 2003 were printed for the Boston (A), New York (B), Atlanta (F), Chicago (G), Minneapolis (I), and Dallas (K) Federal Reserve Districts despite the fact that notes from the Minneapolis district were the only ones released for circulation. Uncut sheets of Series 2003A have also been produced, although in this case circulating currency for all districts has also been made. All two dollar bills beginning with Series 1995 have been printed in the BEP facility in Fort Worth, Texas.
Uncut sheets of $2 bills are available in various sizes. A 32 - subject sheet, which is the original size sheet on which the notes are printed, is available. Other sheet sizes available have been cut from the original 32 - subject sheet. These include half (16 - note), quarter (8 - note), and eighth (4 - note) sheets for $2 bills. Uncut sheets are sold for more than their respective face values. Uncut sheets of large size notes (issued before 1928) also exist, but are extremely rare.
Steve Wozniak, a co-founder of Apple Inc., has been using $2 banknotes separated from 4 - bill uncut sheets (glued together into pads), to surprise merchants and waiters; also, because of notes ' unusual appearance, he has been interviewed by a Secret Service agent.
|
how much seat required for majority in lok sabha election | Lok Sabha - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 28 ° 37 ′ 3 '' N 77 ° 12 ′ 30 '' E / 28.61750 ° N 77.20833 ° E / 28.61750; 77.20833
Government coalition (315) National Democratic Alliance (315)
Opposition Parties (230) United Progressive Alliance (52)
Janata Parivar Parties (7)
Unaligned Parties (163)
Others (8)
The Lok Sabha (House of the People) is the lower house of India 's bicameral Parliament, with the upper house being the Rajya Sabha. Members of the Lok Sabha are elected by adult universal suffrage and a first - past - the - post system to represent their respective constituencies, and they hold their seats for five years or until the body is dissolved by the President on the advice of the council of ministers. The house meets in the Lok Sabha Chambers of the Sansad Bhavan in New Delhi.
The maximum strength of the House allotted by the Constitution of India is 552. Currently the house has 545 seats which is made up by election of up to 543 elected members and at a maximum, 2 nominated members of the Anglo - Indian Community by the President of India. A total of 131 seats (24.03 %) are reserved for representatives of Scheduled Castes (84) and Scheduled Tribes (47). The quorum for the House is 10 % of the total membership. The Lok Sabha, unless sooner dissolved, continues to operate for five years from the date appointed for its first meeting. However, while a proclamation of emergency is in operation, this period may be extended by Parliament by law.
An exercise to redraw Lok Sabha constituencies ' boundaries is carried out by the Boundary Delimitation Commission of India every decade based on the Indian census, last of which was conducted in 2001. This exercise earlier also included redistribution of seats among states based on demographic changes but that provision of the mandate of the commission was suspended in 1976 following a constitutional amendment to incentivise the family planning programme which was being implemented. The 16th Lok Sabha was elected in May 2014 and is the latest to date.
The Lok Sabha has its own television channel, Lok Sabha TV, headquartered within the premises of Parliament.
A major portion of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1858 to 1947. During this period, the office of the Secretary of State for India (along with the Council of India) was the authority through whom British Parliament exercised its rule in the Indian sub-continent, and the office of Viceroy of India was created, along with an Executive Council in India, consisting of high officials of the British government. The Indian Councils Act 1861 provided for a Legislative Council consisting of the members of the Executive Council and non-official members. The Indian Councils Act 1892 established legislatures in each of the provinces of British India and increased the powers of the Legislative Council. Although these Acts increased the representation of Indians in the government, their power still remained limited, and the electorate very small. The Indian Councils Act 1909 and the Government of India Act 1919 further expanded the participation of Indians in the administration. The Government of India Act 1935 introduced provincial autonomy and proposed a federal structure in India. The Indian Independence Act 1947, passed by the British parliament on 18 July 1947, divided British India (which did not include the Princely States) into two new independent countries, India and Pakistan, which were to be dominions under the Crown until they had each enacted a new constitution. The Constituent Assembly was divided into two for the separate nations, with each new Assembly having sovereign powers transferred to it for the respective dominion.
The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950, proclaiming India to be a sovereign, democratic republic. This contained the founding principles of the law of the land which would govern India in its new form, which now included all the princely states which had not acceded to Pakistan.
According to Article 79 (Part V - The Union.) of the Constitution of India, the Parliament of India consists of the President of India and the two Houses of Parliament known as the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha).
The Lok Sabha (House of the Leaders) was duly constituted for the first time on 17 April 1952 after the first General Elections held from 25 October 1951 to 21 February 1952.
Article 84 (Part V. -- The Union) of Indian Constitution sets qualifications for being a member of Lok Sabha, which are as follows:
However, a member can be disqualified of being a member of Parliament:
A seat in the Lok Sabha will become vacant in the following circumstances (during normal functioning of the House):
Furthermore, as per article 101 (Part V. -- The Union) of the Indian Constitution, a person can not be:
Members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected by the people of India, on the basis of Universal Suffrage. For the purpose of holding direct elections to Lok Sabha; each state is divided into territorial constituencies. In this respect, the constitution of India makes the following two provisions:
Note: The expression population here refers to the population ascertained at the preceding census (2011 Census) of which relevant figure have been published.
The Lok Sabha has certain powers that make it more powerful than the Rajya Sabha.
In conclusion, it is clear that the Lok Sabha is more powerful than the Rajya Sabha in almost all matters. Even in those matters in which the Constitution has placed both Houses on an equal footing, the Lok Sabha has more influence due to its greater numerical strength. This is typical of any Parliamentary democracy, with the lower House always being more powerful than the upper.
The Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha and Directions issued by the Speaker from time to time there under regulate the procedure in Lok Sabha. The items of business, notice of which is received from the Ministers / Private Members and admitted by the Speaker, are included in the daily List of Business which is printed and circulated to members in advance. For various items of business to be taken up in the House the time is allotted by the House on the recommendations of the Business Advisory Committee. The Speaker presides over the sessions of the House and regulates procedure.
Three sessions of Lok Sabha take place in a year:
When in session, Lok Sabha holds its sittings usually from 11 A.M. to 1 P.M. and from 2 P.M. to 6 P.M. On some days the sittings are continuously held without observing lunch break and are also extended beyond 6 P.M. depending upon the business before the House. Lok Sabha does not ordinarily sit on Saturdays and Sundays and other closed holidays.
The first hour of every sitting is called Question Hour. Asking questions in Parliament is the free and unfettered right of members, and during Question Hour they may ask questions of ministers on different aspects of administration and government policy in the national and international spheres. Every minister whose turn it is to answer to questions has to stand up and answer for his department 's acts of omission or commission.
Questions are of three types -- Starred, Unstarred and Short Notice. A Starred Question is one to which a member desires an oral answer in the House and which is distinguished by an asterisk mark. An unstarred Question is one which is not called for oral answer in the house and on which no supplementary questions can consequently be asked. An answer to such a question is given in writing. Minimum period of notice for starred / unstarred question is 10 clear days. If the questions given notice of are admitted by the Speaker, they are listed and printed for answer on the dates allotted to the Ministries to which the subject matter of the question pertains.
The normal period of notice does not apply to short notice questions which relate to matters of urgent public importance. However, a Short Notice Question may be answered only on short notice if so permitted by the Speaker and the Minister concerned is prepared to answer it at shorter notice. A short notice question is taken up for answer immediately after the Question Hour, popularly known as Zero Hour.
The time immediately following the Question Hour has come to be known as "Zero Hour ''. It starts at around 12 noon (hence the name) and members can, with prior notice to the Speaker, raise issues of importance during this time. Typically, discussions on important Bills, the Budget, and other issues of national importance take place from 2 pm onwards.
After the Question Hour, the House takes up miscellaneous items of work before proceeding to the main business of the day. These may consist of one or more of the following: Adjournment Motions, Questions involving breaches of Privileges, Papers to be laid on the Table, Communication of any messages from Rajya Sabha, Intimations regarding President 's assent to Bills, Calling Attention Notices, Matters under Rule 377, Presentation of Reports of Parliamentary Committee, Presentation of Petitions, miscellaneous statements by Ministers, Motions regarding elections to Committees, Bills to be withdrawn or introduced.
The main business of the day may be consideration of a Bill or financial business or consideration of a resolution or a motion.
Legislative proposals in the form of a Bill can be brought forward either by a Minister or by a private member. In the former case it is known as Government Bill and in the latter case it is known as a Private Members ' Bill. Every Bill passes through three stages -- called three readings -- before it is passed. To become law it must be passed by both the Houses of Parliament, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, and then assented to by the president.
The presentation, discussion of, and voting on the annual General and Railways budgets -- followed by the passing of the Appropriations Bill and the Finance Bill -- is a long, drawn - out process that takes up a major part of the time of the House during its Budget Session every year.
Among other kinds of business that come up before the House are resolutions and motions. Resolutions and motions may be brought forward by Government or by private members. Government may move a resolution or a motion for obtaining the sanction to a scheme or opinion of the House on an important matter of policy or on a grave situation. Similarly, a private member may move a resolution or motion in order to draw the attention of the House and of the Government to a particular problem. The last two and half hours of sitting on every Friday are generally allotted for transaction of private members ' business. While private members ' bills are taken up on one Friday, private members ' resolutions are taken up on the succeeding Friday, and so on.
Most of the business of drafting a bill or amendments are initially discussed and debated in the parliamentary committees. Since the time for legislation is limited, work of all departments of the government and any special focus tasks is delegated to the committees, wherein the committees shall prepare the initial draft of the bill / amendment for the consideration by both the houses. They consist of members from both the houses
There are primarily two kinds of parliamentary committees based on their nature --
A Half - an - Hour Discussion can be raised on a matter of sufficient public importance which has been the subject of a recent question in Lok Sabha irrespective of the fact whether the question was answered orally or the answer was laid on the Table of the House and the answer which needs elucidation on a matter of fact. Normally not more than half an hour is allowed for such a discussion. Usually, half - an - hour discussion is listed on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays only. In one session, a member is allowed to raise not more than two half - an - hour discussions. During the discussion, the member, who has given notice, makes a short statement and not more than four members, who have intimated earlier and have secured one of the four places in the ballot, are permitted to ask a question each for further elucidating any matter of fact. Thereafter, the Minister concerned replies. There is no formal motion before the House nor voting.
Members may raise discussions on matters of urgent public importance with the permission of the Speaker. Such discussions may take place on two days in a week. No formal motion is moved in the House nor is there any voting on such a discussion.
After the member who initiates discussion on an item of business has spoken, other members can speak on that item of business in such order as the Speaker may call upon them. Only one member can speak at a time and all speeches are directed to the Chair. A matter requiring the decision of the House is decided by means of a question put by the Speaker on a motion made by a member.
A division is one of the forms in which the decision of the House is ascertained. Normally, when a motion is put to the House members for and against it indicate their opinion by saying "Aye '' or "No '' from their seats. The Chair goes by the voices and declares that the motion is either accepted or rejected by the House. If a member challenges the decision, the Chair orders that the lobbies be cleared. Then the division bell is rung and an entire network of bells installed in the various parts and rooms in Parliament House and Parliament House Annexe rings continuously for three and a half minutes. Members and Ministers rush to the Chamber from all sides. After the bell stops, all the doors to the Chamber are closed and nobody can enter or leave the Chamber till the division is over. Then the Chair puts the question for second time and declares whether in its opinion the "Ayes '' or the "Noes '', have it. If the opinion so declared is again challenged, the Chair asks the votes to be recorded by operating the Automatic Vote Recording Equipment.
With the announcement of the Speaker for recording the votes, the Secretary - General of the Lok Sabha presses the button of a key board. Then a gong sounds, serving as a signal to members for casting their votes. To vote, each member present in the Chamber has to flip a switch and then operate one of the three push buttons fixed in their seat. The push switch must be kept pressed simultaneously until the gong sounds for the second time after 10 seconds. There are two indicator boards installed in the wall on either side of the Speaker 's chair in the Chamber. Each vote cast by a member is flashed here. Immediately after the votes are cast, they are totalled mechanically and the details of the results are flashed on the Result Indicator Boards installed in the railings of the Speaker 's and Diplomatic Galleries.
Divisions are normally held with the aid of the Automatic Vote Recording Equipment. Where so directed by the Speaker in terms of relevant provision in the Rules of Procedure etc. in Lok Sabha, divisions may be held either by distribution of ' Aye ' / ' No ' and ' Abstention ' slips to members in the House or by the members recording their votes by going into the lobbies. There is an Indicator Board in the machine room showing the name of each member. The result of Division and vote cast by each member with the aid of Automatic Vote Recording Equipment appear also on this Board and immediately a photograph of the Indicator Board is taken. Later the Photograph is enlarged and the names of members who voted ' Ayes ' and for ' Noes ' are determined with the help of the photograph and incorporated in Lok Sabha Debates.
Three versions of Lok Sabha Debates are prepared: the Hindi version, the English version and the Original version. Only the Hindi and English versions are printed. The Original version, in cyclostyled form, is kept in the Parliament Library for record and reference. The Hindi version contains proceedings (all Questions asked and Answers given thereto and speeches made) in Hindi, and verbatim Hindi translation of proceedings in English or in regional languages. The English version contains proceedings in English and the English translation of the proceedings which take place in Hindi or in any regional language. The Original version, however, contains proceedings in Hindi or in English as they actually took place in the House and also the English / Hindi translation of speeches made in regional languages.
If conflicting legislation is enacted by the two Houses, a joint sitting is held to resolve the differences. In such a session, the members of the Lok Sabha would generally prevail, since the Lok Sabha includes more than twice as many members as the Rajya Sabha.
Speaker and Deputy Speaker
As per Article 93 of Indian Constitution, the Lok Sabha has a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker. In the Lok Sabha, both presiding officers -- the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker - are elected from among its members by a simple majority of members present and voting in the House. No specific qualifications are prescribed for being elected Speaker; the Constitution only requires that Speaker should be a member of the House. But an understanding of the Constitution and the laws of the country and the rules of procedure and conventions of Parliament is considered a major asset for the holder of the office of the Speaker. Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker are mentioned under Article 94 of the Constitution of India. As per Article 94 of Indian Constitution, a Speaker or a Deputy Speaker should vacate his / her office, a) if he / she ceases to be a member of the House of the People, b) he / she resigns, or c) is removed from office by a resolution of the House passed by a majority.
The Speaker of Lok Sabha is both a member of the House and its Presiding Officer. The Speaker conducts the business in the House. He / she decides whether a bill is a money bill or not. He / she maintains discipline and decorum in the house and can punish a member for their unruly behaviour by suspending them. He / she permits the moving of various kinds of motions and resolutions like the motion of no confidence, motion of adjournment, motion of censure and calling attention notice as per the rules. The Speaker decides on the agenda to be taken up for discussion during the meeting. It is the Speaker of the Lok Sabha who presides over joint sittings called in the event of disagreement between the two Houses on a legislative measure. Following the 52nd Constitution amendment, the Speaker is vested with the power relating to the disqualification of a member of the Lok Sabha on grounds of defection. The Speaker makes obituary references in the House, formal references to important national and international events and the valedictory address at the conclusion of every Session of the Lok Sabha and also when the term of the House expires. Though a member of the House, the Speaker does not vote in the House except on those rare occasions when there is a tie at the end of a decision. Till date, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha has not been called upon to exercise this unique casting vote. While the office of Speaker is vacant due to absence / resignation / removal, the duties of the office are performed by the Deputy Speaker or, if the office of Deputy Speaker is also vacant, by such member of the House of the People as the President may appoint for the purpose. The Lok Sabha has also a separate non-elected Secretariat staff.
Shri G.V. Mavalankar was the first Speaker of Lok Sabha (15 May 1952 -- 27 February 1956) and Shri M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar was the first Deputy Speaker (30 May 1952 -- 7 March 1956). In the 16th Lok Sabha, Sumitra Mahajan was elected as the speaker on 3 June 2014, and is its second woman speaker and Shri M. Thambidurai as the deputy speaker.
Lok Sabha is constituted after the general election as follows:
Currently elected members of 16th Lok Sabha by their political party (As of 9 April 2018):
|
what does a social media marketing company do | Social media marketing - wikipedia
Social media marketing is the use of social media platforms and websites to promote a product or service. Although the terms e-marketing and digital marketing are still dominant in academia, social media marketing is becoming more popular for both practitioners and researchers. Most social media platforms have built - in data analytics tools, which enable companies to track the progress, success, and engagement of ad campaigns. Companies address a range of stakeholders through social media marketing, including current and potential customers, current and potential employees, journalists, bloggers, and the general public. On a strategic level, social media marketing includes the management of a marketing campaign, governance, setting the scope (e.g. more active or passive use) and the establishment of a firm 's desired social media "culture '' and "tone. ''
To use social media effectively, firms should learn to allow customers and Internet users to post user - generated content (e.g., online comments, product reviews, etc.), also known as "earned media, '' rather than use marketer - prepared advertising copy. While often associated with companies, as of 2016, a range of not - for - profit organizations and government organizations are engaging in social media marketing.
Social networking websites allow individuals, businesses and other organizations to interact with one another and build relationships and communities online. When companies join these social channels, consumers can interact with them directly. That interaction can be more personal to users than traditional methods of outbound marketing and advertising. Social networking sites act as word of mouth or more precisely, e-word of mouth. The Internet 's ability to reach billions across the globe has given online word of mouth a powerful voice and far reach. The ability to rapidly change buying patterns and product or service acquisition and activity to a growing number of consumers is defined as an influence network. Social networking sites and blogs allow followers to "retweet '' or "repost '' comments made by others about a product being promoted, which occurs quite frequently on some social media sites. By repeating the message, the user 's connections are able to see the message, therefore reaching more people. Because the information about the product is being put out there and is getting repeated, more traffic is brought to the product / company.
Social networking websites are based on building virtual communities that allow consumers to express their needs, wants and values, online. Social media marketing then connects these consumers and audiences to businesses that share the same needs, wants, and values. Through social networking sites, companies can keep in touch with individual followers. This personal interaction can instill a feeling of loyalty into followers and potential customers. Also, by choosing whom to follow on these sites, products can reach a very narrow target audience. Social networking sites also include much information about what products and services prospective clients might be interested in. Through the use of new semantic analysis technologies, marketers can detect buying signals, such as content shared by people and questions posted online. An understanding of buying signals can help sales people target relevant prospects and marketers run micro-targeted campaigns.
To integrate social networks into their marketing strategies, companies have to develop a marketing model. In a marketing model (SNeM2S) based on social networks is provided. The model includes the following steps:
In 2014, over 80 % of business executives identified social media as an integral part of their business. Business retailers have seen 133 % increases in their revenues from social media marketing.
Just under half the world 's population is currently on the Internet. Roughly 75 % of those people are on social media and 3⁄4 of those folks have social media accounts on their mobile phones. Mobile phone usage is beneficial for social media marketing because mobile phones have social networking capabilities, allowing individuals immediate web browsing and access to social networking sites. Mobile phones have grown at a rapid rate, fundamentally altering the path - to - purchase process by allowing consumers to easily obtain pricing and product information in real time and allowing companies to constantly remind and update their followers. Many companies are now putting QR (Quick Response) codes along with products for individuals to access the company website or online services with their smart phones. Retailers use QR codes to facilitate consumer interaction with brands by linking the code to brand websites, promotions, product information, or any other mobile - enabled content. In addition, Real - time bidding use in the mobile advertising industry is high and rising because of its value for on - the - go web browsing. In 2012, Nexage, a provider of real time bidding in mobile advertising, reported a 37 % increase in revenue each month. Adfonic, another mobile advertisement publishing platform, reported an increase of 22 billion ad requests that same year.
Mobile devices and The internet also influence the way consumers interact with media and has many further implications for TV ratings, advertising, mobile commerce and more. Mobile media consumption such as mobile audio streaming or mobile video are on the rise -- in the United States, more than 100 million users are projected to access online video content via mobile device. Mobile video revenue consists of pay - per - view downloads, advertising, and subscriptions. As of 2013, worldwide mobile phone Internet user penetration was 73.4 %. In 2017, figures suggest that more than 90 % of Internet users will access online content through their phones.
There are two basic strategies for engaging the social media as marketing tools:
Social media can be a useful source of market information and a way to hear customer perspectives. Blogs, content communities, and forums are platforms where individuals share their reviews and recommendations of brands, products, and services. Businesses are able to tap and analyze the customer voices and feedback generated in social media for marketing purposes; in this sense the social media is a relatively inexpensive source of market intelligence which can be used by marketers and managers to track and respond to consumer - identified problems and detect market opportunities. For example, the Internet erupted with videos and pictures of iPhone 6 "bend test '' which showed that the coveted phone could be bent by hand pressure. The so - called "bend gate '' controversy created confusion amongst customers who had waited months for the launch of the latest rendition of the iPhone. However, Apple promptly issued a statement saying that the problem was extremely rare and that the company had taken several steps to make the mobile device 's case stronger and robust. Unlike traditional market research methods such as surveys, focus groups, and data mining which are time - consuming and costly, and which take weeks or even months to analyze, marketers can use social media to obtain ' live ' or "real time '' information about consumer behavior and viewpoints on a company 's brand or products. This can be useful in the highly dynamic, competitive, fast - paced and global marketplace of the 2010s.
Social media can be used not only as public relations and direct marketing tools but also as communication channels targeting very specific audiences with social media influencers and social media personalities and as effective customer engagement tools. Technologies predating social media, such as broadcast TV and newspapers can also provide advertisers with a fairly targeted audience, given that an ad placed during a sports game broadcast or in the sports section of a newspaper is likely to be read by sports fans. However, social media websites can target niche markets even more precisely. Using digital tools such as Google Adsense, advertisers can target their ads to very specific demographics, such as people who are interested in social entrepreneurship, political activism associated with a particular political party, or video gaming. Google Adsense does this by looking for keywords in social media user 's online posts and comments. It would be hard for a TV station or paper - based newspaper to provide ads that are this targeted (though not impossible, as can be seen with "special issue '' sections on niche issues, which newspapers can use to sell targeted ads).
Social networks are, in many cases, a good tool for avoiding costly market research. They are the shortest, fastest and most direct way to reach an audience through a person who, in that specific community, has more credibility than anyone. For example, an athlete ' delivers ' to their sponsor a consumer base of millions of people who every day are interested in what they do, what they feel, what they consume. No need to go to a Nikeshop window to see Cristiano Ronaldo 's latest boots. He sells them for you directly via a Tweet.
Facebook and LinkedIn are leading social media platforms where users can hyper - target their ads. Hypertargeting not only uses public profile information but also information users submit but hide from others. There are several examples of firms initiating some form of online dialog with the public to foster relations with customers. According to Constantinides, Lorenzo and Gómez Borja (2008) "Business executives like Jonathan Swartz, President and CEO of Sun Microsystems, Steve Jobs CEO of Apple Computers, and McDonalds Vice President Bob Langert post regularly in their CEO blogs, encouraging customers to interact and freely express their feelings, ideas, suggestions, or remarks about their postings, the company or its products ''. Using customer influencers (for example popular bloggers) can be a very efficient and cost - effective method to launch new products or services Narendra Modi current prime minister of India ranks only second after President Barack Obama in a number of fans on his official Facebook page at 21.8 million and counting. Modi employed social media platforms to circumvent traditional media channels to reach out to the young and urban population of India which is estimated to be 200 million.
In the context of the social web, engagement means that customers and stakeholders, such as consumer advocacy groups and groups that criticize companies (e.g., lobby groups or advocacy organizations) are active participants rather than passive viewers. Social media use in a business or political context allows all consumers / citizens to express and share an opinion about a company 's products, services or business practices, or a government 's actioins. Each participating customer or non-customer (or citizen) who is participating online via social media becomes part of the marketing department (or a challenge to the marketing effort), as other customers read their positive or negative comments or reviews. Getting consumers and potential consumers (or citizens) to be engaged online is fundamental to successful social media marketing. With the advent of social media marketing, it has become increasingly important to gain customer interest in products and services, which can eventually be translated into buying behavior (or voting or donating behavior in a political context). New online marketing concepts of engagement and loyalty have emerged which aim to build customer participation and brand reputation.
Engagement in social media for the purpose of a social media strategy is divided into two parts. The first is proactive, regular posting of new online content (digital photos, digital videos, text) and conversations, as well as the sharing of content and information from others via weblinks. The second part is reactive conversations with social media users responding to those who reach out to your social media profiles through commenting or messaging Traditional media such as TV news shows are limited to one - way interaction with customers or ' push and tell ' where only specific information is given to the customer with few or limited mechanisms to obtain customer feedback. Traditional media such as paper newspapers, of course, do give readers the option of sending a letter to the editor, but this is a relatively slow process, as the editorial board has to review the letter and decide if it is appropriate for publication. On the other hand, social media is participative and open, as participants are able to instantly share their views on brands, products, and services. Traditional media gave control of message to the marketer, whereas social media shifts the balance to the consumer (or citizen).
Social networking sites can have a large impact on the outcome of events. In 2010, a Facebook campaign surfaced in the form of a petition. Users virtually signed a petition asking NBC Universal to have actress Betty White host Saturday Night Live. Once signed, users forwarded the petition to all of their followers. The petition went viral and on May 8, 2010, Betty White hosted SNL.
The 2008 US presidential campaign had a huge presence on social networking sites. Barack Obama, a virtually unknown Democratic candidate, utilized 15 different social media websites to form relationships with the millions of American citizens who utilize those networks. His social networking profile pages were constantly being updated and interacting with followers. By the end of his campaign, Obama had 5 million social media network supporters (2.5 million on Facebook and 115,000 on Twitter). The use of social networking sites in his marketing campaign gave Barack Obama 's campaign access to e-mail addresses, as posted on social network profile pages. This allowed the Democratic Party to launch e-mail campaigns asking for votes and campaign donations.
Small businesses also use social networking sites as a promotional technique. Businesses can follow individuals social networking site uses in the local area and advertise specials and deals. These can be exclusive and in the form of "get a free drink with a copy of this tweet ''. This type of message encourages other locals to follow the business on the sites in order to obtain the promotional deal. In the process, the business is getting seen and promoting itself (brand visibility).
Small businesses also use social networking sites to develop their own market research on new products and services. By encouraging their customers to give feedback on new product ideas, businesses can gain valuable insights on whether a product may be accepted by their target market enough to merit full production, or not. In addition, customers will feel the company has engaged them in the process of co-creation -- the process in which the business uses customer feedback to create or modify a product or service the filling a need of the target market. Such feedback can present in various forms, such as surveys, contests, polls, etc.
Social networking sites such as LinkedIn, also provide an opportunity for small businesses to find candidates to fill staff positions.
Of course, review sites, such as Yelp, also help small businesses to build their reputation beyond just brand visibility. Positive customer peer reviews help to influence new prospects to purchase goods and services more than company advertising.
As the social media world continues to grow, so does the need to reach customers on social networks. 70 % of the U.S. Population has some form of social media profile, and by 2018 that number is projected to be 2.8 Billion. Small businesses can benefit from social media marketing, due to its little to no start up costs which can decrease marketing costs, giving a personality to their brand, increased brand recognition, and higher conversion rates. Engaging customers in the 21st century is now only a click away.
A short film released on March 5, 2012, by humanitarian group Invisible Children, Inc. This 29 - minute video aimed at making Joseph Kony, an International Criminal Court fugitive, famous worldwide in order to have support for his arrest by December 2012 -- the time when the campaign ends. The video went viral within the first six days after its launch, reaching 100 million views on both YouTube and Vimeo. According to research done by Visible Measures, the Kony 2012 short film became the fastest growing video campaign, and most viral video, to reach 100 million views in 6 days followed by Susan Boyle performance on Britain 's Got Talent that reached 70 million views in 6 days.
In early 2012, Nike introduced its Make It Count social media campaign. The campaign kickoff began YouTubers Casey Neistat and Max Joseph launching a YouTube video, where they traveled 34,000 miles to visit 16 cities in 13 countries. They promoted the # makeitcount hashtag, which millions of consumers shared via Twitter and Instagram by uploading photos and sending tweets. The # MakeItCount YouTube video went viral and Nike saw an 18 % increase in profit in 2012, the year this product was released.
In 2012, Lays created an annual social media campaign that allowed fans to create their own flavor for a $1 million prize for whatever flavor was voted the best. After 3.8 million submissions from fans who participated, the top three choices were Cheesy Garlic Bread, Chicken & Waffles, and Sriracha. The fans were now able to purchase the three flavors in stores then cast their vote on Facebook or Twitter for the best flavor. Lays gained a 12 % increase in sales during the contest. Garlic Cheesy Bread was eventually named the winner of the contest.
One of the main purposes of employing social media in marketing is as a communications tool that makes the companies accessible to those interested in their product and makes them visible to those who have no knowledge of their products. These companies use social media to create buzz, and learn from and target customers. It 's the only form of marketing that can finger consumers at each and every stage of the consumer decision journey. Marketing through social media has other benefits as well. Of the top 10 factors that correlate with a strong Google organic search, seven are social media dependent. This means that if brands are less or non-active on social media, they tend to show up less on Google searches. While platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and Google+ have a larger number of monthly users, the visual media sharing based mobile platforms, however, garner a higher interaction rate in comparison and have registered the fastest growth and have changed the ways in which consumers engage with brand content. Instagram has an interaction rate of 1.46 % with an average of 130 million users monthly as opposed to Twitter which has a. 03 % interaction rate with an average of 210 million monthly users. Unlike traditional media that are often cost - prohibitive to many companies, a social media strategy does not require astronomical budgeting.
To this end, companies make use of platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and Instagram to reach audiences much wider than through the use of traditional print / TV / radio advertisements alone at a fraction of the cost, as most social networking sites can be used at little or no cost (however, some websites charge companies for premium services). This has changed the ways that companies approach to interact with customers, as a substantial percentage of consumer interactions are now being carried out over online platforms with much higher visibility. Customers can now post reviews of products and services, rate customer service, and ask questions or voice concerns directly to companies through social media platforms. Thus social media marketing is also used by businesses in order to build relationships of trust with consumers. To this aim, companies may also hire personnel to specifically handle these social media interactions, who usually report under the title of Online community managers. Handling these interactions in a satisfactory manner can result in an increase of consumer trust. To both this aim and to fix the public 's perception of a company, 3 steps are taken in order to address consumer concerns, identifying the extent of the social chatter, engaging the influencers to help, and developing a proportional response.
Twitter allows companies to promote their products in short messages known as tweets limited to 140 characters which appear on followers ' Home timelines. Tweets can contain text, Hashtag, photo, video, Animated GIF, Emoji, or links to the product 's website and other social media profiles, etc. Twitter is also used by companies to provide customer service. Some companies make support available 24 / 7 and answer promptly, thus improving brand loyalty and appreciation.
Facebook pages are far more detailed than Twitter accounts. They allow a product to provide videos, photos, and longer descriptions, and testimonials as other followers can comment on the product pages for others to see. Facebook can link back to the product 's Twitter page as well as send out event reminders. As of May 2015, 93 % of businesses marketers use Facebook to promote their brand. A study from 2011 attributed 84 % of "engagement '' or clicks to Likes that link back to Facebook advertising. By 2014, Facebook had restricted the content published from businesses ' and brands ' pages. Adjustments in Facebook algorithms have reduced the audience for non-paying business pages (that have at least 500,000 "Likes '') from 16 % in 2012 down to 2 % in February 2014.
Google+, in addition to providing pages and some features of Facebook, is also able to integrate with the Google search engine. Other Google products are also integrated, such as Google Adwords and Google Maps. With the development of Google Personalized Search and other location - based search services, Google+ allows for targeted advertising methods, navigation services, and other forms of location - based marketing and promotion. Google+ can also be beneficial for other digital marketing campaigns, as well as social media marketing. Google+ authorship was known to have a significant benefit on a website 's search engine optimization, before the relationship was removed by Google. Google+ is one of the fastest growing social media networks and can benefit almost any business.
LinkedIn, a professional business - related networking site, allows companies to create professional profiles for themselves as well as their business to network and meet others. Through the use of widgets, members can promote their various social networking activities, such as Twitter stream or blog entries of their product pages, onto their LinkedIn profile page. LinkedIn provides its members the opportunity to generate sales leads and business partners. Members can use "Company Pages '' similar to Facebook pages to create an area that will allow business owners to promote their products or services and be able to interact with their customers. Due to spread of spam mail sent to job seeker, leading companies prefer to use LinkedIn for employee 's recruitment instead using different a job portal. Additionally, companies have voiced a preference for the amount of information that can be gleaned from a LinkedIn profile, versus a limited email.
WhatsApp was founded by Jan Koum and Brian Acton. WhatsApp joined Facebook in 2014, but continues to operate as a separate app with a laser focus on building a messaging service that works fast and reliably anywhere in the world. WhatsApp started as an alternative to SMS. Whatsapp now supports sending and receiving a variety of media including text, photos, videos, documents, and location, as well as voice calls. Whatsapp messages and calls are secured with end - to - end encryption, meaning that no third party including WhatsApp can read or listen to them. Whatsapp has a customer base of 1 billion people in over 180 countries. It is used to send personalised promotional messages to individual customers. It has plenty of advantages over SMS that includes ability to track how Message Broadcast Performs using blue tick option in Whatsapp. It allows sending messages to Do Not Disturb (DND) customers. Whatsapp is also used to send a series of bulk messages to their targeted customers using broadcast option. Companies started using this to a large extent because it is a cost effective promotional option and quick to spread a message. Still, Whatsapp does n't allow businesses to place ads in their app.
Yelp consists of a comprehensive online index of business profiles. Businesses are searchable by location, similar to Yellow Pages. The website is operational in seven different countries, including the United States and Canada. Business account holders are allowed to create, share, and edit business profiles. They may post information such as the business location, contact information, pictures, and service information. The website further allows individuals to write, post reviews about businesses, and rate them on a five - point scale. Messaging and talk features are further made available for general members of the website, serving to guide thoughts and opinions.
Foursquare is a location - based social networking website, where users can check into locations via a Swarm app on their smartphones. Foursquare allows businesses to create a page or create a new / claim an existing venue.
In May 2014, Instagram had over 200 million users. The user engagement rate of Instagram was 15 times higher than of Facebook and 25 times higher than that of Twitter. According to Scott Galloway, the founder of L2 and a professor of marketing at New York University 's Stern School of Business, latest studies estimate that 93 % of prestige brands have an active presence on Instagram and include it in their marketing mix. When it comes to brands and businesses, Instagram 's goal is to help companies to reach their respective audiences through captivating imagery in a rich, visual environment. Moreover, Instagram provides a platform where user and company can communicate publicly and directly, making itself an ideal platform for companies to connect with their current and potential customers.
Many brands are now heavily using this mobile app to boost their marketing strategy. Instagram can be used to gain the necessary momentum needed to capture the attention of the market segment that has an interest in the product offering or services. As Instagram is supported by Apple and android system, it can be easily accessed by smartphone users. Moreover, it can be accessed by the Internet as well. Thus, the marketers see it as a potential platform to expand their brands exposure to the public, especially the younger target group. On top of this, marketers do not only use social media for traditional Internet advertising, but they also encourage users to create attention for a certain brand. This generally creates an opportunity for greater brand exposure. Furthermore, marketers are also using the platform to drive social shopping and inspire people to collect and share pictures of their favorite products. Many big names have already jumped on board: Starbucks, MTV, Nike, Marc Jacobs, and Red Bull are a few examples of multinationals that adopted the mobile photo app early. Fashion blogger Danielle Bernstein, who goes by @ weworewhat on Instagram, collaborated with Harper 's Bazaar to do a piece on how brands are using Instagram to market their products, and how bloggers make money from it. Bernstein, who currently has one and a half million followers on Instagram, and whose "outfit of the day '' photos on Snapchat get tens of thousands of screenshots, explained that for a lot of her sponsored posts, she must feature the brand in a certain number of posts, and often can not wear a competitor 's product in the same picture. According to Harper 's Bazaar, industry estimates say that brands are spending more than $1 billion per year on consumer - generated advertising. Founder of Instagram Kevin Systrom even went to Paris Fashion week, going to couture shows and meeting with designers to learn more about how style bloggers, editors, and designers are currently dominating much of the content on his application.
Instagram has proven itself a powerful platform for marketers to reach their customers and prospects through sharing pictures and brief messages. According to a study by Simply Measured, 71 % of the world 's largest brands are now using Instagram as a marketing channel. For companies, Instagram can be used as a tool to connect and communicate with current and potential customers. The company can present a more personal picture of their brand, and by doing so the company conveys a better and true picture of itself. The idea of Instagram pictures lies on on - the - go, a sense that the event is happening right now, and that adds another layer to the personal and accurate picture of the company. In fact, Thomas Rankin, co-founder and CEO of the program Dash Hudson, stated that when he approves a blogger 's Instagram post before it is posted on the behalf of a brand his company represents, his only negative feedback is if it looks too posed. "It 's not an editorial photo, '' he explained, "We 're not trying to be a magazine. We 're trying to create a moment. '' Another option Instagram provides the opportunity for companies to reflect a true picture of the brandfrom the perspective of the customers, for instance, using the user - generated contents thought the hashtags encouragement. Other than the filters and hashtags functions, the Instagram 's 15 - second videos and the recently added ability to send private messages between users have opened new opportunities for brands to connect with customers in a new extent, further promoting effective marketing on Instagram.
YouTube is another popular avenue; advertisements are done in a way to suit the target audience. The type of language used in the commercials and the ideas used to promote the product reflect the audience 's style and taste. Also, the ads on this platform are usually in sync with the content of the video requested, this is another advantage YouTube brings for advertisers. Certain ads are presented with certain videos since the content is relevant. Promotional opportunities such as sponsoring a video is also possible on YouTube, "for example, a user who searches for a YouTube video on dog training may be presented with a sponsored video from a dog toy company in results along with other videos. '' YouTube also enable publishers to earn money through its YouTube Partner Program. Companies can pay YouTube for a special "channel '' which promotes the companies products or services.
Websites such as Delicious, Digg, Slashdot, Diigo, Stumbleupon, and Reddit are popular social bookmarking sites used in social media promotion. Each of these sites is dedicated to the collection, curation, and organization of links to other websites that users deem to be of good quality. This process is "crowdsourced '', allowing amateur social media network members to sort and prioritize links by relevance and general category. Due to the large user bases of these websites, any link from one of them to another, the smaller website may in a flash crowd, a sudden surge of interest in the target website. In addition to user - generated promotion, these sites also offer advertisements within individual user communities and categories. Because ads can be placed in designated communities with a very specific target audience and demographic, they have far greater potential for traffic generation than ads selected simply through cookie and browser history. Additionally, some of these websites have also implemented measures to make ads more relevant to users by allowing users to vote on which ones will be shown on pages they frequent. The ability to redirect large volumes of web traffic and target specific, relevant audiences makes social bookmarking sites a valuable asset for social media marketers.
Platforms like LinkedIn create an environment for companies and clients to connect online. Companies that recognize the need for information, originality / and accessibility employ blogs to make their products popular and unique / and ultimately reach out to consumers who are privy to social media. Studies from 2009 show that consumers view coverage in the media or from bloggers as being more neutral and credible than print advertisements, which are not thought of as free or independent. Blogs allow a product or company to provide longer descriptions of products or services, can include testimonials and can link to and from other social network and blog pages. Blogs can be updated frequently and are promotional techniques for keeping customers, and also for acquiring followers and subscribers who can then be directed to social network pages. Online communities can enable a business to reach the clients of other businesses using the platform. To allow firms to measure their standing in the corporate world, sites enable employees to place evaluations of their companies. Some businesses opt out of integrating social media platforms into their traditional marketing regimen. There are also specific corporate standards that apply when interacting online. To maintain an advantage in a business - consumer relationship, businesses have to be aware of four key assets that consumers maintain: information, involvement, community, and control.
Blogging website Tumblr first launched ad products on May 29, 2012. Rather than relying on simple banner ads, Tumblr requires advertisers to create a Tumblr blog so the content of those blogs can be featured on the site. In one year, four native ad formats were created on web and mobile, and had more than 100 brands advertising on Tumblr with 500 cumulative sponsored posts.
These posts can be one or more of the following: images, photo sets, animated GIFs, video, audio, and text posts. For the users to differentiate the promoted posts to the regular users ' posts, the promoted posts have a dollar symbol on the corner. On May 6, 2014, Tumblr announced customization and theming on mobile apps for brands to advertise.
Social media marketing involves the use of social networks, consumer 's online brand - related activities (COBRA) and electronic word of mouth (eWOM) to successfully advertise online. Social networks such as Facebook and Twitter provide advertisers with information about the likes and dislikes of their consumers. This technique is crucial, as it provides the businesses with a "target audience ''. With social networks, information relevant to the user 's likes is available to businesses; who then advertise accordingly. Activities such as uploading a picture of your "new Converse sneakers to Facebook '' is an example of a COBRA. Electronic recommendations and appraisals are a convenient manner to have a product promoted via "consumer - to - consumer interactions. An example of eWOM would be an online hotel review; the hotel company can have two possible outcomes based on their service. A good service would result in a positive review which gets the hotel free advertising via social media. However, a poor service will result in a negative consumer review which can potentially harm the company 's reputation.
Social networking sites such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, MySpace etc. have all influenced the buzz of word of mouth marketing. In 1999, Misner said that word - of mouth marketing is, "the world 's most effective, yet least understood marketing strategy '' (Trusov, Bucklin, & Pauwels, 2009, p. 3). Through the influence of opinion leaders, the increased online "buzz '' of "word - of - mouth '' marketing that a product, service or companies are experiencing is due to the rise in use of social media and smartphones. Businesses and marketers have noticed that, "a persons behaviour is influenced by many small groups '' (Kotler, Burton, Deans, Brown, & Armstrong, 2013, p. 189). These small groups rotate around social networking accounts that are run by influential people (opinion leaders or "thought leaders '') who have followers of groups. The types of groups (followers) are called: reference groups (people who know each other either face - to - face or have an indirect influence on a persons attitude or behaviour); membership groups (a person has a direct influence on a person 's attitude or behaviour); and aspirational groups (groups which an individual wishes to belong to).
Marketers target influential people on social media who are recognised as being opinion leaders and opinion - formers to send messages to their target audiences and amplify the impact of their message. A social media post by an opinion leader can have a much greater impact (via the forwarding of the post or "liking '' of the post) than a social media post by a regular user. Marketers have come to the understanding that "consumers are more prone to believe in other individuals '' who they trust (Sepp, Liljander, & Gummerus, 2011). OL 's and OF 's can also send their own messages about products and services they choose (Fill, Hughes, & De Francesco, 2013, p. 216). The reason the opinion leader or formers have such a strong following base is because their opinion is valued or trusted (Clement, Proppe, & Rott, 2007). They can review products and services for their followings, which can be positive or negative towards the brand. OL 's and OF 's are people who have a social status and because of their personality, beliefs, values etc. have the potential to influence other people (Kotler, Burton, Deans, Brown, & Armstrong, 2013, p. 189). They usually have a large number of followers otherwise known as their reference, membership or aspirational group (Kotler, Burton, Deans, Brown, & Armstrong, 2013, p. 189. By having an OL or OF support a brands product by posting a photo, video or written recommendation on a blog, the following may be influenced and because they trust the OL / OF a high chance of the brand selling more products or creating a following base. Having an OL / OF helps spread word of mouth talk amongst reference groups and / or memberships groups e.g. family, friends, work - friends etc. (Kotler, Burton, Deans, Brown, & Armstrong, 2013, p. 189). The adjusted communication model shows the use of using opinion leaders and opinion formers. The sender / source gives the message to many, many OL 's / OF 's who pass the message on along with their personal opinion, the receiver (followers / groups) form their own opinion and send their personal message to their group (friends, family etc.) (Dahlen, Lange, & Smith, 2010, p. 39).
The platform of social media is another channel or site that business ' and brands must seek to influence the content of. In contrast with pre-Internet marketing, such as TV ads and newspaper ads, in which the marketer controlled all aspects of the ad, with social media, users are free to post comments right below an online ad or an online post by a company about its product. Companies are increasing using their social media strategy as part of their traditional marketing effort using magazines, newspapers, radio advertisements, television advertisements. Since in the 2010s, media consumers are often using multiple platforms at the same time (e.g., surfing the Internet on a tablet while watching a streaming TV show), marketing content needs to be consistent across all platforms, whether traditional or new media. Heath (2006) wrote about the extent of attention businesses should give to their social media sites. It is about finding a balance between frequently posting but not over posting. There is a lot more attention to be paid towards social media sites because people need updates to gain brand recognition. Therefore, a lot more content is need and this can often be unplanned content.
Planned content begins with the creative / marketing team generating their ideas, once they have completed their ideas they send them off for approval. There is two general ways of doing so. The first is where each sector approves the plan one after another, editor, brand, followed by the legal team (Brito, 2013). Sectors may differ depending on the size and philosophy of the business. The second is where each sector is given 24 hours (or such designated time) to sign off or disapprove. If no action is given within the 24 - hour period the original plan is implemented. Planned content is often noticeable to customers and is un-original or lacks excitement but is also a safer option to avoid unnecessary backlash from the public. Both routes for planned content are time consuming as in the above; the first way to approval takes 72 hours to be approved. Although the second route can be significantly shorter it also holds more risk particularly in the legal department.
Unplanned content is an ' in the moment ' idea, "a spontaneous, tactical reaction. '' (Cramer, 2014, p. 6). The content could be trending and not have the time to take the planned content route. The unplanned content is posted sporadically and is not calendar / date / time arranged (Deshpande, 2014). Issues with unplanned content revolve around legal issues and whether the message being sent out represents the business / brand accordingly. If a company sends out a Tweet or Facebook message too hurriedly, the company may unintentionally use insensitive language or messaging that could alienate some consumers. For example, celebrity chef Paula Deen was criticized after she made a social media post commenting about HIV - AIDS and South Africa; her message was deemed to be offensive by many observers. The main difference between planned and unplanned is the time to approve the content. Unplanned content must still be approved by marketing managers, but in a much more rapid manner e.g. 1 -- 2 hours or less. Sectors may miss errors because of being hurried. When using unplanned content Brito (2013) says, "be prepared to be reactive and respond to issues when they arise. '' Brito (2013) writes about having a, "crisis escalation plan '', because, "It will happen ''. The plan involves breaking down the issue into topics and classifying the issue into groups. Colour coding the potential risk "identify and flag potential risks '' also helps to organise an issue. The problem can then be handled by the correct team and dissolved more effectively rather than any person at hand trying to solve the situation.
Traditional advertising techniques include print and television advertising. The Internet has already overtaken television as the largest advertising market. Web sites often include the banner or pop - up ads. Social networking sites do n't always have ads. In exchange, products have entire pages and are able to interact with users. Television commercials often end with a spokesperson asking viewers to check out the product website for more information. While briefly popular, print ads included QR codes on them. These QR codes can be scanned by cell phones and computers, sending viewers to the product website. Advertising is beginning to move viewers from the traditional outlets to the electronic ones.
While traditional media, like newspapers and television advertising, are largely overshadowed by the rise of social media marketing, there is still a place for traditional marketing. For example, with newspapers, readership over the years has shown a decline. However, readership with newspapers is still fiercely loyal to print - only media. 51 % of newspaper readers only read the newspaper in its print form, making well - placed ads valuable.
The Internet and social networking leaks are one of the issues facing traditional advertising. Video and print ads are often leaked to the world via the Internet earlier than they are scheduled to premiere. Social networking sites allow those leaks to go viral, and be seen by many users more quickly. The time difference is also a problem facing traditional advertisers. When social events occur and are broadcast on television, there is often a time delay between airings on the east coast and west coast of the United States. Social networking sites have become a hub of comment and interaction concerning the event. This allows individuals watching the event on the west coast (time - delayed) to know the outcome before it airs. The 2011 Grammy Awards highlighted this problem. Viewers on the west coast learned who won different awards based on comments made on social networking sites by individuals watching live on the east coast. Since viewers knew who won already, many tuned out and ratings were lower. All the advertisement and promotion put into the event was lost because viewers did n't have a reason to watch.
Social media marketing provides organizations with a way to connect with their customers. However, organizations must protect their information as well as closely watch comments and concerns on the social media they use. A flash poll done on 1225 IT executives from 33 countries revealed that social media mishaps caused organizations a combined $4.3 million in damages in 2010. The top three social media incidents an organization faced during the previous year included employees sharing too much information in public forums, loss or exposure of confidential information, and increased exposure to litigation. Due to the viral nature of the Internet, a mistake by a single employee has in some cases shown to result in devastating consequences for organizations. An example of a social media mishap includes designer Kenneth Cole 's Twitter mishap in 2011. When Kenneth Cole tweeted, "Millions are in uproar in # Cairo. Rumor has they heard our new spring collection is now available online at (Kenneth Cole 's website) ''. This reference to the 2011 Egyptian revolution drew an objection from the public; it was widely objected to on the Internet. Kenneth Cole realized his mistake shortly after and responded with a statement apologizing for the tweet.
In 2012 during Hurricane Sandy, Gap sent out a tweet to its followers telling them to stay safe but encouraged them to shop online and offered free shipping. The tweet was deemed insensitive, and Gap eventually took it down and apologized. Numerous additional online marketing mishap examples exist. Examples include a YouTube video of a Domino 's Pizza employee violating health code standards, which went viral on the Internet and later resulted in felony charges against two employees. A Twitter hashtag posted by McDonald 's in 2012 attracting attention due to numerous complaints and negative events customers experienced at the chain store; and a 2011 tweet posted by a Chrysler Group employee that no one in Detroit knows how to drive. When the Link REIT opened a Facebook page to recommend old - style restaurants, the page was flooded by furious comments criticizing the REIT for having forced a lot of restaurants and stores to shut down; it had to terminate its campaign early amid further deterioration of its corporate image.
The code of ethics that is affiliated with traditional marketing can also be applied to social media. However, with social media being so personal and international, there is another list of complications and challenges that come along with being ethical online. With the invention of social media, the marketer no longer has to focus solely on the basic demographics and psychographics given from television and magazines, but now they can see what consumers like to hear from advertisers, how they engage online, and what their needs and wants are. The general concept of being ethical while marking on social network sites is to be honest with the intentions of the campaign, avoid false advertising, be aware of user privacy conditions (which means not using consumers ' private information for gain), respect the dignity of persons in the shared online community, and claim responsibility for any mistakes or mishaps that are results of your marketing campaign. Most social network marketers use websites like Facebook and MySpace to try to drive traffic to another website. While it is ethical to use social networking websites to spread a message to people who are genuinely interested, many people game the system with auto - friend adding programs and spam messages and bulletins. Social networking websites are becoming wise to these practices, however, and are effectively weeding out and banning offenders.
In addition, social media platforms have become extremely aware of their users and collect information about their viewers to connect with them in various ways. Social - networking website Facebook Inc. is quietly working on a new advertising system that would let marketers target users with ads based on the massive amounts of information people reveal on the site about themselves. This may be an unethical or ethical feature to some individuals. Some people may react negatively because they believe it is an invasion of privacy. On the other hand, some individuals may enjoy this feature because their social network recognizes their interests and sends them particular advertisements pertaining to those interests. Consumers like to network with people who have interests and desires that are similar to their own. Individuals who agree to have their social media profile public, should be aware that advertisers have the ability to take information that interests them to be able to send them information and advertisements to boost their sales. Managers invest in social media to foster relationships and interact with customers. This is an ethical way for managers to send messages about their advertisements and products to their consumers.
Since social media marketing first came to be, strategists and markets have been getting smarter and more careful with the way they go about collecting information and distributing advertisements. With the presence of data collecting companies, there is no longer a need to target specific audiences. This can be seen as a large ethical gray area. For many users, this is a breach of privacy, but there are no laws that prevent these companies from using the information provided on their websites. Companies like Equifax, Inc., TransUnion Corp, and LexisNexis Group thrive on collecting and sharing personal information of social media users. In 2012, Facebook purchased information from 70 million households from a third party company called Datalogix. Facebook later revealed that they purchased the information in order to create a more efficient advertising service.
Facebook had an estimated 144.27 million views in 2016, approximately 12.9 million per month. Despite this high volume of traffic, very little has been done to protect the millions of users who log on to Facebook and other social media platforms each month. President Barack Obama tried to work with the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to attempt to regulate data mining. He proposed the Privacy Bill of Rights, which would protect the average user from having their private information downloaded and shared with third party companies. The proposed laws would give the consumer more control over what information companies can collect. President Obama was unable to pass most of these laws through congress, and it is unsure what President Trump will do with regards to social media marketing ethics.
This involves tracking the volume of visits, leads, and customers to a website from the individual social channel. Google Analytics is a free tool that shows the behavior and other information, such as demographics and device type used, of website visitors from social networks. This and other commercial offers can aid marketers in choosing the most effective social networks and social media marketing activities.
The end goal of any marketing effort is to generate sales. Although social media is a useful marketing tool, it is often difficult to quantify to what extent it is contributing to profit. ROI can be measured by comparing marketing analytic value to contact database or CRM and connect marketing efforts directly to sales activity.
Several customers are turning towards social media to express their appreciation or frustration with brands, product or services. Therefore, marketers can measure the frequency of which customers are discussing their brand and judge how effective their SMM strategies are. In recent studies, 72 % of people surveyed expressed that they expected a response to their complaints on Twitter within an hour.
Popular social media such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and other social networks can provide marketers with a hard number of how large their audience is nevertheless a large audience may not always translate into a large sales volumes. Therefore, an effective SMM can not be measured by a large audience but rather by vigorous audience activity such as social shares, re-tweets etc.
|
who wrote how come you dont call me anymore | How Come U Do n't Call Me Anymore? - Wikipedia
"How Come U Do n't Call Me Anymore? '' is a song by Prince. It is a ballad of romantic longing with some gospel elements. On his original recording of the song, which was released as the non-album B - side to his 1982 single "1999 '', Prince performs most of the song in his falsetto range, with his own bluesy piano playing providing the only instrumental accompaniment. The song 's first album appearance was on his 1993 compilation The Hits / The B - Sides. It was later included on the soundtrack to the 1996 film Girl 6. Prince also performs the song on his 2002 live album One Nite Alone... Live!.
Artists who have covered the song include Stephanie Mills (1983), Joshua Redman (1998), and Alicia Keys (2001). Bilal recorded the song which appears on his 2001 single "Fast Lane ''. Roger Cicero recorded the song with Soulounge for the 2004 album Home; a live version by Cicero is included on his 2008 single "Alle Möbel verrückt ''. American Idol season 11 finalist Jessica Sanchez performed the song on the American Idols LIVE! Tour 2012.
Keys recorded a cover of the song -- retitled "How Come You Do n't Call Me '' -- for her debut album, Songs in A Minor (2001). It was released as the album 's third and final U.S. single and became a moderate chart success, reaching the top thirty in Australia, the United Kingdom, and on the U.S. Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart. She told Billboard Magazine, "I had never heard (the original) before. They gave me a copy of the song on tape. I played it every day for three weeks. It is so raw and so truthful -- I was just feeling it. It really came out well. ''
An official remix of the song, produced by The Neptunes, was included on the Remixed & Unplugged in A minor reissue, released in 2002. It features vocals from Justin Timberlake towards the end of the track.
Keys ' cover of "How Come You Do n't Call Me '' was inspired by a long - term relationship with a partner.
The song 's music video, directed by Little X. It contains references to Japanese popular culture such as San - X 's Buru Buru Dog and Cardcaptor Sakura 's Kero - chan, besides Korean character Mashimaro. It starts with Keys waking up in the morning, and following her daily routine throughout the video, ending with a performance on stage. The video ends with a phone call from her supposed "boyfriend '' making an excuse about why he has n't called her, and she hangs up on him, laughing. The ' boyfriend ' is played by actor - comedian Mike Epps.
Mark Anthony Neal of PopMatters felt that the song was credible, but fell short from the original or Stephanie Mills 's 1983 cover.
|
can a nurse administer a bolus dose of medication through an epidural catheter | Epidural administration - wikipedia
Epidural administration (from Ancient Greek ἐπί, "on, upon '' + dura mater) is a medical route of administration in which a drug such as epidural analgesia and epidural anaesthesia or contrast agent is injected into the epidural space around the spinal cord. The epidural route is frequently employed by certain physicians and nurse anaesthetists to administer local anaesthetic agents, and occasionally to administer diagnostic (e.g. radiocontrast agents) and therapeutic (e.g., glucocorticoids) chemical substances. Epidural techniques frequently involve injection of drugs through a catheter placed into the epidural space. The injection can result in a loss of sensation -- including the sensation of pain -- by blocking the transmission of signals through nerve fibres in or near the spinal cord.
The technique of "single - shot '' lumbar epidural anaesthesia was first developed in 1921 by Spanish military surgeon Fidel Pagés (1886 -- 1923).
Spinal anaesthesia is a technique whereby a local anaesthetic drug is injected into the cerebrospinal fluid. This technique has some similarity to epidural anaesthesia, and lay people often confuse the two techniques. Important differences include:
Injecting medication into the epidural space is primarily performed for analgesia. This may be performed using a number of different techniques and for a variety of reasons. Additionally, some of the side - effects of epidural analgesia may be beneficial in some circumstances (e.g., vasodilation may be beneficial if the subject has peripheral vascular disease). When a catheter is placed into the epidural space (see below) a continuous infusion can be maintained for several days, if needed. Epidural analgesia may be used:
The epidural space is more difficult and risky to access as one ascends the spine (because the spinal cord gains more nerves as it ascends and fills the epidural space leaving less room for error), so epidural techniques are most suitable for analgesia anywhere in the lower body and as high as the chest. They are (usually) much less suitable for analgesia for the neck, or arms and are not possible for the head (since sensory innervation for the head arises directly from the brain via cranial nerves rather than from the spinal cord via the epidural space.)
The epidural space is the space inside the bony spinal canal but just outside the dura mater ("dura ''). In contact with the inner surface of the dura is another membrane called the arachnoid mater ("arachnoid ''). The cerebrospinal fluid that surrounds the spinal cord is contained by the arachnoid mater. In adults, the spinal cord terminates around the level of the disc between L1 and L2 (in neonates it extends to L3 but can reach as low as L4), below which lies a bundle of nerves known as the cauda equina ("horse 's tail ''). Hence, lumbar epidural injections carry a low risk of injuring the spinal cord.
Insertion of an epidural needle involves threading a needle between the bones, through the ligaments and into the epidural potential space taking great care to avoid puncturing the layer immediately below containing CSF under pressure.
Procedures involving injection of any substance into the epidural space require the operator to be technically proficient in order to avoid complications. Proficiency can be gained using bananas or other fruits as a model.
The subject may be in the seated, lateral or prone positions. The level of the spine at which the catheter is best placed depends mainly on the site and type of an intended operation or the anatomical origin of pain. The iliac crest is a commonly used anatomical landmark for lumbar epidural injections, as this level roughly corresponds with the fourth lumbar vertebra, which is usually well below the termination of the spinal cord. The Tuohy needle, designed with a 90 - degree curved tip and sidehole to redirect the inserted catheter vertically along the axis of the spine, is usually inserted in the midline, between the spinous processes. When using a paramedian approach, the tip of the needle passes along a shelf of vertebral bone called the lamina until just before reaching the ligamentum flavum and the epidural space.
Along with a sudden loss of resistance to pressure on the plunger of the syringe, a slight clicking sensation may be felt by the operator as the tip of the needle breaches the ligamentum flavum and enters the epidural space. Practitioners commonly use air or saline for identifying the epidural space. However, evidence is accumulating that saline is preferable to air, as it is associated with a better quality of analgesia and lower incidence of post-dural - puncture headache. In addition to the loss of resistance technique, realtime observation of the advancing needle is becoming more common. This may be done using a portable ultrasound scanner, or with fluoroscopy (moving X-ray pictures).
After placement of the tip of the needle into the epidural space, a catheter is often threaded through the needle. The needle is then withdrawn over the catheter. Generally the catheter is inserted 4 -- 6 cm into the epidural space. The catheter is typically secured to the skin with adhesive tape or dressings to prevent it becoming dislodged.
The catheter is a fine plastic tube, through which anaesthetics may be injected into the epidural space. Many epidural catheters have a blind end, and three or more orifices along the shaft near the distal tip (far end) of the catheter. This not only disperses the injected agents over more spinal levels, but also reduces the incidence of catheter blockage.
Choice of agents A person receiving an epidural for pain relief may receive local anaesthetic, an opioid, or both. Common local anaesthetics include lidocaine, mepivacaine, bupivacaine, ropivacaine, and chloroprocaine. Common opioids include hydromorphone, morphine, fentanyl, sufentanil, and pethidine (known as meperidine in the United States). These are injected in relatively small doses, compared to when they are injected intravenously. Other agents such as clonidine or ketamine are also sometimes used.
Bolus or infusion?
For a short procedure, the anaesthetist may introduce a single dose of medication (the "bolus '' technique). This will eventually dissipate. Thereafter, the anaesthetist may repeat the bolus provided the catheter remains undisturbed. For a prolonged effect, a continuous infusion of drugs may be employed. There is some evidence that an automated intermittent bolus technique provides better analgesia than a continuous infusion technique, though the total doses are identical.
Level and intensity of block Typically, the effects of the epidural block are noted below a specific level on the body. This level may be determined by the anaesthetist. A high insertion level may result in sparing of nerve function in the lower spinal nerves. For example, a thoracic epidural may be performed for upper abdominal surgery, but may not have any effect on the perineum (area around the genitals) or pelvic organs. Nonetheless, giving very large volumes into the epidural space may spread the block both higher and lower.
The intensity of the block is determined by the concentration of local anaesthetic solution used. For example, 0.1 % bupivacaine may provide adequate analgesia for a woman in labour, but would likely be insufficient for surgical anaesthesia. Conversely, 0.5 % bupivacaine would provide a more intense block, likely sufficient for surgery.
Removing the catheter
The catheter is usually removed when the subject is able to take oral pain medications. Catheters can safely remain in place for several days with little risk of bacterial infection, particularly if the skin is prepared with a chlorhexidine solution. Subcutaneously tunneled epidural catheters may be left in place for longer periods, with a low risk of infection or other complications.
Epidural analgesia provides rapid pain relief in most cases. It is more effective than opioids and other common modalities of analgesia in childbirth. Epidurals during childbirth are the most commonly used anesthesia in this situation. The medication concentrations and doses are kept low to decrease the side effects to both mother and baby. When in labor the mother does not usually feel pain after an epidural but they do still feel the pressure. Women are able to bear down and push with contractions. Epidural clonidine is rarely used but has been extensively studied for management of analgesia during labor. Epidural analgesia is a relatively safe method of relieving pain in labor. In a 2018 Cochrane review which included 52 randomized controlled studies involving more than 11,000 women, where most studies compared epidural analgesia with opiates, epidural analgesia in childbirth was associated with the following advantages and disadvantages:
However, the review found no difference in overall Caesarean delivery rates, nor were there effects on the baby soon after birth. Also, the occurrence of long - term backache was no different whether an epidural was or was not used.
Though complications are rare, some women and their babies will experience them. Some side effects for the mother include headaches, dizziness, difficulty breathing and seizures. The child may experience slowed heartbeat, temperature regulation issues and there could be high levels of drugs in the child 's system from the epidural.
Differing outcomes in frequency of Cesarean section may be explained by differing institutions or their practitioners: epidural anesthesia and analgesia administered at top - rated institutions does not generally result in a clinically significant increase in caesarean rates, whereas the risk of caesarean delivery at poorly ranked facilities seems to increase with the use of epidural.
Regarding early or late administration of epidural analgesia, there is no overall difference in outcomes for first - time mothers in labor. Specifically, the rates of caesarean section, instrumental birth, and duration of labor are equal, as are baby Apgar scores and cord pH.
Epidurals (other than low - dose ambulatory epidurals) preclude maternal movement, but "walking, movement, and changing positions during labor help labor progress, enhance comfort, and decrease the risk of complications. ''
One study concluded that women whose epidural infusions contained fentanyl were less likely to fully breastfeed their infant in the few days after birth and more likely to stop breastfeeding in the first 24 weeks. However, this study has been criticized for several reasons, one of which is that the original patient records were not examined in this study, and so many of the epidural infusions were assumed to contain fentanyl when almost certainly they would not have. In addition, all those who had received epidural infusions in this study had also received systemic pethidine, which would be much more likely to be the cause of any effect on breastfeeding due to the higher amounts of medication used via that route. If this were the case, then early epidural analgesia which avoided the need for pethidine would be expected to improve breastfeeding outcomes rather than worsen them. Traditional epidural for labor relieves pain reliably only during first stage of labor (uterine contractions until cervix is fully open). It does not relieve pain as reliably during the second stage of labor (passage of the fetus through the vagina).
Epidural analgesia has been demonstrated to have several benefits after surgery, including:
Despite these benefits, no survival benefit has been proven for high - risk individuals.
The caudal approach to the epidural space involves the use of a Tuohy needle, an intravenous catheter, or a hypodermic needle to puncture the sacrococcygeal membrane. Injecting local anaesthetic at this level can result in analgesia and / or anaesthesia of the perineum and groin areas. The caudal epidural technique is often used in infants and children undergoing surgery involving the groin, pelvis or lower extremities. In this population, caudal epidural analgesia is usually combined with general anaesthesia since most children do not tolerate surgery when regional anaesthesia is employed as the sole modality.
For some procedures, the anaesthetist may choose to combine the rapid onset and reliable, dense block of a spinal anaesthetic with the post-operative analgesic effects of an epidural. This is called combined spinal and epidural anaesthesia (CSE). The practitioner may insert the spinal anaesthetic at one level, and the epidural at an adjacent level. Alternatively, after locating the epidural space with the Tuohy needle, a spinal needle may be inserted through the Tuohy needle into the subarachnoid space. The spinal dose is then given, the spinal needle withdrawn, and the epidural catheter inserted as normal. This method, known as the "needle - through - needle '' technique, may be associated with a slightly higher risk of placing the catheter into the subarachnoid space.
Epidural steroid injection may be used to treat radiculopathy, radicular pain and inflammation caused by such conditions as spinal disc herniation, degenerative disc disease, and spinal stenosis. Steroids may be injected at the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, or caudal / sacral levels, depending on the specific area where the pathology (disease, condition, or injury) is located.
In addition to blocking the nerves which carry pain, local anaesthetic drugs in the epidural space will block other types of nerves as well, in a dose - dependent manner. Depending on the drug and dose used, the effects may last only a few minutes or up to several hours. Epidural analgesia typically involves using the opiates fentanyl or sufentanil, with bupivacaine or one of its congeners. Fentanyl is a powerful opioid with a potency 80 times that of morphine and side effects common to the opiate class. Sufentanil is another opiate, 5 to 10 times more potent than Fentanyl. Bupivacaine is markedly toxic if inadvertently given intravenously, causing excitation, nervousness, tingling around the mouth, tinnitus, tremor, dizziness, blurred vision, or seizures, followed by depression: drowsiness, loss of consciousness, respiratory depression and apnea. Bupivacaine has caused several deaths by cardiac arrest when epidural anaesthetic has been accidentally inserted into a vein instead of the epidural space.
Sensory nerve fibers are more sensitive to the effects of the local anaesthetics than motor nerve fibers. This means that an epidural can provide analgesia while affecting muscle strength to a lesser extent. For example, a labouring woman may have a continuous epidural during labour that provides good analgesia without impairing her ability to move. If she requires a Caesarean section, she may be given a larger dose of epidural local anaesthetic.
The larger the dose used, the more likely it is that side effects will be evident. For example, very large doses of epidural anaesthetic can cause paralysis of the intercostal muscles and thoracic diaphragm (which are responsible for breathing), and loss of sympathetic nerve input to the heart, which may cause a significant decrease in heart rate and blood pressure. This may require emergency intervention, which may include support of the airway and the cardiovascular system.
The sensation of needing to urinate is often significantly diminished or even abolished after administration of epidural local anaesthetics and / or opioids. Because of this, a urinary catheter is often placed for the duration of the epidural infusion. People with continuous epidural infusions of local anaesthetic solutions typically ambulate only with assistance, if at all, in order to reduce the likelihood of injury due to a fall.
Large doses of epidurally administered opioids may cause troublesome itching, and respiratory depression.
These include:
If dural puncture is not recognised, large doses of anaesthetic may be delivered directly into the cerebrospinal fluid. This may result in a high block, or, more rarely, a total spinal, where anaesthetic is delivered directly to the brainstem, causing unconsciousness and sometimes seizures.
The figures above relate to epidural anaesthesia and analgesia in healthy individuals.
Evidence to support the assertion that epidural analgesia increases the risk of anastomotic breakdown following bowel surgery is lacking.
Controversial claims:
Epidural analgesia does increase the duration of the second stage of labour by 15 to 30 minutes and may increase the rate of instrument - assisted vaginal deliveries as well as that of oxytocin administration. Some people have also been concerned about whether the use of epidural analgesia in early labour increases the risk of cesarean delivery. Three randomized, controlled trials showed that early initiation of epidural analgesia (cervical dilatation, < 4 cm) does not increase the rate of cesarean delivery among women with spontaneous or induced labour, as compared with early initiation of analgesia with parenteral opioids.
In 1885, American neurologist James Leonard Corning (1855 -- 1923), of Acorn Hall in Morristown, NJ, was the first to perform neuraxial blockade, when he injected 111 mg of cocaine into the epidural space of a healthy male volunteer (although at the time he believed he was injecting it into the subarachnoid space).
In 1921, Spanish military surgeon Fidel Pagés (1886 -- 1923) developed the technique of "single - shot '' lumbar epidural anaesthesia, which was later popularized by Italian surgeon Achille Mario Dogliotti (1897 -- 1966).
In 1941, Robert Andrew Hingson (1913 -- 1996) and Waldo B. Edwards developed the technique of continuous caudal anaesthesia using an indwelling needle. The first use of continuous caudal anaesthesia in a labouring woman was in 1942.
In 1947, Manuel Martínez Curbelo (1906 -- 1962) was the first to describe placement of a lumbar epidural catheter.
|
cast of characters from the andy griffith show | List of the Andy Griffith Show characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of characters of The Andy Griffith Show, an American sitcom television series, starring Andy Griffith. The series ran for eight seasons on CBS between October 3, 1960, and April 1, 1968.
Sheriff Andrew Jackson "Andy '' Taylor is Sheriff and Justice of the Peace of Mayberry. He is genial, good - natured and endears himself to the townsfolk with an air of good will, polite charm and keeps the peace by using common sense. He refuses to wear a gun or formalize his uniform with a tie, as he feels a relaxed image makes him more approachable. Andy is a widower with a young son, Opie, and tries to raise him with good sense and good values. Also in his home is his paternal Aunt Bee who arrives in the home shortly after the previous housekeeper, Rose, marries and moves away. Although a widower, Andy has a steady string of girlfriends, but his longest - lasting relationship is with Helen Crump, Opie 's teacher, whom he eventually marries, moves out of Mayberry with, becomes a U.S. Postal Inspector, and moves back to Mayberry and runs for Sheriff.
Opie Taylor is the son of Andy Taylor and his late wife. A good - hearted, normal little boy (about six when the series began), most of Opie 's lessons come from his close relationship with his father, and his Great Aunt Bee. He is not prone to get into trouble and that probably has to do with spending a great deal of time around the jail. At one point, Aunt Bee considers this to be a bad influence and when Opie runs away from home briefly, she relents and allows him to visit the jail after school on a conditional basis.
Deputy Bernard Milton "Barney '' Fife is Deputy Sheriff of Mayberry. Thin, wiry and high - strung, Barney fancies himself an expert lawman even though -- in reality -- he is actually a bumbling goof. In episodes 001 and 002, Andy refers to him as "Cousin Barney ''. In episode 025, his middle name is said to be "Oliver ''; in episode 082, his middle name according to his high school yearbook is "Milton '', in episode 157 (season 5) his middle initial is repeated as "P ''. He considers his position to be essential to keeping Mayberry safe. Even though the town has very little crime, he dubs the town: "Mayberry, Gateway to Danger ''. Andy keeps Barney 's crime - fighting shenanigans to a reasonable level, but tries to never step on his ego. For safety reasons, he only allows Barney to carry one bullet, which he keeps in his shirt pocket until needed. Often, when the bullet is employed, Barney accidentally shoots the bullet into the floor, narrowly missing his own foot. Like Andy, he has a steady stream of girlfriends, but his longest lasting relationship is with Thelma Lou. In episode 028, Barney has just met Thelma Lou at the "Junction Diner ''. In season five, he takes a job as a detective in Raleigh, leaving Mayberry, but returns in seasons six through eight for guest appearances.
Beatrice "Aunt Bee '' Taylor is Andy 's paternal aunt. Aunt Bee is a spinster in her late - 50s who raised Andy. She was living alone in West Virginia when Andy invited her to come to live with him and Opie, after their housekeeper Rose got married and moved away. Aunt Bee is a motherly figure who takes the place of Opie 's late mother and dotes over the boy, caring for his welfare and taking care of Andy as well. She is prominent in town, a respected lady who spends her time helping with social functions and church events. She is prone to spend time with her friends gossiping about the town 's citizens.
|
where did the 7 year war take place | Seven Years ' War - wikipedia
Anglo - Prusso - Portuguese Coalition victory.
Status quo ante bellum in Europe. Transfer of colonial possessions between Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal.
Great Britain
Prussia Portugal (from 1762) Hanover Brunswick - Wolfenbüttel
France
Holy Roman Empire:
Russia (until 1762) Spain
George II (personal union) (until 1760) George III (personal union) (from 1760) William Pitt Frederick II
Louis XV Duc de Choiseul Maria Theresa Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz Elizabeth (until 1762) Peter III (from 1762) Charles III Adolph Frederick Alamgir II (to 1759)
350,000
373,588
The Seven Years ' War was a global conflict fought between 1756 and 1763. It involved every European great power of the time and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions, led by the Kingdom of Great Britain (including Prussia, Portugal, Hanover, and other small German states) on one side and the Kingdom of France (including the Austrian - led Holy Roman Empire, the Russian Empire, Bourbon Spain, and Sweden) on the other. Meanwhile, in India, the Mughal Empire, with the support of the French, tried to crush a British attempt to conquer Bengal.
Although Anglo - French skirmishes over their American colonies had begun with what became the French and Indian War in 1754, the large - scale conflict that drew in most of the European powers was centered on Austria 's desire to recover Silesia from the Prussians. Seeing the opportunity to curtail Britain 's and Prussia 's ever - growing might, France and Austria put aside their ancient rivalry to form a grand coalition of their own, bringing most of the other European powers to their side. Faced with this sudden turn of events, Britain aligned itself with Prussia, in a series of political manoeuvres known as the Diplomatic Revolution. However, French efforts ended in failure when the Anglo - Prussian coalition prevailed, and Britain 's rise as among the world 's predominant powers destroyed France 's supremacy in Europe, thus altering the European balance of power.
Conflict between Great Britain and France broke out in 1754 -- 1756 when the British attacked disputed French positions in North America, starting with a British ambush of a small French force at the Battle of Jumonville Glen on 28 May 1754, and extended across the colonial boundaries and the seizure of hundreds of French merchant ships at sea. Meanwhile, rising power Prussia was struggling with Austria for dominance within and outside the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe. In 1756, the major powers "switched partners ''.
Realising that war was imminent, Prussia pre-emptively struck Saxony and quickly overran it. The result caused uproar across Europe. Because of Austria 's alliance with France to recapture Silesia, which had been lost in the War of the Austrian Succession, Prussia formed an alliance with Britain. Reluctantly, by following the imperial diet, which declared war on Prussia on 17 January 1757, most of the states of the empire joined Austria 's cause. The Anglo - Prussian alliance was joined by smaller German states (especially the Electorate of Hanover). Sweden, seeking to re-gain Pomerania (most of which had been lost to Prussia in previous wars) joined the coalition, seeing its chance when virtually all of Europe opposed Prussia. Spain, bound by the Pacte de Famille, intervened on behalf of France and together they launched an utterly unsuccessful invasion of Portugal in 1762. The Russian Empire was originally aligned with Austria, fearing Prussia 's ambition on the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth, but switched sides upon the succession of Tsar Peter III in 1762.
Many middle and small powers in Europe, as in the previous wars, tried to steer clear away from the escalating conflict, even though they had interests in the conflict or with the belligerents. Denmark -- Norway, for instance, was close to being dragged into the war on France 's side when Peter III became Russian emperor and switched sides; Dano - Norwegian and Russian armies were close to ending up in battle, but the Russian emperor was deposed before war formally broke out. The Dutch Republic, a long - time British ally, kept its neutrality intact, fearing the odds against Britain and Prussia fighting the great powers of Europe, and even tried to prevent Britain 's domination in India. Naples, Sicily, and Savoy, although sided with the Franco - Spanish alliance, declined to join the coalition under fear of British naval power. The taxation needed for war caused the Russian people considerable hardship, being added to the taxation of salt and alcohol begun by Empress Elizabeth in 1759 to complete her addition to the Winter Palace. Like Sweden, Russia concluded a separate peace with Prussia.
The war ended with the Treaty of Paris between France, Spain and Great Britain and the Treaty of Hubertusburg between Saxony, Austria and Prussia, in 1763.
The war was successful for Great Britain, which gained the bulk of New France in North America, Spanish Florida, some individual Caribbean islands in the West Indies, the colony of Senegal on the West African coast, and superiority over the French trading outposts on the Indian subcontinent. The Native American tribes were excluded from the settlement; a subsequent conflict, known as Pontiac 's War, was also unsuccessful in returning them to their pre-war status. In Europe, the war began disastrously for Prussia, but with a combination of good luck and successful strategy, King Frederick the Great managed to retrieve the Prussian position and retain the status quo ante bellum. Prussia emerged as a new European great power. Although Austria failed to retrieve the territory of Silesia from Prussia (its original goal), its military prowess was also noted by the other powers. The involvement of Portugal, Spain and Sweden did not return them to their former status as great powers. France was deprived of many of its colonies and had saddled itself with heavy war debts that its inefficient financial system could barely handle. Spain lost Florida but gained French Louisiana and regained control of its colonies, e.g., Cuba and the Philippines, which had been captured by the British during the war. France and Spain avenged their defeat during the American Revolutionary War, with hopes of destroying Britain 's dominance once and for all.
The Seven Years ' War was perhaps the first true world war, having taken place almost 160 years before World War I and influenced many major events later around the globe. The war restructured not only the European political order, but also affected events all around the world, paving the way for the beginning of later British world supremacy in the 19th century, the rise of Prussia in Germany, the beginning of tensions in British North America, as well as a clear sign of France 's eventual turmoil. It was characterised in Europe by sieges and the arson of towns as well as open battles with heavy losses.
In the historiography of some countries, the war is named after combatants in its respective theatres. In the present - day United States -- at the time, the southern English - speaking British colonies in North America -- the conflict is known as the French and Indian War (1754 -- 1763). In English - speaking Canada -- the balance of Britain 's former North American colonies -- it is called the Seven Years ' War (1754 -- 1763). In French - speaking Canada, it is known as La guerre de la Conquête (the War of the Conquest). Swedish historiography uses the name Pommerska kriget (Pomeranian War), as the Sweden -- Prussian involvement in 1757 -- 1762 was limited to Pomerania in northern central Germany. The Third Silesian War involved Prussia and Austria (1756 -- 1763). On the Indian subcontinent, the conflict is called the Third Carnatic War (1757 -- 1763).
The war has been described as the first "world war '', although this label was also given to various earlier conflicts like the Eighty Years ' War, the Thirty Years ' War, the War of the Spanish Succession and the War of the Austrian Succession, and to later conflicts like the Napoleonic Wars. The term "Second Hundred Years ' War '' has been used in order to describe the almost continuous level of worldwide conflict between France and Great Britain during the entire 18th century, reminiscent of the Hundred Years ' War of the 14th and 15th centuries.
In the War of the Austrian Succession, which lasted from 1740 to 1748, King Frederick II of Prussia, known as Frederick the Great, seized the prosperous province of Silesia from Austria. Empress Maria Theresa of Austria had signed the Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle in 1748 in order to gain time to rebuild her military forces and forge new alliances.
The War of the Austrian Succession had seen the belligerents aligned on a time - honoured basis. France 's traditional enemies, Great Britain and Austria, had coalesced just as they had done against Louis XIV. Prussia, the leading anti-Austrian state in Germany, had been supported by France. Neither group, however, found much reason to be satisfied with its partnership: British subsidies to Austria produced nothing of much help to the British, while the British military effort had not saved Silesia for Austria. Prussia, having secured Silesia, came to terms with Austria in disregard of French interests. Even so, France concluded a defensive alliance with Prussia in 1747, and the maintenance of the Anglo - Austrian alignment after 1748 was deemed essential by the Duke of Newcastle, British secretary of state in the ministry of his brother Henry Pelham. The collapse of that system and the aligning of France with Austria and of Great Britain with Prussia constituted what is known as the "diplomatic revolution '' or the "reversal of alliances. ''
In 1756 Austria was making military preparations for war with Prussia and pursuing an alliance with Russia for this purpose. On 2 June 1746, Austria and Russia concluded a defensive alliance that covered their own territory and Poland against attack by Prussia or the Ottoman Empire. They also agreed to a secret clause that promised the restoration of Silesia and the countship of Glatz (now Kłodzko, Poland) to Austria in the event of hostilities with Prussia. Their real desire, however, was to destroy Frederick 's power altogether, reducing his sway to his electorate of Brandenburg and giving East Prussia to Poland, an exchange that would be accompanied by the cession of the Polish Duchy of Courland to Russia. Alexey Bestuzhev - Ryumin, grand chancellor of Russia under Empress Elizabeth, was hostile to both France and Prussia, but he could not persuade Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz to commit to offensive designs against Prussia so long as Prussia was able to rely on French support.
The Hanoverian king George II of Great Britain was passionately devoted to his family 's continental holdings, but his commitments in Germany were counterbalanced by the demands of the British colonies overseas. If war against France for colonial expansion was to be resumed, then Hanover had to be secured against Franco - Prussian attack. France was very much interested in colonial expansion and was willing to exploit the vulnerability of Hanover in war against Great Britain, but it had no desire to divert forces to central Europe for Prussia 's interest.
French policy was, moreover, complicated by the existence of the Secret du Roi -- a system of private diplomacy conducted by King Louis XV. Unbeknownst to his foreign minister, Louis had established a network of agents throughout Europe with the goal of pursuing personal political objectives that were often at odds with France 's publicly stated policies. Louis 's goals for le Secret du roi included the Polish crown for his kinsman Louis François de Bourbon, prince de Conti, and the maintenance of Poland, Sweden, and Turkey as French client states in opposition to Russian and Austrian interests.
Frederick saw Saxony and Polish west Prussia as potential fields for expansion but could not expect French support if he started an aggressive war for them. If he joined the French against the British in the hope of annexing Hanover, he might fall victim to an Austro - Russian attack. The hereditary elector of Saxony, Augustus III, was also elective King of Poland as Augustus III, but the two territories were physically separated by Brandenburg and Silesia. Neither state could pose as a great power. Saxony was merely a buffer between Prussia and Austrian Bohemia, whereas Poland, despite its union with the ancient lands of Lithuania, was prey to pro-French and pro-Russian factions. A Prussian scheme for compensating Frederick Augustus with Bohemia in exchange for Saxony obviously presupposed further spoliation of Austria.
In the attempt to satisfy Austria at the time, Britain gave their electoral vote in Hanover for the candidacy of Maria Theresa 's son, Joseph II, as the Holy Roman Emperor, much to the dismay of Frederick and Prussia. Not only that, Britain would soon join the Austro - Russian alliance, but complications arose. Britain 's basic framework for the alliance itself was to protect Hanover 's interests against France. At the same time, Kaunitz kept approaching the French in the hope of establishing just such an alliance with Austria. Not only that, France had no intention to ally with Russia, who, years earlier, had meddled in France 's affairs during Austria 's succession war. France also saw the dismemberment of Prussia as threatening to the stability of Central Europe.
Years later, Kaunitz kept trying to establish France 's alliance with Austria. He tried as hard as he could to avoid Austrian entanglement in Hanover 's political affairs, and was even willing to trade Austrian Netherlands for France 's aid in recapturing Silesia. Frustrated by this decision and by the Dutch Republic 's insistence on neutrality, Britain soon turned to Russia. On 30 September 1755, Britain pledged financial aid to Russia in order to station 50,000 troops on the Livonian - Lithuanian border, so they could defend Britain 's interests in Hanover immediately. Besthuzev, assuming the preparation was directed against Prussia, was more than happy to obey the request of the British. Unbeknownst to the other powers, King George II also made overtures to the Prussian king, Frederick, who, fearing the Austro - Russian intentions, was also desirous of a rapprochement with Britain. On 16 January 1756, the Convention of Westminster was signed, whereby Britain and Prussia promised to aid one another; the parties hoped to achieve lasting peace and stability in Europe.
The carefully coded word in the agreement proved no less catalytic for the other European powers. The results were absolute chaos. Empress Elizabeth of Russia was outraged at the duplicity of Britain 's position. Not only that, but France was enraged, and terrified, by the sudden betrayal of its only ally. Austria, particularly Kaunitz, used this situation to their utmost advantage. Now - isolated France was forced to accede to the Austro - Russian alliance or face ruin. Thereafter, on 1 May 1756, the First Treaty of Versailles was signed, in which both nations pledged 24,000 troops to defend each other in the case of an attack. This diplomatic revolution proved to be an important cause of the war; although both treaties were self - defensive in nature, the actions of both coalitions made the war virtually inevitable.
The boundary between British and French possessions in North America was largely undefined in the 1750s. France had long claimed the entire Mississippi River basin. This was disputed by Britain. In the early 1750s the French began constructing a chain of forts in the Ohio River Valley to assert their claim and shield the Native American population from increasing British influence.
The British settlers along the coast were upset that French troops would now be close to the western borders of their colonies. They felt the French would encourage their tribal allies among the North American natives to attack them. Also, the British settlers wanted access to the fertile land of the Ohio River Valley for the new settlers that were flooding into the British colonies seeking farm land.
The most important French fort planned was intended to occupy a position at "the Forks '' where the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers meet to form the Ohio River (present day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania). Peaceful British attempts to halt this fort construction were unsuccessful, and the French proceeded to build the fort they named Fort Duquesne. British colonial militia from Virginia were then sent to drive them out. Led by George Washington, they ambushed a small French force at Jumonville Glen on 28 May 1754 killing ten, including commander Jumonville. The French retaliated by attacking Washington 's army at Fort Necessity on 3 July 1754 and forced Washington to surrender. These were the first engagements of what would become the worldwide Seven Years ' War.
News of this arrived in Europe, where Britain and France unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate a solution. The two nations eventually dispatched regular troops to North America to enforce their claims. The first British action was the assault on Acadia on 16 June 1755 in the Battle of Fort Beauséjour, which was immediately followed by their expulsion of the Acadians. In July British Major General Edward Braddock led about 2,000 army troops and provincial militia on an expedition to retake Fort Duquesne, but the expedition ended in disastrous defeat. In further action, Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide on 8 June 1755, capturing it and two troop ships. In September 1755, British colonial and French troops met in the inconclusive Battle of Lake George.
The British also harassed French shipping beginning in August 1755, seizing hundreds of ships and capturing thousands of merchant seamen while the two nations were nominally at peace. Incensed, France prepared to attack Hanover, whose prince - elector was also the King of Great Britain and Menorca. Britain concluded a treaty whereby Prussia agreed to protect Hanover. In response France concluded an alliance with its long - time enemy Austria, an event known as the Diplomatic Revolution.
For much of the eighteenth century, France approached its wars in the same way. It would let colonies defend themselves or would offer only minimal help (sending them limited numbers of troops or inexperienced soldiers), anticipating that fights for the colonies would most likely be lost anyway. This strategy was to a degree forced upon France: geography, coupled with the superiority of the British navy, made it difficult for the French navy to provide significant supplies and support to overseas colonies. Similarly, several long land borders made an effective domestic army imperative for any French ruler. Given these military necessities, the French government, unsurprisingly, based its strategy overwhelmingly on the army in Europe: it would keep most of its army on the continent, hoping for victories closer to home. The plan was to fight to the end of hostilities and then, in treaty negotiations, to trade territorial acquisitions in Europe to regain lost overseas possessions (as had happened in, e.g., the Treaty of Saint - Germain - en - Laye (1632)). This approach did not serve France well in the war, as the colonies were indeed lost, but although much of the European war went well, by its end France had few counterbalancing European successes.
The British -- by inclination as well as for practical reasons -- had tended to avoid large - scale commitments of troops on the continent. They sought to offset the disadvantage of this in Europe by allying themselves with one or more continental powers whose interests were antithetical to those of their enemies, particularly France. By subsidising the armies of continental allies, Britain could turn London 's enormous financial power to military advantage. In the Seven Years ' War, the British chose as their principal partner the most brilliant general of the day, Frederick the Great of Prussia, then the rising power in central Europe, and paid Frederick substantial subsidies for his campaigns. This was accomplished in the diplomatic revolution of 1756, in which Britain ended its long - standing alliance with Austria in favour of Prussia, leaving Austria to side with France. In marked contrast to France, Britain strove to prosecute the war actively in the colonies, taking full advantage of its naval power. The British pursued a dual strategy -- naval blockade and bombardment of enemy ports, and rapid movement of troops by sea. They harassed enemy shipping and attacked enemy colonies, frequently using colonists from nearby British colonies in the effort.
The Russians and the Austrians were determined to reduce the power of Prussia; the new threat on their doorstep. Along with France, they agreed in 1756 to mutual defence and an attack by Austria and Russia on Prussia, subsidized by France.
Westphalia, Hesse, Lower Saxony
Upper Saxony
Brandenburg
Silesia
East Prussia
Pomeranian War
Fantastic War
Naval Operations
William Pitt the Elder, who entered the cabinet in 1756, had a grand vision for the war that made it entirely different from previous wars with France. As prime minister, Pitt committed Britain to a grand strategy of seizing the entire French Empire, especially its possessions in North America and India. Britain 's main weapon was the Royal Navy, which could control the seas and bring as many invasion troops as were needed. He also planned to use colonial forces from the thirteen American colonies, working under the command of British regulars, to invade New France. In order to tie the French army down he subsidized his European allies. Pitt was head of the government from 1756 to 1761, and even after that the British continued his strategy. It proved completely successful. Pitt had a clear appreciation of the enormous value of imperial possessions, and realized the vulnerability of the French Empire.
The British prime minister, the Duke of Newcastle, was optimistic that the new series of alliances could prevent war from breaking out in Europe. However, a large French force was assembled at Toulon, and the French opened the campaign against the British with an attack on Menorca in the Mediterranean. A British attempt at relief was foiled at the Battle of Minorca, and the island was captured on 28 June (for which Admiral Byng was court - martialed and executed). Britain formally declared war on France on 17 May, nearly two years after fighting had broken out in the Ohio Country.
Frederick II of Prussia had received reports of the clashes in North America and had formed an alliance with Great Britain. On 29 August 1756, he led Prussian troops across the border of Saxony, one of the small German states in league with Austria. He intended this as a bold pre-emption of an anticipated Austro - French invasion of Silesia. He had three goals in his new war on Austria. First, he would seize Saxony and eliminate it as a threat to Prussia, then use the Saxon army and treasury to aid the Prussian war effort. His second goal was to advance into Bohemia, where he might set up winter quarters at Austria 's expense. Thirdly, he wanted to invade Moravia from Silesia, seize the fortress at Olmütz, and advance on Vienna to force an end to the war.
Accordingly, leaving Field Marshal Count Kurt von Schwerin in Silesia with 25,000 soldiers to guard against incursions from Moravia and Hungary, and leaving Field Marshal Hans von Lehwaldt in East Prussia to guard against Russian invasion from the east, Frederick set off with his army for Saxony. The Prussian army marched in three columns. On the right was a column of about 15,000 men under the command of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. On the left was a column of 18,000 men under the command of the Duke of Brunswick - Bevern. In the centre was Frederick II, himself with Field Marshal James Keith commanding a corps of 30,000 troops. Ferdinand of Brunswick was to close in on the town of Chemnitz. The Duke of Brunswick - Bevern was to traverse Lusatia to close in on Bautzen. Meanwhile, Frederick and Keith would make for Dresden.
The Saxon and Austrian armies were unprepared, and their forces were scattered. Frederick occupied Dresden with little or no opposition from the Saxons. At the Battle of Lobositz on 1 October 1756, Frederick prevented the isolated Saxon army from being reinforced by an Austrian army under General Browne. The Prussians then occupied Saxony; after the Siege of Pirna, the Saxon army surrendered in October 1756, and was forcibly incorporated into the Prussian army. The attack on neutral Saxony caused outrage across Europe and led to the strengthening of the anti-Prussian coalition. The only significant Austrian success was the partial occupation of Silesia. Far from being easy, Frederick 's early successes proved indecisive and very costly for Prussia 's smaller army. This led him to remark that he did not fight the same Austrians as he had during the previous war.
Britain had been surprised by the sudden Prussian offensive but now began shipping supplies and ₤ 670,000 (equivalent to ₤ 91.5 million in 2017) to its new ally. A combined force of allied German states was organised by the British to protect Hanover from French invasion, under the command of the Duke of Cumberland. The British attempted to persuade the Dutch Republic to join the alliance, but the request was rejected, as the Dutch wished to remain fully neutral. Despite the huge disparity in numbers, the year had been successful for the Prussian - led forces on the continent, in contrast to the British campaigns in North America.
On 18 April 1757, Frederick II again took the initiative by marching into the Kingdom of Bohemia, hoping to inflict a decisive defeat on Austrian forces. After winning the bloody Battle of Prague on 6 May 1757, in which both forces suffered major casualties, the Prussians forced the Austrians back into the fortifications of Prague. The Prussian army then laid siege to the city. In response, Austrian commander Leopold von Daun collected a force of 30,000 men to come to the relief of Prague. Following the battle at Prague, Frederick took 5,000 troops from the siege at Prague and sent them to reinforce the 19,000 - man army under the Duke of Brunswick - Bevern at Kolin in Bohemia. Von Daun arrived too late to participate in the battle of Prague, but picked up 16,000 men who had escaped from the battle. With this army he slowly moved to relieve Prague. The Prussian army was too weak to simultaneously besiege Prague and keep von Daun away, and Frederick was forced to attack prepared positions. The resulting Battle of Kolin was a sharp defeat for Frederick, his first. His losses further forced him to lift the siege and withdraw from Bohemia altogether.
Later that summer, the Russians under Field Marshal Stepan Fyodorovich Apraksin besieged Memel with 75,000 troops. Memel had one of the strongest fortresses in Prussia. However, after five days of artillery bombardment the Russian army was able to storm it. The Russians then used Memel as a base to invade East Prussia and defeated a smaller Prussian force in the fiercely contested Battle of Gross - Jägersdorf on 30 August 1757. In the words of the American historian Daniel Marston, Gross - Jägersdorf left the Prussians with "a newfound respect for the fighting capabilities of the Russians that was reinforced in the later battles of Zorndorf and Kunersdorf ''. However, the Russians were not yet able to take Königsberg after using up their supplies of cannonballs at Memel and Gross - Jägersdorf and retreated soon afterwards.
Logistics was a recurring problem for the Russians throughout the war. The Russians lacked a quartermaster 's department capable of keeping armies operating in Central Europe properly supplied over the primitive mud roads of eastern Europe. The tendency of Russian armies to break off operations after fighting a major battle, even when they were not defeated, was less about their casualties and more about their supply lines; after expending much of their munitions in a battle, Russian generals did not wish to risk another battle knowing resupply would be a long time coming. This long - standing weakness was evident in the Russian - Ottoman War of 1735 -- 1739, where Russian battle victories led to only modest war gains due to problems supplying their armies. The Russian quartermasters department had not improved, so the same problems reoccurred in Prussia. Still, the Imperial Russian Army was a new threat to Prussia. Not only was Frederick forced to break off his invasion of Bohemia, he was now forced to withdraw further into Prussian - controlled territory. His defeats on the battlefield brought still more opportunistic nations into the war. Sweden declared war on Prussia and invaded Pomerania with 17,000 men. Sweden felt this small army was all that was needed to occupy Pomerania and felt the Swedish army would not need to engage with the Prussians because the Prussians were occupied on so many other fronts.
Things were looking grim for Prussia now, with the Austrians mobilising to attack Prussian - controlled soil and a combined French and Reichsarmee (German states) army under Prince Soubise approaching from the west. The Reichsarmee was a collection of armies from the smaller German states that banded together to heed the appeal of the Holy Roman Emperor Franz I against Frederick. However, in November and December 1757, the whole situation in Germany was reversed. First, Frederick devastated Soubise 's forces at the Battle of Rossbach on 5 November 1757 and then routed a vastly superior Austrian force at the Battle of Leuthen on 5 December 1757. Rossbach was the only battle between the French and the Prussians during the entire war. At Rossbach, the Prussians lost about 548 men killed while the Franco - German force under Soubise lost about 10,000 killed. Frederick always called Leuthen his greatest victory, an assessment shared by many at the time as the Austrian Army was considered to be a highly professional force. With these victories, Frederick once again established himself as Europe 's premier general and his men as Europe 's most accomplished soldiers. However, Frederick missed an opportunity to completely destroy the Austrian army at Leuthen and it escaped back into Bohemia. He hoped the two smashing victories would bring Maria Theresa to the peace table, but she was determined not to negotiate until she had re-taken Silesia. Maria Theresia also improved the Austrians ' command after Leuthen by replacing her incompetent brother - in - law, Charles of Lorraine, with von Daun, who was now a field marshal.
This problem was compounded when the main Hanoverian army under Cumberland was defeated at the Battle of Hastenbeck and forced to surrender entirely at the Convention of Klosterzeven following a French Invasion of Hanover. The convention removed Hanover from the war, leaving the western approach to Prussian territory extremely vulnerable. Frederick sent urgent requests to Britain for more substantial assistance, as he was now without any outside military support for his forces in Germany.
Calculating that no further Russian advance was likely until 1758, Frederick moved the bulk of his eastern forces to Pomerania under the command of Marshal Lehwaldt, where they were to repel the Swedish invasion. In short order, the Prussian army drove the Swedes back, occupied most of Swedish Pomerania, and blockaded its capital Stralsund. George II of Great Britain, on the advice of his British ministers after the battle of Rossbach, revoked the Convention of Klosterzeven, and Hanover reentered the war. Over the winter the new commander of the Hanoverian forces, Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, regrouped his army and launched a series of offensives that drove the French back across the River Rhine. Ferdinand 's forces kept Prussia 's western flank secure for the rest of the war. The British had suffered further defeats in North America, particularly at Fort William Henry. At home, however, stability had been established. Since 1756, successive governments led by Newcastle and Pitt had fallen. In August 1757, the two men agreed to a political partnership and formed a coalition government that gave new, firmer direction to the war effort. The new strategy emphasised both Newcastle 's commitment to British involvement on the continent, particularly in defence of Germany, and Pitt 's determination to use naval power to seize French colonies around the globe. This "dual strategy '' would dominate British policy for the next five years.
Between 10 and 17 October 1757, a Hungarian general, Count András Hadik, serving in the Austrian army, executed what may be the most famous hussar action in history. When the Prussian king, Frederick, was marching south with his powerful armies, the Hungarian general unexpectedly swung his force of 5,000, mostly hussars, around the Prussians and occupied part of their capital, Berlin, for one night. The city was spared for a negotiated ransom of 200,000 thalers. When Frederick heard about this humiliating occupation, he immediately sent a larger force to free the city. Hadik, however, left the city with his hussars and safely reached the Austrian lines. Subsequently, Hadik was promoted to the rank of marshal in the Austrian Army.
In early 1758, Frederick launched an invasion of Moravia and laid siege to Olmütz (now Olomouc, Czech Republic). Following an Austrian victory at the Battle of Domstadtl that wiped out a supply convoy destined for Olmütz, Frederick broke off the siege and withdrew from Moravia. It marked the end of his final attempt to launch a major invasion of Austrian territory. In January 1758, the Russians invaded East Prussia, where the province, almost denuded of troops, put up little opposition. East Prussia had been occupied by Russian forces over the winter and would remain under their control until 1762, although it was far less strategically valuable to Prussia than Brandenburg or Silesia. In any case, Frederick did not see the Russians as an immediate threat and instead entertained hopes of first fighting a decisive battle against Austria that would knock them out of the war.
In April 1758, the British concluded the Anglo - Prussian Convention with Frederick in which they committed to pay him an annual subsidy of £ 670,000. Britain also dispatched 9,000 troops to reinforce Ferdinand 's Hanoverian army, the first British troop commitment on the continent and a reversal in the policy of Pitt. Ferdinand had succeeded in driving the French from Hanover and Westphalia and re-captured the port of Emden in March 1758 before crossing the Rhine with his own forces, which caused alarm in France. Despite Ferdinand 's victory over the French at the Battle of Krefeld and the brief occupation of Düsseldorf, he was compelled by the successful manoeuvering of larger French forces to withdraw across the Rhine.
By this point Frederick was increasingly concerned by the Russian advance from the east and marched to counter it. Just east of the Oder in Brandenburg - Neumark, at the Battle of Zorndorf (now Sarbinowo, Poland), a Prussian army of 35,000 men under Frederick on 25 August 1758, fought a Russian army of 43,000 commanded by Count William Fermor. Both sides suffered heavy casualties -- the Prussians 12,800, the Russians 18,000 -- but the Russians withdrew, and Frederick claimed victory. The American historian Daniel Marston described Zorndorf as a "draw '' as both sides were too exhausted and had taken such losses that neither wished to fight another battle with the other. In the undecided Battle of Tornow on 25 September, a Swedish army repulsed six assaults by a Prussian army but did not push on Berlin following the Battle of Fehrbellin.
The war was continuing indecisively when on 14 October Marshal Daun 's Austrians surprised the main Prussian army at the Battle of Hochkirch in Saxony. Frederick lost much of his artillery but retreated in good order, helped by dense woods. The Austrians had ultimately made little progress in the campaign in Saxony despite Hochkirch and had failed to achieve a decisive breakthrough. After a thwarted attempt to take Dresden, Daun 's troops were forced to withdraw to Austrian territory for the winter, so that Saxony remained under Prussian occupation. At the same time, the Russians failed in an attempt to take Kolberg in Pomerania (now Kołobrzeg, Poland) from the Prussians.
In France, 1758 had been disappointing, and in the wake of this a new chief minister, the Duc de Choiseul, was appointed. Choiseul planned to end the war in 1759 by making strong attacks on Britain and Hanover.
Prussia suffered several defeats in 1759. At the Battle of Kay, or Paltzig, the Russian Count Saltykov with 47,000 Russians defeated 26,000 Prussians commanded by General Carl Heinrich von Wedel. Though the Hanoverians defeated an army of 60,000 French at Minden, Austrian general Daun forced the surrender of an entire Prussian corps of 13,000 in the Battle of Maxen. Frederick himself lost half his army in the Battle of Kunersdorf (now Kunowice Poland), the worst defeat in his military career and one that drove him to the brink of abdication and thoughts of suicide. The disaster resulted partly from his misjudgment of the Russians, who had already demonstrated their strength at Zorndorf and at Gross - Jägersdorf (now Motornoye, Russia), and partly from good cooperation between the Russian and Austrian forces.
The French planned to invade the British Isles during 1759 by accumulating troops near the mouth of the Loire and concentrating their Brest and Toulon fleets. However, two sea defeats prevented this. In August, the Mediterranean fleet under Jean - François de La Clue - Sabran was scattered by a larger British fleet under Edward Boscawen at the Battle of Lagos. In the Battle of Quiberon Bay on 20 November, the British admiral Edward Hawke with 23 ships of the line caught the French Brest fleet with 21 ships of the line under Marshal de Conflans and sank, captured, or forced many of them aground, putting an end to the French plans.
The year 1760 brought yet more Prussian disasters. The general Fouqué was defeated by the Austrians in the Battle of Landshut. The French captured Marburg, and the Swedes part of Pomerania. The Hanoverians were victorious over the French at the Battle of Warburg, their continued success preventing France from sending troops to aid the Austrians against Prussia in the east.
Despite this, the Austrians, under the command of General Laudon, captured Glatz (now Kłodzko, Poland) in Silesia. In the Battle of Liegnitz Frederick scored a strong victory despite being outnumbered three to one. The Russians under General Saltykov and Austrians under General Lacy briefly occupied his capital, Berlin, in October, but could not hold it for long. Still, the loss of Berlin to the Russians and Austrians was a great blow to Frederick 's prestige as many pointed out that the Prussians had no hope of occupying temporarily or otherwise St. Petersburg or Vienna. In November 1760 Frederick was once more victorious, defeating the able Daun in the Battle of Torgau, but he suffered very heavy casualties, and the Austrians retreated in good order.
Meanwhile, after the battle of Kunersdorf, the Russian army was mostly inactive due mostly to their tenuous supply lines. Russian logistics were so poor that in October 1759, an agreement was signed under which the Austrians undertook to supply the Russians as the quartermaster 's department of the Russian Army was badly strained by the demands of Russian armies operating so far from home. As it was, the requirement that the Austrian quartermaster 's department supply both the Austrian and Russian armies proved beyond its capacity, and in practice, the Russians received little in the way of supplies from the Austrians. At Liegnitz (now Legnica, Poland), the Russians arrived too late to participate in the battle. They made two attempts to storm the fortress of Kolberg, but neither succeeded. The tenacious resistance of Kolberg allowed Frederick to focus on the Austrians instead of having to split his forces.
Prussia began the 1761 campaign with just 100,000 available troops, many of them new recruits, and its situation seemed desperate. However, the Austrian and Russian forces were also heavily depleted and could not launch a major offensive.
In February 1761 Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick surprised French troops at Langensalza and then advanced to besiege Cassel in March. He was forced to lift the siege and retreat after French forces regrouped and captured several thousand of his men at the Battle of Grünberg. At the Battle of Villinghausen, forces under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated a 92,000 - man French army.
On the eastern front, progress was very slow. The Russian army was heavily dependent upon its main magazines in Poland, and the Prussian army launched several successful raids against them. One of them, led by general Platen in September resulted in the loss of 2,000 Russians, mostly captured, and the destruction of 5,000 wagons. Deprived of men, the Prussians had to resort to this new sort of warfare, raiding, to delay the advance of their enemies. Nonetheless, at the end of the year, they suffered two critical setbacks. The Russians under Zakhar Chernyshev and Pyotr Rumyantsev stormed Kolberg in Pomerania, while the Austrians captured Schweidnitz. The loss of Kolberg cost Prussia its last port on the Baltic Sea. A major problem for the Russians throughout the war had always been their weak logistics, which prevented their generals from following up their victories, and now with the fall of Kolberg, the Russians could at long last supply their armies in Central Europe via the sea. The fact that the Russians could now supply their armies over the sea, which was considerably faster and safer (Prussian cavalry could not intercept Russian ships in the Baltic) than over the land threatened to swing the balance of power decisively against Prussia. In Britain, it was speculated that a total Prussian collapse was now imminent.
Britain now threatened to withdraw its subsidies if Prussia did not consider offering concessions to secure peace. As the Prussian armies had dwindled to just 60,000 men and with Berlin itself about to come under siege, Frederick 's survival was severely threatened. Then on 5 January 1762 the Russian Empress Elizabeth died. Her Prussophile successor, Peter III, at once ended the Russian occupation of East Prussia and Pomerania (see: the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1762)) and mediated Frederick 's truce with Sweden. He also placed a corps of his own troops under Frederick 's command. Frederick was then able to muster a larger army, of 120,000 men, and concentrate it against Austria. He drove them from much of Silesia, while his brother Henry won a victory in Saxony in the Battle of Freiberg (29 October 1762). At the same time, his Brunswick allies captured the key town of Göttingen and compounded this by taking Cassel.
In 1762 two new countries entered the war. Britain declared war against Spain on 4 January 1762; Spain reacted by issuing its own declaration of war against Britain on 18 January. Portugal followed by joining the war on Britain 's side. Spain, aided by the French, launched an invasion of Portugal and succeeded in capturing Almeida. The arrival of British reinforcements stalled a further Spanish advance, and in the Battle of Valencia de Alcántara British - Portuguese forces overran a major Spanish supply base. The invaders were stopped on the heights in front of Abrantes (called the pass to Lisbon) where the Anglo - Portuguese were entrenched. Eventually the Anglo - Portuguese army, aided by guerrillas and practicing a scorched earth strategy, chased the greatly reduced Franco - Spanish army back to Spain, recovering almost all the lost towns, among them the Spanish headquarters in Castelo Branco full of wounded and sick that had been left behind.
Meanwhile, the long British naval blockade of French ports had sapped the morale of the French populace. Morale declined further when news of defeat in the Battle of Signal Hill in Newfoundland reached Paris.
By 1763, the war in central Europe was essentially a stalemate between Prussia and Austria. Prussia had retaken nearly all of Silesia from the Austrians, and after Prussia 's 1762 victory at the Battle of Freiberg Frederick held most of Saxony but not its capital, Dresden. His financial situation was not dire, but his kingdom was devastated and his army severely weakened. His manpower had dramatically decreased, and he had lost so many effective officers and generals that an offensive against Dresden seemed impossible. British subsidies had been stopped by the new prime minister, Lord Bute, and the Russian emperor had been overthrown by his wife, Catherine, who ended Russia 's alliance with Prussia and withdrew from the war. Austria, however, like most participants, was facing a severe financial crisis and had to decrease the size of its army, which greatly affected its offensive power. Indeed, after having effectively sustained a long war, its administration was in disarray. By that time, it still held Dresden, the southeastern parts of Saxony, and the county of Glatz in southern Silesia, but the prospect of victory was dim without Russian support, and Maria Theresa had largely given up her hopes of re-conquering Silesia. In 1763 a peace settlement was reached at the Treaty of Hubertusburg, in which Glatz was returned to Prussia in exchange for the Prussian evacuation of Saxony. This ended the war in central Europe.
The stalemate had really been reached by 1759 -- 1760, and Prussia and Austria were nearly out of money. The materials of both sides had been largely consumed. Frederick was no longer receiving subsidies from Britain; the Golden Cavalry of St. George had produced nearly 13 million dollars (equivalent). He had melted and coined most of the church silver, had ransacked the palaces of his kingdom and coined that silver, and reduced his purchasing power by mixing it with copper. His banks ' capital was exhausted, and he had pawned nearly everything of value from his own estate. While Frederick still had a significant amount of money left from the prior British subsidies, he hoped to use it to restore his kingdom 's prosperity in peacetime; in any case, Prussia 's population was so depleted that he could not sustain another long campaign. Similarly, Marie Theresa had reached the limit of her resources. She had pawned her jewels in 1758; in 1760, she approved a public subscription for support and urged her public to bring their silver to the mint. French subsidies were no longer provided. Although she had many young men still to draft, she could not conscript them and did not dare to resort to impressment, as Frederick had done. She had even dismissed some men because it was too expensive to feed them.
Great Britain planned a "descent '' (an amphibious demonstration or raid) on Rochefort, a joint operation to overrun the town and burn shipping in the Charente. The expedition set out on 8 September 1757, Sir John Mordaunt commanding the troops and Sir Edward Hawke the fleet. On 23 September the Isle d'Aix was taken, but military staff dithered and lost so much time that Rochefort became unassailable. The expedition abandoned the Isle d'Aix, returning to Great Britain on 1 October.
Despite the debatable strategic success and the operational failure of the descent on Rochefort, William Pitt -- who saw purpose in this type of asymmetric enterprise -- prepared to continue such operations. An army was assembled under the command of Charles Spencer, 3rd Duke of Marlborough; he was aided by Lord George Sackville. The naval squadron and transports for the expedition were commanded by Richard Howe. The army landed on 5 June 1758 at Cancalle Bay, proceeded to St. Malo, and, finding that it would take prolonged siege to capture it, instead attacked the nearby port of St. Servan. It burned shipping in the harbor, roughly 80 French privateers and merchantmen, as well as four warships which were under construction. The force then re-embarked under threat of the arrival of French relief forces. An attack on Havre de Grace was called off, and the fleet sailed on to Cherbourg; the weather being bad and provisions low, that too was abandoned, and the expedition returned having damaged French privateering and provided further strategic demonstration against the French coast.
Pitt now prepared to send troops into Germany; and both Marlborough and Sackville, disgusted by what they perceived as the futility of the "descents '', obtained commissions in that army. The elderly General Bligh was appointed to command a new "descent '', escorted by Howe. The campaign began propitiously with the Raid on Cherbourg. Covered by naval bombardment, the army drove off the French force detailed to oppose their landing, captured Cherbourg, and destroyed its fortifications, docks, and shipping.
The troops were reembarked and moved to the Bay of St. Lunaire in Brittany where, on 3 September, they were landed to operate against St. Malo; however, this action proved impractical. Worsening weather forced the two armies to separate: the ships sailed for the safer anchorage of St. Cast, while the army proceeded overland. The tardiness of Bligh in moving his forces allowed a French force of 10,000 from Brest to catch up with him and open fire on the reembarkation troops. At the battle of Saint Cast a rear - guard of 1,400 under Dury held off the French while the rest of the army embarked. They could not be saved; 750, including Dury, were killed and the rest captured.
The colonial conflict mainly between France and Britain took place in India, North America, Europe, the Caribbean isles, the Philippines, and coastal Africa. Over the course of the war, Great Britain gained enormous areas of land and influence at the expense of the French.
Great Britain lost Menorca in the Mediterranean to the French in 1756 but captured the French colonies in Senegal in 1758. The British Royal Navy took the French sugar colonies of Guadeloupe in 1759 and Martinique in 1762 as well as the Spanish cities of Havana in Cuba, and Manila in the Philippines, both prominent Spanish colonial cities. However, expansion into the hinterlands of both cities met with stiff resistance. In the Philippines, the British were confined to Manila until their agreed upon withdrawal at the war 's end.
During the war, the Seven Nations of The Iroquois Confederacy were allied with the French. These were Native Americans of the Laurentian valley -- the Algonquin, the Abenaki, the Huron, and others. Although the Algonquin tribes and the Seven Nations were not directly concerned with the fate of the Ohio River Valley, they had been victims of the Iroquois Confederation which included the Seneca, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Tuscarora tribes. The Iroquois had encroached on Algonquin territory and pushed the Algonquins west beyond Lake Michigan. Therefore, the Algonquin and the Seven Nations were interested in fighting against the Iroquois. Throughout New England, New York, and the North - west Native American tribes formed differing alliances with the major belligerents. The Iroquois, dominant in what is now Upstate New York, sided with the British but did not play a large role in the war.
In 1756 and 1757 the French captured forts Oswego and William Henry from the British. The latter victory was marred when France 's native allies broke the terms of capitulation and attacked the retreating British column, which was under French guard, slaughtering and scalping soldiers and taking captive many men, women and children while the French refused to protect their captives. French naval deployments in 1757 also successfully defended the key Fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island called Ile du Roi by the French, securing the seaward approaches to Quebec.
British Prime Minister William Pitt 's focus on the colonies for the 1758 campaign paid off with the taking of Louisbourg after French reinforcements were blocked by British naval victory in the Battle of Cartagena and in the successful capture of Fort Duquesne and Fort Frontenac. The British also continued the process of deporting the Acadian population with a wave of major operations against Île Saint - Jean (present - day Prince Edward Island), the St. John River valley, and the Petitcodiac River valley. The celebration of these successes was dampened by their embarrassing defeat in the Battle of Carillon (Ticonderoga), in which 4,000 French troops repulsed 16,000 British. When the British led by generals James Abercrombie and George Howe attacked, they believed that the French led by general Marquis de Montcalm were defended only by a small abatis which could be taken easily given the British force 's significant numerical advantage. The British offensive which was supposed to advance in tight columns and overwhelm the French defenders fell into confusion and scattered, leaving large spaces in their ranks. When the French Chevalier de Levis sent 1,000 soldiers to reinforce Montcalm 's struggling troops, the British were pinned down in the brush by intense French musket fire and they were forced to retreat.
All of Britain 's campaigns against New France succeeded in 1759, part of what became known as an Annus Mirabilis. Fort Niagara and Fort Carillon on 8 July 1758 fell to sizable British forces, cutting off French frontier forts further west. Starting in June 1759, the British under James Wolfe and James Murray set up camp on the Ile d'Orleans across the St. Lawrence River from Quebec, enabling them to commence the 3 - month siege that ensued. The French under the Marquis de Montcalm anticipated a British assault to the east of Quebec so he ordered his soldiers to fortify the region of Beauport. On July 31 the British attacked with 4,000 soldiers but the French positioned high up on the cliffs overlooking the Montmorency Falls forced the British forces to withdraw to the Ile D'Orleans. While Wolfe and Murray planned a second offensive, British rangers raided French settlements along the St. Lawrence, destroying food supplies, ammunition and other goods in an attempt to vanquish the French through starvation.
On 13 September 1759, General James Wolfe led 5,000 troops up a goat path to the Plains of Abraham, 1 mile west of Quebec City. He had positioned his army between Montcalm 's forces an hour 's march to the east and Bougainville 's regiments to the west, which could be mobilised within 3 hours. Instead of waiting for a coordinated attack with Bougainville, Montcalm attacked immediately. When his 3,500 troops advanced, their lines became scattered in a disorderly formation. Many French soldiers fired before they were within range of striking the British. Wolfe organised his troops in two lines stretching 1 mile across the Plains of Abraham. They were ordered to load their Brown Bess muskets with two bullets to obtain maximum power and hold their fire until the French soldiers came within 40 paces of the British ranks. When Montcalm 's army was within range of the British, their volley was powerful and nearly all bullets hit their targets, devastating the French ranks. The French fled the Plains of Abraham in a state of utter confusion while they were pursued by members of the Scottish Fraser regiment and other British forces. Despite being cut down by musket fire from the Canadiens and their indigenous allies, the British vastly outnumbered these opponents and won the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. General Wolfe was mortally wounded in the chest early in the battle so the command fell to James Murray, who would become the lieutenant governor of Quebec after the war. The Marquis de Montcalm was also severely wounded later in the battle and died the following day. The French Canadians led by the Chevalier de Levis staged a counteroffensive on the Plains of Abraham in the spring of 1760, with initial success at the Battle of Sainte - Foy, but they were unable to retake Quebec, due to British naval superiority following the Battle of Neuville. The French forces retreated to Montreal, where on 8 September they surrendered to overwhelming British numerical superiority.
Seeing French and Indian defeat, in 1760 the Seven Nations of The Iroquois Confederacy resigned from the war and negotiated the Treaty of Kahnawake with the British. Among its conditions was their unrestricted travel between Canada and New York, as the nations had extensive trade between Montreal and Albany as well as populations living throughout the area.
In 1762, towards the end of the war, French forces attacked St. John 's, Newfoundland. If successful, the expedition would have strengthened France 's hand at the negotiating table. Although they took St. John 's and raided nearby settlements, the French forces were eventually defeated by British troops at the Battle of Signal Hill. This was the final battle of the war in North America, and it forced the French to surrender to Lieutenant Colonel William Amherst. The victorious British now controlled all of eastern North America.
The history of the Seven Years ' War in North America, particularly the expulsion of the Acadians, the siege of Quebec, the death of Wolfe, and the Battle of Fort William Henry generated a vast number of ballads, broadsides, images, and novels (see Longfellow 's Evangeline, Benjamin West 's The Death of General Wolfe, James Fenimore Cooper 's The Last of the Mohicans), maps and other printed materials, which testify to how this event held the imagination of the British and North American public long after Wolfe 's death in 1759.
In South America (1763), the Portuguese conquered from Spain most of the Rio Negro valley, and repelled a Spanish attack on Mato Grosso (in the Guaporé River).
Between September 1762 and April 1763, Spanish forces led by don Pedro Antonio de Cevallos, Governor of Buenos Aires (and later first Viceroy of the Rio de la Plata) undertook a campaign against the Portuguese in Uruguay and South Brazil. The Spaniards conquered the Portuguese territories of Colonia do Sacramento and Rio Grande de São Pedro and forced the Portuguese to surrender and retreat.
Under the Treaty of Paris (1763), Spain had to return to Portugal the colony of Sacramento, while the vast and rich territory of the so - called "Continent of S. Peter '' (the present day Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul) would be retaken from the Spanish army during the undeclared Hispano - Portuguese war of 1763 -- 1777.
As consequence of the war the Valdivian Fort System, a Spanish defensive complex in southern Chile, was updated and reinforced from 1764 onwards. Other vulnerable localities of colonial Chile such as Chiloé Archipelago, Concepción, Juan Fernández Islands and Valparaíso were also made ready for an eventual English attack.
In India, the outbreak of the Seven Years ' War in Europe renewed the long running conflict between the French and the British trading companies for influence on the subcontinent. The French allied themselves with the Mughal Empire to resist British expansion. The war began in Southern India but spread into Bengal, where British forces under Robert Clive recaptured Calcutta from the Nawab Siraj ud - Daulah, a French ally, and ousted him from his throne at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. In the same year, the British also captured Chandernagar, the French settlement in Bengal.
In the south, although the French captured Cuddalore, their siege of Madras failed, while the British commander Sir Eyre Coote decisively defeated the Comte de Lally at the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760 and overran the French territory of the Northern Circars. The French capital in India, Pondicherry, fell to the British in 1761; together with the fall of the lesser French settlements of Karikal and Mahé this effectively eliminated French power in India.
In 1758, at the urging of an American merchant, Thomas Cumming, Pitt dispatched an expedition to take the French settlement at Saint Louis. The British captured Senegal with ease in May 1758 and brought home large amounts of captured goods. This success convinced Pitt to launch two further expeditions to take the island of Gorée and the French trading post on the Gambia. The loss of these valuable colonies further weakened the French economy.
The Anglo - French hostilities were ended in 1763 by the Treaty of Paris, which involved a complex series of land exchanges, the most important being France 's cession to Spain of Louisiana, and to Great Britain the rest of New France except for the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. Faced with the choice of regaining either New France or its Caribbean island colonies of Guadeloupe and Martinique, France chose the latter to retain these lucrative sources of sugar, writing off New France as an unproductive, costly territory. France also returned Menorca to the British. Spain lost control of Florida to Great Britain, but it received from the French the Île d'Orléans and all of the former French holdings west of the Mississippi River. The exchanges suited the British as well, as their own Caribbean islands already supplied ample sugar, and, with the acquisition of New France and Florida, they now controlled all of North America east of the Mississippi.
In India, the British retained the Northern Circars, but returned all the French trading ports. The treaty, however, required that the fortifications of these settlements be destroyed and never rebuilt, while only minimal garrisons could be maintained there, thus rendering them worthless as military bases. Combined with the loss of France 's ally in Bengal and the defection of Hyderabad to the British as a result of the war, this effectively brought French power in India to an end, making way for British hegemony and eventual control of the subcontinent. France 's navy was crippled by the war. Only after an ambitious rebuilding program in combination with Spain was France again able to challenge Britain 's command of the sea.
Bute 's settlement with France was mild compared with what Pitt 's would have been. He had hoped for a lasting peace with France, and he was afraid that if he took too much, the whole of Europe would unite in envious hostility against Great Britain. Choiseul, however, had no intention of making a permanent peace, and, when France went to war with Great Britain during the American Revolution, the British found no support among the European powers. France 's defeat caused the French to embark upon major military reforms, with particular attention being paid to the artillery. The origins of the famed French artillery that played a prominent role in the wars of the French Revolutionary wars and beyond can to be traced to military reforms that started in 1763.
The Treaty of Hubertusburg, between Austria, Prussia, and Saxony, was signed on 15 February 1763, at a hunting lodge between Dresden and Leipzig. Negotiations had started there on 31 December 1762. Frederick, who had considered ceding East Prussia to Russia if Peter III helped him secure Saxony, finally insisted on excluding Russia (in fact, no longer a belligerent) from the negotiations. At the same time, he refused to evacuate Saxony until its elector had renounced any claim to reparation. The Austrians wanted at least to retain Glatz, which they had in fact reconquered, but Frederick would not allow it. The treaty simply restored the status quo of 1748, with Silesia and Glatz reverting to Frederick and Saxony to its own elector. The only concession that Prussia made to Austria was to consent to the election of Archduke Joseph as Holy Roman emperor. Saxony emerged from the war weakened and bankrupt; despite losing no territory, Saxony had essentially been a battleground between Prussia and Austria, with many of its ' towns and cities (including the capital of Dresden) damaged by bombardment and looting.
Austria was not able to retake Silesia or make any significant territorial gain. However, it did prevent Prussia from invading parts of Saxony. More significantly, its military performance proved far better than during the War of the Austrian Succession and seemed to vindicate Maria Theresa 's administrative and military reforms. Hence, Austria 's prestige was restored in great part and the empire secured its position as a major player in the European system. Also, by promising to vote for Joseph II in the Imperial elections, Frederick II accepted the Habsburg preeminence in the Holy Roman Empire. The survival of Prussia as a first - rate power and the enhanced prestige of its king and its army, however, was potentially damaging in the long run to Austria 's influence in Germany.
Not only that, Austria now found herself estranged with the new developments within the empire itself. Beside the rise of Prussia, Augustus III, although ineffective, could muster an army not only from Saxony, but also Poland, since he was also the King of Poland as well as Elector of Saxony. Bavaria 's growing power and independence was also apparent as it asserted more control on the deployment of its army, and managed to disengage from the war at its own will. Most importantly, with the now belligerent Hanover united personally under George III of Great Britain, It amassed a considerable power, and even brought Britain in, on future conflicts. This power dynamic was important to the future and the latter conflicts of the Reich. The war also proved that Maria Theresa 's reforms were still insufficient to compete with Prussia: unlike its enemy, the Austrians were almost bankrupt at the end of war. Hence, she dedicated the next two decades to the consolidation of her administration.
Prussia emerged from the war as a great power whose importance could no longer be challenged. Frederick the Great 's personal reputation was enormously enhanced, as his debt to fortune (Russia 's volte - face after Elizabeth 's death) and to British financial support were soon forgotten, while the memory of his energy and his military genius was strenuously kept alive. Though depicted as a key moment in Prussia 's rise to greatness, the war weakened Prussia. Prussia 's lands and population were devastated, though Frederick 's extensive agrarian reforms and encouragement of immigration soon solved both these problems. Unfortunately for Prussia, its army had taken heavy losses (particularly the officer corps), and in the war 's aftermath, Frederick could not afford to rebuild the Prussian Army to what it was before the war. In the War of the Bavarian Succession, the Prussians fought poorly despite being led by Frederick in person. During the war with France in 1792 -- 1795, the Prussian Army did not fare well against revolutionary France, and in 1806, the Prussians were annihilated by the French at the Battle of Jena. It was only after 1806 when Prussian government brought in reforms to recover from the disaster of Jena that Prussia 's rise to greatness later in the 19th century was realized. However, none of this had happened yet, and after 1763, various nations all sent officers to Prussia to learn the secrets of Prussia 's military power. After the Seven Years ' War, Prussia become one of the most imitated powers in Europe.
Russia, on the other hand, made one great invisible gain from the war: the elimination of French influence in Poland. The First Partition of Poland (1772) was to be a Russo - Prussian transaction, with Austria only reluctantly involved and with France simply ignored. Though the war had ended in a draw, the performance of the Imperial Russian Army against Prussia had improved Russia 's reputation as a factor in European politics, as many had not expected the Russians to hold their own against the Prussians in campaigns fought on Prussian soil. The American historian David Stone observed that Russian soldiers proved capable of going head - on against the Prussians, inflicting and taking one bloody volley after another "without flinching '', and though the quality of Russian generalship was quite variable, the Russians were never decisively defeated once in the war. The Russians defeated the Prussians several times in the war, but the Russians lacked the necessary logistical capability to follow up their victories with lasting gains, and in this sense, the salvation of the House of Hohenzollern was due more to Russian weakness with respect to logistics than to Prussian strength on the battlefield. Still, the fact that the Russians proved capable of defeating in battle the army of a "first - rate '' European power on its own soil despite the often indifferent quality of their generals improved Russia 's standing in Europe. A lasting legacy of the war was that it awakened the Russians to their logistic weaknesses, and led to major reforms of the Imperial Russian Army 's quartermaster department. The supply system that allowed the Russians to advance into the Balkans during the war with the Ottomans in 1787 -- 92, Marshal Alexander Suvorov to campaign effectively in Italy and Switzerland in 1798 -- 99, and for the Russians to fight across Germany and France in 1813 -- 14 to take Paris was created directly in response to the logistic problems experienced by the Russians in the Seven Years ' War.
The British government was close to bankruptcy, and Britain now faced the delicate task of pacifying its new French - Canadian subjects as well as the many American Indian tribes who had supported France. In 1763, Pontiac 's War broke out as a group of Indian tribes in the Great Lakes region and the Northwest (the modern American Midwest) said to have been led by the Ottawa chief Pontiac (whose role as the leader of the confederation seems to have been exaggerated by the British), unhappy with the eclipse of French power, rebelled against British rule. The Indians had long established congenial and friendly relations with the French fur traders, and the Anglo - American fur traders who had replaced the French had engaged in business practices that enraged the Indians, who complained about being cheated when they sold their furs. Moreover, the Indians feared that with the coming of British rule might lead to white settlers displacing them off their land, whereas it was known that the French had only come as fur traders. Pontiac 's War was a major conflict in which the British temporarily lost control of the Great Lakes - Northwest regions to the Indians. By the middle of 1763, the only forts the British held in the region were Fort Detroit (modern Detroit, Michigan), Fort Niagara (modern Youngstown, New York) and Fort Pitt (modern Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) with the rest all being lost to the Indians. It was only with the British victory at the Battle of Bushy Run that prevented a complete collapse of British power in the Great Lakes region. King George III 's Proclamation of 1763, which forbade white settlement beyond the crest of the Appalachians, was intended to appease the Indians but led to considerable outrage in the Thirteen Colonies, whose inhabitants were eager to acquire native lands. The Quebec Act of 1774, similarly intended to win over the loyalty of French Canadians, also spurred resentment among American colonists. The act protected Catholic religion and French language, which enraged the Americans, but the Québécois remained loyal to the British Crown during the American Revolution and did not rebel.
The war also brought to an end the "Old System '' of alliances in Europe, In the years after the war, under the direction of Lord Sandwich, the British attempted to re-establish this system. But after her surprising grand success against a coalition of great powers, European states such as Austria, The Dutch Republic, Sweden, Denmark - Norway, Ottoman Empire, and Russia now saw Britain as a greater threat than France and did not join them, while the Prussians were angered by what they considered a British betrayal in 1762. Consequently, when the American War of Independence turned into a global war between 1778 -- 83, Britain found itself opposed by a strong coalition of European powers, and lacking any substantial ally.
It would require a greater philosopher and historian than I am to explain the causes of the famous Seven Years ' War in which Europe was engaged; and, indeed, its origin has always appeared to me to be so complicated, and the books written about it so amazingly hard to understand, that I have seldom been much wiser at the end of a chapter than at the beginning, and so shall not trouble my reader with any personal disquisitions concerning the matter.
Media related to Seven Years ' War at Wikimedia Commons
|
who sang tonight's gonna be a good night | I Gotta Feeling - wikipedia
"I Gotta Feeling '' is the second single from The Black Eyed Peas ' fifth album The E.N.D., produced by French DJ David Guetta. The song was released on June 23, 2009 and debuted at number two on the Canadian and Billboard Hot 100 on the week of June 27, 2009, behind the group 's "Boom Boom Pow '', making the group one of 11 artists who have occupied the top two positions of the Billboard Hot 100 at the same time. The song samples "Take A Dive '' by Bryan Pringle. It later reached number one on the US charts and 20 charts worldwide.
The song was nominated for Record of the Year at the 52nd Grammy Awards and won the Grammy for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals. "I Gotta Feeling '' was 5th on the Billboard Hot 100 Songs of the Decade. The song was also nominated as Song of the Year at the 2009 World Music Awards. In March 2011, it became the first song in digital history to sell over 7 million digital copies in the United States. As of September 2017, "I Gotta Feeling '' has over 8.9 million downloads in this country, as it holds the record as the most downloaded song on iTunes of all time. This also makes it the highest selling digital as well as non-charity single in the US ever. "I Gotta Feeling '' spent 14 consecutive weeks atop the Billboard Hot 100, the longest - running number - one single of 2009. The song was the third most successful song of the decade in Australia, as announced on January 7, 2010. Worldwide, it was the most successful song of the 21st century (with estimates putting combined sales and streams between 13 and 15 million units) until passed by "Happy '' by Pharrell Williams in 2014.
"I Gotta Feeling '' was written and composed by all the members of The Black Eyed Peas (credited as William Adams, Allan Pineda, Jaime Gomez, and Stacy Ferguson) together with French producers David Guetta, Frederick Riesterer, both of whom produced the song. will.i.am provided additional synthesizer work to the song. The song was recorded at Square Prod in Paris, France and Metropolis Studios in London, England, United Kingdom. "I Gotta Feeling '' is the second single released from The E.N.D (2009). Interscope Records serviced the song to contemporary hit and rhythmic crossover radios on June 23, 2009 in the United States. In an interview with Annie Reuter of Marie Claire, will.i.am stated that "It 's dedicated to all the party people out there in the world that want to go out and party. Mostly every song on the Black Eyed Peas record is painting a picture of our party life. It was a conscious decision to make this type of record. Times are really hard for a lot of people and you want to give them escape and you want to make them feel good about life, especially at these low points. ''
"I Gotta Feeling '' samples a beat from the song "Take A Dive '' by Bryan Pringle. The song is an uptempo dance pop song that runs a length of 4: 49 (4 minutes and 49 seconds). The song follows in the inspirational dance - pop theme of The E.N.D, being built upon the heavy use of Auto - Tune and futuristic synthesizers while running through a tick - tock rhythm. It is composed in the key of G major. The song begins in a restrained fashion then moves into a throbbing dance beat that changes patterns so that at least one reviewer thought it shifted tempos, although in fact the tempo does not change at all, suggesting the use of a click track in recording. It contains electronic influences. The "woo - hoo '' line is sampled from The Police 's song "Every Breath You Take ''. Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times noted the song 's similarities to Five Stairsteps ' song "Ooh Child '', writing that it emulates the song 's "use of a repetitive, warm vocal line to signify a good mood coming on. '' According to Jimmy Iovine of the Interscope Geffen A&M label group, the melody was inspired by the U2 song "I 'll Go Crazy If I Do n't Go Crazy Tonight '': "I sent will.i.am over to the studio to do some remixes on I 'll Go Crazy. He works on them for two weeks, comes back and writes I Gotta Feeling. The chords are U2 chords, 100 per cent. Will even told them. ''
"I Gotta Feeling '' received generally positive reviews from music critics. David Balls, a writer for Digital Spy, gave the song a four - star rating, writing that the song is "every bit as quirky as its predecessor ('' Boom Boom Pow ") ''. However, he compared it to Girls Aloud 's "Biology '', writing that they sound like a collection of musical ideas "that only makes sense after a few listens. '' Another writer for Digital Spy, Nick Levine, praised "I Gotta Feeling '' and "Rock That Body '' as ace collaborations with French disc jockey David Guetta. Music critics like John Bush of All Music Guide and Andy Gill of The Independent labeled it as one of the album 's best tracks. Ann Powers wrote a positive review about "I Gotta Feeling '', noting that "the Peas do let in some human sweetness and light '' on the song and that it uses "a repetitive, warm vocal line to signify a good mood coming on. '' Ben Westhoff of Las Vegas Weekly dismissed the song as a blend of house, electro and dancehall beats that do not work compared to songs on The E.N.D like "Imma Be '' and "One Tribe ''. Mike Schiller, a writer for PopMatters, found the song to be irresistible, writing that it "is one of those dance tunes that 's impossible to hate thanks to something like good natured naïveté ''. In his review of the album for Stuff.co.nz, Chris Schultz dismissed the lyrics, writing that they were the worst since Flo Rida 's "Right Round ''.
The Observer - Dispatch writer David T. Farr praised the song as "the summer track of 2009 '', writing that "It 's one of those songs you grasp onto right away and crank up as the beat goes on, even the first time you hear it (guilty as charged). '' Will Hines of Consequence of Sound shared similar feelings about "I Gotta Feeling '', defining it as "chart baiting ''. Guy Blackman, a writer for The Age, labeled "I Gotta Feeling '' and "Boom Boom Pow '' as further dumbed - down dance - pop songs. Bill Lamb of About.com gave the song a four - star rating, praising it for the difference of style from previous releases by The Black Eyed Peas and as a great summer song with a feel good mood., but he criticized the lack of lyrical depth and constant use of Auto - Tune. Billboard 's Chris Williams praised the song as their most mainstream release, writing that "they trade off on a simple, yet effective melody and message ''.
"I Gotta Feeling '' followed in the international success of The E.N.D 's lead single "Boom Boom Pow ''. In the United States, the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number two, behind "Boom Boom Pow '', prompted by sales of 249,000 downloads. The song held at number two for another week before rising to the top position on the chart. On July 30, 2009, it was reported that the song, along with "Boom Boom Pow '' helped earn The Black Eyed Peas the longest run at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 by a duo or group (17 weeks). The song held at number one on the chart for a total of 14 weeks, which ended on the week ending October 17, 2009 when Jay Sean 's "Down '' took the position, making "I Gotta Feeling '' fall to number 5. The song, together with "Boom Boom Pow '', earned the group a total of 26 consecutive weeks atop the Hot 100 chart while also earning them their longest running single on the chart, with a total of 56 weeks logged. "I Gotta Feeling '' also peaked at number one on several other Billboard charts, including Hot Digital Songs, Mainstream Top 40, and Radio Songs. It was the group 's second single to sell over 6 million downloads in the United States, and was certified 7 × Platinum on August 25, 2010 by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) signifying sales of over 7 million units. It was the first song to reach sales of over 6 million (July 25, 2010), 7 million (March 20, 2011) and 8 million (June 24, 2012). It also earned the accolade of being the best digital seller in history; as of September 2017, the song has sold 8,900,000 downloads in the US.
In Canada, the song debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 at number two, similar to its beginning run in the United States, on the week ending June 27, 2009. The next week, it rose to number one following a surge in airplay, where it maintained that position for 16 consecutive weeks, setting the record for longest run at number one on the chart. The song was present on the chart for a total of 76 weeks, setting the record for longest stay on the chart. The song was certified Diamond by Music Canada for sales of over 800,000 digital downloads.
"I Gotta Feeling '' fared similarly in international markets. The song had a slower rise in the United Kingdom, where it debuted at number 70 on the week ending June 20, 2009. It quickly picked up momentum, moving into the top five in its fifth week on the chart. On the week ending August 8, 2009, the song peaked at number one, where it stayed for two non-consecutive weeks. "I Gotta Feeling '' held within the top ten for 16 consecutive weeks and lasted on the chart for a total of 76 weeks. The song was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry on January 7, 2010 for sales of 600,000 units. "I Gotta Feeling '' became the first song to sell over one million units based solely on the strength of digital downloads, and has sold over 1.45 million copies in the United Kingdom as of June 2015. In Ireland, the song peaked at number one and held that position for 12 non-consecutive weeks, falling to number two on the week of August 27, 2009 after six weeks in the top position. It rose to number one the following week and held that position for another six weeks. In Sweden, the song debuted on the chart at number 36 on the week ending July 19, 2009. It quickly entered the top ten and peaked at number one in its seventh week on the chart. "I Gotta Feeling '' maintained its position there for eight consecutive weeks and stayed present on the charts for a total of 87 weeks. The single was certified double platinum for sales of 40,000 units. In Germany, the song debuted on the chart at number seven and rose to number three two weeks later.
"I Gotta Feeling '' peaked at number one in countries including Australia, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Italy, The Netherlands, and New Zealand. The song reached top five peak positions in Finland, France, Norway, and Spain. It has sold over seven million units worldwide in 2009 and an additional six million in 2010, as reported by the IFPI.
On September 8, 2009, the song was performed (with slight modification) by The Black Eyed Peas for the taping of the Kick - off Party for the 24th season of The Oprah Winfrey Show, with 21,000 fans performing a dance on the "Magnificent Mile '' portion of Michigan Avenue in Chicago, Illinois. They also performed the song at the 52nd Grammy Awards nomination announcement ceremony with David Guetta (a remix edit by David Guetta appears on his album, One Love). The Black Eyed Peas also performed the song during a concert at Mont Kiara, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in 2009. Being the half - time performers for Super Bowl XLV, The Black Eyed Peas sang "I Gotta Feeling '' in front of more than 100,000 fans at Cowboys Stadium. On April 29, 2011, they performed the song along with others at the "i. am. FIRST '' event at the FIRST Robotics Competition World Championships. For Queen Elizabeth II 's Diamond Jubilee Concert, will.i.am and Jessie J sang a duet of "I Gotta Feeling ''.
The official final version was released on June 2 on Dipdive and on June 15 on iTunes. There is both a censored version and an explicit version of the music video and a live performance of the explicit video. The video starts with scenes in Hollywood Blvd. and then showing will.i.am combing his hair and Fergie putting on make - up while wearing lingerie. It also shows Taboo checking his messages on Dipdive and apl. de. ap checking his text messages. Then it cuts to the party as the first verse starts. The video ends with a large sign with human - sized letters that reads "The E.N.D '' The video is directed by Mikey Mee of Little Minx and features guest appearances by David Guetta, Kid Cudi, members of the indie rock band Gossip, the designer duo Dean and Dan Caten of Dsquared
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The E.N.D, Interscope Records, in association with will.i.am Music Group.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
|
what is the song style by taylor swift about | Style (Taylor Swift song) - wikipedia
"Style '' is a song by American singer - songwriter Taylor Swift and is the third track from her fifth album, 1989 (2014). The song was written by Taylor Swift, Max Martin, Shellback, and Ali Payami. It was released to radio by Republic Records, in partnership with Swift 's label Big Machine Records, on February 9, 2015, as the album 's third single, following "Blank Space ''.
The song reached number 6 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming the third consecutive top - 10 single from 1989 in the country, and entered the top - 10 on charts of numerous regions, including Australia and Canada. It also made the top 40 in countries like the United Kingdom, Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Ireland, New Zealand, and the Netherlands. The accompanying music video was directed by Kyle Newman and premiered on February 13, 2015. It topped the charts in South Africa.
"Style '' merely began as an instrumental track written by Ali Payami for himself and guitarist Niklas Ljungfelt. Ljungfelt, detailing the collaboration with Swift to the Grammys, stated that the track was not initially intended for anyone and he "did n't have a clue that Taylor would sing on it. '' However, the collaboration with Swift was made possible when Payami played the track to Max Martin in his room at Wolf Cousins studio, with Swift becoming interested in the track after overhearing the beat through the door. After Payami agreed on the collaboration, Swift and Martin then proceeded to write new lyrics to the track.
"Style '' debuted as a snippet in a Target commercial to promote her album. In late December 2014, Big Machine Records head Scott Borchetta answered a fan 's question on an impromptu Q&A on social networking site Twitter. The fan asked, "What 's Taylor 's next single?, '' and Borchetta responded promptly that he was leaning towards "Style '' -- it was an "obvious single choice '', according to Billboard. In January 2015, Republic Records officially announced "Style '' as Swift 's third single from 1989, set for a release of February 9, 2015. Swift explained the meaning and inspiration of the song to Ryan Seacrest during an interview on iHeartRadio in October 2014.
I loved comparing these timeless visuals with a feeling that never goes out of style... It 's basically one of those relationships that 's always a bit off... The two people are trying to forget each other. So, it 's like, "All right, I heard you went off with her, '' and well, I 've done that, too... My previous albums have also been sort of like, "I was right, you were wrong, you did this, it made me feel like this '' -- a righteous sense of right and wrong in a relationship. What happens when you grow up is you realize the rules in a relationship are very blurred and that it gets very complicated very quickly, and there 's not a case of who was right or who was wrong.
"Style '' has a tempo of 95 beats per minute and is written in the key of D major. Analyzing the song 's structure, Vox 's Kelsey McKinney compared the opening beat of the song to a call - and - response format. McKinney also noted that although the first half of the chorus plays D major and G major chords, the use of a B minor chord in the second half lends dissonance to the upbeat sound of the chorus.
Jason Lipshutz from Billboard characterized "Style '' as a "James Dean - evoking '' pop rock song. Meanwhile, Los Angeles Times 's Mikael Wood and The Observer 's Kitty Empire described the track as funk - pop. On behalf of Time, however, Sam Lansky detailed it as a "disco anthem. ''
PopMatters described Swift as "(trying) on several fresh styles that fit her like a cashmere - lined leather glove '' on "Style '' and praised it as "immaculate, almost impossibly ebullient and thrilling ''. The Observer called it a "percolating funk - pop number that satisfies on every level ''. The New York Times declared it the album 's high mark and compared it to the original Miami Vice soundtrack. Now chose it as the top track from the album. The Los Angeles Times praised it as "a sensual funk track. ''
Consequence of Sound credited "Style '' for "one of the album 's most arresting hooks... The song is deliriously triumphant, but triumph is an easy place to get to when you 're young, hot, and loaded in the country 's sparkliest city. Here, Swift 's girl - next - door likability slips, making it harder to forget that "Style '' literally debuted as an advertisement. '' Drowned in Sound commented that "There 's that same ' stay positive ' philosophy, and a fair few shouty bits. Best of all is ' Style ', which celebrates Swift 's fling with 1D 's Harry Styles (geddit?) as though being young and reckless is all a part of growing up. This is something anyone can relate to, whether they 've made a string of poor romantic choices or ' done a whitey ' on the weekend gone by. '' NME described "Style '' as "so ' 80s - indebted with its thick piano - house and uplifting "Take me home '' coda, echoes the retro - modern atmosphere conjured by the slinky cool of Electric Youth and Blood Orange. '' Pitchfork Media named "Style '' the 50th best song of 2014. The Village Voice ranked "Style '' at number 24 on its annual year - end critic 's poll for 2015. Internet music critic Todd in the Shadows named "Style '' the best pop song of 2015.
In a less enthusiastic review, The Independent criticized the song 's "desperately inclusive electropop grooves and corporate rebel clichés of songs '', while also suggesting that "a certain piquancy '' was apparent.
The song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 60 due to strong digital download sales following the release of parent album 1989, but fell off the chart the following week. Following her live performance at the 2014 Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show in December 2014, the song re-entered the charts in the chart dated December 27 at number 75, having sold 48,000 copies. "Style '' peaked at number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100, and spent nine consecutive weeks in the top 10. Aside from its success on the Billboard Hot 100, the song has topped the Adult Top 40, the Mainstream Top 40, and the Adult Contemporary chart and also charted at number 21 on the Rhythmic chart. "Style '' likewise topped the Hot AC, CHR / Top 40, and AC airplay charts in Canada. As of November 2017, "Style '' has sold 2,200,000 copies in the United States.
The song was also a worldwide commercial success, charting at number one in Israel and South Africa. In Australia, "Style '' peaked at number eight. In neighboring New Zealand, the song peaked at number 11. "Style '' charted at number 9 and 21 in Scotland and the United Kingdom, respectively. It also received top 40 positions in Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Hungary, Ireland, Netherlands, Poland, and Slovakia.
The accompanying music video was directed by Kyle Newman and assistant directed by Henry Thong. On February 10, 2015, Swift posted a teaser for the music video and its release date on Instagram. The video showed Swift 's head and steam / smoke tendrils rising up her neck. A second teaser was posted on Swift 's social media accounts the next day, depicting shadowy trees on her back. A third teaser was released showing lightning and two different colored eyes being projected onto Swift as she stands against a blank backdrop.
The video was scheduled to be released on Good Morning America on February 13, 2015, but appeared a few hours before the scheduled time through Canadian music channel Much. The video was then quickly uploaded to Swift 's official Vevo account. Swift 's love interest in the video is played by model Dominic Sherwood, whose eyes are two different colors due to heterochromia. Some of the scenes were shot in the Hercules Cave in Tangier, Morocco, as mentioned by Swift on Facebook.
The video opens with a silhouette of Swift 's head containing a scene in which her boyfriend (played by Sherwood) is standing in a seashore. As the song starts, it can be seen that Swift is holding on to a paper airplane necklace with scenes of her in the woods accompanied by various flashbacks. The man is shown waking up from a bed interspliced by Swift in a dim - lit room. As the chorus begins, the man holds a mirror in front of him in which Swift 's lips are overlaid which is followed by various scenes in which images of Swift and the man get projected on one another. As the video progresses the man can be seen driving a car with Swift in the back seat. He then takes off his shirt joined by Swift as they embrace and kiss each other. Through the following clips the man is shown on a beach while Swift sings in a dim - lit room. The video ends with the man pulling up his car at night as Swift rises from sitting on the ground in an isolated location and turns towards him.
The music video for "Style '' received generally favorable reviews, with several critics comparing the video to the works of American singer Lana Del Rey. Rolling Stone writer Daniel Kreps opined that unlike the music videos for "Shake It Off '' and "Blank Space '', "(Style) is a different beast, showcasing Swift in a darker, more abstract, light. '' Jessica Derschowitz of CBS News agreed calling the video "a major departure from the more playful videos for her earlier 1989 singles "Blank Space '' and "Shake It Off. '' Emilee Lindner of MTV felt the video was "mature, tasteful, and, dare I say... sexy? '' Vox 's Kelsey McKinney noted that the video contained a lot of sensual imagery, which is a way for Swift to show people that she is sexual and that she has matured. InStyle deemed it "Swift 's most cinematic video to date. '' Louis Virtel of HitFix described the video as "a slow throb, a pleasant recollection of quaint memories with a cute boy who resembles James Dean. '' The Wall Street Journal 's Michael Driscoll wrote: "the video is reminiscent of ' 80s pop with its steady synth bass line and images that may bring to mind Chris Isaak 's ' Wicked Game ', from an album also released in 1989. '' Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times found that the video contains "a creepy homage to David Lynch 's Mulholland Drive, with Sherwood looking in the rear - view mirror of his car and finding Swift staring back at him. '' The Huntington News said, "While the track is one of the album 's best, the video (...) leaves something to be desired '' and called the video "very hipster -- the whole things looks as if it was shot through an Instagram filter by a man wearing thick - framed specs. '' As of October 2018, the music video has over 560 million views on YouTube.
Swift first performed "Style '' live as part of Taylor Swift 's 1989 Secret Session with iHeartRadio on October 27, 2014 in New York City, streamed on iHeartRadio and Yahoo!. Swift later performed the song during the Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show in December 2014, alongside friends Karlie Kloss, Lily Aldridge, Martha Hunt, Behati Prinsloo, and Candice Swanepoel. The song was a regular part of the setlist of the 1989 World Tour and currently of the Reputation Stadium Tour.
Ryan Adams covered "Style '' for his album 1989, a cover of Swift 's album 1989. Yahoo! writer Oscar Gracey called Adams ' cover of "Style '' "chaotic and gruff. '' The song is also featured in the 2015 film San Andreas.
Credits are adapted from liner notes of 1989.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
|
what is the geographical center of the us | Geographic center of the contiguous United States - wikipedia
The geographic center of the contiguous United States is the center of 48 U.S. states. It has been regarded as such by the U.S. National Geodetic Survey (NGS) since the 1912 additions of New Mexico and Arizona to the United States.
Its position as located in a 1918 survey is located at 39 ° 50 ′ N 98 ° 35 ′ W / 39.833 ° N 98.583 ° W / 39.833; - 98.583 (Geographic Center of the Contiguous United States), in Kansas about 2.6 miles (4.2 km) northwest of the center of Lebanon, approximately 12 miles (19 km) south of the Kansas - Nebraska border.
While any measurement of the exact center of a land mass will always be imprecise due to changing shorelines and other factors, the NGS coordinates are recognized in a historical marker in a small park at the intersection of AA Road and K - 191. It is accessible by a turn - off from U.S. Route 281.
It is distinct from the geographic center of the United States, which reflects the 1959 additions of the states of Alaska and Hawaii, which is located at a point northeast of Belle Fourche, South Dakota.
In an unusual technical glitch, a farmstead northeast of Potwin, Kansas became the default site of 600 million IP addresses (due to their lack of fine granularity) when the Massachusetts - based digital mapping company MaxMind changed the putative geographic center of the contiguous United States from 39.8333333, - 98.585522 to 38.0000, - 97.0000.
In order to protect the privacy of the private land owner where the point identified by the 1918 survey falls, a proxy marker was erected in 1940 some half a mile away.
Its inscription reads:
The GEOGRAPHIC CENTER of the UNITED STATES LAT. 39 ° 50 ' LONG. - 98 ° 35 ' NE 1 / 4 - SE 1 / 4 - S32 - T2S - R11W Located by L.T. Hagadorn of Paulette & Wilson - Engineers and L.A. Beardslee - County Engineer. From data furnished by U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Sponsored by Lebanon Hub Club. Lebanon, Kansas. April 25, 1940
An American flag usually flies atop a pole placed on the monument. A covered picnic area and small four - pew chapel are nearby.
In 1918, the Coast and Geodetic Survey found this location by balancing on a point a cardboard cutout shaped like the U.S. Incredibly, this method was accurate to within 20 miles, but while the Geodetic Survey no longer endorses any location as the center of the U.S., the identification of Lebanon, Kansas has remained.
Coordinates: 39 ° 49 ′ 41 '' N 98 ° 34 ′ 46 '' W / 39.828175 ° N 98.579500 ° W / 39.828175; - 98.579500
|
where does the movie family stone take place | The family Stone - wikipedia
The Family Stone is a 2005 American comedy - drama film written and directed by Thomas Bezucha. Produced by Michael London and distributed by 20th Century Fox, it stars an ensemble cast, including Diane Keaton, Craig T. Nelson, Dermot Mulroney, Sarah Jessica Parker, Luke Wilson, Claire Danes, Rachel McAdams, and Tyrone Giordano.
The plot follows the Christmas holiday misadventures of the Stone family in a small New England town when the eldest son, played by Mulroney, brings his uptight girlfriend (played by Parker) home with the intention of proposing to her with a cherished heirloom ring. Overwhelmed by the hostile reception, she begs her sister to join her for emotional support, triggering further complications.
The Family Stone was released in North America on November 26, 2005 and was a moderate critical and commercial success, with a worldwide gross of over US $92.2 million. While Parker was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for her performance, Keaton, Nelson and McAdams garnered a Satellite Award nomination each. In addition, McAdams was awarded a Teen Choice Award the following year.
Set in the fictional town of Thayer, Connecticut, the story focuses on Meredith Morton (Sarah Jessica Parker), a successful Manhattan executive whose uptight, conservative demeanor is a sharp contrast to that of her boyfriend Everett Stone (Dermot Mulroney) and his liberal and rambunctious family.
Meredith, feeling very much an outsider during the Christmas holidays with Everett 's family, opts to stay at the local inn instead of with the family and asks her sister Julie (Claire Danes) to join her for support. Everett finds himself attracted to the more outgoing Julie. Meredith desperately tries to fit in, but her strained attempt to play charades and a clumsy effort to engage the family in a dinner table discussion about nature versus nurture and sexual orientation prove to be disastrous and their father, Kelly Stone (Craig T. Nelson), the most understanding of the family, blows up at her. Distraught, Meredith attempts to drive off but crashes the car, and Everett 's brother Ben (Luke Wilson) comes to comfort her. The two end up at a local bar where, after several drinks, Meredith begins to enjoy herself. She invites Amy 's high school flame and local paramedic, Brad Stevenson (Paul Schneider), to the Stones ' for Christmas breakfast. The following morning, when she awakens in Ben 's bed, she incorrectly assumes their night of revelry ended with the two having sex together.
Christmas proves to be a day of accusations, recriminations, self - discoveries, and attempts to mend fences. Sybil (Diane Keaton), who originally refused Everett 's request for his grandmother 's ring, reconsiders her position and offers it to him; but, by now, his feelings for Meredith have shifted to her sister. In a moment of emotional confusion -- or clarity -- he asks Julie to try on the ring, and it gets stuck. When Julie and Meredith lock themselves in the bathroom to get the ring off, they assume Everett is about to propose to Meredith. The family exchanges gifts; and Meredith, oblivious to Sybil 's failing health, presents each with a framed enlarged photograph of Sybil taken when she was pregnant with Amy. Everyone is touched by her gesture, and Meredith relaxes slightly; but, when Everett asks to talk to her, she demurs again and again until she blurts out that she will not marry him. He counters that he did n't plan to ask her. Meredith breaks down in front of the family. All the personality conflicts come to a head, and everyone begins the process of healing.
One year later, the family reunites at the Stone house. Meredith and Ben are a couple, as are Everett and Julie and Amy and Brad. Everett 's brother Thad and his partner Patrick have adopted a baby boy named Gus, and Everett 's other sister, Susannah, has had her baby. It is hinted that Sybil died. She is referenced as the family gathers with family Christmas ornaments around the tree. The framed photograph of Sybil is on the wall next to the tree and Amy is wearing her ring.
Songs heard on the film 's soundtrack include:
The film received generally mixed reviews from film critics. Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 52 % of critics have given the film a positive review based on 151 reviews, with a rating average of 5.9 out of 10. The critical consensus is: "This family holiday dramedy features fine performances but awkward shifts of tone. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from film critics, has a rating score of 56 based on 35 reviews.
On the negative side, Manohla Dargis opened her damning review in the New York Times, with "All happy families resemble one another, Tolstoy famously wrote, and each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way, but Tolstoy did n't know the Stones, who are happy in a Hollywood kind of way and unhappy in a self - help kind of way. This tribe of ravenous cannibals bares its excellent teeth at anyone who does n't accommodate the family 's preening self - regard. ''
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three stars out of four. He stated the film "is silly at times, leaning toward the screwball tradition of everyone racing around the house at the same time in a panic fueled by serial misunderstandings (but) there is also a thoughtful side, involving the long and loving marriage of Sybil and Kelly. '' He further added, "The Family Stone sorts out its characters admirably, depends on typecasting to help establish its characters more quickly, and finds a winding path between happy and sad secrets to that moment when we realize that the Family Stone will always think of this fateful Christmas with a smile, and a tear. ''
In Variety, Justin Chang called the film "a smart, tart but mildly undercooked Christmas pudding '' and added the "lovingly mounted ensembler has many heartfelt moments and a keen ear for the rhythms of domestic life, which make the neatly gift - wrapped outcome somewhat disappointing... Bezucha tosses the viewer into every conversation headfirst, deploying a rough, at times disorienting visual style that works in rhythm with the layers of overlapping dialogue to deliver a pleasingly antic, semi-improvisational feel... but while individual scenes have an authentically off - the - cuff feel, the narrative structure as a whole feels a tad schematic. ''
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said, "A contemporary version of the traditional screwball romantic comedy, The Family Stone is a film that 's at times as ragged and shaggy as its family unit. But as written and directed by Thomas Bezucha, its offbeat mixture of highly choreographed comic crises and the occasional bite of reality make for an unexpectedly enticing blend. '' In Rolling Stone, Peter Travers rated the film three out of a possible four stars and added, "It 's a comedy with a dash of tragedy -- the kind of thing that usually makes me puke. But I fell for this one... Writer - director Thomas Bezucha lays it on thick, but he knows the mad - dog anarchy of family life and gives the laughs a sharp comic edge. ''
The film opened at # 3 at the U.S. box office, raking in $12,521,027 USD during its opening weekend. After spending 15 weeks in theatres, The Family Stone earned $60,062,868 in the US and $32,220,983 in foreign markets, bringing its worldwide total to $92,283,851.
|
who sang the song all you need is love | All You Need is Love - wikipedia
"All You Need Is Love '' is a song by the English rock band the Beatles that was released as a non-album single in July 1967. It was written by John Lennon and credited to Lennon -- McCartney. The Beatles performed the song over a pre-recorded backing track as Britain 's contribution to Our World, the first live global television link. Watched by over 400 million in 25 countries, the programme was broadcast via satellite on 25 June 1967. The song captured the utopian sentiments of the Summer of Love era and topped singles charts in Britain, the United States and many other countries.
"All You Need Is Love '' was later included on the US Magical Mystery Tour album. It also appears in a sequence in the Beatles ' 1968 animated film Yellow Submarine and on the accompanying soundtrack album.
For Our World, the Beatles were asked to provide a song with a message that could be easily understood by everyone. The band undertook the assignment at a time when they were committed to two film projects: a planned television special, Magical Mystery Tour, and the animated feature Yellow Submarine, for which they were contractually obliged to United Artists to supply four new recordings. "All You Need Is Love '' was selected for Our World for its contemporary social significance over the Paul McCartney - written "Your Mother Should Know ''. In a statement to Melody Maker magazine, Brian Epstein, the band 's manager, said of "All You Need Is Love '': "It was an inspired song and they really wanted to give the world a message. The nice thing about it is that it can not be misinterpreted. It is a clear message saying that love is everything. '' Lennon later attributed the song 's simple lyrical statements to his liking of slogans and television advertising. He likened the song to a propaganda piece, adding: "I 'm a revolutionary artist. My art is dedicated to change. '' Author Mark Hertsgaard views it as the Beatles ' "most political song yet '' up to 1967 and the origins of Lennon 's posthumous standing as a "humanitarian hero ''.
In the book The Beatles Anthology, McCartney and George Harrison say they were unsure whether "All You Need Is Love '' was written for Our World, while Ringo Starr and George Martin, the Beatles ' producer, assert that it was. McCartney said: "It was certainly tailored to (the broadcast) once we had it. But I 've got a feeling it was just one of John 's songs that was coming anyway. ''
The song starts with the intro to the French national anthem, "La Marseillaise '', and contains elements from Glenn Miller 's 1939 hit "In the Mood '', as well as elements from Wayne Shanklin 's 1958 hit "Chanson D'Amour ''. "All You Need Is Love '' is notable for its asymmetric time signature and complex changes. The main verse pattern contains a total of 29 beats, split into two measures, a single bar of, followed by a one bar return of before repeating the pattern. The chorus, however, maintains a steady beat with the exception of the last bar of (on the lyric "love is all you need ''). The prominent cello line draws attention to this departure from pop - single normality, although it was not the first time that the Beatles had experimented with varied metre within a single song: "Love You To '' and "She Said She Said '' were earlier examples. The song is in the key of G and the verse opens (on "There 's nothing you can do '') with a G chord and D melody note, the chords shifting in a I -- V -- vi chord progression while the bass simultaneously moves from the tonic (G) note to the root note of the relative minor (E minor), via an F ♯, supporting a first inversion D chord.
After the verse "learn how to play the game, it 's easy '', the bass alters the prolonged V (D) chord with F ♯, E, C and B notes. The song is notable for a dramatic use of a dominant or V chord (here D) on "It 's easy. '' The "Love, love, love '' chant involves chords in a I -- V7 -- vi shift (G -- D -- Em) and simultaneous descending B, A, G notes with the concluding G note corresponding not to the tonic G chord, but acting as the third of the E minor chord; this also introducing the E note of the Em chord as a 6th of the tonic G scale. Supporting the same melody note with different and unexpected chords has been termed a characteristic Beatles technique.
The song 's use of quotations from other musical works follows an approach adopted by the Beatles in Harrison 's composition "It 's All Too Much '', which similarly reflects the ideology behind the hippie movement during the 1967 Summer of Love. George Martin recalled that in "All You Need Is Love '' "the boys... wanted to freak out at the end, and just go mad ''. During the long fade - out, elements of various other songs can be heard, including "Greensleeves '', Invention No. 8 in F major (BWV 779) by J. S. Bach, "In the Mood '', and the Beatles ' own songs "She Loves You '' and "Yesterday ''. The first of these three pieces had been included in the arrangement by Martin. "She Loves You '' and "Yesterday '' were the result of improvisation by Lennon in rehearsals -- he had also experimented with interpolating "She 'll Be Coming ' Round the Mountain '' -- although it was McCartney who led "She Loves You '' on the subsequent studio recording.
Like musicologist Alan Pollack, Kenneth Womack views the "She Loves You '' refrain as serving a similar purpose to the wax models of the Beatles depicted on the cover of Sgt. Pepper, beside the real - life band members, and therefore a further example of the group distancing themselves from their past. In his book Rock, Counterculture and the Avant - Garde, author Doyle Greene describes the combination of the "Love is all you need '' refrain, "She Loves You '' reprise, and orchestral quotations from Bach and Miller as "a joyous, collective anarchy signifying the utopian dreams of the counterculture topped off with a postmodern fanfare ''.
The Beatles began recording the backing track for the song at Olympic Sound Studios in south - west London on 14 June 1967. The producers of Our World were initially unhappy about the use of a backing track, but it was insisted upon by Martin, who said that "we ca n't just go in front of 350 million people without some work ''.
The lineup was Lennon on harpsichord, McCartney on double bass, Harrison on violin -- three instruments that were unfamiliar to the musicians -- while Starr played drums. The band recorded 33 takes, before choosing the tenth take as the best. Over the following days, they recorded overdubs including vocals, piano (played by Martin), banjo, guitar and orchestral parts.
-- Barry Miles, 2007
The Our World broadcast took place in the wake of the Arab -- Israeli Six - Day War and, for the Beatles, amid the public furore caused by McCartney 's admission that he had taken LSD. On 25 June, the live transmission cut to Abbey Road studios at 8: 54 pm London time, about 40 seconds earlier than expected. Martin and engineer Geoff Emerick were drinking scotch whisky to calm their nerves for the task of mixing the audio for a live worldwide broadcast, and had to scramble the bottle and glasses beneath the mixing desk when they were told they were about to go on air.
The Beatles (except for Starr, behind his drum kit) were seated on high stools, accompanied by a thirteen - piece orchestra. The band were surrounded by friends and acquaintances seated on the floor, who sang along with the refrain during the fade - out. These guests included Mick Jagger, Eric Clapton, Marianne Faithfull, Keith Richards, Keith Moon, Graham Nash, Mike McGear, Patti Boyd and Jane Asher. The studio setting was designed to reflect the communal aspect of the occasion while also demonstrating the position of influence that the Beatles held among their peers, particularly following the recent release of their album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band. Many of the invitations were extended through Beatles aides Mal Evans and Tony Bramwell, who visited various London nightclubs the night before the broadcast. Also among the studio audience were members of the Small Faces and the design collective the Fool. Balloons, flowers, streamers and "Love '' graffiti added to the celebratory atmosphere. The Beatles and their entourage were dressed in psychedelic clothes and scarves; in his report on the performance, Barry Miles likened the setting to a medieval gathering, broken only by the presence of modern studio equipment such as large headphones and microphones. According to Michael Frontani, an associate professor of communications, whereas Sgt. Pepper had showed the Beatles as artists and "serious musicians '', the broadcast emphasised their identity as members of the hippie counterculture.
The segment opened with the band simulating a rehearsal for about a minute, before Martin suggested that the orchestral musicians should take their places for the recording as the tape was rewound. The Beatles, the orchestra and the guests then overdubbed onto the pre-recorded rhythm track. In addition to the lead and backing vocals and the orchestra, the live recorded elements were McCartney 's bass guitar part, Harrison 's guitar solo and Starr 's drums.
Lennon, affecting indifference, was said to be nervous about the broadcast, given the potential size of the international TV audience. Dissatisfied with his singing, he rerecorded the solo verses for use on the single. Starr also overdubbed a drum roll at the start of the track, replacing a tambourine part.
The programme was shown in black - and - white since colour television had yet to commence broadcasting in Britain and most of the world. The Beatles ' footage was colourised, based on photographs of the event, for the 1995 documentary The Beatles Anthology. Over the documentary 's end credits, a snippet of studio conversation from the 25 June overdubbing session includes Lennon telling Martin: "I 'm ready to sing for the world, George, if you can just give me the backing... '' The colour version of the band 's Our World appearance also appears on the Beatles ' 2015 video compilation 1.
The day before the Our World broadcast, the Beatles decided that the song should be their next single. Issued in the UK on 7 July 1967, with "Baby, You 're a Rich Man '' on the B - side, it entered the national singles chart at number 2 before topping the listings for three weeks. It was similarly successful in the United States after its release on 17 July, reaching number one for a week. In his feature on the song in Rolling Stone, Gavin Edwards writes that "All You Need Is Love '' "hit Number One all over the world, providing the sing - song anthem for the Summer of Love, with a sentiment that was simple but profound ''. The single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on 11 September 1967.
According to author Jonathan Gould, the Beatles "bask (ed) in the glow of their artistic achievements '' while enjoying their first summer free of tour commitments, having quit performing concerts the previous year. In late July, the band investigated the possibility of buying a Greek island with a view to setting up a hippie - style commune for themselves, their partners and children, and members of their inner circle such as Neil Aspinall, Evans, Epstein and Derek Taylor. After sailing around the Aegean Sea and approving a location on the island of Leslo, the Beatles decided against the idea and returned to London. In early August, Harrison, accompanied by a small entourage including Taylor and Aspinall, made a highly publicised visit to the international hippie capital of Haight - Ashbury, in San Francisco.
Writing in 2001, Peter Doggett said that the Beatles ' performance on Our World "remains one of the strongest visual impressions of the summer of love ''; Womack describes it as "flower power 's finest moment ''. Rolling Stone ranks "All You Need Is Love '' 370th on its list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time '' and 21st on its "100 Greatest Beatles Songs '' list. Mojo placed it at number 28 on a similar list of the best Beatles songs. In his commentary for the magazine, producer and musician Dave Stewart admired the track 's "jumbled - up mix of music -- marching band and rock'n'roll '' and recalled the Beatles ' Our World appearance as "a signal for those (of us) who felt we were trapped in a mental hospital in some suburban town to break out ''.
"All You Need Is Love '' was also included on the American LP version of Magical Mystery Tour in November 1967, and on the Yellow Submarine album, animated film and 1999 "songtrack ''. As a statement on the power of universal love, the song served as the moral in the film. It plays over a scene where Lennon 's character defeats the Blue Meanies by throwing the word "Love '' at their evil Flying Glove. The track is also featured in Cirque du Soleil 's show Love, based on the songs of the Beatles, and its 2006 soundtrack album.
In a 1981 article on the musical and societal developments of 1967, sociomusicologist Simon Frith described "All You Need Is Love '' as a "genuinely moving song '' and said that, further to the impact of Sgt. Pepper, the international broadcast confirmed "the Beatles ' evangelical role '' in a year when "it seemed the whole world was waiting for something new, and the power of music was beyond doubt. '' According to author Jon Wiener, "All You Need Is Love '' served as "the anthem of flower power '' that summer but also, like Sgt. Pepper, highlighted the ideological gulf between the predominantly white hippie movement and the increasingly political ghetto culture in the United States. Wiener says that the song 's pacifist agenda infuriated many student radicals from the New Left and that these detractors "continued to denounce (Lennon) for it for the rest of his life ''. Wiener also writes that, in summer 1967, "links between the counterculture and the New Left remained murky '', since a full dialogue regarding politics and rock music was still a year away and would only be inspired by Lennon 's 1968 song "Revolution ''. Doyle Greene writes that because of its presentation as the conclusion to Our World, "All You Need Is Love '' provided "a distinctly political statement ''. He says that the song was "selling peace '' on a program that aimed to foster international understanding in a climate of Cold War hostility, the Vietnam War and revolutionary unrest in the Third World.
In the decades following the release of "All You Need Is Love '', Beatles biographers and music journalists have criticised the lyrics as naive and simplistic and detected a smugness in the message; the song 's musical content has also been dismissed as unimaginative. Writing in 1988, author and critic Tim Riley identified the track 's "internal contradictions (positivisms expressed with negatives) '' and "bloated self - confidence (' it 's easy ') '' as qualities that rendered it as "the naive answer to ' A Day in the Life ' ''.
-- John Lennon, 1980
Mark Hertsgaard considers "All You Need Is Love '' to be among the Beatles ' finest songs and one of the few highlights among their recordings from the Magical Mystery Tour -- Yellow Submarine era. In his opinion, Lennon 's detractors fail to discern between "shallow and utopian '' when ridiculing the song as socially irrelevant, and he adds: "one may as well complain that Martin Luther King was a poor singer as criticize Lennon on fine points of political strategy; his role was the Poet, not the Political Organizer. '' Ian MacDonald views the song as "one of The Beatles ' less deserving hits '' and, in its apparently chaotic production, typical of the band 's self - indulgent work immediately after Sgt. Pepper. Regarding the song 's message, McDonald writes:
During the materialistic Eighties, this song 's title was the butt of cynics, there being, obviously, any number of additional things needed to sustain life on earth. It should, perhaps, be pointed out that this record was not conceived as a blueprint for a successful career. "All you need is love '' is a transcendental statement, as true on its level as the principle of investment on the level of the stock exchange. In the idealistic perspective of 1967 -- the polar opposite of 1987 -- its title makes perfect sense.
In 1978, the Rutles parodied "All You Need Is Love '' in their song "Love Life ''. In the 1987 documentary It Was Twenty Years Ago Today, commemorating two decades since Sgt. Pepper and the Summer of Love, several of the interviewees were asked whether they still believed that "Love is all you need ''. Harrison was the only one who unequivocally agreed with the sentiment. Asked why this was, he told Mark Ellen of Q magazine: "They all said All You Need Is Love but you also need such - and - such else. But... love is complete knowledge. If we all had total knowledge, then we would have complete love and, on that basis, everything is taken care of. It 's a law of nature. ''
In 2009, George Vaillant, the chief investigator of the Grant Study, which tracked 268 Harvard undergraduates for a period of 80 years with the goal of finding what factors led to happiness, stated that its findings could be summarized as "Happiness is love. Full stop. '' When pressed for being sentimental or too general, he revisited his findings and again stated, "the short answer is L-O-V-E. '' The CBC claimed that the "(Grant) study proves Beatles right: All You Need is Love. ''
According to Ian MacDonald:
The Beatles
Additional participants
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
"Life at Brian 's -- Lean and Hungry ''
|
where do animals and plants get the oxygen from in the aquatic environment | Aquatic animal - wikipedia
An aquatic animal is an animal, either vertebrate or invertebrate, which lives in the water for most or all of its lifetime. Many insects such as mosquitoes, mayflies, dragonflies and caddisflies have aquatic larvae, with winged adults. Aquatic animals may breathe air or extract oxygen that dissolved in water through specialised organs called gills, or directly through the skin. Natural environments and the animals that live in them can be categorized as aquatic (water) or terrestrial (land).
The term aquatic can be applied to animals that live in either fresh water (fresh water animals) or salt water (marine animals). However, the adjective marine is most commonly used for animals that live in saltwater, i.e. in oceans, seas, etc.
Aquatic animals (especially freshwater animals) are often of special concern to conservationists because of the fragility of their environments. Aquatic animals are subject to pressure from overfishing, destructive fishing, marine pollution and climate change.
In addition to water breathing animals, e.g., fish, most mollusks etc., the term "aquatic animal '' can be applied to air - breathing aquatic or sea mammals such as those in the orders Cetacea (whales) and Sirenia (sea cows), which can not survive on land, as well as the pinnipeds (true seals, eared seals, and the walrus). The term "aquatic mammal '' is also applied to four - footed mammals like the river otter (Lontra canadensis) and beavers (family Castoridae), although these are technically amphibious or semiaquatic.
Amphibians, like frogs (the order Anura), while requiring water, are separated into their own environmental classification. The majority of amphibians (class Amphibia) have an aquatic larval stage, like a tadpole, but then live as terrestrial adults, and may return to the water to mate.
Certain fish also evolved to breathe air to survive oxygen - deprived water, such as Arapaima (family Osteoglossidae) and walking catfish.
Most mollusks have gills, while some fresh water ones have a lung instead (e.g. Planorbidae) and some amphibious ones have both (e.g. Ampullariidae).
|
which one came out first xbox one or ps4 | Xbox One - Wikipedia
Xbox One is a line of eighth generation home video game consoles developed by Microsoft. Announced in May 2013, it is the successor to Xbox 360 and the third console in the Xbox family. It was first released in North America, parts of Europe, Australia, and South America in November 2013, and in Japan, China, and other European countries in September 2014. It is the first Xbox game console to be released in China, specifically in the Shanghai Free - Trade Zone. Microsoft marketed the device as an "all - in - one entertainment system ''. The Xbox One line mainly competes against consoles such as Sony 's PlayStation 4 and Nintendo 's Wii U and Switch.
Moving away from its predecessor 's PowerPC - based architecture, Xbox One marks a shift back to the x86 architecture used in the original Xbox; it features an AMD Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) built around the x86 - 64 instruction set. Xbox One 's controller was redesigned over the Xbox 360 's, with a redesigned body, D - pad and triggers capable of delivering directional haptic feedback. The console places an increased emphasis on cloud computing, as well as social networking features, and the ability to record and share video clips or screenshots from gameplay, or live - stream directly to streaming services such as Mixer and Twitch. Games can also be played off - console via a local area network on supported Windows 10 devices. The console can play Blu - ray Disc, and overlay live television programming from an existing set - top box or a digital tuner for digital terrestrial television with an enhanced program guide. The console optionally included a redesigned Kinect sensor, marketed as the "Kinect 2.0 '', providing improved motion tracking and voice recognition.
Xbox One received mostly positive reviews for its refined controller design, multimedia features, and voice navigation. Its quieter and cooler design was praised for making the console more reliable than its predecessor on - launch, but the console was generally criticized for running games at a technically lower graphical level than the PlayStation 4. Its original user interface was panned for being nonintuitive, although changes made to it and other aspects of the console 's software post-launch received positive reception. Its Kinect received praise for its improved motion - tracking accuracy, its face recognition logins, and its voice commands.
The original Xbox One model was succeeded by Xbox One S in 2016, which has a smaller form factor and support for HDR10 high - dynamic - range video, as well as support for 4K video playback and upscaling of games from 1080p to 4K. It was praised for its smaller size, its on - screen visual improvements, and its lack of an external power supply, but its regressions such as the lack of a native Kinect port were noted. A high - end model, Xbox One X, was unveiled in June 2017 and released in November; it features upgraded hardware specifications, and support for rendering games at 4K resolution.
Xbox One is the successor to Xbox 360, Microsoft 's previous video game console, which was introduced in 2005 as part of the seventh generation of video game consoles. Over the years, the 360 had received a number of small hardware revisions to reduce the unit 's size and improve its reliability. In 2010, Microsoft 's Chris Lewis stated that the 360 was about "halfway '' through its lifecycle; this was aided by the introduction of the Kinect motion sensor that year, which Lewis stated would extend the lifecycle by five years.
Initial hardware for the 360 's successor, commonly referred to by the industry as the "Xbox 720 '', was reportedly under development as early as May 2011. The official developer kit was codenamed Durango, and appeared to be available to developers by mid-2012. Leaked documents suggested that the new console would include an improved Kinect sensor, cloud access to games and media, integration with phone and tablet devices, and technology to provide players heads - up displays on glasses worn by the player, codenamed "Fortaleza ''; Microsoft did not comment on these reported features. Leaked design documents also suggested that Microsoft was seeking to eliminate the ability to play used games, though Microsoft later clarified it was still reviewing the design and were "thinking about what is next and how we can push the boundaries of technology like we did with Kinect '', but did not comment on the validity of the information.
The console was publicly unveiled under the name Xbox One on May 21, 2013 in a press conference designed to cover the unit 's broad multimedia and social capabilities. A second press event for the console was held during E3 2013, focusing on its video game - oriented functionality. At that time, Microsoft announced that the console would be released in 21 different markets on November 22, 2013, but this was later amended down to 13. The change, which pushed the release date for the other eight markets to 2014, was attributed to unforeseen complexity in localizing the device 's voice recognition capabilities. Later, in September 2014, the Xbox One was released in 26 markets, including remaining markets in Europe, the Japanese market, and Middle Eastern markets.
Microsoft initially announced a different game licensing scheme for Xbox One than what was used upon its release: all games, including those purchased at retail, would be bound to the user 's Xbox Live account. Users could access their purchased games from any other Xbox One console, play games without their disc once installed, and allow users to "share '' their games with up to ten designated "family '' members. Users would trade games at "participating retailers '', and could also transfer a game directly to any Xbox Live friend on their list for at least 30 days, but only once. To synchronize licenses, the console would be required to connect to the internet once every 24 hours; if the console could not connect, all games would be disabled until the console was connected again.
Reaction to this digital rights management scheme was extremely negative. Critics felt that the changes would infringe on consumers ' first - sale rights for games purchased on physical media, as games would only be licensed to users rather than sold, and the disc itself would only be used to install the game and not confer ownership of its license or permission to resell. Microsoft also stated that publishers could impose restrictions or activation fees on second - hand copies of games. GameSpot editor Tom Mcshea went on to say that Microsoft had become anti-consumerist, trying to "punish their loyal customers '' with strict restrictions, and that "by saying no to the used game restrictions and always - online that Microsoft is so happily implementing on the Xbox One, Sony has elevated the PlayStation 4 as the console to grab this holiday season. '' Xbox Chief Marketing and Strategy Officer Yusuf Mehdi explained that the system was built with digital distribution in mind, but that Microsoft wanted to maintain the availability of games on physical media. He also noted that Microsoft was not "giving in '' to publishers ' objections to used games, but rather trying to balance the needs of consumers and the industry, and that the trading and sharing abilities of the platform added a level of flexibility not seen on other online distribution platforms at the time.
On June 19, 2013, shortly after E3 2013, Microsoft announced (in response to the negative reaction) that it would reverse its changes to Xbox One 's DRM and game licensing model. As with Xbox 360, users would be able to share and resell physical games without restrictions, and beyond a mandatory software update upon the console 's initial setup process to enable playback of Blu - ray and DVD video, the console would not require a permanent internet connection to operate. These changes required the family sharing features, along with the ability to play games without their disc after installation, to be dropped. Xbox One chief product officer Marc Whitten stated that the family sharing feature may return in the future, but could not be implemented on launch due to time restraints. Don Mattrick, the then president of Microsoft 's Interactive Entertainment Business, stated that the licensing changes were in response to the negative public reaction. Other analysts believed that the change was in direct response of Sony 's aggressive position during its E3 press conference. Mattrick, who had been a leader in Xbox One development, announced his departure from Microsoft on July 1, 2013, to become CEO of Zynga. Analysts speculated that his departure was predicated on the poor response and subsequent reversal of the plans for Xbox One.
Microsoft also backtracked on a similarly controversial requirement for the Kinect sensor to be plugged into Xbox One at all times for it to function. Privacy advocates argued that Kinect sensor data could be used for targeted advertising, and to perform unauthorized surveillance on users. In response to these claims, Microsoft reiterated that Kinect voice recognition and motion tracking can be disabled by users, that Kinect data can not be used for advertising per its privacy policy, and that the console would not redistribute user - generated content without permission. In response to these pre-launch changes and a belief that Microsoft 's decisions for the systems were in poor judgement, journalists and consumers jokingly gave Xbox One nicknames such as "Xbox 180 '', in reference to the Xbox 360 and Microsoft 's decision to reverse its controversial decisions, and "Xbone '', suggesting that the company was "throwing a bone '' to consumers by making these changes.
In 2015, four members of an international hacking group pleaded guilty to gaining unauthorized access to Microsoft 's computer network and obtaining sensitive information relating to Xbox One and Xbox Live. At the time of the security breach, Microsoft was in the development stage for its next - generation gaming system. Between 2011 and 2013, the hackers spent hundreds of hours searching through Microsoft 's network copying log - in credentials, source code, technical specifications and other data. Group members say they were driven by an immense curiosity about Microsoft 's then - unreleased Xbox One console and associated software. "Using stolen access credentials '', two of the hackers also committed a physical theft by entering "a secure building on Microsoft 's Redmond Washington campus '' and carrying away three "Durango '' development kits.
On June 13, 2016, during its E3 2016 press conference, Microsoft unveiled Xbox One S, a revision of the original Xbox One hardware with a streamlined form factor. Microsoft also teased a high - end version of Xbox One with upgraded hardware codenamed "Project Scorpio '', which was unveiled and released the following year as Xbox One X.
The original Xbox One 's exterior casing consists of a two - tone "liquid black '' finish; with half finished in a matte grey, and the other in a glossier black. The matte side of the top of the console consists of a large air vent. The design was intended to evoke a more entertainment - oriented and simplified look than previous iterations of the console; among other changes, the LED rings used by Xbox 360 are replaced by a glowing white Xbox logo used to communicate the system 's status to the user. Due to the overall ventilation design of the console, the original Xbox One is designed to only sit horizontally.
Xbox One S utilizes a refreshed version of this design, with a case that is 40 % smaller in size, and supports vertical orientation with a stand. The main Xbox One S SKU is colored in an entirely matte "Robot White '' finish, with half of the console adorned with machined holes, and a visible circular vent on top of the console 's right half. It utilizes push - button controls rather than capacitive keys, the side USB port and controller sync button were moved to the front of the console, and its power supply is integrated into the console 's casing rather than sitting externally (plugging directly into the wall).
Xbox One is powered by an AMD "Jaguar '' Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) with two quad - core modules totaling eight x86 - 64 cores clocked at 1.75 GHz, and 8 GB of DDR3 RAM with a memory bandwidth of 68.3 GB / s. The memory subsystem also features an additional 32 MB of "embedded static '' RAM, or ESRAM, with a memory bandwidth of 109 GB / s. For simultaneous read and write operations, the ESRAM is capable of a theoretical memory bandwidth of 192 GB / s and a memory bandwidth of 133 GB / s has been achieved with operations that involved alpha transparency blending. The system includes a non-replaceable hard drive and a Blu - ray Disc optical drive. 138 GB of hard drive space is used by the operating system, with the remainder available for the storage of games. Since the June 2014 software update, up to two USB drives can be connected to Xbox One to expand its capacity. External drives must support USB 3.0 and have a capacity of at least 256 GB.
It was reported that 3 GB of RAM would be reserved for the operating system and utility software, leaving 5 GB for games. With DirectX 11.2 as the console 's API, the graphics processing unit (GPU) is based on an AMD GCN architecture with 12 compute units, which have a total of 768 cores, running at 853 MHz providing an estimated peak theoretical power of 1.31 T FLOPS. For networking, Xbox One supports Gigabit Ethernet, 802.11 n wireless, and Wi - Fi Direct.
-- Greg Williams, GM of Xbox silicon development
The original Xbox One supports 1080p and 720p video output; unlike the Xbox 360, the Xbox One does not support 1080i and other interlaced resolutions. Xbox One supports HDMI 1.4 for both input and output, and does not support composite or component video. Xbox One supports 7.1 surround sound, Dolby Atmos, and DTS X.
Xbox One S additionally supports 2160p (4K resolution) video output, and high dynamic range (HDR) color using HDR10 (with a future update to add Dolby Vision HDR support for streaming video). 4K video can be played from supported streaming services and Ultra HD Blu - ray Disc, Games are upscaled from 1080p resolution, and are not rendered at 4K. The GPU on Xbox One S has a higher clock speed and ESRAM bandwidth than the original model, which can provide some performance improvements on games with dynamic resolution scaling or uncapped frame rates.
The console can monitor its internal temperature and adjust accordingly to prevent overheating; alongside increasing fan speed, additional measures can be taken, including forcing the hardware to run in a lower power state -- a feature that was not present on Xbox 360. Restricting power consumption lowers maximum performance, but the setting would be intended as a last resort to prevent permanent hardware damage.
The Xbox One 's controller maintains the overall layout found in the Xbox 360 's controller, but with various refinements to its form. Among its changes include a smoother form, textured analog sticks, a four - way directional pad, and redesigned triggers and shoulder buttons with a curved shape for ergonomics. "Menu '' and "View '' buttons have replaced the Start and Back buttons. Each trigger features independent rumble motors called "Impulse Triggers '', which allows developers to program directional vibration. One trigger can be made to vibrate when firing a gun, or both can work together to create feedback that indicates the direction of an incoming hit. The controller also contains light emitters that allow it to be tracked and paired using the Kinect sensor, and to detect when it 's not being held to automatically enter a low - power state. An updated revision of the controller was released in June 2015, which includes a 3.5 - millimeter headphone jack and other minor changes. A third revision was introduced alongside and first bundled with Xbox One S, with textured grips and Bluetooth support.
The Xbox One controller includes a micro USB port; when attached via a micro-USB cable, the controller can operate without battery power and can charge remotely, and is supported on computers running Windows 7 or later with drivers. The Xbox One Wireless Adapter accessory allows wireless use of Xbox One controllers on Windows computers also running Windows 7 or later.
The Elite Wireless Controller was released in October 2015. It was described and marketed as "an elite controller for the elite gamer '', containing interchangeable parts, "hair trigger locks '' for the triggers that allow users to reduce the amount of distance they must be pressed to register a press, and software for remapping buttons.
The Kinect 2.0, an updated natural user interface sensor, was redesigned and recreated to provide motion - tracking and voice commands for the Xbox One.
Kinect 2.0 features a wide - angle time - of - flight camera and a 1080p camera, in comparison to the VGA resolution of the Xbox 360 version, and processes 2GB of data per second to map its environment. Kinect 2.0 has an improved accuracy over its predecessor; it can track up to 6 people simultaneously, referred to as "skeletons '', perform heart rate tracking, track controller gestures, and read QR codes to redeem Xbox Live gift cards. By default, voice recognition is active at all times, so the console can receive voice commands from the user, even when the console is in sleep mode. It is possible to wake the console with a command, although settings are available to change which individual Kinect functions are active.
Prior to and after the mandate, all Xbox One consoles initially shipped with the Kinect sensor included. On June 9, 2014, cheaper Xbox One bundles were introduced, which did not include the Kinect sensor. Microsoft stated the decision to offer Xbox One bundles without Kinect was to "(offer) a choice to people that would allow people to buy an Xbox One and then ramp up to Kinect when they can afford to '', while also allowing games to use processing power that was previously reserved for Kinect. An updated Xbox Development Kit issued in June 2014 allows developers to explicitly disable motion tracking functionality in games, allowing access to additional system resources that represent about 10 % of the GPU processing power. These resources were previously reserved for Kinect skeletal tracking, regardless of whether the Kinect sensor was attached or in use.
A Windows compatible Kinect 2.0 was released on July 15, 2014. Kinect 2.0 was released as a standalone and optional item in October 2014; it is bundled with a digital copy of Dance Central Spotlight.
Xbox One S lacks the Kinect connection port, requiring a USB / power adapter to use the accessory. A free USB adapter was provided by Microsoft to Kinect owners who registered their ownership of Kinect and Xbox One S online up until March 2017. The adapter was sold separately thereafter, but has since been discontinued. Kinect for Xbox One was officially discontinued on October 25, 2017.
Xbox One runs two operating systems within a hypervisor; games run within one separate operating system, while apps and the user interface run within a stripped - down version of Microsoft Windows; the original system software was based on Windows 8, but it has since been changed to Windows 10. This architecture allows resources to be allocated specifically to different aspects of the console 's functions, including multitasking and Kinect processing, ensuring an "absolute guarantee of performance '' for games. Xbox One supports Universal Windows Platform apps, which can be designed to run across Xbox One, Windows 10, and Windows 10 Mobile in synchronization with the Windows platform.
Xbox One 's user interface uses Microsoft 's Fluent Design System; previous iterations of the console 's software used the Metro design language. The dashboard is divided into "Home '', "Mixer '', "Community '', "Entertainment '', and "Store '' sections, with the "Home '' page further divided into "blocks '' that can display pinned games / apps, as well as other content. Pressing the Xbox Guide button opens a sidebar with access to common functions such as the friends list, apps, the user 's party, and settings. Users can go back to the dashboard while using games or apps using either the Xbox button on their controller or a voice command; up to four apps can run (either actively or in the background) at once, but only one game can run at a time. Use of Kinect enables the ability to control the console via voice commands. Xbox One 's voice control capabilities are similar to, albeit richer than those of Xbox 360. The voice assistant Cortana was added in 2016 to provide expanded voice command functionality with natural language recognition.
The dashboard originally used a layout similar to Windows 8 's "Start screen '', with a horizontal - scrolling, tile - based interface. This design was replaced for Xbox Preview Program members in September 2015 with the current interface, known as "the New Xbox One Experience '', which was publicly released as part of the November 12, 2015 system update. Alongside its new layout, support for Kinect motion controls on the dashboard were removed.
The UI was refreshed again in April 2017, adding the new Guide sidebar and other new features. At this time, the ability to "snap '' apps as a sidebar for multi-tasking was removed. The UI was further revamped in October 2017 to use elements of Windows 10 's forthcoming design language, and adds a new, lighter color scheme option for the console 's user interface.
The Xbox One can view and play content from DLNA servers and USB storage devices using the "Media Player '' app. An application allows playback of video from Blu - ray Disc, DVD and CD media.
The console provides the ability to feed live television by serving as an HDMI pass - through for an existing television provider 's set - top box or an optional Digital TV Tuner accessory that allows use of digital terrestrial television. The console provides its own electronic program guide known as OneGuide, augmenting the existing streaming functionality to provide show recommendations based on viewing history, integrated access to "App Channels '' corresponding to online video services, and voice control via Kinect. The set - top box and television are controlled by OneGuide using an IR blaster.
The Xbox One does not provide full DVR functionality for recording television programs: executive Yusuf Mehdi indicated that the console would "work in tandem '' with existing television services, but that Microsoft would need to work with them directly to provide extended functionality, such as DVR integration. The digital TV tuner accessory allows limited DVR functionality for pausing and rewinding live TV for up to 30 minutes. In June 2016, Microsoft announced that their plans for full DVR functionality for the Xbox One were on hold.
The Xbox Live service has been scaled up to use 300,000 servers for Xbox One users. Cloud storage is available to save music, films, games and saved content, and developers are able to use Live servers (along with the Microsoft Azure cloud computing platform) to offer dynamic in - game content and other functionality. Users can have up to 1,000 friends. The December 2016 software update added the new social networking feature Clubs, which allows users to join groups focused on specific interests or games, and Looking for group (LFG), a system to help users locate players to join their party for multiplayer play.
Players can use the Upload Studio app to edit and share clips from the last five minutes of gameplay footage that is automatically recorded by the console. Games can also be developed so that recording can automatically be triggered in response to notable events, such as achievements. Xbox One supports streaming directly to the services Mixer and Twitch. Users can use voice commands to immediately begin streaming footage of their current game directly to the service, and use Kinect 's camera and microphone to record video and audio narration. Users can feature recorded clips on their Xbox Live profile page in a "Showcase '' section.
As with Xbox 360, premium online features such as multiplayer, voice communication, broadcasting and Upload Studio require an Xbox Live Gold subscription to use. Unlike Xbox 360, a user 's Xbox Live Gold subscription benefits apply to all other users of their designated "home '' console as well, rather than requiring a separate subscription for each user. Since June 2014, applications no longer require an Xbox Live Gold membership to use. Additional subscriptions for outside services such as Netflix may still be required. Microsoft also extended its Games with Gold program to Xbox One, providing free Xbox 360 and Xbox One games to Xbox Live Gold subscribers on a monthly basis.
The Xbox SmartGlass app provides extended functionality on Xbox One, allowing devices running Windows Phone, Windows 8, iOS and Android to be used as a companion device for Xbox One features, such as powering on the console, a remote control, accessing messages and the Activity Feed, purchasing content, and providing integration with certain games and content. The SmartGlass app can also be used to stream live television to Android and Windows devices if the console is using a USB digital television tuner.
On Windows 10, SmartGlass is succeeded by the Xbox App, which supports the local streaming of games from Xbox One to personal computers and tablets running Windows 10. An Xbox One controller must be used, but Windows - compatible headsets and microphones can be used for voice chat. Games requiring Kinect are not supported, while Game DVR and online streaming are not available while using this functionality.
Per a partnership with Oculus VR, users will also be able to stream Xbox One games to the Oculus Rift virtual reality headset by means of Xbox app for Windows 10; as of 2015 there were no immediate plans for direct integration between Xbox One and Oculus Rift.
Xbox One games are distributed at retail on Blu - ray Disc, and digitally as downloads through Xbox Games Store. All Xbox One games must be installed to the console 's storage: users can begin to play portions of a game (such as opening levels) once the installation or download reaches a specific point, while the remainder of the game is downloaded or installed in the background. Updates to games and system software are also downloaded in the background and while in standby. If the game is installed from physical media, the disc is still required for validation purposes. If the game is installed on another console, and that console owner no longer has access to the disc, the owner has the option of unlocking the install on their hard drive by purchasing it through Xbox Live; the installed game then acts as a game installed on the hard drive. An active internet connection may be required for some games, particularly those that rely on server - side processing.
Microsoft introduced an Early access program known as Xbox Game Preview in 2015, which allows developers launch unfinished games for consumers to purchase and beta test before its official launch. Since June 2017, games may be promoted with additional icons that denote compatibility with hardware enhancements found in newer Xbox One models, including support for high - dynamic - range (HDR) colors (on Xbox One S and Xbox One X), native rendering at 4K resolution (Xbox One X), and specific optimizations for Xbox One X.
-- Larry Hryb, Xbox Live Director of programming
At its launch, the Xbox One did not have native backward compatibility with original Xbox or Xbox 360 games. It had been a desired launch feature by Microsoft and had been actively under developed as early as 2007 under the "Trioxide '' program as to get Xbox 360 code to run on 64 - bit hardware. Rather than going the route of the initial PlayStation 3 which included a core PlayStation 2 system - on - a-chip processor, the Xbox One hardware was designed to include support for Xbox 360 XMA and texture processing on hardware, knowing this would be difficult to replicate in software. Following criticism of its plan for an "always on '' console from the May 2013 announcement, Microsoft had to put significant effort to prepare the Xbox One software for a revised approach, and the backwards compatibility development work were put on hold. Interim solutions were suggested: senior project management and planning director Albert Penello explained that Microsoft was initially considering a cloud gaming platform to enable backward compatibility, but he felt it would be "problematic '' due to varying internet connection qualities. Xbox Live director of programming Larry "Major Nelson '' Hryb did state that users could theoretically use the HDMI - in port on the console to pass an Xbox 360 (or, alternatively, any other device that supports HDMI output, including competing consoles) through Xbox One. This process does generate a small amount of unnoticeable display lag.
Following the release of the Xbox One and transition of Phil Spencer to the head of the Xbox division in 2014, he and software engineering vice president Kareem Choudhry restarted the backwards compatibility program in relative secret within the company. Choudhry brought on previous engineers that worked on Trioxide, including Kevin La Chapelle, Jonathan Morrison, and Barry Bond, to restart the program. The team chose to start with Castle Crashers, which included Xbox networking features, to test backwards compatibility. Castle Crashers frequently crashed to a screen with alphanumeric codes, which La Chapelle was able to obtain from the game 's developers, The Behemoth, which helped them to rapidly diagnose problems and fix the compatibility issues. Solving most of the major problems through Castle Crashers, the background compatibility team decided to let the program be announced at E3 2015 with plans to have one hundred titles available by the end of 2015. However, by E3, they still found problems with some games running at extremely low framerates. During the event, Morrison recognized that a fundamental difference between the Xbox 360 and Xbox One was its scheduling rate, and when they returned, Morrison 's idea helped them to rapidly complete work to meet its promised goal by the end of that year. Individual games still brought some difficulty, specifically Halo: Reach, but this prompted the team to develop automatic tools that could be used to identify where Xbox 360 titles would be difficult to run as - is on the Xbox One and how to work around those; this further set up the potential to improve Xbox 360 games on the future iterations of the Xbox One, such as the Xbox One X to improve graphics support.
Xbox 360 backward compatibility uses a "Fission '', a software emulator within the system software; 104 Xbox 360 titles were supported at the feature 's public launch, with more added in the following months. Xbox 360 games contained within Rare Replay are packaged as standalone applications using the Xbox 360 emulation. Microsoft stated that publishers would only need to provide permission to the company to allow the repackaging, and it expected the number of supported games to increase significantly over time. Microsoft, along with fourteen other third - party publishers, will offer supported games, and all Games with Gold titles on Xbox 360 since November 2015 are made compatible.
Xbox division head Phil Spencer had also hinted the possibility of adding support for games from the original Xbox. For the backwards compatibility team, after they completed the framework for Xbox 360 compatibility so that other engineering teams could take over, they turned to the question of compatibility with the original Xbox console. The program was started in November 2016, under the code name "Fusion '', and was led by software engineer Spencer Perreault. Perreault initially tried the same approaches as the team had done with "Fission '', but due to the differences in memory management sizes and chipset bit - rates, these initial tests failed. Instead, Perreault worked to bring "Dolphin '', a developer tool for the original Xbox, working to get its emulation correct. La Chapelle brought in a number of personal Xbox titles to test in Perreault 's emulation, getting about a 10 % "hit rate '' on successes, though the variety of failures helped Perreault to identify common problems, and within a month, had improved the successful hit rate to about 90 %. As with Xbox 360 backwards compatibility, the Fusion emulation enables Xbox games to be scaled to 1080p resolutions, work with Xbox One networking features, and can allow mixed - console System Link connection between all three generations of Xbox.
With Perreault 's success, Microsoft announced the Xbox backwards compatibility on the Xbox One in June 2017. Thirteen titles were initially released on October 24, 2017. Microsoft announced an additional 19 titles to be added to the Xbox One service during April 2018.
Microsoft does not anticipate that there will be as many Xbox titles brought to the program as with the Xbox 360, primarily due to legal issues related to intellectual property, contracts, and companies that have since gone defunct.
While the initial unveiling of the Xbox One in May 2013 created criticism that led to significant changes in the digital rights management scheme it would use, other features of the console were highlighted by journalists. The editorial staff of Game Informer offered both praise and criticism for the console. Matt Helgeson described the console as Microsoft 's intent to "control the living room ''. He called Xbox One 's instant switching features "impressive '', and that the console was "a step in the right direction '' with regards to TV entertainment, especially the prospect of avoiding the usage of non-intuitive user interfaces often found on cable set - top boxes. Jeff Cork said that Microsoft had "some great ideas '' for the console, but that it failed to properly communicate them.
Microsoft 's E3 2013 press conference was criticized for focusing too much on games that, beyond increased graphical capabilities, provided experiences that were otherwise similar to previous - generation games -- giving little incentive for buying the new console. Rafi Mohammed, author of "The Art of Pricing '', felt that Microsoft priced Xbox One "too high '' and that the $100 premium over its competitor could "derail '' the system during the 2013 holiday season.
Upon its release, the Xbox One received favorable reviews from critics and reviewers. In its launch review, Polygon gave the Xbox One an 8 / 10. Its design was described as "inoffensive '' but its larger size noted, while the console 's quieter and cooler operation was praised for indicating a potentially higher reliability than Xbox 360 was on - launch. The controller was praised for its battery life and "premium '' design, but some members of the site 's staff felt that its shoulder buttons were stiffer than that of previous designs. The design of Xbox One 's interface received mixed reviews: noting that it carried over Windows 8 's design language, the interface was disfavored for hiding functions under the controller 's menu button and for being awkward to use with a controller or motion gestures, seemingly encouraging users to use voice navigation instead. While praised for having more "robust '' voice navigation than Xbox 360, they felt that voice navigation still had a "learning curve in understanding what works and what does n't. '' Although its user following, Smart Match, and improved voice chat features were noted, Xbox Live was panned for not offering the option on - launch to add a real name to user profiles. Despite a regression in local and network multimedia functionality in comparison to Xbox 360 and how OneGuide interacted with outside set - top boxes (drawing comparisons to the operations of TiVo DVRs), Polygon felt the Xbox One 's overall multimedia experience "feels like a major step forward in set - top boxes and makes the Xbox One the obvious center of any living room that has one. ''
Ben Gilbert of Engadget was similarly modest upon its launch, assigning the console a score of 81 / 100 and describing the Xbox One 's design as a "1993 artist 's rendering of 2013 's technology ''. Acknowledging that its controller was a mere refinement of the "ubiquit (ous) '' Xbox 360 design, he praised the controller for its improved D - pad and quieter triggers but criticized its stiff shoulder buttons. Kinect received positive reviews for its face recognition login and improved motion tracking, but that whilst "magical '', "every false positive or unrecognized (voice) command had us reaching for the controller. '' The overall interface was also considered more intuitive and flexible than that of PlayStation 4, but its game library view was described as being a "jumbled, sadly unfilterable rows of every owned piece of software '', that also knowingly listed games that require their disc to run alongside those which did not. The console was also panned for missing certain promised features on - launch, such as Upload Studio, game streaming, and certain apps / services.
Later on, critics felt that the Xbox One 's functionality had matured over the year following its launch; Jeff Bakalar of CNET, assigning it a score of 8 / 10, acknowledged improvements to Xbox One 's software since its original release, but that its user interface was still unintuitive in comparison to Xbox 360 and PlayStation 4, explaining that "navigating the interface seems to be much more problematic than it rightfully should be, and there 's simply not enough transparency in the logic within it. There are oddities peppered throughout, which is the root for countless headaches and frustrations. '' Xbox One 's in - game performance was mixed, with some titles showing slower performance over PS4, but some multi-platform games performing better on Xbox One than PS4. CNET praised the wider lineup of multimedia services and apps on Xbox One over PS4, not requiring Xbox Live Gold for online save data storage, support for high - speed USB 3.0 as secondary storage, and having a "slightly better '' lineup of upcoming exclusives, concluding that "While the PS4 had a clear advantage at launch, that edge is slowly evaporating as Microsoft has worked feverishly to undo most of the Xbox One 's original missteps. ''
Nick Pino of TechRadar, giving it four stars out of five, similarly felt that the Xbox One "(felt) more like a media titan today than it did 12 months ago, '' citing OneGuide, Upload Studio, and Microsoft 's decision to drop the Xbox Live Gold requirement for multimedia streaming apps, and that "there 's still a lot of potential locked away inside the hardware of the system that developers are just beginning to figure out. So while PlayStation might have the upper hand for now when it comes to certain third - party titles, it may not always remain that way. Just how Microsoft will get it to that point, though, is still a mystery. '' However, he disfavored the console 's dependence upon a subscription for most of its functionality, Kinect 's voice recognition, and that some games do not natively run at 1080p resolution, but are upscaled. In an August 2016 review of the Xbox One S model, TechRadar further commended Microsoft 's recent improvements to Xbox One, citing a strong lineup of first - party titles in 2015 and further improvements to the console 's interface.
Alaina Yee of IGN also praised how Xbox One had evolved since its launch, assigning it with Kinect a score of 8.1 / 10 and acknowledging that Microsoft had "made good on its promise of listening to consumers, rolling out a steady stream of updates that have both broadened and deepened what this third Xbox console offers. '' Regarding the console 's slightly lower level of graphics capabilities in comparison to PlayStation 4, it was noted that "while videophiles might spot instances of upscaled graphics and less detailed environments immediately, most people generally wo n't notice a difference between Xbox One and PlayStation 4 versions of a game (when there is one) unless they see both running side by side '', and examples of "gorgeous '' Xbox One games were noted, such as Sunset Overdrive and Forza Motorsport 5. The number of "hidden '' options in Xbox One 's user interface was equated to "hunting for treasure in a messy room ''; as such, Kinect voice commands, in combination with access to common functions within the Xbox SmartGlass app, were praised for helping to provide a more streamlined user experience.
The Xbox One S revision was critically praised for its improvements over the original model, including its streamlined design, the addition of HDR and 4K video support, and visual improvements on some games (such as Fallout 4 and Rise of the Tomb Raider) when upscaled to 4K. However, TechRadar noted regressions such as the lack of a Kinect port (considered "one last kick in the pants for all the gamers forced into buying the more expensive console bundle two short years ago ''), and concerns that the revised hardware and HDR support would lead to fragmentation of Xbox One 's ecosystem, as not all users will necessarily experience a game the same way.
Dieter Bohn of The Verge similarly felt that although it was one of the cheapest 4K Blu - ray players on the market, consumers were more interested in streaming 4K content (which could be accomplished with cheaper digital media players) than 4K Blu - ray discs, and noted the small number of HDR - enabled games on launch. Bohn concluded that the Xbox One S would appeal best to new owners or those who wish to leverage its HDR and 4K support, but recommended that existing owners consider Xbox One X instead.
The Xbox One platform has faced criticism for lacking in exclusive releases over competitors such as PlayStation 4 and Nintendo Switch. Although there have been releases in flagship Microsoft franchises such as Forza and Halo, they have underperformed in comparison to other entries, while several major Xbox One exclusives have faced notable delays, such as Crackdown 3, or outright cancellations, including Fable Legends and Scalebound. By contrast, PS4 and Switch have seen a large number of critically successful first - and third - party exclusives, and Activision would sign with Sony Interactive Entertainment for timed exclusivity on certain add - on content in the Call of Duty and Destiny franchises -- the former having replaced a previous deal with Microsoft. In 2016, Microsoft also began to make future Xbox One - exclusive first - party releases simultaneously available on Microsoft Windows PC (with digital cross-buy support under the branding Xbox Play Anywhere), thus making them Microsoft platform exclusives rather than Xbox One exclusives.
Microsoft initially imposed policies referred to as the "parity clause '' on indie games, which required that the Xbox One version of a game be released at the same time as versions on other platforms. Phil Spencer stated that this rule was intended to ensure that Xbox One was a "first - class '' platform by discouraging staggered releases. However, these policies resulted in some studios, such as Vlambeer (developer of Nuclear Throne) choosing to negotiate console exclusivity with Sony instead, who proved to be more receptive to indie development. By July 2015, Microsoft had changed its policies in response to the criticism, with Spencer admitting that this policy was onerous on smaller studios. Spencer also stated that Microsoft was willing to work with studios to help make the Xbox launches of former timed exclusives "special in some way '', so that customers are not simply purchasing "last year 's game ''.
An analyst also noted that Microsoft 's first - party studios were not as strong as those of Sony, explaining that "Sony has always been about first party and Microsoft wanted to emulate that, but they allowed studios like Rare and Lionhead to fade away. '' During its E3 2018 press conference, Microsoft bolstered its first - party development operations with the announcement that it had acquired Compulsion Games, Ninja Theory, Playground Games, and Undead Labs, and had established The Initiative, a new studio led by former Crystal Dynamics head Darrell Gallagher.
Some Xbox One titles, such as PlayerUnknown 's Battlegrounds, are being marketed as a "console launch exclusive '', meaning that they had or will be available on PC, but their console releases would be a timed or permanent exclusive to Xbox hardware.
Microsoft only publicized its sales figures during the first year after release. The last official figure was released in November 2014, with the company announcing, in October 2015, that it would no longer publish sales figures for the system.
On November 22, 2013, Microsoft confirmed that it had sold one million Xbox One consoles within its first 24 hours of being available. Based on approximately 102,000 shopping receipts tracked by InfoScout, 1,500 of which included a purchase of either a video game or a video game console, the Xbox One was the highest - selling console during the Black Friday sales period in the United States.
On December 11, 2013, Microsoft announced that it had sold approximately 2 million units in its first 18 days on sale. On December 12, 2013, Microsoft announced it was the fastest selling console in the United States, based on NPD Group figures, however the NPD report clarified, "PlayStation 4 sales included an additional week within the November data month compared to Xbox One. When looking at sales on an average per - week basis, Xbox One led PS4. Keep in mind, however, that supply typically becomes constrained in the second week after launch. ''
On January 6, 2014, Microsoft announced that approximately 3 million consoles had been sold worldwide in 2013. In their Q2 2014 earnings report on January 23, 2014, Microsoft announced that 3.9 million Xbox One units had been shipped worldwide. On November 12, 2014, Microsoft announced it had shipped almost 10 million units to retailers worldwide. The company also revealed that a price cut had tripled U.S. sales of the console over the previous week. On December 11, 2014, Microsoft announced, based on NPD Group figures, that Xbox One was the best - selling console in November 2014.
With Microsoft 's October 2015 announcement that it would no longer publish sales figures for the system, the 10 million figure from November 2014 is still the latest official cumulative sales number. Some journalists think that its lower sales figures than rival PlayStation 4 is the reason behind the decision, to make their system not look "bad '' compared to Sony 's.
The Xbox One has sold poorly in Japan, continuing the trend of Microsoft 's previous consoles which have struggled against the local Sony and Nintendo. The Xbox One sold a total figure of 23,562 consoles within its launch week. By comparison, the Xbox 360 sold 62,000 consoles in Japan during its opening week in 2005. In the week ending June 14, 2015 the Xbox One sold just 100 consoles in Japan, by way of comparison, in the same week the Wii U sold 16,413 consoles.
In January 2016 the CFO of Electronic Arts reported during a financial call that the Xbox One has sold "around 18 to 19 million '' units. That is half the 36 million units of the PlayStation 4 that Sony claimed at the time. However it is higher than Nintendo 's Wii U which managed 12.5 million.
Research firm IHS Markit estimated 39.1 million units were sold by the end of March 2018.
On launch, Xbox One was available in a single retail configuration, which included the console with 500 GB hard drive, one controller, and Kinect sensor. In the United States, it retailed for US $ 499. On June 9, 2014, Microsoft released a new Xbox One retail configuration that excludes the Kinect sensor, costing US $399. A standalone Kinect sensor for Xbox One for use with these models was released in October 2014, retailing at US $150. On June 16, 2015, Microsoft lowered the price of the stock model to US $349, and released a new US $399 model containing a 1 terabyte hard drive and in some markets, Halo: The Master Chief Collection. In May 2016, Microsoft lowered the price of selected 500 GB bundles to US $299, and 1 TB bundles to US $319 as a limited time offer of unspecified length. On June 14, 2016, the price of 500 GB models was lowered once more to US $279 through October 2016, in anticipation of the launch of Xbox One S.
On August 31, 2015, Microsoft announced Xbox One Elite -- a new SKU with a 1 TB solid - state hybrid drive and an Elite controller. It was released in November 2015 and retails for US $499.99. In the US, the Elite bundle was a timed exclusive to GameStop and Microsoft Store.
Those who pre-ordered Xbox One for its release received a special "Day One Edition '', which featured a "DAY ONE 2013 '' inscriptions on the controller, and a unique achievement. A white "Launch Team '' edition was given exclusively to Microsoft staff members, featuring the inscription "I made this, LAUNCH TEAM 2013 '' on the console and controller, and was bundled with Dead Rising 3, Forza Motorsport 5, Ryse: Son of Rome, and Zoo Tycoon. A similar limited edition was gifted to Respawn Entertainment employees following the release of Titanfall, with a black, white, and orange color scheme and a similarly styled controller inspired by the game (the controller itself would be released publicly as a tie - in).
Xbox One consoles bundled with digital copies of specific games have also been released, including Titanfall and Forza Motorsport 5.
Xbox One S is available in 500 GB, 1 TB, and "special edition '' 2 TB models, which originally retailed at US $299, $349, and $399 respectively. The 2 TB model was released on August 2, 2016, and 1 TB and 500 GB models were released on August 23, 2016. and a Gears of War 4 special edition was also released. On June 11, 2017, Microsoft lowered the prices of the 500 GB Battlefield 1 and 1 TB Forza Horizon 3 Xbox One S console bundles by US $50. At Gamescom 2017, Microsoft unveiled a 1 TB Minecraft limited edition, with a grass block - themed hardware and a Creeper - themed controller. During an Inside Xbox livestream in September 2018, Microsoft unveiled a 1 TB Fortnite Battle Royale bundle, with online codes to acquire unique in - game Eon - themed items and currency. On October 9, 2018, Microsoft announced that they would be releasing a 1 TB Minecraft Creators bundle, with a download code for Minecraft, in - game currency, DLC packs, and a free trial for Xbox Game Pass and Xbox Live Gold.
In August 2018, Microsoft announced that it would, for a limited time, offer a financing program known as Xbox All Access through Microsoft Store in the United States. The program will allow users to purchase an Xbox One S or X console, bundled with subscriptions to both Xbox Live Gold and Xbox Game Pass, financed over a two - year contract. The customer retains ownership of the console after the two years, and if they break contract prior to that, they must pay the difference on the remaining console cost. The pricing is set to be cheaper overall than purchasing the individual elements alone.
Xbox One X is a high - end hardware revision of Xbox One. First teased at E3 2016 under the codename "Project Scorpio '', Xbox One X was released on November 7, 2017, with a 1 TB model priced at US $499, and a limited, pre-order exclusive "Project Scorpio Edition '', with a dark gradient finish, vertical stand brace and green "Project Scorpio '' inscriptions on the console and bundled controller.
Xbox One X features upgraded hardware that is designed primarily to render games at 4K resolution, and provide performance improvements for existing games; they can be displayed at full resolution on 4K displays, or supersampled for lower resolutions displays. It uses a system - on - chip (SoC) known as Scorpio Engine, which incorporates a 2.3 GHz octa - core CPU, and a Radeon GPU with 40 Compute Units clocked at 1172 MHz, generating 6 teraflops of graphical computing performance. It also includes 12 GB of GDDR5 RAM, 9 GB of which is allocated to games. Scorpio Engine 's CPU utilizes a custom platform designed to maintain compatibility with the Jaguar CPU of the original Xbox One, but with a 31 % increase in performance; the custom platform is unrelated to AMD 's current Ryzen architecture. The console uses a vapor chamber method of cooling for the SoC, and motherboards are tailored to the exact voltage needs of each individual Scorpio SoC to optimize their output and energy usage. The console also supports AMD 's FreeSync technology, 1440p resolution, and / or 120 Hz refresh rate on compatible displays.
Xbox One X is compatible with all existing Xbox One software and accessories. To assist in optimizing the new hardware to run existing games at 4K resolution, Microsoft developers used internal debugging software to collect GPU traces from major titles that did not run at full 1080p resolution on the original Xbox One. Halo 5: Guardians, which uses a scaling system that dynamically lowers the game 's resolution when needed to maintain a consistent frame rate, was able to run at its native resolution with no scaling on Xbox One X hardware. Phil Spencer also touted that Xbox One X 's hardware could also be used to support virtual reality, due to its power, price point, and convenience. At the 2017 Game Developers Conference, Microsoft announced plans to support Windows Mixed Reality VR headsets on Xbox One in 2018, but the company later stated that it was initially focusing on PC platforms first, and that it wanted to focus on wireless VR solutions for consoles.
Games marketed by Microsoft as Xbox One X Enhanced have specific optimizations for graphical fidelity on the console 's hardware. Separate iconography is being used to denote games that natively run at 4K resolution, or support HDR. Existing games can be updated to provide these enhancements. Though Xbox Games marketing head Aaron Greenberg stated that Xbox One X will have no exclusive titles, general manager of game publishing Shannon Loftis remarked in a follow - up interview that he was not sure on this point, and exclusivity would be "up to the game development community what do they want to do. ''
The Xbox One X has been said to be a competitor to the PlayStation 4 Pro, a hardware update of the PlayStation 4 released in late 2016 that similarly focuses on 4K gaming and improved virtual reality performance, although Phil Spencer stated that the PlayStation 4 Pro 's competition is instead the Xbox One S. In October 2016, Penello stated that the performance advantage of the Xbox One X over the PS4 Pro would be "obvious '', noting that the PS4 Pro 's GPU only had 4.2 teraflops of graphical computing performance in comparison to Microsoft 's stated 6 teraflops. Some journalists thought that Microsoft 's messaging and positioning of Scorpio alongside the release of the Xbox One S were at odds with themselves and was "confusing ''.
|
paris has been the capital of france since this year | List of capitals of France - wikipedia
This is a chronological list of capitals of France.
|
who was the only scorer in euro 2004 | UEFA Euro 2004 final - wikipedia
The UEFA Euro 2004 Final was a football match played on 4 July 2004 at the Estádio da Luz in Lisbon, Portugal to determine the winner of UEFA Euro 2004. The match featured tournament hosts Portugal, who went into the match as favourites, and Greece, playing in only their second European Championship. It was the first time in a major international tournament where both finalists had also played in the opening game of the tournament. Both teams had qualified for the knockout stage from Group A of the tournament 's group stage, with Greece winning 2 -- 1 in the teams ' earlier meeting.
Greece won the final 1 -- 0, defying odds of 80 -- 1 from the beginning of the tournament, with Angelos Charisteas scoring the winning goal in the 57th minute. While the dedication of the side and the victory were celebrated by their nation, Greece were dubbed by Barry Glendenning of The Guardian as "the only underdogs in history that everyone wants to see get beaten ''.
Portugal v Greece
Man of the Match: Theodoros Zagorakis (Greece)
Assistant referees: Christian Schräer (Germany) Jan - Hendrik Salver (Germany) Fourth official: Anders Frisk (Sweden)
Match rules
|
who played lex luthor in the original 1978 superman movie | Superman (1978 film) - wikipedia
Superman (informally titled Superman: The Movie in some listings and reference sources) is a 1978 superhero film directed by Richard Donner and based on the DC Comics character of the same name. The film is a British, Swiss, Panamanian and American joint venture, produced by Warner Bros., Film Export A.G., Dovemead Limited and International Film Productions. Superman features an ensemble cast of Marlon Brando, Gene Hackman, Christopher Reeve, Jeff East, Margot Kidder, Glenn Ford, Phyllis Thaxter, Jackie Cooper, Trevor Howard, Marc McClure, Terence Stamp, Valerie Perrine, Ned Beatty, Jack O'Halloran, Maria Schell, and Sarah Douglas. The film depicts Superman 's origin, including his infancy as Kal - El of Krypton and his youthful years in the rural town of Smallville. Disguised as reporter Clark Kent, he adopts a mild - mannered disposition in Metropolis and develops a romance with Lois Lane, while battling the villainous Lex Luthor.
Several directors, most notably Guy Hamilton, and screenwriters (Mario Puzo, David and Leslie Newman, and Robert Benton), were associated with the project before Richard Donner was hired to direct. Tom Mankiewicz was drafted in to rewrite the script and was given a "creative consultant '' credit. It was decided to film both Superman and its sequel Superman II (1980) simultaneously, with principal photography beginning in March 1977 and ending in October 1978. Tensions arose between Donner and the producers, and a decision was made to stop filming the sequel, of which 75 percent had already been completed, and finish the first film.
The most expensive film made up to that point with a budget of $55 million, Superman was released in December 1978 to critical and financial success; its worldwide box - office earnings of $300 million made it the second highest - grossing release of the year. Reviewers particularly praised Reeve 's performance. It was nominated for three Academy Awards, including Best Film Editing, Best Music (Original Score), and Best Sound Mixing, and received a Special Achievement Academy Award for Visual Effects. Groundbreaking in its use of special effects and science fiction / fantasy storytelling, the film 's legacy presaged the mainstream popularity of Hollywood 's superhero film franchises.
On the planet Krypton, using evidence provided by scientist Jor - El, the Council sentences attempted insurrectionists General Zod, Ursa, and Non to the Phantom Zone. For this, Zod swears revenge on Jor - El and his family. Jor - El, despite his eminence, is unable to convince the Council that Krypton will soon be destroyed when its red supergiant sun goes supernova. To save his infant son, Kal - El, Jor - El launches a spacecraft containing him toward Earth, a planet with a suitable atmosphere where Kal - El 's dense molecular structure will give him superhuman powers. Shortly after the launch, Krypton 's sun explodes, destroying the planet.
The ship crash lands on Earth near Smallville, Kansas. Kal - El, who is now three years old, is found by Jonathan and Martha Kent, who are astonished when he is able to lift their truck. They take him to their farm and raise him as their own, naming him Clark after Martha 's maiden name.
At 18, soon after Jonathan 's death due to a heart attack, Clark hears a psychic "call '' and discovers a glowing crystal in the remains of his spacecraft. It compels him to travel to the Arctic, where the crystal builds the Fortress of Solitude. Inside, a holographic vision of Jor - El appears and explains Clark 's origins, educating him on his powers and responsibilities. After 12 years of training, with his powers fully developed, he leaves the Fortress wearing a blue and red suit with the House of El family crest on his chest and becomes a reporter at the Daily Planet in Metropolis. He meets and develops an unrequited romantic attraction to co-worker Lois Lane.
Lois becomes involved in a helicopter accident where conventional means of rescue are impossible, requiring Clark to use his powers in public for the first time to save her, and goes on to thwart a jewel thief attempting to scale the Solow Building using suction cups, captures robbers fleeing police in the Fulton Market, depositing their cabin cruiser on Wall Street, and rescues a girl 's cat from a tree in Brooklyn Heights. Clark also rescues Air Force One after a lightning strike destroys the port outboard engine, making the "caped wonder '' an instant celebrity. He visits Lois at her home the next night and takes her for a flight over the city, allowing her to interview him for an article in which she names him "Superman ''.
Meanwhile, criminal genius Lex Luthor has developed a plan to make a fortune in real estate by buying large amounts of barren desert land. After learning that the U.S Army and U.S. Navy will launch a twin nuclear missile test, he diverts one missile to a weak point in the San Andreas Fault.
Knowing Superman could stop his plan, Luthor lures him to an underground lair and reveals his plan and exposes him to Kryptonite. As Superman weakens, Luthor further taunts him by revealing that the first missile is headed east toward Hackensack, New Jersey, aware that even Superman can not stop both impacts. Eve Teschmacher, Luthor 's accomplice, is horrified because her mother lives in Hackensack, but Luthor does not care and leaves Superman to a slow death. Knowing his reputation for keeping his word, Teschmacher rescues Superman on the condition that he will deal with the New Jersey missile first. After Superman diverts the eastbound missile into outer space, the other one explodes near the San Andreas Fault. He is able to mitigate the effects of the nuclear explosion, getting rid of the pollution from the fallout and shoring up the crumbling Earth, but the aftershocks damage the Golden Gate Bridge and cause the Hollywood Sign and the Hoover Dam to collapse.
While Superman is busy saving others from the aftershocks, Lois 's car ends up falling into a crevice that opens from one of them. It quickly fills with dirt and debris and she suffocates to death. Angered at being unable to save her, Superman defies Jor - El 's earlier warning not to manipulate human history, preferring to heed Jonathan 's advice that he must be on Earth for "a reason ''. He accelerates around the Earth, rewinding time, in order to save Lois. He then delivers Luthor and Otis to prison and flies into the sunrise for further adventures.
Kirk Alyn and Noel Neill have cameo appearances as Lois Lane 's father and mother in a deleted scene that was restored in later home media releases. Alyn and Neill portrayed Superman and Lois Lane in the film serials Superman (1948) and Atom Man vs. Superman (1950), and were the first actors to portray the characters onscreen in a live - action format. Neill reprised her role in the 1950s Adventures of Superman TV series, and also appeared as Lex Luthor 's elderly wife in the opening scene of the film Superman Returns (2006).
Larry Hagman and Rex Reed also make cameos; Hagman plays an army major in charge of a convoy that is transporting one of the missiles, and Reed plays himself as he meets Lois and Clark outside the Daily Planet headquarters.
Ilya Salkind had first conceived the idea for a Superman film in late 1973. In November 1974, after a long, difficult process with DC Comics, the Superman film rights were purchased by Ilya, his father Alexander Salkind, and their partner Pierre Spengler. DC wanted a list of actors that were to be considered for Superman, and approved the producer 's choices of Muhammad Ali, Al Pacino, James Caan, Steve McQueen, Clint Eastwood and Dustin Hoffman. The filmmakers felt it was best to film Superman and Superman II back - to - back, simultaneously, and to make a negative pickup deal with Warner Bros. William Goldman was approached to write the screenplay, while Leigh Brackett was considered. Ilya hired Alfred Bester, who began writing a film treatment. Alexander felt, however, that Bester was not famous enough, so he hired Mario Puzo (The Godfather) to write the screenplay at a $600,000 salary. Francis Ford Coppola, William Friedkin, Richard Lester, Peter Yates, John Guillermin, Ronald Neame and Sam Peckinpah were in negotiations to direct. Peckinpah dropped out when he produced a gun during a meeting with Ilya. George Lucas turned down the offer because of his commitment to Star Wars.
Ilya wanted to hire Steven Spielberg to direct, but Alexander was skeptical, feeling it was best to "wait until (Spielberg 's) big fish opens. '' Jaws was very successful, prompting the producers to offer Spielberg the position, but by then Spielberg had already committed to Close Encounters of the Third Kind. Guy Hamilton was hired as director, while Puzo delivered his 500 - page script for Superman and Superman II in July 1975. Jax - Ur appeared as one of General Zod 's henchmen, with Clark Kent written as a television reporter. Dustin Hoffman, who was previously considered for Superman, turned down Lex Luthor.
In early 1975, Brando signed on as Jor - El with a salary of $3.7 million and 11.75 % of the box office gross profits, totaling $19 million. He horrified Salkind by proposing in their first meeting that Jor - El appear as a green suitcase or a bagel with Brando 's voice, but Donner used flattery to persuade the actor to portray Jor - El himself. Brando hoped to use some of his salary for a proposed 13 - part Roots - style miniseries on Native Americans in the United States. Brando had it in his contract to complete all of his scenes in 12 days. He also refused to memorize his dialogue, so cue cards were compiled across the set. Fellow Oscar winner Hackman was cast as Lex Luthor days later. The filmmakers made it a priority to shoot all of Brando and Hackman 's footage "because they would be committed to other films immediately. '' Though the Salkinds felt that Puzo had written a solid story for the two - part film, they deemed his scripts too long and so hired Robert Benton and David Newman for rewrite work. Benton became too busy directing The Late Show, so David 's wife Leslie was brought in to help her husband finish writing duties. George MacDonald Fraser was later hired to do some work on the script, but he says he did little.
Their script was submitted in July 1976, and carried a camp tone, including a cameo appearance by Telly Savalas as his Kojak character. The scripts for Superman and Superman II were now at over 400 pages combined. Pre-production started at Cinecittà Studios in Rome, with sets starting construction and flying tests being unsuccessfully experimented. "In Italy, '' producer Ilya Salkind remembered, "we lost about $2 million (on flying tests). '' Marlon Brando found out he could not film in Italy because of a warrant out for his arrest: a sexual - obscenity charge from Last Tango in Paris. Production moved to England in late 1976, but Hamilton could not join because he was a tax exile.
Mark Robson was strongly considered and was in talks to direct, but after seeing The Omen, the producers hired Richard Donner. Donner had previously been planning Damien: Omen II when he was hired in January 1977 for $1 million to direct Superman and Superman II. Donner felt it was best to start from scratch. "They had prepared the picture for a year and not one bit was useful to me. '' Donner was dissatisfied with the campy script and brought in Tom Mankiewicz to perform a rewrite. According to Mankiewicz "not a word from the Puzo script was used. '' "It was a well - written, but still a ridiculous script. It was 550 pages. I said, ' You ca n't shoot this screenplay because you 'll be shooting for five years ', '' Donner continued. "That was literally a shooting script and they planned to shoot all 550 pages. You know, 110 pages is plenty for a script, so even for two features, that was way too much. '' Mankiewicz conceived having each Kryptonian family wear a crest resembling a different letter, justifying the ' S ' on Superman 's costume. The Writers Guild of America refused to credit Mankiewicz for his rewrites, so Donner gave him a creative consultant credit, much to the annoyance of the Guild.
It was initially decided to first sign an A-list actor for Superman before Richard Donner was hired as director. Robert Redford was offered a large sum, but felt he was too famous. Burt Reynolds also turned down the role, while Sylvester Stallone was interested, but nothing ever came of it. Paul Newman was offered his choice of roles as Superman, Lex Luthor or Jor - El for $4 million, turning down all three roles.
When it was next decided to cast an unknown actor, casting director Lynn Stalmaster first suggested Christopher Reeve, but Donner and the producers felt he was too young and skinny. Over 200 unknown actors auditioned for Superman.
Olympic champion Bruce Jenner had auditioned for the title role. Patrick Wayne was cast, but dropped out when his father John Wayne was diagnosed with stomach cancer.
Both Neil Diamond and Arnold Schwarzenegger lobbied hard for the role, but were ignored. James Caan, James Brolin, Lyle Waggoner, Christopher Walken, Nick Nolte, Jon Voight, and Perry King were approached. Kris Kristofferson and Charles Bronson were also considered for the title role.
James Caan said he was offered the part but turned it down. "I just could n't wear that suit. ''
"We found guys with fabulous physique who could n't act or wonderful actors who did not look remotely like Superman, '' creative consultant Tom Mankiewicz remembered. The search became so desperate that producer Ilya Salkind 's wife 's dentist was screen tested.
Stalmaster convinced Donner and Ilya to have Reeve screen test in February 1977. Reeve stunned the director and producers, but he was told to wear a "muscle suit '' to produce the desired muscular physique. Reeve refused, undertaking a strict physical exercise regime headed by David Prowse. Prowse had wanted to portray Superman, but was denied an audition by the filmmakers because he was not American. Prowse also auditioned for Non. Reeve went from 188 to 212 pounds during pre-production and filming. Reeve was paid a mere $250,000 for both Superman and Superman II, while his veteran co-stars received huge sums of money: $3.7 million for Brando and $2 million for Hackman for Superman I. However, Reeve felt, "' Superman ' brought me many opportunities, rather than closing a door in my face. '' Jeff East portrays teenage Clark Kent. East 's lines were overdubbed by Reeve during post-production. "I was not happy about it because the producers never told me what they had in mind, '' East commented. "It was done without my permission but it turned out to be okay. Chris did a good job but it caused tension between us. We resolved our issues with each other years later. '' East also tore several thigh muscles when performing the stunt of racing alongside the train. He applied 3 to 4 hours of prosthetic makeup daily to facially resemble Reeve.
Principal photography began on March 28, 1977 at Pinewood Studios for Krypton scenes, budgeted as the most expensive film ever made at that point. Since Superman was being shot simultaneously with Superman II, filming lasted 19 months, until October 1978. Filming was originally scheduled to last between seven and eight months, but problems arose during production. John Barry served as production designer, while Stuart Craig and Norman Reynolds worked as art directors. Derek Meddings and Les Bowie were credited as visual effects supervisors. Stuart Freeborn was the make - up artist, while Barry, David Tomblin, John Glen, David Lane, Robert Lynn and an uncredited Peter Duffell and André de Toth directed second unit scenes. Vic Armstrong was hired as the stunt coordinator and Reeve 's stunt double; his wife Wendy Leech was Kidder 's double. Superman was also the final complete film by cinematographer Geoffrey Unsworth, who died during post-production while working on Tess for director Roman Polanski. The Fortress of Solitude was constructed at Shepperton Studios and at Pinewood 's 007 Stage. Upon viewing the footage of Krypton, Warner Bros. decided to distribute in not only North America, but also in foreign countries. Due to complications and problems during filming, Warner Bros. also supplied $20 million and acquired television rights.
New York City doubled for Metropolis, while the New York Daily News Building served as the location for the offices of the Daily Planet. Brooklyn Heights was also used. Filming in New York lasted five weeks, during the time of the New York City blackout of 1977. Production moved to Alberta for scenes set in Smallville, with the cemetery scene filmed in the canyon of Beynon, Alberta, the high school football scenes at Barons, Alberta, and the Kent farm constructed at Blackie, Alberta. Brief filming also took place in Gallup, New Mexico, Lake Mead and Grand Central Terminal. Director Donner had tensions with the Salkinds and Spengler concerning the escalating production budget and the shooting schedule. Creative consultant Tom Mankiewicz reflected, "Donner never got a budget or a schedule. He was constantly told he was way over schedule and budget. At one point he said, ' Why do n't you just schedule the film for the next two days, and then I 'll be nine months over? '. '' Richard Lester, who worked with the Salkinds on The Three Musketeers and The Four Musketeers, was then brought in as a temporary co-producer to mediate the relationship between Donner and the Salkinds, who by now were refusing to talk to each other. With his relationship with Spengler, Donner remarked, "At one time if I 'd seen him, I would have killed him. ''
Lester was offered producing credit but refused, going uncredited for his work. Salkind felt that bringing a second director onto the set meant there would be someone ready in the event that Donner could not fulfill his directing duties. "Being there all the time meant he (Lester) could take over, '' Salkind admitted. "(Donner) could n't make up his mind on stuff. '' On Lester, Donner reflected, "He 'd been suing the Salkinds for his money on Three and Four Musketeers, which he 'd never gotten. He won a lot of his lawsuits, but each time he sued the Salkinds in one country, they 'd move to another, from Costa Rica to Panama to Switzerland. When I was hired, Lester told me, ' Do n't do it. Do n't work for them. I was told not to, but I did it. Now I 'm telling you not to, but you 'll probably do it and end up telling the next guy. ' Lester came in as a ' go - between '. I did n't trust Lester, and I told him. He said, ' Believe me, I 'm only doing it because they 're paying me the money that they owe me from the lawsuit. I 'll never come onto your set unless you ask me; I 'll never go to your dailies. If I can help you in any way, call me. ''
It was decided to stop shooting Superman II and focus on finishing Superman. Donner had already completed 75 % of the sequel. The filmmakers took a risk: if Superman was a box office bomb, they would not finish Superman II. The original climax for Superman II had General Zod, Ursa and Non destroying the planet, with Superman time traveling to fix the damage.
Donner commented, "I decided if Superman is a success, they 're going to do a sequel. If it ai n't a success, a cliffhanger ai n't gon na bring them to see Superman II. ''
Superman is well known for its large - scale visual effects sequences, all of which were created before the digital age. The Golden Gate Bridge scale model stood 70 feet long and 20 feet wide. Other miniatures included the Krypton Council Dome and the Hoover Dam. Slow motion was used to simulate the vast amount of water for the Hoover Dam destruction. The Fortress of Solitude was a combination of a full - scale set and matte paintings. Young Clark Kent 's long - distance football punt was executed with a wooden football loaded into an air blaster placed in the ground. The Superman costume was to be a much darker blue, but the use of blue screen made it transparent.
The first test for the flying sequences involved simply catapulting a crash test dummy out of a cannon. Another technique had a remote control cast of Superman flying around. Both were discarded due to lack of movement. High - quality, realistic - looking animation was tried, with speed trails added to make the effect more convincing.
As detailed in the Superman: The Movie DVD special effects documentary ' The Magic Behind The Cape ', presented by optical effects supervisor Roy Field, in the end, three techniques were used to achieve the flying effects.
For landings and take - offs, wire flying riggings were devised and used. On location, these were suspended from tower cranes, whereas in the studio elaborate rigs were suspended from the studio ceilings. Some of the wire - flying work was quite audacious considering computer - controlled rigs were not then available -- the penultimate shot where Superman flies out of the prison yard for example. Although stuntmen were used, Reeve did much of the work himself, and was suspended as high as 50 ft in the air. Counterweights and pulleys were typically used to achieve flying movement, rather than electronic or motorized devices. The thin wires used to suspend Reeve were typically removed from the film in post-production using rotoscope techniques, although this was n't necessary in all shots (in certain lighting conditions or when Superman is very distant in the frame, the wires were more or less imperceptible).
For stationary shots where Superman is seen flying toward or away from the camera, blue screen matte techniques were used. Reeve would be photographed suspended against a blue screen. While a special device made his cape flap to give the illusion of movement, the actor himself would remain stationary (save for banking his body). Instead, the camera would use a mixture of long zoom - ins and zoom - outs and dolly in / dolly outs to cause him to become larger or smaller in the frame. The blue background would then be photochemically removed and Reeve 's isolated image would be ' inserted ' into a matted area of a background plate shot. The zoom - ins or zoom - outs would give the appearance of flying away or toward the contents of the background plate. The disparity in lighting and color between the matted image and the background plate, the occasional presence of black matte lines (where the matte area and the matted image -- in this case Superman -- do not exactly match up), and the slightly unconvincing impression of movement achieved through the use of zoom lenses is characteristic of these shots.
Where the shot is tracking with Superman as he flies (such as in the Superman and Lois Metropolis flying sequence), front projection was used. This involved photographing the actors suspended in front of a background image dimly projected from the front onto a special screen made by 3M that would reflect light back at many times the original intensity directly into a combined camera / projector. The result was a very clear and intense photographic reproduction of both the actors and the background plate, with far less image deterioration or lighting problems than occur with rear projection.
A technique was developed that combined the front projection effect with specially designed zoom lenses. The illusion of movement was created by zooming in on Reeve while making the front projected image appear to recede. For scenes where Superman interacts with other people or objects while in flight, Reeve and actors were put in a variety of rigging equipment with careful lighting and photography. This also led to the creation of the Zoptic system.
The highly reflective costumes worn by the Kryptonians are made of the same 3M material used for the front projection screens and were the result of an accident during Superman flying tests. "We noticed the material lit up on its own, '' Donner explained. "We tore the material into tiny pieces and glued it on the costumes, designing a front projection effect for each camera. There was a little light on each camera, and it would project into a mirror, bounce out in front of the lens, hit the costume, (and) millions of little glass beads would light up and bring the image back into the camera. ''
Jerry Goldsmith, who scored Donner 's The Omen, was originally set to compose Superman. Portions of Goldsmith 's work from Capricorn One were used in Superman 's teaser trailer. He dropped out over scheduling conflicts and John Williams was hired. Williams conducted the London Symphony Orchestra to record the soundtrack. The music was one of the last pieces to come into place. Williams liked that the film did not take itself too seriously and that it had a theatrical camp feel to it. Kidder was supposed to sing "Can You Read My Mind?, '' the lyrics to which were written by Leslie Bricusse, but Donner disliked it and changed it to a composition accompanied by a voiceover. Maureen McGovern eventually recorded the single, "Can You Read My Mind?, '' in 1979, although the song did not appear on the film soundtrack. It became a mid-chart hit on the Billboard Hot 100 that year (# 52), spending three weeks at number five on the U.S. Adult Contemporary chart, as well as making lesser appearances on the corresponding Canadian charts. It was also a very minor hit on the U.S. Country chart, reaching # 93. The score earned John Williams an Academy Award nomination, but he lost to Giorgio Moroder 's score for Midnight Express.
Superman is divided into three basic sections, each having a distinct theme and visual style. The first segment, set on Krypton, is meant to be typical of science fiction films, but also lays the groundwork for an analogy that emerges in the relationship between Jor - El and Kal - El. The second segment, set in Smallville, is reminiscent of 1950s films, and its small - town atmosphere is meant to evoke a Norman Rockwell painting. The third (and largest) segment, set mostly in Metropolis, was an attempt to present the superhero story with as much realism as possible (what Donner called "verisimilitude ''), relying on traditional cinematic drama and using only subtle humor instead of a campy approach.
In each of the three acts, the mythic status of Superman is enhanced by events that recall the hero 's journey (or monomyth) as described by Joseph Campbell. Each act has a discernible cycle of "call '' and journey. The journey is from Krypton to Earth in the first act, from Smallville to the Fortress of Solitude in the second act, and then from Metropolis to the whole world in the third act.
Many have noted the examples of apparent Christian symbolism. Donner, Tom Mankiewicz and Ilya Salkind have commented on the use of Christian references to discuss the themes of Superman. Mankiewicz deliberately fostered analogies with Jor - El (God) and Kal - El (Jesus). Donner is somewhat skeptical of Mankiewicz ' actions, joking "I got enough death threats because of that. ''
Several concepts and items of imagery have been used in Biblical comparisons. Jor - El casts out General Zod from Krypton, a parallel to the casting out of Satan from Heaven. The spacecraft that brings Kal - El to Earth is in the form of a star (Star of Bethlehem). Kal - El comes to Jonathan and Martha Kent, who are unable to have children. Martha Kent states, "All these years how we 've prayed and prayed that the good Lord would see fit to give us a child, '' which was compared to the Virgin Mary.
Just as little is known about Jesus during his middle years, Clark travels into the wilderness to find out who he is and what he has to do. Jor - El says, "Live as one of them, Kal - El, to discover where your strength and power are needed. But always hold in your heart the pride of your special heritage. They can be a great people, Kal - El, and they wish to be. They only lack the light to show the way. For this reason above all, their capacity for good, I have sent them you, my only son. '' The theme resembles the Biblical account of God sending his only son Jesus to Earth in hope for the good of mankind. More were seen when Donner was able to complete Superman II: The Richard Donner Cut, featuring the fall, resurrection and his battle with evil. Another vision was that of The Creation of Adam.
The Christian imagery in the Reeve films has provoked comment on the Jewish origins of Superman. Rabbi Simcha Weinstein 's book Up, Up and Oy Vey: How Jewish History, Culture and Values Shaped the Comic Book Superhero, says that Superman is both a pillar of society and one whose cape conceals a "nebbish '', saying "He 's a bumbling, nebbish Jewish stereotype. He 's Woody Allen. '' Ironically, it is also in the Reeve films that Clark Kent 's persona has the greatest resemblance to Woody Allen, though his conscious model was Cary Grant 's character in Bringing Up Baby. This same theme is pursued about 1940s superheroes generally in Disguised as Clark Kent: Jews, Comics, and the Creation of the Superhero by Danny Fingeroth.
In the scene where Lois Lane interviews Superman on the balcony, Superman replies, "I never lie. '' Salkind felt this was an important point in the film, since Superman, living under his secret identity as Clark Kent, is "telling the biggest lie of all time. '' His romance with Lois also leads him to contradict Jor - El 's orders to avoid altering human history, time traveling to save her from dying. Superman instead takes the advice of Jonathan Kent, his father on Earth.
Superman was originally scheduled to be released in June 1978, the 40th anniversary of Action Comics 1, which first introduced Superman, but the problems during filming pushed the film back by six months. Editor Stuart Baird reflected, "Filming was finished in October 1978 and it is a miracle we had the film released two months later. Big - budgeted films today tend to take six to eight months. '' Donner, for his part, wished that he had "had another six months; I would have perfected a lot of things. But at some point, you 've got ta turn the picture over. '' Warner Bros. spent $7 million to market and promote the film.
Superman premiered at the Uptown Theater in Washington, D.C. on December 10, 1978, with director Richard Donner and several cast members in attendance. Three days later, on December 13, it had a European Royal Charity Premiere at the Empire, Leicester Square in London in the presence of HM Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Andrew. It went on to gross $134.21 million in North America and $166 million internationally, totaling $300.21 million worldwide. Superman was the second highest - grossing film of 1978 (behind only Grease), and became the sixth - highest - grossing film of all time after its theatrical run. It was also Warner Bros. ' most successful film at the time.
Based on 53 reviews and an average rating of 8 / 10 collected by Rotten Tomatoes, 93 % of reviewers enjoyed Superman, with the consensus, "Superman deftly blends humor and gravitas, taking advantage of the perfectly cast Reeve to craft a loving, nostalgic tribute to an American pop culture icon. '' By comparison, Metacritic collected an average score of 88, resulting in "universal acclaim '', based on 12 reviews. The film was widely regarded as one of top 10 films of 1978. Superman creators Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster gave a positive reaction. Shuster was "delighted to see Superman on the screen. I got chills. Chris Reeve has just the right touch of humor. He really is Superman. ''
Roger Ebert gave a very positive review. "Superman is a pure delight, a wondrous combination of all the old - fashioned things we never really get tired of: adventure and romance, heroes and villains, earthshaking special effects and wit. Reeve is perfectly cast in the role. Any poor choice would have ruined the film. '' Ebert placed the film on his 10 best list of 1978. He would later go on to place it on his "Great Movies '' list. James Berardinelli believed "there 's no doubt that it 's a flawed movie, but it 's one of the most wonderfully entertaining flawed movies made during the 1970s. It 's exactly what comic book fans hoped it would be. Perhaps most heartening of all, however, is the message at the end of the credits announcing the impending arrival of Superman II. '' Harry Knowles is a longtime fan of the film, but was critical of elements that did not represent the Superman stories as seen in the comics. Dave Kehr felt "the tone, style, and point of view change almost from shot to shot. This is the definitive corporate film. It is best when it takes itself seriously, worst when it takes the easy way out in giggly camp. When Lex Luthor enters the action, Hackman plays the arch - villain like a hairdresser left over from a TV skit. '' Neal Gabler similarly felt that the film focused too much on shallow comedy. He also argued that the film should have adhered more to the spirit of Mario Puzo 's original script, and referred to the first three Superman films collectively as "simply puffed - up TV episodes. ''
The Salkinds prepared a three - hour - plus version for worldwide television reincorporating some 45 minutes of footage and music deleted from the theatrical cut, and specially prepared so that networks and stations can re-edit their own version at their discretion. ABC aired the broadcast television debut of Superman in 1982, with a majority of the unused footage. A syndicated version of the film aired in local television stations in Los Angeles and Washington, D.C. in the 1990s included two additional scenes never seen before, in addition to what had been previously reinstated. When Michael Thau and Warner Home Video started working on a film restoration in 2000, some of the extra footage was not added because of poor visual effects. Thau felt "the pace of the film 's storyline would be adversely affected (and there were) timing problems matching (footage) with John Williams ' (sic) musical score, etc... The cut of the movie shown on KCOP was put together to make the movie longer when shown on TV as the Television Station paid per minute to air the movie. The "Special Edition '' cut is designed for the best viewing experience in the true spirit of movie making. '' There was a special test screening of the Special Edition in 2001 in Austin, Texas, on March 23 with plans for a possible wider theatrical release later that year, which did not occur. In May 2001, Warner Home Video released the special edition on DVD. Director Donner also assisted, working slightly over a year on the project. The release included making - of documentaries directed by Thau and eight minutes of restored footage.
Thau explained, "I worked on ' Ladyhawke ' and that 's how I really met Dick (Donner) and Tom Mankiewicz. I used to hear those wonderful stories in the cutting room that Tom and Dick and Stuart would tell about ' Superman ' and that 's how I kind of got the ideas for the plots of ' Taking Flight ' and ' Making Superman ' ''. Donner commented, "There are a few shots where Chris (Reeve) 's costume looked green. We went in and cleaned that up, bringing the color back to where it should be. '' Thau wanted to make the film shorter: "I wanted to take out the damn poem where Lois is reciting a poem ('' Can You Read My Mind ") when they 're flying around. I also wanted to take out a lot of that car chase where it was just generic action... It was like a two minute car chase. But Dick did n't want to take (that) out (or) the poem. '' It was followed by a box set release in the same month, containing "bare bones '' editions of Superman II, Superman III and Superman IV: The Quest for Peace. In November 2006, a four - disc special edition was released, followed by an HD DVD release and Blu - ray. Also available (with other films) is the nine - disc "Christopher Reeve Superman Collection '' and the 14 - disc "Superman Ultimate Collector 's Edition. ''
When the rights to the first Superman film reverted to the Salkinds in 1981, it was their intention to prepare a television cut longer than what was released theatrically, for the aforementioned reasons. The so - called "Salkind International Extended Cut '', which ended up running 3 hours, 8 minutes, was shown internationally on television, and it is from this cut that later domestic TV versions were derived.
The first network American television broadcast took place on Sunday, February 7 and Monday, February 8, 1982 on ABC. The principal sponsor for the telecasts was Atari. At the time, ABC had a contract with Alexander Salkind for the television rights to his films. ABC 's 3 - hour - 2 - minute cut of Superman was broadcast over the course of two nights. On the first night it premiered, the film stopped when Lois Lane was falling from the helicopter (the picture froze, creating a cliffhanger - type of ending for part one). The next evening, there was naturally a recap before the film continued. This expanded version was repeated in November of the same year, only this time, shown in one night. The next two ABC showings after that were the original theatrical version. Apparently, in their contract with ABC, the Salkinds were able to get money for every minute of footage shown on TV. So as a result, they crammed in as much footage as possible for the TV networks in order to maximize their revenues. During production of the film, Alexander and Ilya had been relegated to having to sell more and more of their rights back to Warner Bros. in exchange for financial help. Director Richard Donner was not consulted on any of the extended versions. However, due to a clause in his contract, Donner 's name remains in the credits.
Also as previously mentioned, some 40 minutes of footage were reinstated for the initial ABC - TV telecasts of the film. Among the highlighted moments:
However, at least one noticeable removal occurred: the recording of "Rock Around the Clock '' by Bill Haley & His Comets, heard in the original film in the minutes before the death of Glenn Ford 's character, is replaced with a generic piece of instrumental music in the ABC cut.
When the rights reverted to Warner Bros. in 1985, CBS aired the film one last time on network television in its theatrical version. When the movie entered the syndication market in 1988 (following a play - out run on pay cable) TV stations were offered the extended cut or the theatrical cut. The stations that showed the extended cut edited the second half to squeeze in commercials and ' What happened yesterday flashbacks '.
In May 1994 (following a pay cable reissue and obligatory run on USA Network), Warner Bros. offered the aforementioned "Salkind International Extended Cut '' (a 3 - hour, 8 - minute version, prepared by the Salkinds, and from which the ABC version was derived), which was shown in Los Angeles on KCOP. This version also surfaced outside of Los Angeles. For example, WJLA Channel 7, an ABC affiliate out of Washington, D.C., aired the "Salkind International Extended Cut '' in July 1994. Part one aired from 9: 30 p.m. to 11: 30 p.m. before breaking for its half - hour late newscast. Part two was then aired from 12: 00 a.m. to 2: 00 a.m.
The extended version has never been broadcast in the United Kingdom. The first showing of the theatrical version on UK television appeared on January 4, 1983 on ITV. In 1985, Ireland 's RTÉ television aired the extended versions of Superman and Superman II in one night. The films ran from roughly 3: 00 until 9: 00, including the odd commercial and a break for the 6: 00 news.
The quality of the extended network TV version is inferior to any theatrical or current home video release because it was mastered in 16mm (using the "film chain system '') and a mono sound mix done, as by the time the extended cut was prepared in 1981, stereo was not available in television broadcasts. Eight of the 45 minutes of extended scenes that were used in the later 2000 director 's cut restoration were taken from restored elements.
There are various extended TV versions each broadcast in various countries. Most of these are in pan and scan, as they were made in the 1980s, when films were not letterboxed to preserve the theatrical aspect ratio on old TVs. None of the various extended versions have ever been made available officially on home video / DVD, although they have been widely bootlegged.
Superman was nominated for three Academy Awards (Best Film Editing -- (Stuart Baird), Best Original Score -- (John Williams) and Best Sound -- (Gordon K. McCallum, Graham V. Hartstone, Nicolas Le Messurier and Roy Charman)) and received a Special Achievement Academy Award for its visual effects. Donner publicly expressed disgust that production designer John Barry and cinematographer Geoffrey Unsworth had not been recognized by the Academy.
Superman was successful at the 32nd British Academy Film Awards. Reeve won Best Newcomer, while Hackman, Unsworth, Barry and the sound designers earned nominations. The film won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. At the Saturn Awards, Kidder, Barry, John Williams and the visual effects department received awards, and the film won Best Science Fiction Film. Reeve, Hackman, Donner, Valerie Perrine and costume designer Yvonne Blake were nominated for their work as well. In addition, Williams was nominated at the 36th Golden Globe Awards and won the Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media. In 2007, the Visual Effects Society listed Superman as the 44th most influential use of visual effects of all time. In 2008, Empire magazine named it the # 174 greatest film of all - time on its list of 500. In 2009, Entertainment Weekly ranked Superman 3rd on their list of The All - Time Coolest Heroes in Pop Culture.
With the film 's success, it was immediately decided to finish Superman II. Ilya and Alexander Salkind and Pierre Spengler did not ask Donner to return because Donner had criticized them during the film 's publicity phase. Donner commented in January 1979, "I 'd work with Spengler again, but only on my terms. As long as he has nothing to say as the producer, and is just liaison between Alexander Salkind and his money, that 's fine. If they do n't want it on those terms, then they need to go out and find another director, it sure as shit ai n't gon na be me. '' Kidder, who portrayed Lois Lane, was dissatisfied by the producers ' decision, and also criticized the Salkinds during publicity. As a result, Kidder was only given a cameo appearance for Superman III, and not a main supporting role. Jack O'Halloran, who portrayed Non, stated, "It was great to work with Donner. Richard Lester was as big an asshole as the Salkinds. '' Two more films, Superman III (1983) and Superman IV: The Quest for Peace (1987), were produced. Superman Returns was released in 2006. Director Bryan Singer credited the 1978 Superman as an influence for Superman Returns, and used restored footage of Brando as Jor - El. Superman II: The Richard Donner Cut also was released in 2006.
The film 's final sequence, which features Superman flying high above the Earth at sunrise, and breaking the fourth wall to smile briefly at the camera, featured at the end of every Superman film starring Reeve and was re-shot with Brandon Routh for Superman Returns.
The series was rebooted with Man of Steel in 2013.
Because Superman went into production prior to the releases of Star Wars (May 1977) and Close Encounters of the Third Kind (November 1977), some observers credit the three films collectively for launching the reemergence of a large market for science fiction films in the 1980s. This is certainly the view of Superman producer Ilya Salkind and some who have interviewed him, as well as of film production assistant Brad Lohan. Other observers of film history tend to credit the resurgence of science fiction films simply to the Lucas and Spielberg productions, and see Superman as the first of the new cycle of films launched by the first two. Ilya Salkind denies any connection between Superman -- which began filming in March 1977 -- and the other films, stating that "I did not know about ' Star Wars '; ' Star Wars ' did not know about ' Superman '; ' Close Encounters ' did not know about ' Superman. ' It really was completely independent -- nobody knew anything about anybody. '' Superman also established the superhero film genre as viable outside the production of low - budget Saturday matinee serials. Director Christopher Nolan cited Richard Donner 's vision and scope of Superman when pitching the concept for Batman Begins to Warner Bros. in 2002.
The movie inspired The Kinks ' 1979 song "(Wish I Could Fly Like) Superman '', when the band 's main songwriter, Ray Davies, watched the film in late 1978.
In 2006 the "Last Son '' comic book story arc debuted in Action Comics, co-written by Superman director Richard Donner.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
Elements of the Superman mythos which originated in the film have since been incorporated into the regular continuity of the DC Comics universe:
|
when does damon and elena first get together | Damon Salvatore - wikipedia
Damon Salvatore is a fictional character in The Vampire Diaries novel series. He is portrayed by Ian Somerhalder in the television series. Initially, Damon is the main antagonist in the beginning of the show and later became a protagonist. After the first few episodes, Damon begins working alongside his younger brother, Stefan Salvatore, to resist greater threats and gradually Elena begins to consider him a friend. His transition was completed after his younger brother Stefan, who is also a vampire, convinces him to drink blood. Damon thus vows to make his brother 's life sorrowful -- thus further causing a century - long rift between the two brothers, centering around Katherine and eventually a love triangle with Elena Gilbert. After on - again / off - agains with both brothers, Elena chooses to be with Damon in the finale episode.
Ian Somerhalder was cast as Damon Salvatore at the end of March 2009, six months before the premiere of the series. The initial casting call for the character required an actor in his early - to mid-twenties to play a "darkly handsome, strong, charming, and smug vampire who can go from casual and playful to pure evil in less than a heartbeat. '' Somerhalder had not read the books until filming began.
Damon Salvatore is a vampire, turned by Katherine Pierce 145 years prior to the series ' debut. He is the son of late Giuseppe Salvatore, ripper Lily Salvatore and older brother of Stefan Salvatore. He is portrayed as a charming, handsome and snarky person who loves tricking humans, and takes pleasure in feeding on them and killing them during the early episodes of the first season, unlike his brother, Stefan. Damon and Stefan bite humans to keep them alive since they 're vampires.
In the first season, Damon appears as the frightening older brother to Stefan Salvatore, and plays as the main antagonist for the first initial episodes with a hidden agenda. Slowly, Damon begins to be kinder to the other characters, showing brief moments of compassion such as erasing Jeremy 's memory of vampires and removing his "suffering '' so Jeremy gets his life back on track. Damon apologizes for turning Vicki Donovan into a vampire and admits it was wrong. Later at the Gilbert house, Elena returns home. Damon admits that he came to the town wanting to destroy it but actually found himself wanting to protect it after everything that happened at the Founder 's Day celebrations and says he 's not a hero and does n't do good, saying it 's not in him - those traits are reserved for Stefan, Elena and Bonnie. The two begin to kiss passionately before getting interrupted - it is later revealed that it was n't Elena he kissed, but Katherine Pierce. Later in the season, it also implies that he actually feels human emotions, such as pain and love, which helps the viewer sympathize toward his character in some situations. But mostly, he likes to take care of himself and do the dirty work, in his own sadistic ways.
In season two, Katherine tells Damon that she never loved him and that it was always Stefan. Elena says something similar later, leaving Damon heartbroken. As an expression of his anger, pain, and hopelessness, he snaps Jeremy Gilbert 's neck, not realizing he is wearing a ring which reverses damage done by supernatural creatures or forces. Jeremy survives because of the ring, but Damon 's action incurs Elena 's wrath and pain. When Bonnie also discovers it was his blood that enabled Caroline Forbes to become a vampire, the two declare their hatred for him, leaving angrier than ever. After saving Elena with Stefan in episode 8 of season 2, Damon shows up in Elena 's room with the vervain necklace that was ripped from her neck earlier in the episode. Before he gives it back, he tells Elena that he is in love with her, and because he is in love with her, he can not be selfish with her. He also states that he does n't deserve her, but that his brother does. He kisses her forehead and says he wishes she could remember this, but she ca n't. As the camera shows a close up of Damon 's eye as he is compelling Elena to forget, a tear slips. Elena blinks and her vervain necklace is back around her neck, Damon is gone and her window is open with the curtains blowing. She had no recollection as to how the necklace was returned to her. In one episode, Damon joins Rose to find out why the originals are after Elena; after some time and clever banter, the two have sex, stating that they could rid themselves of emotion. However, when Rose, Damon 's old friend who turned Katerina, suffers from a werewolf bite, he gives her the memory of her life prior to becoming a vampire, and helps her remember how good it felt to be able to walk and feel the sunlight, without it burning her. During this meaningful moment, Damon mercifully kills her, leaving him to mourn the death of his one of very few friends. Elena and Damon then begin to mend fences, and Elena gives him an affectionate hug to help comfort him after Rose 's death. Damon begins showing another side of himself in small acts that help build what once was an impossible friendship between Elena and himself, after she clearly stated that he has lost her forever. After he spares Caroline 's mother, Elena says how that was the person she was once friends with. And it 's hard for Damon to accept that he has to change to have her in his life, which he explains to Andy Star, his compelled girlfriend a few more episodes in. Damon is bitten by Tyler the werewolf at the end of the season. Elena takes care of him, and right before he is cured by the blood of Klaus, the original hybrid, she gives him a "goodbye '' kiss, because she was sure he was going to die. She even forgives him, telling him that she cares for him through grief - stricken tears.
In the third season, Damon helps Elena in bringing his brother, Stefan, back to Mystic Falls after Stefan becomes Klaus ' henchman. The arrangement transpired after a bargain for his blood that would cure Damon of the werewolf bite he had received from Tyler. At first, he is reluctant to involve Elena in the rescue attempts, employing Alaric Saltzman, Elena 's guardian, instead as Klaus does not know that Elena is alive after the sacrifice which frees Klaus ' hybrid side. However, Elena involves herself, desperate to find Stefan. Damon, though hesitant at first, is unable to refuse her because of his love for her. He also points out to her that she once turned back from finding Stefan since she knew Damon would be in danger, clearly showing that she also has feelings for him. He tells her that "when (he) drag (s) (his) brother from the edge to deliver him back to (her), (he) wants her to remember the things (she) felt while he was gone. '' When Stefan finally returns to Mystic Falls, his attitude is different from that of the first and second seasons. This causes a rift between Elena and Stefan whereas the relationship between Damon and Elena becomes closer and more intimate. A still loyal Elena, however, refuses to admit her feelings for Damon. In ' Dangerous Liaisons ', Elena, frustrated with her feelings for him, tells Damon that his love for her may be a problem, and that this could be causing all their troubles. This incenses Damon, causing him to revert to the uncaring and reckless Damon seen in the previous seasons. The rocky relationship between the two continues until the sexual tension hits the fan and in a moment of heated passion, Elena -- for the first time in the three seasons -- kisses Damon of her own accord. This kiss finally causes Elena to admit that she loves both brothers and realize that she must ultimately make her choice as her own ancestress, Katherine Pierce, who turned the brothers, once did. In assessment of her feelings for Damon, she states this: "Damon just sort of snuck up on me. He got under my skin and no matter what I do, I ca n't shake him. '' In the season finale, a trip designed to get her to safety forces Elena to make her choice: to go to Damon and possibly see him one last time; or to go to Stefan and her friends and see them one last time. She chooses the latter when she calls Damon to tell him her decision. Damon, who is trying to stop Alaric, accepts what she says and she tells him that maybe if she had met Damon before she had met Stefan, her choice may have been different. This statement causes Damon to remember the first night he did meet Elena which was, in fact, the night her parents died - before she had met Stefan. Not wanting anyone to know he was in town and after giving her some advice about life and love, Damon compels her to forget. He remembers this as he fights Alaric and seems accepting of his death when Alaric, whose life line is tied to Elena 's, suddenly collapses in his arms. Damon is grief - stricken, knowing that this means that Elena has also died and yells, "No! You are not dead! '' A heartbroken Damon then goes to the hospital demanding to see Elena when the doctor, Meredith Fell, tells him that she gave Elena vampire blood. The last shot of the season finale episode shows Elena in transition.
Damon starts season 4 at Elena 's bedside after finding out about her dying with vampire blood in her system, causing her to start the transition to Vampire. Damon decides to firstly try to kill Rebekah with a White Oak Stake, yet she overpowers him. Rebekah is shot at through the Window and Damon escapes.
Later in part of a plan with the Sheriff and Meredith Fell, Damon uses Matt as bait to draw out the deputies and Pastor Young. After dispatching the deputies, Damon decides to take out some aggression on Matt and is about to snap his neck when stopped by the new vampire Elena. After Elena and Stefan go hunting on animals the next morning and Elena has her first feed on a deer she pukes the blood out. Meanwhile, it seems a new vampire hunter is in town. Elena goes to Damon for help, he pulls her with him to the bathroom and makes her drink his blood because he says "You need warm blood from the vein, so maybe this 'll do the trick. '' He says it 's personal and Elena wonders why but no answer was given. She drinks his blood but pukes hours later. When Stefan finds out Damon has feed Elena his blood he 's very angry and hits Damon who just got in a fight with the vampire hunter.
Damon has decided to leave town, but through the early episodes of Season 4 seems to be looking for reasons to stay. Meredith Fell seems to be one who convinces him in ' The Rager ' to stay to help Elena with her transition to Vampire. Indeed, a renewed conflict over ideology and what sort of Vampire Elena will become drives Damon and Stefan apart.
The Five, shows Damon tasking Stefan with learning more about the Vampire Hunter, Connor while Damon decides to accompany both Bonnie and Elena to College. This trip is ostensibly about teaching Elena the ' hunt ': how to catch, feed and erase. After some initial problems, Elena has a Frat Party gets success and seems to enjoy herself causing friction with Bonnie. She leaves the party and later states that she does n't want to be like Damon. In the next episode, she begins to believe that Stefan is lying to her and takes things into her own hands to kill the vampire hunter who is holding her brother, Matt, and April captive. She does, and begins to suffer from hallucinations at the end of the episode. After asking Stefan why he wants to cure Elena, Damon tells him that he loves Elena as a vampire or human.
In the episode ' We All Go a Little Mad Sometimes ', Damon helps Elena in dealing with her hallucinations and saves her from committing suicide. He also helps uncover the mystery about the hunter 's curse with the help of Bonnie and Professor Shane. At the end of the episode, he reveals the truth about the cure to Elena and explains how Stefan has been lying to her only to find this possible cure for vampirism. However, Elena breaks up with Stefan at the end of the episode after confessing her gradually growing feelings for Damon.
In the following episode "My Brother 's Keeper '', Elena tells Damon he is the reason she and Stefan broke up and at the end of the episode Damon and Elena finally have sex. After that it turns out Elena is sired with Damon, first they think it is the reason why Elena loves Damon, but in episode "We 'll Always Have Bourbon Street '' they found out that it only affects how you act, not how you feel. The sire - bond can only be broken when Damon leaves Elena and tells her to stop caring about him according to a witch in New Orleans named Nandi. In the following episode Damon goes with Elena to her family 's lake house to help with Jeremy 's Hunter instincts. In the episode Elena tries to act like a couple with Damon, but he refuses to even kiss her out of his guilt about the sire bond and worry that he 's taking advantage of her. In the end of the episode Damon invokes the sire bond telling Elena to return to Mystic Falls while he trains Jeremy "O Come, All Ye Faithful ''. Elena kisses him goodbye.
In ' After School Special ', Damon is at the Lake House training Jeremy, along with Matt Donovan. Klaus shows up and threatens Damon, wanting him to get Jeremy 's mark completed earlier rather than later. Damon is shown to be reluctant, not wanting to hurt innocents for Elena 's sake, but Klaus follows through with his plans regardless. Later in the episode Elena calls Damon and confesses she 's in love with him and it 's the ' most real thing she 's ever felt in her entire life ', in a moment of weakness Damon tells her to come see him. Afterward Damon is confronted with a bar of newly turned vampires for Jeremy to kill concedes that it 's the quickest way, however balks when Klaus takes control and compels the newly turned vamps to kill Matt Donovan. In Catch Me If You Can Damon tells the boys to run since Jeremy is n't ready to take on all these vampires. Later when Elena arrives her and Damon argue over the killing of innocents and tells her to take Matt home while he and Jeremy take care of Klaus 's newly turned vampires. However Kol shows up and has killed all the vampires, determined to stop them from finding the cure & waking Silas, and threatens Jeremy 's life. Kol compels Damon to stake himself and later to kill Jeremy and to forget what Kol compelled him to do. Upon arriving back in Mystic Falls Damon begins to seek out Jeremy due to the compulsion, however when he sees him in the grill he realizes what Kol compelled him to do and tells Jeremy to run. Damon chases Jeremy throughout Mystic Falls and advises Jeremy that he is compelled and he needs to kill him. Jeremy shoots Damon in the head and when Damon awakens later starts cursing the youngest Gilbert, calling him stupid for not killing him. At the end of the episode Damon catches up with Jeremy Elena follows and urges Damon to fight it because "You love me and I love you '', but he tells her that he ca n't, falls to his knees and urges Jeremy to kill him. Stefan shows up just in time to break Damon 's neck and lock him up until they can take care of Kol. Damon spends the next episode locked up and bled dry by a jealous and snarky Stefan and engages in a conversation with Klaus about Caroline, Rebekah and Elena.
When the group goes to the mysterious island to find the Cure, Damon continues to be suspicious of Professor Shane. When Jeremy goes missing and Bonnie and Shane stay behind to try a locator spell, Damon stays to keep an eye on Shane. He later begins torturing Shane for information, but Shane starts analyzing Damon and telling him Elena will go back to Stefan once she 's cured. Elena interrupts the torture session and Damon storms out and Elena follows. She tells Damon that she 's sure her feelings for him are real and asks him to become human with her, however Damon tells her he has no desire to be human and that human / vampire relationships are doomed and stalks off. Afterward he is captured by Vaughn, another member of the Five, who tortures Damon and leads him around with a noose around his neck. Damon goes with Vaughn to the cavern close to where Silas is buried and eventually overpowers him, but not before Vaughn injures Rebekah. Elena and Stefan come across the injured Damon and Rebekah, Stefan stays while Elena rushes to find Jeremy. Damon urges Stefan to go get the cure for Elena, uncaring that there is only enough for one, because he wants it for the girl he loves. After Stefan leave Rebekah comments that Damon did something selfless and remarks that he will always love Elena. An exhausted Damon admits that he ca n't control everything and is tired.
After Katherine kills Jeremy in ' Down the Rabbit Hole ' Damon stays behind determined to find the missing Bonnie, telling Stefan he ca n't come home without her. Eventually he finds Bonnie, hugging her in relief, but when the two arrive back in Mystic Falls in informs Stefan Bonnie has lost her mind. Elena, who had been in denial about Jeremy 's death, comes into reality and demands Damon bring Jeremy 's body downstairs. When Elena starts breaking down Stefan urges Damon to help her, indicating he should invoke the sire bond to take away her pain, however instead Damon tells Elena to shut off her emotions. In the next episode Damon begins trying to track Katherine in order to find the cure while Rebekah attempts to tag along. He finds an old friend from his past, Will, dying from a werewolf bite and kills him out of mercy. He arrives back home just in time to stop Elena from killing Caroline and takes her with to New York. While in NY Damon begins investigating Katherine 's whereabouts and tries to keep that he 's looking for the cure from Elena. Elena finds out and attempts to play him all the while Damon tells her and Rebekah about his time here in the 1970s. He admits that he had his emotions off and Lexi had come to help him on Stefan 's behalf, however he tricks her into believing he fell in love with her only to leave her trapped on the roof during the day as revenge. He reveals that the reason he killed Lexi in season one was out of the guilt she stirred in him. Elena kisses Damon and attempts to steal Katherine 's address out of his pocket, however Damon was aware she was trying to play him the entire time, and attempts to convince her to turn her emotions back on. Rebekah shows up and snaps his neck. He then calls Stefan and the brothers attempt to track down Elena. The decide to give up on the cure after Elena kills a waitress and threatens to kill people.
In ' Pictures of You ' Damon, along with Stefan, decide they 're going to try making Elena turn her emotions back on. The Salvatore brothers decide to take Elena to the prom, where Damon asks Elena why she told him she was in love with him and it 's the most real thing she ever felt. Elena tells Damon that she only said it because of the sire bond and she feels nothing for him. However, later when Bonnie nearly kills Elena, she cries out for Damon to help her and he locks her up in the Salvatore basement. Damon then manipulates Elena 's dreams in an attempt to remind how much she loves her friends in family, however when it does n't work the Salvatore brothers (per Stefan 's advice) try torturing Elena to get her to feel emotion. Elena however calls their bluff and attempts to kill herself, knowing Damon would never really hurt her and let her die. Damon realizes that Elena is smart and that torture will not work. After Katherine frees Elena Damon comes up with a plan, killing Matt in front of her (while he wore the Gilbert ring) and it works to get Elena 's emotions back on. When Elena focuses her hate on Katherine Damon tells Elena where Katherine is, but tells her she should n't try and kill her. Damon admits he hates Katherine, however he knows once Elena kills her all her other emotions (grief & guilt) will all come flooding back in. Elena stakes Damon in the stomach when he attempts to stop her.
In the season finale ' Graduation ', he tries to give the cure to Elena, but Elena refuses, which tells him that there is no more sire bond. He gets shot by Vaughn with a bullet laced with werewolf venom, and almost dies, but Klaus comes back to Mystic Falls and saves him. At the end of the episode, Elena proclaims her love for him stating that of all the decisions she has made choosing him will prove to be the worse one.
Not aware of Stefan 's absence and Bonnie 's death, Damon and Elena are having the time of their lives before Elena leaves for Whitmore college. College brings a lot of ups and downs to the on screen romance. Katherine begs Damon to protect her as she feels someone is after her, Damon by the help of Jeremy 's vampire hunter instincts that Silas is possessing as Stefan. Silas gives Damon a crash course on why he looks like Stefan and tells where was he the whole summer, shocked to know about this he starts to search Stefan with the help of Stefan. Silas mind - controlled Elena to kill Damon but Elena resists it by thinking about her worries for Stefan. Both Elena and Damon, with the help of Sheriff Forbes, finds the safe where Stefan was drowning the whole summer, but only to find a dead body. Due to both Elena and Katherine having same nightmare of Stefan all three, Damon, Elena and Katherine search for Stefan. Damon finally finds Stefan inside a hut where he is tied up in the chair and Qetsiyah makes a link of Stefan with Silas which fries Stefan 's brain. Qetsiyah reveals to Damon that his relationship with Elena is doomed. Damon and Elena take Stefan where both of them finds out that he has memory loss and ca n't remember anything. Damon, to make Stefan remember about his past life, gives him his journals and spends quality time with him. Jeremy tells Damon that Bonnie is dead and Damon finally tells Elena about Bonnie. At Bonnie 's funeral, Damon consoles Elena. Damon wants to help Silas so that Silas can do a spell to swap his life with Bonnie as Silas wants to die. Silas had seen Qetsiyah going to the party therefore both Damon and Silas goes to the ball party at Whitmore College. Silas needs Damon to kill Stefan, so that he can get back his power. Stefan, after waking up, tricked Damon and snapped his neck. At Salvatore 's mansion they bring a desiccated Silas, to trade Silas 's life with Bonnie he must become mortal (witch). The only way is by the cure so Elena and Damon calls Katherine who has the cure in her blood and after she arrives her blood is drained by Silas, but still Katherine lived. Amara is then awakened and revealed to be the mystic anchor. She then cures herself of her immortality by feeding off Silas.
At the beginning of season 6, Damon is still trapped in the 1994 snapshot with Bonnie, forced to relive the same day over and over again. As the season progresses, the duo meet Kai Parker who 's provides them with clues on how to get back home. In a truly selfless act, Bonnie manages to send Damon back while she remains in 1994 with Kai. Back home, things are n't as Damon expected them to be. Elena has compelled her memories of their time together and moved on. After a few initial set backs, Damon sets his mind to wooing her back.
As the season progresses, Elena falls for Damon all over again as they search for a way to free Bonnie and she becomes a large part of his support as his good friend Liz Forbes becomes more and more ill with cancer. Kai, who escaped the Prison World without Bonnie and merged with Luke, has absorbed some of Luke 's qualities and is now moved by guilt to help free Bonnie. With his help, he, along with Damon, Elena, and Jeremy, are able to visit the Prison World and remind Bonnie that there is still magic residing in Qetsiyah 's headstone in Nova Scotia.
After the death of Liz, Caroline is unable to bear the pain of losing her mother and chooses to turn off her humanity just as Bonnie returns. Bonnie brought back with her a strange video she 'd caught while leaving a second Prison World she 'd been moved to set in October 31, 1903. She shows the video to Damon and he recognizes his own mother, Lillian Salvatore, standing in the background. Troubled with the news that his mother is still alive after believing she 'd been dead since 1858, Damon 's informed by Kai that his mother was placed in a Prison World due to being a Ripper and the heinous number of deaths she 'd caused. Unfortunately, Stefan is forced by Caroline to turn off his humanity and Kai, Bonnie, Damon, and Elena have to travel to Lily 's 1903 Prison World to retrieve her and use her as a means to get Stefan back.
Damon is disturbed to learn when he gets to Lily that she has been trapped with other vampires and they allowed her to drink their portions of blood to stay alive. She is reluctant to leave without them, but Damon threatens to leave her behind if she does n't go. Bonnie, Damon, and Elena leave with Lily, leaving Kai behind. When they return, Bonnie gives Damon a gift she 'd gotten for him during her trip to Nova Scotia in the 1994 Prison World: the cure to vampirism. He struggles with whether or not to give it to Elena and provide her with the life she 'd been robbed of.
After using Lily to get Stefan 's humanity back and he is used to bring Caroline back, Lily is adamant about returning to her Prison World to retrieve what she considers to be her family. Damon confronts Bonnie, who had taken the Ascendant, and tells her that Lily is threatening to destroy the cure if he does n't return with the means to get her "family '' back. However, when he decides to let Bonnie destroy the Ascendant, he comes home to find that Lily had actually given the cure to Elena instead. He confesses that he was selfish and afraid of losing her but agrees that she should take it and that he 'll take it with her.
Elena takes the cure and, unexpectedly, her memories return and she remembers when she 'd traveled to Nova Scotia with Damon in search of the cure the first time, he 'd told her that he used to miss being human, but, now, he could n't imagine anything more miserable. She tells him he needs to think about it before making that decision and enlists Stefan to try to make sure Damon is certain of his choice to become human. Damon almost decides he 'd rather stay a vampire until he witnesses an interaction between an older couple. Before Jo and Ric 's wedding, he tells Elena he 'd made his choice to live one lifetime with her. During the wedding, Kai shows up and stabs Jo before causing an explosion. The second to last episode ends with Elena lying unconscious on the ground.
In the last episode of the 6th season titled "I 'm Thinking Of You All The While '' Damon rushes Elena to the hospital after vampire blood fails to heal and awaken her. At the hospital the doctors tell him that she is medically healthy and they see no reason why she 's not awake. Kai stumbles into the hospital injured. After consuming Lily 's blood and killing himself, Kai 's ability to siphon magic allowed him to become another Heretic (vampire with witch - like power), but he was soon bitten by a transforming Tyler, who had re-triggered his werewolf curse. Kai tells Damon and he 's linked Elena 's life to Bonnie 's and as long as Bonnie lives, Elena will remain asleep but perfectly healthy. He also tells him that the spell is permanent and any attempt to find a loophole in the spell will result in the death of both Bonnie and Elena. Damon returns to the wedding to find Bonnie badly injured on the floor and Kai 's reminder that letting Bonnie die will allow Elena to regain consciousness. Damon tells Bonnie he 's sorry and leaves the room. Kai is irritated that his plan to torture Damon with an impossible choice had failed and, while he 's distracted, Damon decapitates him from behind. Damon saves Bonnie 's life and they go to the Salvatore boarding house to say their goodbyes to Elena, deciding that they will allow Bonnie to live her life and, when she dies, Elena will wake. Damon allows himself to enter Elena 's subconscious to say his goodbye, dancing with her and telling her that he 'll never be ready to live the next 60 years of his life without her. Stefan and Damon move the coffin holding Elena to a crypt and have Bonnie seal the door magically to keep away those seeking the Cure.
The season ends with the impression that quite a bit of time has passed. Mystic Falls is desolate and run down after the return of the other Heretics, Lily 's "family ''. The last scene shows Damon looking torn standing on the clock tower he once sat on with Elena.
At the start of season 1, Damon was a self - proclaimed loner, often keeps to himself. Despite his initially antagonistic relationships with humans such as Alaric Saltzman and Sheriff Elizabeth Forbes, Caroline 's mother. Damon gradually involved himself into the lives of many people in Mystic Falls by developing friendships with several humans. After spending time with Elena Gilbert, Damon becomes more empathetic and falls deeply, madly and passionately in love with her. He always puts her safety first before anyone else, even his.
Damon 's most prominent love, aside from Elena, was Rose. He met her while searching for Klaus and hooked up with her shortly after. Unfortunately Damon ticked off Jules, a werewolf, and she showed up on a full moon for revenge.
Damon has had a challenging relationship with his younger brother Stefan Salvatore for over a century. Before they became vampires, they both loved the vampire Katherine Pierce. Damon shows that he has nurtured a long - standing desire to reunite with Katherine throughout the first season. In the first season, we learn that it was Stefan who convinced Damon to feed and complete his transformation after Katherine turned both brothers into vampires. Despite the feud between the Salvatore brothers, both Damon and Stefan always have each other 's backs. Damon is always there for Stefan when it really matters, e.g., saving him from being tortured, helping him through withdrawal, and working with him to kill common enemies. And Stefan will still give up his own life for Damon 's survival. They both actually love each other but wo n't admit it, however:
After learning of Katherine 's deceit, Damon starts to fall for, Elena. In general, Damon is fiercely protective of Elena and always puts her safety ahead of all else. Damon comes to Elena 's rescue at the Miss Mystic Falls pageant when Elena is left stranded without a partner, and the two dance. In the episode "Rose '', Damon confesses his love for her only to compel her to forget about it because he does n't believe he is worthy of her. Throughout the third season his relationship with Elena grows; she learns to fully trust him, and they begin to rely on each other as a team. They share two passionate kisses, but Elena remains in denial about her feelings for him. After a long struggle, Elena still chooses Stefan much to Damon 's dismay. In the following season, however, Elena realizes that her feelings for Damon can not be denied any longer. She and Stefan break up, and in the following episode Damon and Elena finally get together and have sex. Damon and Elena then both individually discover that Elena is sired to Damon, making Elena 's feelings unfortunately known; however, Elena insists that her love for Damon is the most real thing that she 's ever felt in her entire life. Damon remains doubtful, so in "O Come, All Ye Faithful '' he sets her "free ''. In an interview before the season finale, Julie Plec stated that "This year, she 's had a very traumatic roller coaster of life experience and it 's changed her irrevocably -- and at the center of it all was the diehard belief that she loved Damon, that she loved him more than she 'd ever loved anyone. '' In "Graduation '', after the sire bond is broken and there remains no doubt about Elena 's feelings, she reveals that she is in love with Damon.
Damon and Elena spend the next few months together, having the summer of their lives. When Elena has to leave for college, Damon stays behind in Mystic Falls and they have a functional long distance relationship. However, in the episode "Original Sin '', Tessa, who is revealed to be Qetsiyah, tells Damon that the doppelgangers are fated to fall in love and that he is only a bump in the road that makes their story interesting. Damon refuses to believe in this and assures Elena that he will fight for her and their future together as she is his life. It is later revealed that there is nothing fated about Stefan and Elena, but that they were merely drawn together by a spell. After a tumultuous, back and forth relationship, Damon and Elena get back together at the end of the season, and they choose to sacrifice themselves together to save Stefan and Alaric and their other friends on the Other Side. When Elena makes it back but Damon is trapped on the collapsing Other Side, Elena is devastated. Damon says his last goodbye to Elena, telling her that she is by far the best thing that has ever happened to him, and that being loved by her is "the epitome of a fulfilled life '', as Elena sobs inconsolably. In season 6, Elena is unable to move on from Damon 's death months later. She pretends to be happy, but she is secretly taking witch herbs to hallucinate Damon. When the herbs make her dangerous to humans, Elena decides to have Alaric compel away her memories of Damon, because she will never be able to move on otherwise. When Damon returns, he attempts to help her remember their love story, but the compulsion will not break. Not remembering any of the good things about Damon, Elena still decides to give him another chance. She slowly falls in love with him again, ultimately declaring that no matter whether she has memories of him or not, she always finds her way back to him. When Bonnie returns from the prison world, she gifts Damon with the cure for vampirism, knowing that he wanted to give it to Elena. However, Damon is afraid that this will mean losing Elena. They discuss what a human life together would be like. Elena initially rejects the cure, but Damon decides to take it with her so that they can have a human life together, including children. Damon always wanted Elena to have the human life she always dreamed of. Elena takes the cure, which breaks the compulsion, and her memories of Damon return to her. She recalls a memory from season 4, where Damon declares that there would be nothing more miserable than becoming human again. Elena is afraid that Damon would regret taking the cure, so she challenges him to think it through carefully. Stefan attempts to convince Damon that becoming human would be a bad decision, but Damon ultimately realizes that one lifetime with Elena is infinitely better than an immortal one without her, and confidently believes her to be his soulmate. Damon and Elena excitedly anticipate the beginning of their human future together, until Kai puts Elena under a sleeping spell, tied to Bonnie 's life.
Damon spends the next two seasons devoted to Elena, waiting for her to wake up. He repeatedly states that he is miserable without her, and will spend the next 60 or so years unhappily until Bonnie dies. However, Damon is committed to staying true to Elena, and doing right by her. Elena is shown to be Damon 's moral compass, and his guiding force throughout the two seasons. When Damon is in the Phoenix Stone 's version of hell, a vision of Stefan asks Damon "What would Elena do? '' and this prompts Damon to forgive his mother, freeing him from hell. The phoenix stone 's influence remains, and Damon accidentally lights Elena 's coffin on fire (or so he thinks). Believing that he has unwittingly killed the love of his life, Damon becomes suicidal. When confronted with the hunter Rayna, Damon commands her to kill him because he is already in hell in a world without Elena. Enzo then reveals to Damon that Elena is still alive, renewing Damon 's hope. When Damon realizes that he is a potential danger to his friends and family because he does not believe he is good without Elena, he decides to desiccate himself next to her. He write to Alaric that before Elena, he did n't know what it was like to be happy, fulfilled or complete, and that he does n't want to continue living without that feeling. After Stefan wakes Damon from his desiccation, Damon continues to be devoted to his future with Elena. At the end of season 7, he is lured into a trap by a siren, hearing Elena 's voice calling out to him. When the siren takes control of Damon 's mind in season 8, Damon spends a significant amount of time sleeping, seeking refuge in dreams of his memories of Elena. When Sybil erases Elena from Damon 's consciousness only to insert herself into their memories, Damon fights back, instinctively drawn back to Elena. His love for her prevails, and he breaks the siren 's mind control, regaining his memories of Elena. Julie Plec stated that "I think the only hope that he 's holding on to is the idea of the two of them living in Tribeca in their brownstone and raising kids and having a life together as humans when this is all said and done. '' After Stefan gives Damon the cure to vampirism, turning him into a human, and Bonnie unbreaks the spell on Elena, Damon and Elena finally reunite. They begin their life together, getting married while Elena goes to medical school and becomes a doctor. Eventually they return to Mystic Falls to grow old together, where they died together of old age. We last see them walking hand in hand in the afterlife before reuniting with their respective families.
Alaric is a vampire hunter looking to avenge his wife by killing the vampire that killed her. It is soon revealed that the vampire that Alaric is hunting is actually Damon. Before killing Alaric, he confesses that he did n't kill Isobel but turned her. Alaric is brought back to life by the Gilbert ring. The two remain enemies but work together on occasion. Eventually, the two become best friends and drinking buddies. Even after Alaric is turned into a vampire who kills other vampires, Damon does his best to ensure that they do n't have to kill him. But with Elena 's death, Alaric dies as well while Damon holds him. In the episode, "Memorial '', it 's clear that Damon still misses his friend as he talks to Alaric at his grave. Unknown to him, Alaric listens to the whole thing and even responds with "I miss you too, buddy ''. Damon 's best friend.
Bonnie first saw Damon in Friday Night Bites when he dropped Caroline off at cheerleading practice. They first interacted in Haunted, when Damon learned that Bonnie had come into possession of the Bennett Talisman. He needed this to open the tomb which Katherine was locked in (for 145 years or so he believed). At first, Bonnie did n't want to have anything to do with Damon, saving his life only for Elena 's sake and soon blaming him for Caroline 's transition into a vampire. However, as time went on, Bonnie was put into situations where she had to work with Damon to achieve what they both wanted (albeit reluctantly at first). Their teamwork has often proved to be beneficial for the both of them. Their relationship has even come to a point where Damon is visibly worried for Bonnie 's well - being and was devastated when he found out about her death. The improvement of their relationship is seen in Damon 's efforts to help bring Bonnie back from the dead. However, their unique friendship hit a speed bump when Damon reverted to his old ways. Finally, they stood side by side with each other as The Other Side collapsed, holding each other 's hand and at peace with what is to come for the both of them. They later discover that they are trapped in a 1994 Prison World. During that time, they start to bond and form a close alliance to take down Kai. Before sending Damon back home, she mentions that he 's not exactly the last person she would wan na be stuck with. When Damon returns home, he does everything he can to find a way to bring Bonnie back, including a long road trip to Oregon to seek the Gemini Coven, and also compelling Alaric to steal the Ascendant from Jo. They finally reunite at the Salvatore Boarding House with a hug after Sheriff Forbes 's funeral. It 's shown that Damon and Bonnie genuinely care about each other and have made sacrifices for each other.
|
sentence for making false statements to the fbi | Making false statements - wikipedia
Making false statements (18 U.S.C. § 1001) is the common name for the United States federal crime laid out in Section 1001 of Title 18 of the United States Code, which generally prohibits knowingly and willfully making false or fraudulent statements, or concealing information, in "any matter within the jurisdiction '' of the federal government of the United States, even by merely denying guilt when asked by a federal agent. A number of notable people have been convicted under the section, including Martha Stewart, Rod Blagojevich, Michael T. Flynn, Scooter Libby, Bernard Madoff, and Jeffrey Skilling.
This statute is used in many contexts. Most commonly, prosecutors use this statute to reach cover - up crimes such as perjury, false declarations, and obstruction of justice and government fraud cases.
Its earliest progenitor was the False Claims Act of 1863. In 1934, the requirement of an intent to defraud was eliminated. This was in order to prosecute successfully, under the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA), the producers of illegal (hot) oil who had violated restrictions established pursuant to NIRA. In 1935, NIRA was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
The statute spells out this purpose in subsection 18 U.S.C. § 1001 (a), which states:
(a) Except as otherwise provided in this section, whoever, in any matter within the jurisdiction of the executive, legislative, or judicial branch of the Government of the United States, knowingly and willfully --
shall be fined under this title, imprisoned not more than 5 years or, if the offense involves international or domestic terrorism (as defined in section 2331), imprisoned not more than 8 years, or both...
Even constitutionally explicit Fifth Amendment rights do not exonerate affirmative false statements. In the 1998 case Brogan v. United States, the Supreme Court rejected the "exculpatory no '' doctrine that had previously been followed by seven of the courts of appeal, which had held that "the mere denial of wrongdoing '' did not fall within the scope of § 1001. The Brogan court stated:
A number of notable people have been convicted under the section, including Martha Stewart, Rod Blagojevich, Scooter Libby, Michael T. Flynn, Bernard Madoff, and Jeffrey Skilling.
Many famous people have been charged under this law, including Najibullah Zazi (whose lying charge was later dropped after more serious charges were preferred against him), Ali Saleh Kahlah Al - Marri, and Martha Stewart. There was also talk of prosecuting Tareq And Michaele Salahi under this statute. In the wake of such cases, many observers have concluded that it is best for anyone with the slightest degree of criminal exposure to refrain from submitting to an interview by government agents. Solomon L. Wisenberg suggests simply asking for the agent 's business card and saying, "(M) y attorney will be in contact with you. '' The invocation of counsel can not be used against a defendant at trial.
The jurisdictional element of the crime is defined as the "right to say and the power to act ''. It applies to criminal investigations, such as false statements made in response to an inquiry by an FBI or other Federal agent, or made voluntarily to an agent.
Courts have affirmed § 1001 convictions for false statements made to private entities receiving federal funds or subject to federal regulation or supervision.
Some courts have recognized an "exculpatory no '' exception for simple false denials of guilt in response to government initiated inquiries, while others have rejected it or done neither.
The earliest statutory progenitor of § 1001 was the original False Claims Act, adopted as the Act of March 2, 1863, 12 Stat. 696. That enactment made it a criminal offense for any person, whether a civilian or a member of the military services, to:
... present or cause to be presented for payment or approval to or by any person or officer in the civil or military service of the United States, any claim upon or against the Government of the United States, or any department or officer thereof, knowing such claim to be false, fictitious, or fraudulent...
It was completely reworded by Pub. L. 65 -- 228, 40 Stat. 1015, enacted October 23, 1918, which amended the statute to read:
... or whoever, for the purpose of obtaining or aiding to obtain the payment or approval of such claim, or for the purpose and with the intent of cheating and swindling or defrauding the Government of the United States, or any department thereof, or any corporation in which the United States of America is a stockholder, shall knowingly and willfully falsify or conceal or cover up by any trick, scheme, or device a material fact, or make or cause to be made any false or fraudulent statements or representations, or make or use or cause to be made or used any false bill, receipt, voucher, roll, account, claim, certificate, affidavit, or deposition, knowing the same to contain any fraudulent or fictitious statement or entry...
In 1934, the requirement of an intent to defraud was eliminated at the request of the Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes, who wished to use the statute to enforce Section 9 (c) of the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA) against producers of "hot oil '', oil produced in violation of production restrictions established pursuant to the NIRA, when Pub. L. 73 -- 394, 48 Stat. 996, enacted June 18, 1934, amended it to read:
... or whoever, for the purpose of obtaining or aiding to obtain the payment or approval of such claim, or for the purpose and with the intent of cheating and swindling or defrauding the Government of the United States, or any department thereof, or any corporation in which the United States of America is a stockholder, shall knowingly and willfully falsify or conceal or cover up by any trick, scheme, or device a material fact, or make or cause to be made any false or fraudulent statements or representations, or make or use or cause to be made or used any false bill, receipt, voucher, roll, account, claim, certificate, affidavit, or deposition, knowing the same to contain any fraudulent or fictitious statement or entry, in any matter within the jurisdiction of any department or agency of the United States or of any corporation in which the United States of America is a stockholder...
When Title 18 of the United States Code was adopted in 1948, the wording was further simplified and replaced with:
Whoever, in any matter within the jurisdiction of any department or agency of the United States knowingly and willfully falsifies, conceals or covers up by any trick, scheme, or device a material fact, or makes any false, fictitious or fraudulent statements or representations, or makes or uses any false writing or document knowing the same to contain any false, fictitious or fraudulent statement or entry...
|
what part of the brain functions as the control center of the endocrine system | Endocrine system - wikipedia
The endocrine system is a chemical messenger system consisting of hormones, the group of glands of an organism that carry those hormones directly into the circulatory system to be carried towards distant target organs, and the feedback loops of homeostasis that the hormones drive. In humans, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. The field of study dealing with the endocrine system and its disorders is endocrinology, a branch of internal medicine.
Special features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and commonly the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules that store their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen. A number of glands that signal each other in sequence are usually referred to as an axis, for example, the hypothalamic - pituitary - adrenal axis.
In addition to the specialized endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part of other body systems, such as bone, kidney, liver, heart and gonads, have secondary endocrine functions. For example, the kidney secretes endocrine hormones such as erythropoietin and renin. Hormones can consist of either amino acid complexes, steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, or prostaglandins.
The endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its hormones to the outside of the body using ducts. As opposed to endocrine factors that travel considerably longer distances via the circulatory system, other signaling molecules, such as paracrine factors involved in paracrine signalling diffuse over a relatively short distance.
The word endocrine derives via New Latin from the Greek words ἔνδον, endon, "inside, within, '' and "exocrine '' from the κρίνω, krīnō, "to separate, distinguish ''.
The human endocrine system consists of several systems that operate via feedback loops. Several important feedback systems are mediated via the hypothalamus and pituitary.
Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system that secrete their products, hormones, directly into insterstitial spaces and then absorbed into blood rather than through a duct. The major glands of the endocrine system include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus and adrenal glands. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are neuroendocrine organs.
A hormone is a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour. Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes: eicosanoids, steroids, and amino acid / protein derivatives (amines, peptides, and proteins). The glands that secrete hormones comprise the endocrine system. The term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell (autocrine or intracrine signalling) or nearby cells (paracrine signalling).
Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues for physiological regulation and behavioral activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood.
Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific receptor proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell function. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of a signal transduction pathway. This may lead to cell type - specific responses that include rapid non-genomic effects or slower genomic responses where the hormones acting through their receptors activate gene transcription resulting in increased expression of target proteins. Amino acid -- based hormones (amines and peptide or protein hormones) are water - soluble and act on the surface of target cells via second messengers; steroid hormones, being lipid - soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within their nuclei.
The typical mode of cell signaling in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling, that is, using the circulatory system to reach distant target organs. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and neuroendocrine signaling. Purely neurocrine signaling between neurons, on the other hand, belongs completely to the nervous system.
Autocrine signaling is a form of signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on the same cell, leading to changes in the cells.
Some endocrinologists and clinicians include the paracrine system as part of the endocrine system, but there is not consensus. Paracrines are slower acting, targeting cells in the same tissue or organ. An example of this is somatostatin which is released by some pancreatic cells and targets other pancreatic cells.
Juxtacrine signaling is a type of intercellular communication that is transmitted via oligosaccharide, lipid, or protein components of a cell membrane, and may affect either the emitting cell or the immediately adjacent cells.
It occurs between adjacent cells that possess broad patches of closely opposed plasma membrane linked by transmembrane channels known as connexons. The gap between the cells can usually be between only 2 and 4 nm.
Diseases of the endocrine system are common, including conditions such as diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, and obesity. Endocrine disease is characterized by irregulated hormone release (a productive pituitary adenoma), inappropriate response to signaling (hypothyroidism), lack of a gland (diabetes mellitus type 1, diminished erythropoiesis in chronic renal failure), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the thyroid (toxic multinodular goitre). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, agenesis, atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, hyperplastic or neoplastic change, or hyperstimulation.
Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands. Secondary endocrine disease is indicative of a problem with the pituitary gland. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones.
As the thyroid, and hormones have been implicated in signaling distant tissues to proliferate, for example, the estrogen receptor has been shown to be involved in certain breast cancers. Endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of oncogenesis.
Other common diseases that result from endocrine dysfunction include Addison 's disease, Cushing 's disease and Graves 's disease. Cushing 's disease and Addison 's disease are pathologies involving the dysfunction of the adrenal gland. Dysfunction in the adrenal gland could be due to primary or secondary factors and can result in hypercortisolism or hypocortisolism. Cushing 's disease is characterized by the hypersecretion of the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) due to a pituitary adenoma that ultimately causes endogenous hypercortisolism by stimulating the adrenal glands. Some clinical signs of Cushing 's disease include obesity, moon face, and hirsutism. Addison 's disease is an endocrine disease that results from hypocortisolism caused by adrenal gland insufficiency. Adrenal insufficiency is significant because it is correlated with decreased ability to maintain blood pressure and blood sugar, a defect that can prove to be fatal.
Graves ' disease involves the hyperactivity of the thyroid gland which produces the T3 and T4 hormones. Graves ' disease effects range from excess sweating, fatigue, heat intolerance and high blood pressure to swelling of the eyes that causes redness, puffiness and in rare cases reduced or double vision.
A neuroendocrine system has been observed in all animals with a nervous system and all vertebrates have an hypothalamus - pituitary axis. All vertebrates have a thyroid, which in amphibians is also crucial for transformation of larvae into adult form. All vertebrates have adrenal gland tissue, with mammals unique in having it organized into layers. All vertebrates have some form of renin -- angiotensin axis, and all tetrapods have aldosterone as primary mineralocorticoid.
Female endocrine system.
Male endocrine system
|
super bowl halftime show performers over the years | List of Super Bowl halftime shows - wikipedia
Halftime shows are a tradition during American football games at all levels of competition. Entertainment during the Super Bowl, the annual championship game of the National Football League (NFL), represents a fundamental link to pop culture, which helps broaden the television audience and nationwide interest. As the Super Bowl itself is typically the most - watched event on television in the United States annually, the halftime show has been equally - viewed in recent years: the halftime show of Super Bowl XLIX featuring Katy Perry was viewed by 118.5 million, as part of an overall telecast that peaked at 120.3 million at its conclusion -- the most - watched television broadcast in U.S. history. The NFL claims that the Super Bowl LI halftime show, with Lady Gaga was the "most - watched musical event of all - time, '' citing a figure of 150 million viewers based on the television audience, as well as unique viewership of video postings of the halftime show on the league 's platforms, and social media interactions (a metric that was never calculated prior to 2017). However, the show was seen by 117.5 million television viewers, making it the second - highest - rated halftime show.
Prior to the early 1990s, the halftime show was based around a theme, and featured university marching bands (the Grambling State University Marching Band has performed at the most Super Bowl halftime shows, featuring in six shows including at least one per decade from the 1960s to the 1990s), drill teams, and other performance ensembles such as Up with People. Beginning in 1991, the halftime show began to feature pop music acts such as New Kids on the Block and Gloria Estefan. In an effort to boost the prominence of the halftime show to increase viewer interest, Super Bowl XXVII featured a headlining performance by Michael Jackson. After Super Bowl XXXVIII, whose halftime show featured an incident where Justin Timberlake exposed one of Janet Jackson 's breasts, the halftime show began to feature classic rock acts until the return of headlining pop musicians in 2011.
During most of the Super Bowl 's first decade, the halftime show featured a college marching band. The show 's second decade featured a more varied show, often featuring drill teams and other performance ensembles; the group Up with People produced and starred in four of the performances. The middle of the third decade, in an effort to counter other networks ' efforts to counterprogram the game, saw the introduction of popular music acts such as New Kids on the Block, Gloria Estefan, Michael Jackson, Clint Black, Patti LaBelle, and Tony Bennett. Starting with Super Bowl XXXII, commercial sponsors presented the halftime show; within five years, the tradition of having a theme -- begun with Super Bowl III -- ended, replaced by major music productions by arena rock bands and other high - profile acts. In the six years immediately following an incident at Super Bowl XXXVIII where Justin Timberlake exposed one of Janet Jackson 's breasts in an alleged "wardrobe malfunction '', all of the halftime shows consisted of a performance by one artist or group, with the musicians in that era primarily being rock artists from the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. These shows were considered "family friendly '' and the time in which they took place has been described as "the age of reactionary halftime shows. Since Super Bowl XLV, the halftime show has returned to featuring popular contemporary musicians, with the typical format featuring a single headline artist collaborating with a small number of guest acts.
The NFL does not pay the halftime show performers an appearance fee, though it covers all expenses for the performers and their entourage of band members management, technical crew, security personnel, family, and friends. Super Bowl XXVII halftime show with Michael Jackson provided an exception, as the NFL and Frito - Lay agreed to make a donation and provide commercial time for Jackson 's Heal the World Foundation. According to Nielsen SoundScan data, the halftime performers regularly experience significant spikes in weekly album sales and paid digital downloads due to the exposure. For Super Bowl XLIX, it was reported by the Wall Street Journal that league officials asked representatives of potential acts if they would be willing to provide financial compensation to the NFL in exchange for their appearance, in the form of either an up - front fee, or a cut of revenue from concert performances made after the Super Bowl. While these reports were denied by an NFL spokeswoman, the request had, according to the Journal, received a "chilly '' response from those involved.
The following is a list of the performers, producers, themes, and sponsors for each Super Bowl game 's show.
U2 performed 3 songs: "Beautiful Day, '' "MLK, '' and "Where the Streets Have No Name. '' During the beginning of "MLK '' and continuing until the end of "Where The Streets Have No Name, '' a large banner behind the band displayed the names of all the people who lost their lives on the September 11 attacks. Bono ended the song by opening up his jacket, the inside of which displayed the American flag.
For The Rolling Stones, the stage was in the form of the group 's iconic tongue logo (John Pasche 's "Cunning Linguist '' first used in 1971 on their Sticky Fingers album). It was the largest stage ever assembled for a Super Bowl halftime show, with 28 separate pieces assembled in five minutes by a 600 - member volunteer stage crew. The group performed three songs: "Start Me Up, '' "Rough Justice, '' and "(I Ca n't Get No) Satisfaction. '' The show was viewed by 89.9 million people, more than the audiences for the Oscars, Grammys and Emmy Awards combined. In the wake of the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy with Janet Jackson and Justin Timberlake, ABC and the NFL imposed a five - second delay and censored lyrics considered too sexually explicit in the first two songs by briefly turning off Mick Jagger 's microphone -- censoring to which the group had previously agreed. However, the choice of The Rolling Stones sparked controversy in the Detroit community because the band did not represent the traditional Detroit "Motown Sound, '' and no artists from the area were included.
|
how many times has india been a member of un security council | India and the United Nations - wikipedia
India was among the original members of the United Nations that signed the Declaration by United Nations at Washington, D.C. on 1944 October and also participated in the United Nations Conference on International Organization at San Francisco from 25 April to 26 June 1945. As a founding member of the United Nations, India strongly supports the purposes and principles of the UN and has made significant contributions in implementing the goals of the Charter, and the evolution of the UN 's specialised programmes and agencies.
India has been a member of the UN Security Council for seven terms (a total of 14 years), with the most recent being the 2011 -- 12 term. India is a member of G4, group of nations who back each other in seeking a permanent seat on the Security Council and advocate in favour of the reformation of the UNSC. India is also part of the G - 77.
India is a charter member of the United Nations and participates in all of its specialised agencies and organizations. India has contributed troops to United Nations peacekeeping efforts in Korea, Egypt and the Congo in its earlier years and in Somalia, Angola, Haiti, Liberia, Lebanon and Rwanda in recent years, and more recently in the South Sudan conflict.
India was one of the original members of the League of Nations. In principle, only sovereign states can become UN members. However, although today all UN members are fully sovereign states, four of the original members (Belarus, India, the Philippines, and Ukraine) were not independent at the time of their admission. India signed the Declaration by United Nations on 1 January 1942 and was represented by Girija Shankar Bajpai who was the Indian Agent - General at the time. Afterwards the Indian delegation led by Sir Arcot Ramaswamy Mudaliar signed the United Nations Charter on behalf of India during the historic United Nations Conference on International Organization held in San Francisco, United States on 26 June 1945. Sir A. Ramaswamy Mudaliar later went on to serve as the first president of the United Nations Economic and Social Council. Technically, India was a founding member in October 1945, despite it being a British colony. India, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia were all British colonies but were given independent seats in the United Nations General Assembly. India gained full independence in 1947.
Independent India viewed its membership at the United Nations as an important guarantee for maintaining international peace and security. India stood at the forefront during the UN 's tumultuous years of struggle against colonialism and apartheid. India 's status as a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the Group of 77 cemented its position within the UN system as a leading advocate of the concerns and aspirations of developing countries and the creation of a more equitable international economic and political order. India was among the most outspoken critics of apartheid and racial discrimination in South Africa, being the first country to have raised the issue in the UN (in 1946).
India was a founding member of the United Nations, joining in October 1945, two years before acquiring independence from the British Raj. By 1946, India had started raising concerns regarding colonialism, apartheid and racial discrimination. From early 1947 -- 48, India took an active part in Drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Dr (Mrs). Hansa Mehta, a Gandhian political activist and social worker who led the Indian delegation, had made important contributions in drafting of the Declaration, especially highlighting the need for reflecting gender equality by changing the language of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights from ' all men are created equal ' (Eleanor Roosevelt 's preferred phrase) to ' all human beings '.
In 1953, the chief delegate of India at the time, Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit was elected the first woman President of the UN General Assembly. India supported the struggle towards global disarmament and the ending of the arms race, and towards the creation of a more equitable international economic order. India had a mediatory role in resolving the stalemate over prisoners of war in Korea contributing to the signing of the armistice ending the Korean War in 1953. India chaired the five - member Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission while the Indian Custodian Force supervised the process of interviews and repatriation that followed. India then went on to chair the three international commissions for supervision and control for Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos established by the 1954 Geneva Accords on Indochina. India also had an active role to play in the Suez Crisis in 1956 with the role of Nehru, both as Indian Prime minister and a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement being significant. Indian historian Inder Malhotra wrote that "Now Nehru -- who had tried to be even - handed between the two sides -- denounced Anthony Eden (the then British Prime Minister) and co-sponsors of the aggression vigorous. He had a powerful, if relatively silent, ally in the US president Dwight D. Eisenhower who went to the extent of using America 's clout in the IMF to make Eden and Mollet (the then French Prime Minister) behave ''.
Charter provisions on Non-Self - Governing Territories were given a new thrust when the UN adopted the landmark 1960 Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples which was co-sponsored by India. The following year, the Special Committee on the Implementation of the Declaration on Decolonization was established to study, investigate and recommend action to bring an end to colonialism, it was chaired by India for the first time. India played a leading role in the formation of a Sub-Committee against Apartheid set up by the General Assembly. When the Convention on Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination was adopted in 1965, India was among the earliest signatories, however it does not recognise competence under article 14 and it does not consider itself bound by article 22.
India also played a prominent role in articulating the economic concerns of developing countries in such UN-sponsored conferences as the triennial UN Conference on Trade and Development and the 1992 Conference on the Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro. It has been an active member of the Group of 77, and later the core group of the G - 15 nations. Other issues, such as environmentally sustainable development and the promotion and protection of human rights, have also been an important focus of India 's foreign policy in international forums.
Despite its anti-status quo stand on many global issues, India 's attitude toward the basic structure of the UN was fundamentally conservative. It accepted the organization and distribution of power in the UN, as both a guarantee of Indian sovereignty and as a check on the numerical superiority of the U.S. and its western coalition. India supported the charter provisions for a Security Council veto for the great powers, opposed the U.S. initiative to circumvent the veto through the Uniting for Peace Resolution, dismissed Hammarskjöld 's notion of a "UN presence '' as interventionist and opposed all efforts to conduct UN directed plebiscites as tests of opinion.
India 's procedural conservatism was based both on its commitment to national sovereignty and its desire to protect Indian interests. Its experience with the UN had not always been positive. In the early years after independence, a whole range of issues, which had their origins in the partition of the Indian subcontinent between India and Pakistan, came before the UN. These issues included the disputed princely states of Junagadh, Hyderabad and Kashmir, which were ultimately incorporated into the Indian Union through the use of military force.
The most persistent of these disputes was the Kashmir conflict. Nehru 's faith in the UN and adherence to its principles proved costly on some occasions due to the power play inherent in the organization. This was seen by his decision to refer Pakistan 's intervention (' invasion ') in disputed Kashmir to the UN Security Council in January 1948. The United Kingdom, which was hoping to avoid being seen as unfriendly to a Muslim state after the creation of Israel, used pressure tactics on its allies France, Canada and the US to support the Pakistani viewpoint that Kashmir 's accession to India was disputable and had to be put to the test of a plebiscite. Nehru 's hope that the UN would unconditionally instruct Pakistan to vacate the one - third portion of Kashmir that the Pakistani tribesmen and army had occupied fell flat in the face of geopolitical manoeuvrings and cross-issue linkage. To this day, Indian strategic commentators and critics of Nehru bemoan his cardinal mistake of taking the Kashmir dispute to a UN that was packed with pro-Pakistani partisan powers. According to columnist Brahma Chellaney, ' Nehru did not appreciate that the UN was an institution of power politics, not an impartial police force '. As if a double reminder were needed that India was small fry in a UN dominated by crafty Great Powers divided into two ideological camps, New Delhi was disappointed to find that Security Council members the US, United Kingdom and France tried to prevent it from forcibly absorbing the Portuguese colony of Goa in 1961. But for the Soviet veto in favour of India, Goa could have become enmeshed in another Kashmir - like stalemate for decades, buffeted by the changing winds of Great Power alignments and preferences that were paralysing and hijacking the UN.
Overall the period from 1947 - 1962 was marked by India 's active interest in all UN activities under the leadership of V.K. Krishna Menon who was the Indian Ambassador to the United Nations from 1952 - 1962. Indian leadership and peacekeeping roles in the UN brought it considerable recognition and global standing.
India 's defeat in the Sino - Indian War came as a grave shock in comparison to its global aspirations and recognition. Large scale hostilities and military reverses dealt a shattering blow to its self - confidence and pride. India was obliged to turn towards the west for military and political support. Following the conflict with China, India became involved in two wars with Pakistan and entered a period of political instability, economic stagnation, food shortages and near - famine conditions. India 's role diminished in the UN which came both as a result of its image and a deliberate decision by the post-Nehru political leadership to adopt a low profile at the UN and speak only on vital Indian interests. This change in policy was implemented during the 1965 debate on Kashmir in the Security Council when Indian Foreign Minister Swaran Singh dramatically stormed out of the session in response to the intemperate language of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Pakistan 's Foreign Minister. In his book "India 's Changing Role in the United Nations '' Stanley Kochanek shows how ' bilateralism became the guiding principle of Indian foreign policy ', relegating the UN to just an ' arena for maintaining such contacts '. Further the Soviet Union 's backing became far more important than a slow and indecisive UN Security Council when India obtained its greatest strategic victory by breaking up Pakistan into two and carving out independent Bangladesh in 1971.
In 1974, India tested its first nuclear device, the aftermath of which resulted in a nuclear embargo by US and Canada. Soon after the UN 's non-proliferation agenda became another irritant that forced New Delhi to view some units of the organization with distaste as fronts for imposing discriminatory regimes instead of promoting universal disarmament. From the very beginning it has refused to lend its support to the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty with India 's then External Affairs Minister and later President, Pranab Mukherjee in a visit to Tokyo in 2007 commenting that: "If India did not sign the NPT, it is not because of its lack of commitment for non-proliferation, but because we consider NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognise the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment. '' In short, the 1960s as a whole saw major changes in the global system but a general decline in UN activities.
India has been elected seven times to the UN Security Council, tied with Colombia and Pakistan. Only three countries have served longer: Japan, Brazil, and Argentina.
India has been seeking a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council as a member of the G4, an organization composed of Brazil, Germany, Japan, and India, all who are currently seeking permanent representation. The Russian Federation, United States, United Kingdom and France support India and the other G4 countries gaining permanent seats.
According to the G4 proposal, the UN Security Council should be expanded beyond the current fifteen members to include twenty - five members. If this actually happens, it would be the first time permanent Security Council status is extended to a South Asian nation and supporters of the G4 plan suggest that this will lead to greater representation of developing nations rather than the current major powers.
India makes a number of claims to justify its demand. India has the world 's second largest population and is the world 's largest liberal democracy. It is also the world 's seventh largest economy and third largest in terms of purchasing power parity as of 2014. India is the third largest contributor of troops to United Nations peacekeeping missions with 7,860 personnel deployed with ten UN Peacekeeping Missions as of 2014 after Bangladesh and Pakistan, all three nations being in South Asia. India has contributed nearly 160,000 troops, the largest number from any country, participated in more than 43 missions and 156 Indian peacekeepers have made the supreme sacrifice while serving in UN missions. India has also provided and continues to provide eminent Force Commanders for UN Missions.
Although the U.S. and other permanent Council members were not very supportive of expanding the Security Council, in his visit to India, US President Barack Obama has offered his support for India to become a permanent member of the Council. However, the reaction from other Council members are not very clear, particularly from China. Thus it is uncertain whether the demands by G4 nations will be implemented anytime soon.
In September 2017, U.S. Representatives Ami Bera and Frank Pallone introduced a resolution (H. Res. 535) in the US House of Representatives (115th United States Congress), seeking support for India for a permanent membership of the United Nations Security Council.
From 1945 to present, a total of 3 members from India have been appointed as Judges of the International Court of Justice, the primary judicial branch of the United Nations. Moreover, Nagendra Singh was appointed as the President from 1985 to 1988. In addition, 3 member have also served as Judges sitting ad hoc.
In November 2016, Vinod Rai was appointed as Chairman of UN Panel of External Auditors and Shashi Kant Sharma as Member of the United Nations Board of Auditor General.
Joint Inspection Unit is the only independent external oversight body of the United Nations system mandated to conduct evaluations, inspections and investigations system - wide. A Gopinathan currently serves as Chairman, since January 2013. He was re-appointed to this post.
In 1996, the Cathedral Model United Nations was hosted by The Cathedral and John Connon School in Mumbai. Since then, schools in India started taking up Model United Nations as an activity in their school.
So far India has taken part in 43 Peacekeeping missions with a total contribution exceeding 160,000 troops and a significant number of police personnel having been deployed. In 2014 India is the third largest troop contributor (TCC) with 7,860 personnel deployed with ten UN Peacekeeping Missions of which 995 are police personnel, including the first female formed Police Unit under the UN. The Indian Army has undertaken numerous UN peacekeeping missions. As of 30 June 2014, 157 Indians have been killed during such operations. The Indian army has also provided paramedical units to facilitate the withdrawal of the sick and wounded.
In service to the United Nations, Satish Nambiar was appointed as 1st Force Commander and Head of Mission of UNPROFOR and Jai Shanker Menon as Head of Mission and Force Commander of United Nations Disengagement Observer Force.
According to UN estimates, India is currently the fourth - largest police - contributing country with 1,009 officers, and the third - largest contributor of female police officers.
As of February 2017, 163 Indians have been killed while serving in UN peacekeeping operations.
On 11 December 2014, the United Nations General Assembly adopted without a vote a resolution commemorating 21 June as the International Yoga Day, recognising the holistic benefits of this timeless practice and its inherent compatibility with the principles and values of the United Nations.
In 2016, with focus on combating inequalities to achieve Sustainable Development Goals, B.R. Ambedkar 's birth anniversary was observed at the United Nations for the first time. India has made a plea to declare April 14 as International Equality Day.
For FY 2015 - 16, India 's contribution to the United Nations was ₹ 2,440,000,000 (US $38 million), which was 55 per cent more compared with the previous fiscal. India is one of the main contributors to the UN regular budget. Indian contribution to United Nations Democracy Fund was USD 250 million for 2009.
India has a permanent mission to the UN, which is led by the Permanent Representative (UN Ambassador), currently Syed Akbaruddin, who was appointed in January 2016.
|
where did twenty one pilots go to high school | Tyler Joseph - wikipedia
Tyler Robert Joseph (born December 1, 1988) is an American singer, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, record producer, and rapper. He is the lead vocalist for the musical duo Twenty One Pilots.
Joseph was born in Columbus, Ohio, and grew up with two brothers, Zachary Phillip "Zach '' Joseph (also a singer) and Jay Thomas Joseph, and one sister, Madison Grace Brett. His mother, Kelly Joseph (neé Stryker), was a math teacher in the Olentangy school district before being named Olentangy Orange High School 's basketball coach in 2013. His father, Christopher Anthony "Chris '' Joseph, was also a coach at Worthington Christian High School from 1996 to 2005, and is a school principal. Joseph played basketball from a very young age and went on to play point guard for Worthington Christian. In 2008, the basketball team placed second in the Division IV state tournament.
After seeing a songwriter perform at a High Street club, he rejected a basketball scholarship offer from Otterbein University and began playing music after finding an old keyboard in his closet, a Christmas gift from his mother, and mimicking radio melodies.
Twenty One Pilots was formed in 2009 in Columbus, Ohio. Initially an idea from Joseph, he eventually called his high school friends Nick Thomas and Chris Salih to form a band. He came up with the band 's name while studying All My Sons by Arthur Miller, a play about a man who must decide what is best for his family after causing the death of twenty - one pilots during World War II, because he knowingly sent them faulty parts for the good of his business. Joseph explains that this story of moral dilemma was the inspiration for the name of the band. On December 29, 2009, they released their debut, self - titled album and began touring Ohio, which was followed by their second album, Regional at Best in 2011, which consisted only of Joseph and Dun.
Twenty One Pilots ' third album, Vessel, was released on January 8, 2013. They also embarked on a tour in support of the album, in which they named "Quiet Is Violent Tour ''.
The band 's fourth album, Blurryface, was released on May 17, 2015, two days ahead of its intended release date. Joseph and drummer Josh Dun embarked on two international tours in 2015 and 2016: the Blurryface Tour and Emotional Roadshow World Tour.
At the 59th Annual Grammy Awards, the duo won the award for Best Pop Duo / Group Performance.
Joseph has had a solo project where he released an album entitled No Phun Intended. The release is still available for listening purposes on his PureVolume account. The album was recorded in Joseph 's senior year of high school, from 2007 -- 2008, in his basement. The song "Save '', off the release, was redone and released as a free download for some time on Twenty One Pilots ' official website before it was then pulled. A song entitled "Whisper '' from his solo career has also been released on the internet.
In 2010, Joseph was featured in the song "Live '' by the Christian rapper Joseph Michael Langston (better known by his stage name Jocef), who is a friend of Joseph from college, along with two other rappers, Juda and Alon. The song is the opening track to Jocef 's debut album, In Search Of: L.O.V.E. The track was co-written by Tyler Joseph and Jocef. Jocef eventually returned the favor a year later by being featured on the song "Be Concerned '' off of Twenty One Pilots ' 2011 album Regional at Best.
In 2011, Joseph was also the lead star in Five14 Church 's three episode mockumentary entitled "The (moderately inspiring tale of the) Longboard Rodeo Tango ''. According to the mockumentary, Joseph was an intern at the church at the time.
In 2012, Joseph was featured in an internet - use awareness video entitled "What 's Your Story? '' by Mark C. Eshleman (the producer of many Twenty One Pilots music videos) for an annual contest put on by Trend Micro, also called What 's Your Story? The room used in the video is the same room in which the original music video for "House of Gold '' was filmed.
On December 24, 2013, Christmas Eve, Joseph participated and sang "O come, O come, Emmanuel '' at Five14 Church 's Christmas With the Stars in New Albany, Ohio. The official video of the performance was uploaded to YouTube on February 14, 2014. He also performed a magic segment with the church 's host and emcee, David McCreary for the show.
Joseph has also contributed to a few tracks for Five14 Church 's worship albums by the gospel band, Whittaker.
In December 2014, Joseph contributed backing vocals to the song "Sickly Sweet Holidays '' by Dallon Weekes of Panic! at the Disco.
Joseph is a practicing Christian and his faith influences the music he writes. He was homeschooled in his childhood. He married Jenna Black on March 28, 2015, after becoming engaged on July 8, 2014.
His first real exposure to music was the Christian hip hop group DC Talk.
Joseph has a three - part tattoo that represents "something that saved his life ''. Though it is assumed it deals with his Christian faith, Joseph has been specific about the fact that he does n't want the meaning of his tattoos spread across the internet. However, he has stated a few times that he is willing to tell people one - on - one if they decide to ask him in person.
Both Joseph and Twenty One Pilots drummer, Josh Dun also have an "X '' tattoo on their body symbolizing their dedication to their hometown fans in Columbus, Ohio. They received it on stage during their hometown show at the Lifestyle Communities Pavilion on April 26, 2013. Joseph 's is located on his right bicep and Dun 's is located on his neck behind his right ear.
As solo artist
Twenty One Pilots
|
baby daddy season 6 episode 12 release date | List of Baby Daddy episodes - wikipedia
Baby Daddy is an American sitcom that premiered on Freeform (then known as ABC Family) on June 20, 2012. The sitcom stars Jean - Luc Bilodeau as Ben Wheeler, a bartender, who while moving his brother Danny Wheeler (Derek Theler) into the apartment Ben shares with best friend Tucker Dobbs (Tahj Mowry), he 's surprised when Emma, a baby girl, is left on his doorstep by Angela, a girl with whom he had a one - night stand. He gets help from his mother Bonnie Wheeler (Melissa Peterman) and his close female friend Riley Perrin (Chelsea Kane) who also is in love with him.
A total of 100 episodes of Baby Daddy were produced over six seasons, ending on May 22, 2017.
On August 17, 2012, Baby Daddy was renewed for a second season, it premiered on May 29, 2013. Matt Dallas, who previously worked with Jean - Luc Bilodeau on the ABC Family series Kyle XY, appeared in a recurring role as Fitch Douglas, a love interest for Riley. Both Lacey Chabert and Grace Phipps also had recurring roles this season. Wayne Brady guest starred in the episode "There 's Something Fitchy Going On ''.
On March 22, 2013, two months before the second season premiered, ABC Family renewed Baby Daddy for a third season. It premiered on January 15, 2014. Bruce Thomas, who previously worked with Jean - Luc Bilodeau on Kyle XY, guest starred in the episode "The Bet ''. Bilodeau 's other Kyle XY co-star Matt Dallas reprised his role as Fitch in the episode "Lights! Camera! No Action! '', Mary Hart also guest starred as herself in that episode. Other guest stars this season included Lucy Hale, David DeLuise, Phil Morris, Mark DeCarlo, Kelsey Chow and Dot Jones.
On March 17, 2014, Baby Daddy was renewed for the fourth season. It premiered on October 22, 2014, with the series ' first Halloween episode "Strip or Treat ''. The second Christmas episode of the series entitled "It 's a Wonderful Emma '' premiered on December 10, 2014. Aisha Dee guest starred as Olivia, Tucker 's ex-wife. Christa B. Allen appeared in a recurring role as Robyn, a corporate lawyer working at Riley 's law firm, who later begins dating Danny. Eddie Cibrian appeared in a multi-episode arc as Ross, a guy that Riley falls for, later discovering that he is her boss. Jackée Harry guest starred as Judge Johnson in the episode "Lowering the Bar ''. The episode reunited Harry with Tahj Mowry, Mowry made numerous guest appearances on Harry 's 1990s sitcom Sister, Sister. In the episode "Home Is Where the Wheeler Is '', Alex Kapp Horner is now playing the role of Jennifer, Riley 's mom, which was originally played by Caroline Rhea in season 2 episode "On The Lamb - y ''. Reba McEntire guest starred in the season finale "It 's a Nice Day for a Wheeler Wedding '', reuniting with her former Reba co-star Melissa Peterman. Episode 20, "Till Dress Do Us Part '', is left off of Baby Daddy Season 4 on Netflix.
On February 28, 2015, Baby Daddy was renewed for a fifth season. It premiered on February 3, 2016, under ABC Family 's new name Freeform. Allie Gonino was cast in a recurring role as Sam Saffe, a girl who applies for the manager position at the Bar on B. Ben also had a crush on her in high school and she was not very nice to Riley during that time. However, for unknown reasons, Daniella Monet replaced Gonino in the role. Production on the season began on August 17, 2015 and was temporarily halted on October 26, after Jean - Luc Bilodeau was hospitalized the weekend before.
On June 27, 2016, Freeform renewed the series for a sixth season. It premiered on March 13, 2017. On May 13th, it was announced that the series will end this season with the 100th episode.
|
when did north dakota became a state 2011 | North Dakota - wikipedia
North Dakota (/ ˌnɔːrθ dəˈkoʊtə / (listen); locally (ˌno̞ɹθ dəˈko̞ɾə)) is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. It is the 19th most extensive, but the 4th least populous, and the 4th most sparsely populated of the 50 U.S. states. North Dakota was admitted as the 39th state to the Union on November 2, 1889. The state capital is Bismarck, and the largest city is Fargo.
North Dakota weathered the Great Recession of the early 21st century with a boom in natural resources, particularly a boom in oil extraction from the Bakken formation, which lies beneath the northwestern part of the state. The development drove strong job and population growth, and low unemployment. However, falling oil prices have put pressure on state finances, leading to questions about the lack of diversity in the North Dakota economy and its vulnerability to commodity price swings.
North Dakota is in the U.S. region known as the Great Plains. The state shares the Red River of the North with Minnesota to the east. South Dakota is to the south, Montana is to the west, and the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba are to the north. North Dakota is situated near the middle of North America with a stone marker in Rugby, North Dakota marking the "Geographic Center of the North American Continent ''. With an area of 70,762 square miles (183,273 km), North Dakota is the 19th largest state.
The western half of the state consists of the hilly Great Plains as well as the northern part of the Badlands, which are to the west of the Missouri River. The state 's high point, White Butte at 3,506 feet (1,069 m), and Theodore Roosevelt National Park are in the Badlands. The region is abundant in fossil fuels including natural gas, crude oil and lignite coal. The Missouri River forms Lake Sakakawea, the third largest man - made lake in the United States, behind the Garrison Dam.
The central region of the state is divided into the Drift Prairie and the Missouri Plateau. The eastern part of the state consists of the flat Red River Valley, the bottom of glacial Lake Agassiz. Its fertile soil, drained by the meandering Red River flowing northward into Lake Winnipeg, supports a large agriculture industry. Devils Lake, the largest natural lake in the state, is also found in the east.
Eastern North Dakota is overall flat; however, there are significant hills and buttes in western North Dakota. Most of the state is covered in grassland; crops cover most of eastern North Dakota but become increasingly sparse in the center and farther west. Natural trees in North Dakota are found usually where there is good drainage, such as the ravines and valley near the Pembina Gorge and Killdeer Mountains, the Turtle Mountains, the hills around Devil 's Lake, in the dunes area of McHenry County in central North Dakota, and along the Sheyenne Valley slopes and the Sheyenne delta. This diverse terrain supports nearly 2,000 species of plants. The state of North Dakota is home to the geographical center of North America near Rugby, North Dakota
North Dakota has a continental climate with hot summers and cold winters. The temperature differences are quite significant because of its far inland position and being in the center of the Northern Hemisphere, with roughly equal distances to the North Pole and the Equator. As such, summers are almost subtropical in nature, but winters are cold enough to ensure plant hardiness is very low.
Native American peoples lived in what is now North Dakota for thousands of years before the coming of Europeans. The known tribes included the Mandan people (maybe from around the 11th century), while the first Hidatsa group arrived a few hundred years later. They both assembled in villages on tributaries to Missouri River in what would become the west central North Dakota. Crow Indians travelled the plains from the west to visit and trade with the related Hidatsas after the split between them - probably in the 17th century. Later came divisions of the Dakota people - the Lakota, the Santee and the Yanktonai. The Assiniboine and the Plains Cree undertook southward journeys to the village Indians, either for trade or for war. The Shoshone Indians in present - day Wyoming and Montana may have carried out attacks on Indian enemies so far east as the Missouri. A group of Cheyennes lived in a village of earth lodges at the lower Sheyenne River (Biesterfeldt Site) for decades in the 18th century. Due to attacks by Crees, Assiniboines and Chippewas armed with fire weapons they left the area around 1780 and crossed the Missouri some time after. A band of the few Sotaio Indians lived east of Missouri River and met the uprooted Cheyennes before the end of the century. They soon followed the Cheyennes across the Missouri and lived among them south of Cannonball River. Eventually the Cheyenne and the Sutaio became one tribe and turned into mounted buffalo hunters with ranges mainly outside North Dakota. Before the middle of the 19th century, the Arikara entered the upcoming state from the south and joined the Mandan and Hidatsa. With time, a number of Indians entered into treaties with the United States. Many of the treaties defined the territory of a specific tribe (see the map).
The first European to reach the area was the French - Canadian trader Pierre Gaultier, sieur de La Vérendrye, who led an exploration and trading party to the Mandan villages in 1738. guided by Assiniboine Indians.
In 1762 the region became part of Spanish Louisiana until 1802.
Dakota Territory was settled sparsely by European Americans until the late 19th century, when the railroads were constructed into the region. With the advantage of grants of land, they vigorously marketed their properties, extolling the region as ideal for agriculture. An omnibus bill for statehood for North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington, titled the Enabling Act of 1889, was passed on February 22, 1889 during the administration of Grover Cleveland. His successor, Benjamin Harrison, signed the proclamations formally admitting North Dakota and South Dakota to the Union on November 2, 1889.
The rivalry between the two new states presented a dilemma of which was to be admitted first. Harrison directed Secretary of State James G. Blaine to shuffle the papers and obscure from him which he was signing first and the actual order went unrecorded, thus no one knows which of the Dakotas was admitted first. However, since North Dakota alphabetically appears before South Dakota, its proclamation was published first in the Statutes At Large. Since then, it has become common to list the Dakotas alphabetically and thus North Dakota is usually listed as the 39th state.
Unrest among wheat farmers, especially among Norwegian immigrants, led to a populist political movement centered in the Non Partisan League ("NPL '') around the time of World War I, during which it ran candidates on the Republican ticket (yet merging into the Democratic Party after World War II). It tried to insulate North Dakota from the power of out - of - state banks and corporations. In addition to founding the state - owned Bank of North Dakota and North Dakota Mill and Elevator (both still in existence), the NPL established a state - owned railroad line (later sold to the Soo Line Railroad). Anti-corporate laws virtually prohibited a corporation or bank from owning title to land zoned as farmland. These laws, still in force today, after having been upheld by state and federal courts, make it almost impossible to foreclose on farmland, as even after foreclosure, the property title can not be held by a bank or mortgage company. Furthermore, the Bank of North Dakota, having powers similar to a Federal Reserve branch bank, exercised its power to limit the issuance of subprime mortgages and their collateralization in the form of derivative instruments, and so prevented a collapse of housing prices within the state in the wake of 2008 's financial crisis.
The original North Dakota State Capitol in Bismarck burned to the ground on December 28, 1930. It was replaced by a limestone - faced art deco skyscraper that still stands today. A round of federal investment and construction projects began in the 1950s, including the Garrison Dam and the Minot and Grand Forks Air Force bases.
There was a boom in oil exploration in western North Dakota in the late 1970s and early 1980s, as rising petroleum prices made development profitable. This boom came to an end after petroleum prices declined.
In recent years the state has had a strong economy, with unemployment lower than the national average and strong job and population growth. Much of the growth has been based on development of the Bakken oil fields in the western part of the state. Estimates as to the remaining amount of oil vary, with some estimating over 100 years worth of oil remaining in the area.
The United States Census Bureau estimates North Dakota 's population was 757,952 on July 1, 2016, a 12.7 % increase since the 2010 United States Census. This makes North Dakota the U.S. state with the largest percentage in population growth since 2011. Only Alaska, Wyoming, and Vermont have fewer residents.
From fewer than 2,000 people in 1870, North Dakota 's population grew to near 680,000 by 1930. Growth then slowed, and the population has fluctuated slightly over the past seven decades, hitting a low of 617,761 in the 1970 census, with 642,200 in the 2000 census. Except for Native Americans, the North Dakota population has a lesser percentage of minorities than in the nation as a whole. As of 2011, 20.7 % of North Dakota 's population younger than age 1 were minorities. The center of population of North Dakota is in Wells County, near Sykeston.
Note: Births in table do n't add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.
Throughout the latter half of the nineteenth century and into the early twentieth century, North Dakota, along with most of the midwest, experienced a mass influx of newcomers, from both the eastern United States and immigrants from Europe. North Dakota was a known popular destination for immigrant farmers and general laborers and their families, mostly from Norway, Sweden, Germany and the United Kingdom. Much of this settlement gravitated throughout the western side of the Red River Valley, as was similarly seen in South Dakota and in a parallel manner in Minnesota. This area is well known for its fertile lands. By the outbreak of the First World War, this was among North America 's richest farming regions. But a period of higher rainfall ended, and many migrants were n't successful in the arid conditions. Many family plots were too small to farm successfully.
From the 1930s until the end of the 20th century, North Dakota 's population gradually declined, interrupted by a couple of brief increases. Young adults with university degrees were particularly likely to leave the state. With the advancing process of mechanization of agricultural practices, and environmental conditions requiring larger landholdings for successful agriculture, subsistence farming proved to be too risky for families. Many people moved to urban areas for jobs.
Since the late 20th century, one of the major causes of migration from North Dakota is the lack of skilled jobs for college graduates. Expansion of economic development programs has been urged to create skilled and high - tech jobs, but the effectiveness of such programs has been open to debate. During the first decade of the 21st century, the population increased in large part because of jobs in the oil industry related to development of shale - oil fields.
Elsewhere, the Native American population has increased as some reservations have attracted people back from urban areas.
Immigration
North Dakota is one of the top resettlement locations for refugees proportionally. According to the U.S. Office of Refugee Resettlement, in 2013 -- 2014 "more than 68 refugees '' per 100,000 North Dakotans were settled in the state. In fiscal year 2014, 582 refugees settled in the state. Fargo Mayor Mahoney said North Dakota accepting the most refugees per capita should be celebrated given the benefits they bring to the state. In 2015, Lutheran Social Services of North Dakota, the state 's only resettlement agency, was "awarded $458,090 in federal funding to improve refugee services. ''
Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 3,323 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 21,110 people. Of the residents of North Dakota, 69.8 % were born in North Dakota, 27.2 % were born in a different state, 0.6 % were born in Puerto Rico, U.S. Island areas, or born abroad to American parent (s), and 2.4 % were born in another country. The age and gender distributions approximate the national average.
According to the 2010 Census, the racial and ethnic composition of North Dakota was as follows:
Throughout the mid-19th century, Dakota Territory was still dominated by Native Americans. Warfare and disease reduced their population at the same time Europeans and Americans were settling in the state.
In the 21st century, most North Dakotans are of Northern European descent. As of 2009, the seven largest European ancestry groups in North Dakota are:
North Dakota has the most churches per capita of any state. Additionally, North Dakota has the highest percentage of church - going population of any state.
A 2001 survey indicated 35 % of North Dakota 's population was Lutheran, and 30 % was Catholic. Other religious groups represented were Methodists (7 %), Baptists (6 %), the Assemblies of God (3 %), Presbyterians (1.27 %), and Jehovah 's Witnesses (1 %). Christians with unstated or other denominational affiliations, including other Protestants and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church), totaled 3 %, bringing the total Christian population to 86 %. There were an estimated 920 Muslims and 730 Jews in the state in 2000. Three percent of respondents answered "no religion '' on the survey, and 6 % declined to answer.
The largest church bodies by number of adherents in 2010 were the Roman Catholic Church with 167,349; the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America with 163,209; and the Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod with 22,003.
In 2010, 94.86 % (584,496) of North Dakotans over 5 years old spoke English as their primary language. 5.14 % (31,684) of North Dakotans spoke a language other than English. 1.39 % (8,593) spoke German, 1.37 % (8,432) spoke Spanish, and 0.30 % (1,847) spoke Norwegian. Other languages spoken included Serbo - Croatian (0.19 %), Chinese and Japanese (both 0.15 %), and Native American languages and French (both 0.13 %).
In 2000, 2.5 % of the population spoke German in addition to English, reflecting early 20th century immigration.
In the 21st century, North Dakota has an increasing population of Native Americans, who in 2010 made up 5.44 % of the population. By the early 19th century the territory was dominated by Siouan - speaking peoples, whose territory stretched west from the Great Lakes area. The word "Dakota '' is a Sioux (Lakota / Dakota) word meaning "allies '' or "friends ''.
The primary historic tribal nations in or around North Dakota, are the Lakota and the Dakota ("The Great Sioux Nation '' or "Oceti Sakowin, '' meaning the seven council fires), the Blackfoot, the Cheyenne, the Chippewa (known as Ojibwe in Canada), and the Mandan. The federally recognized tribes have Indian reservations in the state, where as sovereign nations and enjoy a political status higher than the state of North Dakota.
Social gatherings known as "powwows '' (or wacipis in Lakota / Dakota) continue to be an important part of Native American culture, and are held regularly throughout the state. Throughout Native American history, powwows were held, usually in the spring, to rejoice at the beginning of new life and the end of the winter cold. These events brought Native American tribes together for singing and dancing and allowed them to meet with old friends and acquaintances, as well as to make new ones. Many powwows also held religious significance for some tribes. Today, powwows are still a part of the Native American culture, and are attended by Native and non-Natives alike. In North Dakota, the United Tribes International Powwow, held each September in the capital of Bismarck, is one of the largest powwows in the United States.
A pow wow is an occasion for parades and Native American dancers in regalia, with many dancing styles presented. It is traditional for male dancers to wear regalia decorated with beads, quills and eagle feathers; male grass dancers wear colorful fringe regalia; and male fancy dancers wear brightly colored feathers. Female dancers dance much more subtly than the male dancers. Fancy female dancers wear cloth, beaded moccasins and jewelry, while the jingle dress dancer wears a dress made of metal cones. Inter-tribal dances during the pow wow, allow everyone (even spectators) can take part in the dancing.
Around 1870 many European immigrants from Norway settled in North Dakota 's northeastern corner, especially near the Red River. Icelanders also arrived from Canada. Pembina was a town of many Norwegians when it was founded; they worked on family farms. They started Lutheran churches and schools, greatly outnumbering other denominations in the area. This group has unique foods such as lefse and lutefisk. The continent 's largest Scandinavian event, Norsk Høstfest, is celebrated each September in Minot. The Icelandic State Park in Pembina County and an annual Icelandic festival reflect immigrants from that country, who are also descended from Scandinavians.
Old World folk customs have persisted for decades in North Dakota, with revival of techniques in weaving, silver crafting, and wood carving. Traditional turf - roof houses are displayed in parks; this style originated in Iceland. A stave church is a landmark in Minot. Ethnic Norwegians constitute nearly one - third or 32.3 % of Minot 's total population and 30.8 % of North Dakota 's total population.
Ethnic Germans who had settled in Russia for several generations grew dissatisfied in the nineteenth century because of economic problems and because of the revocation of religious freedoms for Mennonites and Hutterites. By 1900, about 100,000 immigrated to the U.S., settling primarily in North Dakota, South Dakota, Kansas and Nebraska. The south - central part of North Dakota became known as "the German - Russian triangle ''. By 1910, about 60,000 ethnic Germans from Russia lived in Central North Dakota. They were Lutherans and Roman Catholics who had kept many German customs of the time when their ancestors immigrated to Russia. They were committed to agriculture. Traditional iron cemetery grave markers are a famous art form practiced by ethnic Germans.
North Dakota 's major fine art museums and venues include the Chester Fritz Auditorium, Empire Arts Center, the Fargo Theatre, North Dakota Museum of Art, and the Plains Art Museum. The Bismarck - Mandan Symphony Orchestra, Fargo - Moorhead Symphony Orchestra, Greater Grand Forks Symphony Orchestra, Minot Symphony Orchestra and Great Plains Harmony Chorus are full - time professional and semi-professional musical ensembles that perform concerts and offer educational programs to the community.
North Dakotan musicians of many genres include blues guitarist Jonny Lang, country music singer Lynn Anderson, jazz and traditional pop singer and songwriter Peggy Lee, big band leader Lawrence Welk, and pop singer Bobby Vee. The state is also home to Indie rock June Panic (of Fargo, signed to Secretly Canadian).
Ed Schultz is known around the country as the host of progressive talk radio show, The Ed Schultz Show, and The Ed Show on MSNBC. Shadoe Stevens hosted American Top 40 from 1988 to 1995. Josh Duhamel is an Emmy Award - winning actor known for his roles in All My Children and Las Vegas. Nicole Linkletter and CariDee English were winning contestants of Cycles 5 and 7, respectively, of America 's Next Top Model. Kellan Lutz has appeared in movies such as Stick It, Accepted, Prom Night, and Twilight.
Outdoor activities such as hunting and fishing are hobbies for many North Dakotans. Ice fishing, skiing, and snowmobiling are also popular during the winter months. Residents of North Dakota may own or visit a cabin along a lake. Popular sport fish include walleye, perch, and northern pike.
The western terminus of the North Country National Scenic Trail is on Lake Sakakawea, where it abuts the Lewis and Clark Trail.
Agriculture is North Dakota 's largest industry, although petroleum, food processing, and technology are also major industries. It is the fastest - growing state in U.S. by GDP. Its growth rate is about 8.3 %. The economy of North Dakota had a gross domestic product of $36.8 billion in 2013. The per capita income in 2013 was $50,899, ranked 16th in the nation. The three - year median household income from 2002 -- 2004 was $39,594, ranking 37th in the U.S.
According to Gallup data, North Dakota led the U.S. in job creation in 2013 and has done so since 2009. The state has a Job Creation Index score of 40, nearly 10 points ahead of its nearest competitors. North Dakota has added 56,600 private - sector jobs since 2011, creating an annual growth rate of 7.32 percent. According to statistics released on March 25, 2014 by the Bureau of Economic Analysis, North Dakota 's personal income grew 7.6 percent in 2013 to $41.3 billion. The state has recorded the highest personal income growth among all states for the sixth time since 2007. North Dakota 's personal income growth is tied to various private business sectors such as agriculture, energy development, and construction.
"Just over 21 % of North Dakota 's total 2013 gross domestic product (GDP) of $49.77 billion comes from natural resources and mining. ''
The state levies a 5 % production tax on the gross value at the wellhead of all oil produced in the state, with some exceptions. The state also levies an oil extraction (excise) tax on produced oil. In 2012 the state collected $1.68 billion in oil revenues, up 71.4 % over its 2011 collections. Oil taxes provide 42.3 % of the state 's total net revenues, nearly four times the individual income tax and more than eight times the revenue received from corporate income taxes. The state 's 5 % oil production tax is split between state and county governments. The state treasurer takes 20 % that it then allocates to cities and to an impact grant program. The remaining 80 % is split between the state and county governments according to a mandated formula.
The state created a legacy fund in 2010 -- similar to a sovereign wealth fund in foreign nations -- to salt away some of the state 's revenues from oil and gas production. By law, 30 % of the state 's oil and gas taxes (after some mandated distributions) are deposited in the legacy fund. This has resulted in oil and gas tax collections of $446.3 million for fiscal year 2012, $824.7 million for fiscal year 2013 and $926.6 million for fiscal year 2014.
North Dakota is the only state with a state - owned bank, the Bank of North Dakota in Bismarck, and a state - owned flour mill, the North Dakota Mill and Elevator in Grand Forks. These were established by the NPL before World War II.
Fargo is home to the second - largest campus of Microsoft with 1,700 employees, and Amazon.com employs several hundred in Grand Forks.
As of May 2014, the state 's unemployment rate is the lowest in the nation at 2.6 %. It has not reached 5 percent since 1987. At end of 2010, the state per capita income was ranked 17th in the nation, the biggest increase of any state in a decade from rank 38th. The reduction in the unemployment rate and growth in per capita income is attributable to the oil boom in the state. Due to a combination of oil - related development and investing in technology and service industries, North Dakota has had a budget surplus every year since the 2008 market crash.
North Dakota highest unemployment rate since the late 20th century was 6.8 %, recorded in 1983. That is below the current unemployment rate of the majority of states.
North Dakota 's earliest industries were fur trading and agriculture. Although less than 10 % of the population is employed in the agricultural sector, it remains a major part of the state 's economy. With industrial - scale farming, it ranks 9th in the nation in the value of crops and 18th in total value of agricultural products sold. Large farms generate the most crops. The share of people in the state employed in agriculture is comparatively high: as of 2008, only approximately 2 -- 3 percent of the population of the United States is directly employed in agriculture. North Dakota has about 90 % of its land area in farms with 27,500,000 acres (111,000 km) of cropland, the third - largest amount in the nation. Between 2002 and 2007, total cropland increased by about one million acres (4,000 km); North Dakota was the only state showing an increase. Over the same period, 1,800,000 acres (7,300 km) were shifted into soybean and corn monoculture production, the largest such shift in the United States. Agriculturalists are concerned about too much monoculture, as it makes the economy at risk from insect or crop diseases affecting a major crop. In addition, this development has adversely affected habitats of wildlife and birds, and the balance of the ecosystem.
The state is the largest producer in the U.S. of many cereal grains, including barley (36 % of U.S. crop), durum wheat (58 %), hard red spring wheat (48 %), oats (17 %), and combined wheat of all types (15 %). It is the second leading producer of buckwheat (20 %). As of 2007, corn became the state 's largest crop produced, although it is only 2 % of total U.S. production. The Corn Belt extends to North Dakota, but is situated more on the edge of the region instead of in its center. Corn yields are high in the southeast part of the state and smaller in other parts of the state. Most of the cereal grains are grown for livestock feed. An increasing number of livestock are being fed corn.
The state is the leading producer of many oilseeds, including 92 % of the U.S. canola crop, 94 % of flax seed, 53 % of sunflower seeds, 18 % of safflower seeds, and 62 % of mustard seed. Canola is suited to the cold winters and it matures fast. Processing of canola for oil production produces canola meal as a by - product. The by - product is a high - protein animal feed.
Soybeans are also an increasingly important crop, with 400,000 acres (1,600 km) additional planted between 2002 and 2007. Soybeans are a major crop in the eastern part of the state, and cultivation is common in the southeast part of the state. Soybeans were not grown at all in North Dakota in the 1940s, but the crop has become especially common since 1998. In North Dakota soybeans have to mature fast, because of the comparatively short growing season. Soybeans are grown for livestock feed.
North Dakota is the second leading producer of sugarbeets, which are grown mostly in the Red River Valley. The state is also the largest producer of honey, dry edible peas and beans, lentils, and the third - largest producer of potatoes.
North Dakota 's economy is aided by nearly $1 billion in federal agricultural subsidies annually.
North Dakota 's Top Agricultural Commodities (according to the USDA as of 2011)
The energy industry is a major contributor to the economy. North Dakota has both coal and oil reserves. Shale gas is also produced. Lignite coal reserves in Western North Dakota are used to generate about 90 % of the electricity consumed, and electricity is also exported to nearby states. North Dakota has the second largest lignite coal production in the U.S. However, lignite coal is the lowest grade coal. There are larger and higher grade coal reserves (anthracite, bituminous coal and subbituminous coal) in other U.S. states.
Oil was discovered near Tioga in 1951, generating 53 million barrels (8,400,000 m) of oil a year by 1984. Recoverable oil reserves have jumped dramatically recently. The oil reserves of the Bakken Formation may hold up to 400 billion barrels (6.4 × 10 m) of oil, 25 times larger than the reserves in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. A report issued in April 2008 by the U.S. Geological Survey estimates the oil recoverable by current technology in the Bakken formation is two orders of magnitude less, in the range of 3 billion barrels (480 × 10 ^ m) to 4.3 billion barrels (680 × 10 ^ m), with a mean of 3.65 billion barrels (580 × 10 ^ m).
North - Western North Dakota is the center of an oil boom: the Williston, Tioga, Stanley and Minot - Burlington communities are having rapid growth that strains housing and local services. As of 2012, the state is the 2nd - largest oil producer in the U.S., with an average of 575,490 barrels per day.
The Great Plains region, which includes the state of North Dakota, has been referred to as "the Saudi Arabia of wind energy. '' Development of wind energy in North Dakota has been cost effective because the state has large rural expanses and wind speeds seldom go below 10 mph.
North Dakota is considered the least visited state, owing, in part, to its not having a major tourist attraction. Nonetheless, tourism is North Dakota 's third largest industry, contributing more than $3 billion into the state 's economy annually. Outdoor attractions like the 144 - mile Maah Daah Hey Trail and activities like fishing and hunting attract visitors. The state is known for the Lewis & Clark Trail and being the winter camp of the Corps of Discovery. Areas popular with visitors include Theodore Roosevelt National Park in the western part of the state. The park often exceeds 475,000 visitors each year.
Regular events in the state that attract tourists include Norsk Høstfest in Minot, billed as North America 's largest Scandinavian festival; the Medora Musical; and the North Dakota State Fair. The state also receives a significant amount of visitors from the neighboring Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan, particularly when the exchange rate is favorable.
North Dakota has six level - II trauma centers, 44 hospitals, 52 rural health clinics, and 80 nursing homes. Major provider networks include Sanford, PrimeCare, Trinity, and Altru.
Blue Cross Blue Shield of North Dakota is the largest medical insurer in the state. North Dakota expanded Medicaid in 2014, and its health insurance exchange is the federal site, HealthCare.gov.
North Dakota law requires pharmacies, other than hospital dispensaries and pre-existing stores, to be majority - owned by pharmacists. Voters rejected a proposal to change the law in 2014.
The North Dakota Department of Emergency Services provides 24 / 7 communication and coordination for more than 50 agencies. In addition, "it administers federal disaster recovery programs and the Homeland Security Grant Program ''. In 2011, the Department selected Geo - Comm, Inc. "for the Statewide Seamless Base Map Project, '' which will facilitate "identifying locations 9 -- 1 -- 1 callers '' and route emergency calls based on locations. In 1993 the state adopted the Burkle addressing system numbering rural roads and buildings to aid in the delivery of emergency services.
Transportation in North Dakota is overseen by the North Dakota Department of Transportation. The major Interstate highways are Interstate 29 and Interstate 94, with I - 29 and I - 94 meeting at Fargo, with I - 29 oriented north to south along the eastern edge of the state, and I - 94 bisecting the state from east to west between Minnesota and Montana. A unique feature of the North Dakota Interstate Highway system is virtually all of it is paved in concrete, rather than blacktop, because of the extreme weather conditions it must endure. The largest rail systems in the state are operated by BNSF and the Canadian Pacific Railway. Many branch lines formerly used by BNSF and Canadian Pacific Railway are now operated by the Dakota, Missouri Valley and Western Railroad and the Red River Valley and Western Railroad.
North Dakota 's principal airports are the Hector International Airport (FAR) in Fargo, Grand Forks International Airport (GFK), Bismarck Municipal Airport (BIS), Minot International Airport (MOT) and Sloulin Field International Airport (ISN) in Williston.
Amtrak 's Empire Builder runs through North Dakota, making stops at Fargo (2: 13 am westbound, 3: 35 am eastbound), Grand Forks (4: 52 am westbound, 12: 57 am eastbound), Minot (around 9 am westbound and around 9: 30 pm eastbound), and four other stations. It is the descendant of the famous line of the same name run by the Great Northern Railway, which was built by the tycoon James J. Hill and ran from St. Paul to Seattle.
Intercity bus service is provided by Greyhound and Jefferson Lines. Public transit in North Dakota includes daily fixed - route bus systems in Fargo, Bismarck - Mandan, Grand Forks, and Minot, paratransit service in 57 communities, along with multi-county rural transit systems.
As with the federal government of the United States, political power in North Dakota state government is divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.
The Constitution of North Dakota and the North Dakota Century Code form the formal law of the state; the North Dakota Administrative Code incorporates additional rules and policies of state agencies.
The executive branch is headed by the elected governor. The current governor is Doug Burgum, a Republican who took office December 15, 2016 after his predecessor, Jack Dalrymple did not seek reelection. The current Lieutenant Governor of North Dakota is Brent Sanford, who is also the President of the Senate. The offices of governor and lieutenant governor have four - year terms, which are next up for election in 2020. The governor has a cabinet consisting of appointed leaders of various state government agencies, called commissioners. The other elected constitutional offices are secretary of state, attorney general, state auditor, and state treasurer.
The North Dakota Legislative Assembly is a bicameral body consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The state has 47 districts. Each district has one senator and two representatives. Both senators and representatives are elected to four - year terms. The state 's legal code is named the North Dakota Century Code.
North Dakota 's court system has four levels. Municipal courts serve the cities, and most cases start in the district courts, which are courts of general jurisdiction. There are 42 district court judges in seven judicial districts. Appeals from the trial courts and challenges to certain governmental decisions are heard by the North Dakota Court of Appeals, consisting of three - judge panels. The five - justice North Dakota Supreme Court hears all appeals from the district courts and the Court of Appeals.
Historically, North Dakota was populated by the Mandan, Hidatsa, Lakota, and Ojibwe, and later by the Sanish and Métis. Today, five federally recognized tribes within the boundaries of North Dakota have independent, sovereign relationships with the federal government and territorial reservations:
North Dakota 's United States Senators are John Hoeven (R) and Heidi Heitkamp (D - NPL). The state has one at - large congressional district represented by Representative Kevin Cramer (R).
Federal court cases are heard in the United States District Court for the District of North Dakota, which holds court in Bismarck, Fargo, Grand Forks, and Minot. Appeals are heard by the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals based in St. Louis, Missouri.
The major political parties in North Dakota are the Democratic - NPL and the Republican Party. As of 2007, the Constitution Party and the Libertarian Party are also organized parties in the state.
At the state level, the governorship has been held by the Republican Party since 1992, along with a majority of the state legislature and statewide officers. Dem - NPL showings were strong in the 2000 governor 's race, and in the 2006 legislative elections, but the League has not had a major breakthrough since the administration of former state governor George Sinner.
The Republican Party presidential candidate usually carries the state; in 2004, George W. Bush won with 62.9 % of the vote. Of all the Democratic presidential candidates since 1892, only Grover Cleveland (1892, one of three votes), Woodrow Wilson (1912 and 1916), Franklin D. Roosevelt (1932 and 1936), and Lyndon B. Johnson (1964) received Electoral College votes from North Dakota.
On the other hand, Dem - NPL candidates for North Dakota 's federal Senate and House seats won every election between 1982 and 2008, and the state 's federal delegation was entirely Democratic from 1987 to 2011.
North Dakota has a slightly progressive income tax structure; the five brackets of state income tax rates are 2.1 %, 3.92 % 4.34 %, 5.04 %, and 5.54 % as of 2004. In 2005 North Dakota ranked 22nd highest by per capita state taxes. The sales tax in North Dakota is 5 % for most items. The state allows municipalities to institute local sales taxes and special local taxes, such as the 1.75 % supplemental sales tax in Grand Forks. Excise taxes are levied on the purchase price or market value of aircraft registered in North Dakota. The state imposes a use tax on items purchased elsewhere but used within North Dakota. Owners of real property in North Dakota pay property tax to their county, municipality, school district, and special taxing districts.
The Tax Foundation ranks North Dakota as the state with the 20th most "business friendly '' tax climate in the nation. Tax Freedom Day arrives on April 1, 10 days earlier than the national Tax Freedom Day. In 2006, North Dakota was the state with the lowest number of returns filed by taxpayers with an Adjusted Gross Income of over $1 M -- only 333.
Fargo is the largest city in North Dakota and is the economic hub for the region. Bismarck, in south - central North Dakota along the banks of the Missouri River, has been North Dakota 's capital city since 1883, first as capital of the Dakota Territory, and then as state capital since 1889. Minot is a city in northern North Dakota and is home of the North Dakota State Fair and Norsk Høstfest. A few miles west of Bismarck on the west side of the Missouri River, the city of Mandan was named for the Mandan Indians who inhabited the area at the time of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. New Salem is the site of the world 's largest statue of a holstein cow; the world 's largest statue of a bison is in Jamestown.
Grand Forks and Devils Lake are in scenic areas of North Dakota. West Fargo, the fifth largest city in North Dakota, is one of the fastest growing cities. and was recognized as a Playful City USA by the KaBOOM! Foundation in 2011. Williston is near the confluence of the Missouri River and the Yellowstone River near Montana. Medora in the North Dakota Badlands hosts the Medora Musical every summer and is the gateway to Theodore Roosevelt National Park. Fort Yates, along the Missouri River on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation, claims to host the final resting place of Hunkpapa Lakota leader Sitting Bull (Mobridge, South Dakota also claims his gravesite).
The state has 11 public colleges and universities, five tribal community colleges, and four private schools. The largest institutions are North Dakota State University and the University of North Dakota.
The higher education system consists of the following institutions:
North Dakota University System (public institutions):
Tribal institutions:
Private institutions:
"The Flickertail State '' is one of North Dakota 's nicknames and is derived from Richardson 's ground squirrel (Spermophilus richardsonii), a very common animal in the region. The ground squirrel constantly flicks its tail in a distinctive manner. In 1953, legislation to make the ground squirrel the state emblem was voted down in the state legislature.
The state has 10 daily newspapers, the largest being The Forum of Fargo - Moorhead. Other weekly and monthly publications (most of which are fully supported by advertising) are also available. The most prominent of these is the alternative weekly High Plains Reader.
The state 's oldest radio station, WDAY - AM, was launched on May 23, 1922. North Dakota 's three major radio markets center around Fargo, Bismarck, and Grand Forks, though stations broadcast in every region of the state. Several new stations were built in Williston in the early 2010s. North Dakota has 34 AM and 88 FM radio stations. KFGO in Fargo has the largest audience.
Broadcast television in North Dakota started on April 3, 1953, when KCJB - TV (now KXMC - TV) in Minot started operations. North Dakota 's television media markets are Fargo - Grand Forks, (117th largest nationally), including the eastern half of the state, and Minot - Bismarck (152nd), making up the western half of the state. There are currently 31 full - power television stations, arranged into 10 networks, with 17 digital subchannels.
Public broadcasting in North Dakota is provided by Prairie Public, with statewide television and radio networks affiliated with PBS and NPR. Public access television stations open to community programming are offered on cable systems in Bismarck, Dickinson, Fargo, and Jamestown.
Coordinates: 47 ° N 100 ° W / 47 ° N 100 ° W / 47; - 100
|
what season do monica and chandler get together | Friends (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of Friends, an American sitcom created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman, premiered on NBC on September 25, 1997. Friends was produced by Bright / Kauffman / Crane Productions, in association with Warner Bros. Television. The season contains 24 episodes and concluded airing on May 7, 1998. It was one of three seasons included on TV Guide 's list of the Top 100 TV Seasons.
Joey and Chandler argue with Monica and Rachel over who knows who better so Ross designs a quiz in which the winner makes a compromise - the guys give up the chick and duck but the girls have to give up their apartment. Meanwhile, Phoebe goes to the hospital for the embryos to be implanted into her uterus, leading to a tense wait to find out if she is pregnant.
|
what type of tissue is the pancreas made of | Pancreas - wikipedia
The pancreas / ˈpæŋkriəs / is an organ of the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the abdominal cavity behind the stomach.
The pancreas is a mixed gland, having both an endocrine and an exocrine function. As an endocrine gland, it secretes into the blood several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. As an exocrine gland, it secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. This juice contains bicarbonate, which neutralizes acid entering the duodenum from the stomach; and digestive enzymes, which break down carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in ingested food entering the duodenum from the stomach.
The pancreas is an organ that in humans lies in the upper left part of the abdomen. It is found behind the stomach. The pancreas is about 15 cm (6 in) long.
Anatomically, the pancreas is divided into the head of pancreas, the neck of pancreas, the body of pancreas, and the tail of pancreas. The head is surrounded by the duodenum in its concavity. The head surrounds two blood vessels, the superior mesenteric artery and vein. From the back of the head emerges a small uncinate process, which extends to the back of the superior mesenteric vein and ends at the superior mesenteric artery. The neck is about 2.5 cm (1 in) long and lies between the head and the body and in front of the superior mesenteric artery and vein. Its front upper surface supports the pylorus (the base) of the stomach. The neck arises from the left upper part of the front of the head. It is directed first upward and forward, and then upward and to the left to join the body; it is somewhat flattened from above downward and backward. On the right it is grooved by the gastroduodenal artery. The body is the largest part of the pancreas and lies behind the pylorus, at the same level as the transpyloric plane. The tail ends by abutting the spleen.
The pancreas is a secretory structure with an internal hormonal role (endocrine) and an external digestive role (exocrine). The endocrine part is composed of hormonal tissue distributed along the pancreas in discrete units called islets of Langerhans. Islets of Langerhans have a well - established structure and form density routes through the exocrine tissue. The exocrine part has two main ducts, the main pancreatic duct and the accessory pancreatic duct. These drain enzymes through the ampulla of Vater into the duodenum.
The upper margin of the pancreas is blunt and flat to the right, and narrow and sharp to the left, near the tail.
It begins on the right in the omental tuber, and is in relation with the celiac artery, from which the hepatic artery courses to the right just above the gland, while the splenic artery runs toward the left in a groove along this border.
The lower margin of the pancreas separates the posterior from the inferior surface; the superior mesenteric vessels emerge under its right extremity.
The frontal margin of the pancreas separates the anterior from the inferior surface of the pancreas, and along this border the two layers of the transverse mesocolon diverge from one another, one passing upward over the frontal surface, the other backward over the inferior surface.
The inferior surface of the pancreas is narrow on the right, broader on the left, and covered by peritoneum; it lies upon the duodenojejunal flexure and on some coils of the jejunum; its left extremity rests on the splenic flexure of the colon.
The anterior surface of the pancreas faces the front of the abdomen. Most of the right half of this surface is in contact with the transverse colon, with only areolar tissue intervening.
From its upper part, it joins to the neck of the pancreas at a well - marked prominence, the omental tuber, which abuts the lesser omentum. Its right edge is marked by a groove for the gastroduodenal artery.
The lower part of the right half, below the transverse colon, is covered by peritoneum continuous with the inferior layer of the transverse mesocolon, and is in contact with the coils of the small intestine.
The superior mesenteric artery passes down in front of the left half across the uncinate process; the superior mesenteric vein runs upward on the right side of the artery and, behind the neck, joins with the lienal vein to form the portal vein.
The pancreas receives blood from branches of both the coeliac artery and superior mesenteric artery. The splenic artery runs along the top margin of the pancreas, and supplies the neck, body and tail of the pancreas through its pancreatic branches, the largest of which is called the greater pancreatic artery. The superior and inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries run along the anterior and posterior surfaces of the head of the pancreas at its border with the duodenum. These supply the head of the pancreas.
The body and neck of the pancreas drain into the splenic vein; the head drains into the superior mesenteric and portal veins.
The pancreas contains tissue with an endocrine and exocrine role, and this division is also visible when the pancreas is viewed under a microscope.
The tissues with an endocrine role can be seen under staining as lightly - stained clusters of cells, called pancreatic islets (also called islets of Langerhans).
Darker - staining cells form clusters called acini, which are arranged in lobes separated by a thin fibrous barrier. The secretory cells of each acinus surround a small intercalated duct. Because of their secretory function, these cells have many small granules of zymogens that are visible. The intercalated ducts drain into larger ducts within the lobule, and finally interlobular ducts. The ducts are lined by a single layer of columnar epithelium. With increasing diameter, several layers of columnar cells may be seen.
The size of the pancreas varies considerably. Several anatomical variations exist, relating to the embryological development of the two pancreatic buds. The pancreas develops from these buds on either side of the duodenum. The ventral bud eventually rotates to lie next to the dorsal bud, eventually fusing. If the two buds, each having a duct, do not fuse, a pancreas may exist with two separate ducts, a condition known as a pancreas divisum. This condition has no physiologic consequence. If the ventral bud does not fully rotate, an annular pancreas may exist. This is where sections of the pancreas completely encircle the duodenum, and may even lead to duodenal atresia.
An accessory pancreatic duct may exist if the main duct of the pancreas does not regress.
As part of embryonic development, the pancreas forms from the embryonic foregut and is therefore of endodermal origin. Pancreatic development begins with the formation of a ventral and a dorsal pancreatic bud. Each structure communicates with the foregut through a duct. The dorsal pancreatic bud forms the head, neck, body, and tail, whereas the ventral pancreatic bud forms the uncinate process.
Differential rotation and fusion of the ventral and dorsal pancreatic buds results in the formation of the definitive pancreas. As the duodenum rotates to the right, it carries with it the ventral pancreatic bud and common bile duct. Upon reaching its final destination, the ventral pancreatic bud fuses with the much larger dorsal pancreatic bud. At this point of fusion, the main ducts of the ventral and dorsal pancreatic buds fuse, forming the main pancreatic duct. The duct of the dorsal bud regresses, leaving the main pancreatic duct.
Differentiation of cells of the pancreas proceeds through two different pathways, corresponding to the dual endocrine and exocrine functions of the pancreas. In progenitor cells of the exocrine pancreas, important molecules that induce differentiation include follistatin, fibroblast growth factors, and activation of the Notch receptor system. Development of the exocrine acini progresses through three successive stages. These are the predifferentiated, protodifferentiated, and differentiated stages, which correspond to undetectable, low, and high levels of digestive enzyme activity, respectively.
The multi-potent pancreatic progenitor cells have the capacity to differentiate into any of the pancreatic cells: acinar cells, endocrine cells, and ductal cells. These progenitor cells are characterised by the co-expression of the transcription factors PDX1 and NKX6 - 1. Under the influence of neurogenin - 3 and ISL1, but in the absence of notch receptor signaling, these cells differentiate to form two lines of committed endocrine precursor cells. The first line, under the direction of a Pax gene, forms α - and γ - cells, which produce glucagon and pancreatic polypeptides, respectively. The second line, influenced by Pax - 6, produces beta cells (β -) and delta cells (δ -), which secrete insulin and somatostatin, respectively.
Insulin and glucagon can be detected in the human fetal circulation by the fourth or fifth month of fetal development.
The pancreas is involved in blood sugar control and metabolism within the body, and also in the secretion of substances (collectively pancreatic juice) which help digestion. Classically, these are divided into an "endocrine '' role, relating to the secretion of insulin and other substances within pancreatic islets and helping control blood sugar levels and metabolism within the body, and an "exocrine '' role, relating to the secretion of enzymes involved in digesting substances from outside of the body.
Approximately 3 million cell clusters called pancreatic islets are present in the pancreas. Within these islets are four main types of cells which are involved in the regulation of blood glucose levels. Each type of cell secretes a different type of hormone: α alpha cells secrete glucagon (increase glucose in blood), β beta cells secrete insulin (decrease glucose in blood), δ delta cells secrete somatostatin (regulates / stops α and β cells) and PP cells, or γ (gamma) cells, secrete pancreatic polypeptide. These act to control blood glucose through secreting glucagon to increase the levels of glucose, and insulin to decrease it.
The islets are crisscrossed by a dense network of capillaries. The capillaries of the islets are lined by layers of islet cells, and most endocrine cells are in direct contact with blood vessels, either by cytoplasmic processes or by direct apposition. The islets function independently from the digestive role played by the majority of pancreatic cells.
Activity of the cells in the islets is affected by the autonomic nervous system:
The pancreas plays a vital role in the digestive system. It secretes a fluid that contains enzymes into the duodenum. These enzymes help to break down carbohydrates (usually starch), proteins and lipids (fats). This role is called the "exocrine '' role of the pancreas. Cells are arranged in clusters called acini. Secretes into the middle of the acinus, which accumulates in intralobular ducts, which drain to the main pancreatic duct, which drains directly into the duodenum.
The cells are filled with granules containing the digestive enzymes. These are secreted in an inactive form termed zymogens or proenzymes. When released into the duodenum, they are activated by the enzyme enteropeptidase present in the lining of the duodenum. The proenzymes are cleaved, creating a cascade of activating enzymes: enteropeptidase activates the proenzyme trypsinogen by cleaving it to form trypsin. The free trypsin then cleaves the rest of the trypsinogen, as well as chymotrypsinogen to its active form chymotrypsin.
The pancreas secretes substances which help in the digestion of starch and other carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Proteases, the enzymes involved in the digestion of proteins, include trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen. The enzyme involved in the digestion of fats is lipase. Amylase, also secreted by the pancreas, breaks down starch (amylum) and other carbohydrates. The pancreas also secretes phospholipase A2, lysophospholipase, and cholesterol esterase.
Secretion of these proenzymes is via the hormones gastrin, cholecystokinin and secretin, which are secreted by cells in the stomach and duodenum in response to distension and / or food.
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and about 50 % of these genes are expressed in the normal pancreas. Less than 100 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the pancreas. Similar to the salivary glands, most of the pancreas specific genes encode for secreted proteins. Corresponding pancreas specific proteins are either expressed in the exocrine cellular compartment and have functions related to digestion of food uptake such as digestive chymotrypsinogen enzymes and pancreatic lipase PNLIP, or expressed in the various cells of the endocrine pancreatic islets and have functions related to secreted hormones such as insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide.
A perforation of the pancreas, which may lead to the secretion of digestive enzymes such as lipase and amylase into the abdominal cavity as well as subsequent pancreatic self - digestion and digestion and damage to organs within the abdomen, generally requires prompt and experienced medical intervention.
It is possible for one to live without a pancreas, provided that the person takes insulin for proper regulation of blood glucose concentration and pancreatic enzyme supplements to aid digestion.
Inflammation of the pancreas is known as pancreatitis. Pancreatitis is most often associated with recurrent gallstones or chronic alcohol use, although a variety of other causes, including measles, mumps, some medications, the congenital condition alpha - 1 antitrypsin deficiency and even some scorpion stings, may cause pancreatitis. Pancreatitis is likely to cause intense pain in the central abdomen, that often radiates to the back, and may be associated with jaundice. In addition, due to causing problems with fat digestion and bilirubin excretion, pancreatitis often presents with pale stools and dark urine.
In pancreatitis, enzymes of the exocrine pancreas damage the structure and tissue of the pancreas. Detection of some of these enzymes, such as amylase and lipase in the blood, along with symptoms and findings on x-ray, are often used to indicate that a person has pancreatitis. A person with pancreatitis is also at risk of shock. Pancreatitis is often managed medically with analgesics, removal of gallstones or treatment of other causes, and monitoring to ensure a patient does not develop shock.
Pancreatic cancers, particularly the most common type, pancreatic adenocarcinoma, remain very difficult to treat, and are mostly diagnosed only at a stage that is too late for surgery, which is the only curative treatment. Pancreatic cancer is rare in those younger than 40, and the median age of diagnosis is 71. Risk factors include smoking, obesity, diabetes, and certain rare genetic conditions including multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 and hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer among others. About 25 % of cases are attributable to tobacco smoking, while 5 -- 10 % of cases are linked to inherited genes.
There are several types of pancreatic cancer, involving both the endocrine and exocrine tissue. Pancreatic adenocarcinoma, which affects the exocrine part of the pancreas, is by far the most common form. The many types of pancreatic endocrine tumors are all uncommon or rare, and have varied outlooks. However the incidence of these cancers has been rising sharply; it is not clear to what extent this reflects increased detection, especially through medical imaging, of tumors that would be very slow to develop. Insulinomas (largely benign) and gastrinomas are the most common types. In the United States pancreatic cancer is the fourth most common cause of deaths due to cancer. The disease occurs more often in the developed world, which had 68 % of new cases in 2012. Pancreatic adenocarcinoma typically has poor outcomes with the average percentage alive for at least one and five years after diagnosis being 25 % and 5 % respectively. In localized disease where the cancer is small (< 2 cm) the number alive at five years is approximately 20 %. For those with neuroendocrine cancers the number alive after five years is much better at 65 %, varying considerably with type.
A solid pseudopapillary tumour is a low - grade malignant tumour of the pancreas of papillary architecture that typically afflicts young women.
Diabetes mellitus type 1 is a chronic autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks the insulin - secreting cells of the pancreas. Insulin is needed to keep blood sugar levels within optimal ranges, and its lack can lead to high blood sugar. As an untreated chronic condition, diabetic neuropathy can result. Type 1 diabetes can develop at any age but is most often diagnosed before adulthood. For people living with type 1 diabetes, insulin injections are critical for survival.
An experimental procedure to treat type 1 diabetes is the transplantation of pancreatic islet cells from a donor into the patient 's liver so that the cells can produce the deficient insulin.
Diabetes mellitus type 2 is the most common form of diabetes. The causes for high blood sugar in this form of diabetes usually are a combination of insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion, with both genetic and environmental factors playing an important role in the development of the disease. The management of type 2 diabetes relies on a series of changes in diet and physical activity with the purpose of reducing blood sugar levels to normal ranges and increasing insulin sensitivity. Biguanides such as metformin are also used as part of the treatment along with insulin therapy.
The pancreas was first identified by Herophilus (335 -- 280 BC), a Greek anatomist and surgeon. A few hundred years later, Rufus of Ephesus, another Greek anatomist, gave the pancreas its name. Etymologically, the term "pancreas '', a modern Latin adaptation of Greek πάγκρεας, (πᾶν ("all '', "whole ''), and κρέας ("flesh '')), originally means sweetbread, although literally meaning all - flesh, presumably because of its fleshy consistency. It was only in 1889 when Oskar Minkowski discovered that removing the pancreas from a dog caused it to become diabetic (insulin was later discovered by Frederick Banting and Charles Herbert Best in 1921).
Pancreatic tissue is present in all vertebrates, but its precise form and arrangement varies widely. There may be up to three separate pancreases, two of which arise from ventral buds, and the other dorsally. In most species (including humans), these fuse in the adult, but there are several exceptions. Even when a single pancreas is present, two or three pancreatic ducts may persist, each draining separately into the duodenum (or equivalent part of the foregut). Birds, for example, typically have three such ducts.
In teleosts, and a few other species (such as rabbits), there is no discrete pancreas at all, with pancreatic tissue being distributed diffusely across the mesentery and even within other nearby organs, such as the liver or spleen. In a few teleost species, the endocrine tissue has fused to form a distinct gland within the abdominal cavity, but otherwise it is distributed among the exocrine components. The most primitive arrangement, however, appears to be that of lampreys and lungfish, in which pancreatic tissue is found as a number of discrete nodules within the wall of the gut itself, with the exocrine portions being little different from other glandular structures of the intestine.
The pancreas of calf (ris de veau) and lamb (ris d'agneau), and, less commonly, of beef and pork, are used as food under the culinary name of sweetbread.
The duodenum and pancreas
Pancreas of a human embryo at end of sixth week
Dog pancreas magnified 100 times
The pancreas and its surrounding structures
Duodenum and pancreas. Deep dissection.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 1199 of the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
|
how many licks to the center of a tootsie roll | Tootsie Pop - wikipedia
Tootsie Pops are hard candy lollipops filled with chocolate - flavored chewy Tootsie Roll. They were invented in 1931 by Lukas R. "Luke '' Weisgram, an employee of The Sweets Company of America. The company changed its name to Tootsie Roll Industries in 1969.
The candy debuted in 1931. In addition to chocolate (the original flavor), Tootsie Pops come in cherry, orange, caramel, grape, raspberry, strawberry, watermelon, blue raspberry, candy cane (seasonal), and now, pomegranate, banana, blueberry, lemon, and green apple flavors. Another release of Tootsie Roll Pops, named Tropical Stormz, features six swirl - textured flavors: orange, lemon lime, strawberry banana, apple blueberry, citrus punch, and berry punch. All flavors apply only to the hard candy surrounding the core; the soft core is always chocolate Tootsie Roll material.
In 2002, 60 million Tootsie Rolls and twenty million Tootsie Pops were produced every day.
Tootsie Pops are known for the catch phrase "How many licks does it take to get to the center of a Tootsie Pop? ''. The phrase was first introduced in an animated commercial which debuted on U.S. television in 1969. In the original television ad, a questioning boy poses the question to a cow, a fox, a turtle and an owl. Each one of the first three animals tells the boy to ask someone else, explaining that they 'd bite a Tootsie Pop every time they lick one. Eventually, he asks the owl, who starts licking it, but bites into the lollipop after only three licks, much to the chagrin of the boy, who gets the empty stick back. The commercial ends the same way, with various flavored Tootsie Pops unwrapped and being "licked away '' until being crunched in the center.
While the original commercial is 60 seconds long, an edited 30 - second version and 15 - second version of this commercial are the ones that have aired innumerable times over the years. The dialogue to the 60 - second version is as follows:
In the shorter 30 - second ad, Mr. Owl returns the spent candy stick, and the boy 's final line is replaced with a reaction shot and a beat of silence. The 30 - second commercial dialogue is as follows:
The 15 - second commercial (which still airs today) only shows the boy with Mr. Owl and a different narrator (Frank Leslie) speaks the same above line, but without the scene showing the Tootsie Roll pops slowly disappearing with a different tune playing in the background. The question still stands unanswered. The dialogue is as follows:
After the commercial, Mr. Oliver Owl became the mascot for Tootsie Roll Pops, appearing in marketing campaigns and on the packaging.
In the 1990s, a new commercial was made featuring a boy asking a robot and a dragon how many licks it takes to get to the center, with the Tootsie Pops known for the catch phrase "How many licks to the center of a Tootsie Pop? '', rather than "How many licks does it take to get to the Tootsie Roll center of a Tootsie Pop? ''.
In the early 1970s, Tootsie Pops were the initial lollipop of choice of the titular character in the TV series Kojak, and are seen prominently beginning in the December 12, 1973 episode "Dark Sunday '' when Lt. Theo Kojak decides to favor them instead of cigarettes.
At some point, a rumor began that the lollipop wrappers which bore three unbroken circles were redeemable for free candy or even free items like shirts and other items. The rumor was untrue, but some shops have honored the wrapper offer over the years, allowing people to "win '' a free pop.
Some stores redeemed lollipop wrappers with the "shooting star '' (bearing an image of a child dressed as a Native American aiming a bow and arrow at a star) for a free sucker. This was clearly up to the store owner and not driven by the lollipop manufacturer. One convenience store in Iowa City, Iowa, for example, gave candy away when the children asked. Also, in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, Osco Drug used to give children free suckers for star wrappers. In 1994, the owner of Dan 's Shortstop told a reporter that when he first opened children came by often, but after a while, he said he had to stop giving things away. Giveaways also occurred in Chico, California, where a 7 - Eleven store manager in the Pleasant Valley area, said she had to stop because it had become too expensive. Since 1982, Tootsie Roll Industries has been distributing a short story, The Legend of the Indian Wrapper, to children who mail in their Indian star wrappers as a "consolation prize ''.
A student study at the University of Cambridge concluded that it takes 3,481 licks to get to the center of a Tootsie Pop. Another study by Purdue University concluded that it takes an average of 364 licks to get to the center of a Tootsie Pop using a "licking machine '', while it takes an average of 252 licks when tried by 20 volunteers. Yet another study by the University of Michigan concluded that it takes 411 licks to get to the center of a Tootsie Pop. A 1996 study by undergraduate students at Swarthmore College concluded that it takes a median of 144 licks (range 70 -- 222) to get to the center of a Tootsie Pop. Nolan Walker personally found that it takes 1,139 licks as documented in a home experiment on December, 1997. Harvard Grad students created a rotating mechanical tongue and concluded it took 2255 licks. It took 2256 licks on one attempt for a normal raspberry Tootsie Pop to get the center showing. YouTube star Ryan Higa found out that it took 700 licks to get to the center of the Tootsie Pop.
In 2014, the Tribology Laboratory at the University of Florida published a study examining the coupled effects of biology, corrosion, and mechanical agitation on the wear of Tootsie Roll Pops. Self reported wear data from 58 participants was used in conjunction with statistical analysis of actual lollipop cross-sectional information in a numerical simulation to compute the average number of licks required to reach the Tootsie Roll center of a Tootsie Roll Pop. The number of licks required to reach the center, based on equatorial cross-section data, was found to be nearly independent of the licking style with the one - sided approach requiring 195 ± 18 licks and the full - surface approach requiring 184 ± 33. Detailed examination of the lollipops indicates that the minimum candy shell thickness is rarely (if ever) located along the equator. Using the global minimum distance resulted in a calculated 130 ± 29 licks to reach the center, independent of licking style.
All assortment flavors can also be purchased in single - flavor bulk. In 2004, and again in 2011 with different flavors, Tootsie Pops would have a random, rotating sixth flavor.
Non-standard flavors can be now purchased in single - flavor bulk.
Additional flavors: Strawberry - Vanilla, Cherry (Valentine 's Day), Tangerine, Pineapple, Tropical Punch, Wild Blackberry and Strawberry Watermelon.
The "Sweet & Sour Bunch '' flavors came in a package of 8 Assortment pops, at. 50 oz. / 14.8 grams each.
|
highest score in test cricket by indian player | List of India Test cricket records - Wikipedia
This is a list of Indian Cricket team 's Test Cricket records. It is based on the List of Test cricket records, but concentrates solely on records dealing with the Indian cricket team. India was granted Test status in 1932 to be the sixth nation to play test cricket.
In general the top five are listed in each category (except when there is a tie for the last place among the five, when all the tied record holders are noted).
Team Notation
Batting Notation
Bowling Notation
Currently playing
India have won a Test match by a margin of 10 wickets on 8 occasions.
Source: Cricinfo. Last updated: 14 October 2018.
Source: Cricinfo. Last updated: 16 June 2018.
Source: Cricinfo. Last updated: 18 July 2017.
Source: Cricinfo. Last updated: 16 June 2018.
Source: Cricinfo. Last updated: 14 July 2017.
♣ denotes current captain.
♣ denotes current captain.
In cricket, two batsman are always present at the crease batting together in a partnership. This partnership will continue until one of them is dismissed, retires or the innings comes to a close.
|
india's gst is based on which country | Goods and Services tax (India) - Wikipedia
Goods and Services Tax (GST) is an indirect tax (or consumption tax) levied in India on the supply of goods and services. GST is levied at every step in the production process, but is meant to be refunded to all parties in the various stages of production other than the final consumer.
Goods and services are divided into five tax slabs for collection of tax - 0 %, 5 %, 12 %, 18 % and 28 %. However, Petroleum products, alcoholic drinks, electricity, are not taxed under GST and instead are taxed separately by the individual state governments, as per the previous tax regime. There is a special rate of 0.25 % on rough precious and semi-precious stones and 3 % on gold. In addition a cess of 22 % or other rates on top of 28 % GST applies on few items like aerated drinks, luxury cars and tobacco products. Pre-GST, the statutory tax rate for most goods was about 26.5 %, Post-GST, most goods are expected to be in the 18 % tax range.
The tax came into effect from July 1, 2017 through the implementation of One Hundred and First Amendment of the Constitution of India by the Indian government. The tax replaced existing multiple cascading taxes levied by the central and state governments.
The tax rates, rules and regulations are governed by the GST Council which consists of the finance ministers of centre and all the states. GST is meant to replace a slew of indirect taxes with a unified tax and is therefore expected to reshape the country 's 2.4 trillion dollar economy, but not without criticism. Trucks ' travel time in interstate movement dropped by 20 %, because of no interstate check posts.
(gst.gov.in)
The reform of India 's indirect tax regime was started in 1986 by Vishwanath Pratap Singh, Finance Minister in Rajiv Gandhi 's government, with the introduction of the Modified Value Added Tax (MODVAT). Subsequently, Prime Minister PV Narasimha Rao and his Finance Minister Manmohan Singh, initiated early discussions on a Value Added Tax (VAT) at the state level. A single common "Goods and Services Tax (GST) '' was proposed and given a go - ahead in 1999 during a meeting between the Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee and his economic advisory panel, which included three former RBI governors IG Patel, Bimal Jalan and C Rangarajan. Vajpayee set up a committee headed by the Finance Minister of West Bengal, Asim Dasgupta to design a GST model.
The Ravi Dasgupta committee which was also tasked with putting in place the back - end technology and logistics (later came to be known as the GST Network, or GSTN, in 2017). it later came out for rolling out a uniform taxation regime in the country. In 2002, the Vajpayee government formed a task force under Vijay Kelkar to recommend tax reforms. In 2005, the Kelkar committee recommended rolling out GST as suggested by the 12th Finance Commission.
After the defeat of the BJP - led NDA government in the 2004 Lok Sabha election and the election of a Congress - led UPA government, the new Finance Minister P Chidambaram in February 2006 continued work on the same and proposed a GST rollout by 1 April 2010. However, in 2011, with the Trinamool Congress routing CPI (M) out of power in West Bengal, Asim Dasgupta resigned as the head of the GST committee. Dasgupta admitted in an interview that 80 % of the task had been done.
In the 2014 Lok Sabha election, the Bharatiya Janata Party - led NDA government was elected into power. With the consequential dissolution of the 15th Lok Sabha, the GST Bill -- approved by the standing committee for reintroduction -- lapsed. Seven months after the formation of the Modi government, the new Finance Minister Arun Jaitley introduced the GST Bill in the Lok Sabha, where the BJP had a majority. In February 2015, Jaitley set another deadline of 1 April 2017 to implement GST. In May 2016, the Lok Sabha passed the Constitution Amendment Bill, paving way for GST. However, the Opposition, led by the Congress, demanded that the GST Bill be again sent back for review to the Select Committee of the Rajya Sabha due to disagreements on several statements in the Bill relating to taxation. Finally in August 2016, the Amendment Bill was passed. Over the next 15 to 20 days, 18 states ratified the Constitution amendment Bill and the President Pranab Mukherjee gave his assent to it.
A 21 - member selected committee was formed to look into the proposed GST laws. After GST Council approved the Central Goods and Services Tax Bill 2017 (The CGST Bill), the Integrated Goods and Services Tax Bill 2017 (The IGST Bill), the Union Territory Goods and Services Tax Bill 2017 (The UTGST Bill), the Goods and Services Tax (Compensation to the States) Bill 2017 (The Compensation Bill), these Bills were passed by the Lok Sabha on 29 March 2017. The Rajya Sabha passed these Bills on 6 April 2017 and were then enacted as Acts on 12 April 2017. Thereafter, State Legislatures of different States have passed respective State Goods and Services Tax Bills. After the enactment of various GST laws, Goods and Services Tax was launched all over India with effect from 1 July 2017. The Jammu and Kashmir state legislature passed its GST act on 7 July 2017, thereby ensuring that the entire nation is brought under an unified indirect taxation system. There was to be no GST on the sale and purchase of securities. That continues to be governed by Securities Transaction Tax (STT).
The GST was launched at midnight on 1 July 2017 by the President of India, Pranab Mukherjee, and the Government of India. The launch was marked by a historic midnight (30 June -- 1 July) session of both the houses of parliament convened at the Central Hall of the Parliament. Though the session was attended by high - profile guests from the business and the entertainment industry including Ratan Tata, it was boycotted by the opposition due to the predicted problems that it was bound to lead for the middle and lower class Indians. It is one of the few midnight sessions that have been held by the parliament - the others being the declaration of India 's independence on 15 August 1947, and the silver and golden jubilees of that occasion. After its launch, the GST rates have been modified multiple times, the latest being on 18 January 2018, where a panel of federal and state finance ministers decided to revise GST rates on 29 goods and 53 services.
Members of the Congress boycotted the GST launch altogether. They were joined by members of the Trinamool Congress, Communist Parties of India and the DMK. The parties reported that they found virtually no difference between the GST and the existing taxation system, claiming that the government was trying to merely rebrand the current taxation system. They also argued that the GST would increase existing rates on common daily goods while reducing rates on luxury items, and affect many Indians adversely, especially the middle, lower middle and poorer income groups.
The single GST subsumed several taxes and levies which included: central excise duty, services tax, additional customs duty, surcharges, state - level value added tax and Octroi. Other levies which were applicable on inter-state transportation of goods have also been done away with in GST regime. GST is levied on all transactions such as sale, transfer, purchase, barter, lease, or import of goods and / or services.
India adopted a dual GST model, meaning that taxation is administered by both the Union and State Governments. Transactions made within a single state are levied with Central GST (CGST) by the Central Government and State GST (SGST) by the State governments. For inter-state transactions and imported goods or services, an Integrated GST (IGST) is levied by the Central Government. GST is a consumption - based tax / destination - based tax, therefore, taxes are paid to the state where the goods or services are consumed not the state in which they were produced. IGST complicates tax collection for State Governments by disabling them from collecting the tax owed to them directly from the Central Government. Under the previous system, a state would only have to deal with a single government in order to collect tax revenue.
HSN (Harmonized System of Nomenclature) is an 8 - digit code for identifying the applicable rate of GST on different products as per CGST rules. If a company has turnover up to ₹ 1.5 Crore in the preceding financial year then they need not mention the HSN code while supplying goods on invoices. If a company has turnover more than ₹ 1.5 Crore but up to ₹ 5 Cr then they need to mention the first 2 digits of HSN code while supplying goods on invoices. If turnover crosses ₹ 5 Cr then they shall mention the first 4 digits of HSN code on invoices.
The GST is imposed at variable rates on variable items. The rate of GST is 18 % for soaps and 28 % on washing detergents. GST on movie tickets is based on slabs, with 18 % GST for tickets that cost less than Rs. 100 and 28 % GST on tickets costing more than Rs. 100 and 5 % on readymade clothes. The rate on under - construction property booking is 12 %. Some industries and products were exempted by the government and remain untaxed under GST, such as dairy products, products of milling industries, fresh vegetables & fruits, meat products, and other groceries and necessities.
Checkposts across the country were abolished ensuring free and fast movement of goods.
The Central Government had proposed to insulate the revenues of the States from the impact of GST, with the expectation that in due course, GST will be levied on petroleum and petroleum products. The central government had assured states of compensation for any revenue loss incurred by them from the date of GST for a period of five years. However, no concrete laws have yet been made to support such action. GST council adopted concept paper discouraging tinkering with rates.
An e-Way Bill is an electronic permit for shipping goods similar to a waybill. It was made mandatory for inter-state transport of goods from 1 June 2018. It is required to be generated for every inter-state movement of goods beyond 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) and the threshold limit of ₹ 50,000 (US $700).
It is a paperless, technology solution and critical anti-evasion tool to check tax leakages and clamping down on trade that currently happens on a cash basis. The pilot started on 1 February 2018 but was withdrawn after glitches in the GST Network. The states are divided into four zones for rolling out in phases by end of April 2018.
A unique e-Way Bill Number (EBN) is generated either by the supplier, recipient or the transporter. The EBN can be a printout, SMS or written on invoice is valid. The GST / Tax Officers tally the e-Way Bill listed goods with goods carried with it. The mechanism is aimed at plugging loopholes like overloading, understating etc. Each e-way bill has to be matched with a GST invoice.
The official Android mobile app can be used for generating an e-way bill, with powerful features for easy generation and for maintaining records. The e-way bill can also be generated or cancelled through an SMS.
Transporter ID and PIN Code now compulsory from 01 - Oct - 2018.
It is a critical compliance related GSTN project under the GST, with a capacity to process 75 lakh e-way bills per day.
The five states piloting this project are Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Kerala, Telangana and Uttar Pradesh, which account for 61 % of the inter-state e-way bills, started mandatory intra-state e-way bill from 15 April 2018 to further reduce tax evasion. It was successfully introduced in Karnataka from 1 April 2018. The intra-state e-way bill will pave the way for a seamless, nation - wide single e-way bill system. Six more states Jharkhand, Bihar, Tripura, Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Haryana will roll it out from 20 April 18. All states are mandated to introduce it by May 30, 2018.
Reverse Charge Mechanism (RCM) is a system in GST where the receiver pays the tax on behalf of unregistered, smaller material and service suppliers. The receiver of the goods is eligible for Input Tax Credit, while the unregistered dealer is not.
The Payment of Tax Under RCM (Reverse Charge Mechanism) on Purchase from unregistered dealer is suspended due to pressure from the industry till 30 September 2019.
GST Council is the governing body of GST having 33 members. It is chaired by the Union Finance Minister.
The GSTN software is developed by Infosys Technologies and the Information Technology network that provides the computing resources is maintained by the NIC. "Goods and Services Tax '' Network (GSTN) is a nonprofit organisation formed for creating a sophisticated network, accessible to stakeholders, government and taxpayers to access information from a single source (portal). The portal is accessible to the Tax authorities for tracking down every transaction, while taxpayers have the ability of connect for their tax returns.
The GSTN 's authorised capital is ₹ 10 crore (US $1.4 million) in which initially the Central Government held 24.5 percent of shares while the state government held 24.5 percent. The remaining 51 percent were held by non-Government financial institutions, HDFC and HDFC Bank hold 20 %, ICICI Bank holds 10 %, NSE Strategic Investment holds 10 % and LIC Housing Finance holds 11 %.
However, later it was made a wholly owned government company having equal shares of state and central government. (1)
Technicalities of GST implementation in India have been criticized by global financial institutions, sections of Indian media and opposition political parties in India. World Bank 's 2018 version of India Development Update described India 's version of GST as too complex, noticing various flaws compared to GST systems prevalent in other countries; most significantly, the second highest tax rate among a sample of 115 countries at 28 %. The report further highlighted that most countries in the world have a single rate of GST; 49 countries have a single rate, 28 have two rates, and only 5 countries including India have four or more rates.
GST 's implementation in India has been further criticized by Indian businessmen for problems including tax refund delays and too much documentation and administrative effort needed. According to a partner at PWC India, when the first GST returns were filed in August 2017, the system crashed under the weight of filings.
The opposition Congress party has consistently been among the most vocal opponents of GST implementation in India with party President, and leader of the opposition, Rahul Gandhi, slamming BJP for allegedly "destroying small businessmen and industries '' in the country. He went on to pejoratively dub GST as "Gabbar Singh Tax '' after an ill - famed, fictional dacoit in Bollywood films. Blaming the implementation of alleged Gabbar Singh Tax as a "way of removing money from the pockets of the poor '', Rahul has lamented it as a "big failure '' while declaring that if Congress Party is elected to power, it will implement a single slab GST instead of different slabs. In the run - up to the elections in various states of India, Rahul has intensified his "Gabbar Singh '' jibes on Modi government.
|
what country is home to the great barrier reef | Great Barrier Reef - Wikipedia
The Great Barrier Reef is the world 's largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) over an area of approximately 344,400 square kilometres (133,000 sq mi). The reef is located in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland, Australia.
The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world 's biggest single structure made by living organisms. This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms, known as coral polyps. It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981. CNN labelled it one of the seven natural wonders of the world. The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland.
A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, which helps to limit the impact of human use, such as fishing and tourism. Other environmental pressures on the reef and its ecosystem include runoff, climate change accompanied by mass coral bleaching, and cyclic population outbreaks of the crown - of - thorns starfish. According to a study published in October 2012 by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the reef has lost more than half its coral cover since 1985.
The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples, and is an important part of local groups ' cultures and spirituality. The reef is a very popular destination for tourists, especially in the Whitsunday Islands and Cairns regions. Tourism is an important economic activity for the region, generating over AUD $ 3 billion per year. In November 2014, Google launched Google Underwater Street View in 3D of the Great Barrier Reef.
A March 2016 report stated that coral bleaching was more widespread than previously thought, seriously affecting the northern parts of the reef as a result of warming ocean temperatures. In October 2016, Outside published an obituary for the reef; the article was criticized for being premature and hindering efforts to bolster the resilience of the reef. In March 2017, the journal Nature published a paper showing that huge sections of a 800 - kilometre (500 mi) stretch in the northern part of the reef had died in the course of 2016 due to high water temperatures, an event that the authors put down to the effects of global climate change.
The Great Barrier Reef is a distinct feature of the East Australian Cordillera division. It includes the smaller Murray Islands. It reaches from Torres Strait (between Bramble Cay, its northernmost island, and the south coast of Papua New Guinea) in the north to the unnamed passage between Lady Elliot Island (its southernmost island) and Fraser Island in the south. Lady Elliot Island is located 1,915 km (1,190 mi) southeast of Bramble Cay as the crow flies.
The Plate tectonic theory indicates Australia has moved northwards at a rate of 7 cm (2.8 in) per year, starting during the Cenozoic. Eastern Australia experienced a period of tectonic uplift, which moved the drainage divide in Queensland 400 km (250 mi) inland. Also during this time, Queensland experienced volcanic eruptions leading to central and shield volcanoes and basalt flows. Some of these became high islands. After the Coral Sea Basin formed, coral reefs began to grow in the Basin, but until about 25 million years ago, northern Queensland was still in temperate waters south of the tropics -- too cool to support coral growth. The Great Barrier Reef 's development history is complex; after Queensland drifted into tropical waters, it was largely influenced by reef growth and decline as sea level changed.
Reefs can increase in diameter by 1 to 3 centimetres (0.39 to 1.18 in) per year, and grow vertically anywhere from 1 to 25 cm (0.39 to 9.84 in) per year; however, they grow only above a depth of 150 metres (490 ft) due to their need for sunlight, and can not grow above sea level. When Queensland edged into tropical waters 24 million years ago, some coral grew, but a sedimentation regime quickly developed with erosion of the Great Dividing Range; creating river deltas, oozes and turbidites, unsuitable conditions for coral growth. 10 million years ago, the sea level significantly lowered, which further enabled sedimentation. The reef 's substrate may have needed to build up from the sediment until its edge was too far away for suspended sediments to inhibit coral growth. In addition, approximately 400,000 years ago there was a particularly warm interglacial period with higher sea levels and a 4 ° C (7 ° F) water temperature change.
The land that formed the substrate of the current Great Barrier Reef was a coastal plain formed from the eroded sediments of the Great Dividing Range with some larger hills (most of which were themselves remnants of older reefs or, in rare cases, volcanoes). The Reef Research Centre, a Cooperative Research Centre, has found coral ' skeleton ' deposits that date back half a million years. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) considers the earliest evidence of complete reef structures to have been 600,000 years ago. According to the GBRMPA, the current, living reef structure is believed to have begun growing on the older platform about 20,000 years ago. The Australian Institute of Marine Science agrees, placing the beginning of the growth of the current reef at the time of the Last Glacial Maximum. At around that time, sea level was 120 metres (390 ft) lower than it is today.
From 20,000 years ago until 6,000 years ago, sea level rose steadily around the world. As it rose, the corals could then grow higher on the newly submerged maritime margins of the hills of the coastal plain. By around 13,000 years ago the sea level was only 60 metres (200 ft) lower than the present day, and corals began to surround the hills of the coastal plain, which were, by then, continental islands. As the sea level rose further still, most of the continental islands were submerged. The corals could then overgrow the submerged hills, to form the present cays and reefs. Sea level here has not risen significantly in the last 6,000 years. The CRC Reef Research Centre estimates the age of the present, living reef structure at 6,000 to 8,000 years old. The shallow water reefs that can be seen in air - photographs and satellite images cover an area of 20,679 km2, most (about 80 %) of which has grown on top of limestone platforms that are relics of past (Pleistocene) phases of reef growth.
The remains of an ancient barrier reef similar to the Great Barrier Reef can be found in The Kimberley, Western Australia.
The Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area has been divided into 70 bioregions, of which 30 are reef bioregions. In the northern part of the Great Barrier Reef, ribbon reefs and deltaic reefs have formed; these structures are not found in the rest of the reef system. There are no atolls in the system, and reefs attached to the mainland are rare.
Fringing reefs are distributed widely, but are most common towards the southern part of the Great Barrier Reef, attached to high islands, for example, the Whitsunday Islands. Lagoonal reefs are found in the southern Great Barrier Reef, and further north, off the coast of Princess Charlotte Bay. Cresentic reefs are the most common shape of reef in the middle of the system, for example the reefs surrounding Lizard Island. Cresentic reefs are also found in the far north of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, and in the Swain Reefs (20 -- 22 degrees south). Planar reefs are found in the northern and southern parts, near Cape York Peninsula, Princess Charlotte Bay, and Cairns. Most of the islands on the reef are found on planar reefs.
The Great Barrier Reef supports a diversity of life, including many vulnerable or endangered species, some of which may be endemic to the reef system.
Thirty species of whales, dolphins, and porpoises have been recorded in the Great Barrier Reef, including the dwarf minke whale, Indo - Pacific humpback dolphin, and the humpback whale. Large populations of dugongs live there. More than 1,500 fish species live on the reef, including the clownfish, red bass, red - throat emperor, and several species of snapper and coral trout. Forty - nine species mass spawn, while eighty - four other species spawn elsewhere in their range. Seventeen species of sea snake live on the Great Barrier Reef in warm waters up to 50 metres (160 ft) deep and are more common in the southern than in the northern section. None found in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area are endemic, nor are any endangered.
Six species of sea turtles come to the reef to breed: the green sea turtle, leatherback sea turtle, hawksbill turtle, loggerhead sea turtle, flatback turtle, and the Olive Ridley. The green sea turtles on the Great Barrier Reef have two genetically distinct populations, one in the northern part of the reef and the other in the southern part. Fifteen species of seagrass in beds attract the dugongs and turtles, and provide fish habitat. The most common genera of seagrasses are Halophila and Halodule.
Saltwater crocodiles live in mangrove and salt marshes on the coast near the reef. Nesting has not been reported, and the salt water crocodile population in the GBRWHA is wide - ranging but low density. Around 125 species of shark, stingray, skates or chimaera live on the reef. Close to 5,000 species of mollusc have been recorded on the reef, including the giant clam and various nudibranchs and cone snails. Forty - nine species of pipefish and nine species of seahorse have been recorded. At least seven species of frog inhabit the islands.
215 species of birds (including 22 species of seabirds and 32 species of shorebirds) visit the reef or nest or roost on the islands, including the white - bellied sea eagle and roseate tern. Most nesting sites are on islands in the northern and southern regions of the Great Barrier Reef, with 1.4 to 1.7 million birds using the sites to breed. The islands of the Great Barrier Reef also support 2,195 known plant species; three of these are endemic. The northern islands have 300 -- 350 plant species which tend to be woody, whereas the southern islands have 200 which tend to be herbaceous; the Whitsunday region is the most diverse, supporting 1,141 species. The plants are propagated by birds.
There are at least 330 species of ascidians on the reef system with the diameter of 1 -- 10 cm (0.4 -- 4 in). Between 300 -- 500 species of bryozoans live on the reef. Four hundred coral species, both hard corals and soft corals inhabit the reef. The majority of these spawn gametes, breeding in mass spawning events that are triggered by the rising sea temperatures of spring and summer, the lunar cycle, and the diurnal cycle. Reefs in the inner Great Barrier Reef spawn during the week after the full moon in October, while the outer reefs spawn in November and December. Its common soft corals belong to 36 genera. Five hundred species of marine algae or seaweed live on the reef, including thirteen species of genus Halimeda, which deposit calcareous mounds up to 100 metres (110 yd) wide, creating mini-ecosystems on their surface which have been compared to rainforest cover.
Climate change, pollution, crown - of - thorns starfish and fishing are the primary threats to the health of this reef system. Other threats include shipping accidents, oil spills, and tropical cyclones. Skeletal Eroding Band, a disease of bony corals caused by the protozoan Halofolliculina corallasia, affects 31 coral species. According to a 2012 study by the National Academy of Science, since 1985, the Great Barrier Reef has lost more than half of its corals with two - thirds of the loss occurring from 1998 due to the factors listed before.
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority considers the greatest threat to the Great Barrier Reef to be climate change, causing ocean warming which increases coral bleaching. Mass coral bleaching events due to elevated ocean temperatures occurred in the summers of 1998, 2002 and 2006, and coral bleaching is expected to become an annual occurrence. As global warming continues, corals will not be able to keep up with increasing ocean temperatures. Coral bleaching events lead to increased disease susceptibility, which causes detrimental ecological effects for reef communities.
World Heritage Committee meeting will take place in Kraków, Poland, in July 2017. UNESCO, in a draft decision published in June 2017 as part of the agenda for the meeting, expressed serious concern about the impact of coral bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef. The draft decision also warned Australia that it will not meet the targets of the Reef 2050 report without considerable work to improve water quality.
Climate change has implications for other forms of reef life -- some fish 's preferred temperature range leads them to seek new habitat, thus increasing chick mortality in predatory seabirds. Climate change will also affect the population and sea turtle 's available habitat.
Bleaching events in benthic coral communities (deeper than 20 metres or 66 feet) in the Great Barrier reef are not as well documented as those at shallower depths, but recent research has shown that benthic communities are just as negatively impacted in the face of rising ocean temperatures. Five Great Barrier Reef species of large benthic corals were found bleached under elevated temperatures, affirming that benthic corals are vulnerable to thermal stress.
Another key threat faced by the Great Barrier Reef is pollution and declining water quality. The rivers of north eastern Australia pollute the Reef during tropical flood events. Over 90 % of this pollution comes from farm runoff. 80 % of the land adjacent to the Great Barrier Reef is used for farming including intensive cropping of sugar cane, and major beef cattle grazing. Farming practices damage the reef due to overgrazing, increased run - off of agricultural sediments, nutrients and chemicals including fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides representing a major health risk for the coral and biodiversity of the reefs. Sediments containing high levels of copper and other heavy metals sourced from the Ok Tedi Mine in Papua New Guinea are a potential pollution risk for the far northern Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait regions.
Some 67 % of corals died in the reef 's worst - hit northern section, the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies report said.
The runoff problem is exacerbated by the loss of coastal wetlands which act as a natural filter for toxins and help deposit sediment. It is thought that the poor water quality is due to increased light and oxygen competition from algae.
Farming fertiliser runoff release nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium into the oceanic ecosystem, these limiting nutrients cause massive algal growth which leads to depletion in oxygen available for other creatures which decreases the biodiversity in the affected areas, altering the species composition. A study by Katharina Fabricius and Glen Death of Australian Institute of Marine Science found that hard corals numbers were almost double on reefs that were far from agricultural areas.
Fertilizers also increase the amount of phytoplankton available for the crown - of - thorns starfish larvae to consume. A study showed that a doubling of the chlorophyll in the water leads to a tenfold increase in the crown - of - thorns starfish larvae 's survival rate.
Sediment runoff from farming carries chemicals into the reef environment also reduces the amount of light available to the corals decreasing their ability to extract energy from their environment.
Pesticides used in farming are made up of heavy metals such as lead, mercury, arsenic and other toxins are released into the wider environment due to erosion of farm soil, which has a detrimental effect on the coral.
Mining company Queensland Nickel discharged nitrate - laden water into the Great Barrier Reef in 2009 and 2011 -- on the later occasion releasing 516 tonnes (508 long tons; 569 short tons) of waste water. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) stated "We have strongly encouraged the company to investigate options that do not entail releasing the material to the environment and to develop a management plan to eliminate this potential hazard; however, GBRMPA does not have legislative control over how the Yabulu tailings dam is managed ''.
The crown - of - thorns starfish preys on coral polyps. Large outbreaks of these starfish can devastate reefs. In 2000, an outbreak contributed to a loss of 66 % of live coral cover on sampled reefs in a study by the RRC (Reefs Research Centre.) Outbreaks are believed to occur in natural cycles, worsened by poor water quality and overfishing of the starfish 's predators.
The unsustainable overfishing of keystone species, such as the Giant Triton, can disrupt food chains vital to reef life. Fishing also impacts the reef through increased water pollution from boats, by - catch of unwanted species (such as dolphins and turtles) and habitat destruction from trawling, anchors and nets. As of the middle of 2004, approximately one - third of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is protected from species removal of any kind, including fishing, without written permission.
Shipping accidents are a pressing concern, as several commercial shipping routes pass through the Great Barrier Reef. Although the route through the Great Barrier Reef is not easy, reef pilots consider it safer than outside the reef in the event of mechanical failure, since a ship can sit safely while being repaired. There have been over 1,600 known shipwrecks in the Great Barrier Reef region. On 3 April 2010, bulk coal carrier Shen Neng 1 ran aground on Douglas Shoals, spilling up to four tonnes of oil into the water and causing extensive damage to the reef.
The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Aboriginal Australians have been living in the area for at least 40,000 years, and Torres Strait Islanders since about 10,000 years ago. For these 70 or so clan groups, the reef is also an important cultural feature.
In 1768 Louis de Bougainville found the reef during an exploratory mission, but did not claim the area for the French. On 11 June 1770, the HM Bark Endeavour, captained by explorer James Cook, ran aground on the Great Barrier Reef, sustaining considerable damage. Lightening the ship and re-floating it during an incoming tide eventually saved it. One of the most famous wrecks was the HMS Pandora, which sank on 29 August 1791, killing 35 men. The Queensland Museum has led archaeological digs to the Pandora since 1983. Because the reef had no atolls, it was largely unstudied in the 19th century. During this time, some of the reef 's islands were mined for deposits of guano, and lighthouses were built as beacons throughout the system. as in Raine Island, the earliest example. In 1922, the Great Barrier Reef Committee began carrying out much of the early research on the reef.
Royal Commissions disallowed oil drilling in the Great Barrier Reef, in 1975 the Government of Australia created the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and prohibited various activities. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park does not include the entire Great Barrier Reef Province. The park is managed, in partnership with the Government of Queensland, through the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority to ensure that it is used in a sustainable manner. A combination of zoning, management plans, permits, education and incentives (such as eco-tourism certification) are employed in the effort to conserve the reef.
In 1999, the Australian Parliament passed the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, which improved the operation of national environmental law by providing guidance about regional biodiversity conservation priorities. The marine bioregional planning process came from the implementation of this law. This process conserves marine biodiversity by considering the whole ecosystem a species is in and how different species interact in the marine environment.
There are two steps to this process. The first step is to identify regional conservation priorities in the five (currently) different marine regions. The second step is to identify marine reserves (protected areas or marine parks) to be added to Australia 's National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Like protected areas on land, marine reserves are created to protect biodiversity for generations to come. Marine reserves are identified based on criteria written in a document created by Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council called "Guidelines for establishing the national representative system of marine protected areas '', also known as just "the Guidelines ''. These guidelines are nationally recognised and implemented at the local level based on the Australian policy for implementation outlined in the "Goals and Principles for the Establishment of the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas in Commonwealth Waters ''. These policies are in place to make sure that a marine reserve is only added to the NRSMPA after careful evaluation of different data.
The priorities for each region are created based on human and environmental threats and the Marine Bioregional Plans are drafted to address these priorities. To assess different region 's priorities, three steps are taken, first, a bioregional profile is created, second, a bioregional plan is drafted, and third, the plan is finalised. After the plan is finalised, activity in different bioregions may become limited based on particular threats an activity may pose.
In 2001, the GBRMPA released a report about the declining water quality in the Great Barrier Reef and detailed the importance of this issue. In response to this report, in 2003, the Australian and Queensland governments launched a joint initiative to improve the quality of water entering the Great Barrier Reef. The decline in the quality of water over the past 150 years (due to development) has contributed to coral bleaching, algal blooms, and pesticide pollution. These forms of pollution have made the reef less resilient to climate change.
When the plan was introduced in October 2003, it originally contained 65 actions built on previous legislation. Their immediate goal was to halt and reverse the decline in water quality entering the reef by 2013. By 2020, they hope that the quality of the water entering in the reef improves enough so that it does n't have a detrimental impact on the health of the Great Barrier Reef. To achieve these goals they decided to reduce pollutants in the water entering the reef and to rehabilitate and conserve areas of the reef that naturally help reduce water pollutants. To achieve the objectives described above, this plan focuses on non-point sources of pollution, which can not be traced to a single source such as a waste outlet.
The plan specifically targets nutrients, pesticides and sediment that make their way into the reef as a result of agricultural activities. Other non-point sources of pollution that are attributed to urban areas are covered under different legislation. In 2009, the plan was updated. The updated version states that to date, none of the efforts undertaken to improve the quality of water entering the reef has been successful. The new plan attempts to address this issue by "targeting priority outcomes, integrating industry and community initiatives and incorporating new policy and regulatory frameworks (Reef Plan 5) ''. This updated version has improved the clarity of the previous plan and targets set by that plan, have improved accountability and further improved monitoring and assessment. The 2009 report found that 41 out of the 65 actions met their original goals, however, 18 were not progressing well according to evaluation criteria as well as 6 were rated as having unsatisfactory levels of progress.
Some key achievements made since the plan 's initial passing in 2003 were the establishment of the Reef Quality Partnership to set targets, report findings and monitor progress towards targets, improved land condition by landowners was rewarded with extended leases, Water Quality Improvement Plans were created to identify regional targets and identified management changes that needed to be made to reach those targets, Nutrient Management Zones have been created to combat sediment loss in particular areas, education programs have been started to help gather support for sustainable agriculture, changes to land management practices have taken place through the implementation of the Farm Management Systems and codes of practice, the creation of the Queensland Wetland program and other achievements were made to help improve the water quality flowing into the coral reefs.
A taskforce of scientists was also created to assess the impact of different parts of the plan on the quality of water flowing into the coral reefs. They found that many of the goals have yet to be reached but found more evidence that states that improving the water quality of the Great Barrier Reef will improve its resilience to climate change. The Reefocus summit in 2008, which is also detailed in the report, came to similar conclusions. After this, a stakeholder working group was formed that worked between several groups as well as the Australian and Queensland governments to update reef goals and objectives. The updated version of the plan focuses on strategic priority areas and actions to achieve 2013 goals. Also quantitative targets have been made to critically assess whether targets are being met.
Some examples of the water quality goals outlined by this plan are that by 2013, there will be a 50 % reduction in nitrogen and phosphorus loads at the end of catchments and that by 2020, there will be a reduction in sediment load by 20 %. The plan also outlines a number of steps that must be taken by landholders to help improve grazing, soil, nutrient, and chemical management practices. There are also a number of supporting initiatives to take place outlined in the plan to help create a framework to improve land use practices which will in turn improve water quality.
Through these means the governments of Australia and Queensland hope to improve water quality by 2013. The 2013 outlook report and revised water quality plan will assess what needs to be done in the future to improve water quality and the livelihoods of the wildlife that resides there.
In July 2004, a new zoning plan took effect for the entire Marine Park, and has been widely acclaimed as a new global benchmark for marine ecosystem conservation. The rezoning was based on the application of systematic conservation planning techniques, using marxan software. While protection across the Marine Park was improved, the highly protected zones increased from 4.5 % to over 33.3 %. At the time, it was the largest Marine Protected Area in the world, although in 2006, the new Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Monument became the largest.
In 2006, a review of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act of 1975 recommended are that there should be no further zoning plan changes until 2013, and that every five years, a peer - reviewed outlook report should be published, examining the reef 's health, management, and environmental pressures. In each outlook report, several assessments are required. Each assessment has a set of assessment criteria that allows for better presentation of available evidence. Each assessment is judged by these criteria and given a grade. Every outlook report follows the same judging and grading process so that information can be tracked over time. No new research is done to produce the report. Only readily available information goes into the report so little of what is known about the Reef is actually featured in each outlook report.
In December 2013, Greg Hunt, the Australian environment minister, approved a plan for dredging to create three shipping terminals as part of the construction of a coalport. According to corresponding approval documents, the process will create around 3 million cubic metres of dredged seabed that will be dumped within the Great Barrier Reef marine park area.
On 31 January 2014, the GBRMPA issued a dumping permit that will allow three million cubic metres of sea bed from Abbot Point, north of Bowen, to be transported and unloaded in the waters of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Potential significant harms have been identified in relation to dredge spoil and the process of churning up the sea floor in the area and exposing it to air: firstly, new research shows the finer particles of dredge spoil can cloud the water and block sunlight, thereby starving sea grass and coral up to distances of 80 km away from the point of origin due to the actions of wind and currents. Furthermore, dredge spoil can literally smother reef or sea grass to death, while storms can repeatedly resuspend these particles so that the harm caused is ongoing; secondly, disturbed sea floor can release toxic substances into the surrounding environment.
The dredge spoil from the Abbot Point port project is to be dumped 24 kilometres (15 mi) away, near Bowen in north Queensland, and the approval from the Authority will result in the production of an extra 70 million tonnes of coal annually, worth between A $1.4 billion and $2.8 billion. Authority chairman, Dr Russell Reichelt, stated after the confirmation of the approval:
This approval is in line with the agency 's view that port development along the Great Barrier Reef coastline should be limited to existing ports. As a deepwater port that has been in operation for nearly 30 years, Abbot Point is better placed than other ports along the Great Barrier Reef coastline to undertake expansion as the capital and maintenance dredging required will be significantly less than what would be required in other areas. It 's important to note the seafloor of the approved disposal area consists of sand, silt and clay and does not contain coral reefs or seagrass beds.
The approval was provided with a corresponding set of 47 new environmental conditions that include the following:
The Australian Federal Government announced on 13 November that there would now be a ban on the dumping of dredge spoil in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. The World Heritage Committee asked Environment Minister Greg Hunt to investigate alternative options to dump on land instead. The Queensland government and the Commonwealth have now accepted the alternative option and advice from The World Heritage Committee and will now commence dumping on land.
Due to its vast biodiversity, warm clear waters and accessibility from the tourist boats called "live aboards '', the reef is a very popular destination, especially for scuba divers. Tourism on the Great Barrier Reef is concentrated in Cairns and also The Whitsundays due to their accessibility. These areas make up 7 % -- 8 % of the Park 's area. The Whitsundays and Cairns have their own Plans of Management. Many cities along the Queensland coast offer daily boat trips. Several continental and coral cay islands are now resorts, including Green Island and Lady Elliot Island. As of 1996, 27 islands on the Great Barrier Reef supported resorts.
In 1996, most of the tourism in the region was domestically generated and the most popular visiting times were during the Australian winter. At this time, it was estimated that tourists to the Great Barrier Reef contributed A $ 776 million per annum. As the largest commercial activity in the region, it was estimated in 2003 that tourism generated over A $4 billion annually, and the 2005 estimate increased to A $5.1 billion. A Deloitte report published by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority in March 2013 states that the Reef 's 2,000 kilometres of coastline attracts tourism worth A $6.4 billion annually and employs more than 64,000 people.
Approximately two million people visit the Great Barrier Reef each year. Although most of these visits are managed in partnership with the marine tourism industry, there is a concern among the general public that tourism is harmful to the Great Barrier Reef.
A variety of boat tours and cruises are offered, from single day trips, to longer voyages. Boat sizes range from dinghies to superyachts. Glass - bottomed boats and underwater observatories are also popular, as are helicopter flights. By far, the most popular tourist activities on the Great Barrier Reef are snorkelling and diving, for which pontoons are often used, and the area is often enclosed by nets. The outer part of the Great Barrier Reef is favoured for such activities, due to water quality.
Management of tourism in the Great Barrier Reef is geared towards making tourism ecologically sustainable. A daily fee is levied that goes towards research of the Great Barrier Reef. This fee ends up being 20 % of the GBRMPA 's income. Policies on cruise ships, bareboat charters, and anchorages limit the traffic on the Great Barrier Reef.
The problems that surround ecotourism in the Great Barrier Reef revolve around permanent tourism platforms. Platforms are large, ship - like vessels that act as a base for tourists while scuba diving and snorkelling in the Great Barrier Reef. Seabirds will land on the platforms and defecate which will eventually be washed into the sea. The feces carry nitrogen, phosphorus and often DDT and mercury, which cause aspergillosis, yellow - band disease, and black band disease. Areas without tourism platforms have 14 out of 9,468 (1.1 %) diseased corals versus areas with tourism platforms that have 172 out of 7,043 (12 %) diseased corals. Tourism is a major economic activity for the region. Thus, while non-permanent platforms could be possible in some areas, overall, permanent platforms are likely a necessity. Solutions have been suggested to siphon bird waste into gutters connecting to tanks helping lower runoff that causes coral disease.
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority has also placed many permanent anchorage points around the general use areas. These act to reduce damage to the reef due to anchoring destroying soft coral, chipping hard coral, and disturbing sediment as it is dragged across the bottom. Tourism operators also must comply with speed limits when travelling to or from tourist destinations, to prevent excessive wake from the boats disturbing the reef ecosystem.
The fishing industry in the Great Barrier Reef, controlled by the Queensland Government, is worth A $ 1 billion annually. It employs approximately 2000 people, and fishing in the Great Barrier Reef is pursued commercially, for recreation, and as a traditional means for feeding one 's family.
Under the Native Title Act 1993, native title holders retain the right to legally hunt dugongs and green turtles for "personal, domestic or non-commercial communal needs ''.
Four traditional owners groups agreed to cease the hunting of dugongs in the area in 2011 due to their declining numbers, partially accelerated by seagrass damage from Cyclone Yasi.
Media related to Great Barrier Reef at Wikimedia Commons
|
who was the dog walker on king of queens | Nicole Sullivan - wikipedia
Nicole Julianne Sullivan (born April 21, 1970) is an American actress, voice artist and comedian. Sullivan is best known for her six seasons (1995 -- 2001) on the sketch comedy series MADtv. She also played the role of Holly Shumpert for five seasons (2001 -- 2005, 2007) on the CBS sitcom The King of Queens.
She has played a recurring character, Jill Tracy, on Scrubs and voiced the villainous Shego in Disney 's Kim Possible. She had recurring voice roles on Family Guy and voiced "Franny Robinson '' in Disney 's Meet the Robinsons. From 2008 to 2009, Sullivan starred in and was the lead of her own Lifetime television series Rita Rocks. From 2008 to 2013, she voiced Marlene in The Penguins of Madagascar. Sullivan played Jules ' (Courteney Cox) therapist, Lynn Mettler, on the comedy Cougar Town. Recently, she portrayed Lyla in the Disney channel original movie Let It Shine. In 2013, she starred in the short - lived Nickelodeon sitcom Wendell and Vinnie as Wilma Basset.
Sullivan was born in Manhattan. She is the daughter of Edward C. Sullivan, a New York State assemblyman. She took dance classes at age 7 and performed in Off Broadway and Broadway productions with the First All - Children 's Theatre. Sullivan 's mother, a business woman, and her father, who represented Manhattan 's 69th Assembly District in the New York State Assembly from 1977 to 2002, moved the family upstate to Middleburgh, New York, in 1982. During high school, Nicole was class treasurer throughout her junior year. She played soccer in high school, recorded statistics for the boys ' basketball team and was a member of student council.
After graduating from Middleburgh in 1987, she attended Northwestern University as a theatre major. She studied William Shakespeare, Harold Pinter, Anton Chekhov, Henrik Ibsen and Greek tragedies while working two jobs to pay her way through college and writing plays and sketches for the student theatre. Sullivan spent her junior year in London, studying at the British American Drama Academy and became a member of the Greenwich Shakespeare Company. Sullivan graduated from Northwestern with honors and then moved to Los Angeles before getting sporadic guest - starring roles.
Sullivan was among the original cast members on MADtv when it premiered in 1995. She created numerous characters; her most popular was the mean - spirited Vancome Lady. Sullivan 's other characters included X-News reporter Amy, dimwitted Antonia, Eracists leader Debbie, News at 6 's Diane Lawyer - Trabajo (pronounced "trebalyo ''), racist country singer Darlene McBride, and Latina bimbo Lida. Sullivan appeared with Michael McDonald in an MADtv sketch about making an audition tape to appear on Law & Order that mocked their acting prowess; she later guest - starred in the Law & Order: Special Victims Unit season one episode "Contact ''. Sullivan was featured in the Nov / Dec 2009 issue of Making Music Magazine.
Sullivan was originally cast as Turanga Leela, one of the main characters in the animated series Futurama but the role was recast with Katey Sagal before the show went to air.
Sullivan has voiced Marlene the Otter on The Penguins of Madagascar -- a spin - off series from the successful hit movies Madagascar, Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa, and Madagascar 3: Europe 's Most Wanted -- which aired on Nickelodeon, Shego on Kim Possible; Joan of Arc on Clone High; Mira Nova on Buzz Lightyear of Star Command; and Joan on the Family Guy episode, "I Take Thee Quagmire '', along with several other one time voices on the show. Sullivan has also starred in a pilot called Me and My Needs that was rejected by ABC. She played Franny Robinson in Meet the Robinsons. Also, Sullivan was a voice actor in the Monsters, Inc. video game. She played Luna in the 2007 video game Ratchet & Clank: Size Matters. In 2012, she also provided the voice of Supergirl in Super Best Friends Forever, a series of animated shorts airing on Cartoon Network 's DC Nation block.
Sullivan is married to actor Jason Packham. They have two sons named Dashel Pierce and Beckett Edward.
Sullivan won the first edition of Celebrity Poker Showdown. Her charity was Alley Cat Allies, a nonprofit advocacy organization dedicated to transforming communities to protect and improve the lives of cats, which received $100,000 as a result of her victory.
|
who said you can sleep when you're dead | I 'll Sleep When I 'm Dead - wikipedia
I 'll Sleep When I 'm Dead may refer to:
|
who is the comander in chief of the military | Commander - in - Chief - wikipedia
A commander - in - chief, also sometimes called supreme commander, or chief commander, is the person or body that exercises supreme operational command and control of a nation 's military forces. As a technical term, it refers to military competencies that reside in a nation - state 's executive leadership -- a head of state, a head of government.
Often, a given country 's commander - in - chief (if held by an official) need not be or have been a commissioned officer or even a veteran. In these countries this follows the principle of civilian control of the military.
The role of commander - in - chief derives from the Latin, imperator. Imperatores of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire possessed imperium (command) powers. In its modern use, the term first applied to King Charles I of England in 1639. It continued to be used during the English Civil War. A nation 's head of state (monarchical or republican) usually holds the nominal position of commander - in - chief, even if effective executive power is held by a separate head of government. In a parliamentary system, the executive branch is ultimately dependent upon the will of the legislature; although the legislature does not issue orders directly to the armed forces and therefore does not control the military in any operational sense. Governors - general and colonial governors are also often appointed commander - in - chief of the military forces within their territory.
A commander - in - chief is sometimes referred to as supreme commander, which is sometimes used as a specific term. The term is also used for military officers who hold such power and authority, not always through dictatorship, and as a subordinate (usually) to a head of state (see Generalissimo). The term is also used for officers who hold authority over an individual military branch, special branch or within a theatre of operations.
According to the Constitution of Afghanistan, The President of Afghanistan is the Commander - in - chief of Afghan Armed Forces.
According to the Constitution of Albania, The President of the Republic of Albania is the Commander - in - chief of Albanian Armed Forces. The incumbent Commander - in - chief is President Ilir Meta.
Under part II, chapter III, article 99, subsections 12, 13, 14 and 15, the Constitution of Argentina states that the President of the Argentine Nation is the "Commander - in - chief of all the armed forces of the Nation ''. It also states that the President is entitled to provide military posts in the granting of the jobs or grades of senior officers of the armed forces, and by itself on the battlefield; runs with its organization and distribution according to needs of the Nation and declares war and orders reprisals with the consent and approval of the Argentine National Congress.
The Ministry of Defense is the government department that assists and serves the President in the management of the armed forces (Army, Navy and Air Force).
Under chapter II of section 68 titled Command of the naval and military forces, the Constitution of Australia states that:
The command in chief of the naval and military forces of the Commonwealth is vested in the Governor General as the Queen 's representative.
In practice, however, the Governor - General does not play an active part in the Australian Defence Force 's command structure, and the democratically accountable Australian Cabinet (chaired by the Prime Minister) de facto controls the ADF. The Minister for Defence and several subordinate ministers exercise this control through the Australian Defence Organisation. Section 8 of the Defence Act 1903 states:
The Minister shall have the general control and administration of the Defence Force, and the powers vested in the Chief of the Defence Force, the Chief of Navy, the Chief of Army and the Chief of Air Force by virtue of section 9, and the powers vested jointly in the Secretary and the Chief of the Defence Force by virtue of section 9A, shall be exercised subject to and in accordance with any directions of the Minister.
The Constitution (German: Bundes - Verfassungsgesetz) states, in Article 80, that the President is the Commander - in - Chief of the Federal Armed Forces. However, it further provides that the President may only have the Federal Armed Forces at his disposal to the extent provided in the Defence Act (German: Wehrgesetz); and that the supreme command over the Federal Armed Forces is exercised by the federal minister authorized to serve in this capacity by the Federal Government, i.e. the cabinet under the chairmanship of the Federal Chancellor, as defined in Article 69.
The commander - in - chief is the president, although executive power and responsibility for national defense resides with the prime minister. The only exception was the first commander - in - chief, General M.A.G. Osmani, during Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, who was commander of all Bangladesh Forces, reinstated to active duty by official BD government order, which after independence was gazetted in 1972. He retired on 7 April 1972 and relinquished all authority and duties to the President of Bangladesh.
Article 142 of the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 states that the Brazilian Armed Forces is under the supreme command of the President of the Republic.
The Sultan of Brunei is the Commander - in - Chief of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces.
The powers of command - in - chief over the Canadian Armed Forces are vested in the Canadian monarch, and are delegated to the Governor General of Canada, who also uses the title Commander - in - Chief. In this capacity, the governor general is entitled to the uniform of a general / flag officer, with the crest of the office and special cuff braid serving as rank insignia.
By constitutional convention, the Crown 's prerogative powers over the armed forces and constitutional powers as commander - in - chief are exercised on the advice of the prime minister and the rest of Cabinet, the governing ministry that commands the confidence of the House of Commons. According to the National Defence Act, the Minister of National Defence is responsible and accountable to parliament for all matters related to national defence and the Canadian Armed Forces. In theory, the governor general could also use his or her powers as commander - in - chief to stop any attempts to use the Canadian Forces unconstitutionally, though this has never occurred and would likely be highly controversial.
Article 93 of the Constitution of the People 's Republic of China states the authority to direct the Armed Forces of the People 's Republic of China is vested with the Central Military Commission; composed of a Chairman, and numerous Vice-Chairmen and members. The same article also states that the Chairman of the Central Military Commission assumes overall responsibility for the work of the Central Military Commission, and that it is responsible to the National People 's Congress and the Standing Committee.
Furthermore, Article 80 gives the President of the People 's Republic of China (in addition to ceremonial head of state duties) the power to proclaim martial law, proclaim a state of war, and to issue mobilisation orders upon the decision of National People 's Congress and its Standing Committee.
The CMC Chairman and the President are distinctly separate state offices and they have not always been held by the same persons. However, beginning in 1993, during the tenure of Jiang Zemin as CMC Chairman and General Secretary of the Communist Party, it has been standard practice to have the President, the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, and the General Secretary of the Communist Party to be normally held by the same person; although the slight differences in the start and end of terms for those respective offices means that there is some overlap between an occupant and his predecessor.
When Hong Kong was under British authority, the civilian Governor was ex officio Commander - in - Chief of the British Forces Overseas Hong Kong. After the territory 's handover to the People 's Republic of China in 1997, the commanders of the People 's Liberation Army Hong Kong Garrison are PLA personnel from mainland China.
According to the Croatian constitution, the President of Croatia is the Commander - in - Chief of Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia. In peace, the commander - in - chief exercises his command through the Minister of Defense. In war and in cases where the Minister of Defense is not fulfilling orders, the commander - in - chief exercises his command directly through the chief of General Staff.
According to the 1992 constitution, the President of the Czech Republic is the Commander - in - Chief of the Armed Forces according to Article 63 (1) (c), and appoints and promotes generals under Article 63 (1) (f). The President needs the countersignature of the Prime Minister for decisions concerning the above - mentioned provisions as per Articles 63 (3 - 4), or otherwise they are not valid. The Prime Minister may delegate to other ministers the right to countersign these decisions of the President. The political responsibility for the Armed Forces is borne by the Government, which in Article 67 is defined as the "supreme body of executive power ''. According to Articles 39 & 43, the Parliament must give consent to the dispatch of Czech military forces outside the territory of the Czech Republic.
The Ministry of Defence is the central authority of the state administration for the control of the Armed Forces. The actual day - to - day management is vested in the Chief of the General Staff, the Czech chief of defence equivalent.
The position of the Danish monarch as the head of the military is deeply rooted in tradition. While the 1953 constitution does not explicitly designate the monarch as commander - in - chief; it is implicit, given the general provision in article 12 and the more specific wording of article 19 (2): "Except for purposes of defence against an armed attack upon the Realm or Danish forces, the King shall not use military force against any foreign state without the consent of the Folketing. Any measure which the King may take in pursuance of this provision shall forthwith be submitted to the Folketing ''.
However, when reading the Danish Constitution, it is important to bear in mind that the King in this context is understood by Danish jurists to be read as the Government (consisting of the Prime Minister and other ministers). This is a logical consequence of articles 12, 13 and 14, all of which in essence stipulates that the powers vested in the monarch can only be exercised through ministers, who are responsible for all acts. Thus, the Government, in effect, holds the supreme command authority implied in articles 12 and 19 (2).
The Danish Defence Law (Danish: Forsvarsloven) designates in article 9 the Minister of Defence as the supreme authority in Defence (Danish: højeste ansvarlige myndighed for forsvaret). Under the Minister is the Chief of Defence, the senior - ranking professional military officer heading the Defence Command, who commands the Army, the Navy, the Air Force and other units not reporting directly to the Ministry of Defence.
According to the Constitution, Article 128, Section II, Title IV, the President is the head of foreign policy, the civil administration and the Commander - in - Chief of the Armed Forces, the National Police and all other state 's security agencies.
In Egypt, the President of the Republic holds the ceremonial title of Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. A member of the government, usually defence minister, is commander - in - chief of the Egyptian Armed Forces, the incumbent being Sedki Sobhi. The president still remains the only individual capable of declaring war. Until the election of Mohamed Morsi in June 2012, prior Egyptian presidents had all been former military officers, and during the Yom Kippur War the president played a major role at all levels of the planning of the war, and was in a literal sense Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces giving direct orders to the commanders from the headquarters during the war as field marshal of the army, colonel general of the air force and air defence forces and admiral of the navy. Anwar Sadat often wore his military uniform, while former president Hosni Mubarak had abandoned this tradition.
According to the Finnish constitution, the President of Finland is the commander - in - chief of all Finnish military forces. In practice, the everyday command and control is in the hands of Chief of Defence and the Commander of the Finnish Border Guard. The economic administration of the Finnish Defence Force is the responsibility of Ministry of Defence. The duty of the president is to decide upon
Since the constitutional reform of 2000, the Minister of Defence has the right to be present when the president uses his command powers, unless the matter is of immediate concern. In questions of strategic importance, the Prime Minister has the same right.
The president commissions and promotes officers and decides on activating reservists for extraordinary service and on the mobilisation of the Defence Forces. If Parliament is not in session when a decision to mobilise is taken, it must be immediately convened. Declarations of a state of emergency (Finnish: valmiustila, literally, "state of preparedness '') and state of war (Finnish: puolustustila, lit. "state of defence '') are declared by a presidential decree, given after a motion by the government, which is then submitted to the Parliament for ratification.
The president has, in a state of emergency, the right to transfer the position of the commander - in - chief to another Finnish citizen.
In France, the President of the Republic is designated as "Chef des Armées '' (literally "Chief of the Armies '') under article 15 of the constitution, and is as such the supreme executive authority in military affairs. Article 16 provides the president with extensive emergency powers.
However, owing to the nature of the semi-presidential system, the prime minister also has key constitutional powers under article 21: "He shall be responsible for national defence '' and has "power to make regulations and shall make appointments to civil and military posts ''.
Since the reign of Louis XIV, France has been strongly centralized. After crushing local nobles engaged in warlord - ism, the Kings of France retained all authority with the help of able yet discreet Prime ministers (Mazarin, Richelieu).
The 1789 Revolution transferred the supreme authority to the King (in the context of the short - lived constitutional Monarchy), then to the multi-member Comité de Salut Public during the Convention, and later to the Directoire, before being regained in the hands of Consul Napoléon Bonaparte, later Emperor Napoléon I, alone.
The Restoration restored the authority of the King, first in an absolute monarchy, then the constitutional July Monarchy of Louis Philippe, before it was overthrown in turn by the Second Republic and later the Second Empire of Napoleon III.
The following Third Republic was a parliamentary system, where the military authority was held by the President of the Council of Ministers. During World War I, the many visits to the trenches by the elderly statesman Georges Clemenceau impressed the soldiers and earned him the nickname Father of Victory (French: Le Père de la Victoire).
During World War II, Maréchal Philippe Pétain assumed power and held the supreme authority in Vichy France, while Général Charles De Gaulle, acting on behalf of the previous regime, founded the Free French Forces, upon which he held supreme authority all through the war.
The following and short - lived Fourth Republic was a parliamentary system, which was replaced by the present Fifth Republic, a semi-presidential system.
Prior 1992 Commander - in - chief of the Ghana Armed Forces (GAF) military rank was held by GAF military personnel until the ratification of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana ratified by Ghana Air Force (GHF) Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings and in accordance to the Constitution of Ghana, The Head of State of Ghana and President of Ghana is the Commander - in - chief of GAF. The incumbent Commander - in - chief of GAF (Ghana Armed Forces) is Head of State of Ghana and President of Ghana John Dramani Mahama.
Supreme command of the Indian Armed Forces is vested in the President of India, although effective executive power and responsibility for national defence resides with the Cabinet of India headed by the Prime Minister. This is discharged through the Ministry of Defence, headed by the Minister of Defence, which provides the policy framework and resources to the Armed Forces to discharge their responsibilities in the context of the defence of the country.
On 15 August 1947, each service was placed under its own commander - in - chief. In 1955, the three service chiefs were re-designated as the Chief of the Army Staff (rank of general), the Chief of the Naval Staff (rank of vice-admiral) and the Chief of the Air Staff (rank of air marshal) with the president as the supreme commander. The Chief of the Air Staff was raised to the rank of air chief marshal in 1965 and the Chief of the Naval Staff raised to the rank of admiral in 1968.
According to Article 10 of the Constitution of Indonesia, the President of Indonesia holds the supreme command of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. Day - to - day operations of the Armed Forces is handled by the commander of the Armed Forces (Indonesian: Panglima TNI, a 4 - star officer whom can be General (Army / Marine), Admiral (Navy), or Air Chief Marshal (Air Force)).
Indonesian Armed Forces has three service branches: Indonesian Army, Indonesian Navy (including Indonesian Marine Corps), and Indonesian Air Forces. Each service branch is headed by a Chief of Staff (also a 4 - star officer) who has the task of developing soldier professionalism in each branch. However, the commanding authority is held by Commander of Indonesian National Armed Forces. Commanders have direct commanding authority to Main Combatants Command (Indonesian: Komando Utama Tempur) from all service branches such as Army Special Forces Command, Army Strategic Reserve Command, Military Area Command, Fleet Command, Military Sea Traffic Command, National Air Defense Command and Air - Force Operational Command. The Commander of the Armed Forces is appointed by the president from active Chiefs of Staff (Army, Navy, or Air Force) and must get approval from the House of Representatives. Chief of Staff is also appointed by the president from senior military officers. The president as commander - in - chief also has authority in senior military officer mutation and promotion in tour of duty. Minister of Defense has responsibility to assist the president in defense issues and create policies about authorization use of military force, manage defense budget, etc. For authorization use of military forces or declaration of war, the president must get approval from House of Representatives. The Commander of Armed Forces gives recommendations to the Minister of Defense in creating national defense policies.
Before 1979, the Shah was the commander - in - chief in Iran. After the inception of the Islamic Republic, the President of Iran was initially appointed that task, with Abolhassan Bani Sadr being the first commander - in - chief. However, Abolhassan Bani Sadr was impeached on 22 June 1981. It was after this event that the role of commander - in - chief of the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran was given to the Supreme Leader of Iran.
The Supreme Commander of the Defence Forces is the President of Ireland, but in practice the Minister for Defence acts on the President 's behalf and reports to the Government of Ireland. The Minister for Defence is advised by the Council of Defence on the business of the Department of Defence. The Defence Forces are organised under the Chief of Staff, a three star officer, and are organised into three service branches, the Army, Naval Service, and Air Corps.
The Constitution of Italy, in article 87, states that the President of the Republic: "is the commander of the armed forces and chairman of the supreme defense council constituted by law; he declares war according to the decision of the parliament ''.
Chapter 131 of the Constitution of Kenya identifies the President as the Commander - in - Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces and the chairperson of the National Security Council. The President appoints a chief of general staff, known as the Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces, who acts as the principal military adviser to the President and the National Security Council. The Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces is drawn from one of the branches of the Armed Forces, the Kenya Army, the Kenya Navy or the Kenya Air Force.
In accordance with Article 41 of the Federal Constitution of Malaysia, the Yang di - Pertuan Agong is Supreme Commander of the Malaysian Armed Forces. As such, he is the highest - ranking officer in the military establishment, with the power to appoint the Chief of Staff (on the advice of the Armed Forces Council). He also appoints the service heads of each of the three branches of the military.
The Federal Constitution establishes that the office of Supreme Commander is attached to the person of the Yang di - Pertuan Agong as the Federation 's head of state:
The Federal Parliament passed the Federal Armed Forces Act to consolidate in one law all regulations that govern the three services (Army, Navy, and Air Force). It establishes the function and duties of the Federal Head of State in the capacity as Supreme Commander.
In the Republic of Mauritius, the President of the Republic is the commander - in - chief, according to Article 28 of the Constitution.
After independence in 1968, Mauritius continued to recognise the Queen of Mauritius, as represented by the Governor - General of Mauritius, as commander - in - chief. After the country was proclaimed a Commonwealth Republic in 1992, the new constitution stipulated that a President would assume the position of the head of state and commander - in - chief.
In accordance with the Nigerian Constitution, the President of Nigeria is the commander - in - chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces.
Harald V, King of Norway, officially retains executive power. Article 25 of the constitution states: "The King is commander - in - chief of the armed forces of the realm ''
However, following the introduction of a parliamentary system of government, the duties of the Monarch have since become strictly representative and ceremonial, such as the formal appointment and dismissal of the Prime Minister and other ministers in the executive government. Accordingly, the Monarch is commander - in - chief of the Norwegian Armed Forces, and serves as chief diplomatic official abroad and as a symbol of unity.
In the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, before the 1973 Constitution, the head of the army, i.e., the Chief of the Army Staff, was referred as Commander - in - Chief. The term was replaced by Chief of Army Staff on 20 March 1972 The Chief of Army Staff is a four - star general whose term is 3 years, but can be extended or renewed once. The Chief of Army Staff is chosen by the Prime Minister of Pakistan.
The President of the Philippines is both head of state and head of government, and is mandated by Article VII, Section 18 of the 1987 Constitution to be Commander - in - Chief of the Armed Forces.
During the Fourth Republic, the 1973 Constitution introduced by Ferdinand Marcos created a semi-presidential system that split the Executive into two, with the prime minister retaining the office of commander - in - chief and the president reduced to a figurehead. The wording of Article VII, Section 9 in the previous constitution enabled Marcos as commander - in - chief to declare Martial Law and suspend the writ of habeas corpus on 21 September 1972. Marcos also issued an edict, conferring the rank of five - star general in the military to the President, as Commander - in - Chief of the Armed Forces. He consequently sat as both president and prime minister until 1981, when Cesar Virata succeeded him to the latter office. Salvador Laurel was the country 's last prime minister when the office was abolished after the 1986 People Power Revolution, and the position 's powers (including military authority) were again merged with the Presidency.
The current Commander - in - Chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines is President Rodrigo Duterte, serving as the supreme commander of all Filipino military units in the Philippines.
In Poland, the President is Commander - in - Chief of the Polish Armed Forces. However, the art. 134 ust. 4 of the constitution states:
The President of the Republic, for a period of war, shall appoint the Commander - in - Chief of the Armed Forces on request of the Prime Minister. He may dismiss the Commander - in - Chief of the Armed Forces in accordance with the same procedure. The authority of the Commander - in - Chief of the Armed Forces, as well as the principle of his subordination to the constitutional organs of the Republic of Poland, shall be specified by statute.
During the interbellum period, the General Inspector of the Armed Forces was appointed the commander - in - chief for the time of war (Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces). However, after the war this function ceased to exist -- thus it is likely that if Poland formally participates in a war, Chief of the General Staff of the Polish Armed Forces will be appointed Supreme Commander.
The President of the Portuguese Republic is the constitutional Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces (in Portuguese: Comandante Supremo das Forças Armadas). However, the operational command is delegated in the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces.
In the Portuguese military parlance, the term "Commander - in - Chief '' (in Portuguese: comandante - em - chefe or simply comandante - chefe) refers to the unified military commander of all the land, naval and air forces in a theater of operations.
As stipulated in the Constitution of the Republic of China, the President is also the Commander - in - Chief of the ROC Armed Forces (including the Military Police), the Special Forces, and the National Space Organization.
According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, (Chapter 4, Article 87, Section 1) the President is the Supreme Commander - in - Chief of the Armed Forces. The President approves the military doctrine and appoints the defense minister and the chief and other members of the general staff.
The Russian Armed Forces is divided into three services: the Russian Ground Forces, the Russian Navy, and the Russian Air Force. In addition there are three independent arms of service: Strategic Missile Troops, Russian Aerospace Defense Forces, and the Russian Airborne Troops. The Air Defence Troops, the former Soviet Air Defence Forces, have been subordinated into the Air Force since 1998.
Article 60 of the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia states: "The King is the commander - in - chief of all the armed forces. He appoints officers and puts an end to their duties in accordance with the law. ''
Article 61 further states: "The King declares a state of emergency, general mobilization and war, and the law defines the rules for this. ''
Lastly, Article 62 states: "If there is a danger threatening the safety of the Kingdom or its territorial integrity, or the security of its people and its interests, or which impedes the functioning of the state institutions, the King may take urgent measures in order to deal with this danger And if the King considers that these measures should continue, he may then implement the necessary regulations to this end. ''
In accordance with the law, the President of Serbia is Commander - in - chief of Armed Forces and in command of the military. He appoints, promotes and recalls officers of the Army of Serbia.
In Slovenia, the commander - in - chief is formally the President of Slovenia, although he or she does not exercise this position in peacetime. Instead, this role is usually assumed by the Minister of Defence.
As with most remaining European monarchies, the position of the Spanish monarch as the nominal head of the armed forces is deeply rooted in traditions going centuries back.
The Spanish Constitution of 1978 gives the King in article 62 (h):
supreme command of the Armed Forces
However, article 64 require that all official acts of the King must be countersigned, by the President of the Government or other competent minister, for them to become valid. Furthermore, article 97 stipulates that;
The Government shall conduct domestic and foreign policy, civil and military administration and the defence of the State
And article 98 furthermore specifies the composition of the Government (which the King is not a member of). No provision in the constitution requires the King / Government to seek approval from the Cortes Generales before sending the armed forces abroad.
Since 1984, the Chief of the Defence Staff is the professional head of the armed forces and, under the authority of the Minister of Defence, is responsible for military operations and military organisation.
As head of state, the President of Sri Lanka, is nominally the commander - in - chief of the armed forces. The National Security Council, chaired by the president is the authority charged with formulating and executing defence policy for the nation. The highest level of military headquarters is the Ministry of Defence, since 1978 except for a few rare occasions the president retained the portfolio defence, thus being the Minister of Defence. The ministry and the armed forces have been controlled by the during these periods by either a Minister of State, Deputy Minister for defence, and of recently the Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of Defence. Prior to 1978 the prime minister held the portfolio of Minister of Defence and External Affairs, and was supported by a Parliamentary Secretary for Defence and External Affairs.
Responsibility for the management of the forces is Ministry of Defence, while the planning and execution of combined operations is the responsibility of the Joint Operations Command (JOC). The JOC is headed by the Chief of the Defence Staff who is the most senior officer in the Armed Forces and is an appointment that can be held by an Air Chief Marshal, Admiral, or General. The three services have their own respective professional chiefs: the Commander of the Army, the Commander of the Navy and the Commander of the Air Force, who have much autonomy.
In Suriname, the constitution gives the president "supreme authority over the armed forces and all of its members ''.
The King is Commander in Chief of the Umbufto Swazi Defence Force
The "Head of the Thai Armed Forces '' (Thai: จอมทัพ ไทย; RTGS: Chom Thap Thai) is a position vested in the Thai monarch, most recently held by King Bhumibol Adulyadej until his death in October 2016, who as sovereign and head of state is the commander - in - chief of the Royal Thai Armed Forces.
President of the Republic of Turkey has the constitutional right to represent the Supreme Military Command of the Turkish Armed Forces, on behalf of the Turkish Grand National Assembly, and to decide on the mobilization of the Turkish Armed Forces, to appoint the Chief of the General Staff, to call the National Security Council to meet, to preside over the National Security Council, to proclaim martial law or state of emergency, and to issue decrees having the force of law, upon a decision of the Council of Ministers meeting under his / her chairmanship. With all these issues above written in the Constitution of Turkey, the executive rights are given to the President of the Republic of Turkey to be represented as the commander - in - chief of the nation.
The British monarch is the "Head of the Armed Forces '' and their commander - in - chief. Long - standing constitutional convention, however, has vested de facto executive authority, by the exercise of Royal Prerogative powers, in the prime minister and the Secretary of State for Defence. The Prime Minister (acting with the support of the Cabinet) makes the key decisions on the use of the armed forces. The Queen, however, remains the "ultimate authority '' of the military, with officers and personnel swearing allegiance only to the monarch. A new constitutional convention appears to have become enshrined since the 2003 war in Iraq, whereby the UK will only take military action (other than in circumstances of having to immediately react defensively) with the consent of the House of Commons. Ultimately however The Queen remains the "ultimate authority '' and can exercise such at will. As well as the Military the UK Police forces also swear allegiance only to the Monarch, not the Government. This is to ensure that Government Officials (including the Prime Minister) can be arrested for committing indictable offences just as any normal citizen, and are therefore not ' above the law ' unlike the Monarch.
The Ministry of Defence is the Government department and highest level of military headquarters charged with formulating and executing defence policy for the Armed Forces; it employed 103,930 civilians in 2006. The department is controlled by the Secretary of State for Defence (or "the Defence Secretary '') and contains three deputy appointments: Minister of State for the Armed Forces, Minister for Defence Procurement, and Minister for Veterans ' Affairs.
Responsibility for the management of the forces is delegated to a number of committees: the Defence Council, Chiefs of Staff Committee, Defence Management Board, and three single - service boards. The Defence Council, composed of senior representatives of the services and the Ministry of Defence, provides the "formal legal basis for the conduct of defence ''. The three constituent single - service committees (Admiralty Board, Army Board, and Air Force Board) are chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence.
The Chief of the Defence Staff is the professional head of the Armed Forces and is an appointment that can be held by an Admiral, General or Air Chief Marshal (four - star officers). Before the practice was discontinued in the 1990s, those who were appointed to the position of CDS (professional head of the Armed Forces) had been elevated to the most senior rank in their respective service (a five - star officer). The CDS, along with the Permanent Under Secretary, are the principal advisers to the departmental minister. The three services have their own respective professional chiefs (likewise four - star officers): the First Sea Lord who is also Chief of Naval Staff, the Chief of the General Staff and the Chief of the Air Staff.
From 1660 until 1904 the professional head of the Army was known as the Commander - in - Chief and as such had significant independence and power. Under the Commonwealth Government, the Commander - in - chief was a de facto head of state.
Until 2012 each of the three services also had one or more commands with a (four - star) commander - in - chief in charge of operations. These were, latterly: Commander - in - Chief Fleet (CINCFLEET -- sharing a Command HQ with Commander - in - Chief Naval Home Command (CINCNAVHOME)), Commander - in - Chief, Land Forces (CINCLAND) and Commander - in - Chief Air (CINCAIR). (At one time there were many more Naval, Military and Air Commands, each with (in many cases) their own Commanders - in - Chief.)
Since 2012, however, full operational command has been vested in the three Chiefs of Staff, and the appointment of distinct Commanders - in - Chief has been discontinued. This change was implemented in response to the 2011 Levene report, which advised that it would serve to "streamline top - level decision - making, simplify lines of accountability..., remove duplication between the posts and also provide impetus to the leaning of the senior leadership ''. New three - star appointments (Fleet Commander, Commander Land Forces) mirror the old ones, but these are subordinate officers with delegated command responsibility, rather than Commanders - in - Chief.
In the colonies of the English Empire, and subsequently the British Empire, the duties of Lords Lieutenant were generally performed by the Commander - in - Chief or the Governor. Both offices may have been occupied by the same person.
By way of an example, this is still the case in Britain 's second, and oldest remaining, where the Royal Navy 's headquarters, main base, and dockyard for the North America and West Indies Station was established following independence of the United States of America. The colony had raised Militia and Volunteer forces since official settlement in 1612 (with a troop - of - horse added later), and a small force of regular infantry from 1701 to 1783. A large regular army garrison was built up after 1794, and the reserve forces faded away following the conclusion of the American War of 1812 as the local government lost interest in paying for their upkeep. From this point until the 1960s, Governors were almost exclusively senior officers of the Royal Artillery or Royal Engineers who were also military Commanders - in - Chief (and initially also Vice Admirals). Attempts to rekindle the militia without a Militia Act or funds from the colonial government were made throughout the century under the authorisation of the Governor and Commander - in - Chief, but none proved lasting. The colonial government was finally compelled to raise militia and volunteer forces (the Bermuda Militia Artillery and the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps by act in the 1890s (the Bermuda Cadet Corps, Bermuda Volunteer Engineers, and Bermuda Militia Infantry were added at later dates), and these fell under the Governor and Commander - in - Chief, as well as under operational control of his junior, the Brigadier in charge of the Bermuda Command (or Bermuda Garrison, which included the regular as well as the part - time military (as opposed to naval) forces in the colony. Although the Royal Naval and the regular army establishments have been withdrawn from Bermuda, the Governor of Bermuda remains the Commander - in - Chief (though most recent office holders have not been career army officers) of the Royal Bermuda Regiment (a 1965 amalgam of the BMA and BVRC, which had both been re-organised in line with the Territorial Army after the First World War).
According to Article II, Section 2, Clause I of the Constitution, the President of the United States is "Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States. '' Since the National Security Act of 1947, this has been understood to mean all United States Armed Forces. U.S. ranks have their roots in British military traditions, with the President possessing ultimate authority, but no rank, maintaining a civilian status, other than the title of Commander in Chief. The exact degree of authority that the Constitution grants to the President as Commander in Chief has been the subject of much debate throughout history, with Congress at various times granting the President wide authority and at others attempting to restrict that authority.
The amount of military detail handled personally by the President in wartime has varied dramatically. George Washington, the first U.S. president, firmly established military subordination under civilian authority. In 1794, Washington used his constitutional powers to assemble 12,000 militia to quell the Whiskey Rebellion -- a conflict in western Pennsylvania involving armed farmers and distillers who refused to pay excise tax on spirits. According to historian Joseph Ellis, this was the "first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field '', though James Madison briefly took control of artillery units in defense of Washington D.C. during the War of 1812.
Abraham Lincoln was deeply involved in overall strategy and in day - to - day operations during the American Civil War, 1861 -- 1865; historians have given Lincoln high praise for his strategic sense and his ability to select and encourage commanders such as Ulysses S. Grant. On the other extreme, Woodrow Wilson paid very little attention to operational military details of World War I and had very little contact with the War Department or with General John J. Pershing, who had a high degree of autonomy as commander of the armies in France. As President in World War II, Franklin D. Roosevelt worked closely with his generals, and admirals, and assigned Admiral William D. Leahy as Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief. Harry S. Truman believed in a high amount of civilian leadership of the military, making many tactical and policy decisions based on the recommendations of his advisors -- including the decision to use atomic weapons on Japan, to commit American forces in the Korean War, and to terminate Douglas MacArthur from his command. Lyndon B. Johnson kept a very tight personal control of operations during the Vietnam War, which some historians have sharply criticized.
In 1990, the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the ensuing Gulf War in 1991, saw George H.W. Bush assemble and lead one of the largest military coalitions of nations in modern times. Confronting a major constitutional issue of murky legislation that left the wars in Korea and Vietnam without official declarations of war, Congress quickly authorized sweeping war - making powers for Bush. The leadership of George W. Bush during the War in Afghanistan and Iraq War achieved mixed results. In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks by al - Qaeda, the subsequent War on Terror that followed, and the 2003 invasion of Iraq due to Iraq 's sponsorship of terrorism and alleged possession of weapons of mass destruction, the speed at which the Taliban and Ba'ath Party governments in both Kabul and Baghdad were toppled by an overwhelming superiority of American and allied forces defied the predictions of many military experts. However, insufficient post-war planning and strategy by Bush and his advisors to rebuild those nations were costly.
Before 1947, the President was the only common superior of the Army (under the Secretary of War) and the Navy and Marine Corps (under the Secretary of the Navy). The National Security Act of 1947, and the 1949 amendments to the same act, created the Department of Defense and the services (Army, Navy, Marine Corps and Air Force) became subject to the "authority, direction and control '' of the Secretary of Defense; the civilian cabinet - level official serving as the head of the Department of Defense and who is appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate.
The Goldwater - Nichols Act in 1986 codified the default operational chain of command: running from the President to the Secretary of Defense, and from the Secretary of Defense to the combatant commander. While the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff outranks all other military officers, he does not have operational command authority over the Armed Forces. However, the chairman does assist the President and the Secretary of Defense in the exercise of their command functions.
During the 20th century, certain area commanders came to be called "Commander - in - chief ''. As of 2011, there are nine combatant commanders: six have regional responsibilities, and three have functional responsibilities. Before 2002, the combatant commanders were referred to in daily use as "Commanders - in - chief '' (for instance: "Commander in chief, U.S. Central Command ''), even though the offices were in fact already designated as "combatant commander '' (CCDR) in the law specifying the positions. On 24 October 2002, Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld announced his decision that the use of "Commander - in - chief '' would thereafter be reserved for the President only.
A painting depicting President George Washington and his troops before their march to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania, 1794.
President Abraham Lincoln and Major General George B. McClellan in a military tent after the Battle of Antietam, 1862.
President Lyndon B. Johnson awards the Distinguished Service Cross to First Lieutenant Marty A. Hammer in Vietnam, 1966.
The Football is a briefcase, carried by an aide - de-camp, which gives the President the ability to access the Gold Codes and to launch a nuclear attack while away from a fixed command center.
Admiral Mike Mullen and Secretary of Defense Robert M. Gates attend a meeting of combatant commanders with President George W. Bush in the Cabinet Room at the White House, 2008.
President Donald Trump (third from right), as commander - in - chief, meets with Marine Gen. Joseph F. Dunford Jr., chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Army Gen. Joseph Votel, commander of U.S. Central Command Commander, and Gen. Raymond A. "Tony '' Thomas, U.S. Special Operations Command Commander at USCENTCOM headquarters on MacDill Air Force Base, 2017.
In U.S. states, the governor also serves as the commander - in - chief of the National Guard, State Militia, and State Defense Forces. In the Commonwealth of Kentucky, for example, KRS 37.180 states:
Similarly, Section 7 of Article 5 of the Constitution of the State of California states:
The commander - in - chief of the armed forces is the President of Vietnam, through his post as Chairman of National Defense and Security Council. Though this position is nominal and real power is assumed by the Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of Vietnam. The Secretary of Central Military Commission (usually the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam) is the de facto Commander.
The Minister of Defence oversees operations of the Ministry of Defence, and the Vietnam People 's Army. He also oversees such agencies as the General Staff and the General Logistics Department. However, military policy is ultimately directed by the Central Military Commission of the ruling Communist Party of Vietnam.
The 1995 Constitution designates the Prime Minister of Ethiopia as "Commander - in - Chief of the national armed forces '' in Article 74 (1).
Upon the re-militarization of West Germany in 1955, when it joined NATO, the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany was amended in 1956 to include constitutional provisions for the command of the armed forces.
The rationale for placing the command authority over the armed forces directly with the responsible minister in charge of the military establishment, and thus breaking with the longstanding German constitutional tradition in both earlier monarchical and republican systems of placing it with the head of state, was that in a democratic parliamentary system the command authority should directly reside where it would be exercised and where it is subject to the parliamentary control of the Bundestag at all times. By assigning it directly to the responsible minister, instead of with the Federal Chancellor, this also meant that military affairs is but one of the many integrated responsibilities of the government; in stark contrast of earlier times when the separate division of the military establishment from the civil administration allowed the former to act as a state within a state (in contrast to the Federal Republic, the Weimar Republic began with the Ebert -- Groener pact, which kept the military establishment as an autonomous force outside the control of politics; the 1925 election of Paul von Hindenburg as Reichpräsident, surrounded by his camarilla, did little to reverse the trend).
The legislature of the German Democratic Republic (GDR), the Volkskammer, enacted on 13 February 1960 the Law on the Formation of the National Defense Council of the GDR, which established a council consisting of a chairman and at least 12 members. This was later incorporated into the GDR Constitution in April 1968. The National Defense Council held the supreme command of the National People 's Army (including the internal security forces), and the Council 's chairman (usually the General Secretary of the ruling Socialist Unity Party) was considered the GDR 's commander - in - chief.
The GDR joined with the Federal Republic of Germany on 3 October 1990, upon which the GDR 's constitution and armed forces were abolished.
During the Kingdom of Prussia, German Empire, Weimar Republic and the Nazi era, whoever was the head of state -- the King of Prussia / German Emperor (under the Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia / Constitution of the German Empire) to 1918, the Reichspräsident (under the Weimar Constitution) to 1934, and the Führer from 1934 to 1945 -- was the Head of the Armed Forces (German: Oberbefehlshaber: literally "Supreme Commander '').
Below the level of the Head of State, each military branch (German: Teilstreitkraft) had its own head who reported directly to the Head of State and held the highest rank in his service; in the Reichsheer - Generalfeldmarschall, and in the Reichsmarine - Grossadmiral.
After Chancellor Adolf Hitler assumed power as Führer (after the death of President Paul von Hindenburg), he would later grant his war minister, Generalfeldmarschall Werner von Blomberg, the title of Commander - in - Chief of the Armed Forces in 1935, when conscription was reintroduced. However, in 1938 due to the Blomberg -- Fritsch Affair, Hitler withdrew the Commander - in - Chief title, abolished the war ministerial post and assumed personal command of the Armed Forces. The war ministerial post was de facto overtaken by the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, which was headed by Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Keitel until the German surrender.
According to Article 45 of the Greek Constitution, the President is the Head of the Greek Armed Forces, but their administration is exercised by the Government. The Prime Minister, the Minister for National Defence and the Chief of the General Staff are the ones who command the Armed Forces.
In Israel, the applicable basic law states that the ultimate authority over the Israel Defense Forces rests with the Government of Israel (chaired by the Prime Minister) as a collective body. The authority of the Government is exercised by the Minister of Defense on behalf of the Government. However, the Commander - in - Chief of the IDF is the Chief of General Staff who, despite being subordinate to the Minister of Defense, holds the highest level of command within the military.
In Japan, prior to the Meiji Restoration the role of the commander - in - chief was vested in the shōgun (the most militarily powerful samurai daimyō). After the dissolution of the Tokugawa shogunate the role of the commander - in - chief, resided with the Emperor of Japan. The present - day constitutional role of the Emperor is that of a ceremonial figurehead without any military role.
After Japan 's move towards democracy, the position of Commander - in - Chief of the Japanese Self - Defence Forces is held by the Prime Minister of Japan. Military authority runs from the Prime Minister to the cabinet - level Minister of Defense of the Japanese Ministry of Defense.
The Malta Armed Forces Act does not directly establish the President of Malta as the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. However, Maltese law allows the President to raise by voluntary enlistment and maintain an armed force. Likewise, the law allows the President to issue orders in order to the administrate the armed forces.
It is important to note that the Armed Forces do not swear allegiance to the President of Malta but rather to the Republic of Malta. On this basis, there is no direct link between the head of state and the armed forces. For this reason, this link is mediated by the Minister responsible for defence.
Nonetheless, the Presidential Palaces are guarded by the Armed Forces as a symbolic gesture of social cohesion.
See also Tatmadaw
The Constitution of the Netherlands states, in article 97, that "the Government shall have supreme authority over the armed forces ''. Article 42 defines the Government as the Monarch and the ministers, and that only ministers are responsible for acts of government. Article 45 further defines the ministers as constituting the Cabinet, chaired by the Prime Minister, with "authority to decide upon overall government policy ''.
Before a constitution change took place in 1983, even though the equivalent section stated that: "The King shall have supreme authority over the armed forces ''; that did not give the monarch any autonomous command authority.
The Minister of Defence has the primary ministerial responsibility for the armed forces, which are formally a part of the Ministry of Defence. The Chief of Defence is the highest ranked professional military officer, and serves as an intermediary between the Minister of Defence and the Armed Forces, and is responsible to the Minister for military - strategic planning, operations and deployment of the Armed Forces.
The Constitution of North Korea is ambiguous about which official really is the country 's head of state.
In any case, the North Korean constitution, in article 102, is quite explicit regarding which official commands the armed forces:
The Chairman of the National Defence Commission of the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea is the supreme commander of the whole armed forces of the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea and commands and directs all the armed forces of the State.
The Chairman is formally elected by the Supreme People 's Assembly (article 91: 5) and serves for terms of office of five years (articles 101 & 90: 1); but in practice, the office is hereditary within the Kim Dynasty, as the late Kim Jong - il was posthumously designated as "Eternal Chairman of the National Defence Commission '', while his son, Kim Jong - un, was appointed as the "First Chairman of the National Defence Commission ''.
In Sweden, with the Ordinance of Alsnö in 1280, nobles were exempted from land taxation if they provided cavalrymen to the King 's service. Following the Swedish War of Liberation (1521 -- 53) from the Kalmar Union, a Guards Regiment was formed under the King and from there the modern Swedish Army has its roots. During the age of the Swedish Empire, several kings -- Gustavus Adolphus, Charles X, Charles XI & Charles XII -- personally led their forces into battle. Under the Instrument of Government of 1809, which was in force until the current Instrument of Government of 1974 went into force on 1 January 1975; the Monarch was in § § 14 - 15 explicitly designated as the Commander - in - Chief of the Swedish Armed Forces (Swedish: Högste befälhavare).
At present, the Government (Swedish: Regeringen) as a collective body, chaired and formed by the Prime Minister of Sweden, holds the highest Executive Authority, subject to the will of the Riksdag; and is thus the present day closest equivalent of a command - in - chief, although not explicitly designated as such. The reason for this change was, apart from the fact that the King was since 1917 no longer expected to make political decisions without ministerial advice, that the new Instrument of Government was intended to be made as descriptive on the workings of the State as possible, and reflective on how decisions are actually made. Minister of Justice Lennart Geijer further remarked in the government bill that any continued pretensions of royal involvement in government decisions would be of a "fictitious nature '' and "highly unsatisfactory ''.
Certain Government decisions regarding the Armed Forces (Swedish: Särskilda regeringsbeslut) may be delegated to the Minister for Defence, under the supervision of the Prime Minister and to the extent laid down in ordinances.
To add to some confusion to the above, the title of the agency head of the Swedish Armed Forces and highest ranked commissioned officer on active duty, is actually Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces (Swedish: Överbefälhavaren).
However, the Monarch (as of present King Carl XVI Gustaf), is still a four - star general and admiral à la suite in the Swedish Army, Navy and Air Force and is by unwritten convention regarded as the foremost representative of the Swedish Armed Forces. The King has, as part of his court, a military staff. The military staff is headed by a senior officer (usually a general or admiral, retired from active service) and is composed of active duty military officers serving as aides to the King and his family.
Supreme authority over the military belongs to the Federal Council, which is the Swiss collegial head of state. Nothwithstanding the previous sentence, under the Constitution, the Federal Council can only, in the operational sense, command a maximum of 4,000 soldiers, with a time limit of three weeks of mobilisation. For it to field more service personnel, the Federal Assembly must elect a General (see below) who is given four stars. Thus, the General is elected by the Federal Assembly to give him the same democratic legitimacy as the Federal Council.
In peacetime, the Armed Forces are led by the Chief of the Armed Forces (Chef der Armee), who reports to the head of the Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports and to the Federal Council as a whole. The Chief of the Armed Forces has the rank of Korpskommandant or Commandant de corps (OF - 8 in NATO equivalence).
In a time of declared war or national emergency, however, the Federal Assembly, assembled as the United Federal Assembly, specifically for the purpose of taking on the war - time responsibilities elect a General as Commander - in - Chief of the Armed Forces under Article 168 of the Constitution. While The General acts as the highest military authority with a high degree of autonomy, he is still subordinate to the Federal Council (See Articles 58, 60, 174, 177, 180 & 185). The Federal Assembly retains the sole power to dismiss the General, but the General remains subordinate to the Federal Council by the Council 's ability to demobilise and hence making the position of General redundant.
Four generals were appointed in Swiss history, General Henri Dufour during the Swiss Civil War, General Hans Herzog during the Franco - Prussian War, General Ulrich Wille during the First World War, and General Henri Guisan during the Second World War ("la Mob '', "the Mobilisation ''). Although Switzerland remained neutral during the latter three conflicts, the threat of having its territory used as a battlefield by the much bigger war parties of Germany and France required mobilization of the army.
Within NATO and the European Union, the term Chief of Defence (CHOD) is usually used as a generic term for the highest - ranked office held by a professional military officer on active duty, irrespective of their actual title or powers.
Other Articles of Interest
|
did a woman run for president in 2008 | List of female United States presidential and vice-presidential candidates - wikipedia
The following is a list of female U.S. presidential and vice-presidential nominees and invitees. Nominees are candidates nominated or otherwise selected by political parties for particular offices. Listed as nominees or nomination candidates are those women who achieved ballot access in at least one state (or, before the institution of government - printed ballots, had ballots circulated by their parties). They each may have won the nomination of one of the US political parties (either one of the two major parties or one of the third parties), or made the ballot as an Independent, and in either case must have votes in the election to qualify for this list. Exception is made for those few candidates whose parties lost ballot status for additional runs.
In 1872, Victoria Woodhull ran for president. While many historians and authors agree that Woodhull was the first woman to run for president, some have questioned the legality of her run. They disagree with classifying it as a true candidacy because she was younger than the constitutionally mandated age of 35, but election coverage by contemporary newspapers does not suggest age was a significant issue. The presidential inauguration was in March 1873, and Woodhull 's 35th birthday was sixth months later in September. In 1884, Belva Lockwood followed with a run for president. Her running mate was Marietta Stow, who became the first woman to run for vice president.
The first woman considered for a major party presidential candidacy by an incumbent president was Oveta Hobby, by Dwight D. Eisenhower. Eisenhower encouraged Hobby to run in 1960, but she declined. In 1964, Margaret Chase Smith announced her candidacy for the Republican Party nomination, becoming the first female candidate for a major party 's nomination. She qualified for the ballot in six state primaries, and came in second in the Illinois primary, receiving 25 % of the vote. She became the first woman to have her name placed in nomination for the presidency at a major political party 's convention. In 1968, Charlene Mitchell became the first African American woman to run for president, and the first to receive valid votes in a general election. She qualified for the ballot in two states, winning 1,075 votes. In 1972, Shirley Chisholm became the first black candidate for a major party 's presidential nomination, and the first woman to run for the Democratic Party 's nomination. Tonie Nathan, the Libertarian Party 's vice-presidential candidate in 1972, became the first woman to receive an electoral vote, via faithless elector Roger MacBride. In the 1988 presidential election, Lenora Fulani and her running mate Joyce Dattner became the first women to achieve ballot access in all fifty states. Fulani was also the first African American to do so. In the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries, Hillary Clinton became the first woman to win a presidential primary, and the first to be listed as a presidential candidate in every primary and caucus nationwide. Despite losing the nomination in a close race against Barack Obama, Clinton won more votes in 2008 than any primary candidate in American history.
In 2016, Hillary Clinton became the first woman nominated for president by a major party after winning a majority of delegates in the Democratic Party primaries, and was formally nominated at the Democratic National Convention on July 26, 2016. As a major party nominee, Clinton became the first woman to participate in a presidential debate, and later the first to carry a state in a general election. Clinton lost the election but became the first woman to win the popular vote.
Two women have won the vice-presidential nominations of major parties, Geraldine Ferraro for the Democratic Party in the 1984, and Sarah Palin for the Republican Party in the 2008.
The Green Party has run a female candidate three times, Cynthia McKinney in 2008 and Jill Stein in 2012 and 2016. Stein received more general election votes than any prior female candidate in 2012.
This list, sorted by the number of votes, includes female candidates who have run for President of the United States in a general election that received over 40,000 votes. Major - party nominee
This list, sorted by the number of votes they received, includes female candidates for a party nomination for President of the United States who ran in at least one primary or caucus and received over 5,000 votes.
Candidates who failed to receive their parties ' nomination (or who are currently campaigning for their party 's nomination).
This list includes female candidates who have run or are currently running for Vice President of the United States and received over 100,000 votes. Note that the vote for Vice President is not separate in the United States and is tied together with whoever their running mate is.
Indicates major - party nominee
|
song i don't wanna know if you're playing me | I Do n't Wanna Know - wikipedia
"I Do n't Wanna Know '' is a song by American R&B artist Mario Winans, featuring a rap by P. Diddy, re-recorded background vocals by Enya and sampling the synthesizer riff from Enya 's song "Boadicea ''. It reached number 1 in the United Kingdom and in Netherlands, and number 2 in the United States, stuck for eight consecutive weeks behind the Usher singles "Yeah '' and "Burn '', respectively. It remains Winans ' only major success to date. As a result of its eight weeks at number 2, "I Do n't Wanna Know '' stands in joint fifth place for the most weeks at number 2 by a song which did not go to number 1, behind Foreigner 's "Waiting for a Girl Like You '', Missy Elliott 's "Work It '', Donna Lewis 's "I Love You Always Forever '' and Shania Twain 's "You 're Still the One ''.
The song is based on a sample of the Fugees ' 1996 hit single "Ready or Not '', which itself was based on a slowed - down sample of the instrumental track "Boadicea '' by Enya from her 1987 album Enya. Winans said: "I first heard ' Boadicea ' at the end of the movie Sleepwalkers about five or six years ago. It 's something I always wanted to produce. Then when The Fugees did it, oh my God, I loved it. ''
Vibe wrote that "Winans adds a simple stuttering beat that prevents the song from devolving into murky, saccharine Muzak. This is the secret of Winan 's magic; the soft touch of the synthesizers and his gentle piano playing blend with the signature sound of the kick and snare -- hard, unadorned, punching through the music 's gauzy elegiac texture. ''
The official remix features D - Block rapper Jae Hood, Enya, & P. Diddy. Another remix features Joe Budden, Enya, & P. Diddy. An answer to this song, "You Should Really Know '', sung from a female perspective, was released later in the same year as Winans ' single. Created by the producers The Pirates, it featured Shola Ama, Naila Boss, and Ishani. It used the same Enya sample as the original. Although it did not achieve the level of success Winans ' single did in the U.S., it was a big UK triumph, peaking at # 8 in the singles chart. Later on, another answer song called "I Already Know '' sung by Noelle was released and had the same background melody as the original song. Puerto Rican - American R&B group Nina Sky also recorded their own version of their song entitled "Time to Go '' featuring rapper Angie Martinez.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
|
what is it like in a turkish prison | Prisons in Turkey - wikipedia
There are basically three types of prison in Turkey: closed, semi-open, and open. A further distinction is made between ordinary closed prisons and high - security prisons. Many prisons have separate blocks (or wings) for women and some also for children (juveniles), but there are also some prisons which are exclusively for women or children. Prisoners in Turkey are divided, as in many other countries, into remand prisoners (those being held in pre-trial detention) and convicted prisoners (whose sentences are being executed).
In the Ottoman Empire prisons were called dungeons (zindan). In Turkey these were mostly dark and damp towers. The first prison was built in Sultanahmet quarter of Istanbul and it was called general prison (Hapishane - i Umumi).
Besides the death penalty the Penal Code of 1858 included three different types of sentences: rowing on a galley (kürek), pillorying (prangabentlik) and imprisonment in a tower (kalebentlik).
The Penal Code of 1 March 1926 (Law 765) made a difference between heavy crimes and corresponding sentences (ağır suç and ağır ceza) and light crimes (hafif suç and hafif ceza). Besides offences (cürüm) there is a separate law on infringements (kabahat). By Law 5349 dated 11 May 2005 the differentiation between light and heavy sentences was lifted.
On 12 September 1980 the military seized power in Turkey and the five generals (General Staff) announced martial law in all of the then existing 67 provinces. Members of armed and unarmed left and right organizations that had been engaged in bitter fighting were charged at military courts and in some places held in military prisons. The military prison Mamak in Ankara, Metris Prison (in Istanbul) and the prison in Diyarbakır (often called dungeon) gained notoriety.
Because of the large number of prisoners new prisons were built. In a report of November 1988, Amnesty International said that the number of prisons had increased to 644 and their capacity had been raised from 55,000 to more than 80,000. Since 1986 relatives of prisoners organized in the Human Rights Association (HRA) or in groups in solidarity with certain prisoners such as TAYAD). With their help the prisoners tried to make their demands for improved prison conditions for which they frequently went on hunger strike (often also called death fast) public.
In April 1991 Law 3713 on Fighting Terrorism (called Anti-Terror - Law, ATL) was passed. Article 16 provided that all prisoners charged under this law had to be held in high security prisons.
In 1996 the political prisoners succeeded in their objection to be transferred to the first high security prison in Eskişehir (it was called "special type prison ''). Their death fast resulted in the death of 12 prisoners. In 2000 a similar action against the high security prisons (now called F - type Prisons) was not successful, although the death toll was much higher. There are currently 13 F - type prisons (14, if the prison on İmralı Island is added) and two D - type prisons (also high security prisons).
According to the General Directorate for Penal and Arrest Centres (Ceza ve Tevkifevleri Genel Müdürlüğü, part of the Ministry of Justice) 384 prisons existed in Turkey as of 1 December 2008. 346 of them were closed and 28 were open prisons. In addition there were three closed and one open prison for women and three correctional centres for children. For the same date the number of prisoners was given as 103,296; among them 44,038 on remand and 59,258 convicts.
On the homepage of the General Directorate for Penal and Arrest Centres figures on prisoners can be found on the number of prisoners for each year. The Human Rights Foundation of Turkey has included such figures in their annual reports.
Meanwhile, the statistics also include the category "crimes to increase profit '' (tr: çıkar amaçlı suçlar, meaning organized crime, punishable according to Article 220 of the Turkish Penal Code). Since 2010 the cases that could not be attributed to a specific group were also included.
On 31 January 2010 the official figures were:
The following figures were presented for 31 March 2012:
In June 2010 Justice Minister Sadullah Ergin answered a question tabled by Batman deputy Bengi Yıldız. He stated that between 2010 and 2015 a total of 86 new prisons with a capacity of 40.026 prisoners were to be built.
Using the official material of the General Directorate for Penal and Arrest Centres the Democratic Turkey Forum prepared a table on prisons in Turkey as of October 2008. Further details have been included as "particulars ''.
Besides NGOs such as Amnesty International or Human Rights Watch the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) has frequently dealt with the situation in Turkish prisons. A major concern were the F - type prisons, the high security prisons that the CPT encouraged Turkey to build. and the situation on the island İmralı, where Abdullah Öcalan has been the only prisoner since 1999.
On 6 March 2008 a report was published on a visit to the island between 19 and 22 May 2007. This was the fourth visit. In conclusion the CPT said (in para 31.): Abdullah Öcalan has now been imprisoned, as the sole inmate of the High - Security Closed Prison of Imralı - an island which is difficult to reach - for almost eight and a half years. Although the situation of indisputable isolation to which the prisoner has been subjected since 16 February 1999 has had adverse effects over the years, the CPT 's previous visits had not revealed significant harmful consequences for his physical and psychological condition. This assessment must now be revised, in the light of the evolution of Abdullah Öcalan 's physical and mental condition. ''
During visits to other facilities the CPT marked certain shortcomings. The report of 8 December 2005 (on a visit in 2004), for instance, included the following recommendations:
|
who died in the train crash on coronation street | Coronation Street live (2010 episode) - wikipedia
Coronation Street Live is a live episode of the British soap opera Coronation Street, which was first broadcast on Thursday 9 December 2010 on ITV1. The special live edition was to celebrate fifty years of the programme being on air. The sixty - minute episode was directed by Tony Prescott, who had directed the soap 's 40th anniversary live episode in December 2000. The episode, the 7487th in the series, was written by Jan McVerry and produced by Phil Collinson for ITV Studios. It was filmed at the Granada Studios complex in Manchester.
To celebrate the show 's 50th anniversary, episodes had been broadcast every day during the week 6 -- 10 December 2010 under the advertisement banner "Four Funerals and a Wedding ''. An episode broadcast the preceding Monday showed a gas explosion in local bar The Joinery, causing a tram to crash from the viaduct into the Corner Shop and The Kabin opposite. The live episode continued to depict the aftermath of the accident, such as the rescue attempts and deaths of the characters Ashley Peacock (Steven Arnold) and Molly Dobbs (Vicky Binns), an emergency marriage between Peter Barlow (Chris Gascoyne) and Leanne Battersby (Jane Danson), Fiz Stape (Jennie McAlpine) giving birth prematurely to her daughter Hope and Molly 's revelation to Sally Webster (Sally Dynevor) that her husband Kevin (Michael Le Vell) fathered Molly 's recently born baby.
The episode attracted an average of 14 million viewers, peaking at 14.9 million, the show 's highest audience for seven years. Critical reception was mainly positive. According to Daniel Kilkelly of the Digital Spy website the opening of the episode featured the first computer - generated imagery in live television. Jennie McAlpine (who plays Fiz Stape) also became the first actress ever to act out a birth live on a soap opera.
The special anniversary was marked with a storyline in which the residents had to deal with a tragic accident and its aftermath. In the storyline, Nick Tilsley (Ben Price) and Leanne Battersby 's (Jane Danson) bar - The Joinery - explodes during Peter Barlow 's (Chris Gascoyne) stag party. As a result, the viaduct running above the restaurant is destroyed, sending a tram careering onto the street, destroying D&S Alahan 's Corner Shop and The Kabin. Two characters, Ashley Peacock (Steven Arnold) and Molly Dobbs (Vicky Binns), and an unnamed taxi driver perished as a result of the disaster. Rita Sullivan (Barbara Knox) survives despite being trapped under the rubble of her destroyed shop, while Fiz Stape (Jennie McAlpine) prematurely gives birth to a baby girl, Hope, after her husband John (Graeme Hawley) strikes his stalker Charlotte Hoyle (Becky Hindley) with a hammer to silence her. He later poses as Colin Fishwick (David Crellin), Charlotte 's supposed partner, attempting to turn off her life support. Peter marries Leanne in an emergency hospital ceremony, shortly before going into cardiac arrest, although he later rallies and makes a slow recovery.
Early episodes of Coronation Street were broadcast live. A live episode was produced in December 2000 to celebrate the programme 's 40th anniversary. As the show 's 50th anniversary approached, speculation began to grow as to whether another live edition would be broadcast, particularly after rival soap EastEnders aired its own live edition to celebrate its 25th anniversary on air in February 2010. In April 2010 William Roache, who has portrayed Ken Barlow since the show 's first episode, said that ITV would not be airing another live edition of Coronation Street, saying, "We 're not going to do a live episode, we did that in the Millennium year (the show 's 40th anniversary), we do n't want to do that again. '' Reflecting upon the 2000 episode in November 2010, Roache said that he was glad when it was over and that "they wo n't do that again ''. He joked "anyone who said that they enjoyed the live episode are either not telling the truth or they 're masochists. '' However, on 29 August actor Keith Duffy said that Coronation Street would air a live episode to celebrate its 50th anniversary, something which was confirmed on 1 September by ITV. It was later confirmed that the episode would be aired as part of a week - long celebration of the soap 's 50th birthday. Phil Collinson, who had only recently taken over as producer, explained:
I thought we would n't go live, but quickly realised we should. I think we can deliver the most spectacular piece of live television people have ever seen. Coronation Street has such a heritage - the first episodes were filmed that way, and we did it ten years ago. My ambition is for the episode to be like a disaster movie with stunts. It 'll be action - packed. I want people to sit at home and think, ' There 's no way they did that live, not in a million years! '
The anniversary was celebrated with a storyline involving an explosion in The Joinery, causing a tram to crash from the viaduct into the Kabin and Corner Shop. The storyline was a sign that TV shows now have to strive harder to make an impact, according to producer Phil Collinson. "Television has changed. Programmes like Coronation Street have to stand up against massive pieces of event television like Strictly Come Dancing and The X Factor. So we had to do something extraordinary. When drama pushes the boat out, it has to push it out really far. I think the days are over when television drama can sit back and leave it to your imagination. We have to compete against those great big juggernauts. '' The tram crashed during an episode broadcast on Monday 6 December, with episodes later that week, including the live episode, depicting the rescues and aftermath.
The live show involved 65 actors and a 300 - strong crew. The episode opened with a wide shot of other streets in the fictional Weatherfield, reported by Digital Spy 's Daniel Kilkelly to have been the first computer - generated imagery to be produced live. In reality, the Coronation Street set is surrounded by the Granada Television complex in Manchester city centre. The special effect was produced by The Mill, the post-production company that had worked on the tram crash. Collinson had worked with The Mill during his tenure as producer of Doctor Who.
The episode was directed by Tony Prescott, who had directed the 40th anniversary live episode in December 2000. Prescott also directed the two episodes surrounding this live episode to gain some continuity.
The live episode provided some challenges for dressing the set. The other episodes during the 50th anniversary week, including the tram crash, were filmed in October. As episodes are usually filmed weeks in advance, the tram had to be removed from sight for the filming of the Christmas and New Year episodes, and then put back in place over the weekend 4 -- 5 December in time for rehearsals and transmission. Also, the cast and crew had to deal with extreme cold on the outdoor set during the days of rehearsals and broadcast as the UK was plunged into record levels of cold weather for the time of year.
The producers reportedly banned the actors from drinking alcohol for 24 hours before the transmission to reduce the chances of accidents. Producers also banned the sweepstake that some cast members were running to bet on who would "fluff '' their lines first.
On the day of transmission, tabloid newspaper The Sun published a front - page headline "Al - Qaeda Corrie Threat '', with a banner reading "Exclusive: Soap Terror Alert ''. The story suggested that "Cops are throwing a ring of steel around tonight 's live episode of Coronation Street over fears it has been targeted by terrorist group Al - Qaeda. '' Later that morning, however, Greater Manchester Police issued a statement saying that they "have categorically not been made aware of any threat from Al - Qaeda or any other proscribed organisation. '' The statement said that Granada had approached the police to assist a private security firm to help ensure that the "live programme went ahead without outside interference '', but "to reiterate there is no specific intelligence threat to Coronation Street or any such event '' The Sun published a correction on 28 December, admitting "that while cast and crew were subject to full body searches, there was no specific threat from Al - Qaeda as we reported. '' The Guardian pointed out that the apology had been negotiated by the Press Complaints Commission.
The hour - long episode averaged 14.03 million viewers (52.1 %), peaking at 14.9 million. It was the most - watched episode of the series in seven years, and drew an additional 2.04 million viewers (14.1 %) when repeated at 10.35 pm. Viewing figures did not surpass those of "EastEnders Live '', a live episode of the BBC soap opera EastEnders watched by 16.6 million viewers in February 2010. Following the live broadcast, the second part of a two - part documentary, Coronation Street: 50 Years, 50 Moments, averaged 6.81 million viewers (27.2 %).
Live episodes are prone to mishaps and actors fluffing their lines. This episode was commended for how smoothly it seemed to have gone. Critic Mark Lawson commented that "the producers were clever in setting every scene among characters under stress or grief, so any flapping might have been taken as acting. '' The only mistake that the press pointed out was the character Sally Webster being allowed into the wreckage of Dev 's shop without a safety helmet.
EastEnders, the Street 's biggest rival, supported the anniversary by having its character Dot Branning reveal that she is a massive Corrie fan, although another character, Kat Moon complained that she 'd "rather watch a lot of dirty laundry going round ''.
The Live episode along with all the 50th Anniversary episodes and also included special features. which inluced: The Making of Anniversary week, The Filming of the tram crash, The filming of the Live episode, Tram Crash News Flash (dramatised ITV News), Farewell Ashley, Richard Arnold Blog ' What 's Next For The Websters ', Ken Barlow - A Life On The Street, 50 Years Of Corrie Stunts hosted by Craig Charles. were released on DVD by ITV Home Entertainment, as a two disc set on 21 February 2011.
|
who scored the most runs during the 2014 world cup qualifiers | 2014 Cricket World Cup Qualifier - wikipedia
The 2014 ICC World Cup Qualifier was a cricket tournament to decide the final qualification for the 2015 World Cup. The top two teams qualified for the World Cup joining Ireland and for the first time Afghanistan who have already qualified through the 2011 -- 13 ICC World Cricket League Championship and maintained their ODI status. The World Cup Qualifier was the final event of the 2009 -- 14 World Cricket League. It was staged in New Zealand, from 13 January to 1 February 2014 after Scotland relinquished the right to host it.
The tournament saw Scotland who won the final against the UAE qualifying for their 3rd World Cup and retaining their ODI status and runners up the UAE qualifying for their second world cup and gaining ODI status. Despite not qualifying for the World Cup, Hong Kong and Papua New Guinea gained ODI status for the first time by finishing the tournament in 3rd and 4th places respectively.
The tournament also saw leading associate countries Kenya, the Netherlands and Canada fail to qualify for the World Cup and lose their ODI status till 2018, although the Netherlands did qualify for the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 instead of Scotland.
According to ICC "the 10 teams were to be equally divided into two groups with the top three sides from each group progressing to the Super Six stage. The top two sides from the Super Six stage would not only reach the final but would also qualify for the ICC Cricket World Cup 2015 to complete the 14 - team tally. Top 4 team would get ODI status where as 5th, 6th, 7th & 8th placed teams would remain or be relegated to Division 2 ''
The tournament followed the conclusion of the 2011 -- 13 ICC World Cricket League Championship. The top two teams from this tournament, Ireland and Afghanistan, qualified for the 2015 World Cup, with the remaining six teams entering the World Cup Qualifier. They were joined by the third and fourth - placed teams from 2011 ICC World Cricket League Division Two and the top two teams from 2013 ICC World Cricket League Division Three.
Officiating the tournament were three match referees and in all during the tournament, there were 14 umpires who would officiate, including Marais Erasmus of the Emirates Elite Panel of ICC Umpires while the remaining 13 representatives were from the Emirates International Panel of ICC Umpires and the ICC Associates and Affiliates Umpires ' Panel.
10 non ODI warmup games were played before the tournament started.
Results of matches between qualified teams were carried over from the group stage.
|
Subsets and Splits
No saved queries yet
Save your SQL queries to embed, download, and access them later. Queries will appear here once saved.