question
stringlengths 15
100
| context
stringlengths 18
412k
|
|---|---|
district circuit and superior are all names for what type of court | United States District court - wikipedia
The United States district courts are the general trial courts of the United States federal court system. Both civil and criminal cases are filed in the district court, which is a court of law, equity, and admiralty. There is a United States bankruptcy court associated with each United States district court. Each federal judicial district has at least one courthouse, and many districts have more than one. The formal name of a district court is "the United States District Court for '' the name of the district -- for example, the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri.
In contrast to the Supreme Court, which was established by Article III of the Constitution, the district courts were established by Congress. There is no constitutional requirement that district courts exist at all. Indeed, after the ratification of the Constitution, some opponents of a strong federal judiciary urged that, outside jurisdictions under direct federal control like Washington, D.C. and the territories, the federal court system be limited to the Supreme Court, which would hear appeals from state courts. This view did not prevail, however, and the first Congress created the district court system that is still in place today.
There is at least one judicial district for each state, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. District courts in three insular areas -- the United States Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands -- exercise the same jurisdiction as Article III U.S. district courts. Despite their name, these courts are technically not "District Courts of the United States ''. Judges on these Article IV territorial courts do not enjoy the protections of Article Three of the Constitution, and serve terms of ten years rather than for life.
There are 89 districts in the 50 states, with a total of 94 districts including territories.
There are other federal trial courts that have nationwide jurisdiction over certain types of cases, but the district court also has concurrent jurisdiction over many of those cases, and the district court is the only one with jurisdiction over civilian criminal cases. The United States Court of International Trade addresses cases involving international trade and customs issues. The United States Court of Federal Claims has exclusive jurisdiction over most claims for money damages against the United States, including disputes over federal contracts, unlawful takings of private property by the federal government, and suits for injury on federal property or by a federal employee. The United States Tax Court has jurisdiction over contested pre-assessment determinations of taxes.
A judge of a United States district court is officially titled a "United States District Judge ''. Other federal judges, including circuit judges and Supreme Court Justices, can also sit in a district court upon assignment by the chief judge of the circuit or by the Chief Justice of the United States. The number of judges in each district court (and the structure of the judicial system generally) is set by Congress in the United States Code. The President appoints the federal judges for terms of good behavior (subject to the advice and consent of the Senate), so the nominees often share at least some of his or her convictions. In states represented by a senator of the President 's party, the senator (or the more senior of them if both senators are of the president 's party) has substantial input into the nominating process, and through a tradition known as senatorial courtesy can exercise an unofficial veto over a nominee unacceptable to the senator.
With the exception of the territorial courts (Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the Virgin Islands), federal district judges are Article III judges appointed for life, and can be removed involuntarily only when they violate the standard of "good behavior ''. The sole method of involuntary removal of a judge is through impeachment by the United States House of Representatives followed by a trial in the United States Senate and a conviction by a two - thirds vote. Otherwise, a judge, even if convicted of a felony criminal offense by a jury, is entitled to hold office until retirement or death. In the history of the United States, only twelve judges have been impeached by the House, and only seven have been removed following conviction in the Senate. (For a table that includes the twelve impeached judges, see Impeachment in the United States.)
A judge who has reached the age of 65 (or has become disabled) may retire or elect to go on senior status and keep working. Such senior judges are not counted in the quota of active judges for the district and do only whatever work they are assigned by the chief judge of the district, but they keep their offices (called "chambers '') and staff, and many of them work full - time. A federal judge is addressed in writing as "The Honorable John / Jane Doe '' or "Hon. John / Jane Doe '' and in speech as "Judge '' or "Judge Doe '' or, when presiding in court, "Your Honor ''.
District judges usually concentrate on managing their court 's overall caseload, supervising trials, and writing opinions in response to important motions like the motion for summary judgment. Since the 1960s, routine tasks like resolving discovery disputes can, in the district judge 's discretion, be referred to magistrate judges. Magistrate judges can also be requested to prepare reports and recommendations on contested matters for the district judge 's consideration or, with the consent of all parties, to assume complete jurisdiction over a case including conducting the trial.
Federal magistrate judges are appointed by each district court pursuant to statute. They are appointed for an eight - year term and may be reappointed for additional eight - year terms. A magistrate judge may be removed "for incompetency, misconduct, neglect of duty, or physical or mental disability ''. A magistrate judgeship may be a stepping stone to a district judgeship nomination.
As of 2010, there were 678 authorized district court judgeships. A study put forth by Brennan Center for Justice at New York University of Law found that under the Obama administration and especially in the year 2009 there have been a "uniquely high '' number of vacancies in Federal Court, averaging 60 or more from the years 2009 to 2013. The Obama administration has blamed Senate Republicans for opposing (and therefore, not confirming) presidential nominations, while the Republicans say Obama has been slow to nominate.
Unlike some state courts, the power of federal courts to hear cases and controversies is strictly limited. Federal courts may not decide every case that happens to come before them. In order for a district court to entertain a lawsuit, Congress must first grant the court subject matter jurisdiction over the type of dispute in question.
The district courts exercise original jurisdiction over -- that is, they are empowered to conduct trials in -- the following types of cases:
For most of these cases, the jurisdiction of the federal district courts is concurrent with that of the state courts. In other words, a plaintiff can choose to bring these cases in either a federal district court or a state court. Congress has established a procedure whereby a party, typically the defendant, can "remove '' a case from state court to federal court, provided that the federal court also has original jurisdiction over the matter (meaning that the case could have been filed in federal court initially). If the party that initially filed the case in state court believes that removal was improper, that party can ask the district court to "remand '' the case to the state court system. For certain matters, such as patent and copyright infringement disputes and prosecutions for federal crimes, the jurisdiction of the district courts is exclusive of that of the state courts, meaning that only federal courts can hear those cases.
In addition to their original jurisdiction, the district courts have appellate jurisdiction over a very limited class of judgments, orders, and decrees.
In order to represent a party in a case in a district court, a person must be an attorney at law and generally must be admitted to the bar of that particular court. The United States usually does not have a separate bar examination for federal practice (except with respect to patent practice before the United States Patent and Trademark Office). Admission to the bar of a district court is generally available to any attorney who is admitted to practice law in the state where the district court sits.
56 districts (around 60 % of all district courts) require an attorney to be admitted to practice in the state where the district court sits. The other 39 districts (around 40 % of all district courts) extend admission to certain lawyers admitted in other states, although conditions vary from court to court. For example, the district courts in New York City (Southern District of New York and Eastern District of New York) extend admission to attorneys admitted to the bar in Connecticut or Vermont and to the district court in that state, but otherwise require attorneys to be admitted to the New York bar. Only 13 districts extend admission to attorneys admitted to any U.S. state bar.
The attorney generally submits an application with a fee and takes the oath of admission. Local practice varies as to whether the oath is given in writing or in open court before a judge of the district. A "sponsor '' admitted to the court 's bar is often required. Several district courts require attorneys seeking admission to their bars to take an additional bar examination on federal law, including the following: the Southern District of Ohio, the Northern District of Florida, and the District of Puerto Rico.
Pro hac vice admission is also available in most federal district courts on a case - by - case basis. Most district courts require pro hac vice attorneys to associate with an attorney admitted to practice before the court.
Generally, a final ruling by a district court in either a civil or a criminal case can be appealed to the United States court of appeals in the federal judicial circuit in which the district court is located, except that some district court rulings involving patents and certain other specialized matters must be appealed instead to the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, and in a very few cases the appeal may be taken directly to the United States Supreme Court.
The Central District of California is the largest federal district by population; it includes all five counties that make up the Greater Los Angeles Area. By contrast, New York City and the surrounding metropolitan area are divided between the Southern District of New York (which includes Manhattan, The Bronx and Westchester County) and the Eastern District of New York (which includes Brooklyn, Queens, Staten Island, Nassau County and Suffolk County). New York suburbs in Connecticut and New Jersey are covered by the District of Connecticut and District of New Jersey, respectively.
The Southern District of New York and the Central District of California are the largest federal districts by number of judges, with 28 and 27, respectively.
In 2007, the busiest district courts in terms of criminal federal felony filings were the District of New Mexico, Western District of Texas, Southern District of Texas, and the District of Arizona. These four districts all share the border with Mexico. A crackdown on illegal immigration resulted in 75 percent of the criminal cases filed in the 94 district courts in 2007 being filed in these four districts and the other district that borders Mexico, the Southern District of California. The busiest patent litigation court is the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas, with the most patent lawsuits filed there nearly every year.
Most extinct district courts have disappeared by being divided into smaller districts. The following courts were subdivided out of existence: Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin.
On rare occasions, an extinct district court was extinguished by merging it with other district courts. In every case except one, this has restored a district court that had been subdivided:
There are a few additional extinct district courts that fall into neither of the above two patterns.
|
who sang you to me are everything original | You to Me Are Everything - wikipedia
"You to Me Are Everything '' is a single by the British soul group The Real Thing. Written by Ken Gold and Michael Denne and produced by Ken Gold, "You to Me Are Everything '' was The Real Thing 's sole number - one single in the UK Singles chart, spending three weeks at the top in July 1976. A remixed version of the song returned to the chart in March 1986 reaching number five.
The song was a minor hit in the U.S. where it peaked at number 64 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart and number 28 on the Billboard R&B chart. One of the reasons for its lack of success in the U.S. was the flood of cover versions of the song released at the same time. American groups Broadway and Revelation both released versions of the song the same week, and at one point all three versions of the song appeared on Billboard Hot 100 and R&B charts. With radio and the public unable to agree on a single popular version, the three singles effectively prevented each other from becoming a hit.
The song was subsequently covered by Frankie Valli, Sonia, Tiny Tim, Public Enemy, Sean Maguire and Andy Abraham. A Finnish version entitled "Ei enempää voi pyytää '' ("He can ask no more '') was recorded in 1978 by Petri Pettersson (fi). Later on, in 1997, songwriter Marina Rei successfully recorded an Italian - language version, "Primavera '' ("Spring '').
"You to Me Are Everything '' was covered by Sonia in 1991. The song was released in November 1991, the third and final single from her second album. This song 's B - side "Be My Baby '' was also on the album. This single reached # 13 in UK and # 14 in Ireland.
CD Single
7 '' Single
12 '' Single
"You to Me Are Everything '' was Sean Maguire 's fifth single and his second from his second album, Spirit. Maguire 's version of the song was released in November 1995 and reached number 16 in the UK Singles Chart.
CD1
CD2
Cassette
|
where are continuous capillaries found within the body | Capillary - wikipedia
A capillary (/ ˈkæpɪlɛriz / in US; / kəˈpɪləriz / in UK) is a hollow tube 5 to 10 micrometres (μm) in diameter and having a wall one (endothelial) cell thick. They are the smallest blood vessels in the body: they convey blood between the arterioles and venules. These microvessels are the site of exchange of many substances with the interstitial fluid surrounding them. Substances which exit include water (proximal portion), oxygen, and glucose; substances which enter include water (distal portion), carbon dioxide, uric acid, lactic acid, urea and creatinine. Lymph capillaries connect with larger lymph vessels to drain lymphatic fliud collected in the microcirculation.
During early embryonic development new capillaries are formed through vasculogenesis, the process of blood vessel formation that occurs through a de novo production of endothelial cells which then form vascular tubes. The term angiogenesis denotes the formation of new capillaries from pre-existing blood vessels and already present endothelium which divides.
Blood flows from the heart through arteries, which branch and narrow into arterioles, and then branch further into capillaries where nutrients and wastes are exchanged. The capillaries then join and widen to become venules, which in turn widen and converge to become veins, which then return blood back to the heart through the venae cavae.
Individual capillaries are part of capillary bed, an interweaving network of capillaries supplying tissues and organs. The more metabolically active a tissue is, the more capillaries are required to supply nutrients and carry away waste products. There are two types of capillaries: true capillaries, which branch from arterioles and provide exchange between tissue and the capillary blood, and metarterioles, found only in the mesenteric circulation. They are short vessels that directly connect the arterioles and venules at opposite ends of the beds. Metarterioles are found primarily in the mesenteric microcirculation. The physiological mechanisms underlying precapillary resistance is no longer considered to be a result of precapillary sphincters outside of the mesentery organ.
Lymphatic capillaries are slightly larger in diameter than blood capillaries, and have closed ends (unlike the blood capillaries open at one end to the arterioles and open at the other end to the venules). This structure permits interstitial fluid to flow into them but not out. Lymph capillaries have a greater internal oncotic pressure than blood capillaries, due to the greater concentration of plasma proteins in the lymph.
There are three types of blood capillaries:
Continuous capillaries are continuous in the sense that the endothelial cells provide an uninterrupted lining, and they only allow smaller molecules, such as water and ions to pass through their intercellular clefts. However lipid - soluble molecules can passively diffuse through the endothelial cell membranes along concentration gradients. Tight junctions can be further divided into two subtypes:
Fenestrated capillaries (derived from fenestra, Latin for "window '') have pores in the endothelial cells (60 -- 80 nm in diameter) that are spanned by a diaphragm of radially oriented fibrils and allow small molecules and limited amounts of protein to diffuse. In the renal glomerulus there are cells with no diaphragms, called podocyte foot processes or pedicels, which have slit pores with a function analogous to the diaphragm of the capillaries. Both of these types of blood vessels have continuous basal laminae and are primarily located in the endocrine glands, intestines, pancreas, and the glomeruli of the kidney.
Sinusoidal capillaries (also known as a discontinuous capillary) are a special type of open - pore capillary, that have larger openings (30 -- 40 μm in diameter) in the endothelium. These types of blood vessels allow red and white blood cells (7.5 μm -- 25 μm diameter) and various serum proteins to pass, aided by a discontinuous basal lamina. These capillaries lack pinocytotic vesicles, and therefore utilize gaps present in cell junctions to permit transfer between endothelial cells, and hence across the membrane. Sinusoid blood vessels are primarily located in the bone marrow, lymph nodes, and adrenal glands. Some sinusoids are distinctive in that they do not have the tight junctions between cells. They are called discontinuous sinusoidal capillaries, and are present in the liver and spleen, where greater movement of cells and materials is necessary. A capillary wall is only 1 cell thick and is simple squamous epithelium.
The capillary wall performs an important function by allowing nutrients and waste substances to pass across it. Molecules larger than 3 nm such as albumin and other large proteins pass through transcellular transport carried inside vesicles, a process which requires them to go through the cells that form the wall. Molecules smaller than 3 nm such as water, ions and gases cross the capillary wall through the space between cells in a process known as paracellular transport. These transport mechanisms allow bidirectional exchange of substances depending on osmotic gradients and can be further quantified by the Starling equation. Capillaries that form part of the blood -- brain barrier however only allow for transcellular transport as tight junctions between endothelial cells seal the paracellular space.
Capillary beds may control their blood flow via autoregulation. This allows an organ to maintain constant flow despite a change in central blood pressure. This is achieved by myogenic response, and in the kidney by tubuloglomerular feedback. When blood pressure increases, arterioles are stretched and subsequently constrict (a phenomenon known as the Bayliss effect) to counteract the increased tendency for high pressure to increase blood flow.
In the lungs special mechanisms have been adapted to meet the needs of increased necessity of blood flow during exercise. When the heart rate increases and more blood must flow through the lungs, capillaries are recruited and are also distended to make room for increased blood flow. This allows blood flow to increase while resistance decreases.
Capillary permeability can be increased by the release of certain cytokines, anaphylatoxins, or other mediators (such as leukotrienes, prostaglandins, histamine, bradykinin, etc.) highly influenced by the immune system.
The Starling equation defines the forces across a semipermeable membrane and allows calculation of the net flux:
where:
By convention, outward force is defined as positive, and inward force is defined as negative. The solution to the equation is known as the net filtration or net fluid movement (J). If positive, fluid will tend to leave the capillary (filtration). If negative, fluid will tend to enter the capillary (absorption). This equation has a number of important physiologic implications, especially when pathologic processes grossly alter one or more of the variables.
According to Starling 's equation, the movement of fluid depends on six variables:
Disorders of capillary formation as a developmental defect or acquired disorder are a feature in many common and serious disorders. Within a wide range of cellular factors and cytokines, issues with normal genetic expression and bioactivity of the vascular growth and permeability factor vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) appear to play a major role in many of the disorders. Cellular factors include reduced number and function of bone - marrow derived endothelial progenitor cells. and reduced ability of those cells to form blood vessels.
Major diseases where altering capillary formation could be helpful include conditions where there is excessive or abnormal capillary formation such as cancer and disorders harming eyesight; and medical conditions in which there is reduced capillary formation either for familial or genetic reasons, or as an acquired problem.
Capillary blood sampling can be used to test for, for example, blood glucose (such as in blood glucose monitoring), hemoglobin, pH and lactate
Capillary blood sampling is generally performed by creating a small cut using a blood lancet, followed by sampling by capillary action on the cut with a test strip or small pipe.
Contrary to a popular misconception, William Harvey did not explicitly predict the existence of capillaries, but he clearly saw the need for some sort of connection between the arterial and venous systems. He wrote, "... the blood doth enter into every member through the arteries, and does return by the veins, and that the veins are the vessels and ways by which the blood is returned to the heart itself; and that the blood in the members and extremities does pass from the arteries into the veins (either mediately by an anastomosis, or immediately through the porosities of the flesh, or both ways) as before it did in the heart and thorax out of the veins, into the arteries... ''
Marcello Malpighi was the first to observe directly and correctly describe capillaries, discovering them in a frog 's lung in 1661.
|
when did the last person in the civil war die | Albert Woolson - wikipedia
Albert Henry Woolson (February 11, 1850 -- August 2, 1956) was the last surviving member of the Union Army who served in the American Civil War. He was also the last surviving Civil War veteran on either side whose status is undisputed. At least three men who followed him in death claimed to be Confederate veterans, but one has been debunked and the other two are unverified. The last surviving Union soldier to see combat was James Hard (1841 -- 1953).
Woolson was born in Antwerp, New York, to Willard P. Woolson (1811 -- 1862) and Caroline Baldwin (ca. 1822 -- unknown). He claimed to be born on February 11, 1847, but his entry in the 1850 United States Census lists him as born in 1850. Entries in the later census records and in the 1905 Minnesota State Census support the conclusion that he was born in 1850.
His father, Willard Woolson, enlisted in the Union Army. Willard was wounded at the Battle of Shiloh and was transported to an Army hospital in Windom, Minnesota, where he would die of his wounds. Albert and his mother moved to Windom to accompany Willard. Albert enlisted as a drummer boy in Company C, 1st Minnesota Heavy Artillery Regiment on October 10, 1864, becoming the company 's drummer. However, the company never saw action, and Albert Woolson was discharged on September 7, 1865.
Woolson returned to Minnesota, where he lived the rest of his life. He was a carpenter and later a member of the Grand Army of the Republic (G.A.R.), a powerful political organization made up of Civil War veterans where he became senior vice commander in chief in 1953.
In his final days, he lived at 215 East Fifth Street in Duluth, Minnesota. Woolson died at St. Luke 's Hospital in Duluth on August 2, 1956, at what was then thought to be the age of 109, of a "recurring lung congestion condition ''. He was twice widowed and was survived by six daughters and two sons. Woolson was buried with full military honors by the National Guard at Park Hill Cemetery.
Following his death, President Dwight D. Eisenhower said:
The American people have lost the last personal link with the Union Army... His passing brings sorrow to the hearts of all of us who cherished the memory of the brave men on both sides of the War Between the States.
Woolson and fellow drummer - boy Frank Mayer marched together, both aged 99, in the Memorial Day Parade in May 1949, to lay a wreath at the tomb of General Grant in New York City.
Life magazine ran a seven - page article upon the death of Albert Woolson, in the August 20, 1956, issue. The article included much information about the G.A.R., with pictures or drawings of several encampments (conventions). Also included are photos of the last three living Confederate soldiers (status and age disputed): William Lundy, 108; Walter Williams, 113; and John Salling, 110.
In mid-2006, new census research indicated that Albert Woolson was actually only 106 years old, being listed as less than one year old in the 1850 census. Previous research in 1991 had suggested he was only a year younger than claimed (108 instead of 109), although this does not affect his veteran status.
After his death, the Grand Army of the Republic was dissolved because Woolson was its last surviving member.
The 2011 -- 12 Minnesota Legislative Manual was dedicated to him.
In 1956 a monument of Woolson was erected in Gettysburg as a memorial to the Grand Army of the Republic.
Woolson as "Henry Albert Woolson '' in the 1850 census as a newborn
|
do you have to be american to run for president | Natural - born - citizen clause - wikipedia
Status as a natural - born citizen of the United States is one of the eligibility requirements established in the United States Constitution for holding the office of President or Vice President. This requirement was intended to protect the nation from foreign influence.
The U.S. Constitution uses but does not define the phrase "natural born Citizen '', and various opinions have been offered over time regarding its precise meaning. The consensus of early 21st - century constitutional scholars, together with relevant case law, is that natural - born citizens include, subject to exceptions, those born in the United States. Many scholars have also concluded that those who meet the legal requirements for U.S. citizenship "at the moment of birth '', regardless of place of birth, are also natural - born citizens. Every president to date was either a citizen at the adoption of the Constitution in 1789 or was born in the United States; of those in the latter group, there have been seven that had at least one parent who was not born on U.S. soil.
The natural - born - citizen clause has been mentioned in passing in several decisions of the United States Supreme Court, and by some lower courts that have addressed eligibility challenges, but the Supreme Court has never directly addressed the question of a specific presidential or vice-presidential candidate 's eligibility as a natural - born citizen. Many eligibility lawsuits from the 2008, 2012, and 2016 election cycles were dismissed in lower courts due to the challengers ' difficulty in showing that they had standing to raise legal objections. Additionally, some experts have suggested that the precise meaning of the natural - born - citizen clause may never be decided by the courts because, in the end, presidential eligibility may be determined to be a non-justiciable political question that can be decided only by Congress rather than by the judicial branch of government.
Section 1 of Article Two of the United States Constitution sets forth the eligibility requirements for serving as president of the United States, under clause 5 (emphasis added):
No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty - five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.
The Twelfth Amendment states, "No person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. '' The Fourteenth Amendment does not use the phrase natural - born citizen. It does provide, "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. ''
Under Article One, representatives and senators are required to be U.S. citizens, but there is no requirement that they be natural born.
The use of the term "natural born '' was not without precedent. An early recorded mention was in Calvin 's Case (1608), in terms of birth within the jurisdiction of the sovereignty of the King. Statutes in Britain prior to American independence used the phrase "natural born subject ''. For example, clause III of the Foreign Protestants Naturalization Act 1708 provided:
That the Children of all natural born Subjects born out of the Ligeance of Her Majesty Her Heires and Successors shall be deemed adjudged and taken to be natural born Subjects of this Kingdom to all Intents Constructions and Purposes whatsoever
The Act was repealed (except for the quoted clause III regarding foreign - born children) by the Tories in 1711 by the statute 10 Anne c. 5.
Subsequently, the British Nationality Act 1730 provided:
for the explaining the said recited Clause in the said Act... (t) hat all Children born out of the Ligeance of the Crown of England, or of Great Britain, or which shall hereafter be born out of such Ligeance, whose Fathers were or shall be natural - born Subjects of the Crown of England, or of Great Britain, at the Time of the Birth of such Children respectively... are hereby declared to be natural - born Subjects of the Crown of Great Britain, to all Intents, Constructions and Purposes whatsoever.
Another use is in the Plantation Act 1740:
(A) ll persons born out of the legience of His Majesty, His Heirs, or Successors, who have... or shall inhabit or reside for... seven years or more in any of His Majesty 's colonies in America... shall be deemed, adjudged, and taken to be His Majesty 's natural - born subjects of this Kingdom.
Jurist William Blackstone wrote in 1765 that "Natural - born subjects are such as are born within the dominions of the crown of England ''. Blackstone added that offspring who are not inhabitants may also be natural born subjects:
But by several more modern statutes... all children, born out of the king 's ligeance, whose fathers were natural - born subjects, are now natural - born subjects themselves, to all intents and purposes, without any exception; unless their said fathers were attainted, or banished beyond sea, for high treason; or were then in the service of a prince at enmity with Great Britain.
In 1775, however, Blackstone reversed his opinion and explained that the children "are now deemed to be natural - born subjects '' rather than "are now natural - born subjects. '' Similarly, Francis Plowden (barrister) initially explained that an early English statute made foreign - born children of English parents "in fact and law... true native subjects '' and that the eighteenth century British statutes made persons natural born subjects by statute law just as others were natural born subjects by the common law. However, after further consideration he also reversed his opinion and concluded in 1785 that the statutes did not make the children natural born subjects -- rather, there remained a "relict of alienage in them. '' Prior to Blackstone, Edward Coke offered a narrower opinion in Calvin 's Case. According to Coke: "(I) f any of the King 's ambassadors in foreign nations, have children there of their wives, being English women, by the common laws of England they are natural - born subjects, and yet they are born out - of the King 's dominions. ''
The term "natural born '' has often been used synonymously with "native born ''. The English lexicographer Samuel Johnson wrote in 1756 that the word "natural '' means "native, '' and that the word "native '' may mean either an "inhabitant '' or an "offspring ''.
From the Declaration of Independence (1776) to the ratification of the Constitution (1789), the thirteen states were independent of Britain, and during much of this time the Articles of Confederation tied together the country. The phrase "natural born citizen '' was sometimes used during this period. An example occurred in 1784 when the Maryland General Assembly conferred citizenship on the (French - born) Marquis de Lafayette:
Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Maryland -- that the Marquiss de la Fayette and his Heirs male forever shall be and they and each of them are hereby deemed adjudged and taken to be natural born Citizens of this State and shall henceforth be intitled to all the Immunities, Rights and Privileges of natural born Citizens thereof...
The Constitution does not explain the meaning of "natural born ''. On June 18, 1787, Alexander Hamilton submitted to the Convention a sketch of a plan of government. The sketch provided for an executive "Governour '' but had no eligibility requirements. At the close of the Convention, Hamilton conveyed a paper to James Madison he said delineated the Constitution that he wished had been proposed by the Convention; he had stated its principles during the deliberations. Max Farrand wrote that it "was not submitted to the Convention and has no further value than attaches to the personal opinions of Hamilton. '' Article IX, section 1 of Hamilton 's draft constitution provided: "No person shall be eligible to the office of President of the United States unless he be now a Citizen of one of the States, or hereafter be born a Citizen of the United States. ''
On July 25, 1787, John Jay wrote to George Washington, presiding officer of the Convention:
Permit me to hint, whether it would not be wise and seasonable to provide a strong check to the admission of Foreigners into the administration of our national Government, and to declare expressly that the Command in chief of the American army shall not be given to, nor devolve on, any but a natural born Citizen.
While the Committee of Detail originally proposed that the President must be merely a citizen, as well as a resident for 21 years, the Committee of Eleven changed "citizen '' to "natural born citizen '', and the residency requirement to 14 years, without recorded explanation after receiving Jay 's letter. The Convention accepted the change without further recorded debate.
In 2012, Abdul Karim Hassan filed several unsuccessful lawsuits that claimed the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment had superseded the natural - born - citizen clause; he had argued natural - born citizenship was a form of discrimination based on national origin.
More than two dozen proposed constitutional amendments have been introduced in Congress to relax the restriction. Two of the more well known were introduced by Representative Jonathan Bingham in 1974, with the intent to allow German - born Secretary of State Henry Kissinger (otherwise fourth in the line of succession) to become eligible, and the Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment by Senator Orrin Hatch in 2003, intending to allow eligibility for Austrian - born Arnold Schwarzenegger. The Bingham amendment would have also made clear the eligibility of those born abroad to U.S. parents, while the Hatch one would have allowed those who have been naturalized citizens for twenty years to be eligible.
St. George Tucker, an early federal judge, wrote in his 1803 edition of William Blackstone 's Commentaries on the Laws of England, perhaps the leading authority for the delegates to the Constitutional Convention for the terms used in the Constitution, that the natural born citizen clause is "a happy means of security against foreign influence '' and that "(t) he admission of foreigners into our councils, consequently, can not be too much guarded against. '' In a footnote, Tucker wrote that naturalized citizens have the same rights as the natural - born except "they are forever incapable of being chosen to the office of president of the United States. ''
In a speech before the Senate, delegate Charles Cotesworth Pinckney gave the rationale, "to insure experience and attachment to the country. ''
Professor Akhil Amar of Yale Law School claimed that there had been a perception on the part of those drafting the constitution that a member of the European aristocracy could immigrate and buy his way into power.
Because of the large number of Framers who went on to serve in Congress, laws passed by the early sessions of Congress have often been looked to as evidence of the Framers ' intent. The Naturalization Act of 1790 stated that "the children of citizens of the United States, that may be born beyond sea, or out of the limits of the United States, shall be considered as natural born citizens: Provided, That the right of citizenship shall not descend to persons whose fathers have never been resident in the United States. '' This act was repealed by the Naturalization Act of 1795, which removed the characterization of such children as "natural born '', stating that "the children of citizens of the United States, born out of the limits and jurisdiction of the United States, shall be considered as citizens of the United States '' while retaining the same residency restrictions as the 1790 act.
John Bingham, an American lawyer and politician, held to the belief that natural born should be interpreted as born in the United States. In 1862, in the House of Representatives he stated:
The Constitution leaves no room for doubt upon this subject. The words "natural born citizen of the United States '' appear in it, and the other provision appears in it that, "Congress shall have power to pass a uniform system of naturalization. '' To naturalize a person is to admit him to citizenship. Who are natural born citizens but those born within the Republic? Those born within the Republic, whether black or white, are citizens by birth -- natural born citizens.
He reiterated his statement in 1866:
Every human being born within the jurisdiction of the United States of parents not owing allegiance to any foreign sovereignty is, in the language of your Constitution itself, a natural - born citizen; but, sir, I may be allowed to say further that I deny that the Congress of the United States ever had the power, or color of power to say that any man born within the jurisdiction of the United States, not owing a foreign allegiance, is not and shall not be a citizen of the United States. Citizenship is his birthright and neither the Congress nor the States can justly or lawfully take it from him.
Edward Bates also held to the belief that "natural born '' should be interpreted as "born in the United States ''. He also indicated that those born in the United States to alien parents, even if they reside elsewhere, are still considered natural born. In 1862, Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase sent a query to Attorney General Edward Bates asking whether or not "colored men '' can be citizens of the United States. The question arose because the Coast Guard had detained a schooner commanded by a free "colored man '' who claimed he was a citizen of the United States. If he were a U.S. citizen the boat could be released, but otherwise -- the Civil War then being fought -- it would be confiscated. No information about the man 's birth or parentage was provided. Bates responded on November 29, 1862, with a 27 - page opinion -- considered of such importance that the government published it not only in the official volumes of Attorney - General opinions but also as a separate booklet -- concluding,
I conclude that the free man of color, mentioned in your letter, if born in the United States, is a citizen of the United States. (italics in original)
In the course of that opinion, Bates commented at some length on the nature of citizenship, and wrote,
... our constitution, in speaking of natural born citizens, uses no affirmative language to make them such, but only recognizes and reaffirms the universal principle, common to all nations, and as old as political society, that the people born in a country do constitute the nation, and, as individuals, are natural members of the body politic. (italics in original)
In another opinion, dated September 1, 1862, Bates dealt with a question from the Secretary of State, of whether a person born in the U.S. to two non-citizens, who is taken with them back to their country, could, years later, re-enter the United States as of right, as a U.S. citizen. Bates wrote:
I am quite clear in the opinion that children born in the United States of alien parents, who have never been naturalized, are native - born citizens of the United States, and, of course, do not require the formality of naturalization to entitle them to the rights and privileges of such citizenship. I might sustain this opinion by a reference to the well - settled principle of the common law of England on this subject; to the writings of many of the earlier and later commentators on our Constitution and laws;... and lastly to the dicta and decisions of many of our national and state tribunals. But all this has been well done by Assistant Vice Chancellor Sandford, in the case of Lynch vs. Clarke, and I forbear. I refer to his opinion for a full and clear statement of the principle, and of the reasons and authorities for its support.
Unlike Edward Bates, U.S. Secretary of State William Learned Marcy was equivocal about whether those born in the country of alien parents and who reside elsewhere are still considered citizens. In 1854 Marcy wrote John Y. Mason, the U.S. Minister to France:
In reply to the inquiry... whether "the children of foreign parents born in the United States, but brought to the country of which the father is a subject, and continuing to reside within the jurisdiction of their father 's country, are entitled to protection as citizens of the United States '', I have to observe that it is presumed that, according to the common law, any person born in the United States, unless he be born in one of the foreign legations therein, may be considered a citizen thereof until he formally renounces his citizenship. There is not, however any United States statute containing a provision upon this subject, nor, so far as I am aware, has there been any judicial decision in regard to it.
U.S. Attorney General Edwards Pierrepont, however, shared Edward Bates ' opinion that those born in the country of alien parents and who reside elsewhere are still considered citizens, and he added that they should be entitled to be president of the United States, if elected. In 1875 Pierrepont was presented with a query from the Secretary of State, Hamilton Fish. A young man, named Arthur Steinkauler, had been born in Missouri in 1855, a year after his father was naturalized a U.S. citizen. When he was four years old, his father returned to Germany with him and both had stayed there ever since. The father had relinquished his American citizenship and the young man was now 20 years old and about to be drafted into the Imperial German army. The question was asked "What was this young man 's situation as a native - born American citizen? '' After studying the relevant legal authorities, Pierrepont wrote:
Under the treaty (of 1868 with Germany), and in harmony with American doctrine, it is clear that Steinkauler the father abandoned his naturalization in America and became a German subject (his son being yet a minor), and that by virtue of German laws the son acquired German nationality. It is equally clear that the son, by birth, has American nationality, and hence he has two nationalities, one natural, the other acquired... Young Steinkauler is a native - born American citizen. There is no law of the United States under which his father or any other person can deprive him of his birthright. He can return to America at the age of 21, and in due time, if the people elect, he can become President of the United States... I am of opinion that when he reaches the age of 21 years he can then elect whether he will return and take the nationality of his birth, with its duties and privileges, or retain the nationality acquired by the act of his father.
Frederick van Dyne, the Assistant Solicitor of the U.S. Department of State (1900 -- 1907) indicated that children of citizens born outside the United States are also considered citizens. In 1904, he published a textbook, Citizenship of the United States, in which he wrote:
There is no uniform rule of international law covering the subject of citizenship. Every nation determines for itself who shall, and who shall not, be its citizens... By the law of the United States, citizenship depends, generally, on the place of birth; nevertheless the children of citizens, born out of the jurisdiction of the United States, are also citizens... The Constitution of the United States, while it recognized citizenship of the United States in prescribing the qualifications of the President, Senators, and Representatives, contained no definition of citizenship until the adoption of the 14th Amendment, in 1868; nor did Congress attempt to define it until the passage of the civil rights act, in 1866... Prior to this time the subject of citizenship by birth was generally held to be regulated by the common law, by which all persons born within the limits and allegiance of the United States were deemed natural - born citizens. It appears to have been assumed by the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of Murray v. The Charming Betsy (1804) 2 Cranch (6 U.S.) 64, 119, 2 L. Ed. 208, 226, that all persons born in the United States were citizens thereof... In M'Creery v. Somerville (1824) 9 Wheat. (22 U.S.) 354, 6 L. Ed. 109, which concerned the title to land in the state of Maryland, it was assumed that children born in that state to an alien were native - born citizens of the United States... The Federal courts have almost uniformly held that birth in the United States, of itself, confers citizenship.
Although eligibility for the Presidency was not an issue in any 19th - century litigation, there have been a few cases that shed light on the definitions of natural born and native born citizen. The leading case, Lynch v. Clarke of 1844, indicated that citizens born "within the dominions and allegiance of the United States '' are citizens regardless of parental citizenship. This case dealt with a New York law (similar to laws of other states at that time) that only a U.S. citizen could inherit real estate. The plaintiff, Julia Lynch, had been born in New York while her parents, both British, were briefly visiting the U.S., and shortly thereafter all three left for Britain and never returned to the U.S. The New York Chancery Court determined that, under common law and prevailing statutes, she was a U.S. citizen by birth and nothing had deprived her of that citizenship, notwithstanding that both her parents were not U.S. citizens or that British law might also claim her through her parents ' nationality. In the course of the decision, the court cited the Constitutional provision and said:
Suppose a person should be elected president who was native born, but of alien parents; could there be any reasonable doubt that he was eligible under the Constitution? I think not. The position would be decisive in his favor, that by the rule of the common law, in force when the Constitution was adopted, he is a citizen.
And further:
Upon principle, therefore, I can entertain no doubt, but that by the law of the United States, every person born within the dominions and allegiance of the United States, whatever the situation of his parents, is a natural born citizen. It is surprising that there has been no judicial decision upon this question.
The decision in Lynch was cited as persuasive or authoritative precedent in numerous subsequent cases, and reinforced the interpretation that "natural born citizen '' meant born "within the dominions and allegiance of the United States '' regardless of parental citizenship. For example, in an 1884 case, In re Look Tin Singg, the federal court held, that despite laws preventing naturalization of Chinese visitors, Chinese persons born in the United States were citizens by birth, and remained such despite any long stay in China. Citing Lynch, Justice Stephen J. Field wrote:
After an exhaustive examination of the law, the Vice-Chancellor said that he entertained no doubt that every person born within the dominions and allegiance of the United States, whatever the situation of his parents, was a natural - born citizen, and added that this was the general understanding of the legal profession, and the universal impression of the public mind.
The Lynch case was also cited as a leading precedent in the U.S. Supreme Court decision in United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898), which similarly held a child born in the United States of two Chinese parents became "at the time of his birth a citizen of the United States ''.
Consistent with the earlier decisions, in 1939, the U.S. Supreme Court stated in its decision in Perkins v. Elg that a person born in America and raised in another country was a natural born citizen, and specifically stated that they could "become President of the United States ''. The case was regarding a young woman, born in New York a year after her father became a naturalized U.S. citizen. However, when she was about four her parents returned to Sweden taking her with them, and they stayed in Sweden. At age 20, she contacted the American embassy in Sweden and, shortly after her 21st birthday, returned to the United States on a U.S. passport and was admitted as a U.S. citizen. Years later, while she was still in America, her father in Sweden relinquished his American citizenship, and, because of that, the Department of Labor (then the location of the Immigration & Naturalization Service) declared her a non-citizen and tried to deport her. The young woman filed suit for a declaratory judgment that she was an American citizen by birth. She won at the trial level, and at the circuit court -- where she was repeatedly described as "a natural born citizen '' -- and finally in the U.S. Supreme Court, where the court decision quoted at length from the U.S. Attorney General 's opinion in Steinkauler 's Case (mentioned above) including the comment that a person born in America and raised in another country could yet "become President of the United States ''.
Some federal cases argued for a narrow reading of the Fourteenth Amendment, according to which U.S. citizens were necessarily either born or naturalized in the United States, and any citizen who was not born in the United States must have been naturalized by operation of law, even if such naturalization was "automatic '' at birth. In this view, such a person should not be considered a natural born citizen, but rather a "naturalized '' citizen who is not eligible for the Presidency.
In 1951, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit noted in Zimmer v. Acheson that "(t) here are only two classes of citizens of the United States, native - born citizens and naturalized citizens '', quoting a dictum by Justice Gray from United States v. Wong Kim Ark and Elk v. Wilkins. The court ruled that Zimmer, who was born abroad in 1905 to a U.S. citizen father and a noncitizen mother, was himself a citizen under the nationality law in force at the time of his birth, but "his status as a citizen was that of a naturalized citizen and not a native - born citizen ''. In the 1956 case of Wong Kam Wo v. Dulles, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit quoted Zimmer v. Acheson and United States v. Wong Kim Ark in support of a ruling that the statute that was in effect prior to 1940 granting citizenship to foreign - born children of U.S. citizens was a naturalization law rather than a provision for nationality at birth. In 1940, however, the federal law was amended to explicitly define "naturalization '' as conferring nationality after birth.
In 1961, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Montana v. Kennedy that an individual who was born in 1906 in Italy to a U.S. citizen mother and a noncitizen father was not a U.S. citizen by birth under the nationality laws in force at the time of his birth. It observed that automatic citizenship was granted to children of U.S. citizen fathers and noncitizen mothers by an 1855 act of Congress, but the reverse situation was only addressed, non-retroactively, in 1934. In 1971, the Court encountered a similar situation in Rogers v. Bellei, where the individual in question was born after 1934 and so was granted automatic U.S. citizenship, though subject to residence requirements and was subject to expatriation. The Court "appeared to assume or imply that such persons became citizens at birth by way of naturalization ''.
More recent cases, particularly Nguyen v. INS and Robinson v. Bowen, relaxed this view, suggesting that the Fourteenth Amendment merely establishes a "floor '' for birthright citizenship, and this category may be expanded by Congress.
In 2009 in Ankeny v. Governor, the Indiana Court of Appeals reaffirmed that persons born within the borders of the United States are "natural born Citizens '', regardless of the citizenship of their parents. The court referred to the case of Wong Kim Ark, and provides a compilation of the arguments pertaining to this topic.
A clarification to this interpretation was made in 2010, where a three - judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit held that natural born citizens can lose their citizenship if their territory of birth later ceases to be U.S. territory. The case involved a Philippine - born litigant who could not claim U.S. citizenship on the basis of his parents, who lived all their lives in the Philippines, because they were born while the Philippines was U.S. territory prior to being given its independence. The Courts for the Second, Third, and Ninth Circuits have also held that birth in the Philippines at a time when the country was a territory of the United States does not constitute birth "in the United States '' under the Citizenship Clause, and thus did not give rise to United States citizenship.
In a 2012 New York case, Strunk v. N.Y. State Board of Elections, the pro se plaintiff challenged Barack Obama 's presence on the presidential ballot, based on his own interpretation that "natural born citizen '' required the president "to have been born on United States soil and have two United States born parents '' (emphasis added). To this the Court responded, "Article II, section 1, clause 5 does not state this. No legal authority has ever stated that the Natural Born Citizen clause means what plaintiff Strunk claims it says... Moreover, President Obama is the sixth U.S. President to have had one or both of his parents not born on U.S. soil ''. The opinion then listed Andrew Jackson, James Buchanan, Chester A. Arthur, Woodrow Wilson, and Herbert Hoover.
William Rawle, formerly the U.S. Attorney for Pennsylvania (1791 -- 1799) defined natural born citizen as every person born within the United States, regardless of the citizenship of their parents. In an 1825 treatise, A View of the Constitution of the United States of America, he wrote:
The citizens of each state constituted the citizens of the United States when the Constitution was adopted... (He) who was subsequently born the citizen of a State, became at the moment of his birth a citizen of the United States. Therefore every person born within the United States, its territories or districts, whether the parents are citizens or aliens, is a natural born citizen in the sense of the Constitution, and entitled to all the rights and privileges appertaining to that capacity... Under our Constitution the question is settled by its express language, and when we are informed... no person is eligible to the office of President unless he is a natural born citizen, the principle that the place of birth creates the relative quality is established as to us.
James F. Wilson agreed with Rawle 's opinion, but added the exclusion of visiting foreign diplomats. During an 1866 House debate, he quoted Rawle 's opinion, and also referred to the "general law relating to subjects and citizens recognized by all nations '', saying:
... and that must lead us to the conclusion that every person born in the United States is a natural - born citizen of such States, except it may be that children born on our soil to temporary sojourners or representatives of foreign Governments, are native - born citizens of the United States.
Supreme Court Justice Peter Vivian Daniel disagreed with this position and considered natural born citizen as every person born of citizen parents within the United States. In 1857, in a concurring opinion in Dred Scott v. Sandford, he quoted an English - language translation of Emerich de Vattel 's 1758 treatise The Law of Nations (Le Droit des gens), stating that "The natives, or natural - born citizens, are those born in the country of parents who are citizens ''.
This was quoted again in 1898 by Chief Justice Melville Fuller in his dissenting opinion in United States v. Wong Kim Ark. However, two paragraphs later, Justice Vattel disagrees and states, "§ 214... there are states, as, for instance, England, where the single circumstance of being born in the country naturalizes the children of a foreigner. ''
Joseph Story, an Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, believed that the term native citizen is synonymous with natural born citizen, though he does not define either term. In his 1840 guidebook to the Constitution, A Familiar Exposition of the Constitution of the United States, about the natural - born - citizen clause he wrote "It is not too much to say that no one, but a native citizen, ought ordinarily to be (e) ntrusted with an office so vital to the safety and liberties of the people. '' This same wording also appeared in his 1834 work The constitutional class book: being a brief exposition of the Constitution of the United States: Designed for the use of the higher classes in common schools.
Alexander Porter Morse, the lawyer who represented Louisiana in Plessy v. Ferguson, considered this connection between native born and natural born to signify that only a child of citizens should be allowed to run for President. In the Albany Law Journal, he wrote:
If it was intended that anybody who was a citizen by birth should be eligible, it would only have been necessary to say, "no person, except a native - born citizen ''; but the framers thought it wise, in view of the probable influx of European immigration, to provide that the president should at least be the child of citizens owing allegiance to the United States at the time of his birth. It may be observed in passing that the current phrase "native - born citizen '' is well understood; but it is pleonasm and should be discarded; and the correct designation, "native citizen '' should be substituted in all constitutional and statutory enactments, in judicial decisions and in legal discussions where accuracy and precise language are essential to intelligent discussion.
Black 's Law Dictionary (9th Edition) defines "Natural Born Citizen '' as "A person born within the jurisdiction of a national government ''.
In 2000, the Congressional Research Service (CRS), in one of its reports, wrote that most constitutional scholars interpret the natural born citizen clause to include citizens born outside the United States to parents who are U.S. citizens. This same CRS report also asserts that citizens born in the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, are legally defined as "natural born '' citizens and are, therefore, also eligible to be elected President.
This opinion was reaffirmed in a 2009 CRS report, which stated:
Considering the history of the constitutional qualifications provision, the common use and meaning of the phrase "natural - born subject '' in England and in the Colonies in the 1700s, the clause 's apparent intent, the subsequent action of the first Congress in enacting the Naturalization Act of 1790 (expressly defining the term "natural born citizen '' to include a person born abroad to parents who are United States citizens), as well as subsequent Supreme Court dicta, it appears that the most logical inferences would indicate that the phrase "natural born Citizen '' would mean a person who is entitled to U.S. citizenship "at birth '' or "by birth ''.
The interpretation of natural born being the equivalent of a citizen at birth was repeated in a 2011 CRS report and a 2016 CRS report. The 2011 report stated:
The weight of legal and historical authority indicates that the term "natural born '' citizen would mean a person who is entitled to U.S. citizenship "by birth '' or "at birth, '' either by being born "in '' the United States and under its jurisdiction, even those born to alien parents; by being born abroad to U.S. citizen - parents; or by being born in other situations meeting legal requirements for U.S. citizenship "at birth ''. Such term, however, would not include a person who was not a U.S. citizen by birth or at birth, and who was thus born an "alien '' required to go through the legal process of "naturalization '' to become a U.S. citizen.
The 2016 report similarly stated:
Although the eligibility of U.S. born citizens has been settled law for more than a century, there have been legitimate legal issues raised concerning those born outside of the country to U.S. citizens. From historical material and case law, it appears that the common understanding of the term "natural born '' in England and in the American colonies in the 1700s included both the strict common law meaning as born in the territory (jus soli), as well as the statutory laws adopted in England since at least 1350, which included children born abroad to British fathers (jus sanguinis, the law of descent). Legal scholars in the field of citizenship have asserted that this common understanding and legal meaning in England and in the American colonies was incorporated into the usage and intent of the term in the U.S. Constitution to include those who are citizens at birth.
Gabriel J. Chin, Professor of Law at UC Davis School of Law, held the opinion that the term "natural born '' is ambiguous and citizenship - granting authority has changed over the years. He notes that persons born outside the United States to U.S. - citizen parents have not always been born citizens. For example, foreign - born children of persons who became citizens between April 14, 1802 and 1854 were aliens. He also believed that children born in the Panama Canal Zone to at least one U.S. then - citizen before August 4, 1937, when Congress granted citizenship to all such persons, were born without American citizenship.
In 2009, G. Edward "Ted '' White, Professor of Law at the University of Virginia, stated the term refers to anyone born on U.S. soil or anyone born on foreign soil to American citizen parents.
Unlike Chin and White, Mary McManamon, Professor of Law at Widener University School of Law, has argued in the Catholic University Law Review that, aside from children born to foreign ambassadors or to hostile soldiers on U.S. territory, both of whom owe allegiance to a different sovereign, a natural born citizen must be born in the United States. She claims that common law provides an exception for the children of U.S. ambassadors born abroad and the children of American soldiers while engaged in hostilities. Thus, with these two limited exceptions, she equates "natural born '' with "native born ''.
Professor Einer Elhauge of Harvard Law School agrees with Professor McManamon that "natural born '' means "native born '' and therefore the wording of the Constitution "does not permit his (Ted Cruz 's) candidacy. '' Professor Robert Clinton at the Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law at Arizona State University is also of the opinion that "natural born citizen '' means "born in the United States. '' University of Chicago Professor Eric Posner also concludes that "natural born citizen '' means a "person born in the (United States) ''. Former Chief Justice of the New York Court of Appeals, Sol Wachtler, concludes the same. Their conclusion is consistent with the position that the eighteenth century legal usage of the term "shall be considered as natural born '' in the Naturalization Act of 1790 merely naturalized persons or granted them limited rights of the natural born.
There is consensus among academics that those born on American soil, except children born to foreign ambassadors or to hostile soldiers on U.S. territory, both of whom owe allegiance to a different sovereign, are natural born citizens, or jus soli, regardless of parental citizenship status.
In a 2008 article published by the Michigan Law Review, Lawrence Solum, Professor of Law at the University of Illinois, stated that "there is general agreement on the core of (the) meaning (of the Presidential Eligibility Clause). Anyone born on American soil whose parents are citizens of the United States is a ' natural born citizen ' ''. In April 2010, Solum republished the same article as an online draft, in which he clarified his original statement so that it would not be misunderstood as excluding the children of one citizen parent. In a footnote he explained, "based on my reading of the historical sources, there is no credible case that a person born on American soil with one American parent was clearly not a ' natural born citizen '. '' He further extended natural born citizenship to all cases of jus soli as the "conventional view ''. Although Solum stated elsewhere that the two - citizen - parents arguments were not "crazy '', he believes "the much stronger argument suggests that if you were born on American soil that you would be considered a natural born citizen. ''
Ronald Rotunda, Professor of Law at Chapman University, has remarked "There 's (sic) some people who say that both parents need to be citizens. That 's never been the law. ''
Polly Price, Professor of Law at Emory University, has commented "It 's a little confusing, but most scholars think it 's a pretty unusual position for anyone to think the natural born citizen clause would exclude someone born in the U.S. ''
Chin concurred with that assessment, stating, "there is agreement that ' natural born citizens ' include those made citizens by birth under the 14th Amendment. ''
Similarly, Eugene Volokh, Professor of Law at UCLA, found "quite persuasive '' the reasoning employed by the Indiana Court of Appeals, which had concluded "that persons born within the borders of the United States are ' natural born Citizens ' for Article II, Section 1 purposes, regardless of the citizenship of their parents ''.
Daniel Tokaji, Professor of Law at Ohio State University, agrees the citizenship status of a U.S. - born candidate 's parents is irrelevant.
Several courts have ruled that private citizens do not have standing to challenge the eligibility of candidates to appear on a presidential election ballot. Alternatively, there is a statutory method by which the eligibility of the president - elect of the United States to take office may be challenged in Congress. Some legal scholars assert that, even if eligibility challenges are nonjusticiable in federal courts, and are not undertaken in Congress, there are other avenues for adjudication, such as an action in state court in regard to ballot access.
Every president to date was either a citizen at the adoption of the Constitution in 1789 or born in the United States; of those in the latter group, every president except two (Chester A. Arthur and Barack Obama) had two U.S. - citizen parents. Further, four additional U.S. Presidents had one or both of his parents not born on U.S. soil (James Buchanan, Woodrow Wilson, Herbert Hoover and Donald Trump).
Some presidential candidates were not born in a U.S. state or lacked two U.S. - citizen parents. In addition, one U.S. vice president (Al Gore) was born in Washington, D.C., and another (Charles Curtis) was born in the Kansas Territory. This does not necessarily mean that these officeholders or candidates were ineligible, only that there was some controversy about their eligibility, which may have been resolved in favor of eligibility.
Chester A. Arthur, who was sworn in as president when James A. Garfield died after being shot, was rumored to have been born in Canada.
Chester A. Arthur was born in Vermont on October 5, 1829 to a Vermont - born mother and a father from Ireland (who later became a U.S. citizen, 14 years after Chester A. Arthur was born). His mother, Malvina Stone Arthur, was a native of Berkshire, Vermont, who moved with her family to Quebec, where she met and married the future president 's father, William Arthur, on April 12, 1821. After the family had settled in Fairfield, Vermont, somewhere between 1822 and 1824, William Arthur traveled with his eldest daughter to East Stanbridge, Canada, in October 1830 and commuted to Fairfield on Sundays to preach. "It appears that he traveled regularly between the two villages, both of which were close to the Canada -- US border, for about eighteen months, holding two jobs '', which may well explain the confusion about Chester A. Arthur 's place of birth, as perhaps did the fact that he was born in Franklin County, and thus within a day 's walk of the Vermont -- Quebec border. Moreover, Chester A. Arthur himself added a bit of confusion into the record by sometimes reporting his birth year as 1830.
No evidence of his having been born in Canada was ever demonstrated by his Democratic opponents, although Arthur Hinman, an attorney who had investigated Chester A. Arthur 's family history, raised the allegation as an objection during his vice-presidential campaign and, after the end of his presidency, published a book on the subject.
Christopher Schürmann (born in New York City) entered the Labor primaries during the 1896 presidential election. His eligibility was questioned in a New York Tribune article, because he was born to parents of German nationality. It was stated that "various Attorney - Generals (sic) of the United States have expressed the opinion that a child born in this country of alien parents, who have not been naturalized, is, by the fact of birth, a native - born citizen entitled to all rights and privileges as such. '' But due to a lack of any statute on the subject, Schürmann 's eligibility was "at best an open question, and one which should have made (his) nomination under any circumstances an impossibility '', because questions concerning his eligibility could have been raised after the election.
The eligibility of Charles Evans Hughes was questioned in an article written by Breckinridge Long, one of Woodrow Wilson 's campaign workers, and published on December 7, 1916 in the Chicago Legal News -- a full month after the U.S. presidential election of 1916, in which Hughes was narrowly defeated by Woodrow Wilson. Long claimed that Hughes was ineligible because his father was not yet naturalized at the time of his birth and was still a British citizen (in fact, both his parents were British citizens and never became U.S. citizens). Observing that Hughes, although born in the United States, was also (according to British law) a British subject and therefore "enjoy (ed) a dual nationality and owe (d) a double allegiance '', Long argued that a native born citizen was not natural born without a unity of U.S. citizenship and allegiance and stated: "Now if, by any possible construction, a person at the instant of birth, and for any period of time thereafter, owes, or may owe, allegiance to any sovereign but the United States, he is not a ' natural - born ' citizen of the United States. ''
Barry Goldwater was born in Phoenix, in what was then the incorporated Arizona Territory of the United States. During his presidential campaign in 1964, there was a minor controversy over Goldwater 's having been born in Arizona three years before it became a state.
George W. Romney, who ran for the Republican party presidential nomination in 1968, was born in Mexico to U.S. parents. Romney 's grandfather, a member of the LDS Church, had emigrated to Mexico in 1886 with his three wives and their children, after the U.S. federal government outlawed polygamy. However Romney 's parents (monogamous under new church doctrine) retained their U.S. citizenship and returned to the United States with him and his siblings in 1912. Romney 's eligibility for President became moot when Richard Nixon was nominated as the Republican presidential candidate.
Lowell P. Weicker entered the race for the Republican party nomination of 1980 but dropped out before voting in the primaries began; he was also suggested as a possible vice-presidential nominee in 1976, to replace retiring Vice President Nelson Rockefeller under the Republican ticket of incumbent President Gerald Ford. However Senator Bob Dole from Kansas was later chosen as the nominee. He was born in Paris, France, to parents who were U.S. citizens. His father was an executive for E.R. Squibb & Sons and his mother was born in India, the daughter of a British general.
John McCain was born in 1936 at Coco Solo, Naval Air Station in the Panama Canal Zone. McCain 's eligibility was not challenged during his 2000 campaign, but it was challenged during his 2008 campaign.
McCain never released his birth certificate to the press or independent fact - checking organizations, but in 2008 one was shown to Washington Post reporter Michael Dobbs, who wrote, "(A) senior official of the McCain campaign showed me a copy of (McCain 's) birth certificate issued by the ' family hospital ' in the Coco Solo submarine base. '' A lawsuit filed by Fred Hollander in 2008 alleged McCain was actually born in a civilian hospital in Colón, Panama. Dobbs wrote that in his autobiography, Faith of My Fathers, McCain wrote that he was born "in the Canal Zone '' at the U.S. Naval Air Station in Coco Solo, which was under the command of his grandfather, John S. McCain Sr. "The senator 's father, John S. McCain Jr., was an executive officer on a submarine, also based in Coco Solo. His mother, Roberta McCain, has said that she has vivid memories of lying in bed listening to raucous celebrations of her son 's birth from the nearby officers ' club. The birth was announced days later in the English - language Panamanian American newspaper. ''
The former unincorporated territory of the Panama Canal Zone and its related military facilities were not regarded as United States territory at the time, but 8 U.S.C. § 1403, which became law in 1937, retroactively conferred citizenship on individuals born within the Canal Zone on or after February 26, 1904, and on individuals born in the Republic of Panama on or after that date who had at least one U.S. citizen parent employed by the U.S. government or the Panama Railway Company; 8 U.S.C. § 1403 was cited in Judge William Alsup 's 2008 ruling, described below. A March 2008 paper by former Solicitor General Ted Olson and Harvard Law Professor Laurence H. Tribe opined that McCain was eligible for the Presidency. In April 2008, the U.S. Senate approved a non-binding resolution recognizing McCain 's status as a natural - born citizen. In September 2008, U.S. District Judge William Alsup stated obiter in his ruling that it is "highly probable '' that McCain is a natural - born citizen from birth by virtue of 8 U.S.C. § 1401, although he acknowledged the alternative possibility that McCain became a natural - born citizen retroactively, by way of 8 U.S.C. § 1403.
These views have been criticized by Chin, who argues that McCain was at birth a citizen of Panama and was only retroactively declared a born citizen under 8 U.S.C. § 1403, because at the time of his birth and with regard to the Canal Zone the Supreme Court 's Insular Cases overruled the Naturalization Act of 1795, which would otherwise have declared McCain a U.S. citizen immediately at birth. The U.S. State Department 's Foreign Affairs Manual states that children born in the Panama Canal Zone at certain times became U.S. nationals without citizenship. In Rogers v. Bellei, the Supreme Court ruled that children "born abroad of American parents '' are not citizens within the citizenship clause of the 14th Amendment but did not elaborate on their natural - born status. Similarly, legal scholar Lawrence Solum concluded in an article on the natural born citizen clause that the question of McCain 's eligibility could not be answered with certainty, and that it would depend on the particular approach of "constitutional construction ''. The urban legend fact checking website Snopes.com considers McCain 's eligibility "undetermined ''.
Arguments over McCain 's eligibility became moot after he lost the United States presidential election in 2008.
Barack Obama was born in 1961 in Honolulu, Hawaii (which had become a U.S. state in 1959). His mother was a U.S. citizen and his father was a British subject from British Kenya.
Before and after the 2008 presidential election, arguments were made that Obama was not a natural - born citizen. On June 12, 2008, the Obama presidential campaign launched a website to counter what it described as a smear campaign by his opponents, including conspiracy theories challenging his eligibility. The most prominent issue raised against Obama was the claim made in several lawsuits that he was not actually born in Hawaii. The Supreme Court declined without comment to hear two lawsuits in which the plaintiffs argued it was irrelevant whether Obama was born in Hawaii. Most of the cases were dismissed because of the plaintiff 's lack of standing; however, several courts have given guidance on the question.
In Ankeny v. Governor, a three - member Indiana Court of Appeals stated,
Based upon the language of Article II, Section 1, Clause 4 and the guidance provided by Wong Kim Ark, we conclude that persons born within the borders of the United States are ' natural born Citizens ' for Article II, Section 1 purposes, regardless of the citizenship of their parents.
Administrative Law Judge Michael Malihi in Georgia decided a group of eligibility challenge cases by saying, "The Indiana Court rejected the argument that Mr. Obama was ineligible, stating that the children born within the United States are natural born citizens, regardless of the citizenship of their parents... This Court finds the decision and analysis of Ankeny persuasive. '' Federal District Judge John A. Gibney, Jr. wrote in his decision in the case of Tisdale v. Obama:
The eligibility requirements to be President of the United States are such that the individual must be a "natural born citizen '' of the United States... It is well settled that those born in the United States are considered natural born citizens. See, e.g. United States v. Ark (sic)...
On October 31, 2008, Hawaii Health Director Chiyome Fukino issued a statement saying,
I... have personally seen and verified that the Hawai'i State Department of Health has Sen. Obama 's original birth certificate on record in accordance with state policies and procedures.
On July 27, 2009, Fukino issued an additional statement:
I... have seen the original vital records maintained on file by the Hawaii State Department of Health verifying Barack Hussein Obama was born in Hawaii and is a natural - born American citizen.
Attempts to prevent Obama from participating in the 2012 Democratic primary election in several states failed.
Ted Cruz announced on March 22, 2015, that he was running for the Republican Party 's nomination for president in the 2016 election. Cruz was born in Calgary, Canada. Cruz 's mother was a U.S. citizen and his father was born in Cuba, but his father eventually became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 2005. This gave Cruz dual Canadian - American citizenship, as he was granted U.S. citizenship at the time of his birth by the virtue of his mother 's citizenship, and Canada grants birthright citizenship to every person born in Canada. Cruz applied to formally renounce his Canadian citizenship and ceased being a citizen of Canada on May 14, 2014.
Former Solicitor General Paul Clement, former Acting Solicitor General Neal Katyal, University of California, Irvine School of Law Dean Erwin Chemerinsky, Professor Chin (see above), Temple University Law School Professor Peter Spiro, Professor Akhil Amar, Georgetown University Law Center Professor Randy Barnett, Yale Law School Professor Jack Balkin, and University of San Diego Professor Michael Ramsey believe Cruz meets the constitutional requirements to be eligible for the presidency. Similarly, Bryan Garner, the editor of Black 's Law Dictionary, believes the U.S. Supreme Court would find Cruz to be eligible, and Case Western Reserve University School of Law professor Jonathan H. Adler agrees that no court will rule against Cruz 's eligibility.
Laurence Tribe of Harvard, however, described Cruz 's eligibility as "murky and unsettled ''. Harvard Law Professor Cass Sunstein believes that Cruz is eligible, but agrees with Ramsey that Cruz 's eligibility is not "an easy question ''. Sunstein believes concerns over standing and the political - question doctrine make it unlikely that courts would rule against Cruz.
Mary McManamon (see above) writing in the Catholic University Law Review believes that Cruz is not eligible because he was not born in the United States. Professor Einer Elhauge of Harvard, Professor Robert Clinton of Arizona State University, University of Chicago Professor Eric Posner, former Chief Justice of the New York Court of Appeals Sol Wachtler, and Professor Victor Williams of Catholic University of America 's law school agree that Cruz is not eligible. Alan Grayson, a Democratic Member of Congress from Florida, does not believe Cruz is a natural - born citizen, and stated he would have filed a lawsuit if Cruz had become the Republican nominee. Orly Taitz, Larry Klayman, and Mario Apuzzo, who each filed multiple lawsuits challenging Obama 's eligibility, have also asserted that Cruz is not eligible.
Cruz 's eligibility was questioned by some of his primary opponents, including Donald Trump, Mike Huckabee, Rick Santorum, Carly Fiorina, and Rand Paul. Marco Rubio, however, believes Cruz is eligible.
Two November 2015 ballot challenges in New Hampshire alleging that Cruz was not a natural - born citizen were unsuccessful. In December, a similar lawsuit was filed in Vermont, and an unsuccessful lawsuit was filed in Florida. In January 2016, similar lawsuits were unsuccessfully filed in Texas and Utah, and two similar unsuccessful ballot challenges were filed in Illinois. In February, two similar unsuccessful lawsuits were filed in Pennsylvania and one was filed in Arkansas; a similar lawsuit was filed in Alabama; similar unsuccessful ballot challenges were filed in Indiana; and similar ballot challenges and an unsuccessful similar lawsuit were also filed in New York. In March, a similar lawsuit was filed in New York. In April, a similar ballot challenge was unsuccessfully filed in New Jersey.
No lawsuit or challenge has been successful, and in February 2016, the Illinois Board of Elections ruled in Cruz 's favor, stating, "The candidate is a natural born citizen by virtue of being born in Canada to his mother who was a U.S. citizen at the time of his birth. ''
The question of Cruz 's eligibility became moot when he suspended his campaign on May 3, 2016.
Marco Rubio and Bobby Jindal both announced in 2015 that they were running for the Republican Party 's nomination for president in the 2016 election. Taitz and Apuzzo each have claimed neither Rubio nor Jindal is eligible because both were born (albeit in the United States) to parents who were not U.S. citizens at the time of their respective births.
The question of Jindal 's eligibility became moot when he suspended his presidential campaign in November 2015. Nonetheless, a lawsuit filed in December 2015 in Vermont and a ballot challenge filed in February 2016 in New York challenged Jindal 's eligibility.
A November 2015 ballot challenge in New Hampshire alleging that Rubio was not a natural - born citizen was unsuccessful. In December, a similar lawsuit was filed in Vermont, and an unsuccessful lawsuit was filed in Florida. In January 2016, a similar unsuccessful ballot challenge was filed in Illinois. In February, a similar unsuccessful lawsuit was filed in Arkansas; a similar ballot challenge was filed in New York; and an unsuccessful ballot challenge was filed in Indiana.
The question of Rubio 's eligibility became moot when he suspended his presidential campaign in March 2016.
Arnold Schwarzenegger was reported as considering challenging the prevailing interpretation of the clause. In 2003, Senator Orrin Hatch unsuccessfully put forth the Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment, intending to allow eligibility for Arnold Schwarzenegger. In October 2013, the New York Post reported that Schwarzenegger -- who is originally from Austria and became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1983, also retaining Austrian citizenship -- was exploring a future run for the American presidency. He reportedly lobbied legislators about a possible constitutional change, or filing a legal challenge to the provision. Cornell University law professor Michael C. Dorf observed that Schwarzenegger 's possible lawsuit could ultimately win him the right to run for the office, noting, "The law is very clear, but it 's not 100 percent clear that the courts would enforce that law rather than leave it to the political process ''. Schwarzenegger subsequently denied that he was running.
|
when was jaws first shown on uk tv | Jaws (film) - wikipedia
Jaws is a 1975 American thriller film directed by Steven Spielberg and based on Peter Benchley 's 1974 novel of the same name. In the story, a giant man - eating great white shark attacks beachgoers on Amity Island, a fictional New England summer resort town, prompting the local police chief to hunt it with the help of a marine biologist and a professional shark hunter. The film stars Roy Scheider as police chief Martin Brody, Robert Shaw as shark hunter Quint, Richard Dreyfuss as oceanographer Matt Hooper, Murray Hamilton as Larry Vaughn, the mayor of Amity Island, and Lorraine Gary as Brody 's wife, Ellen. The screenplay is credited to both Benchley, who wrote the first drafts, and actor - writer Carl Gottlieb, who rewrote the script during principal photography.
Shot mostly on location on Martha 's Vineyard in Massachusetts, the film had a troubled production, going over budget and past schedule. As the art department 's mechanical sharks suffered many malfunctions, Spielberg decided to mostly suggest the animal 's presence, employing an ominous, minimalistic theme created by composer John Williams to indicate the shark 's impending appearances. Spielberg and others have compared this suggestive approach to that of classic thriller director Alfred Hitchcock. Universal Pictures gave the film what was then an exceptionally wide release for a major studio picture, over 450 screens, accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign with a heavy emphasis on television spots and tie - in merchandise.
Now considered one of the greatest films ever made, Jaws was the prototypical summer blockbuster, with its release regarded as a watershed moment in motion picture history. Jaws became the highest - grossing film of all time until the release of Star Wars (1977). It won several awards for its soundtrack and editing. Along with Star Wars, Jaws was pivotal in establishing the modern Hollywood business model, which revolves around high box - office returns from action and adventure pictures with simple "high - concept '' premises that are released during the summer in thousands of theaters and supported by heavy advertising. It was followed by three sequels, none with the participation of Spielberg or Benchley, and many imitative thrillers. In 2001, Jaws was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Film Registry, being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
A beach party takes place at dusk on Amity Island, where a woman named Chrissie Watkins goes swimming in the ocean. While treading water, she is violently pulled under. The next day, her partial remains are found on shore. The medical examiner ruling the death a shark attack leads to Police Chief Martin Brody closing the beaches. Mayor Larry Vaughn overrules him, fearing it will ruin the town 's summer economy. The coroner now concurs with the mayor 's theory that Watkins was killed in a boating accident. Brody reluctantly accepts their conclusion until another fatal shark attack occurs shortly after. A bounty is then placed on the shark, resulting in an amateur shark - hunting frenzy. Local professional shark hunter Quint offers his services for $10,000. Meanwhile, consulting oceanographer Matt Hooper examines Watkins ' remains and confirms her death was from a shark attack.
When local fishermen catch a large tiger shark, the mayor proclaims the beaches safe. Hooper disputes it being the same predator, confirming this after no human remains are found inside it. Hooper and Brody find a half - sunken vessel while searching the night waters in Hooper 's boat. Underwater, Hooper retrieves a sizable great white shark 's tooth embedded in the submerged hull. He drops it after finding a partial corpse. Vaughn discounts Brody and Hooper 's claims that a huge great white shark is responsible and refuses to close the beaches, allowing only added safety precautions. On the Fourth of July weekend, tourists fill the beaches. Following a juvenile prank, the real shark enters a nearby estuary, killing a boater and causing Brody 's son, Michael, to go into shock. Brody finally convinces a devastated Vaughn to hire Quint.
Quint, Brody, and Hooper set out on Quint 's boat, the Orca, to hunt the shark. While Brody lays down a chum line, Quint waits for an opportunity to hook the shark. Without warning, it appears behind the boat. Quint examines the shark and harpoons a barrel into it, but it drags the barrel underwater and disappears.
At nightfall, as the three swap stories, the great white returns unexpectedly, ramming the boat 's hull and killing the power. The men work through the night, repairing the engine. In the morning, Brody attempts to call the Coast Guard, but Quint smashes the radio. After a long chase, Quint harpoons another barrel into the shark. The line is tied to the stern cleats, but the shark drags the boat backwards, swamping the deck and flooding the engine compartment before breaking the cleats off. He then heads toward shore, intending to lure the shark to shallower waters and suffocate it, but the overtaxed engine fails.
With the Orca slowly sinking, the trio attempt a riskier approach. Hooper puts on scuba gear and enters the water in a shark - proof cage, intending to lethally inject the shark with strychnine using a hypodermic spear. The shark demolishes the cage before Hooper can inject it, but he manages to escape to the seabed. The shark then attacks the boat directly, killing Quint. Trapped on the sinking vessel, Brody stuffs a pressurized scuba tank into the shark 's mouth, and, climbing the mast, shoots the tank with Quint 's rifle, destroying it. The resulting explosion kills the shark. Hooper resurfaces, and he and Brody paddle to Amity Island clinging to boat wreckage.
Richard D. Zanuck and David Brown, producers at Universal Pictures, independently heard about Peter Benchley 's novel Jaws. Brown came across it in the literature section of lifestyle magazine Cosmopolitan, then edited by his wife, Helen Gurley Brown. A small card written by the magazine 's book editor gave a detailed description of the plot, concluding with the comment "might make a good movie ''. The producers each read the book over the course of a single night and agreed the next morning that it was "the most exciting thing that they had ever read '' and that they wanted to produce a film version, although they were unsure how it would be accomplished. They purchased the movie rights in 1973, before the book 's publication, for approximately $175,000 (equivalent to $0.94 million in 2016). Brown claimed that had they read the book twice, they would never have made the film because they would have realized how difficult it would be to execute certain sequences.
To direct, Zanuck and Brown first considered veteran filmmaker John Sturges -- whose résumé included another maritime adventure, The Old Man and the Sea -- before offering the job to Dick Richards, whose directorial debut, The Culpepper Cattle Co. had come out the previous year. However, they grew irritated by Richards 's habit of describing the shark as a whale and soon dropped him from the project. Meanwhile, Steven Spielberg very much wanted the job. The 26 - year - old had just directed his first theatrical film, The Sugarland Express, for Zanuck and Brown. At the end of a meeting in their office, Spielberg noticed their copy of the still - unpublished Benchley novel, and after reading it was immediately captivated. He later observed that it was similar to his 1971 television film Duel in that both deal with "these leviathans targeting everymen ''. After Richards 's departure, the producers signed Spielberg to direct in June 1973, before the release of The Sugarland Express.
Before production began, however, Spielberg grew reluctant to continue with Jaws, in fear of becoming typecast as the "truck and shark director ''. He wanted to move over to 20th Century Fox 's Lucky Lady instead, but Universal exercised its right under its contract with the director to veto his departure. Brown helped convince Spielberg to stick with the project, saying that "after (Jaws), you can make all the films you want ''. The film was given an estimated budget of $3.5 million and a shooting schedule of 55 days. Principal photography was set to begin in May 1974. Universal wanted the shoot to finish by the end of June, when the major studios ' contract with the Screen Actors Guild was due to expire, to avoid any disruptions due to a potential strike.
For the screen adaptation, Spielberg wanted to stay with the novel 's basic plot, while omitting Benchley 's many subplots. He declared that his favorite part of the book was the shark hunt on the last 120 pages, and told Zanuck when he accepted the job, "I 'd like to do the picture if I could change the first two acts and base the first two acts on original screenplay material, and then be very true to the book for the last third. '' When the producers purchased the rights to his novel, they promised Benchley that he could write the first draft of the screenplay. The intent was to make sure a script could be done despite an impending threat of a Writer 's Guild strike, given Benchley was not unionized. Overall, he wrote three drafts before the script was turned over to other writers; delivering his final version to Spielberg, he declared, "I 'm written out on this, and that 's the best I can do. '' Benchley would later describe his contribution to the finished film as "the storyline and the ocean stuff -- basically, the mechanics '', given he "did n't know how to put the character texture into a screenplay. '' One of his changes was to remove the novel 's adulterous affair between Ellen Brody and Matt Hooper, at the suggestion of Spielberg, who feared it would compromise the camaraderie between the men on the Orca. During the film 's production, Benchley agreed to return and play a small onscreen role as a reporter.
Spielberg, who felt that the characters in Benchley 's script were still unlikable, invited the young screenwriter John Byrum to do a rewrite, but he declined the offer. Columbo creators William Link and Richard Levinson also declined Spielberg 's invitation. Tony and Pulitzer Prize -- winning playwright Howard Sackler was in Los Angeles when the filmmakers began looking for another writer and offered to do an uncredited rewrite; since the producers and Spielberg were unhappy with Benchley 's drafts, they quickly agreed. At the suggestion of Spielberg, Brody 's characterization made him afraid of water, "coming from an urban jungle to find something more terrifying off this placid island near Massachusetts. ''
Spielberg wanted "some levity '' in Jaws, humor that would avoid making it "a dark sea hunt '', so he turned to his friend Carl Gottlieb, a comedy writer - actor then working on the sitcom The Odd Couple. Spielberg sent Gottlieb a script, asking what the writer would change and if there was a role he would be interested in performing. Gottlieb sent Spielberg three pages of notes, and picked the part of Meadows, the politically connected editor of the local paper. He passed the audition one week before Spielberg took him to meet the producers regarding a writing job.
While the deal was initially for a "one - week dialogue polish '', Gottlieb eventually became the primary screenwriter, rewriting the entire script during a nine - week period of principal photography. The script for each scene was typically finished the night before it was shot, after Gottlieb had dinner with Spielberg and members of the cast and crew to decide what would go into the film. Many pieces of dialogue originated from the actors ' improvisations during these meals; a few were created on set, most notably Roy Scheider 's ad - lib of the line "You 're gon na need a bigger boat. '' John Milius contributed dialogue polishes, and Sugarland Express writers Matthew Robbins and Hal Barwood also made uncredited contributions. Spielberg has claimed that he prepared his own draft, although it is unclear to what degree the other screenwriters drew on his material. One specific alteration he called for in the story was to change the cause of the shark 's death from extensive wounds to a scuba tank explosion, as he felt audiences would respond better to a "big rousing ending ''. The director estimated the final script had a total of 27 scenes that were not in the book.
Benchley had written Jaws after reading about sport fisherman Frank Mundus 's capture of an enormous shark in 1964. According to Gottlieb, Quint was loosely based on Mundus, whose book Sportfishing for Sharks he read for research. Sackler came up with the backstory of Quint as a survivor of the World War II USS Indianapolis disaster. The question of who deserves the most credit for writing Quint 's monologue about the Indianapolis has caused substantial controversy. Spielberg described it as a collaboration between Sackler, Milius, and actor Robert Shaw, who was also a playwright. According to the director, Milius turned Sackler 's "three - quarters of a page '' speech into a monologue, and that was then rewritten by Shaw. Gottlieb gives primary credit to Shaw, downplaying Milius 's contribution.
Though Spielberg complied with a request from Zanuck and Brown to cast known actors, he wanted to avoid hiring any big stars. He felt that "somewhat anonymous '' performers would help the audience "believe this was happening to people like you and me '', whereas "stars bring a lot of memories along with them, and those memories can sometimes... corrupt the story. '' The director added that in his plans "the superstar was gon na be the shark ''. The first actors cast were Lorraine Gary, the wife of then - president of Universal Sid Sheinberg, as Ellen Brody, and Murray Hamilton as the mayor of Amity Island. Stuntwoman - turned - actress Susan Backlinie was cast as Chrissie (the first victim) as she knew how to swim and was willing to perform nude. Most minor roles were played by residents of Martha 's Vineyard, where the film was shot. One example was Deputy Hendricks, played by future television producer Jeffrey Kramer.
The role of Brody was offered to Robert Duvall, but the actor was interested only in portraying Quint. Charlton Heston expressed a desire for the role, but Spielberg felt that Heston would bring a screen persona too grand for the part of a police chief of a modest community. Roy Scheider became interested in the project after overhearing Spielberg at a party talk with a screenwriter about having the shark jump up onto a boat. Spielberg was initially apprehensive about hiring Scheider, fearing he would portray a "tough guy '', similar to his role in The French Connection.
Nine days before the start of production, neither Quint nor Hooper had been cast. The role of Quint was originally offered to actors Lee Marvin and Sterling Hayden, both of whom passed. Zanuck and Brown had just finished working with Robert Shaw on The Sting, and suggested him to Spielberg. Shaw was reluctant to take the role since he did not like the book, but decided to accept at the urging of both his wife, actress Mary Ure, and his secretary -- "The last time they were that enthusiastic was From Russia with Love. And they were right. '' Shaw based his performance on fellow cast member Craig Kingsbury, a local fisherman, farmer, and legendary eccentric, who was playing fisherman Ben Gardner. Spielberg described Kingsbury as "the purest version of who, in my mind, Quint was '', and some of his offscreen utterances were incorporated into the script as lines of Gardner and Quint. Another source for some of Quint 's dialogue and mannerisms, especially in the third act at sea, was Vineyard mechanic and boat - owner Lynn Murphy.
For the role of Hooper, Spielberg initially wanted Jon Voight. Timothy Bottoms, Joel Grey, and Jeff Bridges were also considered for the part. Spielberg 's friend George Lucas suggested Richard Dreyfuss, whom he had directed in American Graffiti. The actor initially passed, but changed his decision after he attended a pre-release screening of The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz, which he had just completed. Disappointed in his performance and fearing that no one would want to hire him once Kravitz was released, he immediately called Spielberg and accepted the role in Jaws. Because the film the director envisioned was so dissimilar to Benchley 's novel, Spielberg asked Dreyfuss not to read it. As a result of the casting, Hooper was rewritten to better suit the actor, as well as to be more representative of Spielberg, who came to view Dreyfuss as his "alter ego ''.
Principal photography began May 2, 1974, on the island of Martha 's Vineyard, Massachusetts, selected after consideration was given to eastern Long Island. Brown explained later that the production "needed a vacation area that was lower middle class enough so that an appearance of a shark would destroy the tourist business. '' Martha 's Vineyard was also chosen because the surrounding ocean had a sandy bottom that never dropped below 35 feet (11 m) for 12 miles (19 km) out from shore, which allowed the mechanical sharks to operate while also beyond sight of land. As Spielberg wanted to film the aquatic sequences relatively close - up to resemble what people see while swimming, cinematographer Bill Butler devised new equipment to facilitate marine and underwater shooting, including a rig to keep the camera stable regardless of tide and a sealed submersible camera box. Spielberg asked the art department to avoid red in both scenery and wardrobe, so that the blood from the attacks would be the only red element and cause a bigger shock.
Three full - size pneumatically powered prop sharks -- which the film crew nicknamed "Bruce '' after Spielberg 's lawyer, Bruce Ramer -- were made for the production: a "sea - sled shark '', a full - body prop with its belly missing that was towed with a 300 feet (91 m) line, and two "platform sharks '', one that moved from camera - left to - right (with its hidden left side exposing an array of pneumatic hoses), and an opposite model with its right flank uncovered. The sharks were designed by art director Joe Alves during the third quarter of 1973. Between November 1973 and April 1974, the sharks were fabricated at Rolly Harper 's Motion Picture & Equipment Rental in Sun Valley, California. Their construction involved a team of as many as 40 effects technicians, supervised by mechanical effects supervisor Bob Mattey, best known for creating the giant squid in 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. After the sharks were completed, they were trucked to the shooting location. In early July, the platform used to tow the two side - view sharks capsized as it was being lowered to the ocean floor, forcing a team of divers to retrieve it. The model required 14 operators to control all of the moving parts.
The film had a troubled shoot and went far over budget. David Brown said that the budget "was $4 million and the picture wound up costing $9 million ''; the effects outlays alone grew to $3 million due to the problems with the mechanical sharks. Disgruntled crew members gave the film the nickname "Flaws ''. Spielberg attributed many problems to his perfectionism and his inexperience. The former was epitomized by his insistence on shooting at sea with a life - sized shark; "I could have shot the movie in the tank or even in a protected lake somewhere, but it would not have looked the same, '' he said. As for his lack of experience: "I was naive about the ocean, basically. I was pretty naive about mother nature and the hubris of a filmmaker who thinks he can conquer the elements was foolhardy, but I was too young to know I was being foolhardy when I demanded that we shoot the film in the Atlantic Ocean and not in a North Hollywood tank. '' Gottlieb said that "there was nothing to do except make the movie '', so everyone kept overworking, and while as a writer he did not have to attend the ocean set every day, once the crewmen returned they arrived "ravaged and sunburnt, windblown and covered with salt water ''.
Shooting at sea led to many delays: unwanted sailboats drifted into frame, cameras got soaked, and the Orca once began to sink with the actors on board. The prop sharks frequently malfunctioned owing to a series of problems including bad weather, pneumatic hoses taking on salt water, frames fracturing due to water resistance, corroding skin, and electrolysis. From the first water test onward, the "non-absorbent '' neoprene foam that made up the sharks ' skin soaked up liquid, causing the sharks to balloon, and the sea - sled model frequently got entangled among forests of seaweed. Spielberg later calculated that during the 12 - hour daily work schedule, on average only four hours were actually spent filming. Gottlieb was nearly decapitated by the boat 's propellers, and Dreyfuss was almost imprisoned in the steel cage. The actors were frequently seasick. Shaw also fled to Canada whenever he could due to tax problems, engaged in binge drinking, and developed a grudge against Dreyfuss, who was getting rave reviews for his performance in Duddy Kravitz. Editor Verna Fields rarely had material to work with during principal photography, as according to Spielberg "we would shoot five scenes in a good day, three in an average day, and none in a bad day. ''
The delays proved beneficial in some regards. The script was refined during production, and the unreliable mechanical sharks forced Spielberg to shoot many scenes so that the shark was only hinted at. For example, for much of the shark hunt, its location is indicated by the floating yellow barrels. The opening had the shark devouring Chrissie, but it was rewritten so that it would be shot with Backlinie being dragged and yanked by cables to simulate an attack. Spielberg also included multiple shots of just the dorsal fin. This forced restraint is widely thought to have added to the film 's suspense. As Spielberg put it years later, "The film went from a Japanese Saturday matinee horror flick to more of a Hitchcock, the less - you - see - the - more - you - get thriller. '' In another interview, he similarly declared, "The shark not working was a godsend. It made me become more like Alfred Hitchcock than like Ray Harryhausen. '' The acting became crucial for making audiences believe in such a big shark: "The more fake the shark looked in the water, the more my anxiety told me to heighten the naturalism of the performances. ''
Footage of real sharks was shot by Ron and Valerie Taylor in the waters off Dangerous Reef in South Australia, with a short actor in a miniature shark cage to create the illusion that the sharks were enormous. During the Taylors ' shoot, a great white attacked the boat and cage. The footage of the cage attack was so stunning that Spielberg was eager to incorporate it in the film. No one had been in the cage at the time, however, and the script, following the novel, originally had the shark killing Hooper in it. The storyline was consequently altered to have Hooper escape from the cage, which allowed the footage to be used. As production executive Bill Gilmore put it, "The shark down in Australia rewrote the script and saved Dreyfuss 's character. ''
Although principal photography was scheduled to take 55 days, it did not wrap until October 6, 1974, after 159 days. Spielberg, reflecting on the protracted shoot, stated, "I thought my career as a filmmaker was over. I heard rumors... that I would never work again because no one had ever taken a film 100 days over schedule. '' Spielberg himself was not present for the shooting of the final scene in which the shark explodes, as he believed that the crew were planning to throw him in the water when the scene was done. It has since become a tradition for Spielberg to be absent when the final scene of one of his films is being shot. Afterward, underwater scenes were shot at the Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer water tank in Culver City, with stuntmen Dick Warlock and Frank James Sparks as stand - ins for Dreyfuss in the scene where the shark attacks the cage, as well as near Santa Catalina Island, California. Fields, who had completed a rough cut of the first two - thirds of the film, up until the shark hunt, finished the editing and reworked some of the material. According to Zanuck, "She actually came in and reconstructed some scenes that Steven had constructed for comedy and made them terrifying, and some scenes he shot to be terrifying and made them comedy scenes. '' The ship used for the Orca was brought to Los Angeles so the sound effects team could record sounds for both the ship and the underwater scenes.
Two scenes were altered following test screenings. As the audience 's screams had covered up Scheider 's "bigger boat '' one - liner, Brody 's reaction after the shark jumps behind him was extended, and the volume of the line was raised. Spielberg also decided that he was greedy for "one more scream '', and reshot the scene in which Hooper discovers Ben Gardner 's body, using $3,000 of his own money after Universal refused to pay for the reshoot. The underwater scene was shot in Fields 's swimming pool in Encino, California, using a lifecast latex model of Craig Kingsbury 's head attached to a fake body, which was placed in the wrecked boat 's hull. To simulate the murky waters of Martha 's Vineyard, powdered milk was poured into the pool, which was then covered with a tarpaulin.
John Williams composed the film 's score, which earned him an Academy Award and was later ranked the sixth - greatest score by the American Film Institute. The main "shark '' theme, a simple alternating pattern of two notes -- variously identified as "E and F '' or "F and F sharp '' -- became a classic piece of suspense music, synonymous with approaching danger (see leading - tone). Williams described the theme as "grinding away at you, just as a shark would do, instinctual, relentless, unstoppable. '' The piece was performed by tuba player Tommy Johnson. When asked by Johnson why the melody was written in such a high register and not played by the more appropriate French horn, Williams responded that he wanted it to sound "a little more threatening ''. When Williams first demonstrated his idea to Spielberg, playing just the two notes on a piano, Spielberg was said to have laughed, thinking that it was a joke. As Williams saw similarities between Jaws and pirate movies, at other points in the score he evoked "pirate music '', which he called "primal, but fun and entertaining ''. Calling for rapid, percussive string playing, the score contains echoes of La mer by Claude Debussy as well of Igor Stravinsky 's The Rite of Spring.
There are various interpretations of the meaning and effectiveness of the primary music theme, which is widely described as one of the most recognizable cinematic themes of all time. Music scholar Joseph Cancellaro proposes that the two - note expression mimics the shark 's heartbeat. According to Alexandre Tylski, like themes Bernard Herrmann wrote for Taxi Driver, North by Northwest, and particularly Mysterious Island, it suggests human respiration. He further argues that the score 's strongest motif is actually "the split, the rupture '' -- when it dramatically cuts off, as after Chrissie 's death. The relationship between sound and silence is also taken advantage of in the way the audience is conditioned to associate the shark with its theme, which is exploited toward the film 's climax when the shark suddenly appears with no musical introduction.
Spielberg later said that without Williams 's score the film would have been only half as successful, and according to Williams it jumpstarted his career. He had previously scored Spielberg 's debut feature, The Sugarland Express, and went on to collaborate with the director on almost all of his films. The original soundtrack for Jaws was released by MCA Records on LP in 1975, and as a CD in 1992, including roughly a half hour of music that Williams redid for the album. In 2000, two versions of the score were released: Decca / Universal reissued the soundtrack album to coincide with the release of the 25th - anniversary DVD, featuring the entire 51 minutes of the original score, and Varèse Sarabande put out a rerecording of the score performed by the Royal Scottish National Orchestra, conducted by Joel McNeely.
Herman Melville 's Moby - Dick is the most notable artistic antecedent to Jaws. The character of Quint strongly resembles Captain Ahab, the obsessed captain of the Pequod who devotes his life to hunting a sperm whale. Quint 's monologue reveals a similar obsession with sharks; even his boat, the Orca, is named after the only natural enemy of the white shark. In the novel and original screenplay, Quint dies after being dragged under the ocean by a harpoon tied to his leg, similar to the death of Ahab in Melville 's novel. A direct reference to these similarities may be found in Spielberg 's draft of the screenplay, which introduces Quint watching the film version of Moby - Dick; his continuous laughter prompts other audience members to get up and leave the theater (Wesley Strick 's screenplay for the 1991 remake of Cape Fear features a similar scene). However, the scene from Moby - Dick could not be licensed from the film 's star, Gregory Peck, its copyright holder. Screenwriter Carl Gottlieb also drew comparisons to Ernest Hemingway 's The Old Man and the Sea: "Jaws is... a titanic struggle, like Melville or Hemingway. ''
The underwater scenes shot from the shark 's point of view have been compared with passages in two 1950s horror films, Creature from the Black Lagoon and The Monster That Challenged the World. Gottlieb named two science fiction productions from the same era as influences on how the shark was depicted, or not: The Thing from Another World, which Gottlieb described as "a great horror film where you only see the monster in the last reel ''; and It Came From Outer Space, where "the suspense was built up because the creature was always off - camera ''. Those precedents helped Spielberg and Gottlieb to "concentrate on showing the ' effects ' of the shark rather than the shark itself ''. Scholars such as Thomas Schatz described how Jaws melds various genres while essentially being an action film and a thriller. Most is taken from horror, with the core of a nature - based monster movie while adding elements of a slasher film. The second half provides a buddy film in the interaction between the crew of the Orca, and a supernatural horror based on the shark 's depiction of a nearly Satanic menace.
Critics such as Neil Sinyard have described similarities to Henrik Ibsen 's play An Enemy of the People. Gottlieb himself said he and Spielberg referred to Jaws as "Moby - Dick meets Enemy of the People ''. The Ibsen work features a doctor who discovers that a seaside town 's medicinal hot springs, a major tourist attraction and revenue source, are contaminated. When the doctor attempts to convince the townspeople of the danger, he loses his job and is shunned. This plotline is paralleled in Jaws by Brody 's conflict with Mayor Vaughn, who refuses to acknowledge the presence of a shark that may dissuade summer beachgoers from coming to Amity. Brody is vindicated when more shark attacks occur at the crowded beach in broad daylight. Sinyard calls the film a "deft combination of Watergate and Ibsen 's play ''.
Jaws has received attention from academic critics. Stephen Heath relates the film 's ideological meanings to the then - recent Watergate scandal. He argues that Brody represents the "white male middle class -- (there is) not a single black and, very quickly, not a single woman in the film '', who restores public order "with an ordinary - guy kind of heroism born of fear - and - decency ''. Yet Heath moves beyond ideological content analysis to examine Jaws as a signal example of the film as "industrial product '' that sells on the basis of "the pleasure of cinema, thus yielding the perpetuation of the industry (which is why part of the meaning of Jaws is to be the most profitable movie) ''.
Andrew Britton contrasts the film to the novel 's post-Watergate cynicism, suggesting that its narrative alterations from the book (Hooper 's survival, the shark 's explosive death) help make it "a communal exorcism, a ceremony for the restoration of ideological confidence. '' He suggests that the experience of the film is "inconceivable '' without the mass audience 's jubilation when the shark is annihilated, signifying the obliteration of evil itself. In his view, Brody serves to demonstrate that "individual action by the one just man is still a viable source for social change ''. Peter Biskind argues that the film does maintain post-Watergate cynicism concerning politics and politicians insofar as the sole villain beside the shark is the town 's venal mayor. Yet he observes that, far from the narrative formulas so often employed by New Hollywood filmmakers of the era -- involving Us vs. Them, hip counterculture figures vs. "The Man '' -- the overarching conflict in Jaws does not pit the heroes against authority figures, but against a menace that targets everyone regardless of socioeconomic position.
Whereas Britton states that the film avoids the novel 's theme of social class conflicts on Amity Island, Biskind detects class divisions in the screen version and argues for their significance. "Authority must be restored '', he writes, "but not by Quint ''. The seaman 's "working class toughness and bourgeois independence is alien and frightening... irrational and out of control ''. Hooper, meanwhile, is "associated with technology rather than experience, inherited wealth rather than self - made sufficiency ''; he is marginalized from the conclusive action, if less terminally than Quint. Britton sees the film more as concerned with the "vulnerability of children and the need to protect and guard them '', which in turn helps generate a "pervasive sense of the supreme value of family life: a value clearly related to (ideological) stability and cultural continuity ''.
Fredric Jameson 's analysis highlights the polysemy of the shark and the multiple ways in which it can be and has been read -- from representing alien menaces such as communism or the Third World to more intimate dreads concerning the unreality of contemporary American life and the vain efforts to sanitize and suppress the knowledge of death. He asserts that its symbolic function is to be found in this very "polysemousness which is profoundly ideological, insofar as it allows essentially social and historical anxieties to be folded back into apparently ' natural ' ones... to be recontained in what looks like a conflict with other forms of biological existence. '' He views Quint 's demise as the symbolic overthrow of an old, populist, New Deal America and Brody and Hooper 's partnership as an "allegory of an alliance between the forces of law - and - order and the new technocracy of the multinational corporations... in which the viewer rejoices without understanding that he or she is excluded from it. ''
Neal Gabler analyzed the film as showing three different approaches to solving an obstacle: science (represented by Hooper), spiritualism (represented by Quint), and the common man (represented by Brody). The last of the three is the one which succeeds and is in that way endorsed by the film.
Universal spent $1.8 million promoting Jaws, including an unprecedented $700,000 on national television spot advertising. The media blitz included about two dozen 30 - second advertisements airing each night on prime - time network TV between June 18, 1975, and the film 's opening two days later. Beyond that, in the description of film industry scholar Searle Kochberg, Universal "devised and co-ordinated a highly innovative plan '' for the picture 's marketing. As early as October 1974, Zanuck, Brown, and Benchley hit the television and radio talk show circuit to promote the paperback edition of the novel and the forthcoming film. The studio and publisher Bantam agreed on a title logo that would appear on both the paperback and in all of the advertising for the film. The centerpieces of the joint promotion strategy were John Williams 's theme and the poster image featuring the shark approaching a lone female swimmer. The poster was based on the paperback 's cover, and had the same artist, Bantam employee Roger Kastel. The Seiniger Advertising agency spent six months designing the poster; principal Tony Seiniger explained that "no matter what we did, it did n't look scary enough ''. Seiniger ultimately decided that "you had to actually go underneath the shark so you could see his teeth. ''
More merchandise was created to take advantage of the film 's release. In 1999, Graeme Turner wrote that Jaws was accompanied by what was still "probably the most elaborate array of tie - ins '' of any film to date: "This included a sound - track album, T - shirts, plastic tumblers, a book about the making of the movie, the book the movie was based on, beach towels, blankets, shark costumes, toy sharks, hobby kits, iron - transfers, games, posters, shark 's tooth necklaces, sleepwear, water pistols, and more. '' The Ideal Toy Company, for instance, produced a game in which the player had to use a hook to fish out items from the shark 's mouth before the jaws closed.
The glowing audience response to a rough cut of the film at two test screenings in Dallas on March 26, 1975, and one in Long Beach, on March 28, along with the success of Benchley 's novel and the early stages of Universal 's marketing campaign, generated great interest among theater owners, facilitating the studio 's plan to debut Jaws at hundreds of cinemas simultaneously. A third and final preview screening, of a cut incorporating changes inspired by the previous presentations, was held in Hollywood on April 24. After Universal chairman Lew Wasserman attended one of the screenings, he ordered the film 's initial release -- planned for a massive total of as many as 900 theaters -- to be cut down, declaring, "I want this picture to run all summer long. I do n't want people in Palm Springs to see the picture in Palm Springs. I want them to have to get in their cars and drive to see it in Hollywood. '' Nonetheless, the several hundred theaters that were still booked for the opening represented what was then an unusually wide release. At the time, wide openings were associated with movies of doubtful quality; not uncommon on the exploitation side of the industry, they were customarily employed to diminish the effect of negative reviews and word of mouth. There had been some recent exceptions, including the rerelease of Billy Jack and the original release of its sequel The Trial of Billy Jack, the Dirty Harry sequel Magnum Force, and the latest installments in the James Bond series. Still, the typical major studio film release at the time involved opening at a few big - city theaters, which allowed for a series of premieres. Distributors would then slowly forward prints to additional locales across the country, capitalizing on any positive critical or audience response. The outsized success of The Godfather in 1972 had sparked a trend toward wider releases, but even that film had debuted in just five theaters, before going wide in its second weekend.
On June 20, Jaws opened across North America on 464 screens -- 409 in the United States, the remainder in Canada. The coupling of this broad distribution pattern with the movie 's then even rarer national television marketing campaign yielded a release method virtually unheard - of at the time. (A month earlier, Columbia Pictures had done something similar with a Charles Bronson thriller, Breakout, though that film 's prospects for an extended run were much slimmer.) Universal president Sid Sheinberg reasoned that nationwide marketing costs would be amortized at a more favorable rate per print relative to a slow, scaled release. Building on the film 's success, the release was subsequently expanded on July 25 to nearly 700 theaters, and on August 15 to more than 950. Overseas distribution followed the same pattern, with intensive television campaigns and wide releases -- in Great Britain, for instance, Jaws opened in December at more than 100 theaters.
For its fortieth anniversary, the film was released in selected theaters (across approximately 500 theaters) in the United States on Sunday, June 21 and Wednesday, June 24, 2015.
Jaws opened with a $7 million weekend and recouped its production costs in two weeks. In just 78 days, it overtook The Godfather as the highest - grossing film at the North American box office, sailing past that picture 's earnings of $86 million to become the first film to earn $100 million in US theatrical rentals. Its initial release ultimately brought in $123.1 million in rentals. Theatrical re-releases in 1976 and 1979 brought its total rentals to $133.4 million.
The picture entered overseas release in December 1975, and its international business mirrored its domestic performance. It broke records in Singapore, New Zealand, Japan, Spain, and Mexico. By 1977, Jaws was the highest - grossing international release with worldwide rentals of $193 million, equating to about $400 million of gross revenue; it supplanted The Godfather, which had earned $145 million in rentals.
Jaws was the highest - grossing film of all time until Star Wars, which debuted two years later. Star Wars surpassed Jaws for the U.S. record six months after its release and set a new global record in 1978. As of June 2013, it is the 127th - highest - grossing film of all time with $470.7 million worldwide, and the 66th highest domestically with a total North American gross of $260 million. Adjusted for inflation, Jaws has earned almost $2 billion worldwide at 2011 prices and is the second most successful franchise film after Star Wars. In North America, it is the seventh - highest - grossing movie of all time, with a total of $1.017 billion at current prices, based on an estimated 128,078,800 tickets sold. In the United Kingdom, it is the seventh - highest - grossing film to be released since 1975, earning the equivalent of over £ 70 million in 2009 / 10 currency, with admissions estimated at 16.2 million. Jaws has also sold 13 million tickets in Brazil, the second - highest attendance ever in the country behind Titanic.
On television, the American Broadcasting Company aired it for the first time right after its 1979 re-release. The first U.S. broadcast attracted 57 percent of the total audience, the second highest televised movie share at the time behind Gone with the Wind. In the United Kingdom, 23 million people watched its inaugural broadcast in October 1981, the second biggest TV audience ever for a feature film behind Live and Let Die.
Jaws received mostly positive reviews upon release. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times called it "a sensationally effective action picture, a scary thriller that works all the better because it 's populated with characters that have been developed into human beings ''. Variety 's A.D. Murphy praised Spielberg 's directorial skills, and called Robert Shaw 's performance "absolutely magnificent ''. According to The New Yorker 's Pauline Kael, it was "the most cheerfully perverse scare movie ever made... (with) more zest than an early Woody Allen picture, a lot more electricity, (and) it 's funny in a Woody Allen sort of way ''. For New Times magazine, Frank Rich wrote, "Spielberg is blessed with a talent that is absurdly absent from most American filmmakers these days: this man actually knows how to tell a story on screen... It speaks well of this director 's gifts that some of the most frightening sequences in Jaws are those where we do n't even see the shark. '' Writing for New York magazine, Judith Crist described the film as "an exhilarating adventure entertainment of the highest order '' and complimented its acting and "extraordinary technical achievements ''. Rex Reed praised the "nerve - frying '' action scenes and concluded that "for the most part, Jaws is a gripping horror film that works beautifully in every department ''.
The film was not without its detractors. Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote, "It 's a measure of how the film operates that not once do we feel particular sympathy for any of the shark 's victims... In the best films, characters are revealed in terms of the action. In movies like Jaws, characters are simply functions of the action... like stage hands who move props around and deliver information when it 's necessary ''. He did, however, describe it as "the sort of nonsense that can be a good deal of fun ''. Los Angeles Times critic Charles Champlin disagreed with the film 's PG rating, saying that "Jaws is too gruesome for children, and likely to turn the stomach of the impressionable at any age... It is a coarse - grained and exploitative work which depends on excess for its impact. Ashore it is a bore, awkwardly staged and lumpily written. '' Marcia Magill of Films in Review said that while Jaws "is eminently worth seeing for its second half '', she felt that before the protagonists ' pursuit of the shark the film was "often flawed by its busyness ''. William S. Pechter of Commentary described Jaws as "a mind - numbing repast for sense - sated gluttons '' and "filmmaking of this essentially manipulative sort ''; Molly Haskell of The Village Voice similarly characterized it as a "scare machine that works with computer - like precision... You feel like a rat, being given shock therapy ''. The most frequently criticized aspect of the film has been the artificiality of its mechanical antagonist: Magill declared that "the programmed shark has one truly phony close - up '', and in 2002, online reviewer James Berardinelli said that if not for Spielberg 's deftly suspenseful direction, "we would be doubled over with laughter at the cheesiness of the animatronic creature. '' Halliwell 's Film Guide stated that "despite genuinely suspenseful and frightening sequences, it is a slackly narrated and sometimes flatly handled thriller with an over-abundance of dialogue and, when it finally appears, a pretty unconvincing monster. ''
Jaws won three Academy Awards for Best Film Editing, Best Original Dramatic Score, and Best Sound (Robert Hoyt, Roger Heman, Earl Madery and John Carter). It was also nominated for Best Picture, losing to One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest. Spielberg greatly resented the fact that he was not nominated for Best Director. Along with the Oscar, John Williams 's score won the Grammy Award, the BAFTA Award for Best Film Music, and the Golden Globe Award. To her Academy Award, Verna Fields added the American Cinema Editors ' Eddie Award for Best Edited Feature Film.
Jaws was chosen Favorite Movie at the People 's Choice Awards. It was also nominated for best Film, Director, Actor (Richard Dreyfuss), Editing, and Sound at the 29th British Academy Film Awards, and Best Film -- Drama, Director, and Screenplay at the 33rd Golden Globe Awards. Spielberg was nominated by the Directors Guild of America for a DGA Award, and the Writers Guild of America nominated Peter Benchley and Carl Gottlieb 's script for Best Adapted Drama.
In the years since its release, Jaws has frequently been cited by film critics and industry professionals as one of the greatest movies of all time. It was number 48 on American Film Institute 's 100 Years... 100 Movies, a list of the greatest American films of all time compiled in 1998; it dropped to number 56 on the 10 Year Anniversary list. AFI also ranked the shark at number 18 on its list of the 50 Best Villains, Roy Scheider 's line "You 're gon na need a bigger boat '' 35th on a list of top 100 movie quotes, Williams 's score at sixth on a list of 100 Years of Film Scores, and the film as second on a list of 100 most thrilling films, behind only Psycho. In 2003, The New York Times included the film on its list of the best 1,000 movies ever made. The following year, Jaws placed at the top of the Bravo network 's five - hour miniseries The 100 Scariest Movie Moments. The Chicago Film Critics Association named it the sixth scariest film ever made in 2006. In 2008, Jaws was ranked the fifth greatest film in history by Empire magazine, which also placed Quint at number 50 on its list of the 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time. The film has been cited in many other lists of 50 and 100 greatest films, including ones compiled by Leonard Maltin, Entertainment Weekly, Film4, Rolling Stone, Total Film, TV Guide, and Vanity Fair.
In 2001, the United States Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry as a "culturally significant '' motion picture. In 2006, its screenplay was ranked the 63rd best of all time by the Writers Guild of America. In 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild listed the film as the eighth best - edited film of all time based on a survey of its membership.
Jaws was key in establishing the benefits of a wide national release backed by heavy television advertising, rather than the traditional progressive release in which a film slowly entered new markets and built support over time. Saturation booking, in which a film opens simultaneously at thousands of cinemas, and massive media buys are now commonplace for the major Hollywood studios. According to Peter Biskind, Jaws "diminish (ed) the importance of print reviews, making it virtually impossible for a film to build slowly, finding its audience by dint of mere quality... Moreover, Jaws whet corporate appetites for big profits quickly, which is to say, studios wanted every film to be Jaws. '' Scholar Thomas Schatz writes that it "recalibrated the profit potential of the Hollywood hit, and redefined its status as a marketable commodity and cultural phenomenon as well. The film brought an emphatic end to Hollywood 's five - year recession, while ushering in an era of high - cost, high - tech, high - speed thrillers. ''
Jaws also played a major part in establishing summer as the prime season for the release of studios ' biggest box - office contenders, their intended blockbusters; winter had long been the time when most hoped - for hits were distributed, while summer was largely reserved for dumping films thought likely to be poor performers. Jaws and Star Wars are regarded as marking the beginning of the new U.S. film industry business model dominated by "high - concept '' pictures -- with premises that can be easily described and marketed -- as well as the beginning of the end of the New Hollywood period, which saw auteur films increasingly disregarded in favor of profitable big - budget pictures. The New Hollywood era was defined by the relative autonomy filmmakers were able to attain within the major studio system; in Biskind 's description, "Spielberg was the Trojan horse through which the studios began to reassert their power. ''
The film had broader cultural repercussions, as well. Similar to the way the pivotal scene in 1960 's Psycho made showers a new source of anxiety, Jaws led many viewers to fear going into the ocean. Reduced beach attendance in 1975 was attributed to it, as well as an increased number of reported shark sightings. It is still seen as responsible for perpetuating negative stereotypes about sharks and their behavior, and for producing the so - called "Jaws effect '', which allegedly inspired "legions of fishermen (who) piled into boats and killed thousands of the ocean predators in shark - fishing tournaments. '' Benchley stated that he would not have written the original novel had he known what sharks are really like in the wild. Conservation groups have bemoaned the fact that the film has made it considerably harder to convince the public that sharks should be protected.
Jaws set the template for many subsequent horror films, to the extent that the script for Ridley Scott 's 1979 science fiction film Alien was pitched to studio executives as "Jaws in space ''. Scott would later reveal in a 2017 interview that Jaws had made a lasting impression, "I was always put off from swimming ever since I watched Jaws, '' says Scott. "I quite liked swimming, actually, and I 'd occasionally dive, but once I saw Jaws there was no way I was ever going to learn to surf -- no way! Because I can imagine my legs, my little pinkies hanging underneath the surfboard and I know I 'm going to be the one. ''
Many films based on man - eating animals, usually aquatic, were released through the 1970s and 1980s, such as Orca, Grizzly, Mako: The Jaws of Death, Barracuda, Alligator, Day of the Animals, Tintorera, Eaten Alive, and the 1996 Bollywood film Aatank. Spielberg declared Piranha, directed by Joe Dante and written by John Sayles, "the best of the Jaws ripoffs ''. Among the various foreign mockbusters based on Jaws, three came from Italy: Great White, which inspired a plagiarism lawsuit by Universal and was even marketed in some countries as a part of the Jaws franchise; Monster Shark, featured in Mystery Science Theater 3000 under the title Devil Fish; and Deep Blood, that blends in a supernatural element. The 1995 thriller film Cruel Jaws even has the alternate title Jaws 5: Cruel Jaws, and the 2009 Japanese horror film Psycho Shark was released in the United States as Jaws in Japan.
Richard Dreyfuss made a cameo appearance in the 2010 film Piranha 3D, a loose remake of the 1978 film. Dreyfuss plays Matt Boyd, a fisherman who is the first victim of the title creatures. Dreyfuss later stated that his character was a parody and a near - reincarnation of Matt Hooper, his character in Jaws. During his appearance, Dreyfuss 's character listens to the song "Show Me the Way to Go Home '' on the radio, which Hooper, Quint and Brody sing together aboard the Orca.
Martha 's Vineyard celebrated the film 's 30th anniversary in 2005 with a "JawsFest '' festival, which had a second edition in 2012. An independent group of fans produced the feature - length documentary The Shark is Still Working, featuring interviews with the film 's cast and crew. Narrated by Roy Scheider and dedicated to Peter Benchley, who died in 2006, it debuted at the 2009 Los Angeles United Film Festival.
The first ever LaserDisc title marketed in North America was the MCA DiscoVision release of Jaws in 1978. A second LaserDisc was released in 1992, before a third and final version came out under MCA / Universal Home Video 's Signature Collection imprint in 1995. This release was an elaborate boxset that included deleted scenes and outtakes, a new two - hour documentary on the making of the film directed and produced by Laurent Bouzereau, a copy of the novel Jaws, and a CD of John Williams 's soundtrack.
MCA Home Video first released Jaws on VHS in 1980. For the film 's 20th anniversary in 1995, MCA Universal Home Video issued a new Collector 's Edition tape featuring a making - of retrospective. This release sold 800,000 units in North America. Another, final VHS release, marking the film 's 25th anniversary in 2000, came with a companion tape containing a documentary, deleted scenes, outtakes, and a trailer.
Jaws was first released on DVD in 2000 for the film 's 25th anniversary, accompanied by a massive publicity campaign. It featured a 50 - minute documentary on the making of the film (an edited version of the one featured on the 1995 LaserDisc release), with interviews with Spielberg, Scheider, Dreyfuss, Benchley, and other cast and crew members. Other extras included deleted scenes, outtakes, trailers, production photos, and storyboards. The DVD shipped one million copies in just one month. In June 2005, a 30th - anniversary edition was released at the JawsFest festival in Martha 's Vineyard. The new DVD had many extras seen in previous home video releases, including the full two - hour Bouzereau documentary, and a previously unavailable interview with Spielberg conducted on the set of Jaws in 1974. On the second JawsFest in August 2012, the Blu - ray Disc of Jaws was released, with over four hours of extras, including The Shark Is Still Working. The Blu - ray release was part of the celebrations of Universal 's 100th anniversary, and debuted at fourth place in the charts, with over 362,000 units sold.
Jaws spawned three sequels, none of which approached the success of the original. Their combined domestic grosses amount to barely half of the first film 's. In October 1975, Spielberg declared to a film festival audience that "making a sequel to anything is just a cheap carny trick ''. Nonetheless, he did consider taking on the first sequel when its original director, John D. Hancock, was fired a few days into the shoot; ultimately, his obligations to Close Encounters of the Third Kind, which he was working on with Dreyfuss, made it impossible. Jaws 2 (1978) was eventually directed by Jeannot Szwarc; Scheider, Gary, Hamilton, and Jeffrey Kramer all reprised their roles. It is generally regarded as the best of the sequels. The next film, Jaws 3 - D (1983), was directed by Joe Alves, who had served as art director and production designer, respectively, on the two preceding films. Starring Dennis Quaid and Louis Gossett, Jr., it was released in the 3 - D format, although the effect did not transfer to television or home video, where it was renamed Jaws 3. Jaws: The Revenge (1987), directed by Joseph Sargent, starring Michael Caine, and featuring the return of Gary, is considered one of the worst movies ever made. While all three sequels made a profit at the box office (Jaws 2 and Jaws 3 - D were among the top 20 highest - grossing films of their respective years), critics and audiences alike were generally dissatisfied with the films.
The film has inspired two theme park rides: one at Universal Studios Florida, which closed in January 2012, and one at Universal Studios Japan. There is also an animatronic version of a scene from the film on the Studio Tour at Universal Studios Hollywood. There have been at least two musical adaptations: JAWS The Musical!, which premiered in 2004 at the Minnesota Fringe Festival, and Giant Killer Shark: The Musical, which premiered in 2006 at the Toronto Fringe Festival. Three video games based on the film were released: 1987 's Jaws, developed by LJN for the Nintendo Entertainment System; 2006 's Jaws Unleashed by Majesco Entertainment for the Xbox, PlayStation 2, and PC; and 2011 's Jaws: Ultimate Predator, also by Majesco, for the Nintendo 3DS and Wii. A mobile game was released in 2010 for the iPhone. Aristocrat made an officially licensed slot machine based on the movie.
|
in what region of the united states were totem poles common forms of native american art | Totem pole - wikipedia
Totem poles are monumental carvings, a type of Northwest Coast art, consisting of poles, posts or pillars, carved with symbols or figures. They are usually made from large trees, mostly western red cedar, by indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest coast of North America (Washington, Oregon, and Canada 's western province, British Columbia). The word totem derives from the Algonquian (most likely Ojibwe) word o doodem (oˈtuːtɛm), "(his) kinship group ''. The carvings may symbolize or commemorate cultural beliefs that recount familiar legends, clan lineages, or notable events. The poles may also serve as functional architectural features, welcome signs for village visitors, mortuary vessels for the remains of deceased ancestors, or as a means to publicly ridicule someone. They may embody a historical narrative of significance to the people carving and installing the pole. Given the complexity and symbolic meanings of totem pole carvings, their placement and importance lies in the observer 's knowledge and connection to the meanings of the figures and the culture in which they are embedded.
Totem poles serve as important illustrations of family lineage and the cultural heritage of the Native peoples in the islands and coastal areas of North America 's Pacific Northwest, especially British Columbia, Canada, and coastal areas of Washington and southeastern Alaska in the United States. Families of traditional carvers come from the Haida, Tlingit, Tsimshian, Kwakwaka'wakw (Kwakiutl), Nuxalk (Bella Coola), and Nuu - chah - nulth (Nootka), among others. The poles are typically carved from the highly rot - resistant trunks of Thuja plicata trees (popularly known as giant cedar or western red cedar), which eventually decay in the moist, rainy climate of the coastal Pacific Northwest. Because of the region 's climate and the nature of the materials used to make the poles, few examples carved before 1900 remain. Noteworthy examples, some dating as far back as 1880, include those at the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria and the Museum of Anthropology at UBC in Vancouver.
Totem poles are the largest, but not the only, objects that coastal Pacific Northwest natives use to depict spiritual reverence, family legends, sacred beings and culturally important animals, people, or historical events. The freestanding poles seen by the region 's first European explorers were likely preceded by a long history of decorative carving. Stylistic features of these poles were borrowed from earlier, smaller prototypes, or from the interior support posts of house beams.
Although 18th - century accounts of European explorers traveling along the coast indicate that decorated interior and exterior house posts existed prior to 1800, the posts were smaller and fewer in number than in subsequent decades. Prior to the 19th century, the lack of efficient carving tools, along with sufficient wealth and leisure time to devote to the craft, delayed the development of elaborately carved, freestanding poles. Before iron and steel arrived in the area, Natives used tools made of stone, shells, or beaver teeth for carving. The process was slow and laborious; axes were unknown. By the late eighteenth century, the use of metal cutting tools enabled more complex carvings and increased production of totem poles. The tall monumental poles appearing in front of native homes in coastal villages probably did not appear until after the beginning of the nineteenth century.
Eddie Malin has proposed that totem poles progressed from house posts, funerary containers, and memorial markers into symbols of clan and family wealth and prestige. He argues that the Haida people of the islands of Haida Gwaii originated carving of the poles, and that the practice spread outward to the Tsimshian and Tlingit, and then down the coast to the indigenous people of British Columbia and northern Washington. Malin 's theory is supported by the photographic documentation of the Pacific Northwest coast 's cultural history and the more sophisticated designs of the Haida poles.
Accounts from the 1700s describe and illustrate carved poles and timber homes along the coast of the Pacific Northwest. By the early nineteenth century, widespread importation of iron and steel tools from Great Britain, the United States, and elsewhere led to easier and more rapid production of carved wooden goods, including poles.
In the 19th century, American and European trade and settlement initially led to the growth of totem pole carving, but United States and Canadian policies and practices of acculturation and assimilation caused a decline in the development of Alaska Native and First Nations cultures and their crafts, and sharply reduced totem pole production by the end of the century. Between 1830 and 1880, the maritime fur trade, mining, and fisheries gave rise to an accumulation of wealth among the coastal peoples. Much of it was spent and distributed in lavish potlatch celebrations, frequently associated with the construction and erection of totem poles. The monumental poles commissioned by wealthy family leaders to represent their social status and the importance of their families and clans. In the 1880s and 1890s, tourists, collectors, scientists and naturalist interested in native culture collected and photographed totem poles and other artifacts, many of which were put on display at expositions such as the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and the 1893 World 's Columbia Exposition in Chicago, Illinois.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, before the passage of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act in 1978, the practice of Native religion was outlawed, and traditional indigenous cultural practices were also strongly discouraged by Christian missionaries. This included the carving of totem poles. Missionaries urged converts to cease production and destroy existing poles. Nearly all totem pole making had ceased by 1901. Carving of monumental and mortuary poles continued in some, more remote Native villages as late as 1905; however, as native sites were abandoned, the poles and timber homes were left to decay and vandalism.
Beginning in the late 1930s, a combination of cultural, linguistic, and artistic revivals, along with scholarly interest and the continuing fascination and support of an educated and empathetic public, led to a renewal and extension of this artistic tradition. In 1938 the United States Forest Service began a program to reconstruct and preserve the old poles, salvaging about 200, roughly one - third of those known to be standing at the end of the 19th century. With renewed interest in Native arts and traditions in the 1960s and 1970s, freshly carved totem poles were erected up and down the coast, while related artistic production was introduced in many new and traditional media, ranging from tourist trinkets to masterful works in wood, stone, blown and etched glass, and other traditional and non-traditional media.
Totem poles can symbolize the characters and events in mythology, or convey the experiences of recent ancestors and living people. Some of these characters may appear as stylistic representations of objects in nature, while others are more realistically carved. Pole carvings may include animals, fish, plants, insects, and humans, or they may represent supernatural beings such as the Thunderbird. Some symbolize beings that can transform themselves into another form, appearing as combinations of animals or part - animal / part - human forms. Consistent use of a specific character over time, with some slight variations in carving style, helped develop similarities among these shared symbols that allowed people to recognize one from another. For example, the raven is symbolized by a long, straight beak, while the eagle 's beak is curved, and a beaver is depicted with two large front teeth, a piece of wood held in his front paws, and a paddle - shaped tail.
The meanings of the designs on totem poles are as varied as the cultures that make them. Some poles celebrate cultural beliefs that may recount familiar legends, clan lineages, or notable events, while others are mostly artistic. Animals and other characters carved on the pole are typically used as symbols to represent characters or events in a story; however, some may reference the moiety of the pole 's owner, or simply fill up empty space on the pole. The carved figures interlock, one above the other, to create the overall design, which may rise to a height of sixty feet or more. Smaller carvings may be positioned in vacant spaces, or they may be tucked inside the ears or hang out of the mouths of the pole 's larger figures.
Some of the figures on the poles constitute symbolic reminders of quarrels, murders, debts, and other unpleasant occurrences about which the Native Americans prefer to remain silent... The most widely known tales, like those of the exploits of Raven and of Kats who married the bear woman, are familiar to almost every native of the area. Carvings which symbolize these tales are sufficiently conventionalized to be readily recognizable even by persons whose lineage did not recount them as their own legendary history.
Those from cultures that do not carve totem poles often assume that the linear representation of the figures places the most importance on the highest figure, an idea that became pervasive in the dominant culture after it entered into mainstream parlance by the 1930s with the phrase "low man on the totem pole '' (and as the title of a bestselling 1941 humor book by H. Allen Smith). However, Native sources either reject the linear component altogether, or reverse the hierarchy, with the most important representations on the bottom, bearing the weight of all the other figures, or at eye level with the viewer to heighten their significance. Many poles have no vertical arrangement at all, consisting of a lone figure atop an undecorated column.
There are six basic types of totem poles: house frontal poles, interior house posts, mortuary poles, memorial poles, welcome poles, and the ridicule or shame pole.
This type of pole, usually 20 to 40 feet tall is the most decorative. Its carvings tell the story of the family, clan or village who own them. These poles are also known as heraldic, crest, or family poles. Poles of this type are placed outside the clan house of the most important village leaders. Often, watchman figures are carved at the top of the pole to protect the pole owner 's family and the village. Another type of house frontal pole is the entrance or doorway pole, which is attached to the center front of the home and includes an oval - shaped opening through the base that serves as the entrance to the clan house.
These interior poles, typically 7 to 10 feet in height, are usually shorter than exterior poles. The interior posts support the roof beam of a clan house and include a large notch at the top, where the beam can rest. A clan house may have two to four or more house posts, depending on the native group who built it. Carvings on these poles, like those of the house frontal poles, are often used as a storytelling device for children and help tell the story of the owners ' family history.
The rarest type of totem pole is a mortuary structure that incorporates grave boxes with carved supporting poles or includes a recessed back to hold the grave box. It is among the tallest, reaching 50 to 70 feet in height, and most prominent poles. The Haida and Tlingit people erect mortuary poles at the death of important individuals in the community. These poles may have a single figure carved at the top, which may depict the clan 's crest, but carvings usually cover its entire length. Ashes or body of the deceased person is placed in the upper portion of the pole.
This type of pole, which usually stands in front of a clan house, is erected about a year after a person has died. The clan chief 's memorial pole may be raised at the center of the village. The pole 's purpose is to honor the deceased person and identify the relative who is taking over as his successor within the clan and the community. Traditionally, the memorial pole has one carved figure at the top, but an additional figure may also be added at the bottom of the pole.
Memorial poles may also commemorate an event. For example, several memorial totem poles were erected by the Tlingits in honor of Abraham Lincoln, one of which was relocated to Saxman, Alaska, in 1938. The Lincoln pole at Saxman commemorates the end of hostilities between two rival Tlingit clans and symbolizes the hope for peace and prosperity following the American occupation of the Alaskan territory. The story begins in 1868, when the United States government built a customs house and fort on Tongass Island and left the U.S, revenue cutter Lincoln to patrol the area. After American soldiers at the fort and aboard the Lincoln provided protection to the Tongass group against its rival, the Kagwantans, the Tongass group commissioned the Lincoln pole to commemorate the event.
Carved by the Kwakwaka'wakw (Kwakiutl) and Nuu - chah - nulth (Nootka) people, most of the poles include a large carvings of human figures, some as tall as 40 feet. Welcome poles are placed at the edge of a stream or saltwater beach to welcome guests to the community, or possibly to intimidate strangers.
Poles used for public ridicule are usually called shame poles, and were created to embarrass individuals or groups for their unpaid debts or when they did something wrong. The poles are often placed in prominent locations and removed after the debt is paid or the wrong is corrected. Shame pole carvings represent the person being shamed.
One famous shame pole is the Seward Pole at the Saxman Totem Park in Saxman, Alaska. It was created to shame former U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward for not reciprocating the courtesy or generosity of his Tlingit hosts following a potlatch given in his honor. The intent of this pole is indicated by the figure 's red - painted nose and ears to symbolized Seward 's stinginess.
Another example of the shame pole is the Three Frogs pole on Chief Shakes Island, at Wrangell, Alaska. This pole was erected by Chief Shakes to shame the Kiks. ádi clan into repaying a debt incurred for the support of three Kiks. ádi women who were allegedly cohabiting with three slaves in Shakes 's household. When the Kiks. ádi leaders refused to pay support for the women, Shakes commissioned a pole with carvings of three frogs, which represented the crest of the Kiks. ádi clan. It is not known if the debt was ever repaid. The pole stands next to the Chief Shakes Tribal House in Wrangell. The pole 's unique crossbar shape has become popularly associated with the town of Wrangell, and continues to be used as part of the Wrangell Sentinel newspaper 's masthead.
In 1942, the U.S. Forest Service commissioned a pole to commemorate Alexander Baranof, the Russian governor and Russian American Company manager, as a civilian works project. The pole 's original intent was to commemorate a peace treaty between the Russians and Tlingits that the governor helped broker in 1805. George Benson, a Sitka carver and craftsman, created the original design. The completed version originally stood in Totem Square in downtown Sitka, Alaska. When Benson and other Sitka carvers were not available to do the work, the U.S. Forest Service had CCC workers carve the pole in Wrangell, Alaska. Because Sitka and Wrangell native groups were rivals, it has been argued that the Wrangell carvers may have altered Benson 's original design. For unknown reasons, the Wrangell carvers depicted the Baranov figure without clothes. Following a Sitka Tribe of Alaska - sponsored removal ceremony, the pole was lowered due to safety concerns on October 20, 2010, using funds from the Alaska Dept. of Health and Social Services. The Sitka Sentinel reported that while standing, it was "said to be the most photographed totem (pole) in Alaska ''. The pole was re-erected in Totem Square in 2011.
On March 24, 2007, a shame pole was erected in Cordova, Alaska, that includes the inverted and distorted face of former Exxon CEO Lee Raymond. The pole represents the unpaid debt on $5 million in punitive damages that a federal court in Anchorage, Alaska, determined Exxon owes for its role in causing the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound.
Some poles from the Pacific Northwest have been moved to other locations for display out of their original context.
In 1903 Alaska 's district governor, John Green Brady, collected fifteen Tlingit and Haida totem poles for public displays from villages in southeastern Alaska. At the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (the world 's fair held in Saint Louis, Missouri, in 1904), fourteen of them were initially installed outside the Alaska pavilion at the fair; the other one, which had broken in transit, was repaired and installed at the fair 's Esquimau Village. Thirteen of these poles were returned to Alaska, where they were eventually installed in the Sitka National Historical Park. The other two poles were sold; one pole from the Alaska pavilion went the Milwaukee Public Museum and the pole from the Esquimau Village was sold and then given to industrialist David M. Parry, who installed it on his estate in what became known as the Golden Hill neighborhood of Indianapolis, Indiana. Although the remains of the original pole at Golden Hill no longer exist, a replica was raised on April 13, 1996, on the front lawn of The Eiteljorg Museum of American Indians and Western Art in Indianapolis. Approximately two years later, the replica was moved inside the museum, and in 2005, it was installed in a new atrium after completion of a museum expansion project.
The Indian New Deal of the 1930s strongly promoted native arts and crafts, and in the totem pole they discovered an art that was widely appreciated by white society. In Alaska the Indian Division of the Civilian Conservation Corps restored old totem poles, copied those beyond repair, and carved new ones. The Indian Arts and Crafts Board, A federal government agency, facilitated their sale to the general public. The project was lucrative, but anthropologists complaining that it stripped the natives of their traditional culture and stripped away the meaning of the totem poles.
Another example occurred in 1938, when the U.S. Forest Service began a totem pole restoration program in Alaska. Poles were removed from their original places as funerary and crest poles to be copied or repaired and then placed in parks based on English and French garden designs to demystify their meaning for tourists.
In England at the side of Virginia Water Lake, in the south of Windsor Great Park, there is a 100 - foot (30 m) tall Canadian totem pole that was given to Queen Elizabeth II to commemorate the centenary of British Columbia. In Seattle, Washington, a Tlingit funerary totem pole was raised in Pioneer Square in 1899, after being taken from an Alaskan village. In addition, the totem pole collections in Vancouver 's Stanley Park, Victoria 's Thunderbird Park, and the Museum of Anthropology at the University of British Columbia were removed from their original locations around British Columbia.
After the tree to be used for the totem pole is selected, it is cut down and moved to the carving site, where the bark and outer layer of wood (sapwood) is removed. Next, the side of the tree to be carved is chosen and the back half of the tree is removed. The center of the log is hollowed out to make it lighter and to keep it from cracking. Early tools used to carve totem poles were made of stone, shell, or bone, but beginning in the late 1700s, the use of iron tools made the carving work faster and easier. In the early days, the basic design for figures may have been painted on the wood to guide the carvers, but today 's carvers use paper patterns as outlines for their designs. Carvers use chain saws to make the rough shapes and cuts, while adzes and chisels are used to chop the wood. Carvers use knives and other woodworking tools to add the finer details. When the carving is complete, paint is added to enhance specific details of the figures.
Raising a totem pole is rarely done using modern methods, even for poles installed in modern settings. Most artists use a traditional method followed by a pole - raising ceremony. The traditional method calls for a deep trench to be dug. One end of the pole is placed at the bottom of the trench; the other end is supported at an upward angle by a wooden scaffold. Hundreds of strong men haul the pole upright into its footing, while others steady the pole from side ropes and brace it with cross beams. Once the pole is upright, the trench is filled with rocks and dirt. After the raising is completed, the carver, the carver 's assistants, and others invited to attend the event perform a celebratory dance next to the pole. A community potlatch celebration typically follows the pole raising to commemorate the event.
Totem poles are typically not well maintained after their installation and the potlatch celebration. The poles usually last from 60 to 80 years; only a few have stood longer than 75 years, and even fewer have reached 100 years of age. Once the wood rots so badly that the pole begins to lean and pose a threat to passersby, it is either destroyed or pushed over and removed. Older poles typically fall over during the winter storms that batter the coast. The owners of a collapsed pole may commission a new one to replace it.
Each culture typically has complex rules and customs regarding the traditional designs represented on poles. The designs are generally considered the property of a particular clan or family group of traditional carvers, and this ownership of the designs may not be transferred to the person who has commissioned the carvings. There have been protests when those who have not been trained in the traditional carving methods, cultural meanings and protocol, have made "fake totem poles '' for what could be considered crass public display and commercial purposes. The misappropriation of coastal Pacific Northwest culture by the art and tourist trinket market has resulted in production of cheap imitations of totem poles executed with little or no knowledge of their complex stylistic conventions or cultural significance. These include imitations made for commercial and even comedic use in venues that serve alcohol, and in other settings that are insensitive or outright offensive to the sacred nature of some of the carvings.
In the early 1990s, the Haisla First Nation of the Pacific Northwest began a lengthy struggle to repatriate a sacred totem from Sweden 's Museum of Ethnography. Their successful efforts were documented in Gil Cardinal 's National Film Board of Canada documentary, Totem: The Return of the G'psgolox Pole. In October 2015 a Tlingit totem Pole was returned from Hawaii to Alaska
Tlingit totem pole in Ketchikan, Alaska, circa 1901
Totem poles in front of homes in Alert Bay, British Columbia in the 1900s
A totem pole in Totem Park, Victoria, British Columbia
From Totem Park, Victoria, British Columbia
The K'alyaan Totem Pole of the Tlingit Kiks. ádi Clan, erected at Sitka National Historical Park to commemorate the lives lost in the 1804 Battle of Sitka
From Saxman Totem Park, Ketchikan, Alaska
From Saxman Totem Park, Ketchikan, Alaska
From Brockton Point, Stanley Park, Vancouver, British Columbia
Replica of G'psgolox Pole. A gift from the Haisla First Nation to the Museum of Ethnography in Stockholm, Sweden.
US 50th Infantry Regiment Coat of arms with a totem pole arrangement of a US American eagle and a Russian Bear (signifying transfer of ownership of Alaska from Russia to United States)
The title of "The World 's Tallest Totem Pole '' is or has at one time been claimed by several coastal towns of North America 's Pacific Northwest. Disputes over which is genuinely the tallest depends on factors such the number of logs used in construction or the affiliation of the carver. Competitions to make the tallest pole remain prevalent, although it is becoming more difficult to procure trees of sufficient height. The tallest poles include:
The thickest totem pole ever carved to date is in Duncan, British Columbia. Carved by Richard Hunt in 1988 in the Kwakwaka'wakw style, and measuring over 6 feet (1.8 m) in diameter, it represents Cedar Man transforming into his human form.
Notable collections of totem poles on display include these sites:
|
who is present captain of indian kabbaddi team | Indian kabaddi team (men 's division) - Wikipedia
The Indian Kabaddi Team represents India in international kabaddi competitions. They have won gold medals in all the Asian Games to date, and they have won all World Cup events so far. India have recently won Asian Kabaddi Championship 2017 defeating Pakistan in final by 36 - 22 under the captaincy of Ajay Thakur
Incheon Asian Games, 2014:
Staff -
Kabaddi World Cup 2016:
Staff -
Asian Kabaddi Championship 2017:
Staff -
Nepal
Nepal
Bangladesh
|
when was the office of homeland security created | United States Department of Homeland Security - wikipedia
The United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is a cabinet department of the United States federal government with responsibilities in public security, roughly comparable to the interior or home ministries of other countries. Its stated missions involve anti-terrorism, border security, immigration and customs, cyber security, and disaster prevention and management. It was created in response to the September 11 attacks, and is also currently the youngest U.S. cabinet department.
In fiscal year 2017, it was allocated a net discretionary budget of $40.6 billion. With more than 240,000 employees, DHS is the third largest Cabinet department, after the Departments of Defense and Veterans Affairs. Homeland security policy is coordinated at the White House by the Homeland Security Council. Other agencies with significant homeland security responsibilities include the Departments of Health and Human Services, Justice, and Energy.
The most recent Secretary, John F. Kelly, was replaced by Acting Secretary and current Deputy Secretary Elaine Duke on Monday, July 31, 2017.
Whereas the Department of Defense is charged with military actions abroad, the Department of Homeland Security works in the civilian sphere to protect the United States within, at, and outside its borders. Its stated goal is to prepare for, prevent, and respond to domestic emergencies, particularly terrorism. On March 1, 2003, DHS absorbed the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) and assumed its duties. In doing so, it divided the enforcement and services functions into two separate and new agencies: Immigration and Customs Enforcement and Citizenship and Immigration Services. The investigative divisions and intelligence gathering units of the INS and Customs Service were merged forming Homeland Security Investigations. Additionally, the border enforcement functions of the INS, including the U.S. Border Patrol, the U.S. Customs Service, and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service were consolidated into a new agency under DHS: U.S. Customs and Border Protection. The Federal Protective Service falls under the National Protection and Programs Directorate.
The Department of Homeland Security is headed by the Secretary of Homeland Security with the assistance of the Deputy Secretary. The Department contains the components listed below.
Agencies:
(Passports for U.S. citizens are issued by the United States Department of State, not the Department of Homeland Security.)
Advisory groups:
Other components:
In an August 5, 2002 speech, President Bush said: "We 're fighting... to secure freedom in the homeland. '' Prior to the creation of DHS, American presidents had referred to the U.S. as "the nation '' or "the republic '', and to its internal policies as "domestic ''. Also unprecedented was the use, from 2002, of the phrase "the homeland '' by White House spokespeople.
In 2011, the Department of Homeland Security phased out the old Homeland Security Advisory System, replacing it with a two - level National Terrorism Advisory System. The system has two types of advisories: Alerts and Bulletins. NTAS Bulletins permit the Secretary to communicate critical terrorism information that, while not necessarily indicative of a specific threat against the United States, can reach homeland security partners or the public quickly, thereby allowing recipients to implement necessary protective measures. Alerts are issued when there is specific and credible information of a terrorist threat against the United States. Alerts themselves have two levels: Elevated and Imminent. An Elevated Alert is issued when there is credible information about an attack but only general information about timing or a target. An Imminent Alert is issued when the threat is very specific and impending in the very near term.
On March 12, 2002, the Homeland Security Advisory System, a color - coded terrorism risk advisory scale, was created as the result of a Presidential Directive to provide a "comprehensive and effective means to disseminate information regarding the risk of terrorist acts to Federal, State, and local authorities and to the American people. '' Many procedures at government facilities are tied into the alert level; for example a facility may search all entering vehicles when the alert is above a certain level. Since January 2003, it has been administered in coordination with DHS; it has also been the target of frequent jokes and ridicule on the part of the administration 's detractors about its ineffectiveness. After resigning, Tom Ridge stated that he did not always agree with the threat level adjustments pushed by other government agencies.
In January 2003, the office was merged into the Department of Homeland Security and the White House Homeland Security Council, both of which were created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002. The Homeland Security Council, similar in nature to the National Security Council, retains a policy coordination and advisory role and is led by the Assistant to the President for Homeland Security.
As of 13 January 2011, the DHS advised the American public of an ' elevated national threat ' level, recommending that all Americans ' should establish an emergency preparedness kit and emergency plan for themselves and their family, and stay informed about what to do during an emergency '.
In response to the September 11 attacks, President George W. Bush announced the establishment of the Office of Homeland Security (OHS) to coordinate "homeland security '' efforts. The office was headed by former Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge, who assumed the title of Assistant to the President for Homeland Security. The official announcement stated:
Ridge began his duties as OHS director on October 8, 2001.
According to Peter Andreas, a border theorist, the creation of DHS constituted the most significant government reorganization since the Cold War, and the most substantial reorganization of federal agencies since the National Security Act of 1947, which placed the different military departments under a secretary of defense and created the National Security Council and Central Intelligence Agency. DHS also constitutes the most diverse merger of federal functions and responsibilities, incorporating 22 government agencies into a single organization.
The Department of Homeland Security was established on November 25, 2002, by the Homeland Security Act of 2002. It was intended to consolidate U.S. executive branch organizations related to "homeland security '' into a single Cabinet agency. The following 22 agencies were incorporated into the new department:
Prior to the signing of the bill, controversy about its adoption centered on whether the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Central Intelligence Agency should be incorporated in part or in whole (neither were included). The bill itself was also controversial for the presence of unrelated "riders '', as well as for eliminating certain union - friendly civil service and labor protections for department employees. Without these protections, employees could be expeditiously reassigned or dismissed on grounds of security, incompetence or insubordination, and DHS would not be required to notify their union representatives.
The plan stripped 180,000 government employees of their union rights. In 2002, Bush officials argued that the September 11 attacks made the proposed elimination of employee protections imperative.
Congress ultimately passed the Homeland Security Act of 2002 without the union - friendly measures, and President Bush signed the bill into law on November 25, 2002. It was the largest U.S. government reorganization in the 50 years since the United States Department of Defense was created.
Tom Ridge was named secretary on January 24, 2003 and began naming his chief deputies. DHS officially began operations on January 24, 2003, but most of the department 's component agencies were not transferred into the new Department until March 1.
After establishing the basic structure of DHS and working to integrate its components and get the department functioning, Ridge announced his resignation on November 30, 2004, following the re-election of President Bush. Bush initially nominated former New York City Police Department commissioner Bernard Kerik as his successor, but on December 10, Kerik withdrew his nomination, citing personal reasons and saying it "would not be in the best interests '' of the country for him to pursue the post.
On January 11, 2005, President Bush nominated federal judge Michael Chertoff to succeed Ridge. Chertoff was confirmed on February 15, 2005, by a vote of 98 -- 0 in the U.S. Senate. He was sworn in the same day.
In February 2005, DHS and the Office of Personnel Management issued rules relating to employee pay and discipline for a new personnel system named MaxHR. The Washington Post said that the rules would allow DHS "to override any provision in a union contract by issuing a department - wide directive '' and would make it "difficult, if not impossible, for unions to negotiate over arrangements for staffing, deployments, technology and other workplace matters. ''
In August 2005, U.S. District Judge Rosemary M. Collyer blocked the plan on the grounds that it did not ensure collective - bargaining rights for DHS employees.
A federal appeals court ruled against DHS in 2006; pending a final resolution to the litigation, Congress 's fiscal year 2008 appropriations bill for DHS provided no funding for the proposed new personnel system. DHS announced in early 2007 that it was retooling its pay and performance system and retiring the name "MaxHR ''.
In a February 2008 court filing, DHS said that it would no longer pursue the new rules, and that it would abide by the existing civil service labor - management procedures. A federal court issued an order closing the case.
A DHS press release dated June 6, 2003 explains the seal as follows:
The seal is symbolic of the Department 's mission -- to prevent attacks and protect Americans -- on the land, in the sea and in the air. In the center of the seal, a graphically styled white American eagle appears in a circular blue field. The eagle 's outstretched wings break through an inner red ring into an outer white ring that contains the words "U.S. DEPARTMENT OF '' in the top half and "HOMELAND SECURITY '' in the bottom half in a circular placement. The eagle 's wings break through the inner circle into the outer ring to suggest that the Department of Homeland Security will break through traditional bureaucracy and perform government functions differently. In the tradition of the Great Seal of the United States, the eagle 's talon on the left holds an olive branch with 13 leaves and 13 seeds while the eagle 's talon on the right grasps 13 arrows.
Centered on the eagle 's breast is a shield divided into three sections containing elements that represent the American homeland -- air, land, and sea. The top element, a dark blue sky, contains 22 stars representing the original 22 entities that have come together to form the department. The left shield element contains white mountains behind a green plain underneath a light blue sky. The right shield element contains four wave shapes representing the oceans alternating light and dark blue separated by white lines.
The seal was developed with input from senior DHS leadership, employees, and the U.S. Commission on Fine Arts. The Ad Council -- which partners with DHS on its Ready.gov campaign -- and the consulting company Landor Associates were responsible for graphic design and maintaining heraldic integrity.
Since its inception, the department has had its temporary headquarters in Washington, D.C. 's Nebraska Avenue Complex, a former naval facility. The 38 - acre (15 ha) site, across from American University, has 32 buildings comprising 566,000 square feet (52,600 m) of administrative space. In early 2007, the Department submitted a $4.1 billion plan to Congress to consolidate its 60 - plus Washington - area offices into a single headquarters complex at the St. Elizabeths Hospital campus in Anacostia, Southeast Washington, D.C. The earliest DHS would begin moving to St. Elizabeths is 2012.
The move is being championed by District of Columbia officials because of the positive economic impact it will have on historically depressed Anacostia. The move has been criticized by historic preservationists, who claim the revitalization plans will destroy dozens of historic buildings on the campus. Community activists have criticized the plans because the facility will remain walled off and have little interaction with the surrounding area. On January 8, 2009, the National Capital Planning Commission approved the Department of Homeland Security 's plans to move into the campus of St. Elizabeths Hospital. In February 2015 the General Services Administration said that the site would open in 2021.
Soon after the formation of Department of Homeland Security, the department worked with the Ad Council to launch the Ready Campaign, a national public service advertising (PSA) campaign to educate and empower Americans to prepare for and respond to emergencies including natural and man - made disasters. With pro bono creative support from the Martin Agency of Richmond, Virginia, the campaign website "Ready.gov '' and materials were conceived in March 2002 and launched in February 2003, just before the launch of the Iraq War. One of the first announcements that garnered widespread public attention to this campaign was one by Tom Ridge in which he stated that in the case of a chemical attack, citizens should use duct tape and plastic sheeting to build a homemade bunker, or "sheltering in place '' to protect themselves. As a result, the sales of duct tape skyrocketed and DHS was criticized for being too alarmist.
On March 1, 2003, the Federal Emergency Management Agency was absorbed into the DHS, and in fall of 2008, took over coordination of the campaign. The Ready Campaign and its Spanish language version Listo.gov asks individuals to do three things: build an emergency supply kit, make a family emergency plan and be informed about the different types of emergencies that can occur and how to respond. The campaign messages have been promoted through television, radio, print, outdoor and web PSAs, as well as brochures, toll - free phone lines and the English and Spanish language websites Ready.gov and Listo.gov.
The general campaign aims to reach all Americans, but targeted resources are also available via "Ready Business '' for small - to medium - sized business and "Ready Kids '' for parents and teachers of children ages 8 -- 12. In 2015, the campaign also launched a series of PSAs to help the whole community, people with disabilities and others with access and functional needs prepare for emergencies, which included open captioning, a certified deaf interpreter and audio descriptions for viewers who are blind or have low vision.
On March 1, 2004, the National Incident Management System (NIMS) was created. The stated purpose was to provide a consistent incident management approach for federal, state, local, and tribal governments. Under Homeland Security Presidential Directive - 5, all federal departments were required to adopt the NIMS and to use it in their individual domestic incident management and emergency prevention, preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation program and activities.
In December 2004, the National Response Plan (NRP) was created, in an attempt to align federal coordination structures, capabilities, and resources into a unified, all - discipline, and all - hazards approach to domestic incident management. The NRP was built on the template of the NIMS.
On January 22, 2008, the National Response Framework was published in the Federal Register as an updated replacement of the NRP, effective March 22, 2008.
The Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act directs the DHS Secretary to designate employees from throughout the Department to staff a Surge Capacity Force (SCF). During a declared disaster, the DHS Secretary will determine if SCF support is necessary. The Secretary will then authorize FEMA to task and deploy designated personnel from DHS components and other Federal Executive Agencies to respond to extraordinary disasters.
The DHS National Cyber Security Division (NCSD) is responsible for the response system, risk management program, and requirements for cyber-security in the U.S. The division is home to US - CERT operations and the National Cyber Alert System. The DHS Science and Technology Directorate helps government and private end - users transition to new cyber-security capabilities. This directorate also funds the Cyber Security Research and Development Center, which identifies and prioritizes research and development for NCSD. The center works on the Internet 's routing infrastructure (the SPRI program) and Domain Name System (DNSSEC), identity theft and other online criminal activity (ITTC), Internet traffic and networks research (PREDICT datasets and the DETER testbed), Department of Defense and HSARPA exercises (Livewire and Determined Promise), and wireless security in cooperation with Canada.
On October 30, 2009, DHS opened the National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center. The center brings together government organizations responsible for protecting computer networks and networked infrastructure.
In the United States Federal Budget for 2010, entitled ' A New Era of Responsibility ', the DHS was allocated a discretionary budget of $42.7 billion (financial year 2009: $40.1 billion). The end - of - year DHS Annual Financial Report for financial year 2010 showed a net cost of operations of $56.4 billion (FY 2009, restated: $49.9 billion), out of total budgetary resources of $83.2 billion (FY 2009, restated: $85.2 billion). The components with the highest net cost were US Coast Guard ($12.1 billion), U.S. Customs and Border Protection ($11.6 billion), and Federal Emergency Management Agency ($10.5 billion). Revenues of $10.4 billion were generated in the year (FY 2009, restated: $9.8 billion).
According to the Washington Post, "DHS has given $31 billion in grants since 2003 to state and local governments for homeland security and to improve their ability to find and protect against terrorists, including $3.8 billion in 2010. ''
The DHS independent auditor is KPMG, one of the Big Four audit firms. Due to the level of material weaknesses identified, KPMG was unable to audit the DHS financial statements for FY 2010. KPMG was unable to express an audit opinion on the FY 2009, FY 2008, FY 2007, FY 2005, and FY 2003 financial statements. Attempts to access the reports for FY 2006 and FY 2004 within the ' information for citizens ' portal met with a 404 error. The Message from the DHS Chief Financial Officer in the FY 2010 report states ' This Annual Financial Report (AFR) is our principal financial statement of accountability to the President, Congress and the American public. The AFR gives a comprehensive view of the Department 's financial activities and demonstrates the Department 's stewardship of taxpayer dollars. ' The Message from the DHS Chief Financial Officer concludes ' I am extremely proud of the Department 's accomplishments... we will continue to build upon our successes. ' The Secretary of Homeland Security endorsed this message saying that the DHS is ' continuing to be responsible stewards of taxpayer resources. The scope of our mission is broad, challenging, and vital to the security of the Nation... Thank you for your partnership and collaboration. Yours very truly, Janet Napolitano. '
The Department of Homeland Security has received substantial criticism over excessive bureaucracy, waste, fraud, ineffectiveness and lack of transparency. Its information sharing centers have been accused of violating American civil liberties and targeting American citizens as potential threats to national security.
The Department of Homeland Security has been dogged by persistent criticism over excessive bureaucracy, waste, ineffectiveness and lack of transparency. Congress estimates that the department has wasted roughly $15 billion in failed contracts (as of September 2008). In 2003, the department came under fire after the media revealed that Laura Callahan, Deputy Chief Information Officer at DHS with responsibilities for sensitive national security databases, had obtained her bachelor, masters, and doctorate computer science degrees through Hamilton University, a diploma mill in a small town in Wyoming. The department was blamed for up to $2 billion of waste and fraud after audits by the Government Accountability Office revealed widespread misuse of government credit cards by DHS employees, with purchases including beer brewing kits, $70,000 of plastic dog booties that were later deemed unusable, boats purchased at double the retail price (many of which later could not be found), and iPods ostensibly for use in "data storage ''.
A 2015 inspection of IT infrastructure found that the department was running over a hundred computer systems whose owners were unknown, including Secret and Top Secret databases, many with out of date security or weak passwords. Basic security reviews were absent, and the department had apparently made deliberate attempts to delay publication of information about the flaws.
The Associated Press reported on September 5, 2007, that DHS had scrapped an anti-terrorism data mining tool called ADVISE (Analysis, Dissemination, Visualization, Insight and Semantic Enhancement) after the agency 's internal Inspector General found that pilot testing of the system had been performed using data on real people without required privacy safeguards in place. The system, in development at Lawrence Livermore and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory since 2003, has cost the agency $42 million to date. Controversy over the program is not new; in March 2007, the Government Accountability Office stated that "the ADVISE tool could misidentify or erroneously associate an individual with undesirable activity such as fraud, crime or terrorism. '' Homeland Security 's Inspector General later said that ADVISE was poorly planned, time - consuming for analysts to use, and lacked adequate justifications.
Fusion centers are terrorism prevention and response centers, many of which were created under a joint project between the Department of Homeland Security and the US Department of Justice 's Office of Justice Programs between 2003 and 2007. The fusion centers gather information not only from government sources, but also from their partners in the private sector.
They are designed to promote information sharing at the federal level between agencies such as the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Department of Justice, US Military and state and local level government. As of July 2009, the Department of Homeland Security recognized at least seventy - two fusion centers. Fusion centers may also be affiliated with an Emergency Operations Center that responds in the event of a disaster.
There are a number of documented criticisms of fusion centers, including relative ineffectiveness at counterterrorism activities, the potential to be used for secondary purposes unrelated to counterterrorism, and their links to violations of civil liberties of American citizens and others.
David Rittgers of the Cato Institute has noted:
a long line of fusion center and DHS reports labeling broad swaths of the public as a threat to national security. The North Texas Fusion System labeled Muslim lobbyists as a potential threat; a DHS analyst in Wisconsin thought both pro - and anti-abortion activists were worrisome; a Pennsylvania homeland security contractor watched environmental activists, Tea Party groups, and a Second Amendment rally; the Maryland State Police put anti-death penalty and anti-war activists in a federal terrorism database; a fusion center in Missouri thought that all third - party voters and Ron Paul supporters were a threat...
The Missouri Information Analysis Center (MIAC) made news in 2009 for targeting supporters of third party candidates (such as Ron Paul), pro-life activists, and conspiracy theorists as potential militia members. Anti-war activists and Islamic lobby groups were targeted in Texas, drawing criticism from the American Civil Liberties Union.
According to the Department of Homeland Security:
The Privacy Office has identified a number of risks to privacy presented by the fusion center program:
In early April 2009, the Virginia Fusion Center came under criticism for publishing a terrorism threat assessment which stated that certain universities are potential hubs for terror related activity. The report targeted historically black colleges and identified hacktivism as a form of terrorism.
In 2006, MSNBC reported that Grant Goodman, "an 81 - year - old retired University of Kansas history professor, received a letter from his friend in the Philippines that had been opened and resealed with a strip of dark green tape bearing the words "by Border Protection '' and carrying the official Homeland Security seal. '' The letter was sent by a devout Catholic Filipino woman with no history of supporting Islamic terrorism. A spokesman for U.S. Customs and Border Protection "acknowledged that the agency can, will and does open mail coming to U.S. citizens that originates from a foreign country whenever it 's deemed necessary '':
"All mail originating outside the United States Customs territory that is to be delivered inside the U.S. Customs territory is subject to Customs examination, '' says the CBP Web site. That includes personal correspondence. "All mail means ' all mail, ' '' said John Mohan, a CBP spokesman, emphasizing the point.
The Department declined to outline what criteria are used to determine when a piece of personal correspondence should be opened or to say how often or in what volume Customs might be opening mail.
Goodman 's story provoked outrage in the blogosphere, as well as in the more established media. Reacting to the incident, Mother Jones remarked that "(u) nlike other prying government agencies, Homeland Security wants you to know it is watching you. '' CNN observed that "(o) n the heels of the NSA wiretapping controversy, Goodman 's letter raises more concern over the balance between privacy and security. ''
In July 2006, the Office of Personnel Management conducted a survey of federal employees in all 36 federal agencies on job satisfaction and how they felt their respective agency was headed. DHS was last or near to last in every category including;
The low scores were attributed to major concerns about basic supervision, management and leadership within the agency. Examples from the survey reveal most concerns are about promotion and pay increase based on merit, dealing with poor performance, rewarding creativity and innovation, leadership generating high levels of motivation in the workforce, recognition for doing a good job, lack of satisfaction with various component policies and procedures and lack of information about what is going on with the organization.
DHS is the only large federal agency to score below 50 % in overall survey rankings. It was last of large federal agencies in 2014 with 44.0 % and fell even lower in 2015 at 43.1 %, again last place.
In the latest Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act FOIA requests, published in 2015 (using 2012 and 2013 data, the most recent years available), the Department of Homeland Security earned a D by scoring 69 out of a possible 100 points, i.e. did not earn a satisfactory overall grade. It also had not updated its FOIA policies since the 2007 FOIA amendments.
|
when is the 7th season of once upon a time coming out | Once Upon a Time (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the American ABC fantasy - drama Once Upon a Time was ordered on May 11, 2017. It will consist of 22 episodes, airing on Fridays, having premiered on October 6, 2017.
This season marks a significant change for the series, as it was announced at the end of the sixth season that the majority of the main cast members would not be returning for season 7. Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue, and Robert Carlyle will be the only ones remaining. Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez were announced as new regulars in May 2017. Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar were announced as additional regulars in July 2017. In August 2017, it was announced that Mekia Cox had been promoted to series regular after initially joining the cast in July as recurring.
The storyline is softly rebooted with a main narrative led by an adult Henry Mills, set several years after last season 's events.
Years after the Final Battle was won, Henry decides to leave Storybrooke to other realms in search of his own story. After years of realm travelling, he ends up in the New Enchanted Forest, where he gets tangled into a conflict between Cinderella, Lady Tremaine, Drizella, Mother Gothel, and a resistance lead by Princess Tiana that eventually leads to the casting of another curse that takes the inhabitants to a newly created neighbourhood called Hyperion Heights in Seattle. Lucy, Henry 's daughter, tries to get Henry to believe again and to break the curse while Drizella tries to prevent it. meanwhile Lady Tremaine tries to awaken her comatose daughter Anastasia with the help of an imprisoned Mother Gothel.
In January 2017, while season 6 was still in production, ABC president Channing Dungey spoke of a possible "reset '' of the show 's narrative in the event that the show received a season 7 order. After much speculation, executive producers Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis later confirmed that certain characters would have their storylines wrapped up and that the back - end of the sixth season had been written with the season 7 narrative change in mind. Despite the major changes from seasons past, the showrunners have said that they do not view season 7 as a complete reboot of the show. Horowitz said: "I hesitate to use the word "reboot. '' We 're more thinking about it as a hybrid of a lot of things. We 're paying homage to the original premise, but there are certain characters who are returning and some who are not. It 's a combination of a lot of things, but what we 're trying to do is go in a new direction but stay true to the spirit of what the show has always been. ''
In July 2017, the creators announced that the series now take place in the Seattle neighborhood of Hyperion Heights, which was created under a new and darker curse. Residents of this neighborhood include displaced characters from the original and new versions of the Enchanted Forest, as well as regular people from the Land Without Magic. This differs from Storybrooke in season 1, which was an isolated town that was blocked off from real - world Maine. The initial villain is Lady Tremaine, who assumes the role of an urban developer who seeks to "gentrify the neighborhood '' and push out and separate fairy tale residents. Meanwhile, Storybrooke and various Fairy Tale Land locations still appear in the flashbacks of the season as the story bounces back and forth between the characters ' lives before and during the latest curse.
In May 2017, it was announced that Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue, and Robert Carlyle would be the only series regulars from season 6 to continue onto season 7. It was teased that the three would be portraying their original characters but with cursed identities, similar to the circumstances in season 1. In July, the first promo of the season revealed that Killian is now a Seattle police officer with the last name Rogers, who is living with an unexplained sense of loss. In August, it was revealed that Regina is now a bar owner named Roni, who is more dressed down and is "no longer in charge. ''
Former main cast member Jennifer Morrison has confirmed that she has agreed to return for one episode, later revealed to be the second episode of the season. Morrison announced her last filming day on July 19, 2017. On July 22, it was confirmed that Emilie de Ravin would return for the fourth episode in the seventh season.
In March 2017, Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez were cast for unknown guest roles in the season six finale. During the episode, it was revealed that West was portraying an adult Henry Mills, while Fernandez portrayed his daughter, Lucy. After that episode 's airing, they were confirmed as series regulars for season 7. West will be taking over the role from Jared S. Gilmore, who has been confirmed to appear in at least the first two episodes of the season.
On July 6, 2017, it was announced that Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar would be two additional series regulars for season 7. Additionally, Adelaide Kane, Mekia Cox, and Rose Reynolds were cast in recurring roles for the upcoming season. On July 15, it was announced that Ramirez would be portraying Cinderella, albeit a different version from the one previously played by Jessy Schram for the first six seasons. On July 22 at San Diego Comic - Con, it was revealed that Anwar and Kane will be portraying Lady Tremaine and Drizella, respectively. Cox would be portraying Tiana from The Princess and the Frog, while Reynolds would be playing an alternate version of Alice, a character previously heavily featured in the spin - off Once Upon a Time in Wonderland. In August 2017, Cox was promoted to series regular.
On August 1, it was announced that Giles Matthey would return as an adult Gideon for the season 's fourth episode. The episode, also featuring Emilie de Ravin, would be centered around Rumple. On that same day, it was also announced that Emma Booth was cast in a major recurring role as the Witch, whose more specific identity would be revealed later on during the season. On August 25, Kevin Ryan announced that he would be making an appearance as a new prince in the upcoming season. On August 30, it was announced that Robin Givens had been cast as Tiana 's mother, Eudora.
On September 8, it was announced that Meegan Warner would be guest starring as an alternate version of Rapunzel, a character previously featured in one episode of season 3. It was later revealed that the character would appear in a multi-episode arc. On September 20, it was announced that former main Rebecca Mader would return for multiple episodes in the seventh season as Zelena, who will also have a cursed identity.
On October 2, it was announced that Dr. Facilier from The Princess and the Frog would make an appearance during the season, later revealed to be portrayed by Daniel Francis in the season 's fifth episode. On October 3, it was announced that flashbacks of the ninth episode would feature a "tweenage '' Anastasia, Lady Tremaine 's other biological daughter.
On November 1, it was announced that Tiera Skovbye would be recurring as an older version of Robin, the daughter of Zelena and Robin Hood. On November 2, it was announced that Nathan Parsons had been cast in a recurring role as Nick, a lawyer and potential love interest for another character. On November 3, it was announced that the show was casting for the role of Naveen from The Princess and the Frog, who will be appearing in the second half of the season. On November 16, actor Chad Rook announced that he had been cast in an unknown role.
|
who wrote the song have i told you lately | Have I Told You Lately - wikipedia
"Have I Told You Lately '' is a song written by Northern Irish singer - songwriter Van Morrison and recorded for his nineteenth studio album Avalon Sunset (1989). It is a romantic ballad that is often played at weddings, although it was originally written as a prayer.
"Have I Told You Lately '' has received acclaim, winning a Grammy Award and a BMI Million - Air certificate. It was released as a single on 5 June 1989, and reached number 12 on the US Billboard Adult Contemporary chart. It has become a popular cover song with many vocal and instrumental versions recorded by numerous artists and bands. In 1993, Rod Stewart 's version charted at number five on both the US Billboard Hot 100 as well as on the UK Singles Chart.
Composed as a love ballad and built on the framework of "Someone Like You '', it is preceded on Avalon Sunset by the song, "I 'd Love to Write Another Song '' proclaiming "In poetry I 'd carve it well / I 'd even make it rhyme. '' Then, in the words of Brian Hinton what follows is:
One of the finest love songs of the century, which I remember devastated me when I first heard it, as it seemed both something never quite said before, and yet a song I felt I had known forever. Earthly love transmutes into that for God, just like in Dante, ' there 's a love that 's divine and it 's yours and it 's mine. ' The morning sun has set by the end of the song, suggesting love shading into death, but subtly.
Coney Island Medley
with the Chieftains
Rod Stewart covered the song for his album Vagabond Heart (1991). A live version from his album Unplugged... and Seated (1993) was released as a single, becoming a number - five hit in the US and the UK. This version also reached number four on the US Billboard Mainstream Top 40 chart, and spent five weeks at number 1 on the US Billboard Adult Contemporary chart. It was certified gold by the RIAA in the US and sold 700,000 copies there. Another live version by Stewart from his 2013 performance at The Troubadour, West Hollywood was included on the deluxe edition of his album Time.
"Have I Told You Lately '' has been performed by many unknown as well as many famous artists.
Morrison chose "Have I Told You Lately '' as one of the songs included on 1990s The Best of Van Morrison, his first greatest - hits album. It was also one of the songs on two of the compilation albums that were issued in 2007: Still on Top - The Greatest Hits contains a remastered version of this song and it was also featured on the compilation album, Van Morrison at the Movies - Soundtrack Hits. A live performance version was included on his 1994 album, A Night in San Francisco. In 1995 Morrison accompanied The Chieftains on a recording of the song for their album The Long Black Veil; this version was awarded the 1996 Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals. A jazz arrangement is featured on the 2018 album Morrison recorded with organist Joey DeFrancesco entitled You 're Driving Me Crazy.
Filmed performances of the song include a version recorded in 1989 that was featured on Morrison 's video album Van Morrison: The Concert the following year. In 1997 Morrison performed the song in a duet with Sinéad O'Connor on Late Show with David Letterman; this version was subsequently released on the Live on Letterman: Music from the Late Show CD.
"Have I Told You Lately '' was featured in the 1996 film, One Fine Day, starring George Clooney and Michelle Pfeiffer, at the end of the Amanda Bynes 2003 film, What a Girl Wants, covered by Matt Acheson, and the 2014 film 5 Flights Up, starring Morgan Freeman and Diane Keaton.
Impressionist and comedian Rory Bremner included the song as one of his eight Desert Island Discs on BBC Radio 4 on 20 April 2003. Television and radio presenter Gloria Hunniford also included the song on her list on 24 December 2006.
|
who was appointed the interim president of texas by the texas convention at washington-on-the-brazos | Convention of 1836 - wikipedia
The Convention of 1836 was the meeting of elected delegates in Washington - on - the - Brazos, Texas in March 1836. The Texas Revolution had begun five months previously, and the interim government, known as the Consultation, had wavered over whether to declare independence from Mexico or pledge to uphold the repudiated Mexican Constitution of 1824. Unlike those of previous Texas councils, delegates to the Convention of 1836 were younger, more recent arrivals to Texas, and more adamant on the question of independence. As delegates prepared to convene, Mexican President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna led a large army into Texas to quell the revolt; the vanguard of this army arrived at San Antonio de Bexar on February 23.
The Convention was called to order on March 1, and the following day adopted the Texas Declaration of Independence, written by Matthew Scales. Delegates elected an interim government, led by President David G. Burnet and developed a Texas Constitution, which they based primarily on the Constitution of the United States. On March 6 they received a missive from the Texan soldiers besieged at the Alamo, and delegate and commander - in - chief Sam Houston narrowly persuaded the men to continue their work on the constitution rather than rush to aid the soldiers. After the Alamo fell, Santa Anna 's army marched towards Washington - on - the - Brazos, prompting the new government to flee.
The Texas Revolution began October 2, 1835 with the Battle of Gonzales. The following month, previously elected delegates convened in a body known as the Consultation. These delegates served as a temporary governing body for Texas, as they struggled with the question of whether Texans were fighting for independence from Mexico or the reimplementation of the Mexican Constitution of 1824, which offered greater freedoms than the current dictatorship. Many Consultation members wished to defer independence until the United States was persuaded to support their struggle. The Consultation quickly degenerated into near anarchy, with the interim legislature indicting the interim Governor, who promptly disbanded the legislature.
On December 10, the Council passed a resolution calling for a new convention of delegates, to convene on March 1, 1836. There was no consensus among Council members as to what the new convention should accomplish. Some wanted the convention to form a new government for Texas, and others insisted on the preservation of the Mexican Constitution of 1824. One of the Consultation delegates wrote to Sam Houston that "I sincerely hope the Convention will remedy the existing evils and calm the Public since if not Texas must be lost. ''
Over the next few months, the provisional government of Texas essentially collapsed. By February, most Consultation members had returned home or to the army.
By the end of 1835, no Mexican troops remained in Texas. As early as October, however, Mexican President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna had been making plans to quell the unrest in Texas. He stepped down from his duties as president to lead what he dubbed the Army of Operations in Texas, which would put an end to the Texas revolt. Personally leading his forces, Santa Anna crossed the Rio Grande on February 12. Santa Anna and his advance force arrived in San Antonio de Bexar on February 23 and immediately initiated a siege of the Texas forces garrisoned at the Alamo.
Elections were scheduled for February 1, 1836. There was much disagreement throughout Texas as to whether voting rights should extend to Tejanos or recent arrivals from the United States who had joined the Army of the People. The Consultation had specified that voting rights would be extended to all Tejanos "opposed to a Central Government '' and indicated that army volunteers could only vote by proxy in their home districts. This bill was vetoed by provisional governor Smith, who believed that no Tejanos should be allowed to vote. In an editorial, the Telegraph and Texas Register echoed the concerns of many that the newly arrived recruits "can not be acquainted either with the state of the country or the character and pretensions of the candidates '' and advocated a residency requirement. Because the army was concentrated in only two areas, their numbers often overwhelmed those of the local residents.
The Consultation reorganized the voting districts; San Augustine, Harrisburg, and Gonzales each received four fewer delegates than in the past, and Milam received three fewer delegates. With little actual guidance from the Consultation, voting in each municipality was subject to local traditions. In some areas, such as the Jackson district, citizens held a meeting in January to determine if they were for independence or federalism. Once consensus was reached that they wanted independence, only candidates who agreed with that platform were considered. Other areas offered no actual choice; in Mina, the only candidates to run for office were the local empresario, Sterling C. Robertson, and his nephew, George C. Childress. For most of the region, however, candidates engaged in lively debate about either the issues or the personalities of their opponents.
The soldiers who had flocked to the army were determined to vote, regardless of how long they had actually been in Texas or whether they intended to stay. In at least one instance, in Matagorda, soldiers who had been discharged from service voted in the election while they were en route to the United States. There was no consistency in how the votes of active volunteers were handled. In Goliad, soldiers held their own election for two delegates. In nearby San Patricio, locals refused to allow the soldiers to vote; their results were later overturned by the Convention. Soldiers turned away in Refugio simply held their own election.
In the Nacogdoches district, soldiers under Sidney Sherman threatened violence after they were turned away from the polling place. Sherman vowed that he "had come to Texas to fight for it and has as soon commence in the town of Nacogdoches as elsewhere. '' Anxious to avoid an armed fight, election judges asked the public to vote on whether the troops should be allowed to vote. The soldiers lost by 30 votes, yet refused to back down, insisting that the voting had been rigged. Finally, one of the candidates, Thomas Jefferson Rusk, talked the judges into allowing the soldiers to vote. In the final results in Nacogdoches, Rusk and one other pro-independence candidate, Robert Potter, were named delegates, along with pro-federalist candidates John S. Roberts and Charles S. Taylor.
A similar melee was avoided in Bexar, where army commander James C. Neill worked out a compromise with local civilian authorities. The garrison held their own election to name two delegates, while Bexar citizens - primarily Tejanos - who took an oath of allegiance to the provisional government could elect an additional 4 men. The two men almost unanimously elected by the garrison, Samuel Maverick and Jesse Badgett were staunch supporters of independence. Several soldiers also received votes in the locals ' election, although the final delegates were locals. Soldier Amos Pollard threatened that if the locals did not vote for independence, they might want to rethink the idea of coming home.
This convention differed from the previous Texas councils of 1832, 1833, and the Consultation. Many of the delegates to the 1836 convention were young men who had only recently arrived in Texas, although many of them had participated in one of the battles in 1835. Most of the delegates were members of the War Party and were adamant that Texas must declare its independence from Mexico.
A total of 59 delegates were elected to the Convention, 5 more than were supposed to attend. This was largely due to the extra elections soldiers had conducted. Over one - third of the delegates came from extreme east or west Texas, areas not represented at the Consultation. Five delegates attended from the Red River district, an area disputed between Texas and the United States (and now considered part of Arkansas). The delegates were largely new to politics; only 13 of them had taken part in the Consultation, 7 in the Conventions of 1832 or 1833, and only 8 had held local office during Mexican rule. Fewer than 20 % of the delegates had participated in the 1835 Committees of Safety. Neither the governor, Smith, or the acting governor, Robinson, were elected as delegates to the Convention. Notably, a few delegates did have extensive public service experience. Lorenzo de Zavala was a former governor of Texas, and Jose Antonio Navarro had served in the Mexican legislature. Potter, Childress, Richard Ellis and Samuel Price Carson each had significant political experience in the United States.
The average age of the Convention delegates was 37.4, over a year younger than those elected to the Consultation. They had lived in Texas an average of 4 years, a relatively low length of time considering that this included two men - Jose Francisco Ruiz and Navarro - who had been born in Texas. A full quarter of the delegates had lived in Texas less than a year, and 42 % for less than two years.
The army 's influence was obvious. Forty percent of the delegates (24 men) had served in the army in October -- December 1835. Four other delegates were directly related to men serving in the army. These numbers meant the army bloc was just shy of a majority of delegates, ensuring that the army 's needs would actually be addressed this time.
Forty - one delegates arrived in Washington - on - the - Brazos on February 28. The convention was convened on March 1 with Richard Ellis as president.
The delegates assigned George Childress to lead a committee of five to draft a Declaration of Independence. Childress, the nephew of empresario Sterling C. Robertson, had been elected to the Convention three weeks after his arrival in Texas. The committee submitted its draft within a mere 24 hours, leading historians to speculate that Childress had written much of it before his arrival at the Convention. The declaration was approved on March 2 with no debate. Based primarily on the writings of John Locke and Thomas Jefferson, the declaration proclaimed that the Mexican government "ceased to protect the lives, liberty, and property of the people, from whom its legitimate powers are derived '' and complained about "arbitrary acts of oppression and tyranny ''. The declaration officially established the Republic of Texas.
Shortly after adopting the declaration of independence, the delegates began to work on a new Constitution. It drew heavily from the United States Constitution and included a declaration of rights (similar to the Bill of Rights) which guaranteed due process, the right of every citizen to bear arms, and freedom of religion, speech, and press. The declaration of rights also outlawed unreasonable search and seizure, debtors ' prison, and cruel or unusual punishments. It omitted the Third Amendment to the United States Constitution and instead explicitly authorized the government to quarter troops in private homes and impress property as needed for the war effort.
In a departure from the traditional Texas justice system, the Constitution called for grand jury indictments and speedy public trials with juries. Unlike the United States Constitution, however, the Texas Constitution codified racism. Free blacks were forbidden permanent residence in Texas without consent of Congress, and citizenship could not be granted to Africans, their descendants, or Native Americans. Furthermore, the Constitution forbade the future Texas Congress from emancipating slaves, and instructed slaveholders not to emancipate their own slaves without Congress 's consent. Citizenship was granted only to white men. The new Constitution specifically stated that governmental authority derived from the people, who thus had the right to revolt to change their government.
The largest debates centered around land policy, as delegates struggled to balance the competing claims of natives, settlers, army volunteers, and colonizers. Every single proposal for a new land policy was sent back to committee or defeated, until the very last day. The new policy benefited settlers and army volunteers, ensuring they would get the land promised when they emigrated. All surveys completed before November 1835 were validated, and any issued since - when the land offices were supposed to be closed - were vacated. All further surveys were banned until the new Congress could establish a land office. Additionally, three controversial land grants were overturned.
On the morning of March 6, the Convention received a letter, dated March 3, from Alamo commander William B. Travis. Travis begged for supplies and reinforcements and described the danger he and his men found themselves in. Unaware that the fort had already fallen, delegate Robert Potter called for the Convention to adjourn and march immediately to relieve the Alamo. Sam Houston persuaded the delegates to remain in Washington - on - the - Brazos to finish working on the constitution. Houston then left to take command of the volunteers that Colonel James C. Neill and Major R.M. "Three - Legged Willie '' Williamson had been gathering in Gonzales. Shortly after Houston 's arrival in Gonzales, Alamo survivors Susanna Dickinson and Joe, Travis 's slave, arrived with news of a Mexican victory. On hearing their news, Houston advised all civilians in the area to evacuate and ordered the army to retreat. This sparked a mass exodus of Texans from the Anglo settlements.
Concerned that the existing army was not large enough, on March 12 the Convention issued a conscription law. All able - bodied white and Tejano men between ages 17 and 50 were subject to military service. Local authorities would assign two - thirds of the men in their district to fight at any one time. Those who refused to serve would lose their citizenship and half of their property. Tejanos would not serve alongside the Anglos, but would instead have a separate corps.
After finishing their constitution, the delegates organized an ad - interim government which would serve until the following October. As president they chose David G. Burnet, who had not been elected to the Convention. Burnet had planned to join the fighting at the Alamo and had stopped at the Convention to recruit others. However, he became so "inspired by their deliberations '' that he remained as a visitor. Speaking privately with many of the delegates, Burnet professed that he would be willing to serve as president of a new republic, even if that made him a target of Santa Anna. Among the names most commonly circulated for the presidency were empresario Stephen F. Austin, Sam Houston, and William H. Wharton. All were absent from the convention, however, so the nominees became Burnet and Samuel Price Carson. Burnet won, on a vote of 29 -- 23, in the early hours of March 17. The delegates chose Lorenzo de Zavala as vice-president, Samuel P. Carson as Secretary of State, and Thomas J. Rusk as Secretary of War. Bailey Hardeman became Secretary of the Treasury, and David Thomas was elected Attorney General.
One of Burnet 's first acts as president was to transfer the capital of the new state from Washington - on - the - Brazos to Harrisburg, which was located nearer the small Texas Navy at Galveston Island. Harrisburg was also closer to the border with the United States and would allow easier communication with U.S. officials. The move took on a sense of urgency when the convention received word that Santa Anna was within 60 miles (100 km) of Washington - on - the - Brazos. Burnet quickly adjourned the proceedings and the government fled. Burnet personally carried the Texas Declaration of Independence in his saddlebags.
|
who played uncle woody on sanford and son | Raymond Allen (television actor) - Wikipedia
Raymond Gilmore Allen (born March 5, 1929) is an American actor. He is best known for his appearances on television during the 1970s. He had recurring roles as Ned the Wino on Good Times, as Aunt Esther 's husband, Woodrow "Woody '' Anderson on the NBC sitcom series Sanford and Son, and as mechanic Merle the Earl on Starsky and Hutch. He reprised his role as Uncle Woody Anderson in the Sanford and Son spin - off, The Sanford Arms. Allen also made guest appearances on The Jeffersons, What 's Happening!!, The Love Boat and the film Wattstax.
Allen has not appeared in any acting roles since 1985, but still makes public appearances, where he speaks to people and signs autographs. According to his MySpace page, Allen was forced to retire from acting due to illness. Allen was married to Barbara Williams from 1963 to 1977; they have three children. Currently, Allen lives with his daughter, former child actress Ta - Ronce Allen in Lancaster, California. He visits the Los Angeles area to visit his daughter Brenda Allen. Also, had a son, Raymond Gilmore Allen Jr. (deceased).
|
ek hazaaron mein meri behna hai serial in tamil | Ek Hazaaron Mein Meri Behna Hai - Wikipedia
Ek Hazaaron Mein Meri Behna Hai (English: My Sister is One in a Thousand) is a daily Indian soap opera that aired on STAR Plus from 3 October 2011 to 13 September 2013, when it got replaced by the mythological series Mahabharat. The show was very popular amongst the viewers and its fans due to the leads. The show starred Krystle D'Souza, Karan Tacker, Nia Sharma and Kushal Tandon.
Jeevika Chaudhary (Krystle D'Souza) and Maanvi Chaudhary (Nia Sharma) are two orphan sisters living in Rishikesh with their great grandmother, grandmother, uncle, aunt and cousin brother while Viren Singh Vadhera (Karan Tacker) and Viraat Singh Vadhera (Kushal Tandon) are two brothers hailing from an elite family of lawyers in Chandigarh.
The two sisters are inseparable and Maanvi loves and respects Jeevika as though she 's her mother. One day, a marriage proposal comes for Jeevika. Maanvi convinces Jeevika to switch identities with her for a while to know the brothers better but little did Maanvi know that Viraat got the same idea. While Viren and Jeevika like each other at first sight; Viraat and Maanvi dislike each other immensely.
After some time, Maanvi is under the misconception that Jeevika loves Dr. Manan (Abhinav Shukla); and thus, Maanvi tries to unite these two. Yet, Jeevika is shown to like Viren and gradually, they start falling for each other. The wedding is fixed and the preparations are started immediately. Some days before the wedding, on seeing Viren nervous, Viraat makes him drink brandy in the name of medicine and the former then climbs a ladder to go and meet Jeevika. Ultimately, this turned out to be a funny scene as the two brothers are caught by the bride 's family members.
Viren and Jeevika finally get married and they leave for Chandigarh just afterwards. Maanvi is seen to be missing Jeevika terribly and in Chandigarh, Jeevika was in the same predicament. Viren once brought Maanvi to Vadhera House but Swamini Bua was dead against this and thus, Maanvi 's arrival caused lots of turbulence in the family. She had to return to Rishikesh. There, Maanvi comes to know that she has blood cancer. Meanwhile, Virat begins to fall for Manvi, who soon starts in falling love with each other. Due to an incident where Jeevika falls inside a pit and loses a huge amount of blood, and she needs blood where she can only get from Manvi however it is soon revealed that Manvi has blood cancer and needs a bone marrow transplant to survive. Jeevika, Virat and Manvi go to Mumbai to get Manvi 's treatment started. Meanwhile, Jeevika gets pregnant, but is left with no other choice than aborting her baby to save Manvi, as she is her only perfect bone marrow match. Following this, Virat and Manvi get married.
Just when everything seemed to be falling into places, a man named Karan who claims to be Swamini 's son, comes into the Vadhera family 's life. However it is later proved to Jeevika, he is getting revenge on the Vadhera family. Jeevila and Maanvi arrive at Karan 's bungalow one night and luckily, they saw and heard what he is planning with his business partner, Jaiswal. Karan becomes aware of the sisters ' presence and tries ti fight them. He tries to strangle Maanvi, which leads to Jeevika shooting Karan as self defence. Viraat witnesses the murder and decides to take the blame on himself while Swamini is miserable in her son 's death and blames Viraat. Jeevika is under Manvi 's promise not to tell anybody anything; however out of guilt, she reveals the truth to Viren. Viren tries to prove Jeevika 's innocence and later during the trial, a camera is found in which Jaiswal 's reflection when he is killing Karan, is seen by everyone. Jaiswal is the arrested.
After a while, Vadhera family welcomes happiness once again when Maanvi becomes pregnant. Unfortunately, at that time, everyone comes to know that Jeevika can no longer become pregnant. Viraat starts his music career without knowing that Viren has helped him and this leads to a terrible fight between the brothers; Viraat leaves Vadhera House. After some time, everything is going smoothly once again.
Jeevika and Maanvi 's father appears one day. Maanvi, though shocked but very happy to find that her father is alive, is vey surprised with Jeevika 's and their Grandmaa 's anger towards her father. She questions both and receives the news of her own father being the reason of her mother 's death - she committed suicide after learning that her husband was a cheater. Nevertheless, Manvi believes that her father should be forgiven as he has realized his mistakes and should be given another chance. But, Jeevika is against this. Yet, when Jeevika knows that her father is very ill, she forgives him and soon, they reconcile.
In the last episode, Vidhi, the surrogate mother of Viren and Jeevika 's child, leaves Vadhera House because she does n't want to cause any more issues. There was the naming ceremony of the babies where Viren and Jeevika named their daughter, Maansi while Viraat and Maanvi named their daughter, Jhanvi. During the celebrations, Jeevika comes to know that she 's pregnant. The whole family finally gets their happily ever after.
The show is produced and directed by Siddharth Malohtra of Cinevistaas Limited. Krystle D'Souza was cast to play the main lead as Jeevika Chaudhary along with Nia Sharma as Maanvi Chaudhary. Karan Tacker and Kushal Tandon both was finalised to play the main male leads. Abhinav Shukla was roped to play the 3rd main lead opposite Krystle. Other supporting cast included Seema Kapoor, Anju Mahendru, Manasvi Vyas, Anupam Bhattacharya, Divyajyotee Sharma, Gaurav Kumar, Deep Dhillon and Tarla Joshi were other supporting roles. Seema played a strict women and the main antagonist but later her character turned positive.
|
what movie is i yours jason mraz in | I 'm Yours (Jason Mraz song) - wikipedia
"I 'm Yours '' is the first single released by American singer - songwriter Jason Mraz from his third studio album We Sing. We Dance. We Steal Things. The song was originally released on a limited edition EP called Extra Credit as a demo in 2005 to promote his second studio album Mr. A -- Z. It was performed in his 2004 and 2005 gigs and already became a crowd favorite before its release. "I 'm Yours '' was nominated for Grammy Award for Song of the Year and Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 51st Grammy Awards. It was also used for the Australian Seven Network 's promotion of the season premiere of Packed to the Rafters.
"I 'm Yours '' was immensely successful in the US on the Billboard charts. At 76 weeks on the Hot 100, it held the record for most weeks spent on the chart, breaking the previous record of 69 weeks set by LeAnn Rimes ' song "How Do I Live '' in 1998; this record has since been broken by Imagine Dragons ' "Radioactive '', which spent 87 weeks on the chart, and AWOLNATION 's "Sail '', which spent 79 weeks on the chart. As of January 2013, it is the tenth best - selling digital song of all time in the US, selling over 6 million downloads, and 12.2 million worldwide. It remains Mraz 's biggest US hit single to date. The song was used as an ' inspiration ' for the Bollywood movie Nautanki Saala song "Mera Mann Kehne Laga ''.
Mraz first launched the song from the La Costa Resort and Spa in Carlsbad, California, at Michele Clark 's Sunset Sessions in 2008. He also sang a version on Sesame Street titled "Outdoors '' and released a successful remixed version featuring Lil Wayne and Jah Cure.
According to the sheet music published at musicnotes.com, the song is composed in the key of C major (recorded a half - step lower in B major).
The album was made available through digital stores on February 12, 2008. Throughout 2008, "I 'm Yours '' would slowly increase in airplay and digital sales to become Mraz 's biggest hit, charting higher than his previous pop hit, 2003 's "The Remedy (I Wo n't Worry) ''. It has become his first top ten single in the US, peaking at number six on the Billboard Hot 100 and number five on the Pop 100. On the Billboard Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks chart the song was number one for a total of nine weeks. The single later received Mainstream Top 40 airplay, eventually topping that chart as well. Due to its gradually building crossover appeal, the song has had extremely unusual longevity, not reaching number one on the Mainstream Top 40 until December 2008, ten months after its release and seven months after it debuted on the VH1 Top 20 Video Countdown. In fact, VH1 had already retired the song in early October 2008 after a 20 - week run. The song returned to the top ten of the Hot 100 for the third time in its 38th week on the chart. "I 'm Yours '' would go on to chart for a total of 76 weeks, making this the longest chart run in Billboard magazine history, up until the 87 - week run of Imagine Dragons ' "Radioactive '' and the 79 - week run of AWOLNATION 's "Sail '', both set in 2014.
A year into its release, it topped another chart for the first time, when it hit number one on the Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks during the week of February 5, 2009. This marked 11 months since the song had topped its first chart in the US, when it reached number one on the Triple A chart in March 2008. "I 'm Yours '' spent 16 weeks at number one on the Adult Contemporary chart. In addition, after topping the Adult Contemporary chart, "I 'm Yours '' became the first song to top the Triple A, Adult Top 40, Mainstream Top 40, and Adult Contemporary charts. Despite weak initial download sales, it became the eighth best - selling digital song in the United States by January 2012. It has sold 6,837,000 copies in the US as of April 23, 2014.
It is Mraz 's most successful global single to date, reaching number one in Sweden and Norway, and the top ten in Canada, United States, Austria, Australia, Germany, Switzerland, Spain and Italy. It was also able to reach number one on the Top 40 Digital Track Chart in Australia. In Hawaii, radio stations do play the original version, along with a Hawaiian remix of the song. "I 'm Yours '' has also been a huge hit in New Zealand where it peaked at number one, knocking off "Poker Face '' which spent ten consecutive weeks at number one. It was certified Gold after nine weeks selling over 7,500 copies and then certified Platinum after 14 weeks selling over 15,000 copies.
"I 'm Yours '' made its debut on the British singles chart on December 12, 2008, at number 78 and then slowly climbed up the chart until it peaked at number 11. It spent the whole of 2009 on the chart apart from the final two weeks of the year, then re-entered in January 2010 and again in August, and has now clocked up 56 weeks on the official UK Top 75, making it currently the 15th longest runner of all time and the longest never to make the Top 10, and 84 weeks on the Top 100.
The music video debuted in March 2008. I 'm Yours was later featured as the Record of the Week on Scott Mills 's BBC Radio One show on November 10, 2008. Since being added to YouTube it has been viewed over 350 million times as of August 2017. It was filmed in Hawaii (Oahu and Kauai) in 2008 with veteran music video director Darren Doane.
The video 's opening scene is an overhead shot of a private jet at Lihue Airport on Kauai. It sets up the next scene where Mraz is seated, supposedly, in that same airplane.
After gazing thoughtfully into a fish tank and putting on a backpack, Mraz 's video self departs an apartment, leaving the unit 's key behind. The location was an actual occupied apartment unit on the North Shore of Oahu. All furnishings belonged to the occupants.
Mraz sits in the backseat of a taxi. The scene was filmed the morning after completion of Oahu shooting. Doane hunkered down next to the big city of couple of guys in a pick - up truck who take him to the little - known skateboard park on Oahu 's North Shore.
Mraz hops in the back of yet another late model pick - up truck, this time with a trio of girls. The waterfall, on Oahu 's windward side, was suggested by the girl he 's seen conversing with at the skate park -- a North Shore resident he and Doane had just met.
After a plane ride from Oahu, Mraz catches a shuttle at the Lihue Airport and winds up in the east - side Kauai town, which he simply explores on foot.
While it appears in the video as if Mraz has n't left Kauai, these water shots were filmed in real surf off Mokuauia Island (Goat Island) on Oahu 's windward coast the day before leaving for Kauai shooting.
Mraz sings at an evening backyard jam with longtime percussionist Toca Rivera.
The final shot of Mraz kicking back on the Hanalei Bay landmark is actually the final shot of the "I 'm Yours '' shoot.
"I 'm Yours '' was used in Chilean new logo channel Canal 13 in 2010.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
|
who has the highest teenage pregnancy rate in the world | Prevalence of teenage pregnancy - wikipedia
Industrialized and developing countries have distinctly different rates of teenage pregnancy. In developed regions, such as United States, Canada, Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, teen parents tend to be unmarried and adolescent pregnancy is seen as a social issue.
By contrast, teenage parents in developing regions such as Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe, Latin America, and the Pacific Islands are often married, and their pregnancy may be welcomed by family and society. However, in these societies, early pregnancy may combine with malnutrition and poor health care to cause medical problems. A report by Save the Children found that, annually, 13 million children are born to women under age 20 worldwide. More than 90 % of these births occur to women living in developing countries. Complications of pregnancy and childbirth are the leading cause of mortality among women between the ages of 15 and 19 in such areas, as they are the leading cause of mortality among older women.
The age of the mother is determined by the easily verified date when the pregnancy ends, not by the estimated date of conception. Consequently, the statistics do not include women who first became pregnant before their 20th birthdays, if those pregnancies did not end until on or after their 20th birthdays.
The highest rate of teenage pregnancy in the world -- 143 per 1,000 girls aged 15 -- 19 years -- is in sub-Saharan Africa. Women in Africa, in general, get married at much earlier ages than women elsewhere -- leading to earlier pregnancies. In Nigeria, according to the Health and Demographic Survey in 1992, 47 % of women aged 20 -- 24 were married before 15 and 87 % before 18. 53 % of those surveyed also had given birth to a child before the age of 18. Teenage birth rates in African countries (2002) According to data from World Bank, as of 2015, the highest incidence of births among 15 - 19 years old girls was in: Niger, Mali, Angola, Guinea and Mozambique.
A Save the Children report identified 10 countries where motherhood carried the most risks for young women and their babies. Of these, 9 were in sub-Saharan Africa, and Niger, Liberia, and Mali were the nations where girls were the most at - risk. In the 10 highest - risk nations, more than one in six teenage girls between the ages of 15 to 19 gave birth annually, and nearly one in seven babies born to these teenagers died before the age of one year.
In the Indian subcontinent, premarital sex is uncommon, but early marriage sometimes means adolescent pregnancy. The rate of early marriage is higher in rural regions than it is in urbanized areas. Fertility rates in South Asia range from 71 to 119 births a trend towards increasing age at marriage for both sexes. In South Korea and Singapore, although the occurrence of sexual intercourse before marriage has risen, rates of adolescent childbearing are low at 4 to 8 per 1000. The rate of early marriage and pregnancy has decreased sharply in Indonesia; however, it remains high in comparison to the rest of Asia.
Surveys from Thailand have found that a significant minority of unmarried adolescents are sexually active. Although premarital sex is considered normal behavior for males, particularly with prostitutes, it is not always regarded as such for females. Most Thai youth reported that their first sexual experience, whether within or outside of marriage, was without contraception. The adolescent fertility rate in Thailand is relatively high at 60 per 1000. 25 % of women admitted to hospitals in Thailand for complications of induced abortion are students. The Thai government has undertaken measures to inform the nation 's youth about the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases and unplanned pregnancy.
According to the World Health Organization, in several Asian countries including Bangladesh and Indonesia, a large proportion (26 - 37 %) of deaths among female adolescents can be attributed to maternal causes.
In 2015, the birth rate among teenage women in Australia was 11.9 births per 1,000 women. The rate has fallen from 55.5 births per 1,000 women in 1971, probably due to ease of access to effective birth control, rather than any decrease in sexual activity.
The overall trend in Europe since 1970 has been a decrease in the total fertility rate, an increase in the age at which women experience their first birth, and a decrease in the number of births among teenagers.
The rates of teenage pregnancy may vary widely within a country. For instance, in the United Kingdom, the rate of adolescent pregnancy in 2002 was as high as 100.4 per 1000 among young women living in the London Borough of Lambeth, and as low as 20.2 per 1000 among residents in the Midlands local authority area of Rutland. In Italy, the teenage birth rate in central regions is only 3.3 per 1,000, but, in the Mezzogiorno it is 10.0 per 1000.
Teenage birth is often associated with economic and social issues: such as alcohol and drug misuse and, across 13 nations in the European Union, women who gave birth as teenagers were twice as likely to be living in poverty, compared with those who first gave birth when they were over 20.
Romania and Bulgaria have some of the highest teenage birth rates in Europe. As of 2015, Bulgaria had a birth rate of 37 / 1.000 women aged 15 - 19, and Romania of 34. Both countries also have very large Romani populations, who have an occurrence of teenage pregnancies well above the local average.
In recent years, the number of teenage mothers is declining in Bulgaria.
The Netherlands has a low rate of births and abortions among teenagers (5 births per 1,000 women aged 15 -- 19 in 2002). Compared with countries with higher teenage birth rates, the Dutch have a higher average age at first intercourse and increased levels of contraceptive use (including the "double Dutch '' method of using both a hormonal contraception method and a condom).
Nordic countries, such as Denmark and Sweden, also have low rates of teenage birth (both have 7 births per 1,000 women aged 15 -- 19 in 2002). However, Norway 's birth rate is slightly higher (11 births per 1,000 women aged 15 -- 19 in 2002) and Iceland has a birth rate of 19 per 1,000 women aged 15 -- 19 (nearly the same as the UK). These countries have higher abortion rates than the Netherlands.
In some countries, such as Italy and Spain, the rate of adolescent pregnancy is low (6 births per 1,000 women aged 15 -- 19 in 2002 in both countries). These two countries also have low abortion rates (lower than Sweden and the other Nordic countries) and their teenage pregnancy rates are among the lowest in Europe. Portugal, however, has a relatively high percentage of teenage pregnancy (17 births per 1,000 women aged 15 -- 19 in 2002).
The UK has one of the highest teenage birth rates in Europe with a rate of 26.4 teenage births per 1,000 women aged 15 -- 19 in 2006, down from 27.9 births in 2001. The UK also has a higher rate of abortion than most European countries. Of young Britons reported engaging in sexual intercourse whilst in their teens, 80 % said they did not use a form of contraception (Citation needed), although a half of those under 16, and one - third of those between 16 and 19, said they did not use a form of contraception during their first encounter (Citation needed). 10 % of British teen mothers are married. Adolescent pregnancy is viewed as a matter of concern by both the British government and the British press.
The Canadian teenage birth rate in 2002 was 16 per 1000 and the teenage pregnancy rate was 33.9. According to data from Statistics Canada, the Canadian teenage pregnancy rate has trended towards a steady decline for both younger (15 - 17) and older (18 - 19) teens in the period between 1992 - 2002. Canada 's highest teen pregnancy rates occur in small towns located in rural parts of peninsular Ontario. Alberta and Quebec have high teen pregnancy rates as well.
In 2016, the Minister of Health and Social Protection of Colombia, Alejandro Gaviria Uribe announced that "teenage pregnancy decreased by two percentage points breaking the growing tendency that had been seen since the nineties ''.
In 2013, the teenage birth rate in the United States reached a historic low: 26.6 births per 1,000 women aged 15 -- 19. More than three - quarters of these births are to adult women aged 18 or 19. In 2005 in the U.S., the majority (57 %) of teen pregnancies resulted in a live birth, 27 % ended in an induced abortion, and 16 % in a fetal loss.
The U.S. teen birth rate was 53 births per 1,000 women aged 15 -- 19 in 2002, the highest in the developed world. If all pregnancies, including those that end in abortion or miscarriage, are taken into account, the total rate in 2000 was 75.4 pregnancies per 1,000 girls. Nevada and the District of Columbia have the highest teen pregnancy rates in the U.S., while North Dakota has the lowest. Over 80 % of teenage pregnancies in the U.S. are unintended; approximately one third end in abortion, one third end in spontaneous miscarriage, and one third will continue their pregnancy and keep their baby.
However, the trend is decreasing: in 1990, the birth rate was 61.8, and the pregnancy rate 116.9 per thousand. This decline has manifested across all races, although teenagers of African - American and Hispanic descent retain a higher rate, in comparison to that of European - Americans and Asian - Americans. The Guttmacher Institute attributed about 25 % of the decline to abstinence and 75 % to the effective use of contraceptives.
Within the United States teen pregnancy is often brought up in political discourse. The goal to limit teen pregnancy is shared by Republicans and Democrats, though avenues of reduction are usually different. Many Democrats cite teen pregnancy as proof of the continuing need for access to birth control and sexual education, while Republicans often cite a need for returning to conservative values, often including abstinence.
An inverse correlation has been noted between teen pregnancy rates and the quality of education in a state. A positive correlation, albeit weak, appears between a city 's teen pregnancy rate and its average summer night temperature, especially in the Southern U.S. (Savageau, compiler, 1993 -- 1995).
The birth rate for women aged 15 -- 19 is one of the World Bank 's World Development Indicators. The data for most countries and a variety of groupings (e.g. Sub-Saharan Africa or OECD members) are published regularly, and can be viewed or downloaded from a United Nations website.
Per 1,000 women 15 -- 19 years old, source:
Per 1,000 women 15 -- 19 years old, source:
Per 1000 women 15 -- 19, (% aborted = % of teenage pregnancies ending in abortion) source:
|
who made the first translation of the bible | Bible translations into English - wikipedia
Partial Bible translations into languages of the English people can be traced back to the late 7th century, including translations into Old and Middle English. More than 450 translations into English have been written.
The New Revised Standard Version is the version most commonly preferred by biblical scholars. In the United States, 55 % of survey respondents who read the Bible reported using the King James Version in 2014, followed by 19 % for the New International Version, with other versions used by fewer than 10 %.
Although John Wycliffe is often credited with the first translation of the Bible into English, there were, in fact, many translations of large parts of the Bible centuries before Wycliffe 's work. The English Bible was first translated from the Latin Vulgate into Old English by a few select monks and scholars. Such translations were generally in the form of prose or as interlinear glosses (literal translations above the Latin words). Very few complete translations existed during that time. Rather, most of the books of the Bible existed separately and were read as individual texts. Thus, the sense of the Bible as history that often exists today did not exist at that time. Instead, an allegorical rendering of the Bible was more common and translations of the Bible often included the writer 's own commentary on passages in addition to the literal translation.
Toward the end of the 7th century, the Venerable Bede began a translation of scripture into Old English (often incorrectly called Anglo - Saxon). Aldhelm (c. 639 -- 709) translated the complete Book of Psalms and large portions of other scriptures into Old English.
In the 10th century an Old English translation of the Gospels was made in the Lindisfarne Gospels: a word - for - word gloss inserted between the lines of the Latin text by Aldred, Provost of Chester - le - Street. This is the oldest extant translation of the Gospels into the English language.
The Wessex Gospels (also known as the West - Saxon Gospels) are a full translation of the four gospels into a West Saxon dialect of Old English. Produced in approximately 990, they are the first translation of all four gospels into English without the Latin text.
In the 11th century, Abbot Ælfric translated much of the Old Testament into Old English. The Old English Hexateuch is an illuminated manuscript of the first six books of the Old Testament without lavish illustrations and including a translation of the Book of Judges in addition to the 5 books of the Pentateuch.
The Ormulum is in Middle English of the 12th century. Like its Old English precursor from Ælfric, an Abbot of Eynsham, it includes very little Biblical text, and focuses more on personal commentary. This style was adopted by many of the original English translators. For example, the story of the Wedding at Cana is almost 800 lines long, but fewer than 40 lines are the actual translation of the text. An unusual characteristic is that the translation mimics Latin verse, and so is similar to the better known and appreciated 14th - century English poem, Cursor Mundi.
Richard Rolle (1290 -- 1349) wrote an English Psalter. Many religious works are attributed to Rolle, but it has been questioned how many are genuinely from his hand. Many of his works were concerned with personal devotion, and some were used by the Lollards.
The 14th century theologian John Wycliffe is credited with translating what is now known as Wycliffe 's Bible, though it is not clear how much of the translation he himself did. This translation came out in two different versions. The earlier text is characterised by a strong adherence to the word order of Latin, and might have been difficult for the layperson to comprehend. The later text made more concessions to the native grammar of English.
Early Modern English Bible translations are of between about 1500 and 1800, the period of Early Modern English. This, the first major period of Bible translation into the English language, began with the introduction of the Tyndale Bible. The first complete edition of his New Testament was in 1526. Tyndale used the Greek and Hebrew texts of the New Testament (NT) and Old Testament (OT) in addition to Jerome 's Latin translation. He was the first translator to use the printing press -- this enabled the distribution of several thousand copies of his New Testament translation throughout England. Tyndale did not complete his Old Testament translation. The first printed English translation of the whole bible was produced by Miles Coverdale in 1535, using Tyndale 's work together with his own translations from the Latin Vulgate or German text. After much scholarly debate it is concluded that this was printed in Antwerp and the colophon gives the date as 4th October 1535. This first edition was adapted by Coverdale for his first "authorised version '', known as the Great Bible, of 1539. Other early printed versions were the Geneva Bible (1560), notable for being the first Bible divided into verses; the Bishop 's Bible (1568), which was an attempt by Elizabeth I to create a new authorised version; and the Authorized King James Version of 1611.
The first complete Roman Catholic Bible in English was the Douay -- Rheims Bible, of which the New Testament portion was published in Rheims in 1582 and the Old Testament somewhat later in Douay in Gallicant Flanders. The Old Testament was completed by the time the New Testament was published, but due to extenuating circumstances and financial issues was not published until nearly three decades later, in two editions, the first released in 1609, and the rest of the OT in 1610. In this version, the seven deuterocanonical books are mingled with the other books, rather than kept separate in an appendix.
While early English Bibles were generally based on a small number of Greek texts, or on Latin translations, modern English translations of the Bible are based on a wider variety of manuscripts in the original languages (Greek and Hebrew). The translators put much scholarly effort into cross-checking the various sources such as the Septuagint, Textus Receptus, and Masoretic Text. Relatively recent discoveries such as the Dead Sea scrolls provide additional reference information. There is some controversy over which texts should be used as a basis for translation, as some of the alternate sources do not include phrases (or sometimes entire verses) which are found only in the Textus Receptus. Some say the alternate sources were poorly representative of the texts used in their time, whereas others claim the Textus Receptus includes passages that were added to the alternate texts improperly. These controversial passages are not the basis for disputed issues of doctrine, but tend to be additional stories or snippets of phrases. Many modern English translations, such as the New International Version, contain limited text notes indicating where differences occur in original sources. A somewhat greater number of textual differences are noted in the New King James Bible, indicating hundreds of New Testament differences between the Nestle - Aland, the Textus Receptus, and the Hodges edition of the Majority Text. The differences in the Old Testament are less well documented, but do contain some references to differences between consonantal interpretations in the Masoretic Text, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the Septuagint. Even with these hundreds of differences, however, a more complete listing is beyond the scope of most single volume Bibles (see Critical Translations below).
Modern translations take different approaches to the rendering of the original languages of approaches. The approaches can usually be considered to be somewhere on a scale between the two extremes:
Some translations have been motivated by a strong theological distinctive, such as the conviction that God 's name be preserved in a Semitic form, seen in Sacred Name Bibles. The Purified Translation of the Bible promotes the idea that Jesus and early Christians did not drink wine, but grape juice. The Jehovah 's Witnesses ' New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures renders the tetragrammaton as Jehovah throughout the Old Testament; it also uses the form Jehovah in the New Testament, including but not limited to passages quoting the Old Testament, even though it does not appear in the Greek text.
Outline of Bible - related topics
While most translations are made by committees of scholars in order to avoid bias or idiosyncrasy, translations are sometimes made by individuals. The translation of J.B. Phillips (1958), The Bible in Living English (1972) by Stephen T. Byington, J.N. Darby 's Darby Bible (1890), Heinz Cassirer 's translation (1989), R.A. Knox (1950), Gerrit Verkuyl 's Berkeley Version (1959), The Complete Jewish Bible (1998) by Dr. David H. Stern, Robert Young 's Literal Translation (1862), Jay P. Green 's Literal Translation (1985), The Emphatic Diaglott by Benjamin Wilson (1864), Noah Webster 's Bible Translation (1833), The Original Aramaic Bible in Plain English (2010) by David Bauscher, American King James Version (1999) by Michael Engelbrite, The Living Bible (1971) by Kenneth N. Taylor, The Modern Reader 's Bible (1914) by Richard Moulton, The Five Pauline Epistles, A New Translation (1900) by William Gunion Rutherford, Joseph Bryant Rotherham 's Emphasized Bible (1902), Professor S.H. Hooke 's The Bible in Basic English (1949), The Holy Name Bible containing the Holy Name Version of the Old and New Testaments (1963) by Angelo Traina, and Eugene H. Peterson 's The Message (2002) are largely the work of individual translators. Others, such as Robert Alter, N.T. Wright and Dele Ikeorha have translated portions of the Bible.
Most translations make the translators ' best attempt at a single rendering of the original, relying on footnotes where there might be alternative translations or textual variants. An alternative is taken by the Amplified Bible. In cases where a word or phrase admits of more than one meaning the Amplified Bible presents all the possible interpretations, allowing the reader to choose one. For example, the first two verses of the Amplified Bible read:
In the beginning God (Elohim) created (by forming from nothing) the heavens and the earth. The earth was formless and void or a waste and emptiness, and darkness was upon the face of the deep (primeval ocean that covered the unformed earth). The Spirit of God was moving (hovering, brooding) over the face of the waters.
While most translations attempt to synthesize the various texts in the original languages, some translations also translate one specific textual source, generally for scholarly reasons. A single volume example for the Old Testament is The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible (ISBN 0 - 06 - 060064 - 0) by Martin Abegg, Peter Flint and Eugene Ulrich.
The Comprehensive New Testament (ISBN 978 - 0 - 9778737 - 1 - 5) by T.E. Clontz and J. Clontz presents a scholarly view of the New Testament text by conforming to the Nestle - Aland 27th edition and extensively annotating the translation to fully explain different textual sources and possible alternative translations.
A Comparative Psalter (ISBN 0 - 19 - 529760 - 1) edited by John Kohlenberger presents a comparative diglot translation of the Psalms of the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint, using the Revised Standard Version and the New English Translation of the Septuagint.
R.A. Knox 's Translation of the Vulgate into English is another example of a single source translation.
Jewish English Bible translations are modern English Bible translations that include the books of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) according to the masoretic text, and according to the traditional division and order of Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim.
Jewish translations often also reflect traditional Jewish interpretations of the Bible, as opposed to the Christian understanding that is often reflected in non-Jewish translations. For example, Jewish translations translate עלמה ' almâh in Isaiah 7: 14 as young woman, while many Christian translations render the word as virgin.
While modern biblical scholarship is similar for both Christians and Jews, there are distinctive features of Jewish translations, even those created by academic scholars. These include the avoidance of Christological interpretations, adherence to the Masoretic Text (at least in the main body of the text, as in the new Jewish Publication Society (JPS) translation) and greater use of classical Jewish exegesis. Some translations prefer names transliterated from the Hebrew, though the majority of Jewish translations use the Anglicized forms of biblical names.
The first English Jewish translation of the Bible into English was by Isaac Leeser in the 19th century.
The JPS produced two of the most popular Jewish translations, namely the JPS The Holy Scriptures of 1917 and the NJPS Tanakh (first printed in a single volume in 1985, second edition in 1999).
Since the 1980s there have been multiple efforts among Orthodox publishers to produce translations that are not only Jewish, but also adhere to Orthodox norms. Among these are The Living Torah and Nach by Aryeh Kaplan and others, the Torah and other portions in an ongoing project by Everett Fox, and the ArtScroll Tanakh.
The evangelical Christian Booksellers Association lists the most popular versions of the Bible sold by their members in the United States. Through 29 December 2012, the top 5 best selling translations (based on both dollar and unit sales) are as follows:
Sales are affected by denomination and religious affiliation. For example, the most popular Jewish version would not compete with rankings of a larger audience. Sales data can be affected by the method of marketing. Some translations are directly marketed to particular denominations or local churches, and many Christian booksellers only offer Protestant Bibles, so Catholic and Orthodox Bibles may not appear as high on the CBA rank.
A study published in 2014 by The Center for the Study of Religion and American Culture at Indiana University and Purdue University found that Americans read versions of the Bible as follows:
|
which were the issue(s) voters had on their minds in the 1946 congressional elections | United States House of Representatives elections, 1946 - wikipedia
Sam Rayburn Democratic
Joseph Martin Republican
Elections to the United States House of Representatives for the 80th United States Congress took place in 1946. These midterm elections occurred 19 months after President Harry S. Truman assumed office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Truman was Vice President under President Franklin D. Roosevelt and was thrust into the presidency following Roosevelt 's death. Truman did not garner the same support as the deceased president. Democrats had controlled Congress since 1931, for 16 years, and Roosevelt had been elected to a record four terms in office. The 1946 election resulted in Republicans picking up 55 seats to win majority control. Joseph William Martin, Jr., Republican of Massachusetts, became Speaker of the House, exchanging places with Sam Rayburn, Democrat of Texas, who became the new Minority Leader. The Democratic defeat was the largest since they were trounced in the 1928 pro-Republican wave that brought Herbert Hoover to power.
The vote was largely seen as a referendum on Truman, whose approval rating had sunk to 32 percent over the president 's controversial handling of a wave of post-war labor strikes, including a United Auto Workers strike against Ford and General Motors in 1945, a United Mine Workers strike starting in April 1946, and a national railroad worker strike that began in May. Further, the back - and - forth over whether to end unpopular wartime price controls to handle shortages, particularly in meat and other foodstuffs. While Truman 's early months in the White House had been plagued with questions of "What would Roosevelt do if he were alive? '' Republicans now began to joke "What would Truman do if he were alive? '' and "To err is Truman. '' The Republican majority was short - lived however, with Democrats winning control of the House two years later.
This election included the addition of two future U.S. Presidents in John F. Kennedy (D - Massachusetts) and Richard M. Nixon (R - California).
Source: Election Statistics - Office of the Clerk
In these special elections, the winner was seated during 1946 or before January 3, 1947; ordered by election date, then by district.
In these general elections, the winners were elected for the term beginning January 3, 1947; grouped by state and ordered by district.
|
who plays sally on third rock from the sun | Kristen Johnston - wikipedia
Kristen Johnston (born September 20, 1967) is an American actress. She is most famous for her role as Sally Solomon in the television series 3rd Rock from the Sun. She also starred as Wilma Flintstone in The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas and as Holly Franklin in the sitcom The Exes.
Johnston was born in Washington, DC, and was raised mostly in Fox Point, Wisconsin, a suburb of Milwaukee, where she attended St. Eugene 's Catholic Grade School and Whitefish Bay High School. She spent some of her teen years in Sweden and in South America. She earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in drama at New York University.
Johnston made her professional stage debut with New York 's Atlantic Theater Company, which was founded by playwright David Mamet. During her association with that company, she appeared in such productions as As You Like It, Girl 's Talk, Stage Door, Author 's Voice, Portrait of a Woman, and Rosemary for Remembrance.
She has performed with the Naked Angels Theater Company in The Stand - In and Hot Keys, and with New York Stage and Film in Kim 's Sister, with David Strathairn and Jane Adams. For her performance in The Lights at Lincoln Center Theater, Johnston was nominated for a Drama Desk Award as Best Supporting Actress. The show brought her to the attention of a Carsey - Werner television executive. After numerous auditions in 1996 for the TV series 3rd Rock from the Sun, she won the role of Sally Solomon. She starred in the series from 1996 to 2001 along with John Lithgow, Jane Curtin, French Stewart, and Joseph Gordon - Levitt, and the role earned her two Emmy Awards for best supporting actress in a comedy series.
Johnston made her feature film debut in The Debt, winner of Best Short at the 1993 Cannes Film Festival. In 1995, she played Kate in Backfire! She played Esmeralda, a sea hag in "Thrill Ride '', a family friendly film to be released in 2016. Other television credits include guest - starring roles on the series Chicago Hope, Hearts Afire, and The 5 Mrs. Buchanans. She was also the narrator in Microscopic Milton on the Disney Channel. Her significant roles in commercially successful movies included Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me in 1999, Ice Age and Austin Powers in Goldmember in 2002, and Music and Lyrics in 2007.
In 1998, she was a spokesmodel for the Clairol company, as well as appearing on Bad Religion 's No Substance album cover.
Johnston appeared in the sixth and final season of Sex and the City. In the episode entitled "Splat! '', her character, Lexi Featherston, an aging party girl, accidentally falls out of a window and dies (after saying, "I 'm so bored I could die. ''), prompting Carrie Bradshaw (played by Sarah Jessica Parker) to re-examine her life. In 2005, Johnston was featured in six episodes of NBC 's ER. She was cast as Patsy in a proposed American remake of the British TV show Absolutely Fabulous, but the series was never picked up by a network. She appeared in a recurring role in the 2009 season of Ugly Betty and had a single - episode appearance as a dominatrix in the second season opener of Bored to Death.
She starred in the TV Land sitcom The Exes, which ran for four seasons between November 30, 2011 and September 16, 2015.
Her father is former Wisconsin Republican state senator Rod Johnston.
In her autobiography, Guts: The Endless Follies and Tiny Triumphs of a Giant Disaster, Johnston discusses an addiction to alcohol and pills that began when she was in high school. She stated in the 2012 book that she had been sober for five years. Through her charity SLAM, NYC (Sobriety, Learning and Motivation), she mentors high school girls from New York City with addiction and self - esteem issues and has been crusading for the city to build a recovery high school.
Johnston said she was diagnosed in November 2013 with lupus myelitis, which caused her to miss filming for some episodes of her series The Exes. A character played by Leah Remini was introduced in season three to cover Johnston 's absence.
|
where does salt water taffy get its name | Salt water taffy - wikipedia
Salt water taffy is a variety of soft taffy originally produced and marketed in the Atlantic City, New Jersey, area of the Jersey Shore starting in the 1880s.
The original invention of the candy has several different stories circulating, likely all apocryphal, but usually all relating to an assistant who substituted fresh water with sea water -- either through laziness or accident. Joseph Fralinger popularized the candy by boxing it and selling it in Atlantic City. Fralinger 's first major competition came from candy maker Enoch James, who refined the recipe, making it less sticky and easier to unwrap. James also cut the candy into bite - sized pieces, and is credited with mechanizing the "pulling '' process. Both Fralinger 's and James 's stores still operate on the Atlantic City boardwalk. Both companies have been owned and operated by the Glaser family since 1947.
On August 21, 1923, John Edmiston obtained a trademark for the name "salt water taffy '' (number 172,016), then demanded royalties from companies using his newly acquired name. He was sued over this demand, and in 1925, the trademark was invalidated as being in common use.
Salt water taffy is still sold widely on the boardwalks in Atlantic City (including shops in existence since the 1800s), nearby island Ocean City, and other popular beaches throughout the United States, especially Cape Cod, and Atlantic Canada, as well as in Salt Lake City, Utah. Taffy is also distributed throughout the U.S. to some specialty shops and markets, and other places where an especially wide and diverse variety of candy is sold. It is also available for mail order through Internet sources.
Salt water taffy is composed of sugar, cornstarch, corn syrup, glycerine, water, butter, salt, natural and / or artificial flavor, and food color. Some examples of flavoring include vanilla, lemon, maple, banana, red licorice, watermelon, raspberry or mint extracts. Despite its name, the taffy contains no salt water (seawater), but does contain both salt and water.
|
give me the cast of game of thrones | List of Game of Thrones characters - wikipedia
The characters from the American medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones are based on their respective counterparts from author George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series of novels. Set in a fictional universe that has been referred to so far as "The Known World, '' the series follows a civil war for the Iron Throne of the continent of Westeros, fought between the rival royal and noble families and their respective supporters.
The following cast members have been credited as main cast in the opening credits:
In seasons 6 and 7, Sebastian Croft portrays Ned Stark as a child and Robert Aramayo portrays him as a young man. In season 5, Nell Williams portrays Cersei Lannister in a flashback scene. In season 3, Daario Naharis is portrayed by Ed Skrein. In season 1, Jaqen H'ghar appears in one scene, portrayed by an uncredited extra. In seasons 1 and 2, Tommen Baratheon is portrayed by Callum Wharry.
Additionally the following cast members have appeared in 10 or more episodes of the show while maintaining a ' recurring ' status:
In season 6, Sam Coleman portrays Hodor as a child (originally named Wylis). In season 1, Gregor Clegane is portrayed by Conan Stevens and by Ian Whyte in season 2. In seasons 1 and 2, Myrcella Baratheon is portrayed by Aimee Richardson. In season 6, Rodrik Cassel is portrayed by Fergus Leathem in flashback scenes. In season 1, Beric Dondarrion is portrayed by David Michael Scott. In season 2, Selyse Florent is portrayed by uncredited extra Sarah MacKeever. In seasons 3 -- 5, Little Sam is portrayed by uncredited infant extras.
Ned Stark (season 1, 6 - 7) portrayed by Sean Bean in season 1 as an adult, and by Sebastian Croft in season 6 as a child, and Robert Aramayo in season 6 and 7 as a young adult. Eddard "Ned '' Stark of House Stark, Lord of Winterfell and Warden of the North, becomes the Hand of the King after Lord Jon Arryn 's death. He is known for his sense of honor and justice. He took part in Robert 's Rebellion after his sister Lyanna was kidnapped by Crown Prince Rhaegar Targaryen. When Ned 's father and brother went south to reclaim her, the "Mad King '' Aerys Targaryen burned both of them alive. Ned and Robert Baratheon led the rebellion to unseat him from the throne. As the show opens, Ned has been content to remain in the north, but after the death of Lord Jon Arryn, he is convinced that it is his duty to accept the position of Hand of the King. Ned is not interested in politics, and prefers to rule with honor and follow the law. While investigating the reason for the death of Jon Arryn, he discovers that all three of Robert 's children with Queen Cersei were fathered by Cersei 's twin brother Jaime. When Ned confronts Cersei about the truth, she has him imprisoned for treason after he publicly denounces Joffrey. Ned is convinced by Varys that if he goes to his death honorably, as he is prepared to do, his daughters will suffer for it. To protect them, he sacrifices his honor and publicly declares that he was plotting to steal the throne and that Joffrey is the true king. Despite Cersei 's promise that Ned would be allowed to join the Night 's Watch in exile, Joffrey orders Ned 's execution for his own amusement and later torments Sansa by forcing her to look at her father 's head. His bones are later returned to Catelyn in the Stormlands by Petyr Baelish, who laments Ned 's downfall and that he was too honorable to seize power through force, rather insisting the throne pass to Lord Stannis Baratheron, Robert 's younger brother. Baelish 's preferred course of action, revealed only to Ned, had been to seize Cersei and her children first and rule in Joffrey 's name as Regent and Lord Protector. Ned 's execution, however, is not in vain, since he notifies Stannis of the truth of Joffrey 's parentage, and Stannis informs all of Westeros, which sets into motion the War of Five Kings against House Lannister.
Robert Baratheon (season 1) portrayed by Mark Addy. Robert Baratheon of House Baratheon, formerly a fierce warrior, became King of the Seven Kingdoms after leading a rebellion against Aerys II Targaryen. He was betrothed to Ned Stark 's sister Lyanna and loved her deeply, and she was kidnapped by Rhaegar Targaryen. Her father and another brother were killed when they went to King 's Landing to reclaim her, which resulted in Robert and Ned Stark 's revolt known as Robert 's Rebellion, whereupon the Targaryens were all slaughtered or routed from the Kingdoms. Since Robert 's family had closer ties to the former Royal family, this put Robert on the Iron Throne. Now, Robert has grown fat and miserable; he has no more wars to fight, is surrounded by plotters and sycophants, hates and is bored by the constant work needed to manage the Kingdoms properly, and trapped in a political marriage to the scheming Cersei Lannister, whom he has never loved. He is unaware that none of his three children are his, but instead Jaime Lannister 's. Under his reign, the realm has been bankrupted, and Robert is deeply in debt to his wife 's family. Killed while hunting, he unknowingly leaves no rightful heir behind. His bastards are ordered dead by Joffrey, many of which are killed, and Gendry is subsequently forced to flee the capital.
Jaime Lannister (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Nikolaj Coster - Waldau. Ser Jaime Lannister of House Lannister is a member of the Kingsguard and an exceptionally skilled swordsman. He is the Queen 's twin brother and has carried on an incestuous love affair with her all his life, fathering all three of her living children. He truly does love his sister and will do anything, no matter how rash, to stay close to her. He is nicknamed "Kingslayer '' for killing the previous King, Aerys II, whom he was sworn to protect. He was allowed to keep his post in the current Kingsguard as he and his influential father helped Robert win the war, but no one feels he deserves this post, which frustrates Jaime. Despite Eddard Stark 's animosity against him for forsaking his oath to protect the King during Robert 's Rebellion, Jaime has great respect for Eddard, whom he considers a great warrior and his equal. Unlike his father and sister, Jaime cares deeply about his younger brother Tyrion. In Season 2, Catelyn releases and sends Jaime to King 's Landing under Brienne of Tarth 's watch in exchange for a pledge to send her daughters home. On the journey, they are captured by the violent Locke, a man - at - arms under Roose Bolton, a Northern Lord. On their way to Harrenhal, now held by Bolton, the lowborn Locke cuts off Jaime 's sword hand to taunt his position and privilege. Jaime survives and is allowed to depart Harrenhal on condition that he acquits Bolton from any guilt. During his time in Harrenhal, Jaime reveals to Brienne on why he killed King Aerys II. Once freed, Jaime travels to King 's Landing with Brienne and disgraced Maester Qyburn, given by Bolton to tend to his injury, in tow. At the end of Season 3, they arrive at the gates and Jaime reunites with Cersei. In season 4, Jaime is fitted with a golden prosthetic hand and given a new sword, and is trained by Bronn in fencing with his left hand. Jaime is one of the few people in King 's Landing who believe in Tyrion 's innocence in killing Joffrey, and does his best to comfort his younger brother, while outright refusing Cersei 's order to kill Tyrion before his trial. When Tyrion is sentenced to death, Jaime frees Tyrion from captivity and arranges for him to be smuggled to Essos with Varys 's help. Jaime tells Cersei that he will travel to Dorne and bring Myrcella back. Myrcella says that she likes it in Dorne and does n't want to go back to King 's Landing. However, she eventually leaves with her uncle and Trystane, after Doran bargains to have his son take his seat on the Small Council. On the journey home, Jaime reveals his incestuous relationship to Cersei to their daughter, who then reveals she knows and is glad that Jaime is her father and hugs him, but moments later Myrcella collapses from poison and dies. In season 6, Jaime returns to King 's Landing with Myrcella 's body and sends Doran a letter requesting the heads of Ellaria, Obara, Nymeria and Tyene, but later hears that both Doran and Trystane were killed by the Sands. In response to Cersei 's humiliation by the Faith Militant, Jaime ponders murdering the High Sparrow and marching on the Great Sept of Baelor with the army of House Tyrell to forcibly rescue Margaery from custody. He is foiled, however, when Tommen declares an allegiance between the Faith and the Crown, and dismisses Jaime from the Kingsguard, clearly on the High Sparrow 's orders. Jaime is later sent to the Riverlands with Bronn to oversee the surrender of Riverrun. He parleys with Brynden "The Blackfish '' Tully, to no avail, and then falsely threatens Edmure Tully with the murder of his baby son if he does not get his men to surrender the castle. The castle eventually falls to the Lannisters and Freys. Jaime briefly crosses paths with Brienne and Podrick, but allows them to leave peacefully. He returns to King 's Landing shortly after the Great Sept 's destruction, and enters the Red Keep to see Cersei being crowned Queen. In Season 7 he commands the Lannister army, capturing Highgarden but suffering defeat when ambushed by Daenerys ' Dothraki forces and dragons. He clashes with Cersei over the threat from the Army of the Dead, and when she breaks her word over sending military support he leaves her and rides north alone.
Catelyn Stark (season 1 -- 3) portrayed by Michelle Fairley. Catelyn Stark of House Stark and House Tully (née Tully), Lady of Winterfell, is the wife of Lord Eddard Stark. Born to the Lord and Lady of the Riverlands, she is the elder sister of Lysa Arryn, Lady of the Vale and Mistress of the Eyrie, and Lord Edmure Tully, Lord of Riverrun. After deducing that the Lannisters are responsible for the attempt on Bran Stark 's life, she travels to King 's Landing to warn Ned, and on her return trip has a chance encounter with Tyrion Lannister. Since Catelyn does not know about Tyrion 's complete innocence, she decides to take him captive because she believes that he is behind the attempt on her son 's life. She takes him to her sister, Lysa Arryn, so that he can be brought to justice but is not successful, as Tyrion is found innocent after a trial by combat. After her husband is arrested and her eldest son Robb goes to war for his release, she joins her son 's war council. Upon learning that her husband was executed by orders of King Joffrey, she vows to her son Robb that the Lannister family will pay with their lives. Throughout Season 2, she aids her son Robb in the rebellion by advising him and attempting to broker alliances. While trying to form an alliance with Renly Baratheon, another claimant to the Iron Throne, she takes Brienne of Tarth into her service as an armswoman after Renly 's assassination. She frees Jaime Lannister, a valuable hostage to the Starks, in an attempt to exchange him for her captive daughters. Robb, feeling betrayed by what his mother has done, puts her under house arrest. Catelyn travels north with her son to her father 's funeral at her childhood home of Riverrun. She is killed in the Red Wedding Massacre after her desperate (and futile) pleas to the Freys to spare her son, threatening to slit Lady Frey 's throat if Robb dies. She keeps her promise, and is herself killed moments later when "Black '' Walder Frey cuts her throat to the bone. In Season 4, it is stated that her body was stripped naked and thrown into the river after the massacre as a mockery of House Tully 's funeral traditions. Though House Stark is stripped of all lands and titles by House Lannister as a result of Robb 's death and his ultimately failed rebellion against the Iron Throne, Catelyn and her son are later avenged in Season 6 and the first episode of Season 7 when her eldest daughter Sansa Stark and Sansa 's half brother Jon Snow successfully overthrow House Bolton and retake Winterfell and Jon is crowned the King in the North by the remaining Northern lords, wildlings, and Knights of the Vale, restoring Stark rule in the North in the process, while her youngest daughter Arya Stark returns to Westeros, murders Walder Frey, and later uses his face to disguise herself as him to poison all his sons and male descendants at the Twins, ultimately avenging the Red Wedding and exterminating House Frey.
Cersei Lannister (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Lena Headey. Cersei Lannister of House Lannister and House Baratheon, Queen of the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros, is the wife of King Robert Baratheon. Her father arranged the marriage when she was a teenager, initiating himself as a political counselor for King Robert. The Lannisters are the richest family in Westeros, which is why Robert was interested in a marriage between them. Cersei has a twin brother, Jaime, with whom she has been involved in an incestuous affair from early childhood. All three of Cersei 's children are Jaime 's. Cersei 's main character attribute is her desire for power and her deep loyalty to her father, children, and brother Jaime. Cersei learns that her husband Robert is in danger of finding out that the children he sees as his heirs to the throne are not his. Robert meets his end as the result of a boar attack on a hunting trip, before Ned Stark tells him of the truth about his children. Cersei works quickly to instate her oldest son, Joffrey, on the throne, with her as his chief political advisor and Queen Regent. Joffrey quits listening to his mother, and by the beginning of the second season her father decides Cersei does not exercise enough control over her son, and her father sends his youngest son Tyrion as an additional political advisor. Cersei and Tyrion do not get along, and constantly try to undermine each other 's authority over the crown. As of the end of season 2, Tyrion has accumulated more sway over the Iron Throne, and has shipped Cersei 's only daughter off against Cersei 's will to be married to the prince of Dorne. In season 3, she takes pleasure in Tyrion 's diminished position and taunts him for being forced into a marriage pact with Sansa Stark, only to be told by her father that he intends to marry her to Loras Tyrell. At the end of the season, the two siblings ponder at their respective marriages, and Cersei reunites with Jaime in her bedchamber as he unexpectedly returns from captivity. In season 4, she has Tyrion arrested after Joffrey is fatally poisoned. It is implied that she knows Tyrion 's guilt is highly unlikely, but just wants to see him dead, though Jaime refuses to carry out the order. Indeed, at Tyrion 's trial, it is obvious that Cersei has manipulated the entire procedure so that the only witnesses (herself, Lord Varys, Meryn Trant, Grand Maester Pycelle and Shae) give either incomplete or entirely false testimonies to implicate Tyrion and Sansa further in the murder. When Tyrion demands a trial by combat, Cersei quickly chooses Ser Gregor "The Mountain '' Clegane as her champion to diminish Tyrion 's chances of acquittal, and has Bronn betrothed to a noblewoman so that Tyrion can not choose him as his champion. Cersei 's wish comes true when Tyrion 's champion, Oberyn Martell, is killed by Clegane, but she still refuses to marry Loras, even threatening her father with revealing the truth about her relationship with Jaime and the parentage of her children. Tywin rebuffs her threats, though he himself is killed by an escaping Tyrion soon afterwards. Cersei attends Tywin 's funeral and later orders a bounty on Tyrion 's head. Cersei and Jaime receive a message from Dorne: a small viper statue with a necklace in its fangs. Cersei tells Jaime that the necklace belongs to their daughter, Myrcella, who was sent to Dorne by Tyrion. Jaime tells Cersei that he will travel to Dorne and bring Myrcella back. Cersei meets with two hunters who have brought her a severed head, though she is disappointed to find that it is not Tyrion 's head. Qyburn lays claim to the head for his research and the two walk to a small council meeting. With the office of Hand of the King vacant, Cersei tells the council that she will stand in temporarily until Tommen chooses a new Hand. She appoints Mace Tyrell as the new Master of Coin and Qyburn as the new Master of Whisperers. When Cersei tries to appoint her uncle Kevan as the Master of War, he declines, telling her that as the queen mother she holds no power, and has no interest in serving in a council filled with her sycophants. In defiance of Cersei 's "orders '', Kevan states that he will return to Casterly Rock until he hears direct word from Tommen that he is required. Tommen soon weds Margaery Tyrell. Under Margaery 's influence, Tommen drops hints that he would like Cersei to return to Casterly Rock, but she refuses, and confronts Margaery, who insults her. Cersei catches the High Septon being punished for entering a brothel by her cousin Lancel, who has become a member of the Faith Militant, an extremist group that worships the Seven. Cersei talks to their leader, the High Sparrow, and instates him as the new High Septon. The Faith Militant then aggressively puncture all barrels of wine and trash Petyr Baelish 's brothel. They also arrest Margaery 's brother Loras on the grounds of his homosexuality. Tommen, at Margaery 's insistence, tries to get Cersei to release Loras, but Cersei swears she had nothing to do with it. After a trial, Loras is arrested after a prostitute named Olyvar testifies against Loras. Margaery is also arrested for lying about Loras ' sexual orientation, and both are put in dungeons. All of this delights Cersei, who goes to see Margaery in her cell and brings her a bowl of venison stew. Cersei has one final talk with the High Sparrow about the accomplishments of the pair, but he soon reveals that Lancel has confessed everything (in Season 1, Cersei had sex with him in Jaime 's absence). Cersei is subsequently arrested for adultery, incest, and murder (it was her plan to get Robert drunk so that he would injure himself while hunting). She is only visited in her cell by Qyburn, who tells her that Grand Maester Pycelle has seized power of the throne, and that Kevan is serving as hand of the king. Cersei is distraught to learn that Tommen, anguished over his wife 's and mother 's arrests, has not been eating. Cersei is also visited by a septa, who orders her to confess to her sins. Cersei refuses, and she is hit by the septa. Weakened, Cersei is forced to lick the water off the floors of the cell. She eventually agrees to reveal herself to the High Septon, confessing her incestuous relationship to Lancel Lannister but refusing to admit more serious offences, which would be harder for the Faith to prove. The High Sparrow allows her to leave captivity in favor of house arrest in the Red Keep, pending the trial, but only if she agrees to do "atonement '' for her sins by being shaved and walking naked through the streets of King 's Landing. Cersei endures the walk with great resolve, bleeding and covered in filth as she eventually reaches the Keep, where she reunites with her uncle Kevan, now Hand of the King, and Qyburn, who introduces her to the newest member of the Kingsguard, a freakishly large, silent giant implied to be the reanimated corpse of Gregor Clegane. In season 6, Cersei remains under house arrest and is not allowed to attend the funeral of Myrcella, who was ultimately killed by Ellaria Sand. Though her initial plan is to demand a trial by combat and name Gregor as her champion, she is foiled when Tommen falls under the control of the High Sparrow and abolishes the practice, stripping Cersei of her trump card. In desperation, Cersei has Qyburn look into an "old rumour '', which turns out to be the Mad King 's wildfire caches. On the day of her and Loras 's trial, Cersei destroys the Great Sept of Baelor with the wildfire and kills hundreds of people, including Margaery, Loras, Mace Tyrell, Kevan, Lancel, the High Sparrow and the entire Faith Militant, and also has Grand Maester Pycelle killed in his chambers. With her enemies out of the way, Cersei crowns herself Queen and names Qyburn as her Hand. In Season 7 Cersei consolidates her position through alliances with the Tarlys and with Euron Greyjoy, who help her to capture Highgarden, destroy much of Daenerys ' fleet and take revenge on Ellaria Sand and the Sand Snakes. She tells Jamie she is pregnant and it pleases him when she says that she will name him as the father. Cersei agrees to Tyrion 's request for a parley with the Targaryen party, and is visibly shocked by the wight that has been brought south. She agrees to send a military force north to help the fight against the Army of the Dead, but reveals to Jamie that she has no intention of keeping her word. Jamie argues, and although Cersei threatens to have him killed she takes no action against him as he leaves her to go north.
Daenerys Targaryen (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Emilia Clarke. Daenerys Targaryen is the exiled princess of the Targaryen dynasty. Also called "the Stormborn '', she and her brother Viserys were smuggled to Essos during the end of Robert 's Rebellion. For seventeen years, she has been under the care of Viserys, whom she fears, as he is abusive to her whenever she displeases him. In exchange for an army, Viserys marries her to the powerful Dothraki warlord Khal Drogo, making her a Khaleesi, a queen of the Dothraki. Daenerys is at first afraid of her new husband but after learning the Dothraki language, she manages to get past their barriers. She begins to understand him and genuinely falls in love with him after learning Drogo is an intelligent leader and a kind man. After embracing the Dothraki culture, she becomes stronger and rebels against her brother. She later becomes pregnant with Drogo 's son who is prophesied by the Dothraki to be the "Stallion Who Mounts the World ''. After her brother 's death and an assassination attempt by Robert Baratheon, Drogo vows to Daenerys that he will conquer the Seven Kingdoms for her and their unborn son. However, during their journey Drogo suffers from blood poisoning due to an infected wound incurred during a fight with a Dothraki tribesman. Daenerys is forced to seek the help of healer Mirri Maz Duur to save his life using blood magic. Mirri tricks Daenerys by using her unborn son 's life as a sacrifice to heal Drogo, leaving him in a permanent catatonic state, and forcing Daenerys to end her husband 's life. Losing both her husband and son, Daenerys punishes Mirri by having her burnt at the stake. She also lays the three dragon eggs she received as a wedding gift onto Khal Drogo 's body, then steps into the burning funeral pyre. After the fire extinguishes itself, the Khaleesi and three baby dragons, named Drogon, Rhaegal, and Viserion, are found alive and unharmed. Daenerys takes the baby dragons and the remaining tribe to gather new allies and reclaim the Iron Throne. She becomes the first female Dothraki leader. In Season 2, she is lost in the Red Waste, a stretch of barren land. She and her khalasar eventually make it to Qarth, where the nobles are more interested in her dragons than her conquering Westeros. When her dragons are stolen by Pyat Pree, she goes into the House of the Undying and retrieves them, killing Pyat Pree. In the second season 's finale, she imprisons her host Xaro Xoan Daxos for having helped Pyat Pree. Her horde loot Xaro 's mansion to buy a ship. Daenerys travels from Qarth to Astapor, a city in Slaver 's Bay, where she negotiates the purchase of elite eunuch soldiers called the Unsullied. She also meets the famed knight Ser Barristan Selmy, and accepts him into her queensguard. On her departure from the city, she frees the slaves and has Drogon torch its elders. By the end of Season 3, although her power has not yet been tested, she has acquired the loyalty of tens of thousands of freed slaves from Astapor and Yunkai, her remaining Dothraki brethren (and two former Westerosi soldiers whom she encountered through the Dothraki, who advise her) 2,000 ' Second Sons ' cavalrymen, 8,000 ' Unsullied ' elite infantry, and three rapidly growing dragons. The stay in Slaver 's Bay has made her question her motives, however, and she takes up the cause of ending slavery as well, donning the honorific "Breaker of Chains '' as the slaves hold her to the sky, praising her as their Mhysa, or "Mother ''. Daenerys later frees the slaves from Meereen, the last of the slave cities in Slaver 's Bay, but realizes that she is slowly losing control of her dragons, especially when Drogon shows signs of aggression towards her when she tries to break up a fight between them over food. Aware that she does not have enough men to conquer Westeros just yet, Daenerys resolves to remain in Slaver 's Bay and rule as Queen for the time being. She eventually learns of Jorah 's original purpose, which was to spy on her for Robert Baratheon, and orders him to leave Meereen on threat of execution. After she receives too many complaints about her dragons, Daenerys, locks Rhaegal and Viserion of them in the catacombs beneath Meereen before searching for Drogon. Meanwhile, Daenerys faces a new threat to her rule in the form of the Sons of the Harpy, a resistance movement against her and the Unsullied. She considers freeing her dragons, but they attempt to attack her, making her realize that they are no longer loyal to her. After Daario and Grey Worm arrest a member of the Sons of the Harpy, Mossador implores Daenerys to execute their captive, but Barristan tells her of the Mad King 's actions against his enemies, which included burning them with wildfire while laughing. He asks her not to execute the captive without a fair trial, and she agrees with him. Mossador goes against her wishes, and kills the captive Son of the Harpy. Daenerys has him publicly executed, which leads a riot to break out between the old masters and the freed slaves. At night, Daenerys finds that Drogon has returned, but when she tries to touch his face, he flies away. Soon afterward, a group of Unsullied patrolling the streets of Meereen are stopped by a crying woman who points them to an alleyway. The Unsullied head in to investigate, but it is revealed that the entire affair was a set up after they are soon cornered by a group of the Sons of the Harpy. The Unsullied attempt to fight back, but the Sons of the Harpy kill many of them. Barristan Selmy sees the commotion and tries to help, killing many of the Sons of the Harpy, but gets badly wounded, and dies. Grey Worm also sustains serious but nonfatal injuries. Daenerys is furious after learning what has happened to Barristan, and rounds up the leaders of the great Meereenese houses. She takes them into the catacombs where she randomly has one of them shoved forward. The Meereenese lord is promptly killed by dragonfire from Rhaegal, and he and Viserion eat him. Daenerys then has all the lords arrested, including her former adviser Hizdahr zo Loraq, whom she decides to marry to win over the Meereenese nobles. To respect the culture of the region, she agrees to have the fighting pits reinstated (she had previously declined due to her distaste for killing for sport). Hizdahr convinces Daenerys to go to one of the pits to see the contestants battling over who will go to the final competition. Daenerys is sickened by the bloodshed, and gets up to leave, but her attention is turned by one masked competitor who defeats all of the other competitors without killing any of them. This competitor turns out to be Jorah Mormont, who is trying to win over Daenerys ' favor after being banished. Daenerys orders the Unsullied to take him away, but Jorah announces that he has brought her a gift, and Tyrion Lannister reveals himself to Daenerys. After a round of questioning, Daenerys banishes Jorah once again, but takes Tyrion on as her adviser. On the great opening of Daznak 's Pit, Jorah resurfaces as a voluntary contender on the arena, but Daenerys refuses to stop the games to spare his life. Jorah eventually prevails and saves her life by impaling with his spear an attacker from the Sons of the Harpy, who appear in legions and attack Daenerys ' guards. Cornered at the midst of the arena, defeat seems immediate when Drogon returns, killing many Sons of the Harpy despite being wounded by several of their spears. Daenerys manages to rekindle their bond and climbs his back, riding off into the distance to a stunned crowd. She roams the Great Steppe north of the city, where Drogon seems reluctant to obey her commands or even hunt for food. Strolling about on her own, Daenerys is faced with an incoming Dothraki khalasar of great numbers, and after dropping a ring to the ground to leave a trail, she is surrounded. In season 6, the Dothraki take her to Vaes Dothrak, where she identifies herself to Khal Moro as Drogo 's former wife. Out of respect for Dothraki traditions, they take Daenerys to join the Dosh Khaleen, which consisted of the wives of deceased khals. Daenerys refuses and instead burns the temple down with herself and all the khals still inside. She emerges unscathed, and the awed Dothraki accept her as their new leader. She returns to Meereen with her new army and destroys the slaver fleet assaulting the city with her dragons. In the aftermath, Daenerys meets with Theon and Yara Greyjoy, who offer their support for her claim so that they can overthrow their uncle Euron. Daenerys accepts their aid and secures help from the Reach and Dorne, names Tyrion as her hand, but breaks up with Daario, ordering him to stay behind and govern Slaver 's Bay in her absence. With her new army, Daenerys finally sets sail for Westeros. In Season 7 Daenerys finally uses her dragons in battle, annihilating a Lannister force and their baggage train with fire. Daenerys welcomes Jon Snow to Dragonstone, seeing him as a friend and ally, insisting that he bend the knee to her but exhibiting patience with his refusal. She believes his tales of white walkers and agrees to let him mine dragonglass (obsidian) from her land. When Jon 's expedition north of the Wall gets into trouble Daenerys takes her dragons to rescue them, and is devastated when the Night King kills one. On the ship back to Dragonstone she and Jon make love.
Jorah Mormont (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Iain Glen. Ser Jorah Mormont of House Mormont is an exiled knight in the service of Daenerys Targaryen and the son of Jeor Mormont of the Night 's Watch. To fund his wife 's extravagant lifestyle, he sold poachers on his land to slave traders, which is illegal in the Seven Kingdoms. Rather than face punishment by Lord Stark, he fled to Essos and learned the lifestyle of the Dothraki who embrace him as one of their own and know him as "Jorah The Andal ''. Jorah serves as an adviser to the Targaryens on both political and cultural matters of both the Seven Kingdoms and Essos. Jorah is actually spying on the Targaryens for Lord Varys in exchange for a pardon on his crimes. But after learning more about Daenerys, Jorah falls in love with her and decides to protect and help her regain the Iron Throne. After she is widowed, he remains with her and becomes the first knight of her Queensguard. He serves Daenerys as an adviser throughout Season 2 and tries to help her claim her birthright as queen of the Seven Kingdoms. In Season 3, he plays an important part in the capture of Yunkai, together with Unsullied commander Grey Worm and Daario Naharis, Lieutenant and leader of the Second Sons. Led by Daario, the trio infiltrates the city and kills a number of Yunkish guards to open a gate, ensuring the capture of Yunkai. Jorah later assists Daenerys and her army in conquering Meereen, and later informs her of Joffrey 's death, but at the same time dissuades her from invading King 's Landing, since she is not strong enough to take all of Westeros yet. When Daenerys appears to begin a romantic relationship with Daario, Jorah voices his disapproval. Daenerys eventually discovers that Jorah 's original mission was to spy on her for the "usurper '' Robert Baratheon, which led to her and her unborn son almost being killed by the wine merchant in Vaes Dothrak, and exiles him from Meereen on the threat of death. Jorah subsequently departs alone. He runs into Tyrion Lannister in Volantis, kidnapping him to deliver to "the Queen '', meaning Daenerys. Sailing through the ruins of Valyria, the couple are assaulted by stone men long decayed by greyscale, and Jorah is seemingly infected by the disease as one of the stone men touches his hand. He drags Tyrion safely to land, where the couple are captured by pirates. Tyrion convinces them to take them to Meereen to be sold as slaves in the fighting pits, where they are bought by master Yezzan zo Qaggaz, and successfully escape during a tourney. Upon seeing Jorah again, Daenerys orders him taken away. Tyrion manages to convince her of his worth and urges her to take him as her adviser, upon which he advises her, correctly in his opinion, to have Ser Jorah banished for his treason, having concealed the true nature of his service to her although he had several chances of doing so. Jorah is exiled a second time, and returns to Yezzan, wishing to fight in the pits before the Queen to see. He does so, and eventually emerges as the victor; brandishing his spear, he impales an assassin from the Sons of the Harpy about to stab Daenerys, and protects her as she is forced to flee into the pit as more harpies emerge. They are eventually saved by Drogon, who absconds Daenerys on his back, and Jorah resolutely decides to track her into the wild to wherever she has gone, joined by Daario Naharis, while Tyrion stays behind to govern Meereen. They track her to Vaes Dothrak and witness Daenerys kill all the khals and take control of the Dothraki. Daenerys, however, learns of Jorah 's greyscale infection, and orders him to find a cure and then rejoin her cause. At the Citadel in Oldtown, Samwell Tarly defies orders to subject Jorah to a dangerous and painful cure. It is successful and Jorah returns to Daenerys, who revokes his banishment. Jorah goes north of the Wall with Jon Snow to capture a wight. He refuses Jon 's attempt to gift him Longclaw, the Mormonts ' ancestral valerian steel sword, as he had brought dishonour on the Mormont name.
Petyr Baelish (season 1 -- 7) portrayed by Aidan Gillen. Lord Petyr Baelish, nicknamed "Littlefinger, '' is the Master of Coin in King Robert Baratheon 's Small Council. He grew up with Catelyn Tully and fought Ned 's brother Brandon for her hand. Petyr is a master manipulator who knows the ongoing affairs within the Seven Kingdoms thanks to his spies. While Petyr at first is assumed to be an ally of Ned, he secretly resents him for marrying Catelyn and so he betrayed him when he tried to arrest Joffrey and Cersei. Despite that, Petyr aims to take the Iron Throne to punish the powerful nobles who used to look down on him. During season 2, he convinces Catelyn to release Jaime in exchange for her daughters and brokers an alliance between House Lannister and House Tyrell. He then returns to King 's Landing with the Tyrell army in time to rescue the city. For his efforts, he is made Lord of Harrenhal, though the castle is held by Northmen. In Season 3, he discovers Ros is secretly working for Varys and gives her to Joffrey to be killed before departing to the Eyrie, where he is to marry Lysa Arryn to secure her loyalty to the Iron Throne. He will thence be Lord Paramount of both the Vale (as Lysa Arryn 's consort) and the Riverlands (after the downfall of the Tullys at the Red Wedding), though he has yet to see Harrenhal. In Season 4, Littlefinger returns in secret to the area around King 's Landing. He has spent weeks in the Vale, and is confirmed to be getting married to Lysa. Petyr helps Olenna Tyrell orchestrate the assassination of King Joffrey at his wedding to Margaery, something Olenna wanted very badly as it would save her granddaughter from Joffrey 's beastly nature. This serves to strengthen his new alliance with House Tyrell. Petyr also gets Sansa Stark -- Ned and Catelyn 's eldest surviving daughter -- out of King 's Landing by ordering court fool and former knight Dontos Hollard to bring her to him. Under the guise of making payment, Petyr has Dontos killed by his archers to silence him. He also begins acting as a mentor for her, and promises Sansa she is safe with him. When asked what he wants by her, he simply says "everything ''. When they arrive in the Vale, it is revealed that he and Lysa have been having an affair for quite some time, and that it was Lysa who poisoned Jon Arryn on Petyr 's request. Petyr and Lysa marry that same day, and loudly consummate their marriage. However, Petyr later confides to Sansa that the reason he had Joffrey killed was to avenge Catelyn, and goes as far as to kiss her, with Lysa looking on unnoticed. When confronted by Lysa, who in a rage attempted to kill Sansa, Petyr kills Lysa instead, calmly pushing her through the Moon Door -- a hole in the floor looking down hundreds of feet to the rocks below the Eyrie, and the preferred method of execution in the Vale of Arryn, incidentally -- to her death on the rocks below. Sansa stands up for Petyr when he is questioned by other lords and ladies of the Vale on the matter of Lysa 's apparent "suicide, '' and confirms that Lysa did indeed kill herself, however, and he is cleared of all charges. As the new Lord Paramount of the Vale, Petyr then begins talking the lords and ladies into supporting Lysa 's sickly and mentally challenged son, Robin Arryn, though it is implied that his real intention is for Robin to die. In Season 5, Petyr and Sansa depart the Eyrie for a place that Petyr promises Sansa that Cersei will never find her, leaving Robin in the care of Yohn Royce. At an inn Podrick Payne along with Brienne of Tarth sees Petyr and Sansa eating in the back of the inn, guarded by knights. Brienne approaches and pledge her life to Sansa but Petyr accuses her of Renly Baratheon 's murder, Brienne explains that Renly was killed by a shadow with Stannis 's face. Sansa tells Brienne that she does n't want her protection, and asks her to leave. Petyr attempts to have his guards take Brienne into their custody, but she flees with Podrick, stealing a horse and releasing several others. Petyr arranges a marriage between Sansa Stark and Ramsay Bolton so that Sansa can return to Winterfell, though Ramsay brutally rapes Sansa on their wedding night despite Ramsay 's promise to never harm her. After dropping Sansa off at Winterfell, he leaves for King 's Landing, where he provides a prostitute named Olyvar for Cersei to convict Loras Tyrell of his homosexuality. He also promises to march North with the strength of the Vale in his back to depose whatever victor comes out of the struggle between Roose Bolton and Stannis Baratheon, and swears to Cersei to bring her Sansa 's head if he succeeds. In return, Cersei promises to make him Warden of the North in addition to already claimed titles of Lord of Harrenhal and Lord Paramount of the Vale. However, Baelish later betrays Cersei by providing Olenna Tyrell with information about her affair with Lancel Lannister, which Olenna then uses to have Cersei arrested by the High Sparrow. In season 6, after hearing of Sansa 's escape from Winterfell, Baelish rides North to her aid and apologises for having underestimated Ramsay, but Sansa refuses to believe him and sends him away. However, Baelish later receives a call for help from Sansa to aid her and Jon Snow in retaking Winterfell from Ramsay, and he and the Vale Knights arrive in time to smash the Bolton army and secure victory for the Starks. He later approaches Sansa and admits that he desires to sit on the Iron Throne with Sansa as his Queen, but she turns him down. As Jon is declared the new King in the North, Baelish glares sinisterly at Sansa, clearly intending to take action against them. In season 7 he remains at Winterfell, where he continues to mentor Sansa in political intrigue. He sees Arya as a threat and through manipulation and poisoned words he encourages Sansa and Arya to think the worst of each other. He does not see the threat from Bran, who can see all of his past actions. Baelish is startled to be put on trial for treason and murder. Sansa accuses him of murdering Jon and Lysa Arryn and setting family member against family member. Bran tells that the dagger with which he was nearly killed was Baelish 's, and that Baelish put a knife to Ned Stark 's throat. Arya waits for Sansa 's judgement and then slit 's Baelish 's throat.
Viserys Targaryen (season 1) portrayed by Harry Lloyd. Viserys Targaryen is the exiled prince and heir of the Targaryen dynasty. Known as "The Beggar King '' for his search for an army to recapture his throne. A narcissist, he is arrogant and self - centered, caring only about himself and looking down on others especially to his sister Daenerys. In exchange for an army to help regain the Iron Throne, Viserys marries off his sister to the powerful Dothraki warlord Khal Drogo and follows his horde 's journey to the Dothraki capital to ensure Drogo will keep his end of the bargain. But as they journey, it becomes evident that Viserys does not have leadership skills to reclaim the throne as his arrogance and disrespect for the Dothraki does not win him any hearts. Furthermore, Daenerys, who he has always threatened throughout his life, starts to stand up to him. Realizing that Daenerys is loved by the Dothraki and her and Drogo 's unborn son is prophet to unite the world, Viserys realizes that it is not he but Daenerys who will reclaim the Iron Throne. In a fit of drunken rage, he threatens Drogo to give him his army now or he will kill his unborn son. Having enough of his behavior, Drogo kills Viserys by giving him a "Golden Crown ''; molten gold poured over his head. Daenerys listlessly watches her brother 's agonizing death, proclaiming that he was n't a true dragon, as "fire can not kill a dragon ''. Daenerys later names one of her dragons Viserion, as a tribute to Viserys.
Jon Snow (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Kit Harington.
Jon Snow of House Stark and the Night 's Watch is the secret son of Rhaegar Targaryen and Lyanna Stark, though raised as the bastard son of Lyanna 's brother, Ned Stark. In the first season, Jon joins the Night 's Watch. Jon is a talented fighter, but his sense of compassion and justice brings him into conflict with his harsh surroundings. Ned claims that Jon 's mother was a wet nurse named Wylla. His dire wolf is called Ghost due to his albinism and quiet nature. Jon soon learns that the Watch is no longer a glorious order, but is now composed mostly of society 's rejects, including criminals and exiles. Initially, he has only contempt for his low - born brothers of the Watch, but he puts aside his prejudices and befriends his fellow recruits, especially Samwell Tarly, after they unite against the cruel master - at - arms, Ser Alliser Thorne. He chooses to take his vows before the Old Gods of the North, and to his disappointment he is made steward to Lord Commander Jeor Mormont rather than a ranger. He eventually realizes that he is being groomed for command. He saves Mormont 's life by slaying a wight, a corpse resurrected by the White Walkers. In return, he receives Longclaw, the ancestral blade of House Mormont. When Eddard is arrested for treason, Jon is torn between his family and his vows. After Eddard 's execution, he tries to join Robb 's army but is convinced to come back by his friends. Shortly after, he joins the large force Mormont leads beyond the Wall. Jon is part of a small scouting party in Season 2. When the party is overtaken by wildlings, Jon is ordered to appear to defect and join the wildlings so he can discover their plans. On affirming his loyalty to the King - Beyond - the - Wall, Mance Rayder, he travels toward the Wall with the wildlings and is seduced by one, the flame - haired Ygritte. Upon crossing the wall, he refuses to behead a farmer whose escape might alert the Night 's Watch of their coming, and is subsequently branded an enemy of the wildlings. Ygritte shields him from her comrades but ultimately confronts and injures Jon when he stops to drink. He manages to escape back to the wall, injured by three arrows, where he reunites with his comrades and informs the commanders of Mance Rayder 's plans. Jon subsequently resumes his training at the Wall and suggests an expedition to Craster 's Keep in order to kill the Night 's Watch mutineers who may tell Mance of the Wall 's weak defences if caught. Jon 's request is granted and he bands together a group of rangers to aid him, among them the new recruit Locke, who has actually come to kill Jon on Roose Bolton 's orders. Jon successfully attacks Craster 's Keep and kills the mutineers, while Locke is killed by Hodor during an attempt to kill Bran, who was captive at Craster 's Keep. However, Jon 's proposal to barricade the entrance to Castle Black to stop the wildlings from entering is denied. He survives the wildling attack on Castle Black, personally killing Styr and taking Tormund Giantsbane prisoner. In the aftermath, he departs Castle Black to hunt down Mance Rayder, giving his sword to Sam. He quickly locates Mance on the pretence of parleying, but he is found out. Before he is killed, however, Jon is saved by the timely arrival by Stannis Baratheon, who places Mance and his men under arrest, and accompanies Jon back to Castle Black. Jon later burns Ygritte 's body in the woods. In Season 5, Stannis attempts to use Jon as an intermediary between himself and Mance, hoping to rally the wildling army to help him retake the North from Roose Bolton and gain Jon 's support in avenging his family. Jon fails to convince Mance, and when Mance is burned at the stake by Stannis ' red priestess Melisandre, Jon shoots him from afar to give him a quick death. After that Jon is chastised by Stannis for showing mercy to Mance. Stannis shows Jon a letter he received from Bear Island, stating that former Lord Commander Jeor Mormont 's relatives will only recognize a Stark as their King. Ser Davos tells Jon that the Night 's Watch will elect a new Lord Commander that night, and that it is almost assured that Ser Alliser will win. Stannis asks Jon to kneel before him and pledge his life to him, and in exchange he will legitimize Jon, making him Jon Stark, and giving him Winterfell. In the great hall, Jon tells Sam that he will refuse Stannis 's offer, as he swore an oath to the Night 's Watch. After Ser Alliser and Denys Mallister are announced as possible candidates, Sam gives a speech imploring his brothers to vote for Jon, reminding them all how he led the mission to Craster 's Keep to avenge Commander Mormont 's death and how he led the defense of Castle Black. After the voting is complete, the ballots are tallied and show a tie between Jon and Ser Alliser. Maester Aemon casts the deciding vote in favor of Jon, making him the new Lord Commander of the Night 's Watch. To lessen the animosity between the two, Jon makes Ser Alliser First Ranger. Melisandre takes an interest in Jon, visiting him in his quarters and trying to have sex with him. Jon refuses, out of respect for Ygritte and his Night 's Watch vows. Jon makes plans to give the wildlings the lands south of the wall, known as "the gift. '' He wants the Night 's Watch and the wildlings to unite against the threat of the White Walkers. These more liberal views are not taken well by the men of the Night 's Watch, in particular Ser Alliser and a young boy named Olly, whose village was massacred by wildlings. Jon then makes a trip north of the Wall to the wildling village of Hardhome, where he hopes to get the wildlings to join his cause. However, before many of them can get on boats to leave, a massive group of White Walkers arrives on the scene. A massive battle ensues, in which many wildlings are killed. The last remaining Night 's Watchmen and wildlings, including Jon, depart from Hardhome, defeated. As they return to the Wall, they are let in by Ser Alliser Thorne, who disapproves of his drastic action of joining forces with the wildlings. Shortly after, Jon sends Sam and Gilly to safety in Oldtown, approving of their relationship and Sam 's motives of keeping her safe. He is later approached by Davos asking for men, and later Melisandre, whose silence confirms Stannis 's defeat. That evening, Jon is met by Olly who claims that a range has arrived with knowledge of Jon 's uncle Benjen. However, Jon discovers that he has been fooled and a group of mutineers, led by Ser Alliser Thorne, stab Jon repeatedly, with Olly dealing the final blow, leaving him to die in the snow. In season 6, Jon 's body is discovered and protected by Davos and his loyal brothers. After the mutineers are dealt with, Jon is resurrected by Melisandre and has the mutineers executed before resigning from the Night 's Watch. Shortly afterwards, he is reunited with Sansa, who fled for the Wall to escape from Ramsay Bolton. Though initially reluctant, Jon decides to take Winterfell back from Ramsay after Ramsay sends him a threatening letter demanding Sansa 's return on threat of murdering Rickon. Securing help from several Northern houses, Jon attacks Winterfell and manages to overcome the Bolton army thanks to the Knights of the Vale, though Rickon is killed in the process. Jon breaches Winterfell and almost kills Ramsay, but takes him prisoner and leaves Sansa to finish him. In the aftermath, Jon is named the new King in the North by the Northern Lords. In season 7 Jon refuses to be as ruthless as Sansa and other lords expect, letting the children of the treacherous Northern Lords who had fought for the Boltons keep their ancestral homes. Believing that the North is not strong enough to stand alone against the White Walkers and their army, he goes to Dragonstone to persuade Daenerys Targaryen to help. She is hospitable and interested in an alliance but his refusal to bend the knee to her as a condition of the alliance is a sticking point. Jon meets Theon and wants to kill him but restrains himself because Theon had eventually helped Sansa to escape the Boltons. Later Jon appears to forgive Theon, telling the conflicted Theon that he can be both Greyjoy and Stark. Jon decides that the only way to convince Daenerys and the other houses of Westeros of the White Walker threat is to capture a wight and display it in the south. He takes a group of comrades north of the Wall and they capture a wight but are surrounded by an army too large to fight. Jon orders a raven to be sent and they wait on an island while thousands of wights line the shore waiting for the water to freeze. Daenerys arrives and most of the party climb on her dragon and are saved, but they are forced to leave while Jon is still fighting. Expecting to die, he is saved by the arrival of his uncle Benjen who sacrifices himself to send Jon to safety. Jon wakes on Daenerys ' ship, and tells her he will bend the knee. They make love. Meanwhile at Winterfell Sam and Bran share pieces of information until they both realise that Jon is the legitimate son of Rhaegar Targaryen and his willing bride Lyanna Stark, and that this makes him the rightful heir to the Iron Throne.
Sansa Stark (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Sophie Turner. Sansa Stark of House Stark is the first daughter and second child of Eddard and Catelyn Stark. She was also the future bride of Prince Joffrey, and thus the future Queen of the Seven Kingdoms as well. Her direwolf is called Lady, she is the smallest of the pack. Sansa is naive and wants to live the life of a fairy tale princess and is unwilling to see the harsh realities of the kingdom 's politics and rivalries. Her fantasy begins to shatter when Lady is killed, and the situation continues to worsen when her father is arrested for treason. She becomes a hostage to the Lannisters in order for them to have a legitimate claim for the North. Her naïveté is finally shattered when King Joffrey executes her father despite promising her that he would spare him. Sansa is forced to put up an act or endure Joffrey 's cruelty. Throughout Season 2, she suffers under Joffrey 's abuse until Tyrion puts a stop to it. By the Season 2 finale, Joffrey breaks his engagement with Sansa to marry Margaery Tyrell. However, she is still a hostage; but Petyr Baelish promises to help her return to Winterfell. In Season 3, she is married to Tyrion to secure the Lannisters the North should Robb Stark die. The marriage is unhappy and yet to be consummated, and after Robb 's death -- upon which Joffrey insists to be given his head to present to Sansa, a request coldly ignored by his grandfather -- she is unable to speak to him. In Season 4, Sansa has been mourning her family for weeks and is starving herself in depression. She attends Joffrey 's wedding with Tyrion and witnesses Joffrey 's death. Dontos Hollard immediately spirits her away from the wedding, moments ahead of Cersei 's orders to have her and Tyrion arrested. Dontos brings Sansa to a ship concealed in fog, and she is greeted by Petyr Baelish. Under the guise of making payment, Petyr has the fool killed by his archers, with Petyr explaining that killing Dontos was the only way to ensure his silence -- her disappearance when Joffrey died, the execution of her father, deaths of her family and years of torment at the king 's hand, will all be considerable motive for Sansa helping Tyrion murder Joffrey. Currently, a thousand of the City Watch are searching for her, Cersei thirsts for vengeance, and Tyrion himself stands trial. Sansa is assured she has finally escaped King 's Landing and is safe with Lord Baelish, who takes her to her Aunt Lysa for shelter. Lysa takes Sansa in warmly and has her betrothed to her son, Robin. However, Sansa realises the worst is far from over when Lysa, who is smitten with Petyr, accuses Sansa of trying to seduce him, and she discovers that Robin is a spoiled and rude child, slapping him at one point. When Petyr unexpectedly kisses Sansa, Lysa becomes enraged and nearly pushes Sansa through the castle 's Moon Door, but Petyr intervenes by pacifying Lysa and then pushing her through the Moon Door to her death before Sansa 's eyes, making Sansa realise that Petyr may have romantic or lustful feelings for her. Sansa speaks up for Petyr when he is questioned about his involvement in Lysa 's death, but Sansa reaffirms Petyr 's claim that Lysa killed herself due to her own instability and insecurities. Afterward she told Petyr that her reason to protect him in the hearing was because she knew he was the only person she could count on to protect her, demonstrated by his initiative in getting her out of King 's Landing while everyone else in power there only wanted to use her as a pawn. In Season 5, she and Petyr leave the Eyrie for a place Petyr promises where Cersei will never find her. At an In, Brienne of Tarth materializes unexpectedly and declares herself for Sansa. Petyr doubts that Sansa would want a sworn shield who let both of her previous masters die, even when Brienne reveals the true, somewhat unbelievable circumstances of Renly 's death. Sansa seems inclined to agree, pointing out that Brienne was present at Joffrey 's wedding, to which the warrior replies that neither of them wanted to be there. Sansa rejects Brienne 's offer of service and watches as she handily defeats the guards and escapes. Petyr tells her that he has arranged for her to be married to Ramsay Bolton, the son of Lord Roose Bolton. This will put her back in Winterfell, which the Boltons now occupy as a reward for their role in the deaths of Robb and Catelyn. Though Ramsay initially seems interested in Sansa, his psychopathic nature quickly shows through, and Sansa is disgusted. She is also antagonized by Myranda, the kennelmaster 's daughter, who is in a sexual relationship with Ramsay. Myranda frequently makes veiled threats to Sansa, and shows her what has become of Theon Greyjoy, who was Eddard Stark 's ward and whom she grew up with. Sansa is horrified to find that after Ramsay emasculated him, he has taken on a submissive, sullen persona called Reek. After Sansa and Ramsay are wed, he brutally rapes her while forcing Reek to watch. Later, Sansa attempts to talk to Reek, who is unresponsive to her attempts to make him act like his old self by repeatedly calling him Theon instead of Reek. At one point, Reek mistakenly lets slip that her younger brothers, Bran and Rickon, are alive, when she had assumed that they were dead. This realization gives Sansa hope in the midst of her unfortunate situation. As Stannis Baratheon 's army sneaks up on Winterfell and is greeted by the bulk of the Bolton forces, Sansa manages to escape her chamber but is stopped by Myranda, who threatens her with a bow. Reminding Sansa that she has nothing left to live for in Ramsay 's custody, she is unexpectedly saved by Reek, who breaks his spell of subjugation by throwing Myranda over the bannister. The Bolton 's return to Winterfell and, knowing the dire consequences Ramsay would have in place for the both of them when he finds Myranda 's body, the couple flee to the wall in terror, where they make the jump off the ledge. In season 6, Sansa makes it to the Wall with help from Brienne and Podrick and reunites with Jon, while Theon returns home. After Jon receives a threatening letter from Ramsay demanding Sansa back, Sansa and Jon decide to fight back against Ramsay and retake the North. Sansa briefly meets with Petyr Baelish, but turns him down for his role in handing her to the Boltons. Realizing that with their meager forces they are still outnumbered, Sansa writes to Baelish for help and he arrives in time with the Vale Knights to smash the Bolton army and help Jon secure victory. After Ramsay is killed, Baelish admits to Sansa that he wants her to rule alongside him as his Queen, but Sansa turns him down. When Jon is named the new King in the North, Sansa notices Baelish glaring at her. In Season 7 Sansa finds some of Jon 's decisions infuriating but remains loyal to him. She maintains her support of Jon even when he leaves Winterfell against her advice and the Northern Lords ' objections, and even when some of them hint that they 're ready to drop their support of Jon and name her their ruler. Sansa is overjoyed to see Arya and Bran return to Winterfell, though she is unnerved by how much they have changed: Bran 's loss of humanity and Arya 's ruthlessness. Petyr Baelish sees Arya as a threat to his influence with Sansa and attempts to drive a wedge between the sisters. He appears at first to be succeeding but at some point the three Starks realise what Baelish is doing. Sansa pretends to believe Baelish as he insinuates that Arya is plotting her murder. Then to his surprise she accuses him of various crimes in front of the Northern Lords, before finding him guilty and allowing Arya to execute him.
Arya Stark (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Maisie Williams. Arya Stark of House Stark is the younger daughter and third child of Lord Eddard and Catelyn Stark of Winterfell. Ever the tomboy, Arya would rather be training to use weapons than sewing with a needle. Her direwolf is called Nymeria. When Ned is arrested for treason, her "dancing master '' Syrio Forel helps her escape the Lannisters. She is later disguised as an orphan boy by Yoren, a Night 's Watch recruiter, in hopes of getting her back to Winterfell. From then on, she takes the name Arry. During Season 2, Yoren 's convoy is attacked by the Lannisters who are under orders by King Joffrey to find and kill Robert 's bastard children. Before she is captured, she releases the prisoner Jaqen H'ghar and two others, saving their lives. She and the rest of the captured recruits are sent to Harrenhal under Gregor Clegane who cruelly tortures and kills prisoners everyday. At the same time, she follows the advice of the late Yoren and makes a list of those she wants dead like a prayer. When Tywin Lannister arrives at Harrenhal, he orders the killing of prisoners stopped and makes Arya his cup bearer after figuring out she is a girl. Tywin forms an unlikely friendship with Arya due to her intelligence while remaining unaware of her true identity. Arya reunites with Jaqen who offers to kill three lives in exchange for the three lives she saved. The first two she picks, the Tickler, Harrenhal 's torturer and Ser Amory Lorch, after he catches Arya reading one of Tywin 's war plans and tries to inform Tywin. After she fails to find Jaqen to kill Tywin, after he heads out to face Robb 's forces, she forces Jaqen to help her, Gendry and Hot Pie escape Harrenhal after choosing Jaqen as her third name, for which she promises to "unname '' him if he helps them. After successfully escaping, Jaqen gives her an iron coin and tells her to give it to any Braavosi and say "Valar morghulis '' if she ever needs to find him. Arya, Gendry and Hot Pie head north for Riverrun and Arya 's mother Lady Stark, but are captured by the Brotherhood Without Banners and taken to the Inn at the Crossroads. There, Arya is horrified to be reunited with the vile Sandor Clegane, one of the Brotherhood 's prisoners. Arya and Gendry travel with the Brotherhood to meet their leader, now friends with them as they know Arya is Ned Stark 's daughter. She escapes them after the Brotherhood acquits Sandor Clegane of murder after a trial by combat and selling Gendry to Melisandre to be sacrificed. Captured by Sandor, she is taken to the Twins to be ransomed to her brother, only to see his wolf and forces slaughtered and her brother paraded headless on a horse. Sandor knocks her unconscious and saves her from the ensuing slaughter, and she subsequently kills her first man when falling upon a party of Freys, boasting of how they mutilated her brother 's corpse. In season 4, Sandor decides to ransom her to her Aunt Lysa Arryn in the Vale. With Sandor 's help, Arya later retrieves her sword, Needle (a gift from Jon Snow), and kills the sadistic soldier Polliver, who stole it from her. Along the way, Arya slowly begins to bond with Sandor, helping to heal one of his wounds when they are attacked. They eventually arrive at the Vale, but are told that Lysa Arryn killed herself three days prior. Arya laughs with disbelief. Later, Arya and Sandor are found by Brienne of Tarth and Podrick Payne. Arya refuses to leave with Brienne, assuming her to be an agent of the Lannisters. In the ensuing fight between Brienne and Sandor, Sandor is wounded and begs Arya to kill him, but she just steals his silver and leaves him to die. She then manages to catch a boat to Braavos, befriending the Braavosi captain by showing him the coin Jaqen gave her outside Harrenhal. In Season 5 Arya arrives in Braavos, and the ship 's captain, Ternesio takes her to the House of Black and White. She is turned away by the doorman, even after showing the iron coin given to her by Jaqen H'ghar. After spending the night sitting in front of the House, she throws the coin into the water and leaves. Later, after killing a pigeon, Arya is confronted by a group of thieves in the street. Arya prepares to fight them, but the thieves flee when the doorman appears. He walks her back to the House of Black and White, and gives her the iron coin. He then changes his face to Jaqen, and informs Arya that she must become no one before taking her inside the House. Arya 's training progresses, during which she gets better and better at lying about her identity. Jaqen eventually gives her her first new identity, as Lana, a girl who sells oysters on the streets of Braavos. She eventually encounters Meryn Trant, who she tortures and executes in retaliation for Syrio 's death, revealing her identity and motive in the process. When she returns to the House of Black and White she is confronted by Jaqen H'ghar and the Waif, who tell her that Meryn 's life was not hers to take and that a debt must be paid. Arya screams as she begins to lose her eyesight. In season 6, she briefly lives as a beggar in the streets of Braavos, regularly beaten and abused by the Waif, until Jaqen has her trained without her sight and ultimately returns her sight to her. Arya is tasked with assassinating an actress, Lady Crane, but becomes reluctant when she discovers Crane is a decent person and the one who wants her dead is a jealous, less - talented actress. She ultimately botches the assassination and is almost killed by the Waif in retaliation, but seeks shelter with Crane to recover. The Waif tracks her down and a chase ensues throughout Braavos until Arya lures her to her hideout and kills her. She adds the Waif 's face to the Hall of Faces, impressing Jaqen, but Arya ends her training with the Faceless Men and returns to Westeros, where she resumes her vengeance by murdering Walder Frey. At the start of season 7 we see Walder Frey hosting a feast for every male Frey and asking them to drink a toast. As they start to choke, he tells them it was a mistake to leave any Starks alive, and as they die of poison Walder reveals to the servants and wives present that he is really Arya Stark. Arya heads for King 's Landing to kill Cersei, but on learning that Jon Snow has retaken Winterfell she turns around and heads north. She and Sansa have a happy but awkward reunion. Arya is also reacquainted with Brienne, who she insists spar with her. Brienne is surprised by Arya 's skill and needs to raise her effort in order to match Arya, but Arya still scores victories in the brief fight. When Sansa refuses the suggestion of some of the Northern Lords ' that she should be the ruler of the North and not Jon she disagrees with them but does not punish them. Arya is angry, saying to Sansa that she should have executed them for treason. Arya is suspicious of Petyr Baelish and spies on him hiding a message, unaware perhaps that he hid it while he knew she was watching. The message is years old, written to Robb by Sansa when she thought she could save her father by obeying Cersei, but Arya tells Sansa it is a betrayal. Sansa finds Arya 's bag of faces and is shocked. At some point, the girls realise that Baelish is playing them against each other. With Baelish lulled into thinking his plan is working well, Sansa publicly accuses him of murder and treason. Arya waits for the guilty verdict and executes him.
Robb Stark (season 1 -- 3) portrayed by Richard Madden. Robb Stark of House Stark is the eldest son of Eddard and Catelyn Stark and the heir to Winterfell. His dire wolf is called Grey Wind. Robb becomes involved in the war against the Lannisters after his father, Ned Stark, is arrested for treason. Robb summons his bannermen for war against House Lannister and marches to the Riverlands. Eventually, crossing the river at the Twins becomes strategically necessary. To win permission to cross, Robb agrees to marry a daughter of Walder Frey, Lord of the Twins. Robb leads the war effort against the Lannisters and successfully captures Jaime. After Ned is executed, the North and the Riverlands declare their independence from the Seven Kingdoms and proclaim Robb as their new King, "The King in The North ''. He wins a succession of battles in Season 2, earning him the nickname the Young Wolf. However, he feels that he botched the political aspects of war. He sends Theon to the Iron Islands hoping that he can broker an alliance with Balon Greyjoy, Theon 's father. In exchange for Greyjoy support, Robb as King in the North will recognize the Iron Islands ' independence. He also sends his mother Catelyn to deal with Stannis Baratheon and Renly Baratheon, both of whom are fighting to be the rightful king. Theon and Catelyn fail in their missions, and Balon launches an invasion of the North. Robb falls in love with Talisa Maegyr, a healer from Volantis due to her kindness and spirit. Despite his mother 's protest, Robb breaks his engagement with the Freys and marries Talisa in the 2nd - season finale. On news of his grandfather, Lord Hoster Tully 's, death, Robb and his party travel north to Riverrun for the funeral, where the young king is reunited with his great - uncle, Ser Brynden "Blackfish '' Tully, and his uncle, Edmure Tully, the new lord of Riverrun. While at Riverrun, Robb makes the decision to execute Lord Rickard Karstark for the murders of two teenage squires related to the Lannisters, a decision that loses the support of the Karstarks and leads Robb to make the ultimately fatal decision to ask the Freys for their alliance. He is killed in the Red Wedding Massacre, after witnessing the murder of his pregnant wife and their child. Lord Bolton personally executes Robb, stabbing him through the heart while taunting that "the Lannisters send their regards '', in fact a promise made to Jaime (who had no knowledge of Bolton 's impending treason) when leaving for the Twins. His corpse is later decapitated and Grey Wind 's head is sewn on and paraded around as the Stark forces are slaughtered by the Freys and the Boltons.
Theon Greyjoy (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Alfie Allen. Theon Greyjoy of House Greyjoy is the youngest son of Lord Balon Greyjoy of the Iron Islands. He is the hostage and ward of Lord Eddard Stark, stemming from the failed Greyjoy Rebellion. Despite his position, he remains loyal to Eddard and is good friends with his sons Robb and Jon. While he has never questioned his position, he soon begins to have doubts after Tyrion tells him he is nothing more than a servant to the Starks and not everyone respects him. Nevertheless, Theon initially remains loyal to Robb after he goes to war with the Lannisters and supports his decision to have the North secede from the Seven Kingdoms and form their own kingdom. He is sent to the Iron Islands in Season 2 to seek a Stark alliance with the Greyjoys. However, his father criticizes Theon for accepting the northern lifestyle and rejects Robb 's proposal. Wishing to prove to his father that he is a true Ironborn, he joins his family 's invasion of the North. To gain the respect of his men, he ignores his orders to raid the shores and captures Winterfell. The situation worsens for Theon when he is forced to kill his old mentor Ser Rodrik Cassel and fakes the deaths of Bran and Rickon Stark to the people of Winterfell after they escape by killing two orphans. Regretting what he has done and with no help coming from his family, Theon decides to die fighting with his men defending Winterfell from a Stark force led by Roose Bolton 's bastard son. However, he is betrayed by his men due to Robb 's offer of clemency and safe return to the Iron Islands if they give up Theon. Theon is taken captive and kept in an unknown castle, where he is briefly tortured, but later manages to escape with the help of a serving boy who claims to works for his sister Yara. He is brought back to the very castle he escaped from, the serving boy proving to actually be his captor and torturer, Ramsay Snow, Lord Bolton 's sadistic bastard. Theon is subsequently brutally tortured, flayed and eventually emasculated by Ramsay, who forces him to rename himself Reek, and beats him until he submits to his new name (before his emasculation he told Ramsay that he regretted betraying Robb and calls Ned Stark his "real father ''). Theon 's penis is sent in a box to his father, with Ramsay threatening to mutilate Theon further unless the Ironmen retreat from the North, which Balon refuses. He states that as Theon defied him by attacking Winterfell, claiming him a "fool '' and "not a man anymore '', to which Yara responds she intends to save her brother of her own accord. In season 4, Theon has been freed from his restraints by Ramsay, but is forced to work for him as a servant and answer to the name Reek. Roose Bolton later orders Ramsay to launch an attack on Moat Cailin, an Ironborn - occupied fortress that is preventing him from entering the Northern lands, and to take Theon with him. Before they leave, however, the Dreadfort is attacked by Yara and a group of men, but Theon refuses to flee with her, believing it may be another trick on Ramsay 's part, forcing Yara to leave without him. As a reward, Ramsay gives Theon a bath and asks for his help in taking Moat Cailin. Theon masquerades as himself and tricks the Ironborn into opening Moat Cailin, leading to them all being flayed by the Bolton army, and subsequently accompanies the Boltons to Winterfell. In Winterfell, he rekindles his relationship with Sansa, who is to be married to Ramsay. On their wedding night Sansa is raped by Ramsay, who forces Theon to watch. Sansa tries to get Theon to save her from Ramsay, but he refuses and eventually admits that he did not kill her brothers. As the Baratheon army arrives at Winterfell to fight the Boltons, he helps her escape by killing Ramsay 's sadistic lover, Myranda, as she threatens Sansa with a bow. The couple climb the crest of the wall, and jump. In season 6, after they are reunited with Brienne and Podrick, Theon returns to the Iron Islands, where he discovers that his father has been killed. He endorses Yara to succeed their father, but are usurped by their uncle, Euron, the one responsible for murdering Balon. Theon and Yara flee the Iron Islands for Meereen, offering their support to Daenerys Targaryen in return for her aiding them in overthrowing Euron. In season 7 Daenerys sends Yara 's fleet, with Theon and the Sand Snakes, to invade Westeros, but the fleet is set upon with fire by Euron Greyjoy. Euron boards Yara 's ship and captures her as Theon watches. He taunts Theon and challenges him to rescue Yara, but Theon jumps into the sea instead. Theon is found by some Iron Islanders, supporters of Yara who are disgusted with Theon for running away when his sister was taken. He returns to Dragonstone and meets Jon, who is furious at Theon 's many betrayals and only lets him live because of his eventual help for Sansa. Later Theon tells Jon how hard it was to be torn between his Greyjoy and his Stark allegiances. Jon, softening to Theon, tells him he is both Stark and Greyjoy. Theon meets Euron at the parley in the Dragonpit, an Euron taunts him that he still has Yara. When the few remaining Iron Islanders on Dragonstone announce they are planning on sailing off to be independent pirates, Theon urges them to help him to free Yara instead. Their leader is contemptuous and beats Theon, but Theon refuses to stay down, fights, and eventually prevails. The Iron Islanders, a dozen or so men, agree to help Theon rescue Yara.
Bran Stark (season 1 -- 4, 6 -- present) portrayed by Isaac Hempstead Wright. Brandon "Bran '' Stark of House Stark is the second son and fourth child of Eddard and Catelyn Stark. He was named after his deceased uncle, Brandon. His dire wolf is called Summer. During the King 's visit to Winterfell, he accidentally came across Cersei and Jaime Lannister engaging in sex, following which Bran is shoved from the window by Jaime, permanently crippling his legs. An assassin tries to kill Bran, but Summer, the direwolf companion, kills the assassin. Bran, when he awakens, finds that he is crippled from the waist down, forced to be carried everywhere by Hodor, and he can not remember the events immediately before his fall. Slowly, he realizes that he has gained the ability to assume Summer 's consciousness, making him a warg or a skinchanger. After his older brother, Robb, is crowned King in the North, Bran becomes Robb 's heir and the Lord of Winterfell. After Theon Greyjoy captures Winterfell, Bran goes into hiding. To cement his claim on Winterfell, Theon kills two orphan boys and tells the people of Winterfell that Bran, and his younger brother Rickon Stark, are dead. After Theon 's men betray him and Winterfell is sacked, Bran, Rickon, Hodor, Osha and their direwolves head north to find his older brother Jon Snow for safety. They ultimately stumble upon Jojen and Meera Reed, two siblings who aid them in their quest. After coming close to the wall, Osha departs with Rickon for Last Hearth while Bran insists on following his visions beyond the Wall. He also encounters Sam and Gilly, who tries to persuade him not to, but Bran claims it is his destiny and leaves through the gate with Hodor and the Reeds. Along the way, Bran and the others stumble across Craster 's Keep, where they are captured and held hostage by the Night 's Watch mutineers led by Karl. Night 's Watch rangers led by Jon eventually attack Craster 's Keep to kill the mutineers, but Locke, a new recruit but secretly a spy for Roose Bolton, attempts to take Bran away and kill him elsewhere. Bran wargs into Hodor and kills Locke by snapping his neck, but Bran and his group are forced to continue on their journey without alerting Jon, whom Jojen claims would stop them. They eventually reach the three - eyed raven in a cave, who claims he can not restore Bran 's legs, but will make him fly instead. In season 6, Bran experiences several visions, such as the origins of the White Walkers, the origin of Hodor, and the truth behind the parentage of Jon Snow. After an attack by the White Walkers which results in the deaths of the Three - eyed raven and Hodor, Bran and Meera escape and are rescued by Bran 's undead uncle, Benjen, who takes them back to the Wall. He later sees a vision of Jon Snow 's birth, learning that he is actually the child of Lyanna Stark. In season 7 Bran appears to have lost much of his personality. He arrives back at Winterfell. Meera says she must leave and is upset by Bran 's cold reaction. Sansa is glad to see Bran but is unnerved by his assertion that he is now the Three Eyed Raven. He spends most of his time in the Winterfell Godswood by the Heart Tree. He meets Petyr Baelish and looks into Baelish 's past. He testifies when Sansa puts Baelish on trial that Baelish betrayed Ned and sent the assassin to kill Bran. Sam Tarly arrives at Winterfell, and Bran tells Sam that Jon is Jon Sand, having been born to Lyanna Stark in Dorne. Sam replies that the High Septon had secretly married Lyanna to Rhaegar Targaryen, and asks Bran if he can confirm it. Bran directs his visions to Lyanna and Rhaegar 's wedding and confirms that Jon Snow was named Aegon Targaryen and is the rightful heir to the Iron Throne.
Joffrey Baratheon (season 1 -- 4) portrayed by Jack Gleeson. Joffrey Baratheon of House Baratheon is the Crown Prince of the Seven Kingdoms. He is the eldest of Cersei Lannister 's children and heir to the Iron Throne. Vicious and cruel, he has a short temper and believes he can do anything he wants. He is also a coward when confronted by those who are n't afraid of him. Joffrey is also unaware that King Robert is not his real father -- who, in reality, is Jaime Lannister. After Robert 's death, the Lannisters make Joffrey the King against his father 's will, and Joffrey becomes a cruel ruler and a Puppet King used by his mother. Joffrey makes a mistake when, against Cersei 's and Sansa 's wishes, he refuses to honor his promise of sparing Ned; instead, Joffrey has him executed. His act worsens the situation with the Lannisters ' war effort as Jaime is captured by the Starks and his uncles Renly and Stannis have challenged his claim to the Iron Throne. He frequently orders his Kingsguard to beat Sansa. His cruelty and ignorance of the commoners ' suffering makes him unpopular after he orders the City Watch to kill all of his father 's bastard children in King 's Landing which would later lead to a riot where he is almost killed. When Stannis attacks King 's Landing, Joffrey serves only as a figurehead and avoids the heavy fighting. When the battle eventually turns in Stannis ' favor, Cersei calls her son into the safety of the castle, damaging the morale of his army. The battle is only won by his grandfather Tywin and the forces of House Tyrell. To cement the alliance between their families, Joffrey 's engagement to Sansa is annulled so he can marry Margaery Tyrell. Upon the end of Season 3, the marriage is yet to take place, and rifts are growing between Joffrey and his uncle and grandfather, who are (in their respective ways) rebutting his cruelty. He also seems to take little interest in his bride, but is amazed and altered by her ways of winning the people 's favor, in which he takes part. In Season 4, Joffrey finally marries Margaery, but he dies at the wedding after being poisoned, and his uncle Tyrion is accused and arrested. It is confirmed, however, he was poisoned by Olenna Tyrell, with assistance from Petyr Baelish and Dontos Hollard, as she wanted to protect Margaery from the physical and emotional abuse that Joffrey had very clearly inflicted on Sansa. Olenna later confides to Margaery that she would never have let her marry "that beast ''. Following Joffrey 's funeral, his younger brother and heir, Tommen, is crowned King.
Sandor Clegane (season 1 -- 4, 6 -- present) portrayed by Rory McCann. Sandor Clegane, nicknamed "The Hound, '' for his savage nature, is the younger brother of Ser Gregor Clegane and a retainer to House Lannister. He is also Joffrey Baratheon 's personal bodyguard. The right side of his face was grievously burned when he was only a boy after his brother accused him of stealing one of his toys and pushed Sandor 's face into a brazier, leaving the right side of his face hideously scarred, and a lifelong fear of fire. He is taciturn and brutal, but not without compassion. He is protective towards Sansa after she is captured by the Lannisters. After Joffrey becomes King, Sandor is made a member of the Kingsguard. Although he is still faithful to Joffrey, he frequently defends Sansa from Joffrey 's attempts to shame and physically abuse her. During the siege on King 's Landing, when wildfire is used to destroy Stannis ' ships, Sandor succumbs to his fear of fire and abandons the fight, insulting Joffrey as he leaves. Before fleeing the city, he seeks out Sansa and offers to take her along. She refuses but she recognizes that he had been afraid in the battle. Sandor is later captured by the Brotherhood Without Banners, and is reunited with Arya at the Inn of the Kneeling Man. He is acquitted from murdering Mycah in a trial by combat with the leader of the Brotherhood, Beric Dondarrion, and released. Taking Arya Stark prisoner, he travels to the Twins hoping to ransom her, but arrives just as the slaughter of the Starks at The Red Wedding begins and rides off with a shocked Arya in tow. When she attacks a pack of Frey soldiers and stabs one of them to death, he intervenes on her behalf and disposes of the rest. Sandor then decides to take Arya to the Vale instead, to ransom her to her Aunt Lysa Arryn. The two kill several Lannister soldiers as he leaves, causing Tywin Lannister to place a bounty on his head. Sandor and Arya are attacked by Lannister soldiers seeking the bounty and Sandor is bitten on the neck, which Arya heals after the attackers are killed. They eventually arrive at the Vale, but are told that Lysa Arryn is dead. They subsequently stay near the Vale, but are found by Brienne of Tarth and Podrick Payne, who are searching for the Stark girls. Assuming Brienne to be a Lannister agent after the bounty, Sandor refuses to hand Arya over and a fight ensues between him and Brienne. Brienne eventually bites Sandor 's ear off and beats him off a cliff. He survives the fall, but is mortally wounded. He is found by Arya, whom he attempts to provoke into killing him, but she just stares blankly and then steals his silver and leaves him to die, screaming for Arya to kill him. Sandor is presumed dead, yet it is revealed in the sixth season that he was rescued by Ray (Ian McShane) who takes him to live with his colony of pacifists. After the colony is slaughtered by renegades from the Brotherhood without Banners, Sandor is the sole survivor, and he hunts down the men responsible. He tracks the Brotherhood, but finds the perpetrators being executed by Beric Dondarrion for their actions. After reminiscing over past events, Beric and Thoros persuade Sandor to join them, as they are heading North to aid Jon Snow in the coming battle against the White Walkers. They reach Eastwatch By Sea and are imprisoned by a suspicious Tormund Giantsbane. Jon Snow arrives on a mission to capture a wight and Sandor, with Beric, Thoros and Tormund join him. Sandor then travels with Jon and the wight to King 's Landing for the parley in the Dragonpit, and shows the wight to Cersei. There, Sandor has an uneasy but peaceful reacquaintance with Brienne, and a hostile one with his brother Gregor, telling him that one day he (Sandor) will kill Gregor.
Tyrion Lannister (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Peter Dinklage. Nicknamed "The Imp '' or "Halfman '', Tyrion Lannister of House Lannister is the younger brother of Cersei and Jaime Lannister. He is a dwarf; and his mother died during his birth, for which his father, Tywin Lannister, blames him. While not physically powerful, Tyrion has a cunning mind and often uses to his advantage the fact that others constantly underestimate him. In Season Three, Tyrion is given the job of Master of Coin, a role that he is unprepared and inexperienced for. Tyrion is commanded by his father to marry Sansa Stark; however, on the wedding night, Tyrion refuses to consummate his marriage and instead lets Sansa sleep alone, promising not to touch her unless she wanted him to. The death of her brother Robb, in which Tyrion took no part, causes a further rift between the couple and between Tyrion and his father, who he claims ca n't distinguish between his interests and his often - praised ideal of devotion to family. Tywin bitterly claims that he had wanted to drown Tyrion upon birth, but stayed himself for the sake of duty. In season 4, Tyrion welcomes Prince Oberyn Martell of Dorne to King 's Landing for Joffrey 's wedding to Margaery Tyrell, though Oberyn implies to Tyrion that his true purpose is to seek vengeance for his sister, who was murdered by Ser Gregor Clegane on Tywin 's orders. When Joffrey is fatally poisoned, Tyrion is framed and arrested. Tyrion, however, implies that Cersei knows of his innocence and just wants him dead. At Tyrion 's trial, he demands a trial by combat. Tyrion is approached by Oberyn, who volunteers to be his champion in order to fight Cersei 's champion, Ser Gregor Clegane. When Oberyn loses the fight and is killed, Tyrion is sentenced to death. Jaime, however, frees Tyrion and arranges for him to escape King 's Landing. Tyrion goes to confront Tywin in his chambers but finds Shae, who testified against him and is now Tywin 's lover. After a brief struggle, Tyrion strangles Shae to death, and Tyrion shoots Tywin to death with Joffrey 's crossbow. Tyrion is then placed in a crate and smuggled off to Essos with help from Varys. They arrive in Pentos, where Varys manages to convince Tyrion to travel with him to Meereen and aid Daenerys Targaryen in retaking the Iron Throne. Tyrion is bound and gagged by Jorah Mormont, who says that he will take him to Daenerys. Daenerys takes them both to her home in the Great Pyramid of Meereen and asks Tyrion why he is here. Tyrion tells her everything, including Varys ' plan. He initially counsels her to stay in Meereen, but Daenerys makes it plain to him that her eyes are still on Westeros. Tyrion tells Daenerys how hard it will be to win the love of both the common people and the nobles. He later joins her at the opening celebrations of Daznak 's Pit, where Jorah unexpectedly reappears to defeat every other foe on the arena. As the Sons of the Harpy attack, Tyrion manages to survive by fleeing to the midst of the arena, where they are rescued by Drogon, while Daenerys is spirited away on his back. In season 6, Tyrion struggles to maintain peace in Meereen, particularly when the Sons of the Harpy burn the entire Meereenese Navy, stranding them in Slaver 's Bay. Following an alliance with Theon and Yara Greyjoy, Tyrion advises Daenerys to break up with Daario so that she may pursue a marriage alliance in Westeros. In gratitude for Tyrion 's loyalty, Daenerys names him her official Hand, and he accompanies her back to Westeros. In season 7 Tyrion 's advice to Daenerys often conflicts with her views, and he has mixed success in directing her actions. He sneaks into King 's Landing and meets with Jamie to set up a meeting between Cersei and Daenerys, which eventually happens in the Dragonpit outside the city. At the meeting a captured wight is produced to convince Cersei that the worst threat is from beyond the Wall. When Cersei is not convinced, Tyrion risks execution to meet with his sister to try again to persuade her. He is unexpectedly allowed to leave Cersei 's presence alive, and thinks he has secured an agreement from her to help with the fight against the Wight Walkers.
Khal Drogo (season 1 -- 2) portrayed by Jason Momoa. Khal Drogo is a warlord of the Dothraki people. He is to marry Daenerys Targaryen, as arranged by her brother Viserys. He is undefeated in battle. Viserys Targaryen conspired with Magister Illyrio to marry Daenerys to Drogo in order to get his support in an invasion of Westeros. Though Daenerys was initially unhappy with the arrangement, Drogo proves to be a sensitive husband and lover despite his fearsome behavior with his men. After a failed poisoning attempt on Daenerys ' life, he promises to invade Westeros to reclaim the Seven Kingdoms for the Targaryens, but Viserys 's impertinence ultimately causes Drogo to kill him. Drogo maintains his promise for the benefit of his wife, but is wounded by an enemy khal before he could begin the invasion. The wound festers and Drogo becomes so sick that he is unable to ride his horse, a sign of weakness to the Dothraki. Most of his khalasar abandons him, but Daenerys unknowingly sacrifices their unborn child for a spell to revive him. The spell works, but leaves him a brain - dead husk of his former self. Daenerys smothers him out of pity, and the flames of his funeral pyre ultimately hatch her dragon eggs.
Tywin Lannister (season 1 -- 5) portrayed by Charles Dance. Lord of Casterly Rock, Shield of Lannisport and Warden of the West, Tywin of House Lannister is a calculating, ruthless, and controlling man. He is also the former Hand of King Aerys II. He is the father of Cersei, Jaime, and Tyrion. After Eddard Stark 's arrest, Joffrey names him Hand of the King once more, but after Jaime is taken captive by the Starks, Eddard is unexpectedly executed by Joffrey, and Renly and Stannis Baratheon challenge Joffrey 's claim to the throne; Tywin elects to remain in the field commanding his forces until he wins his war, and in the meantime gives the position of Hand of the King to Tyrion. Tywin continues the war through Season 2 at Harrenhal where he criticizes his commanders for losing and underestimating the Stark army led by King Robb Stark. While there, he forms an unlikely friendship with his cup bearer, unaware that she is actually Arya Stark. Originally, he was about to attack Robb 's forces while they are distracted by the Greyjoys seizing Winterfell, but changes his mind and helps the defenders of King 's Landing drive Stannis Baratheon 's forces away. He assumes his position of Hand of the King once again and arranges for Joffrey to marry Margaery Tyrell to secure an alliance between the Lannisters and Tyrells. In the third season, as Hand of the King, he fortifies his position as de facto leader of the Seven Kingdoms, and he successfully defeats Robb Stark, the King in the North, by forging an alliance with the lords Frey and Bolton, who betray and kill Stark and his men. The crown subsequently pardons and rewards them with Riverrun and the North, respectively, though Tywin is criticized by Tyrion for winning the war through such an unscrupulous scheme. He also has to deal with an increasingly belligerent Joffrey, who chides his grandfather as a coward who "hid under Casterly Rock '' while Robert Baratheon led the rebellion against Aerys Targaryen, and complicated relations with his children as he forces them into marriage alliances with Sansa Stark and Loras Tyrell, to secure the support of the Tyrells and Lannister dominion in the North (now Sansa 's heirdom, as all her brothers are presumed dead). In the fourth season, Tywin is present at the royal wedding where Joffrey dies, and has King 's Landing closed off to prevent Sansa from escaping (although she escapes with help from Petyr Baelish and Dontos Hollard). He grooms Joffrey 's younger brother, Tommen, to becoming the new King, and appears determined to make sure Tommen becomes a much better King than Joffrey was. The presence of Prince Oberyn Martell of Dorne poses a new problem, however, as he resurfaces the Martell -- Lannister antagonism over the rape and murder of his sister Elia by Gregor "The Mountain '' Clegane during the Robert 's Rebellion; Oberyn believes the deed was done on Tywin 's order. Tywin denies the allegations and promises Oberyn justice in exchange for Oberyn serving as one of the judges at Tyrion 's trial. At the trial, when several supposed witnesses give false statements regarding Tyrion 's supposed guilt, Tywin promises Jaime in private that if Tyrion is found guilty and pleads for mercy, he will exile him to the Night 's Watch but only if Jaime ceases to be a Kingsguard and takes his place as heir to House Lannister. However, Tyrion loses his composure, lashes out at Tywin and demands a trial by combat, to Tywin 's anger. When Tyrion 's champion, Oberyn, loses the fight and is killed, Tywin sentences his son to death. Later, when Jamie helps Tyrion escape, Tyrion discovers that Tywin was having an affair with Shae, Tyrion 's former lover, who falsely testified against him at his trial. Tywin is ambushed by Tyrion while in a privy, wielding Joffrey 's crossbow. Tywin attempts to reason with Tyrion, swearing that he would never have had him executed, but also -- upon Tyrion showing regret for Shae 's death -- taunts him as "afraid of a dead whore ''. In rage, Tyrion shoots Tywin twice in the chest, killing him. His body is discovered shortly afterwards, and a grand funeral is held in the Sept of Baelor. As revealed by Davos Seaworth, he was 67 years old. Tywin 's death heralds instability in the Seven Kingdoms, with the arrival of the Sparrows in the capital, and rivalry rising between Cersei, who aspires to her father 's position but lacks many of his statesmanlike qualities, and the Tyrells. The Boltons also lose the potential Lannister military support just when they are faced with Stannis Baratheon planning to take Winterfell on his way to the Iron Throne.
Davos Seaworth (season 2 -- present) portrayed by Liam Cunningham. Ser Davos Seaworth, also known as "The Onion Knight '', is a former smuggler and knight in the service of Stannis Baratheon; he serves as one of Stannis 's most trusted advisers. In his smuggling days, he was said to handle a ship at night better than anyone. Before the events of the series, he earned his knighthood by smuggling fish and onions to the besieged Stannis Baratheon and his army during Robert Baratheon 's rebellion. Before knighting him, Stannis removed the last joints from four fingers on his right hand as punishment for his years of smuggling; believing these joints bought his family a better future, Davos keeps them in a pouch around his neck for luck. In Season 2, he loyally supports Stannis ' claim on the throne and his honesty and willingness to voice his unaltered opinion makes him Stannis ' most trusted adviser, though Stannis often dislikes what he hears. An agnostic, he does n't accept the priestess Melisandre and her god R'hllor but does not object to her because Stannis is also a follower of R'hllor. He fights in the Battle of the Blackwater, where his ships are caught in a giant explosion of wild fire. His son Matthos is killed and Davos is thrown out to sea. He is picked up by the pirate Salladhor Saan, who returns him to King Stannis. Upon attacking Melisandre for the loss of his son, he is imprisoned and later condemned to death for releasing Gendry. Stannis had intended to sacrifice the boy to R'hllor and hence regards Davos ' actions as treason, but Davos shows him a letter from Maester Aemon from the Night 's Watch, detailing the death of Lord Commander Jeor Mormont and Samwell Tarly witnessing the growing army of White Walkers. Stannis pardons Davos upon Melisandre 's request, as she claims R'hllor calls them to travel to the Wall to help the Night 's Watch protect the kingdom from the White Walkers. In season 4, Davos is still at odds with Stannis for releasing Gendry (as Stannis claims that Robb Stark and Joffrey Baratheon are dead thanks to Gendry 's blood) and failing to find him a suitable army, but Davos decides to write a letter to the Iron Bank of Braavos so that they may provide them with the currency to purchase an army to aid the Night 's Watch against the 100,000 strong wildling army led by Mance Rayder. Despite the Iron Bank 's reluctance to back Stannis, Davos manages to convince them and they acquire the loan. Davos then tracks Salladhor Saan to aid them in exchange for gold. He and Stannis arrive at the Wall in time to save Jon Snow from Mance Rayder. In season 5, Davos remains at the Wall with Stannis to help him in his campaign to retake the North from Roose Bolton. Davos is aware that the Night 's Watch will choose a new Lord Commander and believes that Ser Alliser Thorne will win. He tries to convince Jon Snow to accept Stannis 's offer of legitimization since Thorne will most likely punish Jon for showing Mance Rayder mercy during the execution. Later, Davos departs from the Wall with Stannis, to help him take Winterfell. As the army becomes snowbound, he is returned to the Wall on Stannis ' command, sharing a heartfelt moment with Shireen, where he thanks her for learning him to read and promises to be back within days. Arriving at the Wall, he unsuccessfully tries to convince Jon of their cause, when the couple is suddenly joined by a lone Melisandre, whose sullen demeanour is enough to tell Jon and Davos that Stannis and Shireen are dead. In season 6, after Jon is killed in a mutiny, Davos leads Jon 's loyal friends against the mutineers led by Alliser Thorne and they achieve victory thanks to the wildlings ' help. Davos later persuades Melisandre to attempt to resurrect Jon, which she succeeds in doing, and becomes one of Jon 's top lieutenants in his campaign to retake Winterfell from the Boltons, successfully persuading Lyanna Mormont to supply them with men. He takes part in the Battle of the Bastards and survives, but in the process learns that Shireen was actually burned at the stake by Melisandre. He confronts her about it in front of Jon and she admits her role in Shireen 's death, and he demands permission from Jon to execute Melisandre, though Jon has her exiled instead. Davos later joins the Northern Lords in proclaiming Jon the new King in the North. In season 7 Davos travels with Jon to Dragonstone. He helps Tyrion Lannister to sneak into King 's Landing for a meeting with Jamie Lannister. While in King 's Landing he seeks out Gendry and finds him in a smithy, and brings him back to Dragonstone.
Samwell Tarly (season 1 -- present) portrayed by John Bradley. Samwell Tarly of House Tarly and the Night 's Watch is the eldest son and former heir of Lord Randyll Tarly, is a new recruit to the Night 's Watch. He was sent to the Wall by his father, who disowned him for his cowardice. He becomes Jon 's best friend after Jon conspires with the others in their trainee class to go easy on him. While not a warrior, he is very smart and insightful. He is inducted into the Stewards and assigned to Maester Aemon. He travels beyond the Wall in place of Aemon and falls in love with Gilly, one of Craster 's daughter - wives. Later in Season 2, he finds obsidian "Dragon glass. '' At the end of the season he becomes a witness to the numerous army of White Walkers and Wights marching to the Fist of the First Men. He manages to escape with a few Night 's Watch Men including Lord Commander Jeor Mormont, and they make it back to Craster 's Keep. Escaping the slaughter of the Nights Watch mutineers -- which ended in Lord Mormont 's death -- Sam is attacked by a White Walker when making a fire but manages to kill it using the Dragonglass. Alongside Gilly, he manages to cross the Wall and return to Castle Black to bring news of Mormont 's death and reunite with Jon. In season 4, fearing for Gilly 's safety, Sam takes her to work in an inn in Mole 's Town, but later regrets his decision, especially after Mole 's Town is attacked by wildlings (though he is unaware that Gilly was spared by Ygritte). He reunites with Gilly, however, when she returns to Castle Black unharmed, and he locks her in the food storage for her safety when the wildlings attack, kissing her for the first time. Sam himself participates in the battle, at one point shooting a huge Thenn through the head with a crossbow and holding the dying Pyp in his arms. In the aftermath, he discovers Janos Slynt to have hidden himself in the food storage with Gilly, and is given Jon 's sword to look after as Jon leaves Castle Black to hunt down Mance Rayder. He is later present at the burning of the bodies of those who were killed in the battle for The Wall. In season 5, he expresses concern that if Ser Alliser Thorne is elected the new Lord Commander of the Night 's Watch, Gilly and the other wildlings will be executed. At Mance Rayder 's execution he comforts Gilly as she could n't bare to watch. Sam is reading a book on previous Lord Commanders while Princess Shireen Baratheon teaches Gilly how to read. He also learns how the young princess survived Greyscale and that Gilly also had sisters who perished from the disease. At the choosing for the 998th Lord Commander of the Night 's Watch, Jon Snow reveals Stannis 's offer of legitimization to Sam. Jon states that it was always his dream to be Lord of Winterfell, but he reveals that he will decline the king 's offer, much to Sam 's surprise. When Maester Aemon asks if there are any more candidates wishing to run against Ser Alliser Thorne and Ser Denys Mallister, Sam puts Jon 's name forward as a candidate. Janos Slynt mocks Sam by calling him "Slayer '' and pointing out his love for Gilly being similar to Jon 's love for Ygritte, and Sam retaliates by publicly mocking Slynt for hiding in the pantry with Gilly and her baby during the wildling attack. Sam reminds all of the black brothers present that Jon was Jeor Mormont 's personal steward, that he led the force to deal with the mutineers at Craster 's Keep, and took command of Castle Black 's garrison during the wildling attack when Thorne was wounded. Sam 's speech ultimately results in Jon being chosen as the new Lord Commander of the Night 's Watch. Events at the wall go on as normal, until the death of Maester Aemon of old age. Sam is present at the maester 's death. Shortly afterward, he catches two Night 's Watchmen attempting to rape Gilly. He attempts to defend her, but the two harshly beat him, and he is only saved by Jon 's direwolf, Ghost. While tending Sam 's wounds, Gilly has sex with Sam. He later leaves with her, convincing Jon that he will aid the Watch much more as a trained maester in Oldtown. His self - confessed motive, however, is to spirit Gilly and her baby -- now named "Sam '' after her lover -- away to safety, of which Jon approves. In season 6, Sam and Gilly briefly stop at Horn Hill, where Sam contemplates leaving Gilly and little Sam with his family, but after an uneasy reunion with his father, Sam decides to take Gilly and the baby with him, and steals the House Tarly Valyrian steel sword, Heartsbane, to learn the secrets behind Valyrian steel. He reaches the citadel in the season finale. In season 7 Sam is a skivvy for the Archmaester, collecting chamber pots and rescribing old scrolls. He meets Jorah Mormont, nearly lost to the disease greyscale, and cures him using a painful and risky treatment in defiance of the Archmaester 's orders. Sam is frustrated that the Archmaester will not take the White Walker threat seriously. Eventually he helps himself to scrolls he thinks may be important from the library and heads back north with Gilly and little Sam. Gilly finds in a High Septon 's diary that Prince Rhaegar annulled his marriage to Ella Martell of Dorne; Sam ignores this at first but by the time he reaches Winterfell and meets Bran he has read for himself that the High Septon went on to marry Rhaegar to Lyanna Stark in secret. Sam and Bran put their information together to conclude that Jon Snow was born legitimate, named Aegon Targaryen, and the rightful heir to the Iron Throne.
Margaery Tyrell (season 2 -- 6) portrayed by Natalie Dormer. Margaery of House Tyrell is the only daughter of Lord Mace Tyrell, and has recently married the late King Robert 's brother, Renly Baratheon, as part of House Tyrell 's support for his bid to seize the Iron Throne from King Joffrey. Somewhere in her mid to late twenties, she is surprisingly canny and cunning. She is aware of her husband 's homosexual orientation and inclinations towards her brother. Despite her knowledge of this, she actively attempts to become pregnant as to secure the alliance between their families. When Renly is killed, the Tyrells ally with House Lannister and she is planned to marry to King Joffrey. In a departure from her characterization in the novels, where her personal motivations are unclear, Margaery 's naked ambition is made obvious. Upon arriving at King 's Landing, she offers Sansa to marry her brother Loras, but the plot is thwarted and Sansa is married to Tyrion Lannister to secure the North should Robb Stark die. At the end of Season 3, her marriage to Joffrey is impending, though her influence over him appears to grow, causing friction between her and Queen Regent Cersei. Cersei coldly implies she could have her killed at any time. In season 4, Margaery and Joffrey are married, but Joffrey dies at the wedding after being poisoned. Since Margaery still can not become queen this way, she is betrothed to Joffrey 's younger brother and heir, Tommen, and visits him one night in his chamber to get to know him better. She is among the many people in King 's Landing who believe Tyrion Lannister is not responsible for Joffrey 's death, and her grandmother, Olenna Tyrell, confirms to her that it was she who orchestrated it, leaving Margaery visibly shocked, until Olenna claims that it was to protect her from Joffrey 's abuse (which he had quite clearly inflicted on Sansa while she was betrothed to him). Margaery is later present at Tyrion 's trial, where she is visibly uncomfortable at the possibility of Tyrion being punished for the crime her grandmother committed. After Tyrion kills Tywin and escapes, Margaery attends Tywin 's funeral. Margaery marries Tommen soon afterward, as Tommen is now the king. The wedding suffers no problems, and Margaery finally becomes a queen. After consummating the marriage with Tommen, Margaery, who has him completely in her thrall, suggests that Tommen send Cersei back to Casterly Rock. Tensions between Cersei and Margaery increase as Cersei confronts her about Tommen. Margaery insults Cersei, angering her. Cersei then has Margaery 's brother, Loras, arrested by the extremist religious movement the Sparrows for homosexual activities. At a trial, Margaery testifies that Loras is not guilty. However, when evidence is procured, Loras gets arrested, along with Margaery, as she lied in her testimony. The High Sparrow reveals that she and Loras will face trial, but that they may receive the "mother 's mercy '' if they were to confess their crimes. Margaery later feigns surrender to protect her family, and joins Tommen in making an alliance with the Faith. On the day of Cersei 's trial, however, Margaery is killed in the explosion which destroys the Great Sept of Baelor.
Stannis Baratheon (season 2 -- 5) portrayed by Stephen Dillane. Stannis Baratheon of House Baratheon, Lord of Dragonstone, is the elder of Robert Baratheon 's younger brothers. A brooding, humorless man known for a hard and unyielding sense of justice, he is obsessed with slights real and imagined. With Robert dying, Ned sends him a letter appointing him as the legitimate heir and becomes another challenger for the Iron Throne after his nephew Joffrey becomes King. By Season 2, he has fallen under the influence of Melisandre, a priestess of R'hllor. After Robert 's death, Stannis claims himself the true heir to the Iron Throne as Cersei 's children are illegitimate and names himself King of the Seven Kingdoms. However, most of the Baratheon bannermen support the claim of the more charismatic Renly. When Renly is mysteriously slain, many of Renly 's bannermen immediately swear allegiance to Stannis. He then attacks King 's Landing by sailing up the Blackwater Bay. However, due to Tyrion 's plan using wild fire and reinforcements by the Lannisters and Tyrell Cavalry, he loses the Battle of Blackwater. Despite this setback, he is convinced to continue fighting by Melisandre, and is further convinced by her magic as she lets him see a vision of a battle in the flames. He acquires one of Robert 's bastards, Gendry, from the Brotherhood Without Banners and plans to sacrifice him to further his quest for the Iron Throne. After Davos questions his course of action, Stannis has three leeches drawn with Gendry 's blood and throws them into a fire, calling for the death of Robb Stark, Balon Greyjoy and Joffrey Baratheon. Upon the news of Robb 's death, Davos releases Gendry to prevent him from being burned. Stannis subsequently sentences his Hand to death but is swayed by Melisandre, who encourages him to travel North to aid the Night 's Watch against the threat emerging from beyond the Wall. In season 4, Stannis hears of Joffrey 's death and chastises Davos again for releasing Gendry and not finding him a suitable army, prompting Davos to write to the Iron Bank of Braavos in Stannis 's name to help pay for an army. The Iron Bank very nearly refuses Stannis ' request, even subtly belittling him in the process, but Davos manages to convince them that Stannis is easily the only one they can turn to since Tywin Lannister is nearing old age. Stannis and his army arrive at the Wall shortly after the Battle for Castle Black, interrupting a supposed parley between Jon Snow and Mance Rayder. Stannis learns that Jon is Ned Stark 's son, and on Jon 's advice, he places Mance and his men under arrest. He is later present at the funeral of the Night 's Watch brothers who died during the Battle for Castle Black. In season 5, Stannis begins plans to retake the North from Roose Bolton, hoping to recruit Mance 's wildling army, if Mance will bend the knee to him. Mance refuses, and Stannis orders him burned at the stake. Although Stannis was not pleased that Jon interfered with Mance 's execution, he presents Jon an enticing offer. If Jon bends the knee and swears his loyalty to Stannis, the king will legitimize him as Jon Stark, making him the Lord of Winterfell. Stannis, after receiving a message from Lyanna Mormont, knows that having a Stark on his side is the best chance of rallying the Northerners to his cause. Stannis departs from the Wall soon afterward, on a mission to take Winterfell from the Boltons. However, his party is delayed by a large snowstorm that ravages the North, and Ramsay Bolton and his men sabotage his supplies by burning them. He eventually agrees, most reluctantly, to sacrifice his daughter to the Lord of Light, sending Davos to the Wall to find supplies as he knows he would never approve of this most drastic action. Conferring with his daughter before her sacrifice, he admits that he will hate himself forever, but goes through with the act, witnessing tearfully as his daughter succumbs. The next day, the blizzard has lifted, though half his army, including all the sellswords have mutinied, taking all the horses to join the Boltons. Selyse is found hanged in a woods, having broken and relented the sacrifice of their child in the last minute and taken her own life. Stannis decides to finish the march on Winterfell by foot, where his greatly diminished army is greeted by a massive cavalry force led by Ramsay which defeats him. Fending off remaining Bolton soldiers in a nearby grove, Stannis succumbs by a tree, where he is greeted by Brienne of Tarth, reminding him of his fratricide. Stannis accepts responsibility and tells Brienne to fulfil her duty, and she lifts her sword and swings.
Melisandre (season 2 -- present) portrayed by Carice van Houten. Also known as "The Red Woman '', a priestess of R'hllor in service to Stannis Baratheon. Melisandre has prophetic powers that give her partial knowledge of future events. Unlike many other people in Westeros with access to prophecy, Melisandre has absolute faith in her own interpretation. Melisandre believes Stannis is the chosen one who will convert the people of Westeros into followers of R'hllor. She convinces Stannis of this by using various methods, including seduction. Many, most notably Stannis ' trusted adviser Davos Seaworth, believe she is leading their king astray. She has magical powers which help her survive Maester Cressen 's attempt to kill her with poison. She also gives birth to a shadow demon which is sent to kill Renly Baratheon and tries to convince Stannis to sacrifice Gendry, the bastard son of Robert Baratheon, because he has king 's blood, claiming R'hllor will reward the gift with an easier path to the Iron Throne. After Gendry 's escape, she intercepts a letter from the Night 's Watch, seeing the prophetic "Other '' as the force behind the White Walkers ' march on the wall, and insists that Stannis takes up the cause of stopping them. She dismisses "this war of five kings '' (now actually three) as unimportant and insists that Stannis take the help of Davos Seaworth, despite his betrayal. In season 4, Melisandre accompanies Stannis, Davos and their army to the Wall, narrowly saving Jon Snow from Mance Rayder. At the funeral of the Night 's Watch brothers who fell during the Battle for Castle Black, Melisandre exchanges a knowing glance with Jon. In season 5, she remains at the Wall with Stannis and shows interest in Jon. She attempts to seduce Jon, but he refuses to have sex with her. Eventually, she departs from the Wall with Stannis and Davos on their mission to take Winterfell. When a large snowstorm delays them, Melisandre suggests that Stannis sacrifice his daughter Shireen, but Stannis refuses. After a Bolton raiding party kills many of the horses and burns their supplies, he eventually gives in and allows the priestess to burn his only child. Melisandre declares soon after that the blizzard has been lifted, but after half of Stannis ' forces desert him, dismayed and disgusted, she rides for the Wall, where she is accosted by Jon and Davos. In season 6, after persuasion by Davos, Melisandre attempts to resurrect Jon, who was killed in a mutiny, and succeeds, restoring her faith in the Lord of Light. She remains at Jon 's side through his campaign to retake the North from the Boltons, and witnesses the Bolton banners being lowered to the ground as in one of her visions. However, she is accused of murdering Shireen by Davos. With obvious regret, she admits what she did, but pleads with Jon not to execute her, claiming that she can help in the coming battle against the Night King. Remembering her role in resurrecting him, Jon does not execute Melisandre, but has her exiled from the North. In season 7 she arrives at Dragonstone and urges Daenerys to make an ally of Jon Snow. She tells Varys she is leaving Westeros but that she will return, as it is her destiny to die there.
Jeor Mormont (season 1 -- 3) portrayed by James Cosmo. Jeor Mormont, the 997th Lord Commander of the Night 's Watch, is the estranged father of Ser Jorah. He gave up his lands to serve the Night 's Watch. His son 's shaming of their house weighs heavily on him. He personally requests that Jon Snow be made his personal steward, and gives him the Hand - and - a-Half sword (also known as a bastard sword) of their house, Longclaw. He has the pommel reshaped into a wolf 's head. To investigate the return of wights, the disappearance of several Rangers, and rumors of a wildling army, Jeor leads an expeditionary force beyond the Wall in Season 2. In Season 3, after returning to Craster 's Keep, he is slain by Rast in the ensuing mutiny, but manages to strangle him before succumbing to his wounds. His death ignites Maester Aemon 's call for the lords of Westeros to aid the Night 's Watch, which convinces Stannis Baratheon the time is ripe to fight the onslaught of the White Walkers. His corpse is apparently desecrated afterwards, as in season 4, Karl Tanner is shown drinking wine from a skull he claims is Jeor 's.
Bronn (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Jerome Flynn. Bronn is a sellsword with a sardonic sense of humor. He initially serves under Catelyn Stark and aids her in arresting Tyrion Lannister and taking him to the Vale to stand trial for the murder of Jon Arryn and attempted murder of Bran Stark. During the trial, Bronn realises that Tyrion will most likely be executed by the insane Lysa Arryn despite the impossibility of his guilt, and volunteers to fight for Tyrion when he demands a trial by combat. Bronn defeats Lysa Arryn 's champion and becomes Tyrion 's companion and protector, accompanying him back to King 's Landing. After they arrive, Bronn 's service to Tyrion earns him a position as Commander of the City Watch after Janos Slynt is revealed to be accepting bribes from the Lannisters. When Stannis Baratheon attacks the city by sailing up the Blackwater Bay, he shoots a flaming arrow to a ship containing wild fire which destroys half of Stannis ' fleet, and kills several of the attackers in defence of the city. However, Bronn is stripped of his position after Tywin Lannister takes his seat as Hand of The King, but is knighted taking the name Ser Bronn of the Blackwater for his service. He subsequently demands more gold for protecting Lord Tyrion and remains his confidante, though discord is increasing between the two. When Tyrion is forced to marry Sansa Stark, Bronn claims he desires her sexually, which Tyrion takes as a grave insult. In Season 4, Tyrion pays him to train Jaime Lannister in fencing with his left hand, as well as get Shae out of King 's Landing, which he assures was completed. Bronn later implores Jaime to visit and help Tyrion after he is accused of murdering Joffrey, telling Jaime that Tyrion originally named him as his defender while on trial in the Vale before Bronn volunteered. Bronn is later betrothed to a rich woman by Cersei in order to stop Tyrion from naming him as his champion. Bronn visits Tyrion in his cell to inform him, and tells him that he most likely would not have been prepared to fight Ser Gregor Clegane, Cersei 's champion, anyway. He bids Tyrion farewell and they part ways as friends. In Season 5, Bronn is taking a stroll with his betrothed, Lollys Stokeworth, just outside Castle Stokeworth. Lollys talks at length about the upcoming wedding, but Bronn seems uninterested about discussing it. He does comfort Lollys when she talks about her sister Felyse, saying that mean people will always get what they deserve. The two are interrupted when they see Jaime near the castle. Jaime intends to bring Myrcella Baratheon back from Dorne to King 's Landing and wants Bronn to help him. He also reveals that Cersei has arranged for Willas Bracken to wed Lollys instead of him, which angers Bronn, as he and Cersei had an agreement. Jaime tells Bronn that he will get a much better girl and a much better castle once they return from Dorne. Bronn and Jaime infiltrate the Water Gardens and find Myrcella with Trystane Martell, but are intercepted by the Sand Snakes, Oberyn Martell 's bastard daughters, who seek to kill Myrcella as revenge against Cersei for Oberyn 's death. Bronn sustains a cut while fighting Tyene Sand before they are all arrested by the Dornish guard. While in custody, Bronn almost dies from poison due to Tyene 's blade being coated in it, though she gives him the antidote. Though he struck Trystane during the struggle, Bronn is ultimately spared and allowed to return to King 's Landing with Jaime, after Areo Hotah strikes him across the face in retribution for harming Trystane. In season six, he accompanies Jaime to the Riverlands to retake Riverrun from Brynden Tully for the Freys, and returns to King 's Landing afterwards. In season seven he accompanies Jamie to capture Highgarden, reminding Jamie that he is still owed a highborn wife and a castle by the Lannisters. When the baggage train and force of soldiers he and Jamie are travelling with is attacked by Daenerys ' Dothraki and dragons he attempts to use a scorpion (giant crossbow) to shoot down Daenerys ' dragon. One of his shots wings the dragon but does not kill it, and the scorpion is destroyed by fire. Bronn sees Jamie about to make a suicidal charge at Daenerys and shoves him into the water just as the dragon is about to incinerate him. In King 's Landing Bronn leads Jamie down into the lower levels of the Red Keep, ostensibly to practice with swords, before revealing he had been asked by Tyrion to bring Jamie to a meeting. Cersei describes this as treason, but Jamie takes no action against Bronn.
Varys (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Conleth Hill. Varys, sometimes called The Spider, is a major character in the second, third, fourth and fifth seasons. He initially appeared as a recurring character in the first season and debuted in "Lord Snow ''. Varys is bald and tends towards fat, due to his castration. Varys is a eunuch and the Master of Whisperers on the king 's small council. He is the Master of Whisperers, the King 's foremost spymaster and intelligence agent. He holds no inherited title, castle or lands in Westeros, but is called "Lord '' as a courtesy due to his position on the council, which traditionally is made up of high lords. He is a skilled manipulator and commands a network of informants across two continents. He often puts on the public persona of being nothing more than a pudgy man well suited to the pleasantries of court life; humble, obsequious, fawning, and a little effeminate. This is simply a facade that Varys has developed, which often leads those who do not know him well to underestimate him as a cheerful and vapid flatterer. In reality he is a cunning and ruthless manipulator of court politics, on - par with Master of Coin Petyr "Littlefinger '' Baelish, with whom he frequently spars. Unlike Baelish, Varys insists that his goals are to achieve what he honestly feels is best for the realm, though of course, what he and the current king feel is best might be two separate things. Varys was born across the Narrow Sea in Lys. He was born a slave, and as a child he traveled with a troupe of actors all around the different Free Cities until a sorcerer in the city of Myr made an offer Varys ' master could n't refuse. Varys was sold to the sorcerer, who gave him a potion that made him unable to move or speak but did n't dull his perceptions or sense of pain, and emasculated him (cutting off his testes and penis both) to use his sexual organs in a magical ritual, burning them in a brazier. Afterward the sorcerer had no use for Varys and threw him in the streets to die. Instead Varys resolved to live no matter what: begging, stealing, and selling the sexual use of what parts remained to him, doing anything to survive. He also became an excellent thief, but soon learned that stolen information was often a far more valuable commodity than any physical goods, and he worked his way up from the slums of Myr. He became a master spy and information trafficker, and his influence and reputation grew so great that he eventually found himself as a member of the small council in the Seven Kingdoms. His experience at the hands of the sorcerer had also left him with a bitter hatred for magic and its practitioners. Varys 's true loyalties remain a mystery, though he claims to serve "the realm '', and abhors the suffering and political instability brought by the war. After Littlefinger 's confidante Ros is severely beaten by Joffrey 's guards and he fails to intervene, Varys takes her into his service as a spy. Littlefinger finds out and has her killed, taunting Varys that he could n't protect her. Varys affirms his course as a means to prevent chaos befalling the realm, claiming that Littlefinger "would see the Seven Kingdoms burn, if he could be king over the ashes. '' Varys later informs Tyrion that Cersei has discovered his relationship with Shae. Though he claims he will not lie for him, he implores Tyrion to send Shae away for her own safety. Varys later testifies against Tyrion at his trial for murdering Joffrey, but when Tyrion is convicted, Jaime enlists Varys 's help in smuggling Tyrion out of King 's Landing to Essos. As Varys prepares to go back, he hears the tolling bells, making him realise that Tyrion 's escape has been discovered (along with his murder of Tywin), so he stays on the boat with Tyrion. In Season 5, he and Tyrion arrive in Pentos, where he convinces Tyrion to travel with him to Meereen and aid Daenerys Targaryen in retaking the Iron Throne. Travelling to Volantis, Varys and Tyrion discuss the former 's brief tenure as Hand of the King. Tyrion laments not leaving King 's Landing with Shae when he had the chance, but tells Varys that he enjoyed serving as Hand. Varys eventually surfaces in Meereen, where he confers with Tyrion about the future of the city and the Seven Kingdoms. In season 6, after helping Tyrion broker an alliance with the slave masters, he departs Meereen to find new friends in Westeros, and secures help from Olenna Tyrell and Ellaria Sand to aid Daenerys. In season 7 he is challenged by Daenerys over having served Robert Baratheon after Robert took her father 's throne, and over his role in the attempt on her life in season 1. She pardons him. Varys is told by Mellisandre that both she and he are destined to die in Westeros.
Shae (season 1 -- 4) portrayed by Sibel Kekilli. Shae is a young camp follower in whom Tyrion Lannister takes particular interest. She is from Lorath, one of the Free Cities across the Narrow Sea. Tyrion falls in love with her and in order to hide her from his father, Tyrion appoints Shae to be Sansa 's handmaiden. As her handmaiden, Shae is the only person Sansa trusts and confides to her about her problems and what she really thinks about the Lannisters. In turn, Shae becomes protective of Sansa and attempts to help her in any way she can. In Season 3, she becomes jealous of Tyrion after his marriage to Sansa and is confronted by Varys, who urges her to leave the Seven Kingdoms, which she refuses to do, thinking that Tyrion has something to do with Varys talking to her. In Season 4, Tyrion is forced to send Shae away from King 's Landing on a ship after her presence is discovered by Cersei and his father is told, insulting her in the process. Shae, however, does not leave King 's Landing, and resurfaces at Tyrion 's trial for murdering Joffrey, where she falsely claims that both Tyrion and Sansa were responsible for Joffrey 's death. It is revealed, however, that Shae was having an affair with Tywin. After Tyrion is freed by Jaime, he finds Shae sleeping in Tywin 's bed, making him realise the horrible truth. Shae attempts to kill Tyrion with a knife, but he strangles her to death.
Ygritte (season 2 -- 4) portrayed by Rose Leslie. A Wildling girl with red hair ("kissed by fire '', a sign of luck among the Wildlings) and a follower of Mance Rayder. In Season 2, she is captured in the Skirling Pass by Jon Snow and Qhorin Halfhand. She manages to escape, but is recaptured by Jon, separating him from his brothers in the process. Later she leads him into Rattleshirt 's ambush. After this they lead Jon to Mance Rayder 's wildling camp, where he pretends to defect to the Wildlings to discover their plans. She then travels with him to the wall, and during this journey she seduces him. However, when confronted with killing an innocent horse farmer for the watch who scaled the wall, Jon escapes the wildling 's clutches on horseback. But while resting, Ygritte manages to catch up with Jon at which point she confesses her love for him and then, blinded by tears, shoots him multiple times while he escapes towards the wall. In Season 4, Ygritte starts raiding villages south of the wall with her group, clearly thirsting for vengeance against Jon, although Tormund suspects she let him go. When the wildlings attack Mole 's Town, Ygritte slaughters all the women present, but notices Gilly hiding with her baby son, and spares her life. When the wildlings finally reach Castle Black and attack, Ygritte kills many Night 's Watch brothers with her archery skills, among them Pyp. When confronted by Jon, however, she can not bring herself to shoot him, and is shot in the back by Olly, a boy whose father Ygritte previously killed. Ygritte subsequently dies in Jon 's arms, and her body is later burned by Jon himself, separately from the other soldiers, in her homeland, north of the Wall.
Talisa Maegyr (season 2 -- 3) portrayed by Oona Chaplin. Talisa Maegyr is a healer working on the battlefields of the War of the Five Kings. She claims to be from the Free City of Volantis. No character named Talisa appears in the books. Oona Chaplin was originally announced to play a character called Jeyne, which many thought to mean she would play Jeyne Westerling, a character from the books. Talisa follows Robb Stark 's army camp as it moves. One day as they talk they are interrupted by news that Catelyn has released Robb 's key prisoner Jaime Lannister. Talisa later goes to comfort Robb. After she reveals more of her past to him, they admit their shared feelings for one another and sleep together. Talisa and Robb marry in secret before a septon. In season 3, Talisa reveals that she is pregnant, although she and her unborn child are stabbed to death by Lothar Frey in the Red Wedding Massacre, the first in the hall to be attacked.
Gendry (season 1 -- 3, 7 - present) portrayed by Joe Dempsie. Gendry is an apprentice blacksmith in King 's Landing and an unacknowledged bastard of King Robert. During Season 1, Eddard tells the smith that if Gendry ever shows interest in wielding a sword to send him to Eddard. Gendry shows promise as a smith and makes a helmet in the shape of a bull 's head; Eddard compliments the helmet, offering to purchase it. Gendry refuses, to the shame of the master smith. After Eddard Stark 's fall and eventual execution, arrangements are made for Yoren of the Night 's Watch to take Gendry to the Wall with him; he travels North with Yoren and other recruits, including Arry, Lommy Greenhands, Hot Pie and Jaqen H'ghar. During their journey, they are stopped by the Goldcloaks, who demand that Yoren give up Gendry as King Joffrey wants all of his father 's bastards killed but are forced to leave by Yoren. Later, Gendry reveals to Arry that he knows she is a girl disguised as a boy all along and is surprised to learn she is Arya, Ned Stark 's daughter. After the Goldcloaks get help from Ser Amory Lorch and his men who kill Yoren, Gendry 's life is saved by Arya when she lies to the Goldcloaks that Lommy, who was killed during the attack, was Gendry. Gendry and the rest of recruits are sent to Harrenhal where Ser Gregor Clegane arbitrarily has many of the prisoners tortured and killed. Gendry was about to suffer this fate but is saved by the arrival of Lord Tywin Lannister, who chides Clegane 's men for their reckless behavior. Thanks to Jaqen, Arya, Gendry and Hot Pie are able to escape Harrenhal. As they head towards the Riverlands, the group encounters the Brotherhood Without Banners, a group of Outlaws that defend the weak. Inspired, he decides to join the Brotherhood but is betrayed by them when they sell him to Lady Melisandre as ordered by the Lord of Light. Melisandre later reveals to Gendry that King Robert was his father and she is bringing him to meet his uncle, King Stannis. But in truth, Melisandre and Stannis planned to use him for her blood magic where Stannis uses his nephew 's blood to make a death curse on the usurpers to his throne, Joffrey, Robb, and Balon Greyjoy. Before they can use him as a sacrifice, Davos Seaworth helps Gendry escape and puts him on a boat to King 's Landing. Unable to swim or row, Gendry is nevertheless convinced that the Red Woman has a surer death in spare for him, and Davos asks him to "have a bowl'o brown for me '' when returning to Flea Bottom. In Season 7 Davos, on a clandestine visit to King 's Landing, seeks out Gendry and finds him working as a smith. Gendry needs no persuading to go with Davos to Dragonstone. There he meets Jon Snow and volunteers to go with Jon on a mission north of the Wall to capture a wight. During the mission he is sent back to the Wall to summon help. He gets word to Daenerys, and later leaves with the others on the Targaryen ship.
Tormund Giantsbane (season 3 -- 7) portrayed by Kristofer Hivju. A wildling raider known for his many titles, "Giantsbane '' being foremost. Loud and gregarious, he is one of Mance 's top generals, fierce and terrible in combat. Tormund takes a liking to Jon after he joins them and even gives him advice over his relationship with Ygritte. Tormund leads a group of wildlings south of the Wall to await the signal of Mance Rayder to attack the Night 's Watch. He later leads the attack on Mole 's Town. When the army reaches Castle Black, he duels and severely wounds Ser Alliser Thorne, but is brought down by several arrows and taken prisoner for questioning. After his wounds are healed by Maester Aemon, Jon briefly approaches him, and he tells Jon that Ygritte loved him, citing Ygritte 's apparent desire to kill him as proof. He is later present at Mance 's execution, and is visibly saddened at his friend 's death. He is eventually freed by Jon, who he accompanies to Hardhome, where he attempts to convince the local wildlings to join the Night 's Watch in the battle against their common enemy. As Hardhome is overrun by wights and white walkers, Tormund ferociously fights them off and escapes to the boats with Jon. He later passes through the Wall and into the Seven Kingdoms along with the rest of the wildlings. In season 6, after hearing of Jon 's murder, he rushes back to Castle Black to bring down the ones responsible, and later witnesses Jon 's resurrection and execution of the mutineers. From there on, Tormund becomes one of Jon 's lieutenants in his campaign to retake the North from Ramsay Bolton. In the ensuing battle, he fights and kills Smalljon Umber, and witnesses Jon defeat Ramsay after Ramsay shoots Wun Wun dead. He is later present when Jon is named the new King in the North. In season 7 Tormund and a group of Free Folk go to Eastwatch at the end of the Wall, expecting the Army of the Dead to approach the Wall at that point. When Jon arrives there on his way north to capture a wight, Tormund volunteers to go along. Tormund is enamoured of Brienne of Tarth and says he hopes to make big monstrous babies with her. Tormund is at Eastwatch - by - the - Sea with Beric Dondarrion when the Night King attacks with Viserion, now resurrected as a wight dragon, or "ice dragon ''. Following the breaching of the Wall, it is uncertain if Tormund and Beric made it out alive as they were last seen running for their lives.
Gilly (season 2 -- present) portrayed by Hannah Murray. A young wildling girl who lives north of the Wall, Gilly is one of many daughters of Craster, a wildling who takes all his daughters as wives once they grow up into women. She has a son with her father Craster. Samwell falls for her and becomes protective of her. After Craster is killed and Commander Mormont 's rangers turn on each other, Samwell runs with Gilly and her son to Castle Black. Along their journey, Gilly becomes fascinated with Samwell over his knowledge and his bravery of defending her son from a White Walker. After the three of them manage to reach Castle Black, Maester Aemon allows Gilly and her son to stay with them. In gratitude for Samwell helping them, Gilly names her son after Sam. In Season 4, Gilly settles in a nearby inn close to Castle Black, with Sam 's assistance. The Inn is later attacked by wildlings, but Gilly hides with her son. They are found by Ygritte, who spares them. They make it back to Castle Black safely, where Sam hides them in the food storage, and kisses Gilly for the first time in case he dies. She is also visibly surprised when Janos Slynt hides in the food storage as well. Gilly remains unharmed throughout the battle, and reunites with Sam in the aftermath. In season 5, she expresses concern of being sent away or executed if Ser Alliser Thorne becomes the new Lord Commander. She is later present at Mance Rayder 's execution. Gilly has begun to learn letters from Princess Shireen Baratheon, with Samwell watching over the two. Gilly also reveals to Shireen that she had sisters that also had Greyscale, but they were quarantined away from the other women at Craster 's Keep and eventually succumbed to the disease. After Maester Aemon 's death, during Jon 's absence in Hardhome, she is almost sexually assaulted by two members of the Watch, but is saved by Sam and Ghost, after which she willingly makes love to him. She and her baby later leave Castle Black for Oldtown with Sam on Jon Snow 's orders. Along the way, they stop at Horn Hill, where Sam initially intends to leave Gilly and the baby with his family, but despite Randyll Tarly allowing them to stay, Sam decides to take them with him to the Citadel in Oldtown. In the sixth - season finale, they arrive. Later in Oldtown Gilly enthusiastically makes use of her newfound literacy, and in the diaries of a former High Septon she learns that a prince named Rhaegar Targaryen had his marriage annulled in Dorne. At the end of season seven she has gone back north with Sam and Little Sam and reached Winterfell.
Brienne of Tarth (season 2 -- present) portrayed by Gwendoline Christie. A former member of Renly Baratheon 's Kingsguard. She is a highly trained and skilled warrior made dangerous by the fact that men underestimate her. She is considered ugly because she is abnormally large in height and build, androgynous, and stronger than most men. She wishes to prove her valor in a worthy cause to win respect and acceptance. She becomes infatuated with Renly after he shows her kindness and courtesy, and she wins a place in his Kingsguard after winning a tournament melee against Ser Loras. Renly trusts Brienne because of her loyalty and her willingness to die for him. She is present at Renly 's death and is falsely accused of his murder. She flees with Catelyn Stark and enters her service. Later Catelyn decides to release Jaime Lannister in exchange for her daughters Sansa and Arya, Brienne is sent to protect Jaime on the journey and to escort the Stark girls back. On the journey back to King 's Landing, both are captured by the violent Roose Bolton, who holds them at Harrenhal. While there, Brienne learns the truth behind Jaime 's murder of the Mad King, but is forced to stay behind while Bolton 's men accompany Jaime back to King 's Landing, although Jaime rescues Brienne from Harrenhal upon learning that Bolton 's unruly henchman, Locke, intends to feed her to his bear. Brienne succeeds in getting Jaime home safely. In Season 4, Brienne remains in King 's Landing sworn to Jaime, and tensions arise between them again when Jaime refuses to uphold his promise to return Arya and Sansa to Catelyn, on the basis that Catelyn is dead, Arya is missing and Sansa is married to Tyrion. Brienne is later present at Joffrey and Margaery 's wedding, where Cersei implies that Brienne has fallen in love with Jaime, an accusation she answers with silence. Brienne is eventually sent on a mission by Jaime to find and protect Sansa. Jaime provides her with Joffrey 's sword, which she names "Oathkeeper '', new armour and Podrick Payne to serve as her new squire. As she leaves, she almost breaks down in tears, and looks back at Jaime while on her horse, which causes Jaime to realise her feelings for him. On the way, Brienne and Podrick stop at an inn and meet Hot Pie, who tells them that Arya Stark may still be alive. They eventually find Arya and Sandor "The Hound '' Clegane near the Vale. Brienne and Arya initially bond over both being women who prefer to fight, but her sword causes Arya and Sandor to believe she may be a Lannister agent after the bounty on Sandor 's head. A fight ensues between Brienne and Sandor, in which Sandor injures Brienne, but Brienne manages to bite Sandor 's ear off and hit him off a cliff to his apparent death. Arya disappears during the fight, and Brienne and Podrick set out to search for her, though she is visibly distraught that Arya refused her help. Brienne and Podrick stop at an inn. While eating, Podrick sees Sansa and Petyr Baelish eating in the back of the inn, guarded by knights. Brienne orders Podrick to secure more horses, and then moves toward Petyr and Sansa. After Petyr allows her to approach, Brienne pledges her life to Sansa. When Petyr accuses her of Renly Baratheon 's murder, Brienne explains that Renly was killed by a shadow with Stannis 's face. Sansa tells Brienne that she does n't want her protection, and asks her to leave. Petyr attempts to have his guards take Brienne into their custody, but she flees with Podrick, stealing a horse and releasing several others. The guards give chase, and Brienne and Podrick are separated. After evading her pursuers, Brienne sees Sansa and Petyr fleeing. She searches for Podrick, and saves him from two of the knights. Podrick suggests that they stop pursuing Sansa as she refused their help, but Brienne is adamant that she will not be safe with Lord Baelish. She follows the couple to Moat Cailin and then to Winterfell, where she watches the high tower from a village outside, with Sansa promised escape if she lights a candle in the highest tower. As Stannis Baratheon 's army approaches, Sansa lights the candle and Brienne prepares to get her, only to find Stannis gravely wounded on the battlefield. She asks him for the truth about Renly 's death, to which he confesses guilt, and executes him with her sword. Shortly afterwards, she and Podrick rescue Sansa and Theon Greyjoy after they flee Winterfell, and Sansa accepts Brienne into her service. She takes her to Jon Snow at Castle Black, but later heads to the Riverlands to recruit Brynden Tully 's help in for Jon and Sansa to retake Winterfell from Ramsay, but is unsuccessful. She also shares an uneasy reunion with Jaime in the process. When Riverrun falls, Brienne escapes with Podrick in a boat. Back at Winterfell in season 7, Brienne meets Arya again. Arya demands that Brienne spar with her, and Brienne soon finds that she can not easily beat Arya, who manages to point a sword at her throat. Brienne is sent by Sansa to the parley at the Dragonpit, where she meets The Hound, who she thought she had killed...
Ramsay Bolton (season 3 -- 6) portrayed by Iwan Rheon. The illegitimate son of Roose Bolton, Ramsay Snow of House Bolton is cruel, sadistic and very cunning. After the Ironborn captures Winterfell, he marches on the castle 's token garrison and offers it safe passage for surrender; after the gates are opened, he captures Theon and flays the other defenders. At the Dreadfort, Theon is put through gruesome physical and psychological torture on Ramsay 's instigation, though he himself watches in guise of a cleaning boy. He helps Theon Greyjoy escape from captivity, claiming to be a servant of Theon 's sister, Yara, and promises to help him reach her, but ends up only leading Theon back to his original place of imprisonment to taunt him further. He tortures Theon by flaying his fingers and forces him to beg to have them cut off. He ultimately emasculates him and has his manhood sent in a box to the Iron Islands to press Balon to evacuate the North, suggesting he could dismember Theon slowly and send him home in boxes if his demands are not met. He forces Theon to become his new servant, who is now called Reek, and beats him until he accepts the name. In Season 4, Ramsay along with his now slave servant, Reek, hunt down a servant girl named Tansy. Ramsay hunts her for sport and in the end feeds her to his dogs (bastards girls). Ramsay has followed his father in pledging loyalty to the Lannisters, and remains Acting Lord of the Dreadfort until Roose and his men arrive (having been smuggled back into the North to avoid the Ironborn). Ramsay warmly greets his father, new stepmother "Fat '' Walda Frey, and friend Locke, but he is chastised by his father for torturing Theon, who would have proved a valuable hostage. Roose enlists his son in his plans to reconquer the North from the invading Ironborn -- his father assigns Ramsay, "Reek '' and what men Ramsay has to capture Moat Cailin from the Ironborn, in exchange for Roose considering legitimizing Ramsay as a full member of his family, a prospect that delights Ramsay. When Yara and some Ironborn killers attack the Dreadfort and attempt to take Theon, Ramsay confronts her in the dungeons and sets the hounds on her, forcing her to flee without Theon, who refused to go with her believing it was another trick of Ramsay 's, and too broken and frightened to take the risk. As a reward for Theon 's loyalty, Ramsay gives him a bath, bathing Theon himself, and asks for his help in taking Moat Cailin. Ramsay sends Reek into Moat Cailin with a peace banner and a letter promising safe passage to the Stoney Shore. Reek pretends to be his former self, Theon Greyjoy, and convinces the ironborn to surrender. Ramsay breaks his promise and flays the Ironborn living and displays their bodies on stakes. As a reward, Ramsay is legitimized by his father and takes the name, Ramsay Bolton, discarding the surname "Snow '' for good, much to Ramsay 's delight. Ramsay and the rest of the Bolton forces then march on towards Winterfell, the Boltons ' new home. To solidify their claim for legitimacy, he is provided Sansa Stark as a suitable bride, who he promises never to harm before Baelish, but nevertheless brutally rapes her on their wedding night. He later skins a woman alive for attempting to light a candle in the high tower of Winterfell, which would signal to Brienne (waiting in the village outside the walls) that Sansa was in need of rescue. At the battle of Winterfell between Baratheon and Bolton forces, he rides out to greet Stannis, destroying his army and killing most of his men but meanwhile, Reek rebels against his master and kills his lover, Myranda, escaping with Sansa in the process. With his position as Roose 's heir in question following Sansa 's disappearance and the birth of Roose 's baby boy, Ramsay kills Roose, Walda and the baby and becomes the new Lord of Winterfell, securing help from House Karstark and House Umber, the latter giving him Rickon Stark as a hostage. He kills Osha and sends a letter to Jon Snow demanding Sansa 's return, but Jon and Sansa decide to challenge Ramsay and retake Winterfell. Ramsay parleys with Jon and refuses his offer to a one - on - one duel. On the day of the battle, Ramsay lures Jon and his men into a trap by murdering Rickon, but his forces are smashed by the Knights of the Vale. Ramsay flees back to Winterfell, where Jon beats him severely and orders him locked up as a prisoner. That night, Ramsay is fed to his own hounds, bringing House Bolton to extinction.
Ellaria Sand (season 4 -- 7) portrayed by Indira Varma. The sexually promiscuous paramour of Oberyn Martell, she is the mother of the four youngest Sand Snakes. She is later present at Tyrion 's trial by combat, where Oberyn fights Gregor Clegane in Tyrion 's name, and is horrified when Oberyn is killed. In Season 5 Ellaria arrives at Dorne at the Water Gardens, Ellaria, still in mourning clothes, observes Trystane Martell and Myrcella Baratheon from a distance. She approaches Prince Doran Martell, but her path is initially blocked by Captain Areo Hotah. Ellaria threatens Areo before the captain is ordered by Doran to stand down. Angrily, Ellaria scolds Doran for his apparent inaction at the news of Oberyn 's death. Doran plans to bury and mourn his beloved brother, but Ellaria and Oberyn 's daughters want the Dornish people to take up arms and avenge their fallen prince. She also voices her contempt for Myrcella and wants to harm her in order to send Cersei Lannister a message. Doran strictly forbids this, stating that under his rule, they will not mutilate little girls for revenge. Ellaria voices doubts that Doran will remain in power if he continues to do nothing and leaves. She meets up with Oberyn 's three bastard daughters, the Sand Snakes (Obara, Nymeria, and Tyene), and tells them that they must capture Myrcella and kill her out of revenge for Oberyn 's death. However, when the Sand Snakes attempt this, both them and Ellaria are captured by Doran 's guard. She pleads for mercy and is forgiven, being explicitly warned by Doran that he "never gives anyone a third chance ''. She says goodbyes to Myrcella Baratheon, who forgives her and shares an unexpected kiss, concealing a sinister induction of poison into the girl 's mouth. Ellaria watches the ship sail and administers the antidote to herself while contemplating what will come when Doran realises what she has done. In Season 6, apparently having made amends with Doran, she strolls with him in the Water Gardens while reminiscing about Oberyn. When the maester brings a letter from Jaime Lannister with the news of Myrcella 's death, Doran realizes it was Ellaria 's work, but she stabs him to death before he can react. Ellaria taunts a dying Doran for his weak rule and inaction at the deaths of Elia and Oberyn. With his dying breath, Doran begs Ellaria to spare Trystane 's life, but she refuses, telling him that both him and his son are weak and weak men will never rule Dorne again before leaving him to die on the floor. Later, Ellaria sends Obara and Nymeria to King 's Landing to kill Trystane, bringing the extinction of House Martell and usurping power over Dorne. After hearing of the destruction of the Great Sept of Baelor, Cersei 's work which claimed the lives of almost all of House Tyrell, Ellaria invites Olenna Tyrell to Dorne to discuss an alliance against Cersei, and reveals that through Varys, she has declared for Daenerys Targaryen. In Season 7, Ellaria and her daughter Tyene are captured by Euron Greyjoy and brought to Cersei. Taking the Sands to the dungeons, Cersei taunts Ellaria, and kisses Tyene with the same poison used to kill Myrcella. She leaves Ellaria to watch Tyene die, telling Ellaria she will be kept alive until her daughter 's body is completely decomposed.
Daario Naharis (season 3 -- 6) portrayed by Ed Skrein in season 3, and by Michiel Huisman from season 4 onwards. Daario is a confident and seductive warrior who is a lieutenant in the Second Sons, a group of 2000 mercenaries. Daario has an unusual code of honor: he wo n't sleep with sex workers or kill innocents as he believes in making love with women who want to make love with him and killing those who want to kill him. Under the leadership of his Captain Mero and second in command Prendhal na Ghezn, the Second Sons were hired by the Slaver city Yunkai to fight against Daenerys ' army. Smitten with Daenerys, Daario refused to obey his superiors when they decided to assassinate her, which forced him to kill Mero and Prendhal in self - defense. With the Second Sons under his command, Daario and his men pledge their allegiance to Daenerys. In season 4, Daario attempts to romance Daenerys by offering her flowers and lecturing her about the special use of these flowers, as he claims it is important to know the land she is going to rule. At the gate of Meereen, Daario volunteers to fight Meereen 's champion in single combat after Daenerys rejects the rest of her inner circle from fighting. Daario declines the use of a horse, noting that they are n't as intelligent as humans. Daario ends the duel with ruthless efficiency, striking down the horse with his stiletto and decapitating the dazed champion with his arakh. Later on after conquering Meereen, Daario sneaks into Daenerys ' private chambers and gives her more flowers. As Daenerys initially refuses him, he tells her he only has two talents in his life: war and women, and that in Meereen he serves no purpose. Daario asks her to let him do what he does best, killing her enemies. Instead, Daenerys focuses on the other thing Daario claims to be good at and orders him to take off his clothes. The morning after, Daenerys informs Jorah that she has sent Daario, Hizdahr zo Loraq and the Second Sons to Yunkai in order to bargain with the masters who retaken control of the city. In season 5, Daario returns with Hizdahr zo Loraq, informing Daenerys that the mission was successful, but the masters want Daenerys to reopen the fighting pits in return. Daenerys refuses, and while in bed, Daario attempts to convince her otherwise, claiming that it was his early life in the fighting pits that led him to join the Second Sons and meet Daenerys in the first place. After Barristan Selmy is killed and Grey Worm left near death, Daenerys heeds Daario 's advice and reopens the pits, but refuses Daario 's advice on publicly executing all the slave masters. Daario is present on the opening day of the fighting games, and banters with Hizdahr and Tyrion Lannister about who will win the competition. He fights to protect Daenerys when the Sons of the Harpy launch another attack and watches her fly away on Drogon. In the aftermath, Daario advises Tyrion, Grey Worm and Missandei to stay in Meereen and hold the city together while he and Jorah depart to search for Daenerys. In season 6, they finally track Daenerys to Vaes Dothrak and witness Daenerys slaughter the khals and become the new ruler of the Dothraki. Daario leads the Dothraki back to Meereen to slaughter the Sons of the Harpy once and for all, but on Tyrion 's advice, Daenerys breaks up with Daario and leaves him to govern Slaver 's Bay so that she may pursue a marriage alliance in Westeros. Daario reluctantly accepts while proclaiming his love for Daenerys.
Missandei (season 3 - present) portrayed by Nathalie Emmanuel Personal servant to Daenerys Targaryen. She was freed from being a slave working as translator for Kraznys mo Nakloz when Daenerys insisted during negotiations with Kraznys mo Nakloz that Missandei be given to her as a gift. She effectively serves as the replacement of Doreah after she betrayed Daenerys in Qarth. She later begins to teach Grey Worm how to speak the common tongue, and they develop romantic feelings for each other, despite Grey Worm being an Unsullied who was castrated at youth. She is visibly saddened when another Unsullied, White Rat, is killed in a brothel by the Sons of the Harpy. After Grey Worm is almost killed in an attack, Missandei kisses him after he reveals that for the first time, he felt fear, since he thought he would never see her again. On the opening day of the fighting games, the Sons of the Harpy launch another attack. Missandei is narrowly saved by Tyrion Lannister, and watches as Daenerys flies away on Drogon. She later remains in Meereen with Tyrion and Grey Worm to help keep the city together. Despite an attack by the slaver masters ' fleet, Meereen is saved when Daenerys returns with the Dothraki and unleashes her dragons on the fleet, which Missandei witnesses. She later accompanies Daenerys on her voyage back to Westeros. She makes love with Grey Worm and worries for him when he is sent to attack Casterly Rock.
"Jaqen H'ghar '' (season 2, 5 -- 6) portrayed by Tom Wlaschiha. Sly, enigmatic, and a dangerous criminal, Jaqen is part of Yoren 's group of recruits taken from King 's Landing to join the Night 's Watch. A foreigner from Braavos, though he originally claims Lorath, he speaks in third person, referring to himself as "A man ''. On the journey, he meets Arya Stark. When the group is attacked by Lannister bannermen, Arya frees him and two other prisoners, saving them from a fire. He finds Arya again at Harrenhal, where he has since disguised himself as a Lannister guard. He asks her to name three people for him to kill to repay the three deaths she stole from the Many - Faced God, but he refuses to help her in any other way. She chooses two of her enemies, the Tickler, the torturer of Harrenhal, and Ser Amory Lorch, the man who killed Yoren and tried to expose her to Tywin Lannister, and chooses Jaqen himself as the third. Arya "unnames '' him after he agrees to help her escape. After the break - out, he gives Arya an iron coin, instructing her to give it to any Braavosi and say "Valar Morghulis '' ("All Men Must Die '' in High Valyrian) should she need more help. He then magically changes his appearance, assumes a new identity, and departs. He and Arya are reunited when she arrives at the House of Black and White in Braavos and he begins training her to become a Faceless Man, though the task proves difficult since Arya is still too attached to her past as a Stark. Jaqen later tasks her with assassinating a fraudulent insurance broker, but she reneges on her mission and instead steals one of the masks to murder Meryn Trant, the Kingsguard who killed Syrio Forel, Arya 's first mentor. In retribution, Jaqen confronts Arya and condemns her to lose her eyesight. In the sixth season, Jaqen brings Arya back to the House of Black and White and eventually returns her sight. He orders her to assassinate Lady Crane, and reluctantly orders her death when Arya botches the assassination, but is impressed upon learning that Arya killed the Waif instead. Though he tells her she is now "No One '', she asserts her identity as Arya Stark and leaves Braavos.
Tommen Baratheon (season 1 -- 2, 4 -- 6) portrayed by Callum Whaary in seasons 1 and 2, and by Dean - Charles Chapman from season 4 onwards. Tommen Baratheon of House Baratheon is the prince presented as the youngest son of King Robert Baratheon and Queen Cersei Lannister. Like his older siblings Joffrey and Myrcella his actual father is his uncle Ser Jaime Lannister. Like his sister he is good - natured and passive in contrast to his brother Joffrey and is fond of his uncle Tyrion. In Season 2, when Myrcella was shipped off to Dorne as part of a marriage alliance between the Lannisters and Dorne, Tommen wept when his sister left for which Joffrey chastises him. During the battle of the Black Water, he sits with Cersei as she prepares to give him night shade drops for a quick, painless death rather than a brutal one, until Tywin announces that they won the battle. In Season 4 he is present at Joffrey and Margaery 's wedding, he also attended Joffrey 's funeral for which Tywin proceeds to tell Tommen what makes a good king, ignoring Cersei 's angry glares. Margaery later visits Tommen one night where he reveals his pet cat Ser Pounce, as well as the fact that he and Joffrey did n't get along and he and Margaery bond over their mutual relief that they are free of him. Tommen agrees that he 'd like Margaery to visit him again. Margaery departs, but not before giving him a kiss on the forehead. A ceremony is held in the Red Keep where the High Septon officially crowns Tommen as king. At Tyrion 's trial Tommen excuses himself from the trial, possibly on Tywin 's advice. In Season 5 during the wake of his grandfather, Tommen is approached by Margaery, who shares a few close words with the king and holds his hand briefly. All of this is observed by Cersei from afar. Tommen and Margaery later marry and consummate that same night, whereupon Margaery begins to manipulate Tommen into trying to send Cersei home. When he does, Cersei immediately begins scheming to get rid of the Tyrells. After Loras Tyrell is arrested for his homosexuality, Tommen furiously confronts Cersei and demands Loras 's release, and tries to speak with the High Septon, though he is impeded by the Faith Militant and refuses to allow bloodshed in front of the Great Sept of Baelor. When Margaery is arrested for lying on Loras 's behalf, Tommen considers attacking the Sept to free his wife and brother - in - law, but Cersei persuades him to stand down, and when Cersei herself is arrested, Tommen falls into a depression and goes on a hunger strike, refusing to see anyone. In the sixth season, Tommen attends Myrcella 's funeral and confronts the High Sparrow, demanding him to allow Cersei to see her daughter. Later, he officially announces an alliance between the Crown and the Faith, and abolishes trial by combat, having effectively fallen under the High Sparrow 's influence. When Cersei destroys the Great Sept of Baelor, killing thousands of people, including Margaery, Loras, Mace, Kevan and the High Sparrow, Tommen witnesses it from his quarters, and, unable to do anything as the Mountain blocks the doorway, he commits suicide by jumping through the window, leaving his crown on the table before doing so. His body is later burned and buried beneath the Sept 's ruins, with Tywin, Joffrey and Myrcella.
Roose Bolton (season 2 -- 6) portrayed by Michael McElhatton. A Bannerman of the North and Lord of the Dreadfort. The Bolton family have a nasty history of keeping to very old, and barbaric ways, including flaying their enemies alive, and Roose is no exception, being suspected of not feeling any emotion. His cunning makes him a valuable ally, but his unpredictable nature makes him a dangerous one. In Season 2, Roose has declared for the King in the North and serves as a chief member of Robb Stark 's war council. In secret, Roose feels the Stark cause is lost due to the fact Robb never once listened or heeded his advice, and so acts to secure Bolton predominance in the North -- he sends his bastard son Ramsay to take Winterfell from the Ironborn (for his own amusement, Ramsay burns the castle to the ground and flays the defenders after offering them safe passage), and afterwards claims the Ironborn destroyed the castle and apparently killed Robb 's younger brothers Bran and Rickon. In Season 3, Roose works with Walder Frey at Tywin Lannister 's request to betray the Starks at Edmure Tully 's wedding at the Twins. The ambush results in the destruction of the Stark forces by Bolton and Frey men, and deaths of all three Starks and Northern lords present in Walder Frey 's hall -- Roose personally kills the King in the North with a single stab through the heart, chiding that "the Lannisters send their regards ''. For his loyalty he is named Warden of the North by the crown (although Tywin Lannister intends to reclaim the title by marrying his son Tyrion to Sansa Stark, the presumed heir to Winterfell). In Season 4, Roose and his men return to the North where he chastises Ramsay for having tortured Theon, as he was a valuable hostage. He also plans to reconquer his new lands from the invading Ironborn, since Tywin is refusing to help him, while ordering his man - at - arms, Locke, to hunt down and kill the remaining Stark boys and Jon Snow (although Locke is killed by Bran Stark in the attempt). With help from Ramsay and Theon Greyjoy, Roose manages to drive the remaining Ironborn out of the Northern lands, and Roose legitimizes Ramsay as his true son. The Bolton 's make their way to Winterfell, although they still face opposition from the Northerners -- who are furious with the Boltons for betraying the Starks -- and Stannis Baratheon, who aims to rally the North as a springboard against House Lannister rule and bring the Boltons down in the process. Roose has Ramsay married to Sansa Stark the true heir of Winterfell. As Stannis eventually nears, snowbound trapped by a blizzard, he approves of Ramsay 's raiding of the Baratheon camp, where they successfully destroys most of their supplies and siege engines, diminishing Baratheon chances of taking the North. Stannis ultimately perishes in the ensuing battle, but Sansa escapes from Winterfell with Theon 's help. Roose threatens Ramsay with being disinherited if Sansa is not found. When news reaches him of Sansa 's disappearance and the birth of his son with Walda, Roose is killed by Ramsay.
The High Sparrow (season 5 -- 6) portrayed by Jonathan Pryce. A devout and pious man, the High Sparrow came to King 's Landing after Tywin Lannister 's death to serve the poor, downtrodden and infirm. He quickly amasses a large following, including Cersei 's cousin and former lover Lancel, who swarm over the city, ministering to the needy and denouncing corruption. He is first noticed by Cersei Lannister when his followers assault and humiliate the High Septon at a brothel. Although she considers capturing and executing him, Cersei decides to use him in her schemes against the Tyrell family. She pretends to agree with his religious views and appoints him as the new High Septon. She also reinstates what had been a long - defunct military order called the Faith Militant, giving them the legal authority to pursue, torture and imprison anyone whom they believed was defying religious principles, no matter their rank or wealth. She tells him of Ser Loras Tyrell 's homosexuality, which leads to his arrest by the Faith an inquest presided over by the High Sparrow. Loras 's lover Olyvar gives incriminating testimony, so the High Sparrow has both Ser Loras and his sister, Queen Margaery, incarcerated, the latter for perjuring herself when she lied to protect her brother. Loras and Margaery 's grandmother, Lady Olenna, attempts to bribe the High Sparrow into offering clemency and is surprised to find that he is uninterested. After Lancel confesses of his and Cersei 's affair and of her role in Robert Baratheon 's death, the High Sparrow turns on the Queen mother and has her arrested and imprisoned. When Cersei decides to plead for mercy, the High Sparrow listens to her confession of adultery and, on the condition that she stand for trial for her other sins, permits her to return to the Red Keep but only after she performs a walk of Atonement, in which her hair is cut and she must walk naked through the mob. The High Sparrow soon brings Tommen and Margaery under his influence, effectively becoming the new ruler of King 's Landin, but he is ultimately killed when Cersei rigs the Great Sept of Baelor with wildfire and detonates it with thousands of people inside.
|
is polyphenol oxidase the same as catechol oxidase | Catechol oxidase - wikipedia
Catechol oxidase is a copper oxidase that contains a type 3 di - copper cofactor and catalyzes the oxidation of ortho - diphenols into ortho - quinones coupled with the reduction of molecular oxygen to water. It is present in a variety of species of plants and fungi including Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato) and Camellia sinensis (Indian tea leaf). Metalloenzymes with type 3 copper centers are characterized by their ability to reversibly bind dioxygen at ambient conditions. In plants, catechol oxidase plays a key role in enzymatic browning by catalyzing the oxidation of catechol to o - quinone in the presence of oxygen, which can rapidly polymerize to form the melanin that grants damaged fruits their dark brown coloration.
Polyphenol oxidases are a family of di - copper metalloenzymes that include tyrosinase and catechol oxidase. In plants, both enzymes can catalyze the oxidation of ortho - diphenols substrates into their corresponding ortho - quinones. The key difference between the two related enzymes is that tyrosinase can catalyze the hydroxylation of monophenols to diphenols (monophenolase activity) as well as the oxidation of the o - diphenol to the o - quinone (diphenolase activity) whereas catechol oxidase only possesses diphenolase activity.
When plant tissue is damaged, the chloroplast may rupture and release catechol oxidase into the plant cytoplasm, and vacuoles may also rupture, releasing stored catechol into the cytoplasm. The tissue damage also allows oxygen to penetrate into the cell. Thus, tissue damage facilitates the interaction of catechol oxidase with its substrate to produce o - benzoquinone, which can polymerize non-enzymatically to yield melanins that form an insoluble barrier for wound protection.
Catechol oxidase is nuclear - encoded, and its N - terminal end contains a signal peptide that directs the protein to the chloroplast thylakoid lumen, where it can either be soluble or loosely associated with the thylakoid membrane. Initially transcribed as a pro-enzyme, the catechol oxidase precursor undergoes two rounds of proteolytic processing and transport before it enters the thylakoid lumen.
Utilizing a (S) methionine - labeled precursor protein, Sommer et al. elucidated a proteolytic processing pathway common to a variety of plants including pea (Pisum sativum), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), and maize (Zea mays). The 67 kD precursor was imported into the stroma in an ATP - dependent manner where a stromal peptidase processes the precursor into a 62 kD intermediate. The translocation of this intermediate into the thylakoid lumen was light - dependent and results in the generation of the mature 59 kD enzyme. Based on analysis of the precursor and mature catechol oxidase purified from Ipomoea batatas, proteolytic processing removes both the N - terminal transit peptide as well as a C - terminal domain that covers the enzyme active site.
The crystal structure of catechol oxidase purified from Ipomoea batatas has been resolved in its active form in both the oxidized Cu (II) - Cu (II) state and the reduced Cu (I) - Cu (I) state. It is a globular, single domain monomeric enzyme that is approximately 55 by 45 by 45 Å in size and ellipsoid in shape. A four α - helix bundle comprises the enzyme core, which girds the active site containing the dicopper center. The nitrogens on the imidazole side chains of His 88, His109, and His118 coordinate with the first catalytic copper while the nitrogens on the imidazole side chains on His240, His244 and His274 coordinate with the second catalytic copper ion. In the oxidized Cu (II) - Cu (II) state, each copper ion possesses a four coordinate trigonal pyramidal geometry, with the three histidine residues and a bridging hydroxide molecule forming the four ligands on each copper ion. Comparing the reduced (Cu (I) - Cu (I)) state with the native (Cu (II) - Cu (II)) state of the enzyme, the key difference is the distance between the two copper centers. In the oxidized Cu (II) - Cu (II) state, the Cu - Cu distance is 3.3 Å while in the reduced Cu (I) - Cu (I) state, the distance increases to 4.4 Å.
While the active site of both tyrosinase and catechol oxidase contain the di - copper center, variations in each enzyme 's respective structure result in differing activity. In catechol oxidase, a phenylalanine side - chain (Phe261) is above one of the copper centers and prevents the substrate from coordinating with both copper ions in the active site. This precludes the bidentate coordination complex necessary for di - phenolate hydroxylation characteristic of tyrosinase but absent in catechol oxidase. Furthermore, His109 bound to one of the copper centers is also covalently linked with Cys192 through a thioether bridge. This cysteine - histidine cross-linking may further restrain the enzyme active site from assuming the bidentate coordination complex readily formed in tyrosinase.
Although a crystal structure of catechol oxidase has been solved, questions concerning the exact mechanism of the reaction remain. One mechanism proposed by Eicken et al. is based on the crystal structure of catechol oxidase purified from Ipomoea batatas. The catalytic cycle begins with the catechol oxidase in its native oxidized Cu (II) - Cu (II) state with a coordinated hydroxide ion bridging the two copper centers. As catechol enters the active site, a proton is abstracted from one of the alcohols. The catechol coordinates with a Cu (II) center in a monodentate fashion, displacing one of the coordinating histidine residues. The coordinated hydroxide ion abstracts another proton from catechol to form water, and the catechol is oxidized to o - quinone. The two resulting electrons reduce both copper centers to their Cu (I) - Cu (I) state. Dioxygen then binds one copper center, displacing the coordinated water molecule, and another molecule of catechol binds to the other copper center, displacing another histidine residue. This forms a complex in which one copper center has a tetragonal planar coordination with His240, His244 and the dioxygen molecule. The other copper center retains its initial tetragonal pyramidal geometry with dioxygen, His88 and His118 in the equatorial positions, and His109 in an axial position. In this state, the enzyme active site is in a ternary catechol oxidase -- O -- catechol complex. Two electrons are transferred from the substrate to the dioxygen, followed by cleavage of the O -- O bond. Water is released, and the second o - quinone product is formed together with the restoration of the initial Cu (II) - Cu (II) state to complete the catalytic cycle.
This proposed catalytic cycle is supported by the experimental observation that stoichiometric amounts of o - quinone form after catechol addition to the enzyme, even when dioxygen is absent. Furthermore, both the oxidized Cu (II) - Cu (II) state and the reduced Cu (I) - Cu (I) state were the two states identified by the crystal structure of Ipomoea batatas. The monodentate binding of catechol to the copper center was supported by the crystal structure of catechol oxidase bound with the bound - substrate analogue inhibitor phenylthiourea, which also binds to the copper center in a monodentate fashion. However, one issue with this catalytic cycle is that the charge of the active site changes during the catalytic cycle from + 1 to + 3. This necessitates the presence of nearby bases that can store the protons; however, the X-ray crystal structure does not indicate the presence of any such bases as the histidine residues are coordinated with the copper centers. Other catalytic cycles elucidated with DFT calculations and crystal structures have been proposed which maintain the same charge in the active site throughout the cycle and thus do not require nearby bases. However, certain intermediates in the proposed cycle are not consistent with experimental findings such as that stoichiometric amounts of o - quinone can form after catechol addition in the absence of oxygen.
The oxidation of phenol substrates to their corresponding quinones are the primary cause of fruit and vegetable browning during ripening, handling, and processing. Enzymatic browning affects the nutritional quality and appearance of fruits and produce. Over half of fruit losses are estimated to occur as a result of enzymatic browning, and tropical produce are particularly vulnerable to this reaction. The loss of nutrients can occur due to the interaction of quinones, produced by the oxidation of diphenols, with the side chains of essential amino acids derived from plant proteins. In particular, thiol and amine functional groups on the side chains of amino acids are highly susceptible to quinone binding and alkylation. The key role of catechol oxidase in enzymatic browning makes it a common target for inhibition. While a number of inhibitory strategies exist such as high temperature treatments (70 - 90 C) to eliminate catechol oxidase catalytic activity, a popular strategy is decreasing the pH with citric acid. Catechol oxidase is more catalytically active in the pH 4 - 8 range due to coordination of the histidine residues to the catalytic copper centers. The use of acids like citric acid to decrease the pH below this optimum range diminishes the binding of the enzyme to its active site copper because the protonation of histidine residues interferes with their ability to coordinate with the copper centers.
New approaches to design artificial enzymes based on amino acids or peptides as characteristic molecular moieties have led to a significant expansion of the field of artificial enzymes or enzyme mimics. Recent results by the group of Rob Liskamp have shown that scaffolded histidine residues can be used as mimics of certain metalloproteins and - enzymes. The structural mimicry of certain copper proteins (e.g. hemocyanin, tyrosinase and catechol oxidase), containing type - 3 copper binding sites, has been shown. This is a significant improvement since the use of scaffolded histidine residues is one step closer to the mimicry of enzymes by biologically relevant species.
|
who has won the fifa world player award for 2015 | FIFA world player of the year - wikipedia
The FIFA World Player of the Year was an association football award presented annually by the sport 's governing body, FIFA, between 1991 and 2015. Coaches and captains of international teams and media representatives selected the player they deem to have performed the best in the previous calendar year.
Originally a single award for the world 's best men 's player, parallels awards for men and women were awarded from 2001 -- 2009. The men 's award was subsumed into the FIFA Ballon d'Or in 2010 while the women 's award remained until 2015. After 2015 both men 's and women 's awards became part of The Best FIFA Football Awards.
During the men 's era, Brazilian players won 8 out of 19 years, compared to three wins -- the second most -- for French players. In terms of individual players, Brazil again led with five, followed by Italy and Portugal with two each. The youngest winner was Ronaldo, who won at 20 years old in 1996, and the oldest winner was Fabio Cannavaro, who won aged 33 in 2006. Ronaldo and Zinedine Zidane each won the award three times, while Ronaldo and Ronaldinho were the only players to win in successive years. From 2010 to 2015, the equivalent men 's award was the FIFA Ballon d'Or, following a merging of the FIFA World Player of the Year and the France Football Ballon d'Or awards. Since 2016, the awards have been replaced by the Best FIFA Men 's Player and the Best FIFA Women 's Player awards.
Eight women 's footballers -- three Germans, three Americans, one Brazilian, and one Japanese -- have won the award. Marta, the youngest recipient at age 20 in 2006, has won five successive awards, the most of any player. Birgit Prinz won three times in a row and Mia Hamm won twice in a row. The oldest winner is Nadine Angerer, who was 35 when she won in 2013; she is also the only goalkeeper of either sex to win.
The winners are chosen by the coaches and captains of national teams as well as by international media representatives invited by FIFA. In a voting system based on positional voting, each voter is allotted three votes, worth five points, three points and one point, and the three finalists are ordered based on total number of points. Following criticism from some sections of the media over nominations in previous years, FIFA has since 2004 provided shortlists from which its voters can select their choices.
Source:
From 2010 to 2015, the world 's best player was awarded the FIFA Ballon d'Or. In 2016, FIFA created The Best FIFA Men 's Player to honour the best player around the world.
Source:
In 2016, FIFA created The Best FIFA Women 's Player award instead.
|
who won the men's single title in australian open 2018 | 2018 Australian Open -- men 's singles - wikipedia
Roger Federer was the defending champion and successfully defended his title, defeating Marin Čilić in the final, 6 -- 2, 6 -- 7, 6 -- 3, 3 -- 6, 6 -- 1. It was Federer 's 20th Grand Slam singles title and record - equalling sixth Australian Open men 's singles title (tied with Roy Emerson and Novak Djokovic). With the win, Federer became the first male player to win at least six titles at two Grand Slam tournaments (six at the Australian Open and eight at Wimbledon). Federer became the oldest man to win a Grand Slam singles title in the Open era since Ken Rosewall in 1972. The time span between Federer 's first Grand slam glory at Wimbledon and this latest, almost 15 years, is an Open era record in the men 's singles field. This was also the 10th time that Federer has defended a Grand Slam title, with the previous time being at the 2008 US Open. Čilić became the first Croatian player to reach a singles final at the Australian Open.
Federer and Rafael Nadal were in contention for the ATP no. 1 singles ranking at the start of the tournament. Nadal retained the top ranking by reaching the quarterfinals.
This was the first time since the 2008 Wimbledon Championships that two unseeded players (Chung Hyeon and Kyle Edmund) reached the semifinals of the men 's singles event at a Grand Slam tournament, and the first time at the Australian Open since 1999. Chung became the first South Korean player to reach the quarterfinals and semifinals of a Grand Slam event.
Djokovic 's fourth - round loss to Chung was his first straight - sets loss at the Australian Open since 2007.
Click on the seed number of a player to go to their draw section.
|
is hellmans mayo and best foods the same | Hellmann 's and Best Foods - wikipedia
Hellmann 's and Best Foods are brand names that are used for the same line of mayonnaise and other food products. The Hellmann 's brand is sold in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and also in Latin America, Europe, Australia, the Middle East, Canada and South Africa. The Best Foods brand is sold in the United States west of the Rocky Mountains, and also in Asia, Australia, and New Zealand.
Hellmann 's and Best Foods are marketed in a similar way. Their logos and web sites resemble one another, and they have the same English slogan: "Bring out the best ''.
Both brands were previously sold by the U.S. - based Bestfoods Corporation, which also sold several other food products in addition to Hellmann 's and Best Foods mayonnaise. Bestfoods, known as CPC international before 1997, was acquired by Unilever in 2000.
In 1903 Richard Hellmann (1876 - 1971) emigrated from Vetschau, Prussia, to New York City, where in August 1904 he married Margaret Vossberg, whose parents owned a delicatessen. In mid-1905 he opened his own delicatessen at 490 Columbus Avenue, where he developed his first ready - made mayonnaise, dished - out in small amounts to customers. It became so popular that he began selling it in bulk to other stores, constantly improving the recipe to make it avoid spoilage longer.
In 1913 after continuing sales success he built a factory to produce his mayonnaise in even greater quantities, and began selling it on September 1 under the name Hellmann 's Blue Ribbon Mayonnaise, seeing sales zoom after switching from hotel - size large stone jars to customer - size clear glass jars that could be reused for home canning after selling them a rubber ring for 1 penny.
In May 1914 he simplified the label from three ribbons to a single blue ribbon, and trademarked it along with the name "Blue Ribbon Mayonnaise ''. In 1915 he sold his store and opened a small mayonnaise factory at 120 Lawrence Street (now West 126th) in Manhattan; by the end of the year he had a larger factory at 495 / 497 Steinway Street in Long Island City. In February 1916 the company was incorporated as Richard Hellman, Inc., after which he briefly tried other products, such as horseradish and pumpernickel bread before deciding to concentrate on mayonnaise and expand distribution outside the New York area. In November 1919, he licensed John Behrmann to make the mayonnaise in Chicago.
In 1920, the New York Tribune asked three chefs to rate commercial salad dressing brand, and they voted Hellman 's mayonnaise the best, noting that it had more oil (85 %) than any other salad dressing they tested. This helped to boost sales.
On July 29, 1920, Hellmann became a U.S. citizen; later that year, Margaret Hellmann died, and on May 11, 1922, he married second wife Nina Maxwell, daughter of Mr. and Mrs. William J. Maxwell.
In 1922 after sales of the mayonnaise were launched in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Hellmann began building a larger (5 - story) factory at 34 - 08 Northern Boulevard in Long Island City; while honeymooning in San Francisco, California, Hellmann decided to open a plant there too, setting up an office and soliciting salesmen. In 1922 the first Hellmann 's mayonnaise cookbook was published by Behrman in Chicago.
While Hellmann 's Mayonnaise thrived on the U.S. East Coast, selling $15 million a year by 1927 with $1 million in profits, the California company Postum Foods (later Best Foods) introduced their own mayonnaise, Best Foods Mayonnaise, which became popular on the West Coast, and was operating a major plant in San Francisco. In August 1927 Postum Foods bought the Hellmann 's brand, allowing Hellmann to retire. By then both brands of mayonnaise had such commanding market shares in their respective halves of the country that the company decided that both brands and recipes be preserved along with territories.
To this day:
In 1955 Best Foods acquired Rosefield Packing Co., makers of Skippy peanut butter. In 1958 Best Foods was bought by Corn Products Refining Company to form Corn Products Company, which in 1969 became CPC International Inc. Hellmann 's mayonnaise arrived in the United Kingdom in 1961 and by the late 1980s had over 50 % market share.
Prior to 1960 Hellmann 's and Best Foods were advertised both in the same advertisement, which pointed out that it is known as Hellmann 's in the East and Best Foods in the West. Around 1968 the Best Foods brand added the Blue Ribbon from the Hellmann 's brand, making them more sister products. Since 2007 both brands have exactly the same design.
In 1997 CPC International split into two companies: Bestfoods, becoming its own company once more (and also including the Hellmann 's brand), and Corn Product International. Bestfoods was acquired by Unilever in 2000.
When Best Foods acquired the Hellmann 's brand, it decided to preserve the respective recipes for both mayonnaises. However, at least as recently as June 2003, the recipes were almost identical. From the company 's FAQs at the time:
Today, the two products are made in the same plant. Both labels contain the same ingredients in the same ' relative quantity ' order: soybean oil, water, whole eggs & egg yolks, vinegar, salt, sugar, lemon juice, sorbic acid, calcium disodium EDTA, and natural flavors. Best Foods ' may contain more lemon juice, though the ingredients rank ordered by volume are the same as Hellmann 's. Still, the fine print in the company 's marketing and web sites state that "Hellmann 's is known as Best Foods west of the Rockies '' and "Best Foods is known as Hellmann 's east of the Rockies ''
Maintaining the separate identities of both brands in the USA poses some unique challenges. Marketing campaigns for both products are identical; however, Hellmann 's and Best Foods must make separate television commercials for each product and can not utilize nationwide media to market their product.
The Spanish slogan is "Haz una cara... Hellmann 's! '' (roughly translated to "Make a Hellmann 's face! ''). In Brazil, it is "Hellmann 's, a verdadeira maionese '' (Hellmann 's, the true mayonnaise).
|
roissy charles de gaulle cedex fr current time | Charles de Gaulle Airport - wikipedia
Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport (French: Aéroport de Paris - Charles - de-Gaulle, IATA: CDG, ICAO: LFPG), also known as Roissy Airport (name of the local district), is the largest international airport in France. It is named after Charles de Gaulle (1890 -- 1970), leader of the Free French Forces during the Second World War, founder of the French Fifth Republic and President of France from 1959 to 1969. Charles de Gaulle Airport is located within portions of several communes 25 km (16 mi) to the northeast of Paris. Charles de Gaulle Airport serves as the principal hub for Air France as well as a European hub for fellow SkyTeam alliance partner Delta Air Lines. Additionally, the airport serves as a focus city for low - cost carriers Vueling and Norwegian Air Shuttle.
In 2016, the airport handled 65,933,145 passengers and 472,950 aircraft movements, thus making it the world 's tenth - busiest airport, Europe 's second - busiest airport (after London Heathrow) in terms of passenger numbers. It is also the world 's tenth - busiest and Europe 's second - busiest airport (after London Heathrow) in aircraft movements. In terms of cargo traffic, the airport is the twelfth - busiest in the world and the second - busiest in Europe (after Frankfurt Airport), handling 2,150,950 metric tonnes of cargo in 2012. The incumbent director of the airport, Franck Goldnadel, was appointed to his position on 1 March 2011.
Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport covers 32.38 square kilometres (12.50 sq mi) of land. The airport area, including terminals and runways, spans over three départements and six communes:
The choice of constructing an international aviation hub outside of central Paris was made due to a limited prospect of potential relocations or expropriations and the possibility of further expanding the airport in the future.
Management of the airport lies solely on the authority of Paris Aéroport, which also manages Orly (south of Paris), Le Bourget (to the immediate southwest of Charles de Gaulle Airport, now used for general aviation and Paris Air Shows), Marsa Alam in Egypt, and several smaller airfields in the suburbs of Paris.
The planning and construction phase of what was known then as Aéroport de Paris Nord (Paris North Airport) began in 1966. On 8 March 1974 the airport, renamed Charles de Gaulle Airport, opened. Terminal 1 was built in an avant - garde design of a ten - floors - high circular building surrounded by seven satellite buildings, each with six gates allowing sunlight to enter through apertures. The main architect was Paul Andreu, who was also in charge of the extensions during the following decades.
The Frutiger typeface was commissioned for use in the airport and implemented on signs throughout the building in 1975. Initially called Roissy, it was renamed after its designer Adrian Frutiger.
Until 2005, every PA announcement made at Terminal 1 was preceded by a distinctive chime, nicknamed "Indicatif Roissy '' and composed by Bernard Parmegiani in 1971. The chime can be heard in the Roman Polanski film Frantic. The chime was officially replaced by the "Indicatif ADP '' chime.
Charles de Gaulle Airport has three terminals: Terminal 1 is the oldest and situated opposite to Terminal 3; Terminal 2 is located at another side with 7 sub-terminal buildings (2A to 2G). Terminal 2 was originally built exclusively for Air France; since then it has been expanded significantly and now also hosts other airlines. Terminals 2A to 2F are interconnected by elevated walkways and situated next to each other. Terminal 2G is a satellite building connected by shuttle bus.
Terminal 3 (formerly known as "Terminal 9 '') hosts charter and low - cost airlines. The CDGVAL light - rail shuttle connects Terminal 2 to Terminals 1 / 3 and their parking lots. Refer to Ground Transportation below for inter-terminal transfers and transport to central Paris.
The first terminal, designed by Paul Andreu, was built in the image of an octopus. It consists of a circular terminal building which houses key functions such as check - in counters and baggage claim conveyors. Seven satellites with boarding gates are connected to the central building by underground walkways.
The central building, with a large skylight in its centre, dedicates each floor to a single function. The first floor is reserved for technical operations and not accessible to the public. The second floor contains shops and restaurants, the CDGVAL inter-terminal shuttle train platforms (for Terminal 2 and trains to central Paris) and check - in counters from a recent renovation. The majority of check - in counters, however, are located on the third floor, which also has access to taxi stands, bus stops and special pick - up vehicles. Departing passengers with valid boarding passes can reach the fourth floor, which houses duty - free stores and border control posts, for the boarding gates. The fifth floor contains baggage claim conveyors for arriving passengers. All four upper floors have assigned areas for parking and airline offices.
Passages between the third, fourth and fifth floors are provided by a tangle of escalators arranged through the centre of the building. These escalators are suspended over the central court. Each escalator is covered with a transparent tube to shelter from all weather conditions. These escalators were often used in film shootings (e.g. The Last Gang of Ariel Zeitoun). The Alan Parsons Project album I Robot features these escalators on its cover.
Terminal 2 is spread across seven sub-terminals: 2A to 2G. Terminals 2A to 2F are connected by inter-terminal walkways, but Terminal 2G is a satellite building 800 m (0.5 mi) away. Terminal 2G can only be accessed by shuttle bus from Terminals 1, 2A to 2F and 3. The CDGVAL inter-terminal shuttle train, Paris RER Regional - Express and high - speed TGV rail station, Aéroport Charles de Gaulle 2 TGV, is located within the Terminal 2 complex and between 2C and 2E (on one side) or 2D and 2F (on the opposite side).
Terminal 2F was used for the filming of the music video for the U2 song "Beautiful Day ''. The band also had their picture taken inside Terminal 2F for the album artwork of their 2000 album "All That You Ca n't Leave Behind ''.
On 23 May 2004, shortly after the inauguration of terminal 2E, a portion of it collapsed near Gate E50, killing four people. Two of the dead were reported to be Chinese citizens and another a Czech. Three other people were injured in the collapse. Terminal 2E had been inaugurated in 2003 after some delays in construction and was designed by Paul Andreu. Administrative and judicial enquiries were started. Andreu also designed Terminal 3 at Dubai International Airport, which collapsed while under construction on 28 September 2004.
Before this accident, ADP had been planning for an initial public offering in 2005 with the new terminal as a major attraction for investors. The partial collapse and indefinite closing of the terminal just before the beginning of summer seriously hurt the airport 's business plan.
In February 2005, the results from the administrative inquiry were published. The experts pointed out that there was no single fault, but rather a number of causes for the collapse, in a design that had little margin for safety. The inquiry found the concrete vaulted roof was not resilient enough and had been pierced by metallic pillars and some openings weakened the structure. Sources close to the inquiry also disclosed that the whole building chain had worked as close to the limits as possible, so as to reduce costs. Paul Andreu denounced the building companies for having not correctly prepared the reinforced concrete.
On 17 March 2005, ADP decided to tear down and rebuild the whole part of Terminal 2E (the "jetty '') of which a section had collapsed, at a cost of approximately € 100 million. The reconstruction replaced the innovative concrete tube style of the jetty with a more traditional steel and glass structure. During reconstruction, two temporary departure lounges were constructed in the vicinity of the terminal that replicated the capacity of 2E before the collapse. The terminal reopened completely on 30 March 2008.
Terminal 2G, dedicated to regional Air France flights and its affiliates, opened in 2008. This terminal is to the east of all terminals and can only be reached by shuttle bus. Terminal 2G is used for passengers flying in the Schengen Area (and thus has no passport control) and handles Air France regional and European traffic and provides small - capacity planes (up to 150 passengers) with a faster turnaround time than is currently possible by enabling them to park close to the new terminal building and boarding passengers primarily by bus, or walking. A bus line called "navette orange '' connects the terminal 2G inside the safety check area with terminals 2E and 2F. Passengers transferring to other terminals need to take a bus in the public area, and therefore pass through safety checks again.
The completion of 750 m (2,460 ft) long Satellite 3 (or S3) to the immediate east of Terminals 2E and 2F provides further jetways for large - capacity airliners, specifically the Airbus A380. Check - in and baggage handling are provided by the existing infrastructure in Terminals 2E and 2F. Satellite 3 was opened in part on 27 June 2007 and fully operational in September 2007. It corresponds now to gates L of terminal 2E.
The satellite S4, adjacent to the S3 and part of terminal 2E, officially opened on 28 June 2012. It corresponds now to gates M of terminal 2E. Dedicated to long - haul flights, it has the ability to handle 16 aircraft at the same time, with an expected capacity of 7.8 million passengers per year. Its opening has led to the relocation of all Skyteam airlines to terminals 2E (for international carriers), 2F (for Schengen European carriers) and 2G.
Air France has moved all of its operations previously located at 2C to 2E. In October 2012, 2F closed its international operations and became completely Schengen, allowing for all Air France flights currently operating in 2D to relocate to terminal 2F. Further, in April 2013, Terminal 2B closed for a complete renovation (all airlines relocated to 2D) and will receive upgrades including the addition of a second floor completely dedicated to arrivals. Once 2B is completed, 2D will close and receive similar upgrades, including the addition of a new floor. Low - cost carrier easyJet has shown its interest in being the sole carrier at 2B. To facilitate connections, a new boarding area between 2A and 2C was opened in March 2012. It allows for all security and passport control to be handled in a single area, allows for many new shopping opportunities as well as new airline lounges, and eases transfer restrictions between 2A and 2C.
According to La Tribune newspaper a new Terminal 4 is likely to be built around 2025, when Charles de Gaulle Airport 's maximum capacity of 80 millions will be reached. This new Terminal 4, when constructed, will be able to accommodate 30 -- 40 million passengers per year and will most likely be built north of Terminal 2E.
Terminal 3 is located 1 km (0.62 mi) away from Terminal 1. It consists of separate buildings for arrivals and departures. The walking distance between Terminals 1 and 3 is 3 km (1.9 mi) long, however, the rail station (named as "CDG Airport Terminal 1 '') for RER and CDGVAL trains are only at a distance of 300 m (980 ft). Terminal 3 has no boarding gates constructed and all passengers are ferried via boarding buses to the aircraft stands.
Roissypôle is a complex consisting of office buildings, shopping areas, hotels, and a bus coach and RER B station within Charles de Gaulle Airport. The complex includes the head office of Air France, Continental Square, the Hilton Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, and le Dôme building. Le Dôme includes the head office of Air France Consulting, an Air France subsidiary. Continental Square has the head office of XL Airways France, the head office of Air France subsidiary Servair and the Air France Vaccinations Centre.
A free automatic shuttle rail service at Charles de Gaulle Airport, consisting of two lines (CDGVAL and LISA), is based on the VAL operational system. The shuttle train connects both railway stations for Terminals 1 / 3 and Terminal 2 in 8 minutes.
Charles de Gaulle airport is connected to central Paris by the RER B Regional - Express services (€ 10 one - way as of 2016). During off - peak hours and weekends, there are two types of services:
The express RER B only call at the railway stations of Terminal 1 (also for Terminal 3) and Terminal 2 before Gare du Nord. Journey time is 30 -- 35 minutes. The stopping RER B take about 35 -- 40 minutes and is sometimes overtaken by the express RER B trains.
RER B is jointly operated by SNCF and RATP (Transport for Paris), but the Regional - Express used to suffer from slowness and overcrowding. For these reasons, French authorities have started two projects: CDG Express, which is supposed to link Charles de Gaulle Airport to Paris Gare de l'Est railway station (next to Gare du Nord) from 2023 with trains specifically designed for air travellers; RER B Nord Plus, which modernised and streamlined RER B rail traffic and network north of Gare du Nord from 2008 to 2013 then renovated the trains from 2010 to 2015.
Terminal 2 includes a TGV station on the LGV Interconnexion Est high - speed line. SNCF operates direct TGV services to several French stations from CDG, including Lille, Strasbourg, Dijon, Lyon, Marseille, Montpellier, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Nantes, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulon, as well as services to Brussels in Belgium.
After the last RER B service at 23: 50, the Noctilien (Night Lines) N143 and N140 depart every 30 minutes and hour respectively from Terminal 1 Door D12, Terminal 2F Door 2 and Roissypôle coach station. Both bus lines run to Paris Gare de l'Est railway station.
Since 17 December 2012, SNCF 's national and international coach network, OUIBUS, serves Charles de Gaulle Airport, by terminal 3, station CDG 1 to London, Lyon, Lille and Brussels. Flixbus serves CDG from at least Brussels and Amsterdam.
Charles de Gaulle Airport is directly connected to Autoroute A1 which connects Paris and Lille.
The ride by taxi from CDG airport to city centre is 45 minutes and from € 50 to € 65, depending on the type of service / car required.
The two other airports serving Paris are Orly Airport (south of Paris, the other major airport in Paris) and Le Bourget Airport (for general aviation and private jets).
Some low - cost airlines also advertise Beauvais -- Tillé Airport and Châlons Vatry Airport, respectively 85 km and 165 km from Paris proper, as serving "Paris '' with Paris -- Beauvais and Paris -- Vatry. Beauvais airport has no railway connections, but there is a shuttle bus to central Paris 15 times daily.
The grassy lands on which the airport is located are notorious for rabbits and hares, which can be seen by passengers at certain times of the day. The airport organises periodic hunts and captures to keep the population to manageable levels.
The following table shows total passenger numbers.
Source: Airports Council International
|
what are the ranks in the ghana national fire service | Ghana National Fire and Rescue Service - wikipedia
The Ghana National Fire and Rescue Service (GNFRS) is an agency under the Ghanaian Ministry of the Interior, constituting Ghana 's nationwide fire service. It was established as the Ghana National Fire Service (GNFS) by the GNFS Act of 1997 (Act 537) with a broad objective of prevention and management of undesired fires and other related matters.
The National Fire and Rescue Service was set up to perform the following functions:
In March 2010, it was announced that the Ghana National Fire Service was to change its name to the Ghana National Fire and Rescue Service. The new mandate of the service was to operate both fire and ambulance services.
|
when did the first radio broadcast take place | History of broadcasting - Wikipedia
The first broadcasting of a radio transmission consisted of Morse code (or wireless telegraphy) was made from a temporary station set up by Guglielmo Marconi in 1895. This followed on from pioneering work in the field by Alessandro Volta, André - Marie Ampère, Georg Ohm, James Clerk Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz. The broadcasting of music and talk via radio started experimentally around 1905 - 1906, and commercially around 1920 to 1923. VHF (very high frequency) stations started 30 to 35 years later.
In the early days, radio stations broadcast on the long wave, medium wave and short wave bands, and later on VHF (very high frequency) and UHF (ultra high frequency). However, in the United Kingdom, Hungary, France and some other places, from as early as 1890 there was already a system whereby news, music, live theatre, music hall, fiction readings, religious broadcasts, etc., were available in private homes (and other places) via the conventional telephone line, with subscribers being supplied with a number of special, personalised headsets. In Britain this system was known as Electrophone, and was available as early as 1895 or 1899 (sources vary) and up until 1926. In Hungary, it was called Telefon Hírmondó (1893 - 1920s), and in France, Théâtrophone (1890 - 1932)). The Wikipedia Telefon Hírmondó page includes a 1907 program guide which looks remarkably similar to the types of schedules used by many broadcasting stations some 20 or 30 years later.
By the 1950s, virtually every country had a broadcasting system, typically one owned and operated by the government. Alternative modes included commercial radio, as in the United States; or a dual system with both state sponsored and commercial stations, introduced in Australia as early as 1924, with Canada following in 1932. Today, most countries have evolved into a dual system, including the UK. By 1955, practically every family in North America and Western Europe, as well as Japan, had a radio. A dramatic change came in the 1960s with the introduction of small inexpensive portable transistor radio, the greatly expanded ownership and usage. Access became practically universal across the world.
Argentina was a world pioneer in broadcasting, being the third country in the world to make its first regular broadcasts in 1920, having been the first Spanish - speaking country in Latin America to offer daily radio broadcasts. The main stations were in Buenos Aires and Córdoba. Among the historical facts related to Argentine radio, it can be mentioned that the first radio broadcast was made with the live broadcast of Richard Wagner 's opera Parsifal from the Teatro Coliseo in Buenos Aires, on August 27, 1920, in charge of the Radio Argentina Society of Enrique Susini, César Guerrico, Miguel Mugica, Luis Romero and Ignacio Gómez, who installed a transmitting device on the roof of the building, for which they are remembered as "The crazy people on the roof ''.
In 1921, the transmission of classical music became a daily occurrence. The following year, the assumption of President Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear was broadcast live. In September 1923 the famous "fight of the century '' was issued between Luis Ángel Firpo and Jack Dempsey from the Polo Grounds in New York, and in October of the following year the match between the Argentine and Uruguayan national teams was broadcast. Also at that time the first advertisements, called "reclames '', were put on the air. At the end of the decade the radio drama was born. In those years several radio stations arose, Argentina (originally Radio Argentina), Culture, Excelsior, Mitre (originally South American), Splendid (originally Grand Splendid), Belgrano (originally National), Prieto (originally Broadcasting Critic), Del Pueblo - (originally Quilmes Broadcasting), America -, Antartida (originally Fénix), Municipal, Rivadavia (originally Muebles Díaz), Porteña and Stentor (originally Sarmiento).
The introduction of the loudspeakers substantially modified the listening conditions. The receiving apparatus was gaining an important place in the home, gathering around the family. Meanwhile, the multiplication of the stations generated the first conflicts over the airwaves, which led to the first regulations on emission frequencies at the end of the 20s.
The History of broadcasting in Australia has been shaped for over a century by the problem of communication across long distances, coupled with a strong base in a wealthy society with a deep taste for aural communications. Australia developed its own system, through its own engineers, manufacturers, retailers, newspapers, entertainment services, and news agencies. The government set up the first radio system, and business interests marginalized the hobbyists and amateurs. The Labor Party was especially interested in radio because it allowed them to bypass the newspapers, which were mostly controlled by the opposition. Both parties agreed on the need for a national system, and in 1932 set up the Australian Broadcasting Commission, as a government agency that was largely separate from political interference. The first commercial broadcasters, originally known as "B '' class stations, were on the air as early as 1925. The number of stations (commercial and national) remained relatively dormant throughout World War II and in the post-war era.
Australian radio hams can be traced to the early 1900s. The 1905 Wireless Telegraphy Act whilst acknowledging the existence of wireless telegraphy, brought all broadcasting matters in Australia under the control of the Federal Government. In 1906, the first official Morse code transmission in Australia was by the Marconi Company between Queenscliff, Victoria and Devonport, Tasmania.
The first broadcast of music was made during a demonstration on 13 August 1919 by Ernest Fisk (later Sir Ernest) of AWA -- Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia). A number of amateurs commenced broadcasting music in 1920 and 1921. Many other amateurs soon followed. 2CM was run by Charles MacLuran who started the station in 1921 with regular Sunday evening broadcasts from the Wentworth Hotel, Sydney. 2CM is often regarded as Australia 's first, regular, non-official station.
It was not until November 1923 when the government finally gave its approval for a number of officially recognised medium wave stations. All stations operated under a unique Sealed Set system under which each set was sealed to the frequency of one station. Part of the price of the set went to the government via the Postmaster - General 's Department (PMG), with money also going to the broadcaster. Apart from extremely limited advertising, this was the broadcasters ' only source of income. From the outset problems with the system came to the fore. Many young people built their own sets, which could receive all the stations. The sealed set system was devised by broadcasting pioneer Ernest Fisk of AWA -- Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia).
As quickly as July 1924, the Sealed Set system was declared to be unsuccessful and it was replaced by a system of A Class and B Class stations. There were one or two A Class stations in each major market and these were paid for by a listener 's licence fee imposed on all listeners - in. The five former sealed set stations became A Class stations, and they were soon joined by stations in other State capitals.
From 1929, all A Class stations received all their programs from the one source, the Australian Broadcasting Company which was made up of the following shareholders: Greater Union Theatres (a movie theatre chain), Fuller 's Theatres (a live theatre chain) and J. Albert & Sons (music publishers and retailers). A number of B Class stations were also licensed. These did not receive any government monies and were expected to derive their income from advertising, sponsorship, or other sources. Within a few years B Class stations were being referred to as "commercial stations ''.
Amateur broadcasters continued to operate in the long wave and short wave bands.
A national service, the Australian Broadcasting Commission, was formed in July 1932, when the Australian Broadcasting Company 's contract expired. The Corporation took over the assets of all A Class stations. It still exists as the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. The Australian Broadcasting Co changed its name to the Commonwealth Broadcasting Company and later the Australian Radio Network. It soon purchased Sydney commercial station 2UW and now has an Australia - wide network of commercial stations.
As with most countries, most Australian stations originally broadcast music interspersed with such things as talks, coverage of sporting events, church broadcasts, weather, news and time signals of various types. Virtually all stations also had programs of interest to women, and children 's sessions. From the outset, A Class stations ' peak - hour evening programs often consisted of live broadcasts from various theatres, i.e. dramas, operas, musicals, variety shows, vaudeville, etc. The first dramas especially written for radio were transmitted in the mid-1920s. By the 1930s, the ABC was transmitting a number of British programs sourced from the BBC, and commercial stations were receiving a number of US programs, particularly dramas. However, in the 1940s, war - time restrictions made it difficult to access overseas programs and, therefore, the amount of Australian dramatic material increased. As well as using original ideas and scripts, there were a number of local versions of overseas programs. Initially, much of the music broadcast in Australia was from live studio concerts. However, the amount of gramophone (and piano roll) music soon increased dramatically, particularly on commercial stations.
In the late 1930s, the number of big production variety shows multiplied significantly, particularly on the two major commercial networks, Macquarie and Major. After World War II the independent Colgate - Palmolive radio production unit was formed. It poached most major radio stars from the various stations. Until the 1950s, the popular image of the whole family seated around a set in the living room was the most accepted way of listening to radio. Therefore, most stations had to be all things to all people, and specialised programming was not really thought about at this stage (it did not come in until the late 1950s). Because of this, programming on most stations was pretty much the same.
As early as 1929, two Melbourne commercial radio stations, 3UZ and 3DB were conducting experimental mechanical television broadcasts -- these were conducted in the early hours of the morning, after the stations had officially closed down. In 1934 Dr Val McDowall at amateur station 4CM Brisbane conducted experiments in electronic television.
Two of Australia 's most unusual medium wave stations were mobile stations 2XT and 3YB. They both operated in eras prior to the universal establishment of rural radio stations. 2XT was designed and operated by AWA within the State of New South Wales, from a NSW Railways train, between November 1925 and December 1927. 2XT, which stood for experimental train, visited over 100 rural centres. Engineers would set up a transmitting aerial and the station would then begin broadcasting. This led to the further sales of AWA products. 3YB provided a similar service in rural Victoria between October 1931 and November 1935. Initially, the station operated from a Ford car and a Ford truck, but from 17 October 1932 they operated from a converted 1899 former Royal Train carriage. Whilst the engineers were setting up the station 's 50 - watt transmitter in the town being visited, salesmen would sign up advertisers for the fortnight that 3YB would broadcast from that region. The station was on the air from 6.00 and 10.00 pm daily, and its 1,000 - record library was divided into set four - hour programs, one for each of 14 days. In other words, the music broadcast from each town was identical. The station was operated by Vic Dinenny, but named after announcer Jack Young from Ballarat. On 18 January 1936, Dinenny set up 3YB Warnambool, followed on 18 May 1937 by 3UL Warragul.
The merchant vessel MV Kanimbla is believed to be the world 's only ship built with an inbuilt broadcasting station. The Kanimlba was constructed in Northern Ireland in 1936 and was primarily designed for McIlwraith McEachern Limited to ply passengers between Cairns, Queensland and Fremantle, Western Australia. The broadcasting station was constructed and operated by AWA and was initially given the ham radio callsign VK9MI but was later 9MI. (At this time, the "9 '' in the callsign was aberrationary (see "Call Signs, above).) The station made an experimental broadcast before leaving Northern Ireland, and a number of such broadcasts at sea, on the way to Australia. 9MI 's first official broadcast in April 1939 was made from the Great Australian Bight. The station broadcast on short wave, usually a couple of times per week, but many of its programs were relayed to commercial medium wave stations that were also owned by AWA. The 9MI manager and announcer (and probably the only member of staff) was Eileen Foley. 9MI ceased broadcasting at the commencement of World War II in September 1939. The Kanimbla was commissioned as a Royal Navy (later Royal Australian Navy) vessel with the name HMS / HMAS Kanimbla. It had an extremely prominent and successful war - time career.
The history of broadcasting in Canada begins as early as 1919 with the first experimental broadcast programs in Montreal. Canadians were swept up in the radio craze and built crystal sets to listen to American stations while The Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of Canada offered its first commercially produced radio - broadcast receiver (Model "C '') in 1921, followed by its "Marconiphone '' Model I in 1923. Main themes in the history include the development of the engineering technology; the construction of stations across the country and the building of networks; the widespread purchase and use of radio and television sets by the general public; debates regarding state versus private ownership of stations; financing of the broadcasts media through the government, license fees, and advertising; the changing content of the programming; the impact of the programming on Canadian identity; the media 's influence on shaping audience responses to music, sports and politics; the role of the Québec government; Francophone versus Anglophone cultural tastes; the role of other ethnic groups and First Nations; fears of American cultural imperialism via the airwaves; and the impact of the Internet and smartphones on traditional broadcasting media.
Radio signals carried long distances, and a number of American stations could easily be received in parts of Canada. The first Canadian station was CFCF, originally an experimental station from the Marconi Company in Montreal. Civilian use of Wireless Telegraphy had been forbidden in Canada for the duration of World War I. The Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of Canada was the only one to retain the right to continue radio experiments for military use. This proved instrumental in giving the company a lead in developing an experimental radio broadcasting station immediately after the war. The first radio broadcast in Canada was accomplished by The Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of Canada in Montreal on December 1, 1919 under the call sign XWA (for "Experimental Wireless Apparatus '') from its Williams Street factory. The station began regular programming on May 20, 1920 and its call letters were changed to CFCF on November 4, 1920. In Toronto, the first radio station was operated by the Toronto Star newspaper. Station CKCE began in April 1922. and were so well received that the Star pushed forward with its own studios and transmitting facilities, returning to the air as CFCA in late June 1922. In Montreal, another newspaper, La Presse, put its own station, CKAC on the air in late September 1922. Because there were governmental limitations on radio frequencies back then, CKAC and CFCF alternated -- one would broadcast one night, and the other would broadcast the night after that. For a time, CKAC was broadcasting some programs in French, and some in English: in 1924, for example, the station rebroadcast fifteen Boston Bruins hockey games from station WBZ in Boston. Meanwhile, in other Canadian provinces, 1922 was also the year for their first stations, including CJCE in Vancouver, and CQCA (which soon became CHCQ) in Calgary.
As radio grew in popularity during the mid-1920s, a problem arose: the U.S. stations dominated the airwaves and with a limited number of frequencies available for broadcasters to use, it was the American stations that seemed to get most of them. This was despite an agreement with the US Department of Commerce (which supervised broadcasting in the years prior to the Federal Radio Commission) that a certain number of frequencies were reserved exclusively for Canadian signals. But if a US station wanted one of those frequencies, the Department of Commerce seemed unwilling to stop it, much to the frustration of Canadian owners who wanted to put stations on the air. The Canadian government and the US government began negotiations in late 1926, in hopes of finding a satisfactory solution. Meanwhile, in 1928, Canada got its first network, operated by the Canadian National Railways. CNR had already made itself known in radio since 1923, thanks in large part to the leadership of CNR 's president, Sir Henry Thornton. The company began equipping its trains with radio receivers, and allowed passengers to hear radio stations from Canada and the US. In 1924, CN began building its own stations, and by 1928, it was able to create a network. In 1932, the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission was formed, and in 1936, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, the country 's national radio service, made its debut.
There was interest in radio almost from broadcasting 's earliest days. Due to the proximity of Cuba to the U.S. state of Florida, some Cubans would try to listen to the American stations whose signals reached the island. But there was no radio station in Cuba until 1922. The arrival of the first radio station, PWX, was greeted with enthusiasm. PWX, owned by the Cuban Telephone Company, was located in Havana. It was a joint venture with the International Telephone and Telegraph Company of New York. PWX debuted on the air on October 10, 1922. PWX broadcast programs in both English and Spanish, and its signal was easily received at night in a number of American cities. Another early station in Cuba was owned by Frank Jones, an American amateur radio operator and Chief Engineer of the Tuinucu Sugar Company. The station used amateur call letters, and went on the air as 6KW. In late 1928, PWX began using the call letters CMC. Its slogan was "If you hear ' La Paloma, ' you are in tune with CMC. '' As with many other countries, interest in radio expanded, and by 1932, Cuba had more than thirty stations, spread out in cities all over the island.
Radio Paris began operations in 1922, followed by Radio Toulouse and Radio Lyon. Before 1940, 14 commercial and 12 public sector radio stations were in operation. The government exerted tight control over radio broadcasting. Political debate was not encouraged. In the 1932 election campaign, for example, the opposition was allowed one broadcast while the incumbent made numerous campaign broadcasts. Radio was a potentially powerful new medium, but France was quite laggard in consumer ownership of radio sets, With 5 million radio receivers in 1937, compared to over 8 million and both Britain and Germany, and 26 million in the United States. The government imposed very strict controls on news dissemination. After 1938, stations were allowed only three brief daily bulletins, of seven minutes each, to cover all the day 's news. The Prime Minister 's office closely supervised the news items that were to be broadcast. As war approached, Frenchmen learned little or nothing about it from the radio. The government thought that policy wise, because it wanted no interference in its policies. The unexpected result, however, was the Frenchman were puzzled and uncertain great crises erupted in 1938 - 39, and their morale and support for government policies was much weaker than in Britain.
The first radio station in Germany went on the air in Berlin in late 1923, using the call letters "LP. '' Before 1933, German radio broadcasting was Conducted by 10 regional broadcasting monopolies, each of which had a government representative on its board. The Post Office Provided overall supervision. A listening fee of 2 Reichsmark per receiver paid most costs, and radio station frequencies were limited, which even restricted the number of amateur radio operators. Immediately following Hitler 's assumption of power in 1933, Joseph Goebbels became head of the Ministry for Propaganda and Public Enlightenment and took full control of broadcasting. Non-Nazis were removed from broadcasting and editorial positions. Jews were fired from all positions.
Germany was easily served by a number of European mediumwave stations, including the BBC, but the Nazis made it illegal for Germans to listen to foreign broadcasts. During the war, German stations broadcast not only war propaganda and entertainment for German forces dispersed through Europe, as well as air raid alerts. There was heavy use of short wave for "Germany Calling '' programmes directed at Britain and Allied forces around the world. Goebbels Also set up numerous Nazi stations that pretended to be from the Allied world. Germany experimented with television broadcasting, using a 180 - line raster system beginning before 1935. German propaganda claimed the system was superior to the British mechanical scanning system.
The first radio station in Japan was JOAK, which opened in Tokyo in March 1925. It was founded by Masajiro Kotamura, an inventor and engineer. It was unique in that at least one of its announcers was a woman, Akiko Midorikawa. JOAK was followed soon after by JOBK in Osaka and JOCK in Nagoya. The National Broadcasting Service, today known as NHK (Nippon Hoso Kyokai), began in August 1926. All stations were supported by licensing fees: in 1926, for example, people wishing to receive a permit to own a radio set paid a fee of one yen a month to the government. Programming on Japanese stations of the 1920s included music, news, language instruction (lessons were offered in English, French and German) and educations talks. These early stations broadcast on average about eight hours of programs a day.
Amateur radio was very popular in Mexico; while most of the hams were male, notably Constantino de Tarnava, acknowledged in some sources as Mexico 's first amateur radio operator, one of the early ham radio operators was female -- Maria Dolores Estrada. But commercial radio was difficult to achieve, due to a federal regulation forbidding any broadcasts that were not for the benefit of the Mexican government. Still, in November 1923, CYL in Mexico City went on the air, featuring music (both folk songs and popular dance concerts), religious services, and news. CYL used as its slogans "El Universal '' and "La Casa del Radio '', and it won over the government, by giving political candidates the opportunity to use the station to campaign. Its signal was so powerful that it was even received in Canada sometimes. Pressure from listeners and potential station owners also contributed to the government relenting and allowing more stations to go on the air. In 1931, the "C '' call letters were all changed to "X '' call letters (XE being reserved for broadcasting), and by 1932, Mexico had nearly forty radio stations, ten of which were in Mexico City.
On the 6th of November 1919, the Dutch radio pioneer Hans Henricus Schotanus à Steringa Idzerda started regular radio transmissions from The Hague. As these where regular transmissions and the program was announced beforehand in the newspaper NRC, is seen as the start of commercial broadcasting.
Interest in amateur radio was noted in the Philippines in the early 1920s. There were radio stations operating in the Philippines, including one owned by American businessman named Henry Hermann, as early as 1922, according to some sources; not much documentation about that period of time exists. In the autumn of 1927, KZRM in Manila, owned by the Radio Corporation of the Philippines, went on the air. The Radio Corporation of the Philippines was a subsidiary of American company RCA (Radio Corporation of America). By 1932, the island had three radio stations: KRZC in Cebu, as well as KZIB (owned by a department store) and KZFM, the government - owned station in Manila. Of the stations listed by Pierre Key, KZFM was the strongest, with 50,000 watts. Two radio networks were ultimately created: one, the Manila Broadcasting Company, began as a single station, KZRH in Manila, in July 1939, and after World War II, in 1946, the station 's owners began to develop their network by buying other radio properties. As for the Philippine Broadcasting Company, it too began with one station (KZFM), and received its new name in mid-1946, after the Philippines became an independent country. At the end of 1946, the new network had six stations. Both KZRH and KZFM also affiliated with American networks; the stations wanted to have access to certain popular American programs, and the American networks wanted to sell products in the Philippines.
Sri Lanka has the oldest radio station in Asia (world 's second oldest). The station was known as Radio Ceylon. It developed into one of the finest broadcasting institutions in the world. It is now known as the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation. Sri Lanka created broadcasting history in Asia when broadcasting was started in Ceylon by the Telegraph Department in 1923 on an experimental footing, just three years after the inauguration of broadcasting in Europe. Gramophone music was broadcast from a tiny room in the Central Telegraph Office with the aid of a small transmitter built by the Telegraph Department engineers from the radio equipment of a captured German submarine. This broadcasting experiment was successful; barely three years later, on December 16, 1925, a regular broadcasting service came to be instituted. Edward Harper who came to Ceylon as Chief Engineer of the Telegraph Office in 1921, was the first person to actively promote broadcasting in Ceylon. Sri Lanka occupies an important place in the history of broadcasting with broadcasting services inaugurated just three years after the launch of the BBC in the United Kingdom. Edward Harper launched the first experimental broadcast as well as founding the Ceylon Wireless Club, together with British and Ceylonese radio enthusiasts on the island. Edward Harper has been dubbed ' the Father of Broadcasting in Ceylon, ' because of his pioneering efforts, his skill and his determination to succeed. Edward Harper and his fellow Ceylonese radio enthusiasts, made it happen.
The first experimental music broadcasts, from Marconi 's factory in Chelmsford, began in 1920. Two years later, in October 1922, a consortium of radio manufacturers formed the British Broadcasting Company (BBC); they allowed some sponsored programs, although they were not what we would today consider a fully commercial station. Meanwhile, the first radio stations in England were experimental station 2MT, located near Chelmsford, and station 2LO in London: both were operated by the Marconi Company. By late 1923, there were six stations broadcasting regularly in the United Kingdom: London 's 2LO, Manchester 's 2ZY, and stations in Birmingham, Cardiff, Newcastle, and Glasgow. As for the consortium of radio manufacturers, it dissolved in 1926, when its license expired; it then became the British Broadcasting Corporation, a non-commercial organization. Its governors are appointed by the British government, but they do not answer to it. Lord Reith took a formative role in developing the BBC, especially in radio. Working as its first manager and Director - General, he promoted the philosophy of public service broadcasting, firmly grounded in the moral benefits of education and of uplifting entertainment, eschewing commercial influence and maintaining a maximum of independence from political control.
Commercial stations such as Radio Normandie and Radio Luxembourg broadcast into the UK from other European countries. This provided a very popular alternative to the rather austere BBC. These stations were closed during the War, and only Radio Luxembourg returned afterward. BBC television broadcasts in Britain began on November 2, 1936, and continued until wartime conditions closed the service in 1939.
Reginald Fessenden did ground - breaking experiments with voice and music by 1906. Charles "Doc '' Herrold of San Jose, California sent out broadcasts as early as April 1909 from his Herrold School electronics institute in downtown San Jose, using the identification San Jose Calling, and then a variety of different call signs as the Department of Commerce began to regulate radio. He was on the air daily for nearly a decade when the World War interrupted operations.
Pioneer radio station 2XG, also known as the "Highbridge station '', was an experimental station located in New York City and licensed to the DeForest Radio Telephone and Telegraph Company. It was the first station to use a vacuum tube transmitter to make radio broadcasts on a regular schedule. From 1912 to 1917 Charles Herrold made regular broadcasts, but used an arc transmitter. He switched to a vacuum tube transmitter when he restarted broadcasting activities in 1921. Herrold coined the terms broadcasting and narrowcasting,. Herrold claimed the invention of broadcasting to a wide audience, through the use of antennas designed to radiate signals in all directions. David Sarnoff has been considered by many as "the prescient prophet of broadcasting who predicted the medium 's rise in 1915 '', referring to his radio music box concept.
A few organizations were allowed to keep working on radio during the war. Westinghouse was the most well - known of these. Frank Conrad, a Westinghouse engineer, had been making transmissions from 8XK since 1916 that included music programming. A team at the University of Wisconsin -- Madison headed by Professor Earle M. Terry was also on the air. They operated 9XM, originally licensed by Professor Edward Bennett in 1914, and experimented with voice broadcasts starting in 1917.
By 1919, after the war, radio pioneers across the country resumed transmissions. The early stations gained new call signs. Many early stations were started by newspapers worried radio might replace their newspapers. 8XK became KDKA in 1920. KDKA received the first federal license and began broadcasting on November 2, 1920. Madison Avenue early on recognized the importance of radio as a new advertising medium. Advertising provided the major funding for most stations. The United States never had a licensing fee for set users. The National Broadcasting Company began regular broadcasting in 1926, with telephone links between New York and other Eastern cities. NBC became the dominant radio network, splitting into Red and Blue networks. The Columbia Broadcasting System began in 1927 under the guidance of William S. Paley.
Radio in education began as early as April 1922, when Medford Hillside 's WGI Radio broadcast the first of an ongoing series of educational lectures from Tufts College professors. These lectures were described by the press as a sort of "wireless college. '' Soon, other colleges across the U.S. began adding radio broadcasting courses to their curricula; some, like the University of Iowa, even provided what today would be known as distance - learning credits. Curry College, first in Boston and then in Milton, Massachusetts, introduced one of the nation 's first broadcasting majors in 1932 when the college teamed up with WLOE in Boston to have students broadcast programs. This success led to numerous radio courses in the curriculum which has taught thousands of radio broadcasters from the 1930s to today.
In 1934, several independent stations formed the Mutual Broadcasting System to exchange syndicated programming, including The Lone Ranger and Amos ' n ' Andy. Prior to 1927, U.S. radio was supervised by the Department of Commerce. Then, the Radio Act of 1927 created the Federal Radio Commission (FRC); in 1934, this agency became known as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). A Federal Communications Commission decision in 1939 required NBC to divest itself of its Blue Network. That decision was sustained by the Supreme Court in a 1943 decision, National Broadcasting Co. v. United States, which established the framework that the "scarcity '' of radio - frequency meant that broadcasting was subject to greater regulation than other media. This Blue Network network became the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). Around 1946, ABC, NBC, and CBS began regular television broadcasts. Another TV network, the DuMont Television Network, was founded earlier, but was disbanded in 1956; later in 1986 the surviving DuMont independent stations formed the nucleus of the new Fox Broadcasting Company.
Norman Banks was one of Melbourne 's (and Australia 's) most prominent broadcasters at 3KZ (1930 - 1952) and 3AW (1952 - 1978). He is remembered for founding Carols by Candlelight, as a pioneer football commentator, and for hosting both musical and interview programs. In later years he was one of Melbourne 's first and most prominent talk back hosts. At the commencement of his career, Banks was known for his double entendres and risque remarks; as a talk back host he was outspoken in his conservative views, especially regarding the White Australia policy and Apartheid. In 1978 his 47 - year career in radio was hailed as the longest in world history. Not including the early television experiments (see above), mainstream television transmission commenced in Sydney and Melbourne in the latter part of 1956, that is, in time for the 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games in November / December 1956. It was then phased in to other capital cities, and then into rural markets. Many forms entertainment, particularly drama and variety, were considered more suited to television than radio, and many such programs were gradually deleted from radio schedules.
The transistor radio first appeared on the market in 1954. In particular, it made portable radios even more transportable. All sets quicklly became smaller, cheaper and more convenient. The aim of radio manufacturers became a radio in every room, in the car, and in the pocket. The upshot of these two changes was that stations started to specialise and concentrate on specific markets. The first areas to see specialised stations were the news and current affairs market, and stations specialising in pop music and geared toward the younger listener who was now able to afford his / her own radio. Talk back ("talk radio '') became a major radio genre by the end of the 1960s, but it was not legalised in Australia until October 1967. The fears of intrusion were addressed by a beep that occurred every few seconds, so that the caller knew that his / her call was being broadcast. There was also a seven - second delay so that obscene or libelous material could be monitored. By the end of the 1960s, specialisation by radio stations had increased dramatically and there were stations focusing on various kinds of music, talk back, news, sport, etc.
When the Federal Republic of Germany was organized in 1949, its Enabling Act established strong state government powers. Broadcasting was organized on a state, rather than a national, basis. Nine regional radio networks were established. A technical coordinating organization, the Arbeitsgemeinschaft der offentlich - rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (ARD), came into being in 1950 to lessen technical conflicts. The Allied forces in Europe developed their own radio networks, including the U.S. American Forces Network (AFN). Inside Berlin, Radio in the American Sector (RIAS) became a key source of news in the German Democratic Republic. Germany began developing a network of VHF FM broadcast stations in 1955 because of the excessive crowding of the mediumwave and shortwave broadcast bands. 1933
Radio Ceylon ruled the airwaves in the 1950s and 1960s in the Indian sub-continent. The station developed into the most popular radio network in South Asia. Millions of listeners in India for example tuned into Radio Ceylon. Announcers like Livy Wijemanne, Vernon Corea, Pearl Ondaatje, Tim Horshington, Greg Roskowski, Jimmy Bharucha, Mil Sansoni, Eardley Peiris, Shirley Perera, Bob Harvie, Christopher Greet, Prosper Fernando, Ameen Sayani (of Binaca Geetmala fame), Karunaratne Abeysekera, S.P. Mylvaganam (the first Tamil Announcer on the Commercial Service) were hugely popular across South Asia. The Hindi Service also helped build Radio Ceylon 's reputation as the market leader in the Indian sub-continent. Gopal Sharma, Sunil Dutt Ameen Sayani, Hamid Sayani, were among the Indian announcers of the station. The Commercial Service of Radio Ceylon was hugely successful under the leadership of Clifford Dodd, the Australian administrator and broadcasting expert who was sent to Ceylon under the Colombo Plan. Dodd hand picked some of the most talented radio presenters in South Asia. They went on to enjoy star status in the Indian sub-continent. This was Radio Ceylon 's golden era.
Radio Luxembourg remained popular during the 1950s but saw its audience decline as commercial television and pirate radio, combined with a switch to a less clear frequency, began to erode its influence. BBC television resumed on June 7, 1946, and commercial television began on September 22, 1955. Both used the pre-war 405 - line standard. BBC2 came on the air on April 20, 1964, using the 625 - line standard, and began PAL colour transmissions on July 1, 1967, the first in Europe. The two older networks transmitted in 625 - line colour from 1969. During the 1960s there was still no UK - based commercial radio. A number of ' pirate ' radio ships, located in international waters just outside the jurisdiction of English law, came on the air between 1964 and 1967. The most famous of these was Radio Caroline, which was the only station to continue broadcasting after the offshore pirates were effectively outlawed on August 14, 1967 by the Marine Broadcasting Offences Act. It was finally forced off air due to a dispute over tendering payments, but returned in 1972 and continued on and off until 1990. (The station subsequently broadcast legally, initially under 28 - day Restricted Service Licences and subsequently via satellite - since closed - internet streams and, since 2017, a local AM transmitter.)
Television began to replace radio as the chief source of revenue for broadcasting networks. Although many radio programs continued through this decade, including Gunsmoke and The Guiding Light, by 1960 networks had ceased producing entertainment programs. As radio stopped producing formal fifteen - minute to hourly programs, a new format developed. "Top 40 '' was based on a continuous rotation of short pop songs presented by a "disc jockey. '' Famous disc jockeys in the era included Alan Freed, Dick Clark, Don Imus and Wolfman Jack. Top 40 playlists were theoretically based on record sales; however, record companies began to bribe disc jockeys to play selected artists, in a controversy that was called "payola ''. In the 1950s, American television networks introduced broadcasts in color. The Federal Communications Commission approved the world 's first monochrome - compatible color television standard in December 1953. The first network colorcast followed on January 1, 1954, with NBC transmitting the annual Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, California to over 20 stations across the country. An educational television network, National Educational Television (NET), predecessor to PBS, was founded. Shortwave broadcasting played an important part of fighting the cold war with Voice of America and the BBC World Service, Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty transmitting through the "Iron Curtain '', and Radio Moscow and others broadcasting back, as well as "jamming '' (transmitting to cause intentional interference) the Western stations in the Soviet bloc.
After much procrastination on the part of various federal governments, FM broadcasting was eventually introduced in 1975. (There had been official experiments with FM broadcasting as far back as 1948.) Only a handful of radio stations were given new licences during the 1940s, 50s & 60s but, since 1975, many hundreds of new broadcasting licences have been issued on both the FM and AM bands. In the latter case, this was made possible by having 9 kHz between stations, rather 10 kHz breaks, as per the Geneva Frequency Plan. The installation of directional aerials also encouraged more AM stations. The type of station given FM licences reflects the policies and philosophies of the various Australian governments. Initially, only the ABC and community radio stations were granted FM licences. However, after a change of government, commercial stations were permitted on the band, as from 1980. At first, one or two brand new stations were permitted in each major market. However, in 1990, one or two existing AM stations in each major market were given FM licences; the stations being chosen by an auction system. Apart from an initial settling - in period for those few stations transferred from AM to FM, there has been no simulcasting between AM and FM stations. In major cities, a number of brand new FM licences were issued in the 1990s and 2000s. All rural regions which traditionally had only one commercial station now have at least one AM and one FM commercial station. In many cases, the owner of the original station now has at least two outlets. The number of regional transmitters for the ABC 's five networks also increased dramatically during this era.
Commercial radio (re -) legalisation in most European countries occurred in this era, starting with United Kingdom in 1973 (see Independent Local Radio) and ending with Austria in 1995. In 1987, stations in the European Broadcasting Union began offering Radio Data System (RDS), which provides written text information about programs that were being broadcast, as well as traffic alerts, accurate time, and other teletext services.
The Government of Sri Lanka opened up the market in the late 1970s and 1980s allowing private companies to set up radio and television stations. Sri Lanka 's public services broadcasters are the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC), Independent Television Net Work (ITN) and the affiliated radio station called Lak - handa. They had stiff competition on their hands with the private sector. Broadcasting in Sri Lanka went through a transformation resulting in private broadcasting institutions being set up on the island among them Telshan Network (Pvt) Ltd (TNL), Maharaja Television -- TV, Sirasa TV and Shakthi TV, and EAP Network (Pvt) Ltd -- known as Swarnawahini -- these private channels all have radio stations as well. The 1990s saw a new generation of radio stations being established in Sri Lanka among them the ' Hiru ' radio station. In the 1980s public service broadcasters like the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation set up their own FM arm. Sri Lanka celebrated 80 years of broadcasting in December 2005. In January 2007 the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation celebrated 40 years as a public corporation.
A new pirate station, Swiss - owned Radio Nordsee International, broadcast to Britain and the Netherlands from 1970 until outlawed by Dutch legislation in 1974 (which meant it could no longer be supplied from the European mainland). The English service was heavily jammed by both Labour and Conservative Governments in 1970 amid suggestions that the ship was actually being used for espionage. Radio Caroline returned in 1972 and continued until its ship sank in 1980 (the crew were rescued). A Belgian station, Radio Atlantis, operated an English service for a few months before the Dutch act came into force in 1974. Land - based commercial radio finally came on air in 1973 with London 's LBC and Capital Radio. Channel 4 television started in November 1982. Britain 's UHF system was originally designed to carry only four networks. Pirate radio enjoyed another brief resurgence with a literal re-launch of Radio Caroline in 1983, and the arrival of American - owned Laser 558 in 1985. Both stations were harassed by the British authorities; Laser closed in 1987 and Caroline in 1989, since then it has pursued legal methods of broadcasting, such as temporary FM licences and satellite. Two rival satellite television systems came on the air at the end of the 1980s: Sky Television and British Satellite Broadcasting. Huge losses forced a rapid merger, although in many respects it was a takeover of BSB (Britain 's official, Government - sanctioned satellite company) by Sky. Radio Luxembourg launched a 24 - hour English channel on satellite, but closed its AM service in 1989 and its satellite service in 1991.
The Broadcasting Act 1990 in UK law marked the establishment of two licensing authorities -- the Radio Authority and the Independent Television Commission -- to facilitate the licensing of non-BBC broadcast services, especially short - term broadcasts. Channel 5 went on the air on March 30, 1997, using "spare '' frequencies between the existing channels.
The rise of FM changed the listening habits of younger Americans. Many stations such as WNEW - FM in New York City began to play whole sides of record albums, as opposed to the "Top 40 '' model of two decades earlier. In the 1980s, the Federal Communications Commission, under Reagan Administration and Congressional pressure, changed the rules limiting the number of radio and television stations a business entity could own in one metropolitan area. This deregulation led to several groups, such as Infinity Broadcasting and Clear Channel to buy many stations in major cities. The cost of these stations ' purchases led to a conservative approach to broadcasting, including limited playlists and avoiding controversial subjects to not offend listeners, and increased commercials to increase revenue. AM radio declined throughout the 1970s and 1980s due to various reasons including: Lower cost of FM receivers, narrow AM audio bandwidth, and poor sound in the AM section of automobile receivers (to combat the crowding of stations in the AM band and a "loudness war '' conducted by AM broadcasters), and increased radio noise in homes caused by fluorescent lighting and introduction of electronic devices in homes. AM radio 's decline flattened out in the mid-1990s due to the introduction of niche formats and over commercialization of many FM stations.
The 2000s saw the introduction of digital radio and direct broadcasting by satellite (DBS) in the USA. Digital radio services, except in the United States, were allocated a new frequency band in the range of 1,400 MHz. Regular shortwave broadcasts using Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM), a digital broadcasting scheme for short and medium wave broadcasts have begun. This system makes the normally scratchy international broadcasts clear and nearly FM quality, and much lower transmitter power. This is much better to listen to and has more languages.
In Australia, from August 2009, digital radio was phased in by geographical region. Today, the ABC, SBS, commercial and community radio stations operate on the AM and FM bands. Most stations are available on the internet and most also have digital outlets. By 2007, there were 261 commercial stations in Australia. The ABC currently has five AM / FM networks and is in the process of establishing a series of supplementary music stations that are only available on digital radios and digital television sets. SBS provides non-English language programs over its two networks, as do a number of community radio stations.
In Canada, the Canadian Radio - television and Telecommunications Commission plans to move all Canadian broadcasting to the digital band and close all mediumwave and FM stations.
European stations have begun digital broadcasting (DAB). Digital radios began to be sold in the United Kingdom in 1998.
In Sri Lanka in 2005 when Sri Lanka celebrated 80 years in Broadcasting, the former Director - General of the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation, Eric Fernando called for the station to take full advantage of the digital age -- this included looking at the archives of Radio Ceylon. Ivan Corea asked the President of Sri Lanka, Mahinda Rajapakse to invest in the future of the SLBC.
In the United States, this band was deemed to be vital to national defense, so an alternate band in the range of 2,300 MHz was introduced for satellite broadcasting. Two American companies, XM and Sirius, introduced DBS systems, which are funded by direct subscription, as in cable television. The XM and Sirius systems provide approximately 100 channels each, in exchange for monthly payments. In addition, a consortium of companies received FCC approval for In - Band On - Channel digital broadcasts in the United States, which use the existing mediumwave and FM bands to provide CD - quality sound. However, early IBOC tests showed interference problems with adjacent channels, which has slowed adoption of the system.
|
where is the cape horn located on a map | Cape Horn - wikipedia
Coordinates: 55 ° 58 ′ 48 '' S 067 ° 17 ′ 21 '' W / 55.98000 ° S 67.28917 ° W / - 55.98000; - 67.28917
Cape Horn (Dutch: Kaap Hoorn (help info), Spanish: Cabo de Hornos), named after the city of Hoorn in the Netherlands, is the southernmost headland of the Tierra del Fuego archipelago of southern Chile, and is located on the small Hornos Island. Although not the most southerly point of South America (which are the Diego Ramírez Islands), Cape Horn marks the northern boundary of the Drake Passage and marks where the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans meet.
For decades, Cape Horn was a major milestone on the clipper route, by which sailing ships carried trade around the world. The waters around Cape Horn are particularly hazardous, owing to strong winds, large waves, strong currents and icebergs; these dangers have made it notorious as a sailors ' graveyard.
The need for ships to round Cape Horn was greatly reduced by the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914. Sailing around the Horn is widely regarded as one of the major challenges in yachting. Thus a few recreational sailors continue to sail this route, sometimes as part of a circumnavigation of the globe. Almost all of these choose routes through the channels to the north of the Cape. (Many take a detour through the islands and anchor to wait for fair weather to visit Horn Island, or sail around it to replicate a rounding of this historic point). Several prominent ocean yacht races, notably the Volvo Ocean Race, the VELUX 5 Oceans, and the Vendée Globe, sail around the world via the Horn. Speed records for round - the - world sailing are recognized for following this route.
Cape Horn is located on Isla Hornos in the Hermite Islands group, at the southern end of the Tierra del Fuego archipelago. It marks the north edge of the Drake Passage, the strait between South America and Antarctica. It is located in Cabo de Hornos National Park.
The cape lies within what are now Chilean territorial waters, and the Chilean Navy maintains a station on Hoorn Island, consisting of a residence, utility building, chapel, and lighthouse. A short distance from the main station is a memorial, including a large sculpture made by Chilean sculptor José Balcells featuring the silhouette of an albatross, in remembrance of the sailors who died while attempting to "round the Horn ''. It was erected in 1992 through the initiative of the Chilean Section of the Cape Horn Captains Brotherhood. The terrain is entirely treeless, although quite lush owing to frequent precipitation. Cape Horn is the southern limit of the range of the Magellanic penguin.
Two lighthouses are located near or in Cape Horn. The one located in the Chilean Navy Station is the more accessible and visited, and is commonly referred to as the Cape Horn lighthouse. However, the Chilean Navy station, including the lighthouse (ARLS CHI - 030, 55 ° 57 ′ 48.5 '' S 67 ° 13 ′ 14.2 '' W / 55.963472 ° S 67.220611 ° W / - 55.963472; - 67.220611 (CHI - 030)) and the memorial, are not located on Cape Horn (which is difficult to access either by land or sea), but on another land point about one mile east - northeast.
On Cape Horn proper is a smaller 4 - metre (13 - foot) fiberglass light tower, with a focal plane of 40 metres (130 feet) and a range of about 21 kilometres (13 miles). This is the authentic Cape Horn lighthouse (ARLS CHI - 006, 55 ° 58 ′ 38.3 '' S 67 ° 15 ′ 45.5 '' W / 55.977306 ° S 67.262639 ° W / - 55.977306; - 67.262639 (CHI - 006)), and as such the world 's southernmost traditional lighthouse. A few minor aids to navigation are located farther south, including one in the Diego Ramírez Islands and several in Antarctica.
The climate in the region is generally cool, owing to the southern latitude. There are no weather stations in the group of islands including Cape Horn; but a study in 1882 -- 1883, found an annual rainfall of 1,357 millimetres (53.4 inches), with an average annual temperature of 5.2 ° C (41.4 ° F). Winds were reported to average 30 kilometres per hour (8.33 m / s; 18.64 mph), (5 Bf), with squalls of over 100 kilometres per hour (27.78 m / s; 62.14 mph), (10 Bf) occurring in all seasons. There are 278 days of rainfall (70 days snow) and 2,000 millimetres (79 inches) of annual rainfall
Cloud coverage is generally extensive, with averages from 5.2 eighths in May and July to 6.4 eighths in December and January. Precipitation is high throughout the year: the weather station on the nearby Diego Ramirez Islands, 109 kilometres (68 mi) south - west in the Drake Passage, shows the greatest rainfall in March, averaging 137.4 millimetres (5.41 in); while October, which has the least rainfall, still averages 93.7 millimetres (3.69 in). Wind conditions are generally severe, particularly in winter. In summer, the wind at Cape Horn is gale force up to 5 % of the time, with generally good visibility; however, in winter, gale - force winds occur up to 30 % of the time, often with poor visibility.
Many stories are told of hazardous journeys "around the Horn, '' most describing fierce storms. Charles Darwin wrote: "One sight of such a coast is enough to make a landsman dream for a week about shipwrecks, peril and death. ''
Cape Horn is part of the Commune of Cabo de Hornos, whose capital is Puerto Williams; this in turn is part of Antártica Chilena Province, whose capital is also Puerto Williams. The area is part of the Magallanes y la Antártica Chilena Region of Chile. Puerto Toro, a few miles south of Puerto Williams, is the closest town to the cape.
A number of potential sailing routes may be followed around the tip of South America. The Strait of Magellan, between the mainland and Tierra del Fuego, is a major -- although narrow -- passage, which was in use for trade well before the Horn was discovered. The Beagle Channel (named for the ship of Charles Darwin 's expedition), between Tierra del Fuego and Isla Navarino, offers a potential, though difficult route. Other passages may be taken around the Wollaston and Hermite Islands to the north of Cape Horn.
All of these, however, are notorious for treacherous williwaw winds, which can strike a vessel with little or no warning; given the narrowness of these routes, vessels have a significant risk of being driven onto the rocks. The open waters of the Drake Passage, south of Cape Horn, provide by far the widest route, at about 800 kilometres (500 miles) wide; this passage offers ample sea room for maneuvering as winds change, and is the route used by most ships and sailboats, despite the possibility of extreme wave conditions.
Several factors combine to make the passage around Cape Horn one of the most hazardous shipping routes in the world: the fierce sailing conditions prevalent in the Southern Ocean generally; the geography of the passage south of the Horn; and the extreme southern latitude of the Horn, at 56 ° south. (For comparison, Cape Agulhas at the southern tip of Africa is at 35 ° south; Stewart Island / Rakiura at the south end of New Zealand is 47 ° south.)
The prevailing winds in latitudes below 40 ° south can blow from west to east around the world almost uninterrupted by land, giving rise to the "roaring forties '' and the even more wild "furious fifties '' and "screaming sixties ''. These winds are hazardous enough that ships traveling east would tend to stay in the northern part of the forties (i.e. not far below 40 ° south latitude); however, rounding Cape Horn requires ships to press south to 56 ° south latitude, well into the zone of fiercest winds. These winds are exacerbated at the Horn by the funneling effect of the Andes and the Antarctic peninsula, which channel the winds into the relatively narrow Drake Passage.
The strong winds of the Southern Ocean give rise to correspondingly large waves; these waves can attain great height as they roll around the Southern Ocean, free of any interruption from land. At the Horn, however, these waves encounter an area of shallow water to the south of the Horn, which has the effect of making the waves shorter and steeper, greatly increasing the hazard to ships. If the strong eastward current through the Drake Passage encounters an opposing east wind, this can have the effect of further building up the waves. In addition to these "normal '' waves, the area west of the Horn is particularly notorious for rogue waves, which can attain heights of up to 30 metres (98 feet).
The prevailing winds and currents create particular problems for vessels trying to round the Horn against them, i.e. from east to west. This was a particularly serious problem for traditional sailing ships, which could make very little headway against the wind at the best of times; modern sailing boats are significantly more efficient to windward and can more reliably make a westward passage of the Horn, as they do in the Global Challenge race.
Ice is a hazard to sailors venturing far below 40 ° south. Although the ice limit dips south around the horn, icebergs are a significant hazard for vessels in the area. In the South Pacific in February (summer in Southern Hemisphere), icebergs are generally confined to below 50 ° south; but in August the iceberg hazard can extend north of 40 ° south. Even in February, the Horn is well below the latitude of the iceberg limit. These hazards have made the Horn notorious as perhaps the most dangerous ship passage in the world; many ships were wrecked, and many sailors died attempting to round the Cape.
In 1525 the vessel San Lesmes commanded by Francisco de Hoces, member of the Loaísa Expedition, was blown south by a gale in front of the Atlantic end of Magellan Strait and reached 56 ° S where they thought to see Land 's End.
In September 1578, Sir Francis Drake, in the course of his circumnavigation of the world, passed through the Strait of Magellan into the Pacific Ocean. Before he could continue his voyage north his ships encountered a storm, and were blown well to the south of Tierra del Fuego. The expanse of open water they encountered led Drake to guess that far from being another continent, as previously believed, Tierra del Fuego was an island with open sea to its south. This discovery went unused for some time, as ships continued to use the known passage through the Strait of Magellan.
By the early 17th century the Dutch East India Company was given a monopoly on all Dutch trade via the Straits of Magellan and the Cape of Good Hope, the only known routes at the time to the Far East. To search for an alternate route and one to the unknown Terra Australis, Isaac Le Maire, a wealthy Amsterdam merchant and Willem Schouten, a ship 's master of Hoorn, contributed in equal shares to the enterprise, with additional financial support from merchants of Hoorn. Jacob Le Maire, Isaac 's son, went on the journey as "chiefe Marchant and principall factor, '' in charge of trading aspects of the endeavor. The two ships that departed Holland at the beginning of June 1615 were the Eendracht of 360 tons with Schouten and Le Maire aboard, and the Hoorn of 110 tons, of which Schouten 's brother Johan was master. It was Eendracht then, with the crew of the recently wrecked Hoorn aboard, that passed through the Le Maire Strait and Schouten and Le Maire made their great discovery:
At the time it was discovered, the Horn was believed to be the southernmost point of Tierra del Fuego; the unpredictable violence of weather and sea conditions in the Drake Passage made exploration difficult, and it was only in 1624 that the Horn was discovered to be an island. It is a telling testament to the difficulty of conditions there that Antarctica, only 650 kilometres (400 miles) away across the Drake Passage, was discovered only as recently as 1820, despite the passage having been used as a major shipping route for 200 years.
From the 18th to the early 20th centuries, Cape Horn was a part of the clipper routes which carried much of the world 's trade. Sailing ships sailed round the Horn carrying wool, grain, and gold from Australia back to Europe; much trade was carried around the Horn between Europe and the Far East; and trade and passenger ships travelled between the coasts of the United States via the Horn. The Horn exacted a heavy toll from shipping, however, owing to the extremely hazardous combination of conditions there.
The only facilities in the vicinity able to service or supply a ship, or provide medical care, were in the Falkland Islands. The businesses there were so notorious for price - gouging that damaged ships were sometimes abandoned at Port Stanley.
While most companies switched to steamers and later used the Panama canal, German steel - hulled sailing ships like the Flying P - Liners were designed since the 1890s to withstand the weather conditions around the Horn, as they specialized in the South American nitrate trade and later the Australian grain trade. None of them were lost travelling around the Horn, but some, like the mighty Preußen, were victims of collisions in the busy English channel.
Traditionally, a sailor who had rounded the Horn was entitled to wear a gold loop earring -- in the left ear, the one which had faced the Horn in a typical eastbound passage -- and to dine with one foot on the table; a sailor who had also rounded the Cape of Good Hope could place both feet on the table.
One particular historic attempt to round the Horn, that of HMS Bounty in 1788, has been immortalized in history due to the subsequent Mutiny on the Bounty. This abortive Horn voyage has been portrayed (with varying historical accuracy) in three major motion pictures about Captain William Bligh 's mission to transport breadfruit plants from Tahiti to Jamaica. The Bounty made only 85 miles of headway in 31 days of east - to - west sailing, before giving up by reversing course and going around Africa. Although the 1984 movie portrayed another decision to go round the Horn as a precipitating factor in the mutiny (this time west - to - east after collecting the breadfruits in the South Pacific), in fact that was never contemplated out of concern for the effect of the low temperatures near the Horn on the plants.
The transcontinental railroads in North America, as well as the Panama Canal that opened in 1914 in Central America, led to the gradual decrease in use of the Horn for trade. As steamships replaced sailing ships, Flying P - Liner Pamir became the last commercial sailing ship to round Cape Horn laden with cargo, carrying grain from Port Victoria, Australia to Falmouth, England in 1949.
Many modern tankers are too wide to fit through the Panama Canal, as are a few passenger ships and several aircraft carriers. But there are no regular commercial routes around the Horn, and modern ships carrying cargo are rarely seen. However, a number of cruise ships routinely round the Horn when traveling from one ocean to the other. These often stop in Ushuaia or Punta Arenas as well as Port Stanley. Some of the small passenger vessels shuttling between Ushuaia and the Antarctic Peninsula will pass the Horn too, time and weather permitting.
Despite the opening of the Suez and Panama Canals, the Horn remains part of the fastest sailing route around the world, and so the growth in recreational long - distance sailing has brought about a revival of sailing via the Horn. Owing to the remoteness of the location and the hazards there, a rounding of Cape Horn is widely considered to be the yachting equivalent of climbing Mount Everest, and so many sailors seek it for its own sake.
Joshua Slocum was the first single - handed yachtsman to successfully pass this way (in 1895) although in the end, extreme weather forced him to use some of the inshore routes between the channels and islands and it is believed he did not actually pass outside the Horn proper. If one had to go by strict definitions, the first small boat to sail around outside Cape Horn was the 42 - foot (13 - metre) yacht Saoirse, sailed by Conor O'Brien with three friends, who rounded it during a circumnavigation of the world between 1923 and 1925. In 1934, the Norwegian Al Hansen was the first to round Cape Horn single - handed from east to west -- the "wrong way '' -- in his boat Mary Jane, but was subsequently wrecked on the coast of Chile. The first person to successfully circumnavigate the world single - handed via Cape Horn was Argentinian Vito Dumas, who made the voyage in 1942 in his 33 - foot (10 - metre) ketch Lehg II; a number of other sailors have since followed him, including Webb Chiles aboard "EGREGIOUS '' who in December 1975 rounded Cape Horn single - handed. On March 31, 2010, 16 - year - old Abby Sunderland became the youngest person to single - handedly sail around Cape - Horn in her attempt to circumnavigate the globe. In 1987 The British Cape Horn Expedition, headed by Nigel H Seymour, rounded Cape Horn in the world 's first ever ' sailing kayaks ' called ' Kaymaran ' two sea going kayaks which could link together with two sails mountable in any four of the sailing positions between the two kayaks.
Today, there are several major yacht races held regularly along the old clipper route via Cape Horn. The first of these was the Sunday Times Golden Globe Race, which was a single - handed race; this inspired the present - day Around Alone race, which circumnavigates with stops, and the Vendée Globe, which is non-stop. Both of these are single - handed races, and are held every four years. The Volvo Ocean Race is a crewed race with stops which sails the clipper route every four years. Its origins lie in the Whitbread Round the World Race first competed in 1973 - 4. The Jules Verne Trophy is a prize for the fastest circumnavigation of the world by any type of yacht, with no restrictions on the size of the crew (no assistance, non-stop). Finally, the Global Challenge race goes around the world the "wrong way '', from east to west, which involves rounding Cape Horn against the prevailing winds and currents.
The Horn remains a major hazard for recreational sailors, however. A classic case is that of Miles and Beryl Smeeton, who attempted to round the Horn in their yacht Tzu Hang. Hit by a rogue wave when approaching the Horn, the boat pitchpoled (i.e. somersaulted end - over-end). Although they survived, and were able to make repairs in Talcahuano, Chile, they attempted the passage again, only to be rolled over, and dismasted for a second time, by another rogue wave, which again they miraculously survived.
Cape Horn has been an icon of sailing culture for centuries; it has featured in sea shanties and in many books about sailing. One of the classic accounts of a working ship in the age of sail is Two Years Before the Mast, by Richard Henry Dana Jr., in which the author describes an arduous trip from Boston to California via Cape Horn:
Charles Darwin, in The Voyage of the Beagle, a journal of the five - year expedition upon which he based The Origin of Species, described his 1832 encounter with the Horn:
Alan Villiers, a modern - day expert in traditional sailing ships, wrote many books about traditional sailing, including By way of Cape Horn. More recent sailors have taken on the Horn singly, such as Vito Dumas, who wrote Alone Through The Roaring Forties based on his round - the - world voyage; or with small crews.
Bernard Moitessier made two significant voyages round the Horn; once with his wife Françoise, described in Cape Horn: The Logical Route, and once single - handed. His book The Long Way tells the story of this latter voyage, and of a peaceful night - time passage of the Horn: "The little cloud underneath the moon has moved to the right. I look... there it is, so close, less than 10 miles (16 km) away and right under the moon. And nothing remains but the sky and the moon playing with the Horn. I look. I can hardly believe it. So small and so huge. A hillock, pale and tender in the moonlight; a colossal rock, hard as diamond. ''
And John Masefield wrote: "Cape Horn, that tramples beauty into wreck / And crumples steel and smites the strong man dumb. ''
A memorial presented in Robert FitzRoy 's bicentenary (2005) commemorates his landing on Cape Horn on 19 April 1830.
Canadian singer - songwriter Gordon Lightfoot wrote a song entitled "Ghosts of Cape Horn. ''
Visiting Cabo de Hornos can be done on a day trip by helicopter or more arduously by charter power boat or sailboat, or by cruise ship. "Rounding the Horn '' is traditionally understood to involve sailing from 50 degrees South on one coast to 50 degrees South on the other coast, the two benchmark latitudes of a Horn run, a considerably more difficult and time - consuming endeavor having a minimum length of 930 miles (1,500 km).
|
who is the oldest nfl player of all time | George Blanda - wikipedia
George Frederick Blanda (September 17, 1927 -- September 27, 2010) was an American football quarterback and placekicker who played professionally in the American Football League (AFL) and National Football League (NFL). Blanda played 26 seasons of professional football, the most in the sport 's history, and had scored more points than anyone in history at the time of his retirement. Blanda retired from pro football in 1976 at the age of 48. He was one of only two players to play in four different decades (John Carney 1988 -- 2010, is the other), and he holds the record for most extra points kicked. During his career, he played under head coaches Bear Bryant, George Halas, and John Madden.
Blanda was a quarterback and kicker at Kentucky. Coach Paul "Bear '' Bryant, who later won fame and set countless records at Southeastern Conference rival Alabama, arrived in his sophomore year, following a 1 -- 9 season. The Wildcats lost three games in each of the next three years.
Blanda was the starting quarterback his last two seasons at Kentucky (1947 -- 1948), compiling 120 completions in 242 passes (49.6 percent completions), 1,451 yards and 12 touchdowns.
Blanda was signed by the Chicago Bears for $600 in 1949, an amount owner George Halas demanded back when he made the team, as Blanda was now given a very lucrative contract for many, many dollars more. While primarily used as a quarterback and placekicker, Blanda also saw time on the defensive side of the ball at linebacker. It was not until 1953 that Blanda emerged as the Bears ' top signal caller, but an injury the following year effectively ended his first - string status. For the next four years, he was used mostly in a kicking capacity. Later commenting on his testy relationship with Halas, Blanda noted, "he was too cheap to even buy me a kicking shoe. '' Blanda later reflected that by the 1950s the pro game had moved beyond Halas, who seemed to lack the interest he had earlier.
Blanda retired after the 1958 NFL season because of Halas ' insistence on only using him as a kicker, but returned in 1960 upon the formation of the American Football League. He signed with the Houston Oilers as both a quarterback and kicker. He was derided by the sports media as an "NFL Reject '', but he went on to lead the Oilers to the first two league titles in AFL history, and he was the All - AFL quarterback and won AFL Player of the Year honors in 1961. During that season, he led the AFL in passing yards (3,330) and touchdown passes (36). His 36 touchdown passes in 1961 were the most ever thrown by any NFL / AFL quarterback in a single season, until matched by Y.A. Tittle of the NFL New York Giants two years later in 1963. Blanda 's and Tittle 's mark remained the record until surpassed by Dan Marino 's 48 touchdown passes in 1984. Blanda 's 42 interceptions thrown in 1962 is a record that still stands.
During 1962, he had two 400 - yard passing days for the Oilers: a 464 - yard effort against the Buffalo Bills on October 29, with four touchdown passes (winning 28 -- 16); and 418 yards three weeks later against the Titans of New York, this time with seven touchdown passes in a 49 -- 13 victory. Blanda passed for 36 touchdowns that season. On 13 occasions, he connected on four or more touchdown passes during a game, and on November 1, 1964, unleashed 68 passes for Houston against the Buffalo Bills.
From 1963 to 1965, Blanda led the AFL in passing attempts and completions, and ranked in the top ten for attempts, completions, yards and touchdowns during seven consecutive seasons. A four - time member of the American Football League All - Star team, Blanda 's already - long career seemed over when he was released by the Oilers on March 18, 1967. However, the Oakland Raiders signed him that July, seeing his potential as a contributing backup passer and a dependable kicker.
In later years, Blanda remained a strong supporter of AFL heritage, saying: "That first year, the Houston Oilers or Los Angeles Chargers (24 -- 16 losers to the Oilers in the title game) could have beaten the NFL champion (Philadelphia) in a Super Bowl. '' Blanda said further: "I think the AFL was capable of beating the NFL in a Super Bowl game as far back as 1960 or ' 61. I just regret we did n't get the chance to prove it. ''
In 1967, during Blanda 's first season with the Raiders, his kicking skills helped him lead the AFL in scoring with 116 points. In two instances, his leg helped play a role in Raider victories: a trio of field goals helped upset the defending league champion Kansas City Chiefs on October 1; in the closing weeks of the regular season, Blanda booted four field goals behind a hostile Houston crowd in a 19 -- 7 victory over his former team, the Oilers, helping gain a measure of revenge.
The Raiders went on to compete in Super Bowl II, but lost the final two AFL Championship games in the 10 - year history of the league.
In 1970, Blanda was released during the exhibition season, but bounced back to establish his 21st professional season. During that season, Blanda, at age 43, had a remarkable five - game run. Against the Steelers, Blanda threw for three touchdowns in relief of an injured Daryle Lamonica. One week later, his 48 - yard field goal with three seconds remaining salvaged a 17 -- 17 tie with the Kansas City Chiefs. On November 8, he again came off the bench to throw a touchdown pass to tie the Cleveland Browns with 1: 34 remaining, then kicked a 53 - yard field goal with 0: 03 left for the 23 -- 20 win. Immediately after the winning field goal, Raiders radio announcer Bill King excitedly declared, "George Blanda has just been elected King of the World! '' In the team 's next game, Blanda replaced Lamonica in the fourth quarter and connected with Fred Biletnikoff on a touchdown pass with 2: 28 left in the game to defeat the Denver Broncos, 24 -- 19. The following week, Blanda 's 16 - yard field goal in the closing seconds defeated the San Diego Chargers, 20 -- 17.
In the AFC title game against the Baltimore Colts, Blanda again relieved an injured Lamonica, completing 17 of 32 passes for 217 yards and 2 touchdowns while also kicking a 48 - yard field goal and two extra points, keeping the Raiders in the game until the final quarter, when he was intercepted twice. Aged 43, he became the oldest quarterback ever to play in a championship game, and was one of the few remaining straight - ahead kickers in the NFL.
Blanda 's achievements resulted in his winning the Bert Bell Award. Chiefs ' owner Lamar Hunt said, "Why, this George Blanda is as good as his father, who used to play for Houston. '' Although he never again played a major role at quarterback, Blanda served as the Raiders ' kicker for five more seasons.
He played in his last game at Pittsburgh 's Three Rivers Stadium on January 4, 1976, at age 48, in the 1975 AFC Championship Game, in which he kicked a 41 - yard field goal and made one extra point as the Raiders lost to the Steelers 16 -- 10.
Career high / best bolded
Blanda finished his 26 professional football seasons having completed 1,911 of 4,007 pass attempts for 26,920 yards and 236 touchdowns. Blanda also held the NFL record for most interceptions thrown with 277, until Brett Favre broke it on October 14, 2007. He rushed for 344 yards and 9 touchdowns on the ground, kicked 335 of 641 field goals, and 943 of 959 extra points, giving him 2,002 total points. Additional stats include 1 interception, 2 kickoff returns for 19 yards, 22 punts for 809 yards, and 23 fumble recoveries.
Blanda holds the following professional football records:
He is the placekicker on the All - Time All - AFL Team, and was one of only 20 players to play all ten years of the AFL, as well as one of only three who were in every AFL game their teams played. Blanda was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1981, his first year of eligibility, and also was inducted into the University of Kentucky Hall of Fame.
Blanda held the record for most professional football games played with 340 until September 26, 2004, when it was broken by another placekicker, Morten Andersen as well as the record for most consecutive games played until September 26, 1976 by defensive end Jim Marshall. His 114 postseason points were an NFL record at the time of his retirement.
Blanda broke Lou Groza 's career scoring record in 1971, a record he held until 2000 when it was broken by Gary Anderson.
U.S. Route 119 in Blanda 's hometown of Youngwood, Pennsylvania was renamed George Blanda Boulevard in 1985.
In 1999, Blanda was ranked number 98 on The Sporting News ' list of the 100 Greatest Football Players.
Blanda was the first ever recorded fantasy football draft pick when the game was first created in 1962 by The Greater Oakland Professional Pigskin Prognosticators League.
Blanda was married to Betty Harris from December 17, 1949 until his death on September 27, 2010, ten days after his 83rd birthday. They had two children. Blanda was the son of a Slovak - born Pittsburgh - area coal miner.
According to the Pro Football Hall of Fame, Blanda died after a "short illness '' on September 27, 2010. He was 83 years old. A moment of silence was held in Blanda 's honor prior to the start of the September 27, 2010 game between the Green Bay Packers and the Chicago Bears on Monday Night Football, from Soldier Field.
The 1970s TV series Happy Days was set in 1950s Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In the Season 3 episode "Football Frolics '', Richie Cunningham (played by Ron Howard) and Ralph Malph (Donny Most) are watching the November 9, 1956, Chicago Bears -- Chicago Cardinals televised game. After Ed Brown 's pass to Harlon Hill is intercepted by the Cardinals, Richie wants "the other quarterback '' put in. Ralph says that quarterback is "washed up. He 's old. He 's 30. He 's got no future. '' Richie argues back, "George Blanda has two or three good years left. '' The joke was that Blanda, 19 years later at the time of the show 's filming, was still playing.
|
who plays carmen's dad in sisterhood of the traveling pants | Carmen Lowell - wikipedia
Carmen Lucille Lowell is a main character in the book and film The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants (film). She is sometimes called Carma and Carmabelle (her Instant Messaging username) or Carmeena in the book, and is a sensitive and caring half - Puerto Rican with a bad temper. Her parents are divorced, and she lives with her mother, Christina. She is the organized one, but sometimes she thinks too much. She is the one most insistent on keeping the sisters together through the Traveling Pants, which she first found. She is the "glue '' keeping the Sisterhood together. She is portrayed by America Ferrera in the 2005 film adaptation of the first book, and the 2008 sequel, The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2.
Christina: Carmen has a close relationship with her mother, Christina, whom she has lived with since her parents ' divorce. Carmen admits that she can be bratty with her mother, though Christina suggests this may be because she knows it is easier to get mad at people you love because you can trust them to still love you. Carmen can also be possessive of her mother and is worried both when Christina begins dating and when she gets pregnant. She does not want her mother to leave her.
Albert: Carmen looks up to her father; she wanted to follow in his footsteps and go to Williams College. However, her parents ' divorce hit her hard and she is initially concerned that his marrying Lydia was an attempt to replace her and Christina with a perfect, beautiful family. She resolves most of these issues in the first book and afterwards often calls her father for advice or guidance.
David: Carmen 's stepfather. She was originally hostile toward David when he began dating Christina because she thought her mother was making a fool of herself and rushing into the relationship too quickly. Though she does n't develop a very close relationship with him, she admits that he makes her mother happy; her only complaint about him is that he is a workaholic.
Lydia: Carmen 's stepmother. Carmen does not know of her until she goes to stay with her dad during the first novel. She gets off on the wrong foot with her stepmother due to their many differences. Lydia is blonde, and a "Southern belle '' who has a perfectly neat house and is very religious. Because of how different Lydia 's lifestyle is from her mother 's, Carmen is at first angry with Lydia and her father and feels she is being replaced. Later, she achieves a more civil relationship with her stepmother, especially after realizing that Lydia and Christina actually get along.
Paul: Carmen 's older stepbrother. Carmen gets along very well with Paul and admires his honesty and lack of egotism. She e-mails and phones him regularly. The books mention that Paul regards Carmen and her temper with a sort of awe, and never understands the motivations behind her insane outbursts. Carmen is originally nervous that if Paul falls in love with Lena, he will forget about her. However, after noticing how the two look at each other and how alike they are, she eventually encourages their relationship. She also keeps on talking to Lena about Paul.
Krista: Carmen 's younger stepsister. They originally talked very little as Krista 's preppy, flaky, superficial attitude was very different from Carmen 's explosive, colorful personality. She felt that since Krista was the direct opposite of her that her father was "upgrading. '' After confronting her father about the issue, she and Krista get along much better. Krista grows to admire Carmen 's independent attitude; in the second book, she runs away from home and seeks sanctuary with Carmen and Christina.
Ryan: Carmen 's younger half - brother. She is slightly bad - tempered about his birth and jealous of her mother 's attention to him. Later, she gets over this, enjoys being a big sister and role model to him.
Carmen is the youngest member of the sisterhood. Lena Kaligaris, Tibby Rollins, and Bridget Vreeland are the other members of the sisterhood. She considers herself "the Puerto Rican with the bad temper '' in the group. She also sees herself as "the glue '' that keeps the friends together. Ann Brashares says that she believes Carmen gets the bigger picture of their friendship, whereas the other girls are more "in the moment. ''
Winthrop "Win '' Sawyer: Carmen meets Win at the hospital with Lena 's grandmother. She is initially attracted to him, and the two have several other chance meetings. Win is a volunteer at the hospital and is two years older. Carmen is initially worried that she is deceiving him, as he keeps catching her doing charitable things and is scared that he wo n't like her as much when he learns about her bad temper. She tells him about her worries, but he resolves that he likes her anyway and the two kiss in the hospital. She lets the relationship drop off on purpose due to confidence issues.
Carmen also briefly dates a boy in the second book who had a massive crush on her, Porter, but she was too distracted by issues with her mother; Porter eventually decided that he was tired of being led on. She also maintained a flirtatious relationship with one of the actors she worked with in the fourth book. Their relationship is not focused on in this book, though it mentions that he often played with her hair, flirted with her, and kissed her before the play 's opening night. This relationship is more prominent in the second movie.
Christina starts to date a young attractive man named David. Carmen is jealous of the time she spends with him and also embarrassed because Christina 's relationship is so passionate. She believes her mother is humiliating herself and falling in love too quickly. Carmen sabotages the relationship out of spite, but once she realizes how happy David makes her mother, she helps the two get together. A subplot during this book is Carmen 's relationship with a boy, Porter, from her school. She goes on several dates with him but neglects him during each date due to her worries about her mother. Carmen is originally optimistic about the relationship because she has the Traveling Pants for their first date, but Porter becomes tired of Carmen "stringing him along '' and stops dating her. On her final date with him, she brings Paul and a heartbroken Lena along. She notices how attracted Paul is to Lena and gives Lena the pants, encouraging her to go after Paul and Paul to see Lena.
Carmen learns that Christina is pregnant with David 's child. Carmen is originally hostile, believing that since the baby will be born just after she leaves for college that she is being replaced. Carmen also gets a job looking after Valia, Lena 's grandmother, and meets a guy named Win ' Winthrop ' at the hospital. She and Win maintain a flirtatious relationship, but she believes that she is deceiving him because he keeps catching her doing charitable things, and that he will be disappointed when he learns about her arguments with her mother. Carmen eventually realizes that since David works so much, she will have to be there for the child and makes amends with her mom. At the end of the book, Christina goes into labor four weeks early while David is away on business. Carmen and Win go hunting for David to bring him home. Meanwhile, Tibby helps Christina give birth. Carmen returns to the hospital where she meets her baby brother and tells Win that she does n't think she deserves him. Win announces that it does n't matter, and the two share a kiss.
Carmen arrives at college where she falls into a sort of depression. She has let the relationship with Win drop off due to confidence issues. She gains weight and shrinks away from making new friends and from the sisterhood. She befriends a beautiful and sophisticated actress named Julia Beckwith; together, they go to a special acting camp. Carmen mistakenly auditions for the main play, although she originally tagged along only to be with Julia and work on sets. She wins the sought - after lead role in a play with several professional actors, and Julia becomes bad - tempered and surly. Julia tries to "help '' Carmen with the part but really gives her bad advice in an attempt to sabotage an inexperienced Carmen. As a result, Carmen becomes depressed again, but finally realizes that Julia was not a friend to her because she fed off of Carmen 's insecurities to boost her own confidence. Carmen stars in the play brilliantly and confronts Julia.
Carmen is a semi-successful actress in New York who is engaged (to a sometimes pretentious man her friends dislike.) She is now obsessed with her work, worries about her wedding and her busy schedule. On her long trip to an audition, she meets a man named Roberto Moyo who is traveling with his two young children. Carmen befriends Roberto and is struck by his sad story, she also grows very fond of his kids. At the end of the book, Carmen breaks off her engagement. She is the only one of her friends who is not romantically involved with anyone; however, she is very satisfied with her life. She is very sad when Tibby died.
In the novel 3 Willows, Jo mentions babysiting a toddler named Ryan; this is Carmen 's little brother.
|
what movie is the song young blood in | Young Blood (the Naked and Famous song) - wikipedia
"Young Blood '' is a single by New Zealand band The Naked and Famous, released onto radio in May 2010. It was used in several indent commercials for C4, and received the 2010 Silver Scroll for Song of the Year.
The single was released as a digital download at the iTunes Store on 7 June 2010. "Young Blood '' debuted at number one on the New Zealand Singles Chart, on 14 June 2010.
"Young Blood '' is a synthpop and electro song, and features a buzz - guitar riff. Kevin Harley of BBC Music compared the song to the work of MGMT. According to Godfrey de Grut of NZ Musician, "Young Blood '' is set in the key of F#, and follows the chord progression of B -- F ♯ -- B -- F ♯ -- C ♯ -- B -- F ♯ -- B -- D ♯ min -- C ♯. The theme of "Young Blood '' is that of "spirit of youth '' and its loss, and contains a "yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah '' hook.
The song received critical acclaim by music critics. Allmusic 's Matt Collar noted "Young Blood '' as one of the top tracks from Passive Me, Aggressive You and described it as "layered and shimmering ''. Tom Cardy from The Dominion Post called it "one of the catchiest indie electro tunes I 've heard in years ''. The New Zealand Herald 's Scott Kara labelled "Young Blood '' as "an inventive, rousing, and uplifting tune ''.
On 8 September 2010 "Young Blood '' won the APRA Silver Scroll, a New Zealand peer - judged songwriting award. APRA 's Anthony Healey stated, "Young Blood is outstanding; it 's stroppy, it 's youthful and energetic. It makes me want to be eighteen again ''. At the awards ceremony it was covered by reggae band Three Houses Down. The Naked and Famous said being awarded with the honour was "surreal and intense ''.
"Young Blood '' debuted a top the New Zealand Singles Chart on 14 June 2010, becoming the first time a New Zealand artist debuted at number one in over three years; Matthew Saunoa 's "Hold Out '' did so in November 2006. The song held the top spot for another week, however on 28 June it was pushed to number two by "California Gurls '' by Katy Perry and Snoop Dogg. "Young Blood '' fell out of the singles chart in October 2010, having spent eighteen weeks in the chart.
In Australia, "Young Blood '' peaked at number twenty - six on the ARIA Singles Chart, while in Austria it appeared for ten weeks on the Ö3 Austria Top 40, reaching number fifty - three. The song made number fifty - nine on the Dutch Mega Single 100, lasting five weeks.
In the United States, the song was nominated as iTunes Store Single of the Week and was available for free of charge download during a week (15 -- 21 March 2011). It was certified Gold by the RIAA, denoting sales of over 500,000 copies.
Young Blood reached number 9 on the Hong Kong charts on 14 January 2012.
The accompanying music video for "Young Blood '' was directed by Joel Kefali and Campbell Hooper of Special Problems.
Jessie J covered "Young Blood '' for BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge in March 2011. Chiddy Bang remixed it in September 2011. Birdy covered the song on her eponymous debut album Birdy. Her version was featured in the "Moment of Truth '' episode of Grey 's Anatomy and on Harry 's Law at the end of episode "The Contest ''. A remix was also made by Dutch DJs Tiësto and Hardwell, whose version appears on Tiësto 's album Club Life: Volume Two Miami. Machine Gun Kelly sampled Young Blood in his Half Naked & Almost Famous single.
In August 2010, the Israeli clothing company Castro featured "Young Blood '' in their shoes commercial and later, on November 2010 the Winter collection advertisement included acoustic cover of the song. In March 2011, Castro used it again in their shoes commercial. With the relaunch of the TV - channel VIVA on 1 January 2011 "Young Blood '' gained popularity in Germany and Austria as it is used in the channels ' idents and trailers. Recently, the song has been featured in the Strongbow ' Summer Blossom ' advert in Australia. The song was also featured on a section of the entertainment news program, E! News in the United States. In Uzbekistan, the song was used in the advertisement of the mobile network operator UCell during May -- June 2011. It was also used in Canon camera adverts. It has been used as the theme of a French TV show La Nouvelle Édition from August 29, 2011 (video) to June 2013 (video). This song was played right before the unveiling of the all - new 2013 Nissan Altima at the 2012 New York International Auto Show.
UFC MMA fighter Maurício "Shogun '' Rua used it as walk in music at UFC on Fox 4. "Young Blood '' was featured in the Disney film, Prom and in its trailer. The song was featured in the pilot of Covert Affairs, in both the first and last episodes of The Almighty Johnsons, and in the thirteenth episode of the fourth season of NBC 's Chuck, during a sequence which was called the "best 10 minutes in the show 's history '' by series creator Josh Schwartz. The song was further featured in the episode "Panic Roommate '' of the fourth season of Gossip Girl, in the season 3 premiere of TVNZ 's Go Girls, and in a promo for the British show Skins. This song was also featured in the third episode of the eleventh season of Degrassi, and again in the twenty - ninth. "Young Blood '' was then used in the third episode of MTV 's TV series Awkward, and in the pilot of The Secret Circle. It is featured on the season finale of Whitney. The song was featured in Travis Rice 's The Art of Flight, a snowboarding film released 7 September 2011. A promo for the second season of the HGTV show Property Brothers features a cut of the song. The song is featured on the FOX telecast of the 2011 Major League Baseball World Series. The song is also featured in the trailer for the movies The Cabin in the Woods and Prom. The song was featured a bit in the Season 11 premiere of American Idol on FOX. The song is featured on the soundtrack for video game SSX. An alternate version of the song with a slower tempo is currently being featured in commercials for Trident Gum. This version is known as the Renholder Remix and was used in the soundtrack for Underworld Awakening. The song is featured on Season 1 Episode 1 of TV show Elementary. A remix of the song by Dekade was featured in the 2013 American comedy film 21 & Over. In the Philippines, meanwhile, the song is used as the opening theme song of # SU, a student - oriented magazine TV talk show produced by students of Silliman University in Dumaguete City. The show airs weekly on local cable TV station Fil Products Channel 6.
It also featured prominently in the opening of the pilot episode of Sherlock Holmes themed Elementary.
This song was also used during the FOX 2011 - 2012 television schedule promo, it featured in Episode 10 of Germany 's Next Topmodel, Cycle 6, and featured in the 2013 films Carrie and 21 & Over.
|
which nation emerged as the strongest country in the world as a result of the napoleonic wars | Napoleonic Wars - wikipedia
Overall Coalition victory Congress of Vienna
French Empire and allies: French Republic
The Napoleonic Wars (1803 -- 1815), were a series of major conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions, financed and usually led by Great Britain. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and its resultant conflict. The wars are often categorised into five conflicts, each termed after the coalition that fought Napoleon; the Third Coalition (1805), the Fourth (1806 -- 7), Fifth (1809), Sixth (1813), and the Seventh and final (1815).
Napoleon, upon ascending to First Consul of France in 1799, had inherited a chaotic republic; he subsequently created a state with stable finances, a strong bureaucracy, and a well - trained army. In 1805, Austria and Russia waged war against France. In response, Napoleon defeated the allied Russo - Austrian army at Austerlitz in December 1805, which is considered his greatest victory. At sea, the British inflicted a severe defeat in October 1805 upon the joint Franco - Spanish navy, securing British control of the seas and preventing the invasion of Britain itself. Prussian concerns about increasing French power led to a resumption of war in October 1806. Napoleon quickly defeated the Prussians, and defeated Russia in June 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. The peace failed; war broke out two years later in 1809, and this coalition was soon defeated.
Hoping to isolate Britain economically, Napoleon invaded Iberia, declaring his brother Joseph king of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and Portuguese revolted with British support, and, after six years of fighting, expelled the French from Iberia in 1814. Concurrently, Russia, unwilling to bear economic consequences of reduced trade, routinely violated the Continental System, enticing Napoleon to launch a massive invasion of Russia in 1812. The resulting campaign ended with the dissolution and withdrawal of the French Grande Armée. Encouraged by the defeat, Prussia, Austria, and Russia began a new campaign against France, decisively defeating Napoleon at Leipzig in October 1813 after several inconclusive engagements. The Allies then invaded France, capturing Paris at the end of March 1814 and forcing Napoleon to abdicate in early April. He was exiled to the island of Elba, and the Bourbons were restored to power. However, Napoleon escaped in February 1815, and reassumed control of France. The Allies responded with the Seventh Coalition, defeating Napoleon permanently at Waterloo in June 1815 and exiling him to St Helena.
The Congress of Vienna redrew the borders of Europe, and brought a lasting peace to the continent. The wars had profound consequences on global history; it fostered the spread of nationalism and liberalism, saw the rise of the British Empire as the world 's foremost power, independence movements in Latin America and the subsequent collapse of the Spanish Empire, the fundamental reorganisation of German and Italian territories into larger states, and the establishment of radically new methods of conducting warfare.
Napoleon seized power in 1799, creating a de facto military dictatorship. There are a number of opinions on the date to use as the formal beginning of the Napoleonic Wars; 18 May 1803 is often used, when Britain and France ended the only short period of peace between 1792 and 1814. The Napoleonic Wars began with the War of the Third Coalition, which was the first of the Coalition Wars against the First French Republic after Napoleon 's accession as leader of France.
Britain ended the Treaty of Amiens and declared war on France in May 1803; one reason for this was Napoleon 's changes to the international system in Western Europe, especially in Switzerland, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. Kagan argues that Britain was irritated in particular by Napoleon 's assertion of control over Switzerland. Furthermore, Britons felt insulted when Napoleon stated that their country deserved no voice in European affairs, even though King George III was an elector of the Holy Roman Empire. For its part, Russia decided that the intervention in Switzerland indicated that Napoleon was not looking toward a peaceful resolution of his differences with the other European powers.
The British quickly enforced a naval blockade of France to starve it of resources. Napoleon responded with economic embargoes against Britain, and sought to eliminate Britain 's Continental allies to break the coalitions arrayed against him. The so - called Continental System formed a league of armed neutrality to disrupt the blockade and enforce free trade with France. The British responded by capturing the Danish fleet, breaking up the league, and later secured dominance over the seas, allowing it to freely continue its strategy. Napoleon won the War of the Third Coalition at Austerlitz, forcing the Austrian Empire out of the war, formally dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. Within months, Prussia declared war, triggering a War of the Fourth Coalition. This war ended disastrously for Prussia, defeated and occupied within 19 days of the campaign 's beginning. Napoleon subsequently defeated the Russian Empire at Friedland, creating powerful client states in Eastern Europe, ending the fourth coalition.
Concurrently, Portugal 's refusal to commit to the Continental System, and Spain 's failure to maintain it, led to the Peninsular War, and the outbreak of a War of the Fifth Coalition. The French occupied Spain and formed a Spanish client kingdom, ending the alliance between the two. Heavy British involvement in the Iberian Peninsula soon followed, while a British effort to capture Antwerp failed. Napoleon oversaw the situation in Iberia, defeating the Spanish, and expelling the British from the Peninsula. Austria, keen to recover territory lost during the War of the Third Coalition, invaded France 's client states in Eastern Europe. Napoleon defeated the fifth coalition at Wagram.
Attempts to disrupt the British blockade led to the United States declaring war on Britain, while grievances over control of Poland, and Russia 's withdrawal from the Continental System, led to Napoleon invading Russia in June 1812. The invasion was an unmitigated disaster for Napoleon; scorched earth tactics, desertion, French strategic failures and the onset of the Russian winter compelled Napoleon to retreat with massive losses. Napoleon suffered further setbacks; French power in the Iberian Peninsula was broken at Battle of Vitoria the following summer, and a new coalition began the War of the Sixth Coalition.
The coalition defeated Napoleon at Leipzig, precipitating his fall from power and eventual abdication on 6 April 1814. The victors exiled Napoleon to Elba and restored the Bourbon monarchy. Napoleon escaped from Elba in 1815, gathering enough support to overthrow the monarchy of Louis XVIII, triggering a seventh, and final, coalition against him. Napoleon was decisively defeated at Waterloo, and he abdicated again on 22 June. On 15 July, he surrendered to the British at Rochefort, and was exiled to Saint Helena, where he died in 1821. The Treaty of Paris, signed on 20 November 1815, formally ended the war.
The Bourbon monarchy was restored once more, and the victors began the Congress of Vienna, to restore peace to the continent. As a direct result of the war, the Kingdom of Prussia rose to become a great power on the continent, while Great Britain, with its unequalled Royal Navy and growing Empire became the world 's dominant superpower, beginning the Pax Britannica. The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved, and the philosophy of nationalism, that emerged early in the war, greatly contributed to the later unification of the German states, and those of the Italian peninsula. The war in Iberia greatly weakened Spanish power, and the Spanish Empire began to unravel; Spain would lose nearly all of its American possessions by 1833. The Portuguese Empire began a rapid decline, with Brazil declaring independence in 1822.
The wars revolutionised European warfare; the application of mass conscription and total war led to campaigns of unprecedented scale, as whole nations committed all their economic and industrial resources to a collective war effort. Tactically, the French Army redefined the role of artillery, while Napoleon emphasised mobility to offset numerical disadvantages, and aerial surveillance was used for the first time in warfare. While not a new tactic, the highly successful Spanish guerrillas demonstrated the capability of a people driven by fervent nationalism, liberalism and religious fundamentalism against an occupying force. Due to the longevity of the wars, and the extent of Napoleon 's conquests, the ideals of the French Revolution had a massive impact on European social culture; many subsequent revolutions, such as that of Russia, looked to the French as their source of inspiration, while its core founding tenets greatly expanded the arena of Human rights and shaped modern political philosophies in use today.
The outbreak of the French Revolution had been received with great alarm by the rulers of Europe 's continental powers, which had been further exacerbated by the execution of Louis XVI of France, and the overthrow of the French monarchy. In 1793, the Austrian Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Kingdom of Naples, Prussia, the Spanish Empire, and the Kingdom of Great Britain formed the First Coalition to curtail the growing unrest in France. Measures such as mass conscription, military reforms, and total war allowed France to defeat the coalition, despite the concurrent civil war in France. Napoleon, then a general in the French army, forced the Austrians to sign the Treaty of Campo Formio, leaving only Great Britain opposed to the fledgling French Republic.
A Second Coalition formed in 1798 by Great Britain, Austria, Naples, the Ottoman Empire, the Papal States, Portugal, Russia, and Sweden. The French Republic, under the Directory, suffered from heavy levels of corruption and internal strife. The new republic also lacked funds, and no longer enjoyed the services of Lazare Carnot, the minister of war who had guided France to its victories during the early stages of the Revolution. Bonaparte, commander of the Armée d'Italie in the latter stages of the First Coalition, had launched a campaign in Egypt, intending to disrupt the British economic powerhouse of India. Pressed from all sides, the Republic suffered a string of successive defeats against revitalised enemies, supported by Britain 's financial help.
Bonaparte returned to France from Egypt on 23 August 1799, his campaign there having failed. He seized control of the French government on 9 November, in a bloodless coup d'état, replacing the Directory with the Consulate and transforming the republic into a de facto dictatorship. He further reorganised the French military forces, establishing a large reserve army positioned to support campaigns on the Rhine or in Italy. Russia had already been knocked out of the war, and, under Napoleon 's leadership, the French decisively defeated the Austrians in June 1800, crippling Austrian capabilities in Italy. Austria was definitively defeated that December, by Moreau 's forces in Bavaria. The Austrian defeat was sealed by the Treaty of Lunéville early the following year, further compelling the British to sign the Treaty of Amiens with France, establishing a tenuous peace.
No consensus exists as to when the French Revolutionary Wars ended and the Napoleonic Wars began. Possible dates include 9 November 1799, when Bonaparte seized power on 18 Brumaire in France; 18 May 1803, when Britain and France ended the one short period of peace between 1792 and 1814; or 2 December 1804, when Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor.
British historians occasionally refer to the nearly continuous period of warfare from 1792 to 1815 as the Great French War, or as the final phase of the Anglo - French Second Hundred Years ' War, spanning the period 1689 to 1815. Historian Mike Rapport (2013) suggested to use the term "French Wars '' to unambiguously describe the entire period from 1792 to 1815.
In France, the Napoleonic Wars are generally integrated with the French Revolutionary Wars: Les guerres de la Révolution et de l'Empire.
German historiography may count the War of the Second Coalition (1798 / 9 -- 1801 / 2), during which Napoleon seized power, as the Erster Napoleonischer Krieg ("First Napoleonic War '').
In Dutch historiography, it is common to refer to the seven major wars between 1792 and 1815 as the Coalition Wars (coalitieoorlogen), referring to the first two as the French Revolution Wars (Franse Revolutieoorlogen).
Napoleon was, and remains, famous for his battlefield victories, and historians have spent enormous attention in analysing them. In 2008, Donald Sutherland wrote:
The ideal Napoleonic battle was to manipulate the enemy into an unfavourable position through manoeuvre and deception, force him to commit his main forces and reserve to the main battle and then undertake an enveloping attack with uncommitted or reserve troops on the flank or rear. Such a surprise attack would either produce a devastating effect on morale, or force him to weaken his main battle line. Either way, the enemy 's own impulsiveness began the process by which even a smaller French army could defeat the enemy 's forces one by one.
After 1807, Napoleon 's creation of a highly mobile, well - armed artillery force gave artillery usage increased tactical importance. Napoleon, rather than relying on infantry to wear away the enemy 's defences, could now use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in the enemy 's line. Once that was achieved he sent in infantry and cavalry.
Britain was irritated by several French actions following the Treaty of Amiens. Bonaparte had annexed Piedmont and Elba, made himself President of the Italian Republic, a state in northern Italy that France had set up, and failed to evacuate Holland. France continued to interfere with British trade despite peace having been made and complained about Britain harbouring certain individuals and not cracking down on the anti-French press. In fighting, Napoleon focused on penetration, gaining a central position, and surrounding small groups of enemy forces. To Napoleon, penetration meant "You engage, and then you wait and see. '' Central Positioning aimed to divide enemy forces into weaker smaller groups.
Malta had been captured by Britain during the war and was subject to a complex arrangement in the 10th article of the Treaty of Amiens where it was to be restored to the Knights of St. John with a Neapolitan garrison and placed under the guarantee of third powers. The weakening of the Knights of St. John by the confiscation of their assets in France and Spain along with delays in obtaining guarantees prevented the British from evacuating it after three months as stipulated in the treaty.
The Helvetian Republic had been set up by France when they invaded Switzerland in 1798. France had withdrawn its troops, but violent strife broke out against the government, which many Swiss saw as overly centralised. Bonaparte reoccupied the country in October 1802 and imposed a compromise settlement. This caused widespread outrage in Britain, which protested that this was a violation of the Treaty of Lunéville. Although continental powers were unprepared to act, the British decided to send an agent to help the Swiss obtain supplies, and also ordered their military not to return Cape Colony to Holland as they had committed to do in the Treaty of Amiens.
Swiss resistance collapsed before anything could be accomplished, and after a month Britain countermanded the orders not to restore Cape Colony. At the same time Russia finally joined the guarantee with regards to Malta. Concerned that there would be hostilities when Bonaparte found out that Cape Colony had been retained, the British began to procrastinate on the evacuation of Malta. In January 1803 a government paper in France published a report from a commercial agent which noted the ease with which Egypt could be conquered. The British seized on this to demand satisfaction and security before evacuating Malta, which was a convenient stepping stone to Egypt. France disclaimed any desire to seize Egypt and asked what sort of satisfaction was required but the British were unable to give a response. There was still no thought of going to war; Prime Minister Addington publicly affirmed that Britain was in a state of peace.
In early March 1803 the Addington ministry received word that Cape Colony had been re-occupied by the British army in accordance with the orders which had subsequently been countermanded. On 8 March they ordered military preparations to guard against possible French retaliation, and justified them by falsely claiming that it was only in response to French preparations and that they were conducting serious negotiations with France. In a few days it was known that Cape Colony had been surrendered in accordance with the counter-orders, but it was too late. Bonaparte berated the British ambassador in front of 200 spectators over the military preparations.
The Addington ministry realised they would face an inquiry over their false reasons for the military preparations, and during April unsuccessfully attempted to secure the support of William Pitt the Younger to shield them from damage. In the same month the ministry issued an ultimatum to France demanding the retention of Malta for at least ten years, the permanent acquisition of the island of Lampedusa from the Kingdom of Sicily, and the evacuation of Holland. They also offered to recognise French gains in Italy if they evacuated Switzerland and compensated the King of Sardinia for his territorial losses. France offered to place Malta in the hands of Russia to satisfy British concerns, pull out of Holland when Malta was evacuated, and form a convention to give satisfaction to Britain on other issues. The British falsely denied that Russia had made an offer and their ambassador left Paris. Desperate to avoid war, Bonaparte sent a secret offer where he agreed to let Britain retain Malta if France could occupy the Otranto peninsula in Naples. All efforts were futile and Britain declared war on 18 May 1803.
Britain ended the uneasy truce created by the Treaty of Amiens when it declared war on France in May 1803. The British were increasingly angered by Napoleon 's reordering of the international system in Western Europe, especially in Switzerland, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. Kagan argues that Britain was especially alarmed by Napoleon 's assertion of control over Switzerland. Britons felt insulted when Napoleon said it deserved no voice in European affairs (even though King George was an elector of the Holy Roman Empire), and sought to restrict the London newspapers that were vilifying him.
Britain had a sense of loss of control, as well as loss of markets, and was worried by Napoleon 's possible threat to its overseas colonies. McLynn argues that Britain went to war in 1803 out of a "mixture of economic motives and national neuroses -- an irrational anxiety about Napoleon 's motives and intentions. '' McLynn concludes that it proved to be the right choice for Britain, because in the long run Napoleon 's intentions were hostile to the British national interest. Napoleon was not ready for war and so this was the best time for Britain to stop them. Britain seized upon the Malta issue, refusing to follow the terms of the Treaty of Amiens and evacuate the island.
The deeper British grievance was their perception that Napoleon was taking personal control of Europe, making the international system unstable, and forcing Britain to the sidelines.
Numerous scholars have argued that Napoleon 's aggressive posture made him enemies and cost him potential allies. As late as 1808, the continental powers affirmed most of his gains and titles, but the continuing conflict with Britain led him to start the Peninsular War and the invasion of Russia which many scholars see as a dramatic miscalculation.
There was one serious attempt to negotiate peace with France during the war, made by Charles James Fox in 1806. The British wanted to retain their overseas conquests and have Hanover restored to George III in exchange for accepting French conquests on the continent. The French were willing to cede Malta, Cape Colony, Tobago, and French Indian posts to Britain but wanted to obtain Sicily in exchange for the restoration of Hanover, a condition the British refused.
Unlike its many coalition partners, Britain remained at war throughout the period of the Napoleonic Wars. Protected by naval supremacy (in the words of Admiral Jervis to the House of Lords "I do not say, my Lords, that the French will not come. I say only they will not come by sea ''), Britain maintained low - intensity land warfare on a global scale for over a decade. The British government paid out large sums of money to other European states, so that they could pay armies in the field against France. These payments are colloquially known as the Golden Cavalry of St George. The British Army provided long - term support to the Spanish rebellion in the Peninsular War of 1808 -- 1814, assisted by Spanish guerrilla (' little war ') tactics. Anglo - Portuguese forces under Arthur Wellesley supported the Spanish, which campaigned successfully against the French armies, eventually driving them from Spain and allowing Britain to invade southern France. By 1815, the British Army played the central role in the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo.
Beyond minor naval actions against British imperial interests, the Napoleonic Wars were much less global in scope than preceding conflicts such as the Seven Years ' War, which historians term a "world war ''.
In response to the naval blockade of the French coasts enacted by the British government on 16 May 1806, Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree on 21 November 1806, which brought into effect the Continental System. This policy aimed to eliminate the threat from Britain by closing French - controlled territory to its trade. Britain maintained a standing army of 220,000 at the height of the Napoleonic Wars, of whom less than half were available for campaigning. The rest were necessary for garrisoning Ireland and the colonies, and providing security for Britain. France 's strength peaked at around 2,500,000 full - time and part - time soldiers including several hundred thousand National Guardsmen who Napoleon could draft into the military if necessary. Both nations enlisted large numbers of sedentary militia who were unsuited for campaigning, and were mostly employed to release regular forces for active duty. The Royal Navy disrupted France 's extra-continental trade by seizing and threatening French shipping and colonial possessions, but could do nothing about France 's trade with the major continental economies and posed little threat to French territory in Europe. France 's population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of Britain. Britain had the greatest industrial capacity in Europe, and its mastery of the seas allowed it to build up considerable economic strength through trade. This ensured that France could never consolidate its control over Europe in peace. Many in the French government believed that cutting Britain off from the Continent would end its economic influence over Europe and isolate it.
A key element in British success was its ability to mobilise the nation 's industrial and financial resources and apply them to defeating France. With a population of 16 million against France 's 30 million, the French numerical advantage was offset by British subsidies that paid for many of the Austrian and Russian soldiers, peaking at about 450,000 men in 1813. Under the Anglo - Russian agreement of 1803, Britain paid a subsidy of £ 1.5 million for every 100,000 Russian soldiers in the field.
British national output remained strong, and the well - organised business sector channeled products into what the military needed. Britain used its economic power to expand the Royal Navy, doubling the number of frigates, adding 50 % more large ships of the line, and increasing the number of sailors from 15,000 to 133,000 in eight years after the war began in 1793. France saw its navy shrink by more than half. The smuggling of finished products into the continent undermined French efforts to ruin the British economy by cutting off markets. Subsidies to Russia and Austria kept them in the war. The British budget in 1814 reached £ 66 million, including £ 10 million for the Royal Navy, £ 40 million for the army, £ 10 million for the allies, and £ 38 million as interest on the national debt, which soared to £ 679 million, more than double the GDP. It was supported by hundreds of thousands of investors and taxpayers, despite the higher taxes on land and a new income tax. The cost of the war came to £ 831 million. In contrast, the French financial system was inadequate and Napoleon 's forces had to rely in part on requisitions from conquered lands.
Britain gathered together allies to form the Third Coalition against France. In response, Napoleon seriously considered an invasion of Great Britain, and massed 180,000 troops at Boulogne. Before he could invade, he needed to achieve naval superiority -- or at least to pull the British fleet away from the English Channel. A complex plan to distract the British by threatening their possessions in the West Indies failed when a Franco - Spanish fleet under Admiral Villeneuve turned back after an indecisive action off Cape Finisterre on 22 July 1805. The Royal Navy blockaded Villeneuve in Cádiz until he left for Naples on 19 October; the British squadron caught and overwhelmingly defeated the combined enemy fleet in the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October (the British commander, Lord Nelson, died in the battle). Napoleon never again had the opportunity to challenge the British at sea, nor to threaten an invasion. He again turned his attention to enemies on the Continent.
In April 1805, Britain and Russia signed a treaty with the aim of removing the French from the Batavian Republic (roughly present - day Netherlands) and the Swiss Confederation. Austria joined the alliance after the annexation of Genoa and the proclamation of Napoleon as King of Italy on 17 March 1805. Sweden, which had already agreed to lease Swedish Pomerania as a military base for British troops against France, entered the coalition on 9 August.
The Austrians began the war by invading Bavaria with an army of about 70,000 under Karl Mack von Leiberich, and the French army marched out from Boulogne in late July 1805 to confront them. At Ulm (25 September -- 20 October) Napoleon surrounded Mack 's army, forcing its surrender without significant losses. With the main Austrian army north of the Alps defeated (another army under Archduke Charles manoeuvred inconclusively against André Masséna 's French army in Italy), Napoleon occupied Vienna. Far from his supply lines, he faced a larger Austro - Russian army under the command of Mikhail Kutuzov, with the Emperor Alexander I of Russia personally present. On 2 December, Napoleon crushed the Austro - Russian force in Moravia at Austerlitz (usually considered his greatest victory). He inflicted 25,000 casualties on a numerically superior enemy army while sustaining fewer than 7,000 in his own force.
Austria signed the Treaty of Pressburg (26 December 1805) and left the coalition. The treaty required the Austrians to give up Venetia to the French - dominated Kingdom of Italy and the Tyrol to Bavaria. With the withdrawal of Austria from the war, stalemate ensued. Napoleon 's army had a record of continuous unbroken victories on land, but the full force of the Russian army had not yet come into play. Napoleon had now consolidated his hold on France, had taken control of Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and most of Western Germany and northern Italy. His admirers say that Napoleon wanted to stop now, but was forced to continue in order to gain greater security from the countries that refused to accept his conquests. Esdaille rejects that explanation and instead says that it was a good time to stop expansion, for the major powers were ready to accept Napoleon as he was:
Within months of the collapse of the Third Coalition, the Fourth Coalition (1806 -- 07) against France was formed by Britain, Prussia, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden. In July 1806, Napoleon formed the Confederation of the Rhine out of the many tiny German states which constituted the Rhineland and most other western parts of Germany. He amalgamated many of the smaller states into larger electorates, duchies, and kingdoms to make the governance of non-Prussian Germany smoother. Napoleon elevated the rulers of the two largest Confederation states, Saxony and Bavaria, to the status of kings.
In August 1806, the Prussian king, Frederick William III, decided to go to war independently of any other great power. The army of Russia, a Prussian ally, in particular was too far away to assist. On 8 October 1806, Napoleon unleashed all the French forces east of the Rhine into Prussia. Napoleon defeated a Prussian army at Jena (14 October 1806), and Davout defeated another at Auerstädt on the same day. 160,000 French soldiers (increasing in number as the campaign went on) attacked Prussia, moving with such speed that they destroyed the entire Prussian army as an effective military force. Out of 250,000 troops the Prussians sustained 25,000 casualties, lost a further 150,000 as prisoners, 4,000 artillery pieces, and over 100,000 muskets. At Jena, Napoleon had fought only a detachment of the Prussian force. The battle at Auerstädt involved a single French corps defeating the bulk of the Prussian army. Napoleon entered Berlin on 27 October 1806. He visited the tomb of Frederick the Great and instructed his marshals to remove their hats there, saying, "If he were alive we would n't be here today ''. Napoleon had taken only 19 days from beginning his attack on Prussia to knock it out of the war with the capture of Berlin and the destruction of its principal armies at Jena and Auerstädt. Saxony left Prussia, and together with small states from north Germany, allied with France.
In the next stage of the war, the French drove Russian forces out of Poland and employed many Polish and German soldiers in several sieges in Silesia and Pomerania, with the assistance of Dutch and Italian soldiers in the latter case. Napoleon then turned north to confront the remainder of the Russian army and to try to capture the temporary Prussian capital at Königsberg. A tactical draw at Eylau (7 -- 8 February 1807), followed by capitulation at Danzig (24 May 1807) and the Battle of Heilsberg (10 June 1807), forced the Russians to withdraw further north. Napoleon decisively beat the Russian army at Friedland (14 June 1807), following which Alexander had to make peace with Napoleon at Tilsit (7 July 1807). In Germany and Poland, new Napoleonic client states, such as the Kingdom of Westphalia, Duchy of Warsaw, and Republic of Danzig, were established.
By September, Marshal Guillaume Brune completed the occupation of Swedish Pomerania, allowing the Swedish army to withdraw with all its munitions of war.
Britain 's first response to Napoleon 's Continental System was to launch a major naval attack against Denmark. Although ostensibly neutral, Denmark was under heavy French and Russian pressure to pledge its fleet to Napoleon. London could not take the chance of ignoring the Danish threat. In August 1807, the Royal Navy besieged and bombarded Copenhagen, leading to the capture of the Dano - Norwegian fleet, and assuring use of the sea lanes in the North and Baltic seas for the British merchant fleet. Denmark joined the war on the side of France, but without a fleet it had little to offer, beginning an engagement in a naval guerrilla war in which small gunboats attacking larger British ships in Danish and Norwegian waters. Denmark also committed themselves to participate in a war against Sweden together with France and Russia.
At Tilsit, Napoleon and Alexander had agreed that Russia should force Sweden to join the Continental System, which led to a Russian invasion of Finland in February 1808, followed by a Danish declaration of war in March. Napoleon also sent an auxiliary corps, consisting of troops from France, Spain and the Netherlands, led by Marshal Jean - Baptiste Bernadotte, to Denmark to participate in the invasion of Sweden. But British naval superiority prevented the armies from crossing the Øresund strait, and the war came mainly to be fought along the Swedish - Norwegian border. At the Congress of Erfurt (September -- October 1808), France and Russia further agreed on the division of Sweden into two parts separated by the Gulf of Bothnia, where the eastern part became the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland.
The war between Denmark and Britain effectively ended with a British victory at the battle of Lyngør in 1812, involving the destruction of the last large Dano - Norwegian ship -- the frigate Najaden.
In 1807 Napoleon created a powerful outpost of his empire in Central Europe. Poland had recently been partitioned by its three large neighbours, but Napoleon created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which depended on France from the very beginning. The duchy consisted of lands seized by Austria and Prussia; its Grand Duke was Napoleon 's ally the king of Saxony, but Napoleon appointed the intendants who ran the country. The population of 4.3 million was released from occupation and by 1814 sent about 200,000 men to Napoleon 's armies. That included about 90,000 who marched with him to Moscow; few marched back. The Russians strongly opposed any move towards an independent Poland and one reason Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812 was to punish them. The Grand Duchy was dissolved in 1815 and Poland did not become a state until 1918. Napoleon 's impact on Poland was huge, including the Napoleonic legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.
The Fifth Coalition (1809) of Britain and Austria against France formed as Britain engaged in the Peninsular War in Spain and Portugal. The sea became a major theatre of war against Napoleon 's allies. During the time of the Fifth Coalition, the Royal Navy won a succession of victories in the French colonies. On land the major battles included Battle of Raszyn, Battle of Aspern - Essling, and Battle of Wagram.
On land, the Fifth Coalition attempted few extensive military endeavours. One, the Walcheren Expedition of 1809, involved a dual effort by the British Army and the Royal Navy to relieve Austrian forces under intense French pressure. It ended in disaster after the Army commander, John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham, failed to capture the objective, the naval base of French - controlled Antwerp. For the most part of the years of the Fifth Coalition, British military operations on land (apart from the Iberian Peninsula) remained restricted to hit - and - run operations executed by the Royal Navy, which dominated the sea after having beaten down almost all substantial naval opposition from France and its allies and blockading what remained of France 's naval forces in heavily fortified French - controlled ports. These rapid - attack operations were aimed mostly at destroying blockaded French naval and mercantile shipping and the disruption of French supplies, communications, and military units stationed near the coasts. Often, when British allies attempted military actions within several dozen miles or so of the sea, the Royal Navy would arrive, land troops and supplies, and aid the coalition 's land forces in a concerted operation. Royal Navy ships even provided artillery support against French units when fighting strayed near enough to the coastline. The ability and quality of the land forces governed these operations. For example, when operating with inexperienced guerrilla forces in Spain, the Royal Navy sometimes failed to achieve its objectives because of the lack of manpower that the Navy 's guerrilla allies had promised to supply.
Economic warfare continued: the French Continental System against the British naval blockade of French - controlled territory. Due to military shortages and lack of organisation in French territory, many breaches of the Continental System occurred as French - dominated states tolerated or even encouraged trade with British smugglers. In terms of economic damage to Great Britain, the blockade was largely ineffective. As Napoleon realised that extensive trade was going through Spain and Russia, he invaded those two countries. He tied down his forces in Spain, and lost very badly in Russia in 1812.
Both sides entered further conflicts in attempts to enforce their blockade; the British fought the United States in the War of 1812 (1812 -- 15), and the French engaged in the Peninsular War (1808 -- 14) to prevent smuggling into Spain. The Iberian conflict began when Portugal continued trade with Britain despite French restrictions. When Spain failed to maintain the Continental System, the uneasy Spanish alliance with France ended in all but name. French troops gradually encroached on Spanish territory until they occupied Madrid, and installed a client monarchy. This provoked an explosion of popular rebellions across Spain. Heavy British involvement soon followed.
Austria, previously an ally of France, took the opportunity to attempt to restore its imperial territories in Germany as held prior to Austerlitz. Austria achieved some initial victories against the thinly spread army of Marshal Berthier. Napoleon had left Berthier with only 170,000 men to defend France 's entire eastern frontier (in the 1790s, 800,000 men had carried out the same task, but holding a much shorter front).
After defeats in Spain suffered by France, Napoleon took charge and enjoyed success, retaking Madrid, defeating the Spanish and forcing a withdrawal of the heavily out - numbered British army from the Iberian Peninsula (Battle of Corunna, 16 January 1809). But when he left, the guerrilla war against his forces in the countryside continued to tie down great numbers of troops. Austria 's attack prevented Napoleon from successfully wrapping up operations against British forces by necessitating his departure for Austria, and he never returned to the Peninsular theatre. The British then sent in a fresh army under Sir Arthur Wellesley (later the Duke of Wellington) whom the French could not stop.
The Peninsular war proved a major disaster for France. Napoleon did well in when he was in direct charge, but that followed severe losses, and was followed by worse losses. He severely underestimated how much manpower would be needed. Spain proved to be a major, long - term drain on money, manpower and prestige. Historian David Gates called it the "Spanish ulcer. '' France lost the Peninsular War; Napoleon realised it had been a disaster for his cause, writing later, "That unfortunate war destroyed me... All the circumstances of my disasters are bound up in that fatal knot. ''
The Austrians drove into the Duchy of Warsaw, but suffered defeat at the Battle of Raszyn on 19 April 1809. The Polish army captured West Galicia following its earlier success.
Napoleon assumed personal command in the east and bolstered the army there for his counter-attack on Austria. After a few small battles, the well - run campaign forced the Austrians to withdraw from Bavaria, and Napoleon advanced into Austria. His hurried attempt to cross the Danube resulted in the major Battle of Aspern - Essling (22 May 1809) -- Napoleon 's first significant tactical defeat. But the Austrian commander, Archduke Charles, failed to follow up on his indecisive victory, allowing Napoleon to prepare and seize Vienna in early July. He defeated the Austrians at Wagram, on 5 -- 6 July. (It was during the middle of that battle that Marshal Bernadotte was stripped of his command after retreating contrary to Napoleon 's orders. Shortly thereafter, Bernadotte took up the offer from Sweden to fill the vacant position of Crown Prince there. Later he actively participated in wars against his former Emperor.)
The War of the Fifth Coalition ended with the Treaty of Schönbrunn (14 October 1809). In the east, only the Tyrolese rebels led by Andreas Hofer continued to fight the French - Bavarian army until finally defeated in November 1809; in the west the Peninsular War continued.
In 1810, the French Empire reached its greatest extent. On the continent, the British and Portuguese remained restricted to the area around Lisbon (behind their impregnable lines of Torres Vedras) and to besieged Cadiz.
Napoleon married Marie - Louise, an Austrian Archduchess, with the aim of ensuring a more stable alliance with Austria and of providing the Emperor with an heir (something his first wife, Josephine, had failed to do). As well as the French Empire, Napoleon controlled the Swiss Confederation, the Confederation of the Rhine, the Duchy of Warsaw and the Kingdom of Italy. Territories allied with the French included:
and Napoleon 's former enemies, Sweden, Prussia and Austria.
The Napoleonic Wars were the direct cause of wars in the Americas and elsewhere.
Coinciding with the War of the Sixth Coalition was the War of 1812. Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, while Europeans often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. The United States declared war on Britain because of British interference with American merchant ships and forced enlistment into the British Royal Navy. France had interfered too (and at one point the US considered declaring war on France.) The war ended in a military stalemate and there were no boundary changes at the Treaty of Ghent which took effect in early 1815, when Napoleon was on Elba.
The abdication of kings Carlos IV and Fernando VII of Spain and the installation of Napoleon 's brother as King José provoked civil wars and revolutions leading to the independence of most of Spain 's mainland American colonies. In Spanish America many local elites formed juntas and set up mechanisms to rule in the name of Ferdinand VII, whom they considered the legitimate Spanish monarch. The outbreak of the Spanish American wars of independence in most of the empire was a result of Napoleon 's destabilizing actions in Spain and led to the rise of strongmen in the wake of these wars.
In contrast, the Portuguese royal family escaped to Brazil and established the court there, resulting in political stability for Portuguese America. With the defeat of Napoleon and the return of the Braganza monarchy to Portugal, the heir remained in Brazil and declared Brazilian independence, achieving it peacefully with the territory intact.
The Treaty of Tilsit in 1807 resulted in the Anglo - Russian War (1807 -- 12). Emperor Alexander I declared war on Britain after the British attack on Denmark in September 1807. British men - of - war supported the Swedish fleet during the Finnish War and won victories over the Russians in the Gulf of Finland in July 1808 and August 1809. The success of the Russian army on the land forced Sweden to sign peace treaties with Russia in 1809 and with France in 1810 and to join the blockade against Britain. But Franco - Russian relations became progressively worse after 1810, and the Russian war with Britain effectively ended. In April 1812, Britain, Russia and Sweden signed secret agreements directed against Napoleon.
The central issue for both Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I was control over Poland. Each wanted a semi-independent Poland he could control. As Esdaile notes, "Implicit in the idea of a Russian Poland was, of course, a war against Napoleon. '' Schroeder says Poland was "the root cause '' of Napoleon 's war with Russia but Russia 's refusal to support the Continental System was also a factor.
In 1812, at the height of his power, Napoleon invaded Russia with a pan-European Grande Armée, consisting of 650,000 men (270,000 Frenchmen and many soldiers of allies or subject areas). The French forces crossed the Niemen River on 24 June 1812. Russia proclaimed a Patriotic War, and Napoleon proclaimed a Second Polish war. The Poles supplied almost 100,000 men for the invasion force, but against their expectations, Napoleon avoided any concessions to Poland, having in mind further negotiations with Russia.
The Grande Armée marched through Russia, winning some relatively minor engagements and the major Battle of Smolensk on 16 -- 18 August. In the same days, part of the French Army led by Marshal Nicolas Oudinot was stopped in the Battle of Polotsk by the right wing of the Russian Army, under command of General Peter Wittgenstein. This prevented the French march on the Russian capital, Saint Petersburg; the fate of the invasion was decided in Moscow, where Napoleon led his forces in person.
Russia used scorched - earth tactics, and harried the Grande Armée with light Cossack cavalry. The Grande Armée did not adjust its operational methods in response. This led to most of the losses of the main column of the Grande Armée, which in one case amounted to 95,000 men, including deserters, in a week.
The main Russian army retreated for almost three months. This constant retreat led to the unpopularity of Field Marshal Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly and a veteran, Prince Mikhail Kutuzov, was made the new Commander - in - Chief by Tsar Alexander I. Finally, the two armies engaged in the Battle of Borodino on 7 September, in the vicinity of Moscow. The battle was the largest and bloodiest single - day action of the Napoleonic Wars, involving more than 250,000 men and resulting in at least 70,000 casualties. It was indecisive; the French captured the main positions on the battlefield, but failed to destroy the Russian army. Logistical difficulties meant that French casualties could not be replaced, unlike Russian ones.
Napoleon entered Moscow on 14 September, after the Russian Army had retreated yet again. By then, the Russians had largely evacuated the city and released criminals from the prisons to inconvenience the French; the governor, Count Fyodor Rostopchin, ordered the city to be burnt. Alexander I refused to capitulate, and the peace talks attempted by Napoleon failed. In October, with no sign of clear victory in sight, Napoleon began the disastrous Great Retreat from Moscow.
At the Battle of Maloyaroslavets the French tried to reach Kaluga, where they could find food and forage supplies. The replenished Russian Army blocked the road, and Napoleon was forced to retreat the same way he had come to Moscow, through the heavily ravaged areas along the Smolensk road. In the following weeks, the Grande Armée was dealt a catastrophic blow by the onset of the Russian Winter, the lack of supplies and constant guerrilla warfare by Russian peasants and irregular troops.
When the remnants of the Napoleon 's army crossed the Berezina River in November, only 27,000 fit soldiers survived, with 380,000 men dead or missing and 100,000 captured. Napoleon then left his men and returned to Paris to prepare the defence against the advancing Russians. The campaign effectively ended on 14 December 1812, when the last enemy troops left Russia. The Russians had lost around 210,000 men, but with their shorter supply lines, they soon replenished their armies.
Seeing an opportunity in Napoleon 's historic defeat, Prussia, Sweden, Austria, and several German states re-entered the war. Napoleon vowed that he would create a new army as large as the one he had sent into Russia, and quickly built up his forces in the east from 30,000 to 130,000 and eventually to 400,000. Napoleon inflicted 40,000 casualties on the Allies at Lützen (2 May 1813) and Bautzen (20 -- 21 May 1813). Both battles involved forces of over 250,000, making them some of the largest conflicts of the wars so far. Metternich in November 1813 offered Napoleon the Frankfurt proposals. They would allow Napoleon to remain Emperor but France would be reduced to its "natural frontiers '' and lose control of most of Italy and Germany and the Netherlands. Napoleon still expected to win the wars, and rejected the terms. By 1814, as the Allies were closing in on Paris, Napoleon did agree to the Frankfurt proposals, but it was too late and he rejected the new harsher terms proposed by the Allies.
In the Peninsular War, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, renewed the Anglo - Portuguese advance into Spain just after New Year in 1812, besieging and capturing the fortified towns of Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz, and in the Battle of Salamanca (which was a damaging defeat of the French). As the French regrouped, the Anglo -- Portuguese entered Madrid and advanced towards Burgos, before retreating all the way to Portugal when renewed French concentrations threatened to trap them. As a consequence of the Salamanca campaign, the French were forced to end their long siege of Cadiz and to permanently evacuate the provinces of Andalusia and Asturias.
In a strategic move, Wellesley planned to move his supply base from Lisbon to Santander. The Anglo -- Portuguese forces swept northwards in late May and seized Burgos. On 21 June, at Vitoria, the combined Anglo - Portuguese and Spanish armies won against Joseph Bonaparte, finally breaking French power in Spain. The French had to retreat out of the Iberian peninsula, over the Pyrenees.
The belligerents declared an armistice from 4 June 1813 (continuing until 13 August) during which time both sides attempted to recover from the loss of approximately a quarter of a million men in the preceding two months. During this time coalition negotiations finally brought Austria out in open opposition to France. Two principal Austrian armies took the field, adding 300,000 men to the coalition armies in Germany. The Allies now had around 800,000 front - line soldiers in the German theatre, with a strategic reserve of 350,000 formed to support the front - line operations.
Napoleon succeeded in bringing the imperial forces in the region to around 650,000 -- although only 250,000 came under his direct command, with another 120,000 under Nicolas Charles Oudinot and 30,000 under Davout. The remainder of imperial forces came mostly from the Confederation of the Rhine, especially Saxony and Bavaria. In addition, to the south, Murat 's Kingdom of Naples and Eugène de Beauharnais 's Kingdom of Italy had 100,000 armed men. In Spain, another 150,000 to 200,000 French troops steadily retreated before Anglo -- Portuguese forces numbering around 100,000. Thus around 900,000 Frenchmen in all theatres faced around 1,800,000 coalition soldiers (including the strategic reserve under formation in Germany). The gross figures may mislead slightly, as most of the German troops fighting on the side of the French fought at best unreliably and stood on the verge of defecting to the Allies. One can reasonably say that Napoleon could count on no more than 450,000 men in Germany -- which left him outnumbered about four to one.
Following the end of the armistice, Napoleon seemed to have regained the initiative at Dresden (August 1813), where he once again defeated a numerically superior coalition army and inflicted enormous casualties, while sustaining relatively few. The failures of his marshals and a slow resumption of the offensive on his part cost him any advantage that this victory might have secured. At the Battle of Leipzig in Saxony (16 -- 19 October 1813), also called the "Battle of the Nations '', 191,000 French fought more than 300,000 Allies, and the defeated French had to retreat into France. After the French withdrawal from Germany, Napoleon 's remaining ally, Denmark - Norway, became isolated and fell to the coalition.
Napoleon then fought a series of battles in France, including the Battle of Arcis - sur - Aube, but the overwhelming numbers of the Allies steadily forced him back. The Allies entered Paris on 30 March 1814. During this time Napoleon fought his Six Days ' Campaign, in which he won multiple battles against the enemy forces advancing towards Paris. During this entire campaign he never managed to field more than 70,000 men against more than half a million coalition soldiers. At the Treaty of Chaumont (9 March 1814), the Allies agreed to preserve the coalition until Napoleon 's total defeat.
Napoleon determined to fight on, even now, incapable of fathoming his fall from power. During the campaign he had issued a decree for 900,000 fresh conscripts, but only a fraction of these materialised, and Napoleon 's schemes for victory eventually gave way to the reality of his hopeless situation. Napoleon abdicated on 6 April. Occasional military actions continued in Italy, Spain, and Holland in early 1814.
The victors exiled Napoleon to the island of Elba, and restored the French Bourbon monarchy in the person of Louis XVIII. They signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau (11 April 1814) and initiated the Congress of Vienna to redraw the map of Europe.
The Seventh Coalition (1815) pitted Britain, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, Switzerland, Austria, the Netherlands and several German states against France. The period known as the Hundred Days began after Napoleon escaped from Elba and landed at Cannes (1 March 1815). Travelling to Paris, picking up support as he went, he eventually overthrew the restored Louis XVIII. The Allies rapidly gathered their armies to meet him again. Napoleon raised 280,000 men, whom he distributed among several armies. To add to the 90,000 - strong standing army, he recalled well over a quarter of a million veterans from past campaigns and issued a decree for the eventual draft of around 2.5 million new men into the French army, which was never achieved. This faced an initial coalition force of about 700,000 -- although coalition campaign plans provided for one million front - line soldiers, supported by around 200,000 garrison, logistics and other auxiliary personnel.
Napoleon took about 124,000 men of the Army of the North on a pre-emptive strike against the Allies in Belgium. He intended to attack the coalition armies before they combined, in hope of driving the British into the sea and the Prussians out of the war. His march to the frontier achieved the surprise he had planned, catching the Anglo - Dutch Army in a dispersed arrangement. The Prussians had been more wary, concentrating ⁄ of their army in and around Ligny. The Prussians forced the Armée du Nord to fight all the day of the 15th to reach Ligny in a delaying action by the Prussian 1st Corps. He forced Prussia to fight at Ligny on 16 June 1815, and the defeated Prussians retreated in disorder. On the same day, the left wing of the Armée du Nord, under the command of Marshal Michel Ney, succeeded in stopping any of Wellington 's forces going to aid Blücher 's Prussians by fighting a blocking action at Quatre Bras. Ney failed to clear the cross-roads and Wellington reinforced the position. But with the Prussian retreat, Wellington too had to retreat. He fell back to a previously reconnoitred position on an escarpment at Mont St Jean, a few miles south of the village of Waterloo.
Napoleon took the reserve of the Army of the North, and reunited his forces with those of Ney to pursue Wellington 's army, after he ordered Marshal Grouchy to take the right wing of the Army of the North and stop the Prussians re-grouping. In the first of a series of miscalculations, both Grouchy and Napoleon failed to realise that the Prussian forces were already reorganised and were assembling at the village of Wavre. The French army did nothing to stop a rather leisurely retreat that took place throughout the night and into the early morning by the Prussians. As the 4th, 1st, and 2nd Prussian Corps marched through the town towards Waterloo the 3rd Prussian Corps took up blocking positions across the river, and although Grouchy engaged and defeated the Prussian rearguard under the command of Lt - Gen von Thielmann in the Battle of Wavre (18 -- 19 June) it was 12 hours too late. In the end, 17,000 Prussians had kept 33,000 badly needed French reinforcements off the field.
Napoleon delayed the start of fighting at the Battle of Waterloo on the morning of 18 June for several hours while he waited for the ground to dry after the previous night 's rain. By late afternoon, the French army had not succeeded in driving Wellington 's forces from the escarpment on which they stood. When the Prussians arrived and attacked the French right flank in ever - increasing numbers, Napoleon 's strategy of keeping the coalition armies divided had failed and a combined coalition general advance drove his army from the field in confusion.
Grouchy organised a successful and well - ordered retreat towards Paris, where Marshal Davout had 117,000 men ready to turn back the 116,000 men of Blücher and Wellington. Davout was defeated at the Battle of Issy and negotiations for surrender had begun.
On arriving at Paris three days after Waterloo, Napoleon still clung to the hope of a concerted national resistance; but the temper of the legislative chambers, and of the public generally, did not favour his view. Lacking support Napoleon abdicated again on 22 June 1815 and on 15 July, surrendered to the British squadron at Rochefort. The Allies exiled him to the remote South Atlantic island of Saint Helena, where he died on 5 May 1821.
In Italy, Joachim Murat, whom the Allies had allowed to remain King of Naples after Napoleon 's initial defeat, once again allied with his brother - in - law, triggering the Neapolitan War (March to May 1815). Hoping to find support among Italian nationalists fearing the increasing influence of the Habsburgs in Italy, Murat issued the Rimini Proclamation inciting them to war. The proclamation failed and the Austrians soon crushed Murat at the Battle of Tolentino (2 May to 3 May 1815), forcing him to flee. The Bourbons returned to the throne of Naples on 20 May 1815. Murat tried to regain his throne, but after that failed, he was executed by firing squad on 13 October 1815.
The Napoleonic Wars brought radical changes to Europe, but the reactionary forces returned to power and tried to reverse some of them by restoring the Bourbon house on the French throne. Napoleon had succeeded in bringing most of Western Europe under one rule. In most European countries, subjugation in the French Empire brought with it many liberal features of the French Revolution including democracy, due process in courts, abolition of serfdom, reduction of the power of the Catholic Church, and a demand for constitutional limits on monarchs. The increasing voice of the middle classes with rising commerce and industry meant that restored European monarchs found it difficult to restore pre-revolutionary absolutism, and had to retain many of the reforms enacted during Napoleon 's rule. Institutional legacies remain to this day in the form of civil law, with clearly defined codes of law -- an enduring legacy of the Napoleonic Code.
France 's constant warfare with the combined forces of the other major powers of Europe for over two decades finally took its toll. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars, France no longer held the role of the dominant power in Continental Europe, as it had since the times of Louis XIV, as the Congress of Vienna produced a "balance of power '' by resizing the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace. In this regard, Prussia was restored in its former borders, and also received large chunks of Poland and Saxony. Greatly enlarged, Prussia became a permanent Great Power. In order to drag Prussia 's attention towards the west and France, the Congress also gave the Rhineland and Westphalia to Prussia. These industrial regions transformed agrarian Prussia into an industrial leader in the nineteenth century. Britain emerged as the most important economic power, and its Royal Navy held unquestioned naval superiority across the globe well into the 20th century.
After the Napoleonic period, nationalism, a relatively new movement, became increasingly significant. This shaped much of the course of future European history. Its growth spelled the beginning of some states and the end of others, as the map of Europe changed dramatically in the hundred years following the Napoleonic Era. Rule by fiefdoms and aristocracy was widely replaced by national ideologies based on shared origins and culture. Bonaparte 's reign over Europe sowed the seeds for the founding of the nation - states of Germany and Italy by starting the process of consolidating city - states, kingdoms and principalities. At the end of the war Denmark was forced to cede Norway to Sweden, but because Norway had signed its own constitution on 17 May 1814, Sweden was forced to fight for the right to own Norway. The resulting union between Sweden and Norway gave Norway more independence than under Denmark and ended with Norway becoming an independent country in 1905. The United Kingdom of the Netherlands created as a buffer state against France dissolved rapidly with the independence of Belgium in 1830.
The Napoleonic wars also played a key role in the independence of the Latin American colonies from Spain and Portugal. The conflict weakened the authority and military power of Spain, especially after the Battle of Trafalgar. There were many uprisings in Spanish America, leading to the wars of independence. In Portuguese America, Brazil experienced greater autonomy as it now served as seat of the Portuguese Empire and ascended politically to the status of Kingdom. These events also contributed to the Portuguese Liberal Revolution in 1820 and the Independence of Brazil in 1822.
The century of relative transatlantic peace, after the Congress of Vienna, enabled the "greatest intercontinental migration in human history '' beginning with "a big spurt of immigration after the release of the dam erected by the Napoleonic Wars. '' Immigration inflows relative to the US population rose to record levels (peaking at 1.6 % in 1850 - 51) as 30 million Europeans relocated to the United States between 1815 and 1914.
Another concept emerged from the Congress of Vienna -- that of a unified Europe. After his defeat, Napoleon deplored the fact that his dream of a free and peaceful "European association '' remained unaccomplished. Such a European association would share the same principles of government, system of measurement, currency and Civil Code. One - and - a-half centuries later, and after two world wars several of these ideals re-emerged in the form of the European Union.
Until the time of Napoleon, European states employed relatively small armies, made up of both national soldiers and mercenaries. These regulars were highly drilled professional soldiers. Ancien Régime armies could only deploy small field armies due to rudimentary staffs and comprehensive yet cumbersome logistics. Both issues combined to limit field forces to approximately 30,000 men under a single commander.
Military innovators in the mid-18th century began to recognise the potential of an entire nation at war: a "nation in arms ''.
The scale of warfare dramatically enlarged during the Revolutionary and subsequent Napoleonic Wars. During Europe 's major pre-revolutionary war, the Seven Years ' War of 1756 -- 1763, few armies ever numbered more than 200,000 with field forces often numbering less than 30,000. The French innovations of separate corps (allowing a single commander to efficiently command more than the traditional command span of 30,000 men) and living off the land (which allowed field armies to deploy more men without requiring an equal increase in supply arrangements such as depots and supply trains) allowed the French republic to field much larger armies than their opponents. Napoleon ensured during the time of the French republic that separate French field armies operated as a single army under his control, often allowing him to substantially outnumber his opponents. This forced his continental opponents to increase the size of their armies as well, moving away from the traditional small, well drilled Ancien Régime armies of the 18th century to mass conscript armies.
The Battle of Marengo, which largely ended the War of the Second Coalition, was fought with fewer than 60,000 men on both sides. The Battle of Austerlitz which ended the War of the Third Coalition involved fewer than 160,000 men. The Battle of Friedland which led to peace with Russia in 1807 involved about 150,000 men.
After these defeats, the continental powers developed various forms of mass conscription to allow them to face France on even terms, and the size of field armies increased rapidly. The battle of Wagram of 1809 involved 300,000 men, and 500,000 fought at Leipzig in 1813, of whom 150,000 were killed or wounded.
About a million French soldiers became casualties (wounded, invalided or killed), a higher proportion than in the First World War. The European total may have reached 5,000,000 military deaths, including disease.
France had the second - largest population in Europe by the end of the 18th century (27 million, as compared to Britain 's 12 million and Russia 's 35 to 40 million). It was well poised to take advantage of the levée en masse. Before Napoleon 's efforts, Lazare Carnot played a large part in the reorganisation of the French army from 1793 to 1794 -- a time which saw previous French misfortunes reversed, with Republican armies advancing on all fronts.
The French army peaked in size in the 1790s with 1.5 million Frenchmen enlisted although battlefield strength was much less. Haphazard bookkeeping, rudimentary medical support and lax recruitment standards ensured that many soldiers either never existed, fell ill or were unable to withstand the physical demands of soldiering.
About 2.8 million Frenchmen fought on land and about 150,000 at sea, bringing the total for France to almost 3 million combatants during almost 25 years of warfare.
Britain had 750,000 men under arms between 1792 and 1815 as its army expanded from 40,000 men in 1793 to a peak of 250,000 men in 1813. Over 250,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy. In September 1812, Russia had 900,000 enlisted men in its land forces, and between 1799 and 1815 2.1 million men served in its army. Another 200,000 served in the Russian Navy. Out of the 900,000 men, the field armies deployed against France numbered less than 250,000.
There are no consistent statistics for other major combatants. Austria 's forces peaked at about 576,000 (during the War of the Sixth Coalition) and had little or no naval component yet never fielded more than 250,000 men in field armies. After Britain, Austria proved the most persistent enemy of France; more than a million Austrians served during the long wars. Its large army was overall quite homogeneous and solid and in 1813 operated in Germany (140,000 men), Italy and the Balkans (90,000 men at its peak, about 50,000 men during most of the campaigning on these fronts). Austria 's manpower was becoming quite limited towards the end of the wars, leading its generals to favour cautious and conservative strategies, to limit their losses.
Prussia never had more than 320,000 men under arms at any time. In 1813 - 1815, the core of its army (about 100,000 men) was characterised by competence and determination, but the bulk of its forces consisted of second - and third - line troops, as well as militiamen of variable strength. Many of these troops performed reasonably well and often displayed considerable bravery but lacked the professionalism of their regular counterparts and were not as well equipped. Others were largely unfit for operations, except sieges. During the 1813 campaign, 130,000 men were used in the military operations, with 100,000 effectively participating in the main German campaign, and about 30,000 being used to besiege isolated French garrisons.
Spain 's armies also peaked at around 200,000 men, not including more than 50,000 guerrillas scattered over Spain. In addition the Maratha Confederation, the Ottoman Empire, Italy, Naples and the Duchy of Warsaw each had more than 100,000 men under arms. Even small nations now had armies rivalling the size of the Great Powers ' forces of past wars but most of these were poor quality forces only suitable for garrison duties. The size of their combat forces remained modest yet they could still provide a welcome addition to the major powers. The percentage of French troops in the Grande Armee which Napoleon led into Russia was about 50 % while the French allies also provided a significant contribution to the French forces in Spain. As these small nations joined the coalition forces in 1813 - 1814, they provided a useful addition to the coalition while depriving Napoleon of much needed manpower.
The initial stages of the Industrial Revolution had much to do with larger military forces -- it became easy to mass - produce weapons and thus to equip larger forces. Britain was the largest single manufacturer of armaments in this period. It supplied most of the weapons used by the coalition powers throughout the conflicts. France produced the second - largest total of armaments, equipping its own huge forces as well as those of the Confederation of the Rhine and other allies.
Napoleon showed innovative tendencies in his use of mobility to offset numerical disadvantages, as demonstrated in the rout of the Austro - Russian forces in 1805 in the Battle of Austerlitz. The French Army redefined the role of artillery, forming independent, mobile units, as opposed to the previous tradition of attaching artillery pieces in support of troops.
The semaphore system had allowed the French War - Minister, Carnot, to communicate with French forces on the frontiers throughout the 1790s. The French continued to use this system throughout the Napoleonic wars. Aerial surveillance was used for the first time when the French used a hot - air balloon to survey coalition positions before the Battle of Fleurus, on 26 June 1794.
Historians have explored how the Napoleonic wars became total wars. Most historians argue that the escalation in size and scope came from two sources. First was the ideological clash between revolutionary / egalitarian and conservative / hierarchical belief systems. Second was the emerging nationalism in France, Germany, Spain, and elsewhere that made these "people 's wars '' instead of contests between monarchs. Bell has argued that even more important than ideology and nationalism were the intellectual transformations in the culture of war that came about through the Enlightenment. One factor, he says, is that war was no longer a routine event but a transforming experience for societies -- a total experience. Secondly the military emerged in its own right as a separate sphere of society distinct from the ordinary civilian world. The French Revolution made every civilian a part of the war machine, either as a soldier through universal conscription, or as a vital cog in the home front machinery supporting and supplying the army. Out of that, says Bell, came "militarism, '' the belief that the military role was morally superior to the civilian role in times of great national crisis. The fighting army represented the essence of the nation 's soul. As Napoleon proclaimed, "It is the soldier who founds a Republic and it is the soldier who maintains it. ''
|
who won the 2016 super bowl last year | Super Bowl LI - wikipedia
Super Bowl LI was an American football game played at NRG Stadium in Houston, Texas, on February 5, 2017, to determine the champion of the National Football League (NFL) for the 2016 season. The American Football Conference (AFC) champion New England Patriots, after trailing by as many as 25 points (28 -- 3) during the third quarter, defeated the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Atlanta Falcons, 34 -- 28 in overtime. The Patriots ' 25 - point comeback is the largest comeback in Super Bowl history, and Super Bowl LI was the first to be decided in overtime.
The Patriots ' victory was their fifth, moving them into a three - way tie with the Dallas Cowboys and the San Francisco 49ers for second place on the all - time Super Bowl wins list, trailing only the Pittsburgh Steelers who have six victories. New England, after finishing the regular season with a league - best 14 -- 2 record, advanced to their record - setting ninth Super Bowl appearance, their second in three years, and their seventh under the leadership of head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady. The Falcons entered the game after completing an 11 -- 5 regular season record, and were trying to win their first Super Bowl title, having lost their only previous appearance in Super Bowl XXXIII.
After a scoreless first quarter, Atlanta scored 21 points before New England made a field goal with two seconds left in the second quarter, to make it a 21 -- 3 halftime lead. The Falcons then increased their lead to 28 -- 3 midway through the third quarter, with quarterback Matt Ryan completing his second touchdown pass. The Patriots then scored 25 unanswered points to tie the game, 28 -- 28, with 57 seconds left in regulation. New England won the overtime coin toss, received the kickoff and drove 75 yards to win with a 2 - yard touchdown run by running back James White. When the game ended, more than 30 team and individual Super Bowl records had been either broken or matched. White 's 14 receptions and his 20 points scored (off of 3 touchdowns and a two - point conversion) were among these broken records. New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady, who also broke single - game Super Bowl records with 43 completed passes, 62 pass attempts, and 466 passing yards, was named Super Bowl MVP for a record fourth time.
Fox 's broadcast of the game averaged around 111.3 million viewers, slightly down from the 111.9 million viewers of the previous year 's Super Bowl. Average TV viewership for the halftime show, headlined by Lady Gaga, was higher at 117.5 million. On the following day a number of media outlets immediately hailed the game as the greatest Super Bowl of all time.
The NFL selected the sites for Super Bowl 50 and Super Bowl LI at the owners ' spring meetings in Boston on May 21, 2013. On October 16, 2012, the NFL announced that Reliant Stadium in Houston, which was renamed NRG Stadium in 2014, was a finalist to host Super Bowl LI. Houston then competed against the runner - up for the site of Super Bowl 50: Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida. The South Florida bid for either Super Bowl partially depended on whether the stadium underwent renovations. However, on May 3, the Florida Legislature refused to approve the funding plan to pay for the renovations, dealing a blow to South Florida 's chances. The NFL ultimately selected Houston as the host city of Super Bowl LI.
This was the second Super Bowl to be held at NRG Stadium, the other being Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004, which also featured the New England Patriots against that season 's NFC South champion Carolina Panthers. It was also the third time the Super Bowl has been played in Houston, with Super Bowl VIII in 1974 having been held at Rice Stadium. With the Astros baseball team reaching the World Series eight months later, Houston would become just the fourth city to host both the Super Bowl and Fall Classic in the same calendar year, following San Diego (1998), Detroit (2006) and Arlington, Texas (2011); and the first among the four to win the Major League Baseball championship.
Proposition 1, an ordinance which would have prohibited discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity in Houston 's housing, employment, public accommodations, and city contracting, was rejected by voters (60.97 % opposing) during the November 3, 2015 elections. Subsequently, the NFL announced it would not alter plans to have the city host Super Bowl LI. Houston Texans owner Bob McNair donated $10,000 to Campaign for Houston, an organization that opposes the ordinance, which he later rescinded.
In 2016, New England tied an NFL record, earning 12 + wins for the seventh consecutive season. Even though starting quarterback Tom Brady was suspended for the first four games, and All - Pro tight end Rob Gronkowski was lost to injury in midseason, the Patriots still recorded an NFL - best 14 -- 2 record; their only losses were a shutout loss to the Buffalo Bills in Week 4 and a loss to the Seattle Seahawks in Week 10. They scored 441 points (third in the NFL) while allowing the fewest in the league (250).
Brady missed the first four games of the year on suspension due to a 2014 postseason incident known as Deflategate. Jimmy Garoppolo and Jacoby Brissett each started two games in Brady 's place. After his suspension ended, Brady took back command of the offense and went on to earn his 12th Pro Bowl selection, passing for 3,554 yards and 28 touchdowns, with only two interceptions, while his 112.2 passer rating ranked second in the NFL. The team 's leading receiver was Julian Edelman, who caught 98 passes for 1,106 yards and added 135 more returning punts. Wide receivers Chris Hogan (38 receptions for 680 yards) and Malcolm Mitchell (32 receptions for 401 yards) were also significant receiving threats. Gronkowski caught 25 passes for 540 yards before suffering a season - ending back injury in week 13. Tight end Martellus Bennett stepped up in his absence, hauling in 55 receptions for 701 yards and a team - leading seven touchdown catches. Running back LeGarrette Blount was the team 's top rusher with 1,168 yards and a league - leading 18 touchdowns. In passing situations, the team relied heavily on running back James White, who caught 60 passes for 551 yards and added another 166 on the ground. Running back Dion Lewis was also a valuable asset to the offense, rushing for 283 yards on offense and catching 17 passes for 94 yards.
Despite trading All - Pro outside linebacker Jamie Collins to the Cleveland Browns in the middle of the season, the Patriots defensive line was led by tackle Trey Flowers, who ranked first on the team with seven quarterback sacks, and Jabaal Sheard, who recorded five sacks of his own. Linebacker Dont'a Hightower earned his first Pro Bowl selection and made the second All - Pro team, compiling 65 tackles and 21⁄2 sacks. Linebacker Rob Ninkovich also made a big impact, recording 34 tackles, two forced fumbles, and four sacks. In the secondary, cornerback Malcolm Butler led the team with four interceptions, while Logan Ryan led the team in tackles and intercepted two passes. Safety Devin McCourty ranked second on the team with 83 tackles and notched one interception while earning his third career Pro Bowl selection. The team also had a defensive expert on special teams, Matthew Slater, who made the Pro Bowl for the sixth consecutive year.
By advancing to play in Super Bowl LI, the Patriots earned their NFL - record ninth Super Bowl appearance, as well as their seventh in the past 16 years under Brady and head coach Bill Belichick. The Patriots have also participated in the only other Super Bowl to be held at NRG Stadium; they won Super Bowl XXXVIII over the Carolina Panthers by a 32 -- 29 score thirteen years earlier. The Patriots entered Super Bowl LI with an overall record of 4 -- 4 in their previous eight Super Bowl appearances, with all four of their wins and two of their four losses coming under the leadership of Belichick and Brady.
With his appearance in Super Bowl LI, Belichick broke the tie of six Super Bowls as a head coach that he had shared with Don Shula. It was also his record tenth participation in a Super Bowl in any capacity, which overtook the mark of nine that he had shared with Dan Reeves. This was also Brady 's seventh Super Bowl appearance, the most appearances by a player in Super Bowl history.
The Atlanta Falcons, under second - year head coach Dan Quinn, finished the 2016 season with an 11 -- 5 record, earning them the No. 2 seed in the NFC playoffs. It was a big reversal of declining fortunes for the team, who had failed to qualify to play in the playoffs in each of the last three seasons.
The Falcons were loaded with offensive firepower, leading all NFL teams in scoring with 540 points. Nine - year veteran quarterback Matt Ryan earned the NFL MVP and the AP NFL Offensive Player of the Year Award, as well as his fourth career Pro Bowl selection, leading the league in passer rating (117.1). While he ranked only ninth in completions (373), his passing yards (4,944) and touchdowns (38) both ranked second in the NFL. His favorite target was receiver Julio Jones, who caught 83 passes for 1,409 yards (second in the NFL) and six touchdowns. But Ryan had plenty of other options, such as newly acquired wide receivers Mohamed Sanu (59 receptions for 653 yards) and Taylor Gabriel (35 receptions for 579 yards and six touchdowns). Pro Bowl running back Devonta Freeman was the team 's leading rusher, with 1,078 yards, 11 touchdowns, and 4.8 yards per rush. He was also a superb receiver out of the backfield, catching 54 passes for 462 yards and two more scores. Running back Tevin Coleman was also a major asset on the ground and through the air, with 520 rushing yards, 31 receptions for 421 yards, and 11 total touchdowns. The Falcons also had an excellent special teams unit led by veteran kick returner Eric Weems. His 24 punt returns for 273 yards gave him the sixth highest return average in the NFL (11.4), and he added another 391 yards returning kickoffs. Pro Bowl kicker Matt Bryant led the league in scoring with 158 points, while also ranking third in field goal percentage (91.8 %). Atlanta 's offensive line featured center Alex Mack, who earned his fourth Pro Bowl selection.
The Falcons defensive line was led by defensive ends Adrian Clayborn, who recorded five sacks and a fumble recovery, and long - time veteran Dwight Freeney, who ranks as the NFL 's 18th all - time leader in sacks (1221⁄2). Behind them, linebacker Vic Beasley was the team 's only Pro Bowl selection on defense, leading the NFL in sacks with 151⁄2; Beasley also forced six fumbles. Rookie linebacker Deion Jones was also an impact player, leading the team in combined tackles (108) and interceptions (three). The Falcons secondary featured hard - hitting safety Keanu Neal, who had 106 tackles and forced five fumbles. Safety Ricardo Allen added 90 tackles and two interceptions. But overall, the defense ranked just 27th in the league in points allowed (406).
This game marked the Falcons ' second Super Bowl appearance in franchise history, after having lost Super Bowl XXXIII in January 1999 to the Denver Broncos.
The Patriots, with the AFC 's # 1 seed, began their postseason run by defeating the fourth - seeded Houston Texans in the Divisional Round, 34 -- 16. The next week, in the AFC Championship Game, the Patriots defeated the third - seeded Pittsburgh Steelers 36 - 17.
The Falcons, with the NFC 's # 2 seed, began their postseason run by defeating the third - seeded Seattle Seahawks in the Divisional Round, 36 -- 20, racking up 422 yards. The next week, in the last NFL game ever played at the Georgia Dome, the Falcons racked up 493 total yards as they defeated the fourth - seeded Green Bay Packers 44 -- 21 to win the NFC Championship.
As the designated home team in the annual rotation between AFC and NFC teams, the Falcons elected to wear their red home jerseys with white pants, which meant that the Patriots wore their white road jerseys. The game featured Atlanta 's # 1 scoring offense versus New England 's # 1 scoring defense. This was the sixth Super Bowl since the AFL - NFL merger in 1970 to feature a # 1 scoring offense against a # 1 scoring defense, with the team with the # 1 scoring defense winning four of the previous five matchups.
Fan - oriented activities during the lead - up to Super Bowl LI were centered around the George R. Brown Convention Center and Discovery Green park. Discovery Green hosted Super Bowl Live, a 10 - day festival which featured live concerts and other attractions, including projection shows, fireworks shows, and a virtual reality attraction, Future Flight, in conjunction with NASA. The neighboring George R. Brown Convention Center hosted the annual NFL Experience event, which featured interactive activities and appearances by players. Super Bowl Opening Night, the second edition of the game 's revamped media day, was held on January 30, 2017 at nearby Minute Maid Park.
Super Bowl Live was organized by the Houston Super Bowl Host Committee, which was led by Honorary Chairman James A. Baker, III, Chairman Ric Campo, and President and CEO Sallie Sargent.
According to Bloomberg story two most anticipated pre-Super Bowl parties were invite - only 13th annual ESPN party and the Rolling Stone party. ESPN party was hosted by Fergie and DJ Khaled and took place in a 65,000 - square - foot warehouse in the Houston Arts District. The Rolling Stone party celebrated the magazine 50th anniversary. It took place at the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston and featured the performance of Big Sean, DJ Cassidy, Nas, Diplo and Busta Rhymes.
The Patriots stayed at the JW Marriott Houston and practiced at the University of Houston. The Falcons stayed at the Westin Houston Memorial City and practiced at Rice University.
In the beginning of February 2017 the NFL and law enforcement announced that tickets to Super Bowl LI would feature heat - sensitive logos to deter counterfeit tickets. On the front of each ticket was a full polymer graphic that was raised and the back features a true color security label with Houston 's skyline and the Super Bowl logo. The final security feature was a graphic on the lower portion of the back of each ticket printed with thermochromic ink. The HTX logo and the NRG Stadium image faded when heat was applied and returned when the heat source was removed.
The estimated average price for a ticket was $4,744.
In late 2016, Uber had threatened to leave Houston ahead of the Super Bowl LI festivities, insisting various city regulations, including fingerprint background checks of drivers, were too burdensome and prevented drivers from working. Houston officials and Uber reached a compromise in December, which determined that Houston would continue to require a fingerprint check for drivers but eliminate requirements for driver drug testing and physicals through at least February 5.
In the United States, Super Bowl LI was televised by Fox, as part of a cycle between the three main broadcast television partners of the NFL. The game was carried in Spanish by sister cable network Fox Deportes. Online streams of the game were provided via Fox Sports Go; although normally requiring a television subscription to use, Fox made the service available as a free preview for the Super Bowl. Due to Verizon Communications exclusivity, streaming on smartphones was exclusive to Verizon Wireless subscribers via the NFL Mobile app.
As with Super Bowl 50, the stadium was equipped for Intel freeD instant replay technology, using an array of 36 5K resolution cameras positioned around the stadium to enable 360 - degree views of plays. Fox introduced a new feature utilizing the system known as Be the Player, which composited the various camera angles into a single view of a play from the point - of - view of a player on the field. Fox constructed a temporary, two - floor studio in Discovery Green, which originated pre-game coverage, and broadcasts of Fox Sports 1 studio programs during the week leading up to the game, such as Fox Sports Live, The Herd with Colin Cowherd, Skip and Shannon: Undisputed, NASCAR Race Hub, and UFC Tonight.
An average of 111.3 million viewers watched Super Bowl LI, down from 2016. Fox stated that 1.72 million viewers utilized its online streams.
Fox set the base rate for a 30 - second commercial at $5 million, the same rate CBS charged for Super Bowl 50, leading to advertising revenue of $534 million for the single day event. Snickers announced that it would present a live commercial during the game. Nintendo broadcast an ad showcasing its upcoming Nintendo Switch video game console. Fiat Chrysler Automobiles broadcast three spots for Alfa Romeo, as part of an effort to re-launch the Italian brand in the U.S.
A spot from longtime advertiser Budweiser garnered controversy before the game for depicting Anheuser - Busch co-founder Adolphus Busch 's emigration to the United States from Germany, its broadcast coming on the heels of U.S. President Donald Trump signing an executive order that bans travelers from several Muslim nations. Meanwhile, 84 Lumber aired a commercial depicting a mother and daughter journeying from Mexico to the United States, which had been edited following Fox 's objection to its depiction of a border wall for sensitivity reasons.
Many films were advertised with Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, Logan, Transformers: The Last Knight, Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales and The Fate of the Furious. AMC and Netflix advertised their shows, The Walking Dead and Stranger Things, respectively, while National Geographic teased its new series Genius with an ad featuring a nod to Lady Gaga 's halftime performance.
Fox was able to earn an estimated $20 million by airing four extra commercials due to the additional overtime period. Even without historical precedent, Fox negotiated deals with a handful of advertisers in case overtime were to occur.
Canadian broadcast rights to Super Bowl LI were subject to a still - ongoing legal dispute; although U.S. network affiliates are carried by pay TV providers in the country, Canadian law grants domestic broadcast stations the right to require that these signals be substituted with their own if they are carrying the same program in simulcast with a U.S. station ("simsub ''). This policy is intended to help protect Canadian advertising revenue from being lost to viewers watching via U.S. feeds of a program. In 2016, as part of a larger series of regulatory reforms, the Canadian Radio - television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) banned the Super Bowl from being substituted under these circumstances, meaning that the telecast on CTV -- a simulcast of the U.S. telecast with Canadian advertising inserted, would co-exist with feeds of the game from U.S. network affiliates. The CRTC cited dissatisfaction surrounding the practice from Canadian viewers -- particularly the unavailability of the U.S. commercials, which the CRTC cited as being an "integral part '' of the game based on this reception, but also other technical problems caused by poorly implemented simsubs (such as reduced quality and missing content due to mistimed transitions back into the U.S. program feed).
The NFL 's Canadian rightsholder Bell Media, as well as the league itself, have displayed objections to the policy; Bell felt that the decision devalued its exclusive Canadian rights to the game, and violated Canada 's Broadcasting Act, which forbids the "making of regulations singling out a particular program or licensee. '' On November 2, 2016, Bell was granted the right to challenge the ruling in the Federal Court of Appeal. Bell, the NFL, and government representatives from both Canada and the U.S., have lobbied the CRTC for the rule to be retracted. However, court action on the ruling was not taken in time for the game, meaning that it was in effect for the first time during Super Bowl LI. Bell Media cited the decision, among other factors, as justification for a planned series of layoffs it announced on January 31, 2017.
The simsub prohibition only applied to the game itself, and not pre-game or post-game programming (which was simulcast with Fox and subject to simsub). In an attempt to mitigate the loss of de facto exclusivity to the clean U.S. feeds, Bell simulcast the game across CTV Two and TSN in addition to CTV, and organized a sponsored sweepstakes in which viewers could earn entries to win cash and automobile prizes by texting keywords displayed during the Canadian telecast. Montreal Gazette media analyst Steve Faguy felt that these promotions were an attempt to offset the loss of viewership by carrying the game across as many of its channels as possible, and providing incentives for viewers to watch the game on CTV instead of Fox. He further noted that Bell still had exclusive rights to stream the game in Canada via CTV 's TV Everywhere services, as the CRTC does not regulate web content, and Fox 's online stream is only available to U.S. users. Consequently, some Canadian companies (such as Leon 's and Pizza Pizza) took advantage of the CRTC decision by buying local advertising time during the game from Fox affiliates distributed in Canada in order to target these viewers, such as KAYU - TV in Spokane (which is widely carried by television providers in the significantly larger markets of Calgary and Edmonton, Alberta).
Viewership of Super Bowl LI across the three English - language Bell Media properties broadcasting it was down by 39 % in comparison to Super Bowl 50, with only 4.47 million viewers. Viewership on the French - language telecast presented by TSN 's sister network RDS was in line with that of Super Bowl 50. It is not known how many Canadian viewers watched the game via Fox, as neither Nielsen or Canadian ratings provider Numeris calculate Canadian viewership of American broadcasters.
In the United States, Westwood One carried the broadcast nationwide, with Kevin Harlan on play - by - play, Boomer Esiason and Mike Holmgren on color commentary, and sideline reports from Tony Boselli and James Lofton. The Westwood One broadcast was simulcast in Canada on TSN Radio. Each team 's network flagship station carried the local feed: WBZ - FM for the Patriots (with Bob Socci and Scott Zolak announcing), and WZGC for the Falcons (with Wes Durham and Dave Archer announcing); under the league 's contract with Westwood One, no other stations in the teams ' usual radio networks were allowed to carry the local broadcast, and unlike in recent years when at least one of the two flagships was a clear - channel station, both the Patriots and Falcons use FM radio stations as their local flagships, limiting listenership to those within the local metropolitan areas or with access to those feeds via Sirius XM satellite radio or TuneIn Premium.
Spanish - language radio rights are held by Entravision as part of a three - year agreement signed in 2015. Erwin Higueros served as the play - by - play announcer.
The United Kingdom 's BBC Radio 5 Live produced a commercial - free broadcast, with Darren Fletcher and Rocky Boiman returning.
-- Pope Francis indicated that by participating in sports events, people show an ability to go beyond self - interests and build friendship and solidarity with one another.
During pre-game festivities, the NFL honored members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame that had played college football at historically black colleges and universities. Of the 303 members of the Hall of Fame, 29 were from HBCUs.
The Patriots took the field first as the designated away team to Ozzy Osbourne 's "Crazy Train ''. The Falcons took the field second as the designated home team to Trick Daddy 's "Let 's Go ''. Both teams ' season recaps were presented by Ving Rhames.
Before the game, American country music singer and songwriter Luke Bryan sang the US national anthem. Bryan was the first male performer to sing the national anthem at a Super Bowl since Billy Joel at Super Bowl XLI. Immediately before Bryan sang the national anthem, Phillipa Soo, Renée Elise Goldsberry and Jasmine Cephas Jones, who originated the roles of the Schuyler sisters in the Broadway musical Hamilton, performed "America the Beautiful ''.
After the national anthem, former President George H.W. Bush performed the coin toss alongside his wife, Barbara. The Patriots called heads, but the Falcons won the coin toss with tails. The Falcons chose to defer to the second half.
On September 29, 2016, Lady Gaga, who had performed the national anthem the previous year at Super Bowl 50, confirmed that she would be performing at the Super Bowl LI halftime show on her Instagram account with the message: "It 's not an illusion. The rumors are true. This year the SUPER BOWL goes GAGA! '' Fox Sports president and executive producer of the show, John Entz, confirmed Gaga 's involvement adding "(She) is one of the most electric performers of our generation, and we could n't be happier with the choice to have her headline the Super Bowl LI Halftime Show... It is going to be an incredible night. ''
Lady Gaga opened the halftime show with a combination of "God Bless America '' and "This Land Is Your Land ''. Her performance also included some of her biggest hit songs, such as "Poker Face '', "Born This Way '', "Million Reasons '', and "Bad Romance '' and was accompanied by a swarm of 300 LED - equipped Intel drones forming an American flag in the sky in a pre-recorded segment.
Mohamed Sanu stated the long length of the halftime show played a part in Atlanta ultimately losing the game. Teams on average are off the field for fifteen minutes during halftime, but Super Bowl halftimes are considerably longer. Unlike the Falcons it appears Bill Belichick actually incorporated the length of the show into the team 's practices. Sanu 's argument was discounted by the fact that Atlanta marched the ball downfield and scored a touchdown right out of halftime.
The first quarter of Super Bowl LI was a scoreless defensive match with each team punting twice. The longest play from scrimmage was a 37 - yard carry by Falcons running back Devonta Freeman, which did not lead to any points, though it would be the longest run of the game for either team.
On the first play of the second quarter, New England 's quarterback Tom Brady completed a 27 - yard pass to wide receiver Julian Edelman on the Falcons 33 - yard line. But on the next play, linebacker Deion Jones stripped the ball from running back LeGarrette Blount; the fumble was recovered by defensive back Robert Alford on the 29 - yard line. On the next two plays, Matt Ryan completed passes to Julio Jones for gains of 19 and 23 yards. Freeman ran the ball on the next three plays, covering the final 29 yards to the end zone, the last carry a 5 - yard touchdown run that put Atlanta up 7 -- 0.
New England failed to get a first down on the series following the Freeman score, and the Falcons moved the ball 62 yards in five plays. Ryan started the drive with a 24 - yard completion to Taylor Gabriel, then completed a pass to Jones for an 18 - yard gain. On 3rd - and - 9, he threw a 19 - yard touchdown pass to tight end Austin Hooper, giving the Falcons a 14 -- 0 lead. It was the largest deficit Brady had ever faced in his seven Super Bowl appearances, and it would soon get larger. New England responded with a drive to the Falcons 23, aided by three defensive holding penalties against the Atlanta defense, each one giving them a first down on a third down play. However, on 3rd - and - 6, Brady threw a pass that was intercepted by Alford and returned 82 yards for a touchdown, increasing Atlanta 's lead to 21 -- 0. It was the first time in his career that Brady had thrown a pick - six in his 33 postseason games, and Alford 's 82 yard return was the second longest interception return in Super Bowl history. Brady ultimately became the first quarterback to win a Super Bowl in which he threw a pick - six. Getting the ball back with 2: 20 left in the second quarter, Brady completed a 15 - yard pass to Martellus Bennett, and then a short pass to running back James White, who took off for a 28 - yard gain. The drive stalled at the Falcons 20 - yard line, but Stephen Gostkowski kicked a field goal with two seconds left on the clock to send the teams into their locker rooms with the score 21 -- 3.
New England had an early third quarter scoring opportunity when Edelman returned a punt 26 yards to the Patriots ' 47 - yard line, but they could not gain a first down on the drive. Following the Patriots ' punt, the Falcons started their drive on their own 15 - yard line, Ryan completed two long passes to wide receiver Taylor Gabriel for gains of 17 and 35 yards to bring the ball to the New England 28 - yard line. Four plays later, Ryan finished the 85 - yard drive with a 6 - yard touchdown pass to running back Tevin Coleman, giving the Falcons a 28 -- 3 lead with 8: 31 left in the quarter. On the next series, Brady led the Patriots 75 yards in 13 plays for a responding touchdown, completing five of seven passes for 43 yards, the biggest a 17 - yard completion to Danny Amendola on 4th - and - 3 from the New England 46 - yard line. Brady also made a big play with his legs, rushing for a 15 - yard gain (which would be the longest rushing play by the Patriots on the day) on 3rd - and - 8 from the Atlanta 35 - yard line. Three subsequent carries by Blount moved the ball 15 yards to the 5 - yard line, and then Brady threw the ball to White for a touchdown, making the score 28 -- 9 after Gostkowski 's extra point attempt hit the right goalpost.
New England then attempted an onside kick, but the ball was recovered by Falcons linebacker LaRoy Reynolds, and a penalty against Gostkowski for touching the ball before it went ten yards gave Atlanta even better field position. Ryan completed a 9 - yard pass to Hooper to the Patriots 32 - yard - line, but on the next play, a holding penalty on Atlanta offensive lineman Jake Matthews pushed the team back ten yards. Then after an incompletion, Trey Flowers and Kyle Van Noy shared a sack on Ryan that forced the Falcons to punt on the first play of the fourth quarter.
Matt Bosher 's 42 - yard punt pinned the Patriots back on their own 13 - yard line. Brady led the next drive down the field, completing three passes to wide receiver Malcolm Mitchell for 40 yards and one to Bennett for 25 to bring the ball to the Falcons 7 - yard line. However, Brady was sacked twice by defensive tackle Grady Jarrett over the next three plays, and the Patriots ended up having to settle for Gostkowski 's 33 - yard field goal that cut their deficit to two scores, 28 -- 12, with less than 10 minutes left in the game. Atlanta had burned two of their three time outs on defense and equipment malfunction. On the third play of Atlanta 's ensuing drive, linebacker Dont'a Hightower sacked Ryan as he was winding up for a pass, resulting in a fumble that was recovered by defensive tackle Alan Branch on the Falcons 25 - yard line. New England soon cashed in their scoring opportunity, with Brady throwing a 6 - yard touchdown pass to Amendola. Then White took a direct snap in for a two - point conversion to make the score 28 -- 20 in favor of Atlanta with 5: 56 left on the clock. The Patriots had run the same play for a two - point conversion with Kevin Faulk in their Super Bowl XXXVIII victory.
On the first play of Atlanta 's next possession, Freeman caught a short pass from Ryan and ran it for a 39 - yard gain, the longest play of the game for either team. Then on 2nd - and - 9 from the Patriots 49 - yard line, Ryan threw a deep pass to Jones at the right sideline, who made an acrobatic sideline catch for a 27 - yard gain, giving the Falcons a first down on the Patriots 22 - yard line with 4: 40 left on the clock and a chance for a late - game two - score lead. On the next play, Freeman ran for a 1 - yard loss on a tackle by Devin McCourty. Atlanta tried to pass the ball on second down, but Flowers sacked Ryan for a 12 - yard loss on the Patriots 35 - yard line. Ryan then completed a 9 - yard pass to Mohamed Sanu on 3rd - and 23, but this was negated by a holding penalty on Matthews. Now out of field goal range and faced with 3rd - and - 33 from the New England 45 - yard line, Ryan threw an incomplete pass, and the team was left with no choice but to punt the ball to New England.
Bosher 's 36 - yard kick gave the Patriots the ball on their own 9 - yard line with 3: 30 left on the clock and two of their timeouts left. After two incompletions, Brady picked up a first down with a 16 - yard pass to Chris Hogan. After an 11 - yard pass to Mitchell, Brady threw a pass that was nearly intercepted by Alford. Instead, he batted the ball in the air, and it fell into the arms of Edelman, who made a diving catch and just barely managed to get his hands under the ball before it hit the ground, picking up 23 yards. Atlanta challenged the catch, but the referees confirmed the call on the field and Atlanta lost their final time out. Brady 's next pass to Amendola gained 20 yards to the Falcons 21 - yard line as the clock ran down below the two - minute warning. Two more passes to White gained 20 yards and gave New England a first down at the 1 - yard line. With 58 seconds left, White scored on a 1 - yard touchdown run, and Brady completed a 2 - point conversion pass to Amendola, tying the score at 28. Atlanta started their drive deep in their own end with just under a minute and zero time outs. The Falcons failed to get in range to score a possible game - winning field goal and punted, with the Patriots fair catching the ball at their own 35 - yard line. The Patriots considered, but ultimately declined, ending regulation on what would have been the first fair catch kick ever attempted in a Super Bowl. Instead, New England attempted a fake quarterback kneel running play for Dion Lewis. The play gained several yards but failed to score and sent the Super Bowl into overtime for the first time in the game 's history. Super Bowl LI became the first NFL championship game to go into an overtime period since the historic 1958 NFL Championship Game between the Baltimore Colts and the New York Giants.
The Patriots won the coin toss to start overtime, and elected to receive the ball. Starting at their 25 - yard line after a touchback, Brady completed passes to White, Amendola, and Hogan for gains of 6, 14, and 18 yards, respectively. Then after White was dropped for a 3 - yard loss, Brady completed a 15 - yard pass to Edelman to the Falcons 25 - yard line. White then took a lateral throw from Brady to the 15 - yard line. Brady 's pass to Bennett in the end zone fell incomplete, but Falcons linebacker De'Vondre Campbell was called for pass interference, giving the Patriots first - and - goal from the Falcons ' 2 - yard line. On first down, Brady threw another incomplete pass to Bennett that was deflected by Vic Beasley. On second down, White took a pitch and ran the ball right. He was hit by Falcons defenders at the 1 - yard line, but managed to stretch forward and get the ball across the goal line before his knee hit the ground, scoring a touchdown to give the Patriots the 34 -- 28 victory. It marked the first time in NFL postseason history that a team leading by 17 points or more at the start of the fourth quarter went on to lose the game. Previously, dating back to 1940, teams leading by 17 or more points after three quarters in playoff games were 133 -- 0 in such situations.
Super Bowl LI had more than 30 records either broken, set, or tied by the time it was done. Brady completed 43 of 62 passes for 466 yards and two touchdowns, with one interception, while also rushing for 15 yards. His completions, attempts, and passing yards were all single - game Super Bowl records. He also set the career Super Bowl records for games played (7), completions (207), attempts (309), yards (2,071), and touchdown passes (15). James White caught a Super Bowl record 14 passes for 110 yards, rushed for 29 yards, and tied a Super Bowl record with three touchdowns. He also set the record for most points scored with 20. After the game, Brady said he felt White deserved the MVP award more than he did. Brady planned to give White the vehicle that has traditionally been awarded to Super Bowl MVPs (he 'd given the truck he received after Super Bowl XLIX to Malcolm Butler) but found out after the game that there was no vehicle to give to White because the sponsor had decided to end its practice of donating one. Edelman caught five passes for 87 yards and returned three punts for 39 yards. Amendola recorded eight receptions for 78 yards and one touchdown. Flowers recorded six tackles and 2.5 sacks.
For Atlanta, Ryan completed 17 of 23 passes for 284 yards and two touchdowns. Freeman was the top rusher of the game with 11 carries for 75 yards and a touchdown, while also catching two passes for 46 yards. Jones was Atlanta 's leading receiver with four receptions for 87 yards. Robert Alford had 11 tackles (9 solo), an interception returned for a touchdown, and a fumble recovery. Grady Jarrett had five tackles and tied a Super Bowl record with three sacks.
Atlanta became the first team in Super Bowl history to return an interception for a touchdown and lose the game. Prior to Super Bowl LI, teams returning an interception for a touchdown in the Super Bowl had been a perfect 12 -- 0. New England had two turnovers for the game, while Atlanta only turned the ball over once. This made New England the fifth team to win a Super Bowl despite losing the turnover battle, joining the Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl V, the Pittsburgh Steelers in Super Bowls XIV and XL, and the Patriots in Super Bowl XLIX.
The game set the record for the largest deficit overcome to win the Super Bowl (the previous record was ten points, set by the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl XXII and matched by the New Orleans Saints in Super Bowl XLIV and by the Patriots in Super Bowl XLIX); it is the third - largest comeback win in NFL playoff history, behind The Comeback (32 - point deficit; Buffalo Bills trailed 35 -- 3 and won 41 -- 38) and the wild card game between the Indianapolis Colts and the Kansas City Chiefs during the 2013 -- 14 NFL playoffs (28 - point deficit; Colts trailed 38 -- 10 and won, 45 -- 44). In addition to being the largest Super Bowl comeback, the game set the record for the largest fourth - quarter comeback in NFL playoff history, as no team had previously won a playoff game after trailing by 17 or more points entering the final quarter; the Patriots were trailing by 19 points at the start of the fourth quarter by a score of 28 -- 9. The Patriots won their fifth franchise championship, all under the leadership of starting quarterback Tom Brady, the most by a single quarterback. Brady won his fourth Super Bowl MVP, the most such awards by a single player in history. This game represented the largest comeback in the history of the New England Patriots ' regular season or post-season games, and Tom Brady 's NFL career.
Super Bowl LI became the first Super Bowl in history in which the winning team had never held the lead at any point during regulation time, and it also became the first Super Bowl in history in which the winning team did not score on a PAT kick, as the Patriots missed their only PAT attempt during the game, which occurred following their first touchdown, opted for two - point conversions after each of their next two touchdowns, and did not have to attempt the extra point after their game - winning touchdown in overtime.
Late in the third quarter, the Falcons ' chances of winning were estimated at 99.8 %.
at NRG Stadium, Houston, Texas
Sources: The Football Database Super Bowl LI
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions Times targeted
Super Bowl LI had eight officials. The numbers in parentheses below indicate their uniform numbers.
|
the standard english sentence does which of the following | Tag question - wikipedia
A tag question (also known as tail question) is a grammatical structure in which a declarative statement or an imperative is turned into interrogative fragment (the "tag ''). For example, in the sentence "You 're John, are n't you? '', the statement "You 're John '' is turned into a question by the tag "are n't you ''. The term "question tag '' is generally preferred by British grammarians, while their American counterparts prefer "tag question ''.
In most languages, tag questions are more common in colloquial spoken usage than in formal written usage. They can be an indicator of politeness, hedging, consensus seeking, emphasis and / or irony. They may suggest confidence or lack of confidence; they may be confrontational, defensive or tentative. Although they have the grammatical form of a question, they may be rhetorical (not expecting an answer). In other cases, when they do expect a response, they may differ from straightforward questions in that they cue the listener as to what response is desired. In legal settings, tag questions can often be found in a leading question. According to a specialist children 's lawyer at the NSPCC, children find it difficult to answer tag questions other than in accordance with the expectation of the questioner using or tagging a question.
Question tags are formed in several ways, and many languages give a choice of formation. In some languages the most common is a single word or fixed phrase, whereas in others it is formed by a regular grammatical construction.
In many languages, the question tag is a simple positive or negative. Russian allows да? (yes) whereas Spanish and Italian use ¿ no? and no? respectively. In Indonesian, sometimes ya? (yes) is used but it is more common to say kan?, which probably is a contraction of bukan (negation for nouns).
Another common formation is comparable to the English correct? or the informal form right?, though more often realised as the word for true or truth, in fact, such as in Polish prawda?, Slovak pravda? or the particle však?, or Spanish ¿ verdad?, which in turn can be presented in a negative form (not true?), such as in the Polish nieprawdaż?, German nicht wahr? or Lithuanian ar ne?.
A plain conjunction may be used, such as the Czech and Slovak že? (that). Various other words occur in specific languages, such as German oder? (or), Slovak či? (or, colloquialism), and the Mandarin Chinese 吗 ma (literally what but never used in the way English uses that word).
Another pattern is to combine affirmation and negation, as can be done in Chinese, for example as 對 不對 duì bù duì (correct / not correct).
Some languages have words whose only function is as a question tag. In Scots and certain dialects of English, eh? functions this way. French has hein?, Southern German dialects have gell? (derived from a verb meaning to be valid) and Portuguese has né? (actually a colloquial contraction of não é, literally is n't it, while é?, pronounced much like English eh?, would have a different intended meaning, that of English right?).
In several languages, the tag question is built around the standard interrogative form. In English and the Celtic languages, this interrogative agrees with the verb in the main clause, whereas in other languages the structure has fossilised into a fixed form, such as the French n'est - ce pas? (literally "is n't it? '').
Grammatically productive tag forms are formed in the same way as simple questions, referring back to the verb in the main clause and agreeing in time and person (where the language has such agreement). The tag may include a pronoun, such as in English, or may not, as is the case in Scottish Gaelic. If the rules of forming interrogatives require it, the verb in the tag may be an auxiliary, as in English.
In most languages, a tag question is set off from the sentence by a comma (,). In Spanish, where the beginnings of questions are marked with an inverted question mark, it is only the tag, not the whole sentence, which is placed within the question bracket:
English tag questions, when they have the grammatical form of a question, are atypically complex, because they vary according to at least three factors: the choice of auxiliary, the negation and the intonation pattern. This is unique among the Germanic languages, but the Celtic languages operate in a very similar way. For the theory that English has borrowed its system of tag questions from Brittonic, see Brittonicisms in English.
The English tag question is made up of an auxiliary verb and a pronoun. The auxiliary must agree with the tense, aspect and modality of the verb in the preceding sentence. If the verb is in the present perfect, for example, the tag question uses has or have; if the verb is in a present progressive form, the tag is formed with am, are, is; if the verb is in a tense which does not normally use an auxiliary, like the present simple, the auxiliary is taken from the emphatic do form; and if the sentence has a modal auxiliary, this is echoed in the tag:
A special case occurs when the main verb is to be in a simple tense. Here the tag question repeats the main verb, not an auxiliary:
If the main verb is to have in the sense of possession, either solution is possible:
English question tags exist in both positive and negative forms. When there is no special emphasis, the rule of thumb often applies that a positive sentence has a negative tag and vice versa. This form may express confidence, or seek confirmation of the asker 's opinion or belief.
These are referred to as balanced tag questions.
Unbalanced tag questions feature a positive statement with a positive tag, or a negative statement with a negative tag; it has been estimated that in normal conversation, as many as 40 -- 50 % of tags are unbalanced. Unbalanced tag questions may be used for ironic or confrontational effects:
Unbalanced tags also occur when shall is used to ask for confirmation of a suggestion:
Patterns of negation can show regional variations. In North East Scotland, for example, positive to positive is used when no special effect is desired:
Note the following variations in the negation when the auxiliary is the I form of the copula:
English tag questions can have a rising or a falling intonation pattern. This can be contrasted with Polish, French or German, for example, where all tags rise, or with the Celtic languages, where all fall. As a rule, the English rising pattern is used when soliciting information or motivating an action, that is, when some sort of response is required. Since normal English yes / no questions have rising patterns (e.g. Are you coming?), these tags make a grammatical statement into a real question:
The falling pattern is used to underline a statement. The statement itself ends with a falling pattern, and the tag sounds like an echo, strengthening the pattern. Most English tag questions have this falling pattern.
Sometimes the rising tag goes with the positive to positive pattern to create a confrontational effect:
Sometimes the same words may have different patterns depending on the situation or implication.
It is interesting that as an all - purpose tag the Multicultural London English set - phrase innit (for "is n't it '') is only used with falling patterns:
On the other hand, the adverbial tag questions (alright? OK? etc.) are almost always found with rising patterns. An occasional exception is surely.
There are a number of variant forms that exist in particular dialects of English. These are generally invariant, regardless of verb, person or negativity.
The tag right? is common in a number of dialects across the UK and US, as well as in Indian English. It is an example of an invariable tag which is preferred in American English over traditional tags.
The tags is n't it? and no? are used in Indian English.
The tag eh? is of Scottish origin, and can be heard across much of Scotland, New Zealand, Canada and the North - Eastern United States. In Central Scotland (in and around Stirling and Falkirk), this exists in the form eh no? which is again invariant.
The tag or? is used commonly in the North - Eastern United States and other regions to make offers less imposing. These questions could always logically be completed by stating the opposite of the offer, though this effect is understood intuitively by native speakers. For example:
The tag hey? (of Afrikaans and Dutch origin) is used in South African English.
Rhetorical tag questions may be found in British English. For example:
This is a peremptory tag question that criticizes what the answerer perceives as the asker 's impatience. An antagonistic tag question is tagged onto a statement that reveals information that the target would not have had. For example:
Like English, the Celtic languages form tag questions by echoing the verb of the main sentence. The Goidelic languages, however, make little or no use of auxiliary verbs, so that it is generally the main verb itself which reappears in the tag. As in English, the tendency is to have a negative tag after a positive sentence and vice versa, but unbalanced tags are also possible. Some examples from Scottish Gaelic:
(Here, eil and fhaca are dependent forms of the irregular verbs tha and chunnaic.)
In Welsh, a special particle on is used to introduce tag questions, which are then followed by the inflected form of a verb. Unlike English and the Goidelic languages, Welsh prefers a positive tag after a positive statement, and negative after negative. With the auxiliary bod, it is the inflected form of bod that is used:
With inflected non-preterite forms, the inflected form of the verb is used:
With preterite and perfect forms, the invariable do (also the affirmative answer to these questions) is used:
When a non-verbal element is being questioned, the question particle ai is used:
|
how did rome make the transition from monarchy to the republic | Overthrow of the Roman monarchy - wikipedia
The overthrow of the Roman monarchy, a political revolution in ancient Rome, took place around 509 BC and resulted in the expulsion of the last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, and the establishment of the Roman Republic.
The semi-legendary Roman histories tell that while the king was away on campaign, his son Sextus Tarquinius raped a noblewoman, Lucretia. Afterwards she revealed the offence to various Roman noblemen, and then committed suicide. The Roman noblemen, led by Lucius Junius Brutus, obtained the support of the Roman aristocracy and the people to expel the king and his family and to institute a republic. The Roman army supported Brutus, and the king went into exile. Despite a number of attempts by Lucius Tarquinius Superbus to reinstate the monarchy, the citizens established a republic and thereafter elected two consuls annually to rule the city.
Roman history held that seven kings of Rome reigned from the establishment of the city in 753 BC by Romulus up to the reign of Tarquinius. The accuracy of this account has been doubted by modern historians, although it appears to be accepted that there was a monarchy, and the last king Tarquinius was expelled upon the founding of the republic in the late 6th century BC.
Tarquinius was the son of the fifth king, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. In around 535 BC Tarquinius, together with his wife Tullia Minor (one of the daughters of the then king Servius Tullius) arranged the murder of Servius, and Tarquinius became king in his place.
Despite various military victories, Tarquinius became an unpopular king. He refused to bury his predecessor, then put to death a number of the leading senators whom he suspected of remaining loyal to Servius (one of whom was the brother of Lucius Junius Brutus). By not replacing the slain senators, and not consulting the Senate on all matters of government, he diminished both the size and authority of the Senate. In another break with tradition, he judged capital criminal cases without advice of counsellors, thereby creating fear among those who might think to oppose him. He also engaged in treachery with the Latin allies.
In about 510 BC, Tarquinius went to war with the Rutuli. According to Livy, the Rutuli were, at that time, a very wealthy nation and Tarquinius was keen to obtain the spoils that would come with victory over the Rutuli in order, in part, to assuage the anger of his subjects.
Tarquinius unsuccessfully sought to take the Rutulian capital Ardea by storm, and subsequently began an extensive siege of the city.
Sextus Tarquinius, the king 's son, was sent on a military errand to Collatia. Sextus was received with great hospitality at the governor 's mansion, home of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, son of the king 's nephew, Arruns Tarquinius, former governor of Collatia and first of the Tarquinii Collatini. Lucius ' wife, Lucretia, daughter of Spurius Lucretius, prefect of Rome, "a man of distinction '', made sure that the king 's son was treated as became his rank, although her husband was away at the siege.
In a variant of the story, Sextus and Lucius, at a wine party on furlough, were debating the virtues of wives when Lucius volunteered to settle the debate by all of them riding to his home to see what Lucretia was doing. She was weaving with her maids. The party awarded her the palm of victory and Lucius invited them to visit, but for the time being they returned to camp.
At night Sextus entered her bedroom by stealth, quietly going around the slaves who were sleeping at her door. She awakened, he identified himself and offered her two choices: she could submit to his sexual advances and become his wife and future queen, or he would kill her and one of her slaves and place the bodies together, then claim he had caught her having adulterous sex (see sexuality in ancient Rome). In the alternative story, he returned from camp a few days later with one companion to take Collatinus up on his invitation to visit and was lodged in a guest bedroom. He entered Lucretia 's room while she lay naked in her bed and started to wash her belly with water, which woke her up.
The next day Lucretia dressed in black and went to her father 's house in Rome and cast herself down in the suppliant 's position (embracing the knees), weeping. Asked to explain herself she insisted on first summoning witnesses and after disclosing the rape, called on them for vengeance, a plea that could not be ignored, as she was speaking to the chief magistrate of Rome. While they were debating she drew a concealed dagger and stabbed herself in the heart. She died in her father 's arms, with the women present keening and lamenting. "This dreadful scene struck the Romans who were present with so much horror and compassion that they all cried out with one voice that they would rather die a thousand deaths in defence of their liberty than suffer such outrages to be committed by the tyrants. ''
In the alternative version, Lucretia summoned Lucius Junius Brutus (a leading citizen, and the grandson of Rome 's fifth king Tarquinius Priscus), along with her father Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus, another leading citizen Publius Valerius Publicola, and her husband Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus (also related to Tarquinius Priscus) to Collatia after she had been raped. Lucretia, believing that the rape dishonored her and her family, committed suicide by stabbing herself with a dagger after telling of what had befallen her. According to legend, Brutus grabbed the dagger from Lucretia 's breast after her death and immediately shouted for the overthrow of the Tarquins.
The four men gathered the youth of Collatia, then went to Rome where Brutus, being at that time Tribunus Celerum, summoned the people to the forum and exhorted them to rise up against the king. The people voted for the deposition of the king, and the banishment of the royal family.
Brutus summoned the comitia curiata, an organization of patrician families used mainly to ratify the decrees of the king and began to harangue them in one of the more noted and effective speeches of ancient Rome. He began by revealing that his pose as fool was a sham designed to protect him against an evil king. He leveled a number of charges against the king and his family: the outrage against Lucretia, whom everyone could see on the dais, the king 's tyranny, the forced labor of the plebeians in the ditches and sewers of Rome. He pointed out that Superbus had come to rule by the murder of Servius Tullius, his wife 's father, next - to - the - last king of Rome. He "solemnly invoked the gods as the avengers of murdered parents. '' The king 's wife, Tullia, was in fact in Rome and probably was a witness to the proceedings from her palace near the forum. Seeing herself the target of so much animosity she fled from the palace in fear of her life and proceeded to the camp at Ardea.
Brutus opened a debate on the form of government Rome ought to have; there were many speakers (all patricians). In summation he proposed the banishment of the Tarquins from all the territories of Rome and appointment of an interrex to nominate new magistrates and conduct an election of ratification. They had decided on a republican form of government with two consuls in place of a king executing the will of a patrician senate. This was a temporary measure until they could consider the details more carefully. Brutus renounced all right to the throne. In subsequent years the powers of the king were divided among various elected magistracies. A final vote of the curiae carried the interim constitution. Spurius Lucretius was swiftly elected interrex (he was prefect of the city anyway). He proposed Brutus and Collatinus as the first two consuls and that choice was ratified by the curiae. Needing to acquire the assent of the population as a whole they paraded Lucretia 's body through the streets, summoning the plebeians to legal assembly in the forum. Once there they heard a further speech by Brutus. It began:
Inasmuch as Tarquinius neither obtained the sovereignty in accordance with our ancestral customs and laws, nor, since he obtained it -- in whatever manner he got it -- has he been exercising it in an honourable or kingly manner, but has surpassed in insolence and lawlessness all the tyrants the world ever saw, we patricians met together and resolved to deprive him of his power, a thing we ought to have done long ago, but are doing now when a favourable opportunity has offered. And we have called you together, plebeians, in order to declare our own decision and then ask for your assistance in achieving liberty for our country...
A general election was held. The vote was for the republic. The monarchy was at an end, even while Lucretia was still displayed in the forum.
Brutus, leaving Lucretius in command of the city, proceeded with armed men to the Roman army then camped at Ardea. The king, who had been with the army, heard of developments at Rome, and left the camp for the city before Brutus ' arrival. The army received Brutus as a hero, and the king 's sons were expelled from the camp. Tarquinius Superbus, meanwhile, was refused entry at Rome, and fled with his family into exile.
That uprising resulted in the exile or Regifugium, after a reign of 25 years, of Tarquinius and his family, and the establishment of the Roman Republic, with Brutus and Collatinus (both related by blood to Rome 's fifth king Lucius Tarquinius Priscus) as the first consuls.
Tarquinius and his two eldest sons, Titus and Arruns, went into exile at Caere.
According to Livy, Brutus ' first act after the expulsion of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was to bring the people to swear an oath (the Oath of Brutus) never to allow any man again to be king in Rome.
This is, fundamentally, a restatement of the "private oath '' sworn by the conspirators to overthrow the monarchy:
There is no scholarly agreement that the oath took place; it is reported, although differently, by Plutarch (Poplicola, 2) and Appian (B.C. 2.119).
Brutus also replenished the number of senators to 300 from the principal men of the equites. The new consuls also created a new office of rex sacrorum to carry out the religious duties that had previously been performed by the kings.
Because of the Roman people 's revulsion at the name and family of the exiled king, the consul Tarquinius Collatinus was forced to resign from the office of consul and go into exile.
After his exile, Tarquinius made a number of attempts to regain the throne. At first, he sent ambassadors to the Senate to request the return of his family 's personal effects, which had been seized in the coup. In secret, while the Senate debated his request, the ambassadors met with and subverted a number of the leading men of Rome to the royal cause, in the Tarquinian conspiracy. The conspirators included two of Brutus ' brothers - in - law, and his two sons Titus and Tiberius. The conspiracy was discovered, and the conspirators executed.
Although the Senate had initially agreed to Tarquin 's request for a return of his family 's effects, the decision was reconsidered and revoked after the discovery of the conspiracy, and the royal property was given over to be plundered by the Roman populace.
Tarquinius next attempted to regain Rome by force of arms. He first gained the support of the cities of Veii and Tarquinii, recalling to the former their regular losses of war and land to the Roman state, and to the latter his family ties. The armies of the two cities were led by Tarquinius against Rome in the Battle of Silva Arsia. The king commanded the Etruscan infantry. Although the result initially appeared uncertain, the Romans were victorious. Both Brutus (the consul) and Arruns (the king 's son) were killed in battle.
Another attempt by Tarquinius relied on military support from Lars Porsenna, king of Clusium. The war led to the siege of Rome, and finally a peace treaty. However, Tarquinius failed to achieve his aim of regaining the throne.
Tarquinius and his family left Clusium, and instead sought refuge in Tusculum with his son - in - law Octavius Mamilius. In about 496 BC, Tarquin and his son Titus fought with Mamilius and the Latin League against Rome, but lost, at the Battle of Lake Regillus at which Mamilius perished.
Subsequently, Tarquinius fled to take refuge with the tyrant of Cumae, Aristodemus and Tarquin died there in 495 BC.
|
did anyone in the cast of gossip girl date | Leighton Meester - wikipedia
Leighton Marissa Meester (born April 9, 1986) is an American actress, singer, songwriter, and model. She is known mostly for her starring role as Blair Waldorf on the television series Gossip Girl (2007 -- 2012). She has also appeared in the films Killer Movie (2008), Country Strong (2010), The Roommate (2011), Monte Carlo (2011), The Oranges (2011), and The Judge (2014). Meester made her Broadway debut in Of Mice and Men (2014).
In addition to acting, Meester has also ventured into music. In 2009, she featured on Cobra Starship 's "Good Girls Go Bad '' which charted within the top - ten of the Billboard Hot 100, and released her first single "Somebody to Love '' under Universal Republic. Her second single "Your Love 's a Drug '' was released in 2011. Meester has also recorded songs for various soundtracks. Her debut album, Heartstrings, was independently released in 2014. She has also modeled, having been the face of brands such as Jimmy Choo, Herbal Essences, and Vera Wang.
Meester was born in Fort Worth, Texas, to Constance Lynn (née Haas) and Douglas Jay Meester. Her father is a real estate broker; her mother is a writer. She has one older brother, Douglas Logan Meester (born 1983), and a younger brother, Alexander "Lex '' Meester (born 1994). At the time of her birth, Meester 's parents were serving time in a federal prison for their involvement in a drug ring that smuggled marijuana from Jamaica to the United States. Constance was able to give birth to Leighton in a hospital and nurse her for three months in a halfway house, before returning to prison to complete her sentence. Her paternal grandparents cared for Meester during this period. She has maintained that her parents gave her a normal upbringing and, despite their criminal past, has stated, "It made me realize that you ca n't judge anyone -- especially your parents -- for what they 've done in their past, because people change. '' She grew up in Marco Island, Florida, where she participated in productions at a local playhouse. Her parents separated in 1992.
When she was 11 years old, Meester and her siblings moved with their mother to New York City. She attended the Professional Children 's School and began working as a model with Wilhelmina, booking a Ralph Lauren campaign shot by Bruce Weber, and working with then - photographer Sofia Coppola. Meester also booked commercials for Tamagotchi and Clearasil, and modeled for Limited Too alongside Amanda Seyfried. At age 14, she relocated to Los Angeles, California and attended Hollywood and Beverly Hills High Schools. Meester then transferred to a small private school and graduated a year earlier than normal.
Meester made her acting debut in 1999 as a murder victim 's friend, Alyssa Turner, on an episode of Law & Order. Following this, she made her film debut in Hangman 's Curse (2003), based on the bestselling book by Frank Peretti. She had a series regular role in Tarzan, which aired for only eight episodes. A recurring role in Entourage as Justine Chapin and Veronica Mars as Carrie Bishop followed in 2004 and 2005. Meester booked guest roles in the series Crossing Jordan, 8 Simple Rules, 7th Heaven and 24. She was cast as series regular in Surface as Savannah Barnett.
In 2006, Meester appeared in two films, Flourish and Inside. She also guest starred in an episode of Numbers and appeared in two episodes of House as Ali Johnson, a teenager who has a crush on Gregory House. She then had guest roles on CSI: Miami and Shark, and portrayed the female lead in the horror film Drive - Thru, for which she recorded the song "Inside the Black ''.
In 2007, Meester was cast in The CW 's teen drama series Gossip Girl as Blair Waldorf, based on the book series of the same name by Cecily von Ziegesar. She first auditioned for the role of Serena van der Woodsen, but told the producers that she could better play Blair. However, it was important that Serena was blonde and Blair was brunette, so Meester dyed her hair brown for the role. Her performance was the most critically acclaimed of the show, with Blair being cited as the series ' breakout character. She also garnered media attention for her wardrobe on the show. The series ended after six seasons and 120 episodes. Meester later starred in the television film The Haunting of Sorority Row, and had a role in the ensemble comedy - drama film Remember the Daze. In 2008, she appeared in the horror - thriller film Killer Movie and reprised her role in Entourage singing with Tony Bennett in the episode. That same year, she was a spokesperson for Sunsilk 's Life Ca n't Wait campaign to motivate women to pursue their dreams, and collaborated with Safe Horizon to raise awareness about domestic violence.
Early in 2009, Meester partnered with Reebok to model their new Top Down sneakers. Apart from Gossip Girl, Meester worked with co-star Ed Westwick in a Nikon Coolpix series camera advertisement, and both were the faces of the Korean clothing line ASK Enquired. In April 2009, she released the song "Birthday '' featuring duo Awesome New Republic. A version without her vocals was included on their Rational Geographic Vol. I album. Later that month, Meester signed a recording contract with Universal Republic. Meester provided vocals on Cobra Starship 's song "Good Girls Go Bad '', which peaked at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100. In July, "Body Control '' surfaced on the internet. Meester 's first official single, "Somebody to Love '', featuring R&B singer Robin Thicke, was released for airplay on October 13, 2009, and became available for digital download on October 14, 2009. She recorded a cover of the song "Christmas (Baby Please Come Home) '' for the compilation album A Very Special Christmas 7.
Her second single, "Your Love 's a Drug '', was digitally released on March 30, 2010, and she is also featured on Stephen Jerzak 's song "She Said ''. Meester did a duet with DJ Clinton Sparks on "Front Cut '', which appeared on the internet in February 2011. Lil Wayne worked with her on an unreleased song titled "Make It Rain ''. Jesse McCartney also wrote a song for the album. The album, produced by Polow Da Don, Harvey Mason Jr., and Spencer Nezey, which Meester began working on in March 2009, was initially projected to be released in fall 2009, but was later delayed to early 2010. It was pushed back again to late 2010, and was ultimately shelved.
Meester had small roles in the comedies Date Night and Going the Distance. Also in 2010, she starred with Gwyneth Paltrow and Garrett Hedlund in the country music drama Country Strong. Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe described Meester as the best part of the film, writing, "She 's just doing Reese Witherspoon 's June Carter Cash in Walk the Line with dabs of Miley Cyrus and Kellie Pickler. But it 's not an impersonation; it 's a performance with its own comedy and sweetness. '' Claudia Puig of USA Today was also positive, stating "Meester shows she can do more than play one of Gossip Girl 's privileged Manhattan socialites. '' For the film, Meester recorded a cover of the song "Words I Could n't Say '' by Rascal Flatts as well as "A Little Bit Stronger '' by Sara Evans featured on the film 's soundtrack; a promotional single titled "Summer Girl ''; and a duet with Garrett Hedlund titled "Give In To Me ''. After wrapping, she received a guitar from Tim McGraw and decided to learn how to play it. In October 2010, Meester said she had been working with a band called Check in the Dark and had been writing for the last six months after being inspired by Country Strong. She revealed her influences, "I love Neil Young and Joni Mitchell, that style of music, and as far as songwriting I think that 's where my heart is. ''
In 2010, Meester signed on to be the spokesperson for Herbal Essences hair products. In the same year, she took part in Bulgari 's humanitarian efforts for the Save the Children organization with Isabella Rossellini and Maribel Verdú. She next fronted another Korean brand, this time a beauty campaign for eSpoir. Vera Wang selected her to be the face of the fragrance Lovestruck in 2011, stating that Meester 's "beauty, talent and spirit will inspire all the young women that I hope will enjoy this passionate, new young fragrance. '' The next year, Meester shot a campaign for the followup fragrance, Lovestruck Floral Rush. Italian fashion house Missoni named Meester the face of their spring / summer 2011 campaign.
Meester next starred in the thriller film The Roommate as Rebecca Evans, an obsessive, bipolar woman. Though the film received mainly negative reviews, Meester 's portrayal was praised. Entertainment Weekly found she was the only one to bring "the slightest trace of something fascinating to her role, '' while Los Angeles Times wrote, "(Meester 's) performance often has the feeling of a sports car in neutral. When she punches it for quick changes of tone from manic to wounded or around the bend, she shows how much more she is capable of. '' In the teen comedy film Monte Carlo, Meester portrayed Meg Kelly, Selena Gomez 's stepsister and Katie Cassidy 's friend. Movieline noted, "As in Country Strong, Meester 's crack timing and irresistible poignancy illuminate a part that would leave other actresses simpering themselves off the screen. '' Her final film of the year, The Oranges, opposite Hugh Laurie and Adam Brody, premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival. Meester 's performance was again met with positive reviews, with the San Francisco Chronicle writing that she "succeeds in embodying all that is alluring and alarming about a 24 - year - old woman. ''
In April 2012, Meester announced via Twitter a five - city tour with Check in the Dark, which started on May 29 and ended on June 4, 2012. Reflecting on her past pop collaborations, she said she "loved '' them, but that folk music was "a lot closer to (her) heart. '' In May 2012, she endorsed the Philippine clothing brand Penshoppe 's campaign All Stars. In June, Meester said she and the band had recorded all the songs for an album that served as a demo.
She next starred in the comedy film That 's My Boy, alongside Adam Sandler, Andy Samberg, and Milo Ventimiglia, which was released in June 2012. The film received mainly negative reviews, was nominated for eight Golden Raspberry Awards, and was a box office failure, grossing over $57 million, failing to recoup its production budget of $70 million. In August 2012, Meester, Wilmer Valderrama and Vanessa Curry appeared in house music group The Nomads ' music video for "Addicted to Love ''. She was unavailable to reprise her role as Carrie Bishop in the film Veronica Mars due to scheduling issues, and was replaced by singer Andrea Estella of the band Twin Sister. In October 2013, Biotherm, a French luxury skincare company, announced Meester as its new global ambassador.
In April 2014, her comedy film Life Partners premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival. It follows the friendship between a lesbian (Meester) and a straight woman (Gillian Jacobs) who begin a new relationship. Meester made her Broadway debut in the stage adaptation of John Steinbeck 's novel Of Mice and Men, starring opposite James Franco and Chris O'Dowd. The production filmed and broadcast in cinemas for one night through National Theatre Live, the first Broadway production to be selected by the program. She then appeared opposite Robert Downey, Jr., Robert Duvall, and Vera Farmiga in the David Dobkin - directed comedy - drama film The Judge, which premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival and released in October 2014. Meester next appeared in Like Sunday, Like Rain directed by Frank Whaley, playing the girlfriend of Green Day 's singer Billie Joe Armstrong, and By the Gun, alongside Ben Barnes. She won the Best Actress Award for Like Sunday, Like Rain at the 2014 Williamsburg Independent Film Festival. She was the face of French brand Naf Naf 's autumn / winter 2014 collection.
On September 9, 2014, it was announced her debut album, Heartstrings, would be released independently through her own label, Hotly Wanting, on October 28, 2014. With its style compared to ethereal singer - songwriters such as Tori Amos and Joni Mitchell, the nine - song LP was written by Meester and produced by Jeff Trott. The music video for the eponymous title track "Heartstrings '' was released on October 29, 2014.
In 2015, Meester embarked on a tour to support the album, which began on January 6 in Los Angeles, California and ended on March 2 in San Francisco, California. Later that year, she appeared in advertisements for the Malaysian fashion brand Jimmy Choo. In March 2016, she was cast in Fox 's comedy series Making History as Deborah Revere, a colonial woman from 1775 and the daughter of American artisan Paul Revere. The series was cancelled after one season of nine episodes. Meester had a guest role on The Last Man on Earth. Meester will next star in ABC 's Single Parents alongside Taran Killam.
In July 2011, Meester and her mother, Constance, filed lawsuits against each other over Meester 's financial support of her younger brother, Alexander, who has multiple health problems. Meester 's suit claimed that the money she sent was used by her mother for "cosmetic procedures, '' such as botox and hair extensions. Her mother 's suit made a counterclaim alleging breach of contract and physical abuse. Constance claimed that a verbal contract was in place where Meester had promised $10,000 a month, instead of the $7,500 she received. Her mother also claimed that she was due a larger sum in return for "sacrificing her own happiness '' when she moved Meester to Los Angeles as a child to pursue acting. In court, the judge disregarded this claim. Constance accused her daughter of calling social services fabricating a claim that she was abusing Alexander; investigators interviewed Meester and found no merit in the complaint. In November 2011, Constance dropped the $3 million claim for damages against her daughter. Meester said that she would be willing to pay for her brother 's medical expenses as well as his school tuition, but denied that she agreed to pay $10,000 each month, which she stated was a "ridiculous '' claim. As a result, Meester obtained a default judgment on December 7, 2011. In June 2012, Meester subsequently won the lawsuit, with the judge rejecting her mother 's claims from her previous counter-suit.
Meester resides in Los Angeles. In November 2013, she became engaged to actor Adam Brody, whom she met while filming The Oranges in March 2010. The couple were married in a private ceremony on February 15, 2014. They welcomed their first child, daughter Arlo Day Brody, on August 4, 2015, in Whittier, California.
|
in the case avery v midland county the us supreme court held that | Avery v. Midland County - wikipedia
Avery v. Midland County, 390 U.S. 474 (1968), is a United States Supreme Court case that ruled that local government districts had to be roughly equal in population.
Having already held in 1965 in Reynolds v. Sims that disparities in legislative districts violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, the Supreme Court applied the same logic to local government districts for bodies which also have broad policy - making functions.
The case was brought by Henry Clifton Avery, Jr., more commonly known as Hank Avery, who was Mayor of the City of Midland, Texas. He challenged the districting scheme for the Commissioners Court of Midland County, a five - member county commission with four Commissioners elected in single - member districts and the County Judge elected at - large. One Commissioner 's district, which included almost all the City of Midland, had a population of 67,906, according to 1963 estimates. The others, all rural areas, had populations respectively, of about 852; 414; and 828.
Avery brought his case in Texas District Court in Midland. Three of the four commissioners testified at trial that population was not a major factor in the districting process. The trial court ruled for petitioner that each district under the State 's constitutional apportionment standard should have "substantially the same number of people. '' An intermediate appellate court reversed. The Texas Supreme Court reversed that judgment, holding that under the Federal and State Constitutions the districting scheme was impermissible "for the reasons stated by the trial court. '' It held, however, that the work actually done by the County Commissioners "disproportionately concerns the rural areas '' and that such factors as "number of qualified voters, land areas, geography, miles of county roads, and taxable values '' could justify apportionment otherwise than on a basis of substantially equal populations.
The five justices who struck down local district inequality based their decision on the precedent in Reynolds v. Sims. Writing for the majority, Associate Justice Byron White said, "In a word, institutions of local government have always been a major aspect of our system, and their responsible and responsive operation is today of increasing importance to the quality of life of more and more of our citizens. We therefore see little difference, in terms of the application of the Equal Protection Clause and of the principles of Reynolds v. Sims, between the exercise of state power through legislatures and its exercise by elected officials in the cities, towns, and counties. ''
In dissent, Justice John Marshall Harlan II asserted that the Writ of Certiorari to the Texas Supreme Court was improvidently granted in that the decision was not final, since the Texas court had ordered the County to redistrict. He also resumed his objections to the line of cases started with Reynolds v. Sims saying, "I continue to think that these adventures of the Court in the realm of political science are beyond its constitutional powers, for reasons set forth at length in my dissenting opinion in Reynolds, 377 U.S., at 589 et seq. ''
Justices Fortas and Stewart agreed with Justice Harlan that the Writ of Certiorari was improvidently granted as the decision was not yet final, but disagreed as to their reasoning on the merits of the case.
Justice Thurgood Marshall took no part in the deliberation of the case.
|
when did the stock market crash in the 21st century | List of stock market crashes and bear markets - wikipedia
This is a list of stock market crashes and bear markets in Europe and United States.
|
according to the guinness world records what author has the most published works | Guinness World Records - wikipedia
Guinness World Records, known from its inception in 1955 until 2000 as The Guinness Book of Records and in previous United States editions as The Guinness Book of World Records, is a reference book published annually, listing world records both of human achievements and the extremes of the natural world. The brainchild of Sir Hugh Beaver, the book was co-founded by brothers Norris and Ross McWhirter in Fleet Street, London in August 1954.
The book itself holds a world record, as the best - selling copyrighted book of all time. As of the 2017 edition, it is now in its 62nd year of publication, published in 100 countries and 23 languages. The international franchise has extended beyond print to include television series and museums. The popularity of the franchise has resulted in Guinness World Records becoming the primary international authority on the cataloguing and verification of a huge number of world records; the organisation employs official record adjudicators authorised to verify the authenticity of the setting and breaking of records.
On 10 November 1951, Sir Hugh Beaver, then the managing director of the Guinness Breweries, went on a shooting party in the North Slob, by the River Slaney in County Wexford, Ireland. After missing a shot at a golden plover, he became involved in an argument over which was the fastest game bird in Europe, the golden plover or the red grouse (it is the plover). That evening at Castlebridge House, he realized that it was impossible to confirm in reference books whether or not the golden plover was Europe 's fastest game bird. Beaver knew that there must be numerous other questions debated nightly in pubs throughout Ireland and abroad, but there was no book in the world with which to settle arguments about records. He realised then that a book supplying the answers to this sort of question might prove successful.
Beaver 's idea became reality when Guinness employee Christopher Chataway recommended University friends Norris and Ross McWhirter, who had been running a fact - finding agency in London. The twin brothers were commissioned to compile what became The Guinness Book of Records in August 1954. A thousand copies were printed and given away.
After the founding of The Guinness Book of Records at 107 Fleet Street, London, the first 198 - page edition was bound on 27 August 1955 and went to the top of the British best seller lists by Christmas. The following year, it launched in the US, and sold 70,000 copies. Since then, Guinness World Records has become a household name and the global leader in world records. The book has gone on to become a record breaker in its own right; with sales of more than 100 million copies in 100 different countries and 37 languages, Guinness World Records is the world 's best selling copyright book ever.
Because the book became a surprise hit, many further editions were printed, eventually settling into a pattern of one revision a year, published in September / October, in time for Christmas. The McWhirters continued to compile it for many years. Both brothers had an encyclopedic memory; on the TV series Record Breakers, based upon the book, they would take questions posed by children in the audience on various world records and were able to give the correct answer. Ross McWhirter was assassinated by the Provisional Irish Republican Army in 1975. Following Ross ' assassination, the feature in the show where questions about records posed by children were answered was called Norris on the Spot.
Guinness Superlatives (later Guinness World Records) Limited was formed in 1954 to publish the first book. Sterling Publishing owned the rights to the Guinness book in the US for decades. The group was owned by Guinness PLC and subsequently Diageo until 2001, when it was purchased by Gullane Entertainment. Gullane was itself purchased by HIT Entertainment in 2002. In 2006, Apax Partners purchased HiT and subsequently sold Guinness World Records in early 2008 to the Jim Pattison Group, the parent company of Ripley Entertainment, which is licensed to operate Guinness World Records ' Attractions. With offices in New York City and Tokyo, Guinness World Records ' global headquarters remain in London, while its museum attractions are based at Ripley headquarters in Orlando, Florida, US.
Recent editions have focused on record feats by person competitors. Competitions range from obvious ones such as Olympic weightlifting to the longest egg tossing distances, or for longest time spent playing Grand Theft Auto IV or the number of hot dogs that can be consumed in ten minutes, although eating and alcohol consumption entries are no longer accepted, possibly for fear of litigation. Besides records about competitions, it contains such facts as the heaviest tumour, the most poisonous plant, the shortest river (Roe River), the two longest - running dramas (General Hospital and Guiding Light) in the US, and the world 's most successful salesman (Joe Girard), among others. Many records also relate to the youngest person who achieved something, such as the youngest person to visit all nations of the world, being Maurizio Giuliano.
Each edition contains a selection of the records from the Guinness database, as well as select new records; the criteria for inclusion having changed over the years.
The ousting of Norris McWhirter from his consulting role in 1995 and the subsequent decision by Diageo Plc to sell the Guinness World Records brand have shifted it from a text - oriented to an illustrated reference book ("style over substance ''). The majority of world records are no longer listed in the book or on the website, and can only be determined by a written application to Guinness to ' break ' the record. For those unable to wait the 4 -- 6 weeks for a reply, Guinness will process a ' fast - track ' application for £ 300 (US $450).
The Guinness Book of Records is the world 's most sold copyrighted book, earning it an entry within its own pages. A number of spin - off books and television series have also been produced.
Guinness World Records bestowed the record of "Person with the most records '' on Ashrita Furman of Queens, NY in April 2009. At that time, he held 100 records.
In 2005, Guinness designated 9 November as International Guinness World Records Day to encourage breaking of world records. In 2006, an estimated 100,000 people participated in over 10 countries. Guinness reported 2,244 new records in 12 months, which was a 173 % increase over the previous year. In February 2008, NBC aired The Top 100 Guinness World Records of All Time and Guinness World Records made the complete list available on their website.
For many records, Guinness World Records is the effective authority on the exact requirements for them and with whom records reside, the company providing adjudicators to events to determine the veracity of record attempts. The list of records which the Guinness World Records covers is not fixed; records may be added and also removed for various reasons. The public are invited to submit applications for records, which can be either the bettering of existing records or substantial achievements which could constitute a new record. The company also provides corporate services for companies to "harness the power of record - breaking to deliver tangible success for their businesses. ''
Guinness World Records states several types of records it will not accept for ethical reasons, such as those related to the killing or harming of animals.
Several world records that were once included in the book have been removed for ethical reasons, including concerns for the well being of potential record breakers. For example, following publication of a "heaviest fish '' record, many fish owners overfed their pets beyond the bounds of what was healthy, and therefore such entries were removed. The Guinness Book also dropped records within their "eating and drinking records '' section of Human Achievements in 1991 over concerns that potential competitors could harm themselves and expose the publisher to potential litigation. These changes included the removal of all spirit, wine, and beer drinking records, along with other unusual records for consuming such unlikely things as bicycles and trees. Other records, such as sword swallowing and rally driving (on public roads), were closed from further entry as the current holders had performed beyond what are considered safe human tolerance levels.
There have been instances of closed records being reopened. For example, the sword swallowing record was listed as closed in the 1990 Guinness Book of World Records, but the Guinness World Records Primetime TV show, which started in 1998, accepted three sword swallowing challenges (and so did the 2007 edition of the Guinness World Records onwards). Similarly, the speed beer drinking records which were dropped from the book in 1991, reappeared 17 years later in the 2008 edition, but were moved from the "Human Achievements '' section of the older book to the "Modern Society '' section of the newer edition.
As of 2011, it is required in the guidelines of all "large food '' type records that the item be fully edible, and distributed to the public for consumption, to prevent food wastage.
Chain letters are also not allowed: "Guinness World Records does not accept any records relating to chain letters, sent by post or e-mail. If you receive a letter or an e-mail, which may promise to publish the names of all those who send it on, please destroy it, it is a hoax. No matter if it says that Guinness World Records and the postal service are involved, they are not. ''
For some potential categories, Guinness World Records has declined to list some records that are too difficult or impossible to determine. For example, its website states: "We do not accept any claims for beauty as it is not objectively measurable. ''
On 10 December 2010, Guinness World Records stopped its new "dreadlock '' category after investigation of its first and only female title holder, Asha Mandela, determining it was impossible to judge this record accurately.
Guinness World Records website publishes selected records and is not supposed to be used for the record verification purposes, as it explains: "There are more than 40,000 current records in our database and we try our best to feature as many as possible online. We currently include over 15,000 records online which we update every week, so make sure to check the site regularly! ''. The book printed annually contains only 4000 records. The only way to verify a record is by contacting Guinness, expecting average response time of 2 weeks.
In 1976, a Guinness Book of World Records museum opened in the Empire State Building. Speed shooter Bob Munden then went on tour promoting The Guinness Book of World Records by performing his record fast draws with a standard weight single - action revolver from a western movie type holster. His fastest time for a draw was. 02 seconds. Among exhibits were life - size statues of the world 's tallest man (Robert Wadlow) and world 's largest earth worm, an X-ray photo of a sword swallower, repeated lightning strike victim Roy Sullivan 's hat complete with lightning holes and a pair of gem - studded golf shoes on sale for $6500. The museum closed in 1995.
In more recent years, the Guinness company has permitted the franchising of small museums with displays based on the book, all currently (as of 2010) located in towns popular with tourists: Tokyo, Copenhagen, San Antonio. There were once Guinness World Records museums and exhibitions at the London Trocadero, Bangalore, San Francisco, Myrtle Beach, Orlando, Atlantic City, New Jersey, and Las Vegas, Nevada. The Orlando museum, which closed in 2002, was branded The Guinness Records Experience; the Hollywood, Niagara Falls, Copenhagen, and Gatlinburg, Tennessee museums also previously featured this branding.
Guinness World Records has commissioned various television series documenting world record breaking attempts, including:
Specials:
With the popularity of reality television, Guinness World Records began to market itself as the originator of the television genre, with slogans such as we wrote the book on Reality TV.
In 2008, Guinness World Records released its gamer 's edition in association with Twin Galaxies. The Gamer 's Edition contains 258 pages, over 1236 video game related world records and four interviews including one with Twin Galaxies founder Walter Day. The most recent edition is the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition, 2018, which was released August 29, 2017.
The Guinness Book of British Hit Singles & Albums was published from 2003 to 2012, based on two earlier, separate HiT publications, British Hit Singles and British Hit Albums, which began in 1977. It was effectively replaced (in singles part) by the Virgin Book of British Hit Singles from 2007 onward.
A video game, Guinness World Records: The Video Game, was developed by TT Fusion and released for Nintendo DS, Wii and iOS in November 2008.
In 2012, Warner Bros. announced the development of a live - action film version of Guinness World Records with Daniel Chun as scriptwriter. The film version will apparently use the heroic achievements of record holders as the basis for a narrative that should have global appeal.
|
who is the all time leading scorer in mls history | Major League Soccer records and statistics - wikipedia
The following is a compilation of notable Major League Soccer records and statistics for teams and players.
-- Minor honors -- Canadian teams can not participate in the U.S. Open Cup -- American teams can not participate in the Canadian Championship -- 2008 Canadian Championship was won by Montreal Impact, a former NASL team not the current MLS Montreal Impact -- Defunct
Bold indicates active player. All statistics are for regular season only.
Bold indicates ongoing season. All statistics are for regular season only.
Through completion of 2017 regular season.
-- Included shootout wins in seasons 1996 -- 1999. -- Included shootout losses in seasons 1996 -- 1999. -- Shoot - out wins -- Based on combined conference results before single format for playoff qualification was inaugurated in 2007.
-- Included shootout wins in seasons 1996 -- 1999. -- Included shootout losses in seasons 1996 -- 1999.
-- Points earned during shootout era
Wins
-- Included shootout wins in seasons 1996 -- 1999.
Losses
-- Included shootout losses in seasons 1996 -- 1999.
Ties
-- No ties in seasons 1996 -- 1999.
Note: During 1996 -- 1999, there were no ties; if a game was tied at the end of regulation time, it was decided by a shootout.
Note: During 1996 -- 1999, there were no ties; if a game was tied at the end of regulation time, it was decided by a shootout.
|
what type of game is zelda breath of the wild | The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild - wikipedia
The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild is an action - adventure game developed and published by Nintendo. The tenth game in the main Legend of Zelda series, it was released for the Nintendo Switch and Wii U consoles on March 3, 2017. The story follows Link, who awakens from a hundred - year slumber to a mysterious voice that guides him to defeat Calamity Ganon before it can destroy the kingdom of Hyrule. The game is played in an open world environment. Players are given little instruction and can explore freely: common tasks include collecting multi-purpose items to aid in various objectives or solving puzzles and side - quests in order to obtain rewards. Breath of the Wild 's world is unstructured, designed to reward experimentation and allows the story to be completed in a nonlinear fashion.
Development of Breath of the Wild lasted five years. According to producer Eiji Aonuma, the team wanted to reinvent the series; thus they introduced new elements, such as a detailed physics engine, high - definition visuals, and voice acting. The game was planned for release in 2015 as a Wii U exclusive, but was delayed twice due to problems with the physics engine. Breath of the Wild was a launch game for the Switch as well as the final Nintendo game for the Wii U. Post-release downloadable content was also developed, featuring new gameplay modes and features.
Breath of the Wild received critical acclaim for its open - ended gameplay and attention to detail. Many reviewers called it a landmark in open - world design, despite minor criticism for its frame rate and technical performance at launch. It won numerous awards, including several Game of the Year awards, and many critics have described it as one of the greatest video games of all time. It is the bestselling game in the series, selling over eight million copies on the Switch and over one million on the Wii U within a year.
Conversely to previous Legend of Zelda games, Breath of the Wild features a full open world, twelve times larger than the overworld in Twilight Princess, with less emphasis on defined entrances and exits to areas. Similar to the original Legend of Zelda, the player begins with little instruction, and is allowed to explore freely at their own pace. Breath of the Wild introduces a consistent physics engine to the Zelda series, letting players approach problems in different ways rather than trying to find a single solution. The game also integrates a "chemistry engine '' that defines the physical properties of most objects and governs how they interact with the player and one another. These design approaches result in a generally unstructured and interactive world that rewards experimentation and allows for nonlinear completion of the story.
Players explore the kingdom of Hyrule while controlling Link. Link can perform many actions such as running, climbing, swimming, and gliding with a paraglider, although he is limited by his stamina. Unlike previous Zelda games, where Link obtains key weapons for permanent use, the player procures items from the environment, including weapons, bows, and shields, which break after excessive use. Many items have multiple uses; for example, wooden weapons and armor can be set to light fires or collect incoming enemy arrows, and shields can be used as makeshift snowboards. Players can also obtain various food and materials, such as meat from hunted animals, wild fruit, and parts from defeated enemies. By cooking combinations of food or materials, the player can create meals and elixirs that can replenish Link 's health and stamina, or provide temporary status bonuses such as increased strength or weather resistance. Link 's Sheikah Slate can be used to mark waypoints on a map and take pictures. Early in the game, multiple rune powers are installed onto the Sheikah Slate, including remote bombs; Magnesis, which can manipulate metal objects; Cryonis, which forms ice blocks on watery surfaces; and Stasis, which temporarily stops objects in time, allowing the player to build kinetic energy which is released once time resumes. In combat, players can lock onto targets for more precise attacks, while certain button combinations allow for advanced offensive and defensive moves. Players may also defeat enemies without weapons, such as rolling boulders off cliffs into enemy camps.
Activating towers and shrines adds waypoints that the player may warp to at any time. Activating towers also adds the surrounding territory to the player 's map, although location names are not added until the player explores that area. Shrines mostly replace the series ' traditional dungeons, instead consisting of smaller challenges ranging from puzzles to battles against robotic opponents. Clearing these shrines earns Spirit Orbs, which can be traded at various "Goddess Statues '' for additional health or stamina. Also scattered across Hyrule are various small puzzles that reveal the hiding places of Koroks; solving them earns Korok Seeds, which can be traded in to expand inventory size for weapons, shields, and bows. Towns serve as hotspots for main quests, sidequests and shops selling various materials and clothing. Players also encounter hikers or other travelers who offer sidequests, hints, or conversation. Weather is dynamic and regularly changes. For example, colder environments damage Link unless he wears warm clothing or eats certain food, but players may take advantage of weather by throwing metal objects at enemies during thunderstorms to attract lightning.
Players who own the correct Amiibo figures may scan them against their console to summon items, or call Link 's horse Epona from previous Zelda games and Wolf Link from Twilight Princess.
Breath of the Wild introduces a world marked by recurring conflict between the kingdom of Hyrule and the evil Calamity Ganon. Each time Ganon resurfaced, he was defeated by Princess Zelda, the descendant of the Goddess Hylia, with the help of her champion. Over time, Hyrule matured into an advanced civilization. Using their knowledge of Sheikah technology, they prepared for Ganon 's inevitable return by creating four massive animalistic machines called Divine Beasts and an army of autonomous, mechanical weapons called Guardians. Upon Ganon 's return, four great warriors were given the title of Champion and tasked with piloting one of the Divine Beasts to attack and weaken him, while the princess and her hero used the Guardians to protect them while the hero struck Ganon down with the Master Sword, allowing the princess to seal Ganon away.
10,000 years later, the kingdom of Hyrule had lost its technological greatness and reverted to a medieval state. Upon reading their ancestors ' prophecies, they learned the signs of Ganon 's return and recovered the Divine Beasts and Guardians after excavating land throughout the kingdom. Key members of Hyrule 's various races -- Daruk, a warrior of the mountainous Goron, Mipha, a princess of the aquatic Zora, Revali, the most skilled archer among the bird - like Rito, and Urbosa, the chief of the desert - dwelling Gerudo -- were assembled to pilot the Divine Beasts as Zelda 's Champions, while Princess Zelda and Link, her appointed knight, attempted to stop the evil using the same strategy as their ancestors. However, Ganon appeared from beneath Hyrule Castle and possessed the Guardians and Divine Beasts, turning them against Hyrule. In the "Great Calamity '' which followed, King Rhoam, the Champions, and everyone in the Castle were killed, the castle town was destroyed, and Link was gravely wounded defending Zelda. Zelda survived, and after having Link taken to safety and hiding the Master Sword, faced Ganon alone, using her magic to restrain him within the castle walls.
100 years later, an amnesiac Link awakens from within the Shrine of Resurrection. A mysterious female voice guides him to the now ruined Hyrule where he meets an old man who, after helping Link adjust to the ruined world, reveals himself to be the restless spirit of King Rhoam, the last King of Hyrule. The king explains to Link that Ganon has been sealed in Hyrule Castle for one hundred years, but has continued to strengthen, and the king pleads for Link to defeat him before he breaks free and destroys the world.
Link visits the locations of the Divine Beasts, regaining his memories as the respective races of the former champions help him board the Divine Beasts to purge them of the monsters Ganon had created. The champions ' spirits are released along with their Divine Beasts, and after offering their powers to Link, pilot them once again, preparing them to attack Ganon once Link storms Hyrule Castle. As Link travels the world, he also comes across key areas that he and Zelda traveled to in the past, eventually regaining all his memories. After obtaining the Master Sword from the Lost Woods, Link defeats Ganon with help from the Divine Beasts, but Ganon survives and manifests himself in his true form: an ethereal malicious monster called Dark Beast Ganon. Using Zelda 's Bow of Light, Link defeats Ganon and Zelda seals him away, restoring peace to Hyrule and allowing the spirits of King Rhoam and the champions to finally depart. In the epilogue, Zelda, while noting that Ganon is gone for the time being, realizes that Hyrule must be rebuilt and that she and Link must begin the process themselves. If the player fulfills certain conditions, they are able to unlock an alternative ending of the game.
The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild was developed by Nintendo EPD for the Wii U and Nintendo Switch consoles. According to series producer Eiji Aonuma, the development team aimed to "rethink the conventions of Zelda ''. Following the release of The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword in 2011, Aonuma said he began receiving comments from players who wished to see a more interconnected map in order to explore the locales between the gameplay areas. In 2013, Nintendo experimented with nonlinear, open - world gameplay in The Legend of Zelda: A Link Between Worlds. At the 2014 Electronic Entertainment Expo, Aonuma said he planned to reform dungeons and puzzles, two of the series ' major gameplay elements, and redesign the storyline to allow players to reach the end of the game without progressing through it. As Nintendo had never worked on a modern open - world game before, they took influence from the development of The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim.
Prior to starting full development, the developers designed a playable 2D prototype similar to the original Zelda to experiment with physics - based puzzles. The final game uses a modified version of the Havok physics engine. At the 2017 Game Developers Conference, Fujibayashi, technical director Takuhiro Dohta, and art director Satoru Takizawa held a presentation titled "Change and Constant -- Breaking Conventions with The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild '', during which they demoed the prototype. Aonuma called the physics engine in Breath of the Wild a major development for the Zelda series, saying that it "underpins everything in the world '' and makes things operate in a "logical and realistic way '', allowing players to approach puzzles and problems in different ways. He expanded on the difficulty in developing this system, recalling how one day during development he entered an area in the game and found that all the objects had been blown away by the wind.
Eiji Aonuma, producer
The game was built and demonstrated with touchscreen features for the Wii U, but the developers found that looking away from the main screen distracted from the game. The features were removed when the game moved to tandem development across the Wii U and Nintendo Switch. The Wii U GamePad also affected animation; though Link is canonically left - handed, he is right - handed in the game to match the GamePad 's control scheme, which has its sword - swinging buttons on its right side. The Switch version performs better than the Wii U release when docked to a television, though when undocked, both run at the same resolution. The Switch version also has higher - quality environmental sounds. Aonuma stated that the art design was inspired by gouache and en plein air art to help identify the vast world. The game 's landscape was based on locations in and around Kyoto, the hometown of game director Hidemaro Fujibayashi, and was partially designed by Monolith Soft, who assisted with topographical level design.
Eiji Aonuma, producer
Breath of the Wild was the first main series Zelda game to use voice acting in cutscenes, although Link remains a silent protagonist. Aonuma was affected by the first time he heard a character with a human voice in - game, and wanted to leave a similar impression on players. The team decided to record voice - overs for all cutscenes instead of only the key scenes, as originally planned. Nintendo provided voice - overs and subtitles in eight languages. Initially, players were not able to mix and match the languages of voices and subtitles; however, Nintendo released an update in May 2017 that allowed players to choose the voice - over language. The game went gold on February 3, 2017, with Nintendo holding a wrap party to celebrate. Coinciding with the game 's launch in Taiwan and South Korea in early 2018, Nintendo introduced a patch worldwide adding traditional and simplified Chinese and Korean translations for Nintendo Switch version only and not available for Wii U because Wii U never release in Taiwan, Hong Kong and South Korea.
The original score was composed by a team consisting of Manaka Kataoka, Yasuaki Iwata, and Hajime Wakai. Kataoka and Wakai had previously worked on the series respectively with Spirit Tracks and Wind Waker, while Iwata was new to the series. The soundtrack was primarily written and performed on a piano, with a focus on ambient music and sounds rather than the melodic and upbeat music in previous Zelda titles. According to Wakai, this helped add "authenticity '' to the game 's environments and scenery, and was taken on as a challenge by the rest of the sound team.
Aonuma announced a new entry for Nintendo 's Wii U console in January 2013 during the company 's regular online presentation. The game, he continued, would challenge the series ' conventions, such as the requirement that players complete dungeons in a set order. The next year, Nintendo introduced the game 's high - definition, cel - shaded visual style with in - game footage at its June 2014 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) press event. Once planned for release in 2015, the game was delayed early in the year and did not show at that year 's E3. Zelda series creator Shigeru Miyamoto reaffirmed that the game was still set for release on the Wii U, despite the development of the console that would be called the Nintendo Switch. The game was delayed again in April 2016 due to problems with its physics engine. With its new 2017 release date, the game would launch for both the Wii U and Switch consoles simultaneously on March 3, 2017. Nintendo let attendees play the game 's Wii U version at E3 2016, where they also announced its subtitle, Breath of the Wild. CNET said that the showing of the game at the convention would "take your breath away '', and Breath of the Wild was the most talked - about E3 2016 game on social media according to Brandwatch, a social media monitoring platform. It was also listed among the best games at E3 by Eurogamer, GameSpot, and GamesRadar+.
At a Nintendo Switch presentation in January 2017, Nintendo provided a new trailer announcing that the game would be released as a launch game for the Switch. The Switch version of the game was available in limited "Special Edition '' and "Master Edition '' bundles, which both included a Sheikah Eye coin, a Calamity Ganon tapestry with world map, a soundtrack CD, and a themed carrying case for the Switch. The Master Edition also included a figurine based on the Master Sword. An "Explorer 's Edition '' of the game was released for the Switch on November 23, 2017, which came with a two - sided map and a 100 - page book containing story information. Fils - Aimé stated that the game would be the last Nintendo - developed game released for the Wii U. In Europe, the game used unique packing artwork. A five - disc, 211 - track soundtrack was released in Japan on April 25, 2018.
A season pass featuring two bundled downloadable content (DLC) packs was released: The Master Trials and The Champions ' Ballad. The Master Trials was released on June 30, 2017, and adds gameplay modes, features, and items. In the Trial of the Sword challenge, Link fights through around 45 rooms of enemies and must finish each room before proceeding. Link begins with no equipment, but is rewarded with a glowing Master Sword that has greater durability and possesses a doubled damage stat if they complete the challenge. The pack also adds an option to play the game at a higher difficulty level, which adds ranks and raises the ranks of enemies. The enemies are more perceptive when Link sneaks near them and slowly regenerate health in battle. New floating platforms throughout the land offer enemies to battle and treasure as a reward. The Hero 's Path feature draws the player 's path on the game 's map, designed to help players determine places they have not visited. The player can also find the hidden Travel Medallion to save Link 's current position as a single waypoint to which the player can transport Link at any time. New items include the Korok Mask, which helps the player find Korok locations, and other themed cosmetics related to previous Zelda games.
The Champions ' Ballad was released on December 7, 2017, with a trailer presented at The Game Awards 2017 exhibiting the new content. The expansion pack adds a new dungeon, original story, gear, and additional challenges to the game. It also introduces the Master Cycle Zero, a motorcycle - like vehicle that Link can ride after players complete the pack 's additional content.
Breath of the Wild was released to critical acclaim, with some calling the game a masterpiece and one of the greatest video games of all time. On the review aggregator Metacritic, Breath of the Wild scores 96 / 100 for the WiiU version and 97 / 100 for the Switch version, is the highest rated game in 2017, and holds the largest number of perfect reviews of any game on the website. Major publications including IGN, GameSpot, Polygon, Entertainment Weekly, Eurogamer, Electronic Gaming Monthly, GamesRadar+, and Game Informer all ranked Breath of the Wild first in their respective lists of the best video games of 2017.
Breath of the Wild 's open - world implementation and other gameplay mechanics were widely praised by critics. Jose Otero of IGN praised the game 's combat and open world as "a masterclass in open - world design '', and "a wonderful sandbox full of mystery, dangling dozens upon dozens of tantalizing things in front of you that just beg to be explored. '' GameSpot called it "the most impressive game '' Nintendo had ever made, appreciating the way that it "takes designs and mechanics perfected in other games and reworks them for its own purposes to create something wholly new, but also something that still feels quintessentially like a Zelda game. '' The review declared that the game is "both a return to form and a leap into uncharted territory, and it exceeds expectations on both fronts. '' Edge stated that "the magic of being given all the tools in the opening hour is the knowledge that the solution to any problem is already at your disposal, and you can always change tack. '' The publication praised the game world, saying that it is "an absolute, and unremitting, pleasure to get lost in ''. The publication awarded the game a perfect score, making it the 29th game (including retrospective perfect scores) to earn that score from the publication. Breath of the Wild became the 24th game to receive a perfect score from Famitsu. Kyle Orland of Ars Technica recalled, "after spending a week utterly immersed in Nintendo 's open - world reimagining of the tried - and - true Zelda formula, it 's hard to return to the more formulaic entries of the franchise 's past. '' Arthur Gies of Polygon, however, considered Breath of the Wild the most challenging in the series.
Reviewers lauded the game 's sense of detail and immersion while criticizing its frame rate dips and low resolution of 900p. Kotaku recommended playing the game without its on - screen minimap and indicators, in praise of the indirect cues that contextually indicate the same information, such as Link shivering when it 's cold or waypoints visually appearing in the distance when using the scope. Journalists commented on unexpected permutations of interactions between Link, villagers, pets, and enemies, and a tribute to former Nintendo president Satoru Iwata, who died during the game 's development. These serendipitous moments proved popular on social media, according to Chris Plante of The Verge. He predicted that more open world games would abandon linear tasks in favor of Breath of the Wild 's format, as game publishers would appreciate the free marketing. Gaming journalist Jim Sterling was more critical of the game than most, giving it a 7 / 10 score. He criticized the difficulty, weapon durability, and general level design, but praised the game 's variety of content and open - world mechanics. Post-release updates later addressed some criticism regarding the game 's technical performance and unstable frames per second (FPS) experienced at launch.
The game 's success sparked increased interest in the Wii U emulator Cemu, as the emulator 's developers rapidly updated the software to run the game at a smooth frame rate within weeks of its release.
Breath of the Wild broke Nintendo 's launch game sales records in multiple regions. The game competed with the open - world game Horizon Zero Dawn in its launch week, which it outsold in Japan (around 200,000 copies). While Breath of the Wild was only the second bestselling retail game in the UK in its week of release, selling less than Horizon, it was the third largest Zelda series release there, behind Wind Waker and Twilight Princess. Nintendo reported that Breath of the Wild sold more than one million copies in the United States in March 2017, 925,000 copies of which were for the Switch version, attaining a 100 % attach rate for the console. It was also the second bestselling retail game in the US in March, only behind Tom Clancy 's Ghost Recon Wildlands. By the end of March, Nintendo reported it had sold 3.84 million copies of Breath of the Wild worldwide. The Wii U version sold 1.08 million units and the Switch version sold 2.76 million units, surpassing the Switch 's global sales of 2.74 million for the same period. Nintendo 's president Tatsumi Kimishima said that the attach rate of Breath of the Wild to the Switch was "unprecedented ''. By March 2018, total worldwide sales of the Switch version of the game exceeded 8.48 million, making it the bestselling game in the series.
Breath of the Wild received recognition from the gaming awards circuit a year before its release. Following its demonstration at E3 2016, the game received several accolades from the Game Critics Awards, as well recognition from publications such as IGN and Destructoid. It was also listed among the best games at E3 by Eurogamer, GameSpot, and GamesRadar+. In late 2016, Breath of the Wild received two awards at Gamescom, and won the award for Most Anticipated Game at The Game Awards 2016. A week prior to release, Peter Brown of GameSpot deemed Breath of the Wild "a strong contender '' for the best Zelda game.
After its release, Breath of the Wild performed considerably well at The Game Awards 2017, where it won in multiple categories including Game of the Year, Best Game Direction, and Best Action / Adventure Game, while nominated for Best Art Direction, Best Score / Music, and Best Audio Design. The game also performed extremely well at the 2018 DICE Awards, where it won Game of the Year among other categories, and also received considerable recognition from other awards organizations.
Notes
Citations
|
how many grams of sugar in ine teaspoon | Sugar packet - wikipedia
A sugar packet is a delivery method for one ' serving ' of sugar. Sugar packets are commonly supplied in restaurants, coffeehouses and tea houses in preference to sugar bowls or sugar dispensers for reasons of neatness, sanitation, spill control, and to some extent portion control.
A typical sugar packet in the United States contains 2 to 4 grams of sugar. Some sugar packets in countries such as Poland contain 5 to 10 grams of sugar. Sugar packet sizes, shapes, and weights differ throughout different areas of the world.
The sugar cube was used in restaurants until it began to be replaced directly after World War II. At this time, machines were made that could produce small packets of sugar for nearly half the cost.
The sugar packet was invented by Benjamin Eisenstadt, the founder of Cumberland Packing or better known today as the Sweet ' N Low company. Eisenstadt had been a tea bag factory worker, and became irritated by the task of refilling and unclogging all the sugar dispensers in his Brooklyn cafeteria across from the Brooklyn Navy Yard. He did not patent the idea, and after discussions with larger sugar companies, lost market share.
Because a gram of any carbohydrate contains 4 nutritional calories (also referred to as "food calories '' or kilo - calories)), a typical four gram sugar packet has 16 nutritional calories.
The hobby of collecting sugar packets is called sucrology. Collectors can, for example, focus on the variety of types of sugar or brand names. Sugar packets are also handy forms of advertisement for businesses.
|
when was the last time south carolina football was ranked | South Carolina Gamecocks football - wikipedia
The South Carolina Gamecocks football program represents the University of South Carolina in the sport of American football. The Gamecocks compete in the Football Bowl Subdivision of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the Eastern Division of the Southeastern Conference. Will Muschamp currently serves as the team 's head coach. They play their home games at Williams - Brice Stadium. Currently, it is the 20th largest stadium in college football.
USC 's SEC tenure has been highlighted by an SEC East title in 2010, Final Top - 25 rankings in 2000, 2001, 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013 (AP No. 19, No. 13, No. 22, No. 9, No. 8 and No. 4), and four wins over Top - 5 SEC opponents, (No. 4 Ole Miss in 2009, No. 1 Alabama in 2010, No. 5 Georgia in 2012 and at No. 5 Missouri in 2013).
From 1953 through 1970, the Gamecocks played in the Atlantic Coast Conference, winning the 1969 ACC championship and finishing No. 15 in the 1958 final AP poll. From 1971 through 1991, they competed as a major independent, producing 1980 Heisman Trophy winner George Rogers, six bowl appearances, and Final Top - 25 rankings in 1984 and 1987 (AP No. 11 and No. 15).
The Gamecocks have produced a National Coach of the Year in Joe Morrison, three SEC coaches of the year in Lou Holtz (2000) and Steve Spurrier (2005, 2010), and one ACC coach of the year in Paul Dietzel (1969). They also have four members of the College Football Hall of Fame in former players George Rogers and Sterling Sharpe, and former coaches Lou Holtz and Steve Spurrier.
Carolina fielded its first football team on Christmas Eve, in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1892 versus Furman. At that time the football team was not sanctioned by the University. They provided their own uniforms and paid their own train fare in order to participate in the game. They were nicknamed the "College Boys '' by The News and Courier and their supporters wore garnet and black.
USC won its first game in its third season, on November 2, 1895 against Columbia AA. The squad designated their first head coach, W.H. "Dixie '' Whaley, the following year. The 1896 season also saw the inaugural game against arch - rival Clemson on November 12, which Carolina won 12 -- 6. From 1902 to 1903, coach Bob Williams led the Gamecocks to a 14 -- 3 record.
In 1902, South Carolina beat Clemson, coached by John Heisman, for the first time since 1896, the first year of the rivalry. "The Carolina fans that week were carrying around a poster with the image of a tiger with a gamecock standing on top of it, holding the tiger 's tail as if he was steering the tiger by the tail '', Jay McCormick said. "Naturally, the Clemson guys did n't take too kindly to that, and on Wednesday and again on Thursday, there were sporadic fistfights involving brass knuckles and other objects and so forth, some of which resulted, according to the newspapers, in blood being spilled and persons having to seek medical assistance. After the game on Thursday, the Clemson guys frankly told the Carolina students that if you bring this poster, which is insulting to us, to the big parade on Friday, you 're going to be in trouble. And naturally, of course, the Carolina students brought the poster to the parade. If you give someone an ultimatum and they 're your rival, they 're going to do exactly what you told them not to do. ''
As expected, another brawl broke out before both sides agreed to mutually burn the poster in an effort to defuse tensions. The immediate aftermath resulted in the stoppage of the rivalry until 1909.
1903 also heralded the program 's first 8 - win season with an overall record of 8 -- 2. Future senator and former star player for South Carolina and UVA, Christie Benet led the Gamecocks from 1904 to 1905 and 1908 to 1909. 1904 's captain Gene Oliver played against Georgia with a broken jaw.
The Board of Trustees banned participation in football for the 1906 season after the faculty complained that the coarseness of chants and cheers, yelled by the students at football games, were not gentlemanly in nature. Within months The Board of Trustees reversed their decision after hearing pleas, and receiving petitions, from students and alumni alike. Play was allowed to resume in 1907. A hastily assembled football team, coached by Board of Trustees member Douglas McKay, competed in an abbreviated season that same year, and the squad won all three games.
In 1910, South Carolina hired John Neff from UVA. Norman Edgerton coached the team from 1912 to 1915. A.B. Stoney played on the team. Yet another UVA grad, W. Rice Warren coached the 1916 team. Frank Dobson led the war - torn 1918 team to a 2 -- 1 -- 1 record.
Coach Sol Metzger led the 1921 team to a 5 -- 1 -- 2 record, losing only to Billy Laval 's Furman. Branch Bocock coached the 1925 and 1926 teams.
Billy Laval, a Columbia, South Carolina native, came to USC from Furman. Laval accepted a three - year contract worth $8,000 per year to coach the Gamecocks, which made him the highest - paid coach in the state. From 1928 to 1934, he led the Gamecocks to seven consecutive winning seasons and a 39 -- 26 -- 6 overall record, which included a perfect 3 -- 0 Southern Conference campaign in 1933. Laval is one of only two South Carolina football coaches to have produced seven consecutive winning seasons (Steve Spurrier is the other, from 2008 - 2014). In 2009, The State called him "the greatest collegiate coach '' in the history of South Carolina. Laval left USC after six seasons to coach multiple sports at Emory and Henry College, partly due to differences over his contract with the USC athletics department. 1934 was the first season that Williams - Brice Stadium was used. Prior to this, South Carolina played its home games on the school 's campus.
Don McCallister led the Gamecocks for three seasons before being replaced. His final record is 13 -- 20 -- 1.
Under coach Rex Enright, who came to USC from his post as an assistant coach at Georgia, the Gamecocks produced another undefeated Southern Conference season, (4 -- 0 -- 1), in 1941. After the 1942 season, Enright joined the United States Navy serving as a lieutenant and working mostly in their athletic program in the United States. After three head coaches (James P. Moran, Williams Newton, John D. McMillan) who had gone 10 -- 10 -- 5 combined in four years with one bowl appearance, Enright returned to the Gamecocks in 1946 as head football coach, and remained until 1955 when he resigned for health reasons. He hired Warren Giese as his successor, and continued as athletic director until 1960. The Rex Enright Athletic Center on the South Carolina campus was named for him and the Rex Enright Award (also known as the Captain 's Cup) given to the football captains of the previous season. Enright gave - up his coaching duties in 1955 due to reasons related to poor health. Enright retired with the distinction of being the head coach with the most wins and losses in school history (64 -- 69 -- 7), and he still retains the record for most school losses and is 2nd in wins.
Warren Giese, who was previously an assistant coach at Maryland, was hired as head coach in 1956, and he led the Gamecocks to a 28 -- 21 -- 1 overall record in his 5 - year tenure. Giese employed a conservative, run - first game strategy, but he enthusiastically adopted the two - point conversion when it was made legal in 1958. That year, he also correctly predicted the rise of special teams after the NCAA relaxed its player substitution rules. The Giese era included two 7 -- 3 campaigns (1956 and 1958), an 18 -- 15 -- 1 ACC record, and a 27 -- 21 victory over Darrell Royal 's 1957 Texas squad in Austin. Griese was replaced after a 3 -- 6 season in 1960.
Marvin Bass was hired away from Georgia Tech, where he served as defensive coordinator, as the Gamecocks head football coach. He posted a 17 -- 29 -- 4 record in his four - year tenure and was replaced after five seasons due to the team 's struggles and low fan support.
Paul Dietzel arrived in Columbia prior to the 1966 season, having previously coached at LSU, where he won a national championship, and Army.
In 1969, he led the Gamecocks to an ACC championship and an appearance in the Peach Bowl. As a result, Dietzel was named ACC Coach of the Year that season. Soon after, South Carolina left the ACC and became an Independent program prior to the 1971 season. Dietzel finished his USC tenure with a 42 -- 53 -- 1 overall record (18 -- 10 -- 1 ACC). In addition to the 1969 ACC title, Dietzel 's legacies at Carolina include his improvement of athletic facilities and his penning of a new fight song, which is still used to this day ("The Fighting Gamecocks Lead the Way ''). Amid growing fan unrest after an upset loss to Duke, Dietzel announced that he would resign at the end of the season, which ended in a 4 -- 7 record.
Jim Carlen, previously head football coach at Texas Tech and West Virginia, took over as coach in 1975. Under his leadership the program achieved a measure of national prominence. Carlen led the Gamecocks to three bowl games, coached 1980 Heisman Trophy winner George Rogers, and produced a 45 -- 36 -- 1 record during his tenure. The Carlen Era included consecutive 8 -- 4 finishes (1979 -- 1980) and only one losing season in seven years. In addition, the 1980 Gamecocks defeated a heavily favored Michigan squad coached by the legendary Bo Schembechler. The 17 -- 14 victory in Ann Arbor, which made Rogers a household name, was one of the biggest wins in both the Carlen Era and the program 's history. Carlen retired from coaching after seven seasons at USC.
Joe Morrison was hired in 1983 following a one - year stint by Richard Bell. After a 5 -- 6 mark in his first year, the "Man in Black '' led South Carolina to a 10 -- 2 record, No. 11 final AP Poll ranking, and a Gator Bowl appearance in 1984. It was also before the 1984 season began that the team removed the Astroturf that had been in place at Williams - Brice Stadium since the early 1970s and reinstalled the natural grass that remains today. The 1984 season included victories over Georgia, Pittsburgh, Notre Dame, Florida State, and Clemson. The 1984 defense was called the "Fire Ant '' defense. In 1987, the Gamecocks posted an 8 -- 4 record, No. 15 Final AP Poll ranking, and another Gator Bowl trip. The 1987 Gamecocks were led by the "Black Death '' defense, which held seven opponents to 10 or fewer points and yielded just 141 points in 12 games played. Morrison coached his last game in the 1988 Liberty Bowl, as he died of a heart attack on February 5, 1989 at the age of 51. He finished his USC tenure with a 39 -- 28 -- 2 overall record, three bowl appearances, and three seasons with 8 or more wins. Due to his on - field success and "Man in Black '' image, Morrison remains a popular figure in Gamecock lore. Morrison also began the tradition at Carolina, with his first game in 1983, of the pre-game entrance of the football team to the beginning of Also sprach Zarathustra, the theme from the film "2001: A Space Odyssey ''. This is still part of the Carolina football game day experience over 30 years later.
Following Morrison 's death, Sparky Woods was hired away from Appalachian State as head coach in 1989 and coached the Gamecocks until the end of the 1993 season. He posted winning seasons in 1989 and 1990, but could not produce another winning campaign during his tenure. Woods led the USC football program through the transition to the SEC and has the distinction of being South Carolina 's first head coach in SEC play, as the Gamecocks entered the conference in 1992. Woods ' overall record at South Carolina was 25 -- 27 -- 3.
Brad Scott left his post as offensive coordinator at Florida State and took over as the Gamecocks head coach in December 1993. Despite modest preseason expectations, he led USC to a 7 -- 5 record and a Carquest Bowl victory over West Virginia in his first season. The bowl win was the first post-season victory in the program 's long history. However, Scott was unable to capitalize on his early success. USC only had one non-losing record in SEC play during his tenure, only one other winning overall record, and won only six games in his final two seasons. Scott was fired by athletics director Mike McGee after a 1 -- 10 season in 1998 in which the Gamecocks lost their final ten games of the season. Scott 's final record at South Carolina was 23 -- 32 -- 1 in five seasons.
Former Notre Dame head coach Lou Holtz came out of retirement and was hired as USC 's head coach in 1999. He inherited a relatively young SEC program (joined in 1992) that posted only three winning seasons from 1990 to 1998. USC won just a single game the year before Holtz 's arrival and, subsequently, went 0 -- 11 in his inaugural campaign.
It did n't take long for Holtz to improve the Gamecocks ' fortunes, however, as he engineered 8 -- 4 and 9 -- 3 records in the 2000 and 2001 seasons. In addition, USC won consecutive Outback Bowls over Ohio State and produced the most successful two - year run in program history (at the time), going 17 -- 7 overall and 10 -- 6 in SEC play. The 2000 and 2001 campaigns also saw USC 's return to the polls, as the Gamecocks turned in No. 19 and No. 13 rankings in the Final AP ballots for those years. After consecutive 5 -- 7 finishes in 2002 and 2003 (in which the team was ranked in the Top 25 during both seasons), Holtz ended his USC tenure on a winning note with a 6 -- 5 record in 2004 before retiring again. Holtz finished with a 33 -- 37 overall record at South Carolina.
In 2005, USC was placed on 3 years probation by the NCAA for actions during the coaching tenure of Lou Holtz, all of which were self - reported by the school. Five of these actions were considered major violations, and included such activities as impermissible tutoring and non-voluntary summer workouts as well as a "lack of institutional control ''. Coach Holtz pointed out following the close of the investigation, "There was no money involved. No athletes were paid. There were no recruiting inducements. No cars. No jobs offered. No ticket scandal, etc. ''
Former Washington Redskins head coach Steve Spurrier, who achieved fame after a very successful stint as head coach at his alma mater Florida, was hired in 2005 to replace the retiring Holtz. Spurrier led the Gamecocks to a 7 -- 5 record and Independence Bowl appearance in his first season. As a result, Spurrier was named the 2005 SEC Coach of the Year. The 2006 season saw continued success under Spurrier, as the Gamecocks posted an 8 -- 5 record and a victory over Houston in the Liberty Bowl. South Carolina posted consecutive 7 -- 6 records in 2008 and 2009, returning to postseason play with appearances in the Outback Bowl and PapaJohns.com Bowl.
In 2010, Spurrier scored another first with the first SEC Eastern Division Championship in school history. On November 13, 2010, the Gamecocks defeated Florida 36 -- 14 to clinch the division. Prior to this contest, USC had an all - time record of 0 -- 12 at The Swamp. Freshman RB Marcus Lattimore rushed for 212 yards and 3 touchdowns in the game. Spurrier got his first win in Gainesville as a Gamecock, received a "Gatorade Bath '' from his players, and became the first coach to win the SEC East with two different teams. Earlier in the season, the Gamecocks posted the program 's first win over a No. 1 team in program history, with a 35 -- 21 victory over top - ranked, defending national champion Alabama.
In 2011, Spurrier led USC to its most successful season in program history. The Gamecocks posted an 11 -- 2 overall record, went 6 -- 2 in SEC play, and defeated No. 20 Nebraska in the Capital One Bowl to earn Final Top 10 rankings in the AP and Coaches ' Polls (No. 9 and No. 8, respectively). Along the way, USC defeated Georgia, Tennessee, Florida, and Clemson in the same season for the first time in program history.
The University of South Carolina was investigated in 2011 -- 12 by the NCAA after it came to light that student - athletes (including some football players) had received an estimated $59,000 in impermissible benefits, mainly the result of discounted living expenses at a local hotel. The school imposed its own punishment, paying $18,500 in fines and cutting three football scholarships in each of the 2013 and 2014 seasons. The school also reduced its official visits for the 2012 -- 13 year, from 56 to 30. The NCAA ruled this self - imposed punishment as adequate, stating that "the violations were limited in scope '' and "there was no unethical conduct in this case '', and went on to praise the school 's handling of the affair, with the chairman of the NCAA infractions committee stating, "This has been one of the best cases I have seen from a process standpoint... In this case, it was obvious to the committee that the university wanted to get to the truth. '' The commissioner went on to state that USC "wanted to ask all the hard questions of all the right people and, in some cases, they even went beyond what the NCAA staff was doing. ''
In 2012 Steve Spurrier, once again, led his South Carolina football team to double - digit wins during the course of the regular season campaign. The 2012 regular season culminated with the annual season - ending game against arch - rival Clemson at Clemson 's Memorial Stadium. Spurrier and his Gamecocks emerged with a fourth consecutive victory over the Tigers -- a victory marked by Spurrier winning his 65th game at Carolina and, in doing so, becoming the winningest coach in Gamecock football history surpassing Rex Enright 's 64 - win total. Spurrier led the Gamecocks to a thrilling 33 -- 28 victory in the Outback Bowl against the winningest program in college football, Michigan. The victory elevated the Gamecocks to an 11 -- 2 record for the second consecutive season. Additionally, by finishing 8th in the Associated Press poll and 7th in the Coaches poll, South Carolina finished in Top 10 of both polls for the second consecutive year.
In 2013, Spurrier and the Gamecocks finished with another extremely successful 11 -- 2 season. The season started off with a convincing 27 -- 10 win over North Carolina, although they fell to Georgia for the first time in four years, 41 -- 30. Carolina went on a four - game winning streak before falling to Tennessee in Knoxville after starting quarterback Connor Shaw left the game with a knee injury. In the following game against division - leading # 5 Missouri, Shaw was sidelined due to injury, and backup Dylan Thompson got the start. After a weak performance from the Gamecocks in the first three quarters, Shaw was put in the game in the fourth quarter with South Carolina down 0 -- 17. Shaw went on to lead a historic comeback in which the Gamecocks beat Missouri in double overtime, 27 -- 24. That game was the first of a six - game winning streak in which Spurrier and Carolina won the rest of their games, posting another 11 -- 2 season. In the highest - ranked meeting of rivals, the # 9 Gamecocks defeated # 4 Clemson for the fifth year in a row, a school record, by a score of 31 -- 17. Spurrier led the Gamecocks to a 34 -- 22 victory over the # 19 Wisconsin in the 2014 Capital One Bowl. South Carolina finished with the highest ranking in school history in the AP poll, ranked at # 4 in the country.
South Carolina opened the 2014 season at home against Texas A&M, and the Aggies ' 52 -- 28 upset over the # 9 Gamecocks snapped college football 's longest active home winning streak. Carolina earned a measure of redemption two weeks later, knocking off the # 6 Georgia Bulldogs at home. Two weeks later, the 13th - ranked Gamecocks would again suffer a home upset, falling to Missouri, 21 -- 20. This loss dropped USC out of the top 25 for the first time since the 2010 season. The Gamecocks closed out the regular season with their first loss in six years to their in - state rival, # 21 Clemson, 35 -- 17. Spurrier and his team finished the 2014 campaign with the program 's fourth - straight bowl win, a victory over the Miami Hurricanes in the 2014 Independence Bowl and a 7 -- 6 overall record.
On October 12, 2015, after a 2 -- 4 start to the season, Spurrier announced to his team that he would be resigning, effective immediately. Offensive line coach / co-offensive coordinator Shawn Elliott was named the team 's interim head coach. Elliott led the Gamecocks to victory the following week against Vanderbilt but lost the final five games of the season; including a 23 -- 22 loss to FCS opponent The Citadel, their first since 1990, and ended the season with a 3 -- 9 overall record.
Many of South Carolina 's most successful seasons came during the Steve Spurrier era, including a SEC East Division championship in 2010 and three consecutive eleven win seasons (2011 -- 13). Spurrier also boasted a 6 -- 4 record against the school 's in - state rival, Clemson, including five consecutive wins during the 2009 -- 2013 seasons.
Auburn defensive coordinator and former Florida head coach Will Muschamp was named as South Carolina 's new head coach on December 6, 2015. On September 1, 2016, the Will Muschamp era began with a win, as the Gamecocks defeated Vanderbilt by a score of 13 -- 10. After a 2 - 4 start, Carolina won four of their final six regular season contests, including a 24 - 21 victory over 18th - ranked Tennessee. The Gamecocks ' 2016 campaign ended with a 46 - 39 overtime loss to the # 25 South Florida Bulls in the Birmingham Bowl. In 2017 Muschamp led the Gamecocks to a 9 - 4 season. The season started with a neutral site win against NC State (rivalry) in the Belk Kickoff Game in Charlotte, North Carolina. In conference play South Carolina defeated five SEC schools: Florida, Tennessee, Missouri, Vanderbilt, and Arkansas, finishing second in the SEC East. They finished the season defeating Michigan 26 - 19 in the Outback Bowl.
South Carolina has affiliated with three conferences and twice been an independent.
South Carolina has had 34 head coaches.
† Interim
The SEC has been split into two divisions since the 1992 season with USC competing in the SEC East since that time.
South Carolina has 22 bowl appearances, with a 9 -- 13 record overall.
South Carolina has played four teams multiple times in bowl games.
The rivalry is the largest annual sporting event by ticket sales in the state of South Carolina. From 1896 to 1959, the Carolina - Clemson game was played on the fairgrounds in Columbia, South Carolina and was referred to as "Big Thursday. '' In 1960 an alternating - site format was implemented utilizing both teams ' home stadiums. The annual game has since been designated "The Palmetto Bowl ''. The last nine contests between the programs have been nationally televised (5 on ESPN, 4 on ESPN2). Clemson holds a 69 -- 42 -- 4 lead in the series.
A "border rivalry '' dating to 1894. The 1980 game was between future Heisman Trophy winners George Rogers and Herschel Walker. Led by Walker 's 219 rushing yards, Georgia won 13 -- 10 and would go on to capture the National Championship. Rogers turned in 168 rushing yards during the course of the battle, setting the stage for a successful finish to his senior season and eventual Heisman Trophy award. The last 17 match - ups between the schools have been nationally televised, dating back to 1997 (6 on ESPN2, 5 on ESPN and 5 on CBS). The series has been far more competitive since USC joined the SEC in 1990, with Georgia holding a 14 -- 9 advantage. Georgia holding a 50 -- 18 -- 2 overall lead in the series.
The rivalry began in 1900 with South Carolina defeating NC State (then known as the Agricultural & Mechanical College of North Carolina) 12 - 0. As founding members of the original ACC South Carolina and North Carolina played annually from 1956 - 1991 with one exception in 1967. Even though South Carolina left the ACC in 1971 the teams still met annually until 1991. Since 1991 both schools have only played 4 times (1999, 2008, 2009, 2017) South Carolina has won the last 3 meetings with a combined score of 76 - 31, South Carolina leads the series 28 - 26 - 4.
The rivalry began in 1903. While no longer a conference rivalry, since South Carolina left the ACC in 1971, the teams still meet occasionally. In the 2010s decade the series has always been played on a Thursday. It was announced in September 2015 that USC and UNC will play every four years in 2019 and 2023. North Carolina holds a 34 -- 19 -- 4 overall lead in the series.
† Years listed for Bowl victories are seasons in which they occurred.
In 1933, under the direction of the legendary Billy Laval, the Gamecocks went undefeated in conference play. However, Duke would finish with a better conference record by one win and was awarded the championship.
In 1969, the Gamecocks won the ACC Championship by going undefeated in conference play. In its six ACC matchups, USC outscored its opponents by a 130 -- 61 margin. The squad posted a 7 -- 4 overall record with a Peach Bowl appearance against West Virginia to close the season (14 -- 3 loss). Two years later, South Carolina left the ACC and competed as an Independent for two decades before joining the SEC in 1992.
Led by Coach Morrison, the 1984 Gamecocks became the first team in school history to win 10 games (10 -- 2 record) and were ranked as high as No. 2 in the polls... The Gamecocks finished No. 11 in the Final AP Poll. Along the way, they defeated Georgia, Pittsburgh, Notre Dame, Florida State, and Clemson to earn an appearance in the Gator Bowl against Oklahoma State (21 -- 14 loss). At the time, the No. 11 final ranking was the highest ever achieved by South Carolina.
In 2010, the Gamecocks won their first SEC Eastern Division Championship, going 5 -- 3 in conference play. For the first time in school history, they defeated the No. 1 ranked team in the country (Alabama) and won at Florida in the division - clinching game. The season also included victories over division foes Georgia, Tennessee, and Vanderbilt as well as instate Atlantic Coast Conference rival Clemson. In their first appearance in the SEC Championship Game, the Gamecocks lost to No. 1 Auburn, 56 -- 17.
Led by Coach Spurrier, the 2011 Gamecocks achieved its most wins in a single season and finished in the Top 10 for the first time in program history. USC posted an 11 -- 2 overall record, went 6 -- 2 in SEC play, and won the Capital One Bowl to finish No. 9 / 8 in the Final AP and Coaches ' Polls (respectively). Along the way, USC defeated Georgia, Tennessee, Florida, and Clemson to extend its winning streak over its biggest rivals to 3 games. This was also the first season that USC posted a 5 -- 0 record against their SEC Eastern Division opponents.
Again led by Coach Spurrier, the 2012 -- 13 Gamecocks squad went 11 -- 2, with their only losses coming at LSU and at Florida in consecutive weeks. USC finished 2012 by defeating rival Clemson 27 -- 17, in Death Valley, to end the regular season. They were invited to play in the Outback Bowl, with the Gamecocks defeating the Michigan Wolverines, 33 -- 28, in a close game decided by a 28 - yard touchdown pass from Dylan Thompson to Bruce Ellington with under a minute to go. The Gamecocks finished the season ranked No. 8 / 7 in the Final AP and Coaches ' Polls (respectively)
Coach Spurrier worked his magic once again during the 2013 -- 14 season by leading the Gamecocks to their third consecutive eleven - win season, their two losses coming at the hands of Georgia in Athens and Tennessee in Knoxville. By the end of the 2013 campaign, Carolina held the longest home winning streak in the nation at 18. The 2013 regular season culminated with a fifth consecutive victory over instate rival Clemson, in Williams - Brice Stadium, and an invitation to play in the Capital One Bowl in Orlando versus the Wisconsin Badgers. Connor Shaw led the Gamecocks to a 34 -- 24 victory and was named the MVP of the bowl. Carolina became only the twelfth program in NCAA D1 history to record three consecutive 11 - win seasons, (Miami (FL), Nebraska, Florida State, Alabama, Southern California, LSU, Oklahoma, Boise State, Oregon, Stanford, Northern Illinois), and finished the season ranked No. 4 in both the AP and Coaches ' Polls, the highest final ranking in program history.
USC 's 1980 season was headlined by senior running back George Rogers ("Big George ''), who led the nation in rushing with 1,894 yards. For his efforts, the Downtown Athletic Club named Rogers the winner of the 1980 Heisman Trophy award. Rogers beat out a strong group of players, including Georgia running back Herschel Walker. Rogers also earned spots on eight All - American teams, all First - team honors. Behind the Rogers - led rushing attack, the Gamecocks went 8 -- 4 overall and earned an appearance in the Gator Bowl. Rogers is also the recipient of the 1980 Chic Harley Award, the 2004 Walter Camp Alumni of the Year award, a Pro-Bowl selection, an SEC Football Legend, a Super Bowl champion and an NFL Rookie of the Year.
From 2003 to 2006, Syvelle Newton played multiple positions for the Gamecocks and left his mark on the national record books in the process. He became one of only four players in college football history to record 600 + yards passing, rushing, and receiving (each) in a collegiate career. In Newton 's four seasons, he posted 2,474 passing yards (20 TD, 13 INT), 786 rushing yards (10 TD), and 673 receiving yards (3 TD). He also returned 6 kickoffs for 115 yards (19.2 average) and made 18 tackles and an assisted sack in limited defensive action.
In the 2009 season, USC wore a special uniform against Florida in support of the Wounded Warrior Project. This was repeated in the 2011 season against Auburn, and during the 2012 season against LSU.
Before the start of the 2013 season, USC debuted new uniforms made by Under Armour. The stripes on the front of the shoulders were moved to the top of the shoulder. The uniforms contain 11 total stripes -- the same number of buildings as the national historic landmark that is The Horseshoe on the campus of the university.
The following is a list of Gamecock players currently in the NFL:
South Carolina plays Texas A&M as a permanent non-division opponent annually and rotates around the West division among the other six schools.
Announced schedules as of March 31, 2017
Rankings from Rivals.com and 247Sports.com
|
who is speaking in the allegory of the cave | Allegory of the cave - wikipedia
The Allegory of the Cave, or Plato 's Cave, was presented by the Greek philosopher Plato in his work Republic (514a -- 520a) to compare "the effect of education (παιδεία) and the lack of it on our nature ''. It is written as a dialogue between Plato 's brother Glaucon and his mentor Socrates, narrated by the latter. The allegory is presented after the analogy of the sun (508b -- 509c) and the analogy of the divided line (509d -- 511e). All three are characterized in relation to dialectic at the end of Books VII and VIII (531d -- 534e).
Plato has Socrates describe a group of people who have lived chained to the wall of a cave all of their lives, facing a blank wall. The people watch shadows projected on the wall from objects passing in front of a fire behind them, and give names to these shadows. The shadows are the prisoners ' reality. Socrates explains how the philosopher is like a prisoner who is freed from the cave and comes to understand that the shadows on the wall are not reality at all, for he can perceive the true form of reality rather than the manufactured reality that is the shadows seen by the prisoners. The inmates of this place do not even desire to leave their prison, for they know no better life. The prisoners manage to break their bonds one day, and discover that their reality was not what they thought it was. They discovered the sun, which Plato uses as an analogy for the fire that man can not see behind. Like the fire that cast light on the walls of the cave, the human condition is forever bound to the impressions that are received through the senses. Even if these interpretations (or, in Kantian terminology, intuitions) are an absurd misrepresentation of reality, we can not somehow break free from the bonds of our human condition -- we can not free ourselves from phenomenal state just as the prisoners could not free themselves from their chains. If, however, we were to miraculously escape our bondage, we would find a world that we could not understand -- the sun is incomprehensible for someone who has never seen it. In other words, we would encounter another "realm '', a place incomprehensible because, theoretically, it is the source of a higher reality than the one we have always known; it is the realm of pure Form, pure fact.
Socrates remarks that this allegory can be paired with previous writings, namely the analogy of the sun and the analogy of the divided line.
The allegory of the cave is also called the analogy of the cave, myth of the cave, metaphor of the cave, parable of the cave, and Plato 's Cave.
Plato begins by having Socrates ask Glaucon to imagine a cave where people have been imprisoned from birth. These prisoners are chained so that their legs and necks are fixed, forcing them to gaze at the wall in front of them and not look around at the cave, each other, or themselves (514a -- b). Behind the prisoners is a fire, and between the fire and the prisoners is a raised walkway with a low wall, behind which people walk carrying objects or puppets "of men and other living things '' (514b). The people walk behind the wall so their bodies do not cast shadows for the prisoners to see, but the objects they carry do ("just as puppet showmen have screens in front of them at which they work their puppets '' (514a)). The prisoners can not see any of what is happening behind them, they are only able to see the shadows cast upon the cave wall in front of them. The sounds of the people talking echo off the walls, and the prisoners believe these sounds come from the shadows (514c).
Socrates suggests that the shadows are reality for the prisoners because they have never seen anything else; they do not realize that what they see are shadows of objects in front of a fire, much less that these objects are inspired by real things outside the cave which they do not see (514b - 515a).
Plato then supposes that one prisoner is freed. This prisoner would look around and see the fire. The light would hurt his eyes and make it difficult for him to see the objects casting the shadows. If he were told that what he is seeing is real instead of the other version of reality he sees on the wall, he would not believe it. In his pain, Plato continues, the freed prisoner would turn away and run back to what he is accustomed to (that is, the shadows of the carried objects). He writes "... it would hurt his eyes, and he would escape by turning away to the things which he was able to look at, and these he would believe to be clearer than what was being shown to him. ''
Plato continues: "Suppose... that someone should drag him... by force, up the rough ascent, the steep way up, and never stop until he could drag him out into the light of the sun. '' The prisoner would be angry and in pain, and this would only worsen when the radiant light of the sun overwhelms his eyes and blinds him.
"Slowly, his eyes adjust to the light of the sun. First he can only see shadows. Gradually he can see the reflections of people and things in water and then later see the people and things themselves. Eventually, he is able to look at the stars and moon at night until finally he can look upon the sun itself (516a). '' Only after he can look straight at the sun "is he able to reason about it '' and what it is (516b). (See also Plato 's Analogy of the Sun, which occurs near the end of The Republic, Book VI.)
Plato continues, saying that the freed prisoner would think that the world outside the cave was superior to the world he experienced in the cave; "he would bless himself for the change, and pity (the other prisoners) '' and would want to bring his fellow cave dwellers out of the cave and into the sunlight (516c).
The returning prisoner, whose eyes have become accustomed to the sunlight, would be blind when he re-enters the cave, just as he was when he was first exposed to the sun (516e). The prisoners, according to Plato, would infer from the returning man 's blindness that the journey out of the cave had harmed him and that they should not undertake a similar journey. Plato concludes that the prisoners, if they were able, would therefore reach out and kill anyone who attempted to drag them out of the cave (517a).
The allegory contains many forms of symbolism used to describe the illusions of the world. The cave represents the superficial world for the prisoners. The chains that prevent the prisoners from leaving the cave represent ignorance, meaning the chains are stopping them from learning the truth. The shadows that cast on the walls of the cave represent the superficial truth, which is an illusion that the prisoners see in the cave. The freed prisoner represents those in society who see the physical world for the illusion that it is. The sun that is glaring the eyes of the prisoners represents the real truth of the actual world.
The allegory is probably related to Plato 's theory of Forms, according to which the "Forms '' (or "Ideas ''), and not the material world known to us through sensation, possess the highest and most fundamental kind of reality. Only knowledge of the Forms constitutes real knowledge or what Socrates considers "the good ''. Socrates informs Glaucon that the most excellent people must follow the highest of all studies, which is to behold the Good. Those who have ascended to this highest level, however, must not remain there but must return to the cave and dwell with the prisoners, sharing in their labors and honors.
Plato 's Phaedo contains similar imagery to that of the allegory of the Cave; a philosopher recognizes that before philosophy, his soul was "a veritable prisoner fast bound within his body... and that instead of investigating reality of itself and in itself is compelled to peer through the bars of a prison. ''
Scholars debate the possible interpretations of the allegory of the Cave, either looking at it from an epistemological standpoint -- one based on the study of how Plato believes we come to know things -- or through a political (Politeia) lens. Much of the scholarship on the allegory falls between these two perspectives, with some completely independent of either. The epistemological view and the political view, fathered by Richard Lewis Nettleship and A.S. Ferguson respectively, tend to be discussed most frequently. Nettleship interprets the allegory of the cave as representative of our innate intellectual incapacity, in order to contrast our lesser understanding with that of the philosopher, as well as an allegory about people who are unable or unwilling to seek truth and wisdom. Ferguson, on the other hand, bases his interpretation of the allegory on the claim that the cave is an allegory of human nature and that it symbolizes the opposition between the philosopher and the corruption of the prevailing political condition.
Cleavages have emerged within these respective camps of thought, however. Much of the modern scholarly debate surrounding the allegory has emerged from Martin Heidegger 's exploration of the allegory, and philosophy as a whole, through the lens of human freedom in his book The Essence of Human Freedom: An Introduction to Philosophy and The Essence of Truth: On Plato 's Cave Allegory and Theaetetus. In response, Hannah Arendt, an advocate of the political interpretation of the allegory, suggests that through the allegory, Plato "wanted to apply his own theory of ideas to politics ''. Conversely, Heidegger argues that the essence of truth is a way of being and not an object. Arendt criticised Heidegger 's interpretation of the allegory, writing that "Heidegger... is off base in using the cave simile to interpret and ' criticize ' Plato 's theory of ideas ''.
The themes and imagery of Plato 's cave have appeared throughout Western thought and culture. Some examples include:
The following is a list of supplementary scholarly literature on the Allegory of the Cave that includes articles from epistemological, political, alternative, and independent viewpoints on the allegory:
|
the main chemical activity of the stomach is to begin the digestion of | Digestion - wikipedia
Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water - soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use.
In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food; the saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food, and hydrogen carbonate, which provides the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase to work. After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. As these two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by the stomach, providing a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of the chemicals. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes.
After some time (typically 1 -- 2 hours in humans, 4 -- 6 hours in dogs, 3 -- 4 hours in house cats), the resulting thick liquid is called chyme. When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95 % of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic about 5.6 ~ 6.9. Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K (K MK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Waste material is eliminated from the rectum during defecation.
Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it. In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.
Some organisms, including nearly all spiders, simply secrete biotoxins and digestive chemicals (e.g., enzymes) into the extracellular environment prior to ingestion of the consequent "soup ''. In others, once potential nutrients or food is inside the organism, digestion can be conducted to a vesicle or a sac - like structure, through a tube, or through several specialized organs aimed at making the absorption of nutrients more efficient.
Bacteria use several systems to obtain nutrients from other organisms in the environments.
In a channel transupport system, several proteins form a contiguous channel traversing the inner and outer membranes of the bacteria. It is a simple system, which consists of only three protein subunits: the ABC protein, membrane fusion protein (MFP), and outer membrane protein (OMP). This secretion system transports various molecules, from ions, drugs, to proteins of various sizes (20 -- 900 kDa). The molecules secreted vary in size from the small Escherichia coli peptide colicin V, (10 kDa) to the Pseudomonas fluorescens cell adhesion protein LapA of 900 kDa.
A type III secretion system means that a molecular syringe is used through which a bacterium (e.g. certain types of Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia) can inject nutrients into protist cells. One such mechanism was first discovered in Y. pestis and showed that toxins could be injected directly from the bacterial cytoplasm into the cytoplasm of its host 's cells rather than simply be secreted into the extracellular medium.
The conjugation machinery of some bacteria (and archaeal flagella) is capable of transporting both DNA and proteins. It was discovered in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which uses this system to introduce the Ti plasmid and proteins into the host, which develops the crown gall (tumor). The VirB complex of Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the prototypic system.
The nitrogen fixing Rhizobia are an interesting case, wherein conjugative elements naturally engage in inter-kingdom conjugation. Such elements as the Agrobacterium Ti or Ri plasmids contain elements that can transfer to plant cells. Transferred genes enter the plant cell nucleus and effectively transform the plant cells into factories for the production of opines, which the bacteria use as carbon and energy sources. Infected plant cells form crown gall or root tumors. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.
The Ti and Ri plasmids are themselves conjugative. Ti and Ri transfer between bacteria uses an independent system (the tra, or transfer, operon) from that for inter-kingdom transfer (the vir, or virulence, operon). Such transfer creates virulent strains from previously avirulent Agrobacteria.
In addition to the use of the multiprotein complexes listed above, Gram - negative bacteria possess another method for release of material: the formation of outer membrane vesicles. Portions of the outer membrane pinch off, forming spherical structures made of a lipid bilayer enclosing periplasmic materials. Vesicles from a number of bacterial species have been found to contain virulence factors, some have immunomodulatory effects, and some can directly adhere to and intoxicate host cells. While release of vesicles has been demonstrated as a general response to stress conditions, the process of loading cargo proteins seems to be selective.
The gastrovascular cavity functions as a stomach in both digestion and the distribution of nutrients to all parts of the body. Extracellular digestion takes place within this central cavity, which is lined with the gastrodermis, the internal layer of epithelium. This cavity has only one opening to the outside that functions as both a mouth and an anus: waste and undigested matter is excreted through the mouth / anus, which can be described as an incomplete gut.
In a plant such as the Venus Flytrap that can make its own food through photosynthesis, it does not eat and digest its prey for the traditional objectives of harvesting energy and carbon, but mines prey primarily for essential nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus in particular) that are in short supply in its boggy, acidic habitat.
A phagosome is a vacuole formed around a particle absorbed by phagocytosis. The vacuole is formed by the fusion of the cell membrane around the particle. A phagosome is a cellular compartment in which pathogenic microorganisms can be killed and digested. Phagosomes fuse with lysosomes in their maturation process, forming phagolysosomes. In humans, Entamoeba histolytica can phagocytose red blood cells.
To aid in the digestion of their food animals evolved organs such as beaks, tongues, teeth, a crop, gizzard, and others.
Birds have bony beaks that are specialised according to the bird 's ecological niche. For example, macaws primarily eat seeds, nuts, and fruit, using their impressive beaks to open even the toughest seed. First they scratch a thin line with the sharp point of the beak, then they shear the seed open with the sides of the beak.
The mouth of the squid is equipped with a sharp horny beak mainly made of cross-linked proteins. It is used to kill and tear prey into manageable pieces. The beak is very robust, but does not contain any minerals, unlike the teeth and jaws of many other organisms, including marine species. The beak is the only indigestible part of the squid.
The tongue is skeletal muscle on the floor of the mouth that manipulates food for chewing (mastication) and swallowing (deglutition). It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva. The underside of the tongue is covered with a smooth mucous membrane. The tongue also has a touch sense for locating and positioning food particles that require further chewing. The tongue is utilized to roll food particles into a bolus before being transported down the esophagus through peristalsis.
The sublingual region underneath the front of the tongue is a location where the oral mucosa is very thin, and underlain by a plexus of veins. This is an ideal location for introducing certain medications to the body. The sublingual route takes advantage of the highly vascular quality of the oral cavity, and allows for the speedy application of medication into the cardiovascular system, bypassing the gastrointestinal tract.
Teeth (singular tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness, such as enamel, dentine and cementum. Human teeth have a blood and nerve supply which enables proprioception. This is the ability of sensation when chewing, for example if we were to bite into something too hard for our teeth, such as a chipped plate mixed in food, our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it can not be chewed, so we stop trying.
The shapes, sizes and numbers of types of animals ' teeth are related to their diets. For example, herbivores have a number of molars which are used to grind plant matter, which is difficult to digest. Carnivores have canine teeth which are used to kill and tear meat.
A crop, or croup, is a thin - walled expanded portion of the alimentary tract used for the storage of food prior to digestion. In some birds it is an expanded, muscular pouch near the gullet or throat. In adult doves and pigeons, the crop can produce crop milk to feed newly hatched birds.
Certain insects may have a crop or enlarged esophagus.
Herbivores have evolved cecums (or an abomasum in the case of ruminants). Ruminants have a fore - stomach with four chambers. These are the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. In the first two chambers, the rumen and the reticulum, the food is mixed with saliva and separates into layers of solid and liquid material. Solids clump together to form the cud (or bolus). The cud is then regurgitated, chewed slowly to completely mix it with saliva and to break down the particle size.
Fibre, especially cellulose and hemi - cellulose, is primarily broken down into the volatile fatty acids, acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid in these chambers (the reticulo - rumen) by microbes: (bacteria, protozoa, and fungi). In the omasum, water and many of the inorganic mineral elements are absorbed into the blood stream.
The abomasum is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants. It is a close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo - rumen are also digested in the small intestine.
Regurgitation has been mentioned above under abomasum and crop, referring to crop milk, a secretion from the lining of the crop of pigeons and doves with which the parents feed their young by regurgitation.
Many sharks have the ability to turn their stomachs inside out and evert it out of their mouths in order to get rid of unwanted contents (perhaps developed as a way to reduce exposure to toxins).
Other animals, such as rabbits and rodents, practise coprophagia behaviours -- eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.
Young elephants, pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the faeces of their mother, probably to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation. When they are born, their intestines do not contain these bacteria (they are completely sterile). Without them, they would be unable to get any nutritional value from many plant components.
An earthworm 's digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine. The mouth is surrounded by strong lips, which act like a hand to grab pieces of dead grass, leaves, and weeds, with bits of soil to help chew. The lips break the food down into smaller pieces. In the pharynx, the food is lubricated by mucus secretions for easier passage. The esophagus adds calcium carbonate to neutralize the acids formed by food matter decay. Temporary storage occurs in the crop where food and calcium carbonate are mixed. The powerful muscles of the gizzard churn and mix the mass of food and dirt. When the churning is complete, the glands in the walls of the gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By peristalsis, the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body.
In most vertebrates, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:
Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and peristalsis. Each step in digestion requires energy, and thus imposes an "overhead charge '' on the energy made available from absorbed substances. Differences in that overhead cost are important influences on lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures. Examples may be seen in humans, who differ considerably from other hominids (lack of hair, smaller jaws and musculature, different dentition, length of intestines, cooking, etc.).
The major part of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The large intestine primarily serves as a site for fermentation of indigestible matter by gut bacteria and for resorption of water from digests before excretion.
In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to begin enzymatic processing of starches. The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes. Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes with defecation.
The human gastrointestinal tract is around 9 meters long. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors such as the characteristics of the food and size of the meal, and the process of digestion normally takes between 24 and 72 hours.
Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a bolus by the mechanical mastication and swallowed into the esophagus from where it enters the stomach through the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine.
In the large intestine the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the gut flora to take place. Here water is absorbed and waste material stored as feces to be removed by defecation via the anal canal and anus.
Different phases of digestion take place including: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase.
The cephalic phase occurs at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimuli are sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40 % of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin.
The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid. Gastric acid is about 0.5 % hydrochloric acid (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1 - 3. Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine.
The intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes.
Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas, break down food proteins into polypeptides that are then broken down by various exopeptidases and dipeptidases into amino acids. The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the zymogens. For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of trypsinogen, which is activated in the duodenum by enterokinase to form trypsin. Trypsin then cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides.
Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where lingual lipase breaks down some short chain lipids into diglycerides. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine. The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids. Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a triglyceride) results a mixture of fatty acids, mono - and di - glycerides, as well as some undigested triglycerides, but no free glycerol molecules.
In humans, dietary starches are composed of glucose units arranged in long chains called amylose, a polysaccharide. During digestion, bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic amylase, resulting in progressively smaller chains of glucose. This results in simple sugars glucose and maltose (2 glucose molecules) that can be absorbed by the small intestine.
Lactase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide lactose to its component parts, glucose and galactose. Glucose and galactose can be absorbed by the small intestine. Approximately 65 percent of the adult population produce only small amounts of lactase and are unable to eat unfermented milk - based foods. This is commonly known as lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance varies widely by ethnic heritage; more than 90 percent of peoples of east Asian descent are lactose intolerant, in contrast to about 5 percent of people of northern European descent.
Sucrase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, cane sugar, or beet sugar. Sucrose digestion yields the sugars fructose and glucose which are readily absorbed by the small intestine.
DNA and RNA are broken down into mononucleotides by the nucleases deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease (DNase and RNase) from the pancreas.
Some nutrients are complex molecules (for example vitamin B) which would be destroyed if they were broken down into their functional groups. To digest vitamin B non-destructively, haptocorrin in saliva strongly binds and protects the B molecules from stomach acid as they enter the stomach and are cleaved from their protein complexes.
After the B - haptocorrin complexes pass from the stomach via the pylorus to the duodenum, pancreatic proteases cleave haptocorrin from the B molecules which rebind to intrinsic factor (IF). These B - IF complexes travel to the ileum portion of the small intestine where cubilin receptors enable assimilation and circulation of B - IF complexes in the blood.
There are at least five hormones that aid and regulate the digestive system in mammals. There are variations across the vertebrates, as for instance in birds. Arrangements are complex and additional details are regularly discovered. For instance, more connections to metabolic control (largely the glucose - insulin system) have been uncovered in recent years.
Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.
The stomach 's high acidity inhibits the breakdown of carbohydrates within it. This acidity confers two benefits: it denatures proteins for further digestion in the small intestines, and provides non-specific immunity, damaging or eliminating various pathogens.
In the small intestines, the duodenum provides critical pH balancing to activate digestive enzymes. The liver secretes bile into the duodenum to neutralize the acidic conditions from the stomach, and the pancreatic duct empties into the duodenum, adding bicarbonate to neutralize the acidic chyme, thus creating a neutral environment. The mucosal tissue of the small intestines is alkaline with a pH of about 8.5.
|
where did the expression chewing the fat come from | Chew the fat - wikipedia
"Chew the fat '' or "chew the rag '' are English expressions for gossiping or making friendly small talk, or a long and informal conversation with someone.
Although some sources attribute the phrase "chew the fat '' to sailors, who during a period of resting and conversing, or while working together, would chew on salt - hardened fat, there are no reliable historical recordings of this practice. There is even a suggestion the phrase derives from a practice by North American Indians or Inuit of chewing animal hides during their spare time, and even of British farmers chewing on smoked pork, but again, there remains to be no evidence supporting these claims, and this would require accepting a great deal of uncertainty in connecting the phrase from nautical origins to its modern metaphorical use.
There are also claims the phrase is synonymous with the action of chewing on fat, or simply an allusion to the movement of the mouth during chewing. Noting that fried fat is appealing in taste, it was regarded as a treat that someone could chew on for as long as possible to gain the most out of it.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, "Chew the fat '' first appeared in 1885 in a book by J Brunlees Patterson called Life in the Ranks of the British Army in India. He implied it was a kind of general grumbling and bending of the ears of junior officers to stave off boredom, a typical part of army life. Patterson also uses "chew the rag '' in the same sentence he used "chew the fat '', but it is not the oldest occurrence. Prior to the adoption of metallic cartridges, most ammunition was composed of powder and a ball wrapped in paper or cloth soaked in animal fat, which was bitten open during musket drill. Soldiers were known to chew on these ends to pass the time and reduce nerves, and in some cases to stave off cravings for chewing tobacco. Though long - since replaced by 1885, the idea of biting or chewing on fat - soaked rag ends may well have entered military parlance in this fashion prior to Patterson 's recording.
Appearing first in print from 1875 in "Random House Historical Dictionary of American Slang '', the excerpt reads:
"Gents, I could chew the rag hours on end, just spilling out the words and never know no more than a billy - goat what I 'd been saying. ''
There is speculation this phrase relates to cloth, when ladies would work in "sewing circles '', or that women may have gossiped while quilting.
The first appeared synonymously as early as 1885, in J. Brunlees Patterson 's "Life in the ranks of the British army in India and on board a troopship '', which listed the terms in succession:
"... whistling, singing, arguing the point, chewing the rag, or fat, or other voluble and noisy inflictions, such as the screeching and gabbling of parrots and yelping of canines... ''
It was used as a way to describe complaining or grumbling, typically by the military.
It was not until 1907 the phrase "chew the fat '' was used to express partaking in idle conversation, for a friendly talk, or a gossip session. It has also been used to a way to define telling tall tales.
In ham radio, extended conversation, as opposed to just exchanging basic information (name, location, equipment), is called "ragchewing ''.
Chewin ' the Fat was the title of a Scottish comedy sketch show, starring Ford Kiernan, Greg Hemphill and Karen Dunbar. Chewin ' the Fat first started as a radio series on BBC Radio Scotland.
Chew-The-Fat.com is a UK - based website (now moved to chew-the-fat.org.uk) hosting a web forum, described as "The chat forum your mother warned you about '', devoted to chat, gossip, and humorous banter and cartoons.
In 1999, a widespread hoax called "Life in the 1500s '', false information was circulated through email regarding "chew the fat ''. Among offering explanations for many phrases, the email stated:
"When company came over, they would bring out some bacon and hang it to show it off. It was a sign of wealth and that a man ' could really bring home the bacon. ' They would cut off a little to share with guests and would all sit around and ' chew the fat. ' ''
Notably, Karl Pilkington propagated this story during episode eight of the second series of The Ricky Gervais Show on XFM London.
The false email spurred a reexamination of popularly sourced etymologies of many folk phrases and idioms. Although it has been widely accepted as accurate, this misinformation has since been dispelled.
Music album by James Patrick Gavin - Chewing The Fat
|
where is serbia located on the world map | Serbia - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 44 ° N 21 ° E / 44 ° N 21 ° E / 44; 21
Serbia (/ ˈsɜːrbiə / (listen); Serbian: Србија / Srbija (sř̩bija)), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian: Република Србија / Republika Srbija (repǔblika sř̩bija)), is a sovereign state situated at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe in the southern Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. It borders Hungary to the north; Romania and Bulgaria to the east; Macedonia to the south; Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro to the west and claims a border with Albania through the disputed territory of Kosovo. Serbia numbers around 7 million residents. Its capital, Belgrade, ranks among the oldest and largest cities in southeastern Europe.
Following the Slavic migrations to the Balkans postdating the 6th century, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and the Byzantine Empire in 1217, reaching its peak in 1346 as a relatively short - lived Serbian Empire.
By the mid-16th century, the entire modern - day Serbia was annexed by the Ottomans, at times interrupted by the Habsburg Empire, which started expanding towards Central Serbia from the end of the 17th century, while maintaining a foothold in modern - day Vojvodina. In the early 19th century, the Serbian Revolution established the nation - state as the region 's first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory.
Following disastrous casualties in World War I, and the subsequent unification of the former Habsburg crownland of Vojvodina (and other territories) with Serbia, the country co-founded Yugoslavia with other South Slavic peoples, which would exist in various political formations until the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s.
During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro, which dissolved peacefully in 2006. In 2008, the parliament of the province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence, with mixed responses from the international community.
Serbia is a member of the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC, CEFTA and it is acceding to the WTO. Since 2014 the country has been negotiating its EU accession with perspective of joining the European Union by 2025 and is the only country in the current enlargement agenda which is designated as "free '' by Freedom House.
Since 2007, Serbia formally adheres to the policy of military neutrality. An upper - middle income economy with a dominant service sector followed by the industrial sector and agriculture, the country ranks high by the Human Development Index (66th), Social Progress Index (45th) as well as the Global Peace Index (56th).
The origin of the name, "Serbia '' is unclear. Various authors mentioned names of Serbs (Serbian: Srbi / Срби) and Sorbs (Upper Sorbian: Serbja; Lower Sorbian: Serby) in different variants: Surbii, Suurbi, Serbloi, Zeriuani, Sorabi, Surben, Sarbi, Serbii, Serboi, Zirbi, Surbi, Sorben, etc. These authors used these names to refer to Serbs and Sorbs in areas where their historical (or current) presence was / is not disputed (notably in the Balkans and Lusatia), but there are also sources that mention same or similar names in other parts of the World (most notably in the Asiatic Sarmatia in the Caucasus).
Theoretically, the root * sъrbъ has been variously connected with Russian paserb (пасерб, "stepson ''), Ukrainian pryserbytysia (присербитися, "join in ''), Old Indic sarbh - ("fight, cut, kill ''), Latin sero ("make up, constitute ''), and Greek siro (ειρω, "repeat ''). However, Polish linguist Stanisław Rospond (1906 -- 1982) derived the denomination of Srb from srbati (cf. sorbo, absorbo). Sorbian scholar H. Schuster - Šewc suggested a connection with the Proto - Slavic verb for "to slurp '' * sьrb -, with cognates such as сёрбать (Russian), сьорбати (Ukrainian), сёрбаць (Belarusian), srbati (Slovak), сърбам (Bulgarian) and серебати (Old Russian).
From 1945 to 1963, the official name for Serbia was the People 's Republic of Serbia, which became the Socialist Republic of Serbia from 1963 to 1990. Since 1990, the official name of the country is the "Republic of Serbia ''.
Archeological evidence of Paleolithic settlements on the territory of present - day Serbia are scarce. A fragment of a human jaw, was found in Sićevo (Mala Balanica) and believed to be up to 525,000 -- 397,000 years old.
Approximately around 6,500 years BC, during the Neolithic, the Starčevo, and Vinča cultures existed in or near modern - day Belgrade and dominated much of the Southeastern Europe, (as well as parts of Central Europe and Asia Minor). Two important local archeological sites from this era, Lepenski Vir and Vinča - Belo Brdo, still exist near the banks of the Danube.
During the Iron Age, Thracians, Dacians, and Illyrians were encountered by the Ancient Greeks during their expansion into the south of modern Serbia in the 4th century BC; the northwesternmost point of Alexander the Great 's empire being the town of Kale - Krševica. The Celtic tribe of Scordisci settled throughout the area in the 3rd century BC and formed a tribal state, building several fortifications, including their capital at Singidunum (present - day Belgrade) and Naissos (present - day Niš).
The Romans conquered much of the territory in the 2nd century BC. In 167 BC the Roman province of Illyricum was established; the remainder was conquered around 75 BC, forming the Roman province of Moesia Superior; the modern - day Srem region was conquered in 9 BC; and Bačka and Banat in 106 AD after the Dacian Wars. As a result of this, contemporary Serbia extends fully or partially over several former Roman provinces, including Moesia, Pannonia, Praevalitana, Dalmatia, Dacia and Macedonia.
The chief towns of Upper Moesia (and wider) were: Singidunum (Belgrade), Viminacium (now Old Kostolac), Remesiana (now Bela Palanka), Naissos (Niš), and Sirmium (now Sremska Mitrovica), the latter of which served as a Roman capital during the Tetrarchy. Seventeen Roman Emperors were born in the area of modern - day Serbia, second only to contemporary Italy. The most famous of these was Constantine the Great, the first Christian Emperor, who issued an edict ordering religious tolerance throughout the Empire.
When the Roman Empire was divided in 395, most of Serbia remained under the Eastern Roman Empire, while its northwestern parts were included in the Western Roman Empire. By the early 6th century, South Slavs were present throughout the Byzantine Empire in large numbers.
Serbs, a Slavic tribe that settled the Balkans in the 6th or early 7th century, established the Serbian Principality by the 8th century. It was said in 822 that the Serbs inhabited the greater part of Roman Dalmatia, their territory spanning what is today southwestern Serbia and parts of neighbouring countries. Meanwhile, the Byzantine Empire and Bulgarian Empire held other parts of the territory. Christianity was adopted by the Serbian rulers in ca. 870, and by the mid-10th - century the Serbian state stretched the Adriatic Sea by the Neretva, the Sava, the Morava, and Skadar. Between 1166 and 1371 Serbia was ruled by the Nemanjić dynasty (which legacy is especially cherished), under whom the state was elevated to a kingdom (and briefly an empire) and Serbian bishopric to an autocephalous archbishopric (through the effort of Sava, the country 's patron saint). Monuments of the Nemanjić period survives in many monasteries (several being World Heritage) and fortifications. During these centuries the Serbian state (and influence) expanded significantly. The northern part, Vojvodina, was ruled by the Kingdom of Hungary. The period known as the Fall of the Serbian Empire saw the once - powerful state fragmented into duchies, culminating in the Battle of Kosovo (1389) against the rising Ottoman Empire. The Serbian Despotate was finally conquered by the Ottomans in 1459. The Ottoman threat and eventual conquest saw large migrations of Serbs to the west and north.
After the loss of independence to the Kingdom of Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, Serbia briefly regained sovereignty under Jovan Nenad in the 16th century. Three Habsburg invasions and numerous rebellions constantly challenged Ottoman rule. One famous incident was the Banat Uprising in 1595, which was part of the Long War between the Ottomans and the Habsburgs. The area of modern Vojvodina endured a century - long Ottoman occupation before being ceded to the Habsburg Empire at the end of the 17th century under the Treaty of Karlowitz.
In all Serb lands south of the rivers Danube and Sava, the nobility was eliminated and the peasantry was enserfed to Ottoman masters, while much of the clergy fled or were confined to the isolated monasteries. Under the Ottoman system, Serbs, as Christians, were considered an inferior class of people and subjected to heavy taxes, and a small portion of the Serbian populace experienced Islamisation. The Ottomans abolished the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć (1463), but reestablished it in 1557, providing for limited continuation of Serbian cultural traditions within the empire.
As the Great Serb Migrations depopulated most of southern Serbia, the Serbs sought refuge across the Danube River in Vojvodina to the north and the Military Frontier in the west, where they were granted rights by the Austrian crown under measures such as the Statuta Wallachorum of 1630. The ecclesiastical center of the Serbs also moved northwards, to the Metropolitanate of Sremski Karlovci, as the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć was once - again abolished by the Ottomans in 1766. Following several petitions, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I formally granted Serbs who wished to leave the right to their autonomous crownland.
In 1718 -- 39, the Habsburg Monarchy occupied Central Serbia and established the "Kingdom of Serbia ''. Apart from Vojvodina and Northern Belgrade which were absorbed into the Habsburg Empire, Central Serbia was occupied by the Habsburgs again in 1686 -- 91 and in 1788 -- 92.
The Serbian Revolution for independence from the Ottoman Empire lasted eleven years, from 1804 until 1815. The revolution comprised two separate uprisings which gained autonomy from the Ottoman Empire that eventually evolved towards full independence (1835 -- 1867). During the First Serbian Uprising, led by Duke Karađorđe Petrović, Serbia was independent for almost a decade before the Ottoman army was able to reoccupy the country. Shortly after this, the Second Serbian Uprising began. Led by Miloš Obrenović, it ended in 1815 with a compromise between Serbian revolutionaries and Ottoman authorities. Likewise, Serbia was one of the first nations in the Balkans to abolish feudalism. The Convention of Ackerman in 1826, the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829 and finally, the Hatt - i Sharif, recognized the suzerainty of Serbia. The first Serbian Constitution was adopted on 15 February 1835.
Following the clashes between the Ottoman army and Serbs in Belgrade in 1862, and under pressure from the Great Powers, by 1867 the last Turkish soldiers left the Principality, making the country de facto independent. By enacting a new constitution without consulting the Porte, Serbian diplomats confirmed the de facto independence of the country. In 1876, Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire, proclaiming its unification with Bosnia.
The formal independence of the country was internationally recognized at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, which formally ended the Russo - Turkish War; this treaty, however, prohibited Serbia from uniting with Bosnia by placing Bosnia under Austro - Hungarian occupation, alongside the occupation of Sanjak of Novi Pazar. From 1815 to 1903, the Principality of Serbia was ruled by the House of Obrenović, save for the rule of Prince Aleksandar Karađorđević between 1842 and 1858. In 1882, Serbia became a Kingdom, ruled by King Milan I. The House of Karađorđević, descendants of the revolutionary leader Karađorđe Petrović, assumed power in 1903 following the May Overthrow. In the north, the 1848 revolution in Austria led to the establishment of the autonomous territory of Serbian Vojvodina; by 1849, the region was transformed into the Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar.
In the course of the First Balkan War in 1912, the Balkan League defeated the Ottoman Empire and captured its European territories, which enabled territorial expansion into Raška and Kosovo. The Second Balkan War soon ensued when Bulgaria turned on its former allies, but was defeated, resulting in the Treaty of Bucharest. In two years, Serbia enlarged its territory by 80 % and its population by 50 %; it also suffered high casualties on the eve of World War I, with around 20,000 dead. Austria - Hungary became wary of the rising regional power on its borders and its potential to become an anchor for unification of all South Slavs, and the relationship between the two countries became tense.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Young Bosnia organization, led to Austria - Hungary declaring war on Serbia. In defense of Serbia, and to maintain her status as a Great Power, Russia mobilized its troops, which resulted in Austria - Hungary 's ally Germany declaring war on Russia. Serbia won the first major battles of World War I, including the Battle of Cer and Battle of Kolubara -- marking the first Allied victories against the Central Powers in World War I.
Despite initial success, it was eventually overpowered by the Central Powers in 1915. Most of its army and some people fled through Albania to Greece and Corfu, suffering immense losses on the way. Serbia was occupied by the Central Powers. After the Central Powers military situation on other fronts worsened, the remains of the Serb army returned east and lead a final breakthrough through enemy lines on 15 September 1918, liberating Serbia and defeating the Austro - Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria. Serbia, with its campaign, was a major Balkan Entente Power which contributed significantly to the Allied victory in the Balkans in November 1918, especially by helping France force Bulgaria 's capitulation. Serbia was classified as a minor Entente power.
Serbia 's casualties accounted for 8 % of the total Entente military deaths; 58 % (243,600) soldiers of the Serbian army perished in the war. The total number of casualties is placed around 700,000, more than 16 % of Serbia 's prewar size, and a majority (57 %) of its overall male population. As the Austro - Hungarian Empire collapsed, the territory of Syrmia united with Serbia on 24 November 1918, followed by Banat, Bačka and Baranja a day later, thereby bringing the entire Vojvodina into the Serb Kingdom. On 26 November 1918, the Podgorica Assembly deposed the House of Petrović - Njegoš and united Montenegro with Serbia. On 1 December 1918, at Krsmanović 's House at Terazije, Serbian Prince Regent Alexander of Serbia proclaimed the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes under King Peter I of Serbia.
King Peter was succeeded by his son, Alexander, in August 1921. Serb centralists and Croat autonomists clashed in the parliament, and most governments were fragile and short - lived. Nikola Pašić, a conservative prime minister, headed or dominated most governments until his death. King Alexander changed the name of the country to Yugoslavia and changed the internal divisions from the 33 oblasts to nine new banovinas. The effect of Alexander 's dictatorship was to further alienate the non-Serbs from the idea of unity.
Alexander was assassinated in Marseille, during an official visit in 1934 by Vlado Chernozemski, member of the IMRO. Alexander was succeeded by his eleven - year - old son Peter II and a regency council was headed by his cousin, Prince Paul. In August 1939 the Cvetković -- Maček Agreement established an autonomous Banate of Croatia as a solution to Croatian concerns.
In 1941, in spite of Yugoslav attempts to remain neutral in the war, the Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia. The territory of modern Serbia was divided between Hungary, Bulgaria, Independent State of Croatia (NDH) and Italy (greater Albania and Montenegro), while the remaining part of Serbia was placed under German Military administration, with Serbian puppet governments led by Milan Aćimović and Milan Nedić. The occupied territory was the scene of a civil war between royalist Chetniks commanded by Draža Mihailović and communist partisans commanded by Josip Broz Tito. Against these forces were arrayed Axis auxiliary units of the Serbian Volunteer Corps and the Serbian State Guard. Draginac and Loznica massacre of 2,950 villagers in Western Serbia in 1941 was the first large execution of civilians in occupied Serbia by Germans, with Kragujevac massacre and Novi Sad Raid of Jews and Serbs by Hungarian fascists being the most notorious, with over 3,000 victims in each case. After one year of occupation, around 16,000 Serbian Jews were murdered in the area, or around 90 % of its pre-war Jewish population. Many concentration camps were established across the area. Banjica concentration camp was the largest concentration camp, with primary victims being Serbian Jews, Roma, and Serb political prisoners.
During this period, hundreds of thousands of Serbs fled the Axis puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia and sought refuge in Serbia, seeking to escape the large - scale persecution and genocide of Serbs, Jews, and Roma being committed by the Ustaše regime.
The Republic of Užice was a short - lived liberated territory established by the Partisans and the first liberated territory in World War II Europe, organized as a military mini-state that existed in the autumn of 1941 in the west of occupied Serbia. By late 1944, the Belgrade Offensive swung in favour of the partisans in the civil war; the partisans subsequently gained control of Yugoslavia. Following the Belgrade Offensive, the Syrmian Front was the last major military action of World War II in Serbia.
The victory of the Communist Partisans resulted in the abolition of the monarchy and a subsequent constitutional referendum. A one - party state was soon established in Yugoslavia by the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, between 60,000 and 70,000 people were killed in Serbia during the communist takeover. All opposition was suppressed and people deemed to be promoting opposition to socialism or promoting separatism were imprisoned or executed for sedition. Serbia became a constituent republic within the SFRY known as the Socialist Republic of Serbia, and had a republic - branch of the federal communist party, the League of Communists of Serbia.
Serbia 's most powerful and influential politician in Tito - era Yugoslavia was Aleksandar Ranković, one of the "big four '' Yugoslav leaders, alongside Tito, Edvard Kardelj, and Milovan Đilas. Ranković was later removed from the office because of the disagreements regarding Kosovo 's nomenklatura and the unity of Serbia. Ranković 's dismissal was highly unpopular among Serbs. Pro-decentralization reformers in Yugoslavia succeeded in the late 1960s in attaining substantial decentralization of powers, creating substantial autonomy in Kosovo and Vojvodina, and recognizing a Yugoslav Muslim nationality. As a result of these reforms, there was a massive overhaul of Kosovo 's nomenklatura and police, that shifted from being Serb - dominated to ethnic Albanian - dominated through firing Serbs on a large scale. Further concessions were made to the ethnic Albanians of Kosovo in response to unrest, including the creation of the University of Pristina as an Albanian language institution. These changes created widespread fear among Serbs of being treated as second - class citizens.
In 1989, Slobodan Milošević rose to power in Serbia. Milošević promised a reduction of powers for the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina, where his allies subsequently took over power, during the Anti-bureaucratic revolution. This ignited tensions between the communist leadership of the other republics, and awoke nationalism across the country that eventually resulted in its breakup, with Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Kosovo declaring independence. Serbia and Montenegro remained together as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).
Fueled by ethnic tensions, the Yugoslav Wars erupted, with the most severe conflicts taking place in Croatia and Bosnia, where the large ethnic Serb communities opposed independence from Yugoslavia. The FRY remained outside the conflicts, but provided logistic, military and financial support to Serb forces in the wars. In response, the UN imposed sanctions against Serbia which led to political isolation and the collapse of the economy (GDP was $24 billion in 1990 to under $10 billion in 1993).
Multi-party democracy was introduced in Serbia in 1990, officially dismantling the one - party system. Critics of Milošević claimed that the government continued to be authoritarian despite constitutional changes, as Milošević maintained strong political influence over the state media and security apparatus. When the ruling Socialist Party of Serbia refused to accept its defeat in municipal elections in 1996, Serbians engaged in large protests against the government.
In 1998, peace was broken again, when the situation in Kosovo worsened with continued clashes between the Albanian guerilla Kosovo Liberation Army and Yugoslav security forces. The confrontations led to the short Kosovo War (1998 -- 99), in which NATO intervened, leading to the withdrawal of Serbian forces and the establishment of UN administration in the province.
After presidential elections in September 2000, opposition parties accused Milošević of electoral fraud. A campaign of civil resistance followed, led by the Democratic Opposition of Serbia (DOS), a broad coalition of anti-Milošević parties. This culminated on 5 October when half a million people from all over the country congregated in Belgrade, compelling Milošević to concede defeat. The fall of Milošević ended Yugoslavia 's international isolation. Milošević was sent to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. The DOS announced that FR Yugoslavia would seek to join the European Union. In 2003, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was renamed Serbia and Montenegro; the EU opened negotiations with the country for the Stabilization and Association Agreement. Serbia 's political climate remained tense and in 2003, the prime minister Zoran Đinđić was assassinated as result of a plot originating from circles of organized crime and former security officials.
On 21 May 2006, Montenegro held a referendum to determine whether to end its union with Serbia. The results showed 55.4 % of voters in favor of independence, which was just above the 55 % required by the referendum. On 5 June 2006, the National Assembly of Serbia declared Serbia to be the legal successor to the former state union. The Assembly of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008. Serbia immediately condemned the declaration and continues to deny any statehood to Kosovo. The declaration has sparked varied responses from the international community, some welcoming it, while others condemned the unilateral move. Status - neutral talks between Serbia and Kosovo - Albanian authorities are held in Brussels, mediated by the EU.
In April 2008 Serbia was invited to join the Intensified Dialogue programme with NATO despite the diplomatic rift with the alliance over Kosovo. Serbia officially applied for membership in the European Union on 22 December 2009, and received candidate status on 1 March 2012, following a delay in December 2011. Following a positive recommendation of the European Commission and European Council in June 2013, negotiations to join the EU commenced in January 2014.
Located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41 ° and 47 ° N, and longitudes 18 ° and 23 ° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km (including Kosovo), which places it at 113th place in the world; with Kosovo excluded, the total area is 77,474 km, which would make it 117th. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km (Albania 115 km, Bosnia and Herzegovina 302 km, Bulgaria 318 km, Croatia 241 km, Hungary 151 km, Macedonia 221 km, Montenegro 203 km and Romania 476 km). All of Kosovo 's border with Albania (115 km), Macedonia (159 km) and Montenegro (79 km) are under control of the Kosovo border police. Serbia treats the 352 km long border between Kosovo and rest of Serbia as an "administrative line ''; it is under shared control of Kosovo border police and Serbian police forces, and there are 11 crossing points.
The Pannonian Plain covers the northern third of the country (Vojvodina and Mačva) while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of the central part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart, consists chiefly of hills traversed by rivers. Mountains dominate the southern third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest, following the flow of the rivers Drina and Ibar. The Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in a north -- south direction in eastern Serbia.
Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to the Rilo - Rhodope Mountain system. Elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 metres (7,116 feet) (the highest peak in Serbia, excluding Kosovo) to the lowest point of just 17 metres (56 feet) near the Danube river at Prahovo. The largest lake is Đerdap Lake (163 square kilometres or 63 square miles) and the longest river passing through Serbia is the Danube (587.35 kilometres or 364.96 miles).
The climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. With mean January temperatures around 0 ° C (32 ° F), and mean July temperatures of 22 ° C (72 ° F), it can be classified as a warm - humid continental or humid subtropical climate. In the north, the climate is more continental, with cold winters, and hot, humid summers along with well distributed rainfall patterns. In the south, summers and autumns are drier, and winters are relatively cold, with heavy inland snowfall in the mountains.
Differences in elevation, proximity to the Adriatic Sea and large river basins, as well as exposure to the winds account for climate variations. Southern Serbia is subject to Mediterranean influences. The Dinaric Alps and other mountain ranges contribute to the cooling of most of the warm air masses. Winters are quite harsh in the Pešter plateau, because of the mountains which encircle it. One of the climatic features of Serbia is Košava, a cold and very squally southeastern wind which starts in the Carpathian Mountains and follows the Danube northwest through the Iron Gate where it gains a jet effect and continues to Belgrade and can spread as far south as Niš.
The average annual air temperature for the period 1961 -- 1990 for the area with an altitude of up to 300 m (984 ft) is 10.9 ° C (51.6 ° F). The areas with an altitude of 300 to 500 m (984 to 1,640 ft) have an average annual temperature of around 10.0 ° C (50.0 ° F), and over 1,000 m (3,281 ft) of altitude around 6.0 ° C (42.8 ° F). The lowest recorded temperature in Serbia was − 39.5 ° C (− 39.1 ° F) on 13 January 1985, Karajukića Bunari in Pešter, and the highest was 44.9 ° C or 112.8 ° F, on 24 July 2007, recorded in Smederevska Palanka.
Serbia is one of few European countries with very high risk exposure to natural hazards (earthquakes, storms, floods, droughts). It is estimated that potential floods, particularly in areas of Central Serbia, threaten over 500 larger settlements and an area of 16,000 square kilometers. The most disastrous were the floods in May 2014, when 57 people died and a damage of over a 1.5 billion euro was inflicted.
Almost all of Serbia 's rivers drain to the Black Sea, by way of the Danube river. The Danube, the second largest European river, passes through Serbia with 588 kilometers (21 % of its overall length) and represents the largest source of fresh water. It is joined by its biggest tributaries, the Great Morava (longest river entirely in Serbia with 493 km of length), Sava and Tisza rivers. One notable exception is the Pčinja which flows into the Aegean. Drina river forms the natural border between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia, and represents the main kayaking and rafting attraction in both countries.
Due to configuration of the terrain, natural lakes are sparse and small; most of them are located in the lowlands of Vojvodina, like the aeolian lake Palić or numerous oxbow lakes along river flows (like Zasavica and Carska Bara). However, there are numerous artificial lakes, mostly due to hydroelectric dams, the biggest being Đerdap (Iron Gates) on the Danube with 163 km on the Serbian side (a total area of 253 km is shared with Romania) as well as the deepest (with maximum depth of 92 m); Perućac on the Drina, and Vlasina. The largest waterfall, Jelovarnik, located in Kopaonik, is 71 m high. Abundance of relatively unpolluted surface waters and numerous underground natural and mineral water sources of high water quality presents a chance for export and economy improvement; however, more extensive exploitation and production of bottled water began only recently.
With 29.1 % of its territory covered by forest, Serbia is considered to be a middle - forested country, compared on a global scale to world forest coverage at 30 %, and European average of 35 %. The total forest area in Serbia is 2,252,000 ha (1,194,000 ha or 53 % are state - owned, and 1,058,387 ha or 47 % are privately owned) or 0.3 ha per inhabitant. The most common trees are oak, beech, pines and firs. Serbia is a country of rich ecosystem and species diversity -- covering only 1.9 % of the whole European territory Serbia is home to 39 % of European vascular flora, 51 % of European fish fauna, 40 % of European reptile and amphibian fauna, 74 % of European bird fauna, 67 % European mammal fauna. Its abundance of mountains and rivers make it an ideal environment for a variety of animals, many of which are protected including wolves, lynx, bears, foxes and stags. There are 17 snake species living all over the country, 8 of them are venomous. Serbia is home to highly protected owl species. In the northernmost part of Vojvodina plain, in the city of Kikinda, a number of endangered 145 long - eared owls is noted, making this town the world 's biggest settlement of these species. Serbia is considerably rich with threatened species of bats and butterflies.
Mountain of Tara in western Serbia is one of the last regions in Europe where bears can still live in absolute freedom. Serbia is also home to about 380 species of bird. In Carska Bara, there are over 300 bird species on just a few square kilometers. Uvac Gorge is considered one of the last habitats of the griffon vulture in Europe.
There are 377 protected areas of Serbia, encompassing 4,947 square kilometers or 6.4 % of the country. The "Spatial plan of the Republic of Serbia '' states that the total protected area should be increased to 12 % by 2021. Those protected areas include 5 national parks (Đerdap, Tara, Kopaonik, Fruška Gora and Šar Mountain), 15 nature parks, 15 "landscapes of outstanding features '', 61 nature reserves, and 281 natural monuments.
Air pollution is a significant problem in Bor area, due to work of large copper mining and smelting complex, and Pančevo where oil and petrochemical industry is based. Some cities suffer from water supply problems, due to mismanagement and low investments in the past, as well as water pollution (like the pollution of the Ibar River from the Trepča zinc - lead combinate, affecting the city of Kraljevo, or the presence of natural arsenic in underground waters in Zrenjanin).
Poor waste management has been identified as one of the most important environmental problems in Serbia and the recycling is a fledgling activity, with only 15 % of its waste being turned back for reuse. The 1999 NATO bombing caused serious damage to the environment, with several thousand tons of toxic chemicals stored in targeted factories and refineries released into the soil and water basins.
Serbia is a parliamentary republic, with the government divided into legislative, executive and judiciary branches.
Serbia had one of the first modern constitutions in Europe, the 1835 Constitution (known as "Sretenje Constitution ''), which was at the time considered among the most progressive and liberal constitutions in the world. Since then it has adopted 10 different constitutions. The current constitution was adopted in 2006 in the aftermath of Montenegro independence referendum which by consequence renewed the independence of Serbia itself. The Constitutional Court rules on matters regarding the Constitution.
The President of the Republic (Predsednik Republike) is the head of state, is elected by popular vote to a five - year term and is limited by the Constitution to a maximum of two terms. In addition to being the commander in chief of the armed forces, the president has the procedural duty of appointing the prime minister with the consent of the parliament, and has some influence on foreign policy. Aleksandar Vučić of the Serbian Progressive Party is the current president following the 2017 presidential election. Seat of the presidency is Novi Dvor.
The Government (Vlada) is composed of the prime minister and cabinet ministers. The Government is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the foreign and internal policies. The current prime minister is Ana Brnabić of the Serbian Progressive Party.
The National Assembly (Narodna skupština) is a unicameral legislative body. The National Assembly has the power to enact laws, approve the budget, schedule presidential elections, select and dismiss the Prime Minister and other ministers, declare war, and ratify international treaties and agreements. It is composed of 250 proportionally elected members who serve four - year terms.
The largest political parties in Serbia are the centre - right Serbian Progressive Party, leftist Socialist Party of Serbia and far - right Serbian Radical Party.
Serbia has a three - tiered judicial system, made up of the Supreme Court of Cassation as the court of the last resort, Courts of Appeal as the appellate instance, and Basic and High courts as the general jurisdictions at first instance.
Courts of special jurisdictions are the Administrative Court, commercial courts (including the Commercial Court of Appeal at second instance) and misdemeanor courts (including High Misdemeanor Court at second instance). The judiciary is overseen by the Ministry of Justice. Serbia has a typical civil law legal system.
Law enforcement is the responsibility of the Serbian Police, which is subordinate to the Ministry of the Interior. Serbian Police fields 26,527 uniformed officers. National security and counterintelligence are the responsibility of the Security Intelligence Agency (BIA).
Serbia has established diplomatic relations with 188 UN member states, the Holy See, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, and the European Union. Foreign relations are conducted through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Serbia has a network of 65 embassies and 23 consulates internationally. There are 65 foreign embassies, 5 consulates and 4 liaison offices in Serbia.
Serbian foreign policy is focused on achieving the strategic goal of becoming a member state of the European Union (EU). Serbia started the process of joining the EU by signing of the Stabilisation and Association Agreement on 29 April 2008 and officially applied for membership in the European Union on 22 December 2009. It received a full candidate status on 1 March 2012 and started accession talks on 21 January 2014. The European Commission considers accession possible by 2025.
The province of Kosovo declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008, which sparked varied responses from the international community, some welcoming it, while others condemn the unilateral move. In protest, Serbia initially recalled its ambassadors from countries that recognized Kosovo ′ s independence. The resolution of 26 December 2007 by the National Assembly stated that both the Kosovo declaration of independence and recognition thereof by any state would be gross violation of international law.
Serbia began cooperation and dialogue with NATO in 2006, when the country joined the Partnership for Peace programme and the Euro - Atlantic Partnership Council. The country ′ s military neutrality was formally proclaimed by a resolution adopted by Serbia ′ s parliament in December 2007, which makes joining any military alliance contingent on a popular referendum, a stance acknowledged by NATO. On the other hand, Serbia ′ s relations with Russia are habitually described by mass media as a '' centuries - old religious, ethnic and political alliance '' and Russia is said to have sought to solidify its relationship with Serbia since the imposition of sanctions against Russia in 2014.
The Serbian Armed Forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defence, and are composed of the Army and the Air Force. Although a landlocked country, Serbia operates a River Flotilla which patrols on the Danube, Sava, and Tisza rivers. The Serbian Chief of the General Staff reports to the Defence Minister. The Chief of Staff is appointed by the President, who is the Commander - in - chief. As of 2017, Serbia defence budget amounts to $503 million or an estimated 1.4 % of the country 's GDP.
Traditionally having relied on a large number of conscripts, Serbian Armed Forces went through a period of downsizing, restructuring and professionalisation. Conscription was abolished in 2011. Serbian Armed Forces have 28,000 active troops, supplemented by the "active reserve '' which numbers 20,000 members and "passive reserve '' with about 170,000.
Serbia participates in the NATO Individual Partnership Action Plan program, but has no intention of joining NATO, due to significant popular rejection, largely a legacy of the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999. It is an observer member of the Collective Securities Treaty Organization (CSTO) The country also signed the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe. The Serbian Armed Forces take part in several multinational peacekeeping missions, including deployments in Lebanon, Cyprus, Ivory Coast, and Liberia.
Serbia is a major producer and exporter of military equipment in the region. Defence exports totaled around $483 million in 2016. Serbia exports across the world, notably to the Middle East, Africa, Southeast Asia, and North America. The defence industry has seen significant growth over the years and it continues to grow on a yearly basis.
Serbia is a unitary state composed of municipalities / cities, districts, and two autonomous provinces. In Serbia, excluding Kosovo, there are 138 municipalities (opštine) and 23 cities (gradovi), which form the basic units of local self - government. Apart from municipalities, there are 24 districts (okruzi, 10 most populated listed below), with the City of Belgrade constituting an additional district. Except for Belgrade, which has an elected local government, districts are regional centers of state authority, but have no powers of their own; they present purely administrative divisions.
Serbia has two autonomous provinces, Vojvodina in the north, and Kosovo and Metohija in the south, while the remaining area, "Central Serbia '', never had its own regional authority. Following the Kosovo War, UN peacekeepers entered Kosovo, as per UNSC Resolution 1244. In 2008, Kosovo declared independence. The government of Serbia did not recognize the declaration, considering it illegal and illegitimate.
As of 2011 census, Serbia (excluding Kosovo) has a total population of 7,186,862 and the overall population density is medium as it stands at 92.8 inhabitants per square kilometer. The census was not conducted in Kosovo which held its own census that numbered their total population at 1,739,825, excluding Serb - inhabited North Kosovo, as Serbs from that area (about 50,000) boycotted the census.
Serbia has been enduring a demographic crisis since the beginning of the 1990s, with a death rate that has continuously exceeded its birth rate, and a total fertility rate of 1.43 children per mother, one of the lowest in the world.
Serbia subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 42.9 years, and its population is shrinking at one of the fastest rates in the world. A fifth of all households consist of only one person, and just one - fourth of four and more persons. Average Life expectancy in Serbia at birth is 74.8 years.
During the 1990s, Serbia had the largest refugee population in Europe. Refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Serbia formed between 7 % and 7.5 % of its population at the time -- about half a million refugees sought refuge in the country following the series of Yugoslav wars, mainly from Croatia (and to a lesser extent from Bosnia and Herzegovina) and the IDPs from Kosovo.
It is estimated that 300,000 people left Serbia during the 1990s, 20 % of whom had a higher education.
Serbs with 5,988,150 are the largest ethnic group in Serbia, representing 83 % of the total population (excluding Kosovo). With a population of 253,899, Hungarians are the largest ethnic minority in Serbia, concentrated predominantly in northern Vojvodina and representing 3.5 % of the country 's population (13 % in Vojvodina). Romani population stands at 147,604 according to the 2011 census but unofficial estimates place their actual number between 400,000 and 500,000. Bosniaks with 145,278 are concentrated in Raška (Sandžak), in the southwest. Other minority groups include Croats, Slovaks, Albanians, Montenegrins, Vlachs, Romanians, Macedonians and Bulgarians. Chinese, estimated at about 15,000, are the only significant immigrant minority.
The majority of the population, or 59.4 %, reside in urban areas and some 16.1 % in Belgrade alone. Belgrade is the only city with more than a million inhabitants and there are four more with over 100,000 inhabitants.
The Constitution of Serbia defines it as a secular state with guaranteed religious freedom. Orthodox Christians with 6,079,396 comprise 84.5 % of country 's population. The Serbian Orthodox Church is the largest and traditional church of the country, adherents of which are overwhelmingly Serbs. Other Orthodox Christian communities in Serbia include Montenegrins, Romanians, Vlachs, Macedonians and Bulgarians.
Roman Catholics number 356,957 in Serbia, or roughly 6 % of the population, mostly in Vojvodina (especially its northern part) which is home to minority ethnic groups such as Hungarians, Croats, Bunjevci, as well as to some Slovaks and Czechs.
Protestantism accounts for about 1 % of the country 's population, chiefly Lutheranism among Slovaks in Vojvodina as well as Calvinism among Reformed Hungarians. Greek Catholic Church is adhered by around 25,000 citizens (0.37 % of the population), mostly Rusyns in Vojvodina.
Muslims, with 222,282 or 3 % of the population, form the third largest religious group. Islam has a strong historic following in the southern regions of Serbia, primarily in southern Raška. Bosniaks are the largest Islamic community in Serbia; estimates are that around a third of the country 's Roma people are Muslim.
There are only 578 Jews by faith in Serbia. Atheists numbered 80,053 or 1.1 % of the population and an additional 4,070 declared themselves to be agnostics.
The official language is Serbian, native to 88 % of the population. Serbian is the only European language with active digraphia, using both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets. Serbian Cyrillic is designated in the Constitution as the "official script '' and was devised in 1814 by Serbian philologist Vuk Karadžić, who based it on phonemic principles., while the Latin alphabet is given status of "script in official use '' by the constitution. A survey from 2014 showed that 47 % of Serbians favour the Latin alphabet, 36 % favour the Cyrillic one and 17 % have no preference.
Recognized minority languages are: Hungarian, Bosnian, Slovak, Croatian, Albanian, Romanian, Bulgarian and Rusyn. All these languages are in official use in municipalities or cities where the ethnic minority exceeds 15 % of the total population. In Vojvodina, the provincial administration uses, besides Serbian, five other languages (Hungarian, Slovak, Croatian, Romanian and Rusyn).
Serbia has an emerging market economy in upper - middle income range. According to the IMF, Serbian nominal GDP in 2017 is officially estimated at $39.366 billion or $5,599 per capita while purchasing power parity GDP was $106.602 billion or $15,163 per capita. The economy is dominated by services which accounts for 60.8 % of GDP, followed by industry with 31.3 % of GDP, and agriculture at 7.9 % of GDP. The official currency of Serbia is Serbian dinar (ISO code: RSD), and the central bank is National Bank of Serbia. The Belgrade Stock Exchange is the only stock exchange in the country, with market capitalization of $8.65 billion and BELEX15 as the main index representing the 15 most liquid stocks.
The economy has been affected by the global economic crisis. After almost a decade of strong economic growth (average of 4.45 % per year), Serbia entered the recession in 2009 with negative growth of − 3 % and again in 2012 and 2014 with − 1 % and − 1.8 %, respectively. As the government was fighting effects of crisis the public debt has more than doubled: from pre-crisis level of just under 30 % to about 70 % of GDP and trending downwards recently to around 60 %. Labor force stands at 3.1 million, of whom 56.2 % are employed in services sector, 24.4 % are employed in the agriculture and 19.4 % are employed in industry. The average monthly net salary in November 2017 stood at 47,575 dinars or $480. The unemployment remains an acute problem, with rate of 13 % as of 2017.
Since 2000, Serbia has attracted over $25 billion in foreign direct investment (FDI). Blue - chip corporations making investments include: Fiat Chrysler Automobiles, Siemens, Bosch, Philip Morris, Michelin, Coca - Cola, Carlsberg and others. In the energy sector, Russian energy giants, Gazprom and Lukoil have made large investments.
Serbia has an unfavorable trade balance: imports exceed exports by 23 %. Serbia 's exports, however, recorded a steady growth in last couple of years reaching $17 billion in 2017. The country has free trade agreements with the EFTA and CEFTA, a preferential trade regime with the European Union, a Generalized System of Preferences with the United States, and individual free trade agreements with Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Turkey.
Serbia has very favourable natural conditions (land and climate) for varied agricultural production. It has 5,056,000 ha of agricultural land (0.7 ha per capita), out of which 3,294,000 ha is arable land (0.45 ha per capita). In 2016, Serbia exported agricultural and food products worth $3.2 billion, and the export - import ratio was 178 %. Agricultural exports constitute more than one - fifth of all Serbia 's sales on the world market. Serbia is one of the largest provider of frozen fruit to the EU (largest to the French market, and 2nd largest to the German market). Agricultural production is most prominent in Vojvodina on the fertile Pannonian Plain.
Other agricultural regions include Mačva, Pomoravlje, Tamnava, Rasina, and Jablanica. In the structure of the agricultural production 70 % is from the crop field production, and 30 % is from the livestock production. Serbia is world 's second largest producer of plums (582,485 tons; second to China), second largest of raspberries (89,602 tons, second to Poland), it is also a significant producer of maize (6.48 million tons, ranked 32nd in the world) and wheat (2.07 million tons, ranked 35th in the world). Other important agricultural products are: sunflower, sugar beet, soybean, potato, apple, pork meat, beef, poultry and dairy.
There are 56,000 ha of vineyards in Serbia, producing about 230 million litres of wine annually. Most famous viticulture regions are located in Vojvodina and Šumadija.
The industry is the economy sector which was hardest hit by the UN sanctions and trade embargo and NATO bombing during the 1990s and transition to market economy during the 2000s. The industrial output saw dramatic downsizing: in 2013 it was expected to be only a half of that of 1989. Main industrial sectors include: automotive, mining, non-ferrous metals, food - processing, electronics, pharmaceuticals, clothes.
Automotive industry (with Fiat Chrysler Automobiles as a forebearer) is dominated by cluster located in Kragujevac and its vicinity, and contributes to export with about $2 billion. Serbia 's mining industry is comparatively strong: Serbia is the 18th largest producer of coal (7th in the Europe) extracted from large deposits in Kolubara and Kostolac basins; it is also world 's 23rd largest (3rd in Europe) producer of copper which is extracted by RTB Bor, a large domestic copper mining company; significant gold extraction is developed around Majdanpek. Serbia notably manufactures intel smartphones named Tesla smartphones.
Food industry is well known both regionally and internationally and is one of the strong points of the economy. Some of the international brand - names established production in Serbia: PepsiCo and Nestlé in food - processing sector; Coca - Cola (Belgrade), Heineken (Novi Sad) and Carlsberg (Bačka Palanka) in beverage industry; Nordzucker in sugar industry. Serbia 's electronics industry had its peak in the 1980s and the industry today is only a third of what it was back then, but has witnessed a something of revival in last decade with investments of companies such as Siemens (wind turbines) in Subotica, Panasonic (lighting devices) in Svilajnac, and Gorenje (electrical home appliances) in Valjevo. The pharmaceutical industry in Serbia comprises a dozen manufacturers of generic drugs, of which Hemofarm in Vršac and Galenika in Belgrade, account for 80 % of production volume. Domestic production meets over 60 % of the local demand.
The energy sector is one of the largest and most important sectors to the country 's economy. Serbia is a net exporter of electricity and importer of key fuels (such as oil and gas).
Serbia has an abundance of coal, and significant reserves of oil and gas. Serbia 's proven reserves of 5.5 billion tons of coal lignite are the 5th largest in the world (second in Europe, after Germany). Coal is found in two large deposits: Kolubara (4 billion tons of reserves) and Kostolac (1.5 billion tons). Despite being small on a world scale, Serbia 's oil and gas resources (77.4 million tons of oil equivalent and 48.1 billion cubic meters, respectively) have a certain regional importance since they are largest in the region of former Yugoslavia as well as the Balkans (excluding Romania). Almost 90 % of the discovered oil and gas are to be found in Banat and those oil and gas fields are by size among the largest in the Pannonian basin but are average on a European scale.
The production of electricity in 2015 in Serbia was 36.5 billion kilowatt - hours (KWh), while the final electricity consumption amounted to 35.5 billion kilowatt - hours (KWh). Most of the electricity produced comes from thermal - power plants (72.7 % of all electricity) and to a lesser degree from hydroelectric - power plants (27.3 %). There are 6 lignite - operated thermal - power plants with an installed power of 3,936 MW; largest of which are 1,502 MW - Nikola Tesla 1 and 1,160 MW - Nikola Tesla 2, both in Obrenovac. Total installed power of 9 hydroelectric - power plants is 2,831 MW, largest of which is Đerdap 1 with capacity of 1,026 MW. In addition to this, there are mazute and gas - operated thermal - power plants with an installed power of 353 MW. The entire production of electricity is concentrated in Elektroprivreda Srbije (EPS), public electric - utility power company.
The current oil production in Serbia amounts to over 1.1 million tons of oil equivalent and satisfies some 43 % of country 's needs while the rest is imported. National petrol company, Naftna Industrija Srbije (NIS), was acquired in 2008 by Gazprom Neft. The company has completed $700 million modernisation of oil - refinery in Pančevo (capacity of 4.8 million tons) and is currently in the midst of converting oil refinery in Novi Sad into lubricants - only refinery. It also operates network of 334 filling stations in Serbia (74 % of domestic market) and additional 36 stations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 31 in Bulgaria, and 28 in Romania. There are 155 kilometers of crude oil pipelines connecting Pančevo and Novi Sad refineries as a part of trans - national Adria oil pipeline.
Serbia is heavily dependent on foreign sources of natural gas, with only 17 % coming from domestic production (totalling 491 million cubic meters in 2012) and the rest is imported, mainly from Russia (via gas pipelines that run through Ukraine and Hungary). Srbijagas, public gas company, operates the natural gas transportation system which comprise 3,177 kilometers of trunk and regional natural gas pipelines and a 450 million cubic meter underground gas storage facility at Banatski Dvor.
Serbia has a strategic transportation location since the country 's backbone, Morava Valley, represents by far the easiest route of land travel from continental Europe to Asia Minor and the Near East.
Serbian road network carries the bulk of traffic in the country. Total length of roads is 45,419 km of which 782 km are "class - Ia state roads '' (i.e. motorways); 4,481 km are "class - Ib state roads '' (national roads); 10,941 km are "class - II state roads '' (regional roads) and 23,780 km are "municipal roads ''. The road network, except for the most of class - Ia roads, are of comparatively lower quality to the Western European standards because of lack of financial resources for their maintenance in the last 20 years.
There are currently 124 kilometers of motorways under construction: two sections 34 km - long of the A1 motorway (from south of Leskovac to Bujanovac), 67 km - long segment of A2 (between Belgrade and Ljig), and 23 kilometers on the A4 (east of Niš to the Bulgarian border). Coach transport is very extensive: almost every place in the country is connected by bus, from largest cities to the villages; in addition there are international routes (mainly to countries of Western Europe with large Serb diaspora). Routes, both domestic and international, are served by more than 100 bus companies, biggest of which are Lasta and Niš - Ekspres. As of 2015, there were 1,833,215 registered passenger cars or 1 passenger car per 3.8 inhabitants.
Serbia has 3,819 kilometers of rail tracks, of which 1,279 are electrified and 283 kilometers are double - track railroad. The major rail hub is Belgrade (and to a lesser degree Niš), while the most important railroads include: Belgrade -- Bar (Montenegro), Belgrade -- Šid -- Zagreb (Croatia) / Belgrade -- Niš -- Sofia (Bulgaria) (part of Pan-European Corridor X), Belgrade -- Subotica -- Budapest (Hungary) and Niš -- Thessaloniki (Greece). Although still a major mode of freight transportation, railroads face increasing problems with the maintenance of the infrastructure and lowering speeds. All rail services are operated by public rail company, Serbian Railways. There are only two airports with regular passenger traffic: Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport served almost 5 million passengers in 2016, and is a hub of flagship carrier Air Serbia which carried some 2.6 million passengers in 2016. Niš Constantine the Great Airport is mainly catering low - cost airlines.
Serbia has a developed inland water transport since there are 1,716 kilometers of navigable inland waterways (1,043 km of navigable rivers and 673 km of navigable canals), which are almost all located in northern third of the country. The most important inland waterway is the Danube (part of Pan-European Corridor VII). Other navigable rivers include Sava, Tisza, Begej and Timiş River, all of which connect Serbia with Northern and Western Europe through the Rhine -- Main -- Danube Canal and North Sea route, to Eastern Europe via the Tisza, Begej and Danube Black Sea routes, and to Southern Europe via the Sava river. More than 2 million tons of cargo were transported on Serbian rivers and canals in 2016 while the largest river ports are: Novi Sad, Belgrade, Pančevo, Smederevo, Prahovo and Šabac.
Fixed telephone lines connect 81 % of households in Serbia, and with about 9.1 million users the number of cellphones surpasses the total population of by 28 %. The largest mobile operator is Telekom Srbija with 4.2 million subscribers, followed by Telenor with 2.8 million users and Vip mobile with about 2 million. Some 58 % of households have fixed - line (non-mobile) broadband Internet connection while 67 % are provided with pay television services (i.e. 38 % cable television, 17 % IPTV, and 10 % satellite). Digital television transition has been completed in 2015 with DVB - T2 standard for signal transmission.
Serbia is not a mass - tourism destination but nevertheless has a diverse range of touristic products. In 2017, total of over 3 million tourists were recorded in accommodations, of which some 1.5 million were foreign. Foreign exchange earnings from tourism were estimated at $1.44 billion.
Tourism is mainly focused on the mountains and spas of the country, which are mostly visited by domestic tourists, as well as Belgrade and, to a lesser degree, Novi Sad, which are preferred choices of foreign tourists (almost two - thirds of all foreign visits are made to these two cities). The most famous mountain resorts are Kopaonik, Stara Planina, and Zlatibor. There are also many spas in Serbia, the biggest of which are Vrnjačka Banja, Soko Banja, and Banja Koviljača. City - break and conference tourism is developed in Belgrade and Novi Sad. Other touristic products that Serbia offer are natural wonders like Đavolja varoš, Christian pilgrimage to the many Orthodox monasteries across the country and the river cruising along the Danube. There are several internationally popular music festivals held in Serbia, such as EXIT (with 25 -- 30,000 foreign visitors coming from 60 different countries) and the Guča trumpet festival.
According to 2011 census, literacy in Serbia stands at 98 % of population while computer literacy is at 49 % (complete computer literacy is at 34.2 %). Same census showed the following levels of education: 16.2 % of inhabitants have higher education (10.6 % have bachelors or master 's degrees, 5.6 % have an associate degree), 49 % have a secondary education, 20.7 % have an elementary education, and 13.7 % have not completed elementary education.
Education in Serbia is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Science. Education starts in either preschools or elementary schools. Children enroll in elementary schools at the age of seven. Compulsory education consists of eight grades of elementary school. Students have the opportunity to attend gymnasiums and vocational schools for another four years, or to enroll in vocational training for 2 to 3 years. Following the completion of gymnasiums or vocational schools, students have the opportunity to attend university. Elementary and secondary education are also available in languages of recognised minorities in Serbia, where classes are held in Hungarian, Slovak, Albanian, Romanian, Rusyn, Bulgarian as well as Bosnian and Croatian languages.
There are 17 universities in Serbia (eight public universities with a total number of 85 faculties and nine private universities with 51 faculties). In 2010 / 2011 academic year, 181,362 students attended 17 universities (148,248 at public universities and some 33,114 at private universities) while 47,169 attended 81 "higher schools ''. Public universities in Serbia are: the University of Belgrade (oldest, founded in 1808, and largest university with 89,827 undergraduates and graduates), University of Novi Sad (founded in 1960 and with student body of 47,826), University of Niš (founded in 1965; 27,000 students), University of Kragujevac (founded in 1976; 14,000 students), University of Priština -- Kos. Mitrovica, Public University of Novi Pazar as well as two specialist universities -- University of Arts and University of Defence. Largest private universities include John Naisbitt University and Singidunum University, both in Belgrade, and Educons University in Novi Sad. Public universities tend to be of a better quality and therefore more renowned than private ones. The University of Belgrade (placed in 301 -- 400 bracket on 2013 Shanghai Ranking of World Universities, being best - placed university in Southeast Europe after those in Athens and Thessaloniki) and University of Novi Sad are generally considered as the best institutions of higher learning in the country. Serbia spent 0.64 % of GDP on scientific research in 2012, which is one of the lowest R&D budgets in Europe. Serbia has a long history of excellence in maths and computer sciences which has created a strong pool of engineering talent, although economic sanctions during the 1990s and chronic underinvestment in research forced many scientific professionals to leave the country. Nevertheless, there are several areas in which Serbia still excels such as growing information technology sector, which includes software development as well as outsourcing. It generated $200 million in exports in 2011, both from international investors and a significant number of dynamic homegrown enterprises. In 2005 the global technology giant, Microsoft, founded the Microsoft Development Center, only its fourth such centre in the world. Among the scientific institutes operating in Serbia, the largest are the Mihajlo Pupin Institute and Vinča Nuclear Institute, both in Belgrade. The Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts is a learned society promoting science and arts from its inception in 1841. With a strong science and technological ecosystem, Serbia has produced a number of renowned scientists that have greatly contributed to the field of science and technology.
For centuries straddling the boundaries between East and West, the territory of Serbia had been divided among the Eastern and Western halves of the Roman Empire; then between Byzantium and the Kingdom of Hungary; and in the Early modern period between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg Empire. These overlapping influences have resulted in cultural varieties throughout Serbia; its north leans to the profile of Central Europe, while the south is characteristic of the wider Balkans and even the Mediterranean. The Byzantine influence on Serbia was profound, firstly through the introduction of Eastern Christianity (Orthodoxy) in the Early Middle Ages. The Serbian Orthodox Church has had an enduring status in Serbia, with the many Serbian monasteries constituting the most valuable cultural monuments left from Serbia in the Middle Ages. Serbia has seen influences of Republic of Venice as well, mainly though trade, literature and romanesque architecture.
Serbia has five cultural monuments inscribed in the list of UNESCO World Heritage: the early medieval capital Stari Ras and the 13th - century monastery Sopoćani; the 12th - century Studenica monastery; the Roman complex of Gamzigrad -- Felix Romuliana; medieval tombstones Stećci; and finally the endangered Medieval Monuments in Kosovo (the monasteries of Visoki Dečani, Our Lady of Ljeviš, Gračanica and Patriarchal Monastery of Peć).
There are two literary monuments on UNESCO 's Memory of the World Programme: the 12th - century Miroslav Gospel, and scientist Nikola Tesla 's valuable archive. The slava (patron saint veneration) is inscribed on UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists. The Ministry of Culture and Information is tasked with preserving the nation 's cultural heritage and overseeing its development. Further activities supporting development of culture are undertaken at local government level.
Traces of Roman and early Byzantine Empire architectural heritage are found in many royal cities and palaces in Serbia, like Sirmium, Felix Romuliana and Justiniana Prima.
Serbian monasteries are the pinnacle of Serbian medieval art. At the beginning, they were under the influence of Byzantine Art which was particularly felt after the fall of Constantinople in 1204, when many Byzantine artists fled to Serbia. The most noted of these monasteries is Studenica (built around 1190). It was a model for later monasteries, like the Mileševa, Sopoćani, Žiča, Gračanica and Visoki Dečani. In the end of 14th and the 15th centuries, autochotonous architectural style known as Morava style evolved in area around Morava Valley. A characteristic of this style was the wealthy decoration of the frontal church walls. Examples of this include Manasija, Ravanica and Kalenić monasteries.
Icons and fresco paintings are often considered the peak of Serbian art. The most famous frescos are White Angel (Mileševa monastery), Crucifixion (Studenica monastery) and Dormition of the Virgin (Sopoćani).
Country is dotted with many well - preserved medieval fortifications and castles such as Smederevo Fortress (largest lowland fortress in Europe), Golubac, Maglič, Soko grad, Ostrvica and Ram.
During the time of Ottoman occupation, Serbian art was virtually non-existent, with the exception of several Serbian artists who lived in the lands ruled by the Habsburg Monarchy. Traditional Serbian art showed some Baroque influences at the end of the 18th century as shown in the works of Nikola Nešković, Teodor Kračun, Zaharije Orfelin and Jakov Orfelin.
Serbian painting showed the influence of Biedermeier, Neoclassicism and Romanticism during the 19th century. The most important Serbian painters of the first half of the 20th century were Paja Jovanović and Uroš Predić of Realism, Cubist Sava Šumanović, Milena Pavlović - Barili and Nadežda Petrović of Impressionism, Expressionist Milan Konjović. Noted painters of the second half of 20th century include Marko Čelebonović, Petar Lubarda, Milo Milunović, and Vladimir Veličković.
Anastas Jovanović was one of the earliest photographes in the world, while Marina Abramović is one of the world leading performance artists. Pirot carpet is known as one of the most important traditional handicrafts in Serbia.
There are around 100 art museums in Serbia, of which the most prominent is the National Museum of Serbia, founded in 1844; it houses one of the largest art collections in the Balkans with more than 400,000 exhibits, over 5,600 paintings and 8,400 drawings and prints, including many foreign masterpiece collections. Other art museums of note are Museum of Contemporary Art in Belgrade and Museum of Vojvodina in Novi Sad.
The beginning of Serbian literacy dates back to the activity of the brothers Cyril and Methodius in the Balkans. Monuments of Serbian literacy from the early 11th century can be found, written in Glagolitic. Starting in the 12th century, books were written in Cyrillic. From this epoch, the oldest Serbian Cyrillic book editorial are the Miroslav Gospels from 1186. The Miroslav Gospels are considered to be the oldest book of Serbian medieval history and as such has entered UNESCO 's Memory of the World Register.
Notable medieval authors include Saint Sava, Jefimija, Stefan Lazarević, Constantine of Kostenets and others. Due to Ottoman occupation, when every aspect of formal literacy stopped, Serbia stayed excluded from the entire Renaissance flow in Western culture. However, the tradition of oral story - telling blossomed, shaping itself through epic poetry inspired by at the times still recent Kosovo battle and folk tales deeply rooted in Slavic mythology. Serbian epic poetry in those times has seen as the most effective way in preserving the national identity. The oldest known, entirely fictional poems, make up the Non-historic cycle; this one is followed by poems inspired by events before, during and after Kosovo Battle. The special cycles are dedicated to Serbian legendary hero, Marko Kraljević, then about hajduks and uskoks, and the last one dedicated to the liberation of Serbia in 19th century. Some of the best known folk ballads are The Death of the Mother of the Jugović Family and The Mourning Song of the Noble Wife of the Asan Aga (1646), translated into European languages by Goethe, Walter Scott, Pushkin and Mérimée. The most notable tale from Serbian folklore is The Nine Peahens and the Golden Apples.
Baroque trends in Serbian literature emerged in the late 17th century. Notable Baroque - influenced authors were Gavril Stefanović Venclović, Jovan Rajić, Zaharije Orfelin, Andrija Zmajević and others. Dositej Obradović was the most prominent figure of the Age of Enlightenment, while the most notable Classicist writer was Jovan Sterija Popović, although his works also contained elements of Romanticism. In the era of national revival, in the first half of the 19th century, Vuk Stefanović Karadžić collected Serbian folk literature, and reformed the Serbian language and spelling, paving the way for Serbian Romanticism. The first half of the 19th century was dominated by Romanticism, with Branko Radičević, Đura Jakšić, Jovan Jovanović Zmaj and Laza Kostić being the most notable representatives, while the second half of the century was marked by Realist writers such as Milovan Glišić, Laza Lazarević, Simo Matavulj, Stevan Sremac, Vojislav Ilić, Branislav Nušić, Radoje Domanović and Borisav Stanković.
The 20th century was dominated by the prose writers Meša Selimović (Death and the Dervish), Miloš Crnjanski (Migrations), Isidora Sekulić (The Cronicle of a Small Town Cemetery), Branko Ćopić (Eagles Fly Early), Borislav Pekić (The Time of Miracles), Danilo Kiš (The Encyclopedia of the Dead), Dobrica Ćosić (The Roots), Aleksandar Tišma, Milorad Pavić and others. Pavić is the most widely acclaimed Serbian author of the beginning of the 21st century, most notably for his Dictionary of the Khazars (Хазарски речник / Hazarski rečnik), which has been translated into 24 languages. Notable poets include Milan Rakić, Jovan Dučić, Vladislav Petković Dis, Rastko Petrović, Stanislav Vinaver, Dušan Matić, Branko Miljković, Vasko Popa, Oskar Davičo, Miodrag Pavlović, and Stevan Raičković. Notable contemporary authors include David Albahari, Svetislav Basara, Goran Petrović, Gordana Kuić, Vuk Drašković, and Vladislav Bajac.
Ivo Andrić (The Bridge on the Drina) is possibly the best - known Serbian author,; he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1961. The most beloved face of Serbian literature was Desanka Maksimović, who for seven decades remained the leading lady of Yugoslav poetry. She is honored with statues, and postage stamps, and streets are named for her.
There are 551 public libraries biggest of which are: National Library of Serbia in Belgrade with funds of about 5 million volumes, and Matica Srpska (oldest Serbian cultural institution, founded in 1826) in Novi Sad with nearly 3.5 million volumes. In 2010, there were 10,989 books and brochures published. The book publishing market is dominated by several major publishers such as Laguna and Vulkan (both of which operate their own bookstore chains) and the industry 's centerpiece event, annual Belgrade Book Fair, is the most visited cultural event in Serbia with 158,128 visitors in 2013. The highlight of the literary scene is awarding of NIN Prize, given every January since 1954 for the best newly published novel in Serbian language (during times of Yugoslavia, in Serbo - Croatian language).
Composer and musicologist Stevan Stojanović Mokranjac is considered the founder of modern Serbian music. The Serbian composers of the first generation Petar Konjović, Stevan Hristić, and Miloje Milojević maintained the national expression and modernized the romanticism into the direction of impressionism. Other famous classical Serbian composers include Isidor Bajić, Stanislav Binički and Josif Marinković. There are three opera houses in Serbia: Opera of the National Theatre and Madlenianum Opera, both in Belgrade, and Opera of the Serbian National Theatre in Novi Sad. Four symphonic orchestra operate in the country: Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra, Niš Symphony Orchestra, Symphonic Orchestra of Radio Television of Serbia, and Novi Sad Philharmonic Orchestra. The Choir of Radio Television of Serbia is a leading vocal ensemble in the country. The BEMUS is one of the most prominent classical music festivals in the South East Europe.
Traditional Serbian music includes various kinds of bagpipes, flutes, horns, trumpets, lutes, psalteries, drums and cymbals. The kolo is the traditional collective folk dance, which has a number of varieties throughout the regions. The most popular are those from Užice and Morava region. Sung epic poetry has been an integral part of Serbian and Balkan music for centuries. In the highlands of Serbia these long poems are typically accompanied on a one - string fiddle called the gusle, and concern themselves with themes from history and mythology. There are records of gusle being played at the court of the 13th - century King Stefan Nemanjić.
Pop music has mainstream popularity. Željko Joksimović won second place at the 2004 Eurovision Song Contest and Marija Šerifović managed to win the 2007 Eurovision Song Contest with the song "Molitva '', and Serbia was the host of the 2008 edition of the contest. Most popular pop singers include likes of Đorđe Balašević, Goca Tržan, Zdravko Čolić, Aleksandra Radović, Vlado Georgiev, Jelena Tomašević and Nataša Bekvalac among others.
The Serbian rock which was during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s part of former Yugoslav rock scene, used to be well developed, featuring various rock genres, and was well covered in the media, which included numerous magazines, radio and TV shows. During the 1990s and 2000s popularity of rock music declined in Serbia, and although several major mainstream acts managed to sustain their popularity, an underground and independent music scene developed. The 2000s saw a revival of the mainstream scene and the appearance of a large number of notable acts. The most notable Serbian rock acts include Bajaga i Instruktori, Disciplina Kičme, Ekatarina Velika, Električni Orgazam, Eva Braun, Kerber, Neverne Bebe, Partibrejkers, Ritam Nereda, Orthodox Celts, Rambo Amadeus, Riblja Čorba, S.A.R.S., Smak, Van Gogh, YU Grupa and others.
Folk music in its original form has been a prominent music style since World War One following the early success of Sofka Nikolić. The music has been further promoted by Danica Obrenić, Anđelija Milić, Nada Mamula, and even later, during 60s and 70s, with stars like Silvana Armenulić, Toma Zdravković, Lepa Lukić, Vasilija Radojčić, Vida Pavlović and Gordana Stojićević.
Turbo - folk music is subgenre that has developed in Serbia in the late 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s and has since enjoyed an immense popularity through acts of Dragana Mirković, Zorica Brunclik, Šaban Šaulić, Ana Bekuta, Sinan Sakić, Vesna Zmijanac, Mile Kitić, Snežana Đurišić, Šemsa Suljaković, and Nada Topčagić. It is a blend of folk music with pop and / or dance elements and can be seen as a result of the urbanization of folk music. In recent period turbo - folk featured even more pop music elements, and some of the performers were labeled as pop - folk. The most famous among them are Ceca (often considered to be the biggest music star of Serbia), Jelena Karleuša, Aca Lukas, Seka Aleksić, Dara Bubamara, Indira Radić, Saša Matić, Viki Miljković, Stoja and Lepa Brena, arguably the most prominent performer of former Yugoslavia.
Balkan Brass, or truba ("trumpet '') is a popular genre, especially in Central and Southern Serbia where Balkan Brass originated. The music has its tradition from the First Serbian Uprising. The trumpet was used as a military instrument to wake and gather soldiers and announce battles, the trumpet took on the role of entertainment during downtime, as soldiers used it to transpose popular folk songs. When the war ended and the soldiers returned to the rural life, the music entered civilian life and eventually became a music style, accompanying births, baptisms, weddings, and funerals. There are two main varieties of this genre, one from Western Serbia and the other from Southern Serbia. The best known Serbian Brass musician is Boban Marković, also one of the biggest names in the world of modern brass band bandleaders.
Most popular music festival are Guča Trumpet Festival with over 300,000 annual visitors and EXIT in Novi Sad ("The best European festival '' in 2007 by UK Festival Awards and Yourope -- the European Association of the 40 largest festivals in Europe) with 200,000 visitors in 2013. Other festivals include Nišville Jazz Festival in Niš and Gitarijada rock festival in Zaječar.
Serbia has a well - established theatrical tradition with Joakim Vujić considered the founder of modern Serbian theater. Serbia has 38 professional theatres, the most important of which are National Theatre in Belgrade, Serbian National Theatre in Novi Sad, National Theatre in Subotica, National Theatre in Niš and Knjaževsko - srpski teatar in Kragujevac (the oldest theatre in Serbia, established in 1835). The Belgrade International Theatre Festival -- BITEF, founded in 1967, is one of the oldest theater festivals in the world, and it has become one of the five biggest European festivals. Sterijino pozorje is, on the other hand, festival showcasing national drama plays. The most important Serbian playwrighters were Jovan Sterija Popović and Branislav Nušić, while today renowned names are Dušan Kovačević and Biljana Srbljanović.
The Serbian cinema is one of the most dynamic smaller European cinematographies. Serbia 's film industry is heavily subsidised by the government, mainly through grants approved by the Film Centre of Serbia. In 2011, there were 17 domestic feature films produced. There are 22 operating cinemas in the country, of which 12 are multiplexes, with total attendance exceeding 2.6 million and comparatively high percentage of 32.3 % of total sold tickets for domestic films. Modern PFI Studios located in Šimanovci is nowadays Serbia 's only film studio complex; it consists of 9 state - of - the - art sound stages and attracts mainly international productions, primarily American and West European. The Yugoslav Film Archive used to be former Yugoslavia 's and now is Serbia national film archive -- with over 95 thousand film prints, it is among five largest film archives in the world.
Serbian cinema dates back to 1896 with the release of the oldest movie in the Balkans, The Life and Deeds of the Immortal Vožd Karađorđe, a biography about Serbian revolutionary leader, Karađorđe.
The most famous Serbian filmmaker is Emir Kusturica who won two Golden Palms for Best Feature Film at the Cannes Film Festival, for When Father Was Away on Business in 1985 and then again for Underground in 1995. Other renowned directors include Goran Paskaljević, Dušan Makavejev, Želimir Žilnik, Goran Marković, Srđan Dragojević and Srdan Golubović among others. Steve Tesich, Serbian - American screenwriter, won the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay in 1979 for the movie Breaking Away.
Some of the most prominent movie stars in Serbia have left celebrated heritage in cinematography of Yugoslavia as well. Notable mentions are Zoran Radmilović, Pavle Vuisić, Radmila Savićević, Olivera Marković, Mija Aleksić, Miodrag Petrović Čkalja, Ružica Sokić, Velimir Bata Živojinović, Danilo Bata Stojković, Seka Sablić, Olivera Katarina, Dragan Nikolić, Mira Stupica, Nikola Simić, Bora Todorović, and others. Milena Dravić is the most celebrated actress in Serbian cinematography. The actress has won Best Actress Award on Cannes Film Festival in 1980.
The freedom of the press and the freedom of speech are guaranteed by the constitution of Serbia. Serbia is ranked 54th out of 180 countries in the 2014 Press Freedom Index report compiled by Reporters Without Borders. Both reports noted that media outlets and journalists continue to face partisan and government pressure over editorial policies. Also, the media are now more heavily dependent on advertising contracts and government subsidies to survive financially.
According to AGB Nielsen Research in 2009, Serbs on average watch five hours of television per day, making it the highest average in Europe. There are seven nationwide free - to - air television channels, with public broadcaster Radio Television of Serbia (RTS) operating three (RTS1, RTS2 and RTS3) and remaining four are private broadcasters: Pink, Happy TV, Prva, and O2.TV. Viewing shares for these channels in 2016 were as follows: 20.2 % for RTS1, 14.1 % for Pink, 9.4 % for Happy TV, 9.0 % for Prva, 4.7 % for O2.TV, and 2.5 % for RTS2. There are 28 regional television channels and 74 local television channels. Besides terrestrial channels there are dozens Serbian television channels available only on cable or satellite.
There are 247 radio stations in Serbia. Out of these, six are radio stations with national coverage, including two of public broadcaster Radio Television of Serbia (Radio Belgrade 1 and Radio Belgrade 2 / Radio Belgrade 3) and four private ones (Radio S1, Radio S2, Play Radio, and Radio Hit FM). Also, there are 34 regional stations and 207 local stations.
There are 305 newspapers published in Serbia of which 12 are daily newspapers. Dailies Politika and Danas are Serbia 's papers of record, former being the oldest newspaper in the Balkans, founded in 1904. Highest circulation newspapers are tabloids Večernje Novosti, Blic, Kurir, and Informer, all with more than 100,000 copies sold. There are one daily newspaper devoted to sports -- Sportski žurnal, one business daily Privredni pregled, two regional newspapers (Dnevnik published in Novi Sad and Narodne novine from Niš), and one minority - language daily (Magyar Szo in Hungarian, published in Subotica).
There are 1,351 magazines published in the country. Those include weekly news magazines NIN, Vreme and Nedeljnik, popular science magazine of Politikin Zabavnik, women 's Lepota & Zdravlje, auto magazine SAT revija, IT magazine Svet kompjutera. In addition, there is a wide selection of Serbian editions of international magazines, such as Cosmopolitan, Elle, Grazia, Men 's Health, National Geographic, Le Monde diplomatique, Playboy, Hello! and others.
There are two main news agencies, Beta and Fonet.
As of 2017, out of 432 web - portals (mainly on the. rs domain) the most visited are online editions of printed dailies Blic and Kurir, news web - portal B92, and classifieds KupujemProdajem.
Serbian cuisine is largely heterogeneous, sharing characteristics of the Balkans (especially former Yugoslavia), the Mediterranean (Greek in particular), Turkish, and Central European (especially Austrian and Hungarian) cuisines. Food is very important in Serbian social life, particularly during religious holidays such as Christmas, Easter and feast days i.e. slava.
Staples of the Serbian diet include bread, meat, fruits, vegetables, and dairy products. Bread is the basis of all Serbian meals, and it plays an important role in Serbian cuisine and can be found in religious rituals. A traditional Serbian welcome is to offer bread and salt to guests. Meat is widely consumed, as is fish. Serbian specialties include ćevapčići (caseless sausages made of minced meat, which is always grilled and seasoned), pljeskavica, sarma, kajmak (a dairy product similar to clotted cream), gibanica (cheese and kajmak pie), ajvar (a roasted red pepper spread), proja (cornbread), and kačamak (corn - flour porridge).
Serbians claim their country as the birthplace of rakia (rakija), a highly alcoholic drink primarily distilled from fruit. Rakia in various forms is found throughout the Balkans, notably in Bulgaria, Croatia, Slovenia, Montenegro, Hungary and Turkey. Slivovitz (šljivovica), a plum brandy, is a type of rakia which is considered the national drink of Serbia.
Sports play an important role in Serbian society, and the country has a strong sporting history. The most popular sports in Serbia are football, basketball, tennis, volleyball, water polo and handball.
Professional sports in Serbia are organized by sporting federations and leagues (in case of team sports). One of particularities of Serbian professional sports is existence of many multi-sports clubs (called "sports societies ''), biggest and most successful of which are Red Star, Partizan, and Beograd in Belgrade, Vojvodina in Novi Sad, Radnički in Kragujevac, Spartak in Subotica.
Football is the most popular sport in Serbia, and the Football Association of Serbia with 146,845 registered players, is the largest sporting association in the country. Dragan Džajić was officially recognized as "the best Serbian player of all times '' by the Football Association of Serbia, and more recently the likes of Nemanja Vidić, Dejan Stanković and Branislav Ivanović play for the elite clubs of Europe, developing the nation 's reputation as one of the world 's biggest exporters of footballers.
The Serbia national football team lacks relative success although it qualified for three of the last four FIFA World Cups. Serbia national youth football teams have won 2013 U-19 European Championship and 2015 U-20 World Cup. The two main football clubs in Serbia are Red Star (winner of the 1991 European Cup) and Partizan (finalist of the 1966 European Cup), both from Belgrade. The rivalry between the two clubs is known as the "Eternal Derby '', and is often cited as one of the most exciting sports rivalries in the world.
Serbia is one of the traditional powerhouses of world basketball, as Serbia men 's national basketball team have won two World Championships (in 1998 and 2002), three European Championships (1995, 1997, and 2001) and two Olympic silver medals (in 1996 and 2016) as well. The women 's national basketball team won the European Championship in 2015 and Olympic bronze medal in 2016. A total of 31 Serbian players have played in the NBA in last two decades, including Predrag "Peja '' Stojaković (three - time NBA All - Star) and Vlade Divac (2001 NBA All - Star and FIBA Hall of Famer). The renowned "Serbian coaching school '' produced many of the most successful European basketball coaches of all times, such as Željko Obradović, who won a record 9 Euroleague titles as a coach. KK Partizan basketball club was the 1992 European champion.
Recent success of Serbian tennis players has led to an immense growth in the popularity of tennis in the country. Novak Đoković, twelve - time Grand Slam champion, finished in 2011, 2012, 2014 and 2015 as No. 1 in the world. Ana Ivanovic (champion of 2008 French Open) and Jelena Janković were both ranked No. 1 in the WTA Rankings. There were two No. 1 ranked - tennis double players as well: Nenad Zimonjić (three - time men 's double and four - time mixed double Grand Slam champion) and Slobodan Živojinović. The Serbia men 's tennis national team won the 2010 Davis Cup while Serbia women 's tennis national team reached the final at 2012 Fed Cup.
Serbia is one of the leading volleyball countries in the world. Its men 's national team won the gold medal at 2000 Olympics, and has won the European Championship twice. The women 's national volleyball team won the European Championship twice as well as Olympic silver medal in 2016.
The Serbia men 's national water polo team is the second most successful national team after Hungary, having won Olympic gold medal in 2016, three World Championships (2005, 2009 and 2015), and six European Championships in 2001, 2003, 2006, 2012, 2014 and 2016 respectively. VK Partizan has won a joint - record seven European champion titles.
Other noted Serbian athletes include: swimmers Milorad Čavić (2009 World champion on 50 meters butterfly and silver medalist on 100 meters butterfly as well as 2008 Olympic silver medalist on 100 meters butterfly in historic race with American swimmer Michael Phelps) and Nađa Higl (2009 World champion in 200 meters breaststroke -- the first Serbian woman to become a world champion in swimming); track and field athlete Ivana Španović (long - jumper; 2016 European champion and bronze medalist at the 2016 Olympics); wrestler Davor Štefanek (2016 Olympic gold medalist), and taekwondoist Milica Mandić (2012 Olympic gold medalist).
Serbia has hosted several major sport competitions in the last ten years, including the 2005 Men 's European Basketball Championship, 2005 Men 's European Volleyball Championship, 2006 and 2016 Men 's European Water Polo Championships, 2009 Summer Universiade, 2012 European Men 's Handball Championship, and 2013 World Women 's Handball Championship. The most important annual sporting events held in the country are Belgrade Marathon and Tour de Serbie cycling race.
The public holidays in Serbia are defined by the Law of national and other holidays in the Republic of Serbia.
Sources:
|
what is the origin of the name brent crude oil | Brent crude - wikipedia
Brent Crude is a major trading classification of sweet light crude oil that serves as a major benchmark price for purchases of oil worldwide. This grade is described as light because of its relatively low density, and sweet because of its low sulphur content. Brent Crude is extracted from the North Sea and comprises Brent Blend, Forties Blend, Oseberg and Ekofisk crudes (also known as the BFOE Quotation). The Brent Crude oil marker is also known as Brent Blend, London Brent and Brent petroleum.
The other well - known classifications (also called references or benchmarks) are the OPEC Reference Basket, Dubai Crude, Oman Crude, Urals oil and West Texas Intermediate (WTI). Brent is the leading global price benchmark for Atlantic basin crude oils. It is used to price two thirds of the world 's internationally traded crude oil supplies.
Originally Brent Crude was produced from the Brent oilfield. The name "Brent '' comes from the naming policy of Shell UK Exploration and Production, operating on behalf of ExxonMobil and Royal Dutch Shell, which originally named all of its fields after birds (in this case the brent goose). But it is also a backronym or mnemonic for the formation layers of the oil field: Broom, Rannoch, Etive, Ness and Tarbert.
Petroleum production from Europe, Africa, and the Middle East flowing West tends to be priced relative to this oil, i.e. it forms a benchmark.
Brent blend is a light crude oil (LCO), though not as light as West Texas Intermediate (WTI). It contains approximately 0.37 % of sulphur, classifying it as sweet crude, yet not as sweet as WTI. Brent is suitable for production of petrol and middle distillates. It is typically refined in Northwest Europe.
Brent Crude has an API gravity of approximately 38.06 which is equivalent to a specific gravity of 0.835.
The ICE Futures Europe symbol for Brent crude futures is B. It was originally traded on the open outcry International Petroleum Exchange in London, but since 2005 has been traded on the electronic Intercontinental Exchange, known as ICE. One contract equals 1,000 barrels (159 m). Contracts are quoted in U.S. dollars. Each tick lost or gained equals $10.
Historically price differences between Brent and other index crudes have been based on physical differences in crude oil specifications and short - term variations in supply and demand. Prior to September 2010, there existed a typical price difference per barrel of between ± 3 USD / bbl compared to WTI and OPEC Basket; however, since the autumn of 2010 Brent has been priced much higher than WTI, reaching a difference of more than $11 a barrel by the end of February 2011 (WTI: 104 USD / bbl, LCO: 116 USD / bbl). In February 2011 the divergence reached $16 during a supply glut, record stockpiles, at Cushing, Oklahoma before peaking at above $23 in August 2012. It has since (September 2012) decreased significantly to around $18 after refinery maintenance settled down and supply issues eased slightly.
Many reasons have been given for this widening divergence ranging from a speculative change away from WTI trading (although not supported by trading volumes), dollar currency movements, regional demand variations, and even politics. The depletion of the North Sea oil fields is one explanation for the divergence in forward prices.
The US Energy Information Administration attributes the price spread between WTI and Brent to an oversupply of crude oil in the interior of North America (WTI price is set at Cushing, Oklahoma) caused by rapidly increasing oil production from Canadian oil sands and tight oil formations such as the Bakken Formation, Niobrara Formation, and Eagle Ford Formation. Oil production in the interior of North America has exceeded the capacity of pipelines to carry it to markets on the Gulf Coast and east coast of North America; as a result, the oil price on the US and Canadian east coast and parts of the US Gulf Coast since 2011 has been set by the price of Brent Crude, while markets in the interior still follow the WTI price. Much US and Canadian crude oil from the interior is now shipped to the coast by railroad, which is much more expensive than pipeline.
In addition to the Intercontinental Exchange, Brent crude financial futures are also traded on the NYMEX, with the symbol BZ, and have expiry dates in all 12 months of the year.
The Brent Index is the cash settlement price for the Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) Brent Future based on ICE Futures Brent index at expiry.
The index represents the average price of trading in the 25 - day Brent Blend, Forties, Oseberg, Ekofisk (BFOE) market in the relevant delivery month as reported and confirmed by the industry media. Only published cargo size (600,000 barrels (95,000 m)) trades and assessments are taken into consideration.
The index is calculated as an average of the following elements:
1. A weighted average of first month cargo trades in the 25 - day BFOE market.
2. A weighted average of second month cargo trades in the 25 - day BFOE market plus or minus a straight average of the spread trades between the first and second months.
3. A straight average of designated assessments published in media reports.
|
when was the cooperative society act first passed in india | List of Acts of the Parliament of India - Wikipedia
This is a chronological, but incomplete list of Acts passed by the Imperial Legislative Council between 1861 and 1947, the Constituent Assembly of India between 1947 and 1949, the Provisional Parliament between 1949 and 1952, and the Parliament of India since 1952.
Companies act 1956
|
countries with english as official language in europe | English language in Europe - wikipedia
The English language in Europe, as a native language, is mainly spoken in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Outside of these states, it has a special status in the Crown dependencies (Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey), Gibraltar (one of the British Overseas Territories) and Malta. In the Kingdom of the Netherlands, English has an official status as a regional language on the isles of Saba and Sint Eustatius. In other parts of Europe, English is spoken mainly by those who have learnt it as a second language, but also, to a lesser extent, natively by some expatriates from some countries in the English - speaking world.
The English language is the de facto official language of England, the sole official language of Gibraltar and one of the official languages of the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Malta, the Isle of Man, Jersey, Guernsey and the European Union.
According to a survey published in 2006, 13 % of EU citizens speak English as their native language. Another 38 % of EU citizens state that they have sufficient skills in English to have a conversation, so the total reach of English in the EU is 51 %.
English is descended from the language spoken by the Germanic tribes of the German Bight along the southern coast of the North Sea, the Angles, Saxons, Frisians and Jutes. According to the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle, around 449 AD, Vortigern, King of the Britons, issued an invitation to the "Angle kin '' (Angles, led by Hengest and Horsa), to help him against the Picts. In return, the Angles were granted lands in the southeast. Further aid was sought, and in response "came men of Ald Seaxum of Anglum of Iotum '' (Saxons, Angles and Jutes). The Chronicle documents the subsequent influx of settlers who eventually established seven kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Kent, Essex, Sussex and Wessex.
These Germanic invaders dominated the original Celtic - speaking inhabitants. The dialects spoken by these invaders formed what would be called Old English, which was also strongly influenced by yet another Germanic language, Old East Norse, spoken by Danish Viking invaders who settled mainly in the North - East. English, England and East Anglia are derived from words referring to the Angles: Englisc, Angelcynn and Englaland.
For 300 years following the Norman Conquest in 1066, the Anglo - Norman language was the language of administration and few Kings of England spoke English. A large number of French words were assimilated into Old English, which lost most of its inflections, the result being Middle English. Around the year 1500, the Great Vowel Shift marked the transformation of Middle English into Modern English.
The most famous surviving work from Old English is Beowulf, and from Middle English is Geoffrey Chaucer 's The Canterbury Tales.
The rise of Modern English began around the fifteenth century, with Early Modern English reaching its literary pinnacle at the time of William Shakespeare. Some scholars divide early Modern English and late Modern English at around 1800, in concert with British conquest of much of the rest of the world, as the influence of native languages affected English enormously.
English belongs to the western sub-branch of the Germanic branch of the Indo - European family of languages. The closest undoubted living relatives of English are Scots and the Frisian languages. West Frisian language is spoken by approximately half a million people in the Dutch province of Friesland (Fryslân). Saterland Frisian language is spoken in nearby areas of Germany. North Frisian language is spoken on a few islands in the North Sea. While native English speakers are generally able to read Scots, except for the odd unfamiliar word, Frisian is largely unintelligible (though it was much closer to modern English 's predecessors, Middle English and especially Old English).
After Scots and Frisian, the next closest relative is modern Low German of the eastern Netherlands and northern Germany, which was the old homeland of the Anglo - Saxon invaders of Britain. Other less closely related living languages include Dutch, Afrikaans, German and the Scandinavian languages. Many French words are also intelligible to an English speaker, as English absorbed a tremendous amount of vocabulary from the Norman language after the Norman conquest and from French in later centuries; as a result, a substantial proportion of English vocabulary is very close to the French, with some slight spelling differences (word endings, use of old French spellings, etc.) and some occasional lapses in meaning.
In 1282 Edward I of England defeated Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Wales 's last independent prince, in battle. Edward followed the practice used by his Norman predecessors in their subjugation of the English, and constructed a series of great stone castles in order to control Wales, thus preventing further military action against England by the Welsh. With ' English ' political control at this time came Anglo - Norman customs and language; English did not displace Welsh as the majority language of the Welsh people until the anti Welsh language campaigns, which began towards the end of the 19th century (54 % spoke Welsh in 1891; see Welsh language). The Welsh language is currently spoken by about one - fifth of the population. It has been enjoying support from the authorities for some decades, resulting in a revival, and is in a healthy position in many parts of Wales.
The second English dominion was Ireland. With the arrival of the Normans in Ireland in 1169, King Henry II of England gained Irish lands and the fealty of many native Gaelic nobles. By the 14th century, however, English rule was largely limited to the area around Dublin known as the Pale. English influence on the country waned during this period to the point that the English - dominated Parliament was driven to legislate that any Irish of English descent must speak English (requiring those that did not know English to learn it) through the Statutes of Kilkenny in 1367.
English rule expanded in the 16th century by the Tudor conquest of Ireland, leading the Gaelic order to collapse at the start of the 17th century. The Flight of the Earls in 1607 paved the way for the Plantation of Ulster and a deepening of the English language culture in Ireland. The Cromwellian Plantation and suppression of Catholicism, including both native Irish and the "Old English '' (those of Anglo - Norman descent), further cemented English influence across the country.
As the centuries passed and the social conditions in Ireland deteriorated, culminating in the Great Irish Famine, Irish parents did n't speak Irish to their children as they knew that the children might have to emigrate and Irish would be of no use outside the home country, in Britain, the United States, Australia or Canada. In addition, the introduction of universal state education in the national schools from 1831 proved a powerful vector for the transmission of English as a home language, with the greatest retreat of the Irish language occurring in the period between 1850 and 1900.
By the 20th century, Ireland had a centuries - old history of diglossia. English was the prestige language while the Irish language was associated with poverty and disfranchisement. Accordingly, some Irish people who spoke both Irish and English refrained from speaking to their children in Irish, or, in extreme cases, feigned the inability to speak Irish themselves. Despite state support for the Irish language in the Irish Free State (later the Republic of Ireland) after independence, Irish continued to retreat, the economic marginality of many Irish - speaking areas (see Gaeltacht) being a primary factor. For this reason Irish is spoken as a mother tongue by only a very small number of people on the island of Ireland. Irish has been a compulsory subject in schools in the Republic since the 1920s and proficiency in Irish was until the mid-1980s required for all government jobs.
It may be noted, however, that certain words (especially those germane to political and civic life) in Irish remain features of Irish life and are rarely, if ever, translated into English. These include the names of legislative bodies (such as Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann), government positions such as Taoiseach and Tánaiste, of the elected representative (s) in the Dáil (Teachta Dála), and political parties (such as Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael). Ireland 's police force, the Garda Síochána, are referred to as "the Gardaí '', or "the Guards '' for short. Irish appears on government forms, euro - currency, and postage stamps, in traditional music and in media promoting folk culture. Irish placenames are still common for houses, streets, villages, and geographic features, especially the thousands of townlands. But with these important exceptions, and despite the presence of Irish loan words in Hiberno - English, Ireland is today largely an English - speaking country. Fluent or native Irish speakers are a minority in the most of the country, with Irish remaining as a vernacular mainly in the relatively small Gaeltacht regions, and most Irish speakers also have fluent English.
At the time of partition, English had become the first language of the vast majority in Northern Ireland. It had small elderly Irish - speaking populations in the Sperrin Mountains as well as in the northern Glens of Antrim and Rathlin Island. There were also pockets of Irish speakers in the southernmost part of County Armagh. All of these Irish speakers were bilingual and chose to speak English to their children, and thus these areas of Northern Ireland are now entirely English - speaking. However, in the 2000s a Gaeltacht Quarter was established in Belfast to drive inward investment as a response to a notable level of public interest in learning Irish and the expansion of Irish - medium education (predominantly attended by children whose home language is English) since the 1970s. In recent decades, some Nationalists in Northern Ireland have used it as a means of promoting an Irish identity. However, the amount of interest from Unionists remains low, particularly since the 1960s. About 165,000 people in Northern Ireland have some knowledge of Irish. Ability varies; 64,847 people stated they could understand, speak, read and write Irish in the 2011 UK census, the majority of whom have learnt it as a second language. Otherwise, except for place names and folk music, English is effectively the sole language of Northern Ireland. The Good Friday Agreement specifically acknowledges the position both of Irish and of Ulster Scots in the Republic of Ireland and in Northern Ireland.
Anglic speakers were actually established in Lothian by the 7th century, but remained confined there, and indeed contracted slightly to the advance of the Gaelic language. However, during the 12th and 13th centuries, Norman landowners and their retainers, were invited to settle by the king. It is probable that many of their retainers spoke a northern form of Middle English, although probably French was more common. Most of the evidence suggests that English spread into Scotland via the burgh, proto - urban institutions which were first established by King David I. Incoming burghers were mainly English (especially from Northumbria, and the Earldom of Huntingdon), Flemish and French. Although the military aristocracy employed French and Gaelic, these small urban communities appear to have been using English as something more than a lingua franca by the end of the 13th century. English appeared in Scotland for the first time in literary form in the mid-14th century, when its form unsurprisingly differed little from other northern English dialects. As a consequence of the outcome of the Wars of Independence though, the English of Lothian who lived under the King of Scots had to accept Scottish identity. The growth in prestige of English in the 14th century, and the complementary decline of French in Scotland, made English the prestige language of most of eastern Scotland.
Thus, from the end of the 14th century, and certainly by the end of the 15th century, Scotland began to show a split into two cultural areas -- the mainly English or Scots Lowlands, and the mainly Gaelic - speaking Highlands (which then could be thought to include Galloway and Carrick; see Galwegian Gaelic). This caused divisions in the country where the Lowlands remained, historically, more influenced by the English to the south: the Lowlands lay more open to attack by invading armies from the south and absorbed English influence through their proximity to and their trading relations with their southern neighbours.
In 1603 the Scottish King James VI inherited the throne of England, and became James I of England. James moved to London and only returned once to Scotland. By the time of James VI 's accession to the English throne the old Scottish Court and Parliament spoke Scots. Scots developed from the Anglian spoken in the Northumbrian kingdom of Bernicia, which in the 6th century conquered the Brythonic kingdom of Gododdin and renamed its capital of Din Eidyn to Edinburgh (see the etymology of Edinburgh). Scots continues to heavily influence the spoken English of the Scottish people today. It is much more similar to dialects in the north of England than to ' British ' English, even today. The introduction of King James Version of the Bible into Scottish churches also was a blow to the Scots language, since it used Southern English forms.
In 1707 the Scottish and English Parliaments signed a Treaty of Union. Implementing the treaty involved dissolving both the English and the Scottish Parliaments, and transferring all their powers to a new Parliament in London which then became the British Parliament. A customs and currency union also took place. With this, Scotland 's position was consolidated within the United Kingdom.
Today, almost all residents of Scotland speak English, although many speak various dialects of Scots which differ markedly from Scottish Standard English. Approximately 2 % of the population use Scottish Gaelic as their language of everyday use, primarily in the northern and western regions of the country. Virtually all Scottish Gaelic speakers also speak fluent English.
The Isle of Man is a Crown Dependency. English and Manx Gaelic are the two official languages. Because so few speak Manx as a first language, all inhabitants of the Isle of Man speak English.
The bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey are two Crown Dependencies. Besides English, some (very few) inhabitants of these islands speak regional languages, or those related to French (such as Jèrriais, Dgèrnésiais and Sercquiais).
All inhabitants of the Channel Islands speak English.
Gibraltar has been a British overseas territory since an Anglo - Dutch force led by Sir George Rooke seized "The Rock '' in 1704 and Spain ceded the territory in perpetuity to Great Britain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht.
The small territory 's Gibraltarian inhabitants have a rich cultural heritage as a result of the mix of the neighbouring Andalusian population with immigrants from Great Britain, Genoa, Malta, Portugal, Morocco and India.
The vernacular language of the territory is Llanito. It consists of an eclectic mix of Andalusian Spanish and British English as well as languages such as Maltese, Portuguese, Italian of the Genoese variety and Haketia. Even though Andalusian Spanish is the main constituent of Llanito, it is also heavily influenced by British English, involving a certain amount of code - switching into English.
However, English remains the sole official language, used by Government. It is also the medium of instruction in schools and most Gibraltarians who go on to tertiary education do so in the UK. Although Gibraltar receives Spanish television and radio, British television is also widely available via satellite. Whereas a century ago, most Gibraltarians were monolingual Spanish speakers, the majority is now naturally bilingual in English and Spanish.
In 1914 the Ottoman Empire declared war against the United Kingdom and France as part of the complex series of alliances that led to World War I. The British then annexed Cyprus on 2 November 1914 as part of the British Empire, making the Cypriots British subjects. On 5 November 1914 the British and the French declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Most of Cyprus gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1960, with the UK, Greece and Turkey retaining limited rights to intervene in internal affairs. Parts of the island were excluded from the territory of the new independent republic and remain under UK control. These zones are what are known as the Sovereign Base Areas or SBAs.
The British colonial history of Cyprus has left Cypriots with a good level of English but it is no longer an official language in either the Greek south side of the island, formally known as the Republic of Cyprus or the Turkish north, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus though English remains official in the SBAs. Since the effective partition of the island in 1974, Greek and Turkish Cypriots have had little opportunity or inclination to learn the others language, and are more likely to talk to each other in English. Older Turkish Cypriots who worked or lived with Greek Cypriots prior to partition often speak Greek quite fluently. Indeed, many Ottoman soldiers took Greek wives and were allowed to marry up to four.
English is also commonly used on Cyprus to communicate with foreign visitors. The large number of British tourists (and other, largely Northern European ones, who use English as a lingua franca) who visit Cyprus regularly has contributed largely to the continued use of English on Cyprus, especially in its thriving tourist industry.
After independence in the 1960s there was some attempt to encourage French, which was still the most important European language. This policy would have been in line with that in place in Greece at the time. Furthermore, in the 1960s, affluent French - speaking tourists (both from France and Lebanon) in terms of percentage were more important than today. Overall though, the French policy was indicative of a desire to distance Cyprus from the former British colonial power, against which a bitter war of independence had recently been fought and won.
However, knowledge of English is helped by the large Cypriot migrant communities in the UK and Australia, leading to diffusion of culture and language back to their country of origin, and negative sentiments towards the UK have waned or disappeared. There is now a large British expatriate population, in addition to the British military presence in the Sovereign Base Areas, as well as the UN buffer zone, whose peacekeepers usually also use English as a lingua franca. All of the above maintains an English - speaking presence on the island.
In 1814, Malta became part of the British Empire, under the terms of the Treaty of Vienna. Prior to the arrival of the British, the language of the educated Maltese elite had been Italian, and all legal statutes, taxation, education and clerical discourses were conducted either in Italian or in Latin.
However, this was increasingly downgraded by the increased use of English. The British began scripting and codifying Maltese -- hitherto an unscripted vernacular -- as a language in or around 1868. From this point on, the Maltese language gradually gained currency as the main language on the islands, its grammars and conventions evolving in a mix between Italian, Arabic and English.
Between the 1870s and 1930s, Malta had three official languages, Italian, Maltese and English, but in 1934, English and Maltese were declared the sole official languages. The British associated Italian with the Benito Mussolini regime in Italy, which had made territorial claims on the islands, although the use of Italian by nationalists was more out of cultural affinities with Italy than any sympathy with Italian Fascism. With the outbreak of World War II, the Maltese lost their sense of fraternity with the Italian world, and there was a decline in Italian spoken in Malta.
English remains an official language in Malta, but since independence in 1964, the country 's cultural and commercial links with Italy have strengthened, owing to proximity. Italian television is widely received in Malta and is highly popular.
There are also pockets of native English speakers to be found throughout Europe, such as in southern Spain, France, the Algarve in Portugal, as well as numerous U.S. and British military bases in Germany. There are communities of native English speakers in some European cities aside from the cities of the UK and Ireland, e.g., Amsterdam, Berlin, Brussels, Barcelona, Copenhagen, Paris, Athens, Gothenburg, Helsinki, Stockholm, and Rome.
Sectors of tourism, publishing, finance, computers and related industries rely heavily on English due to Anglophone trade ties. Air traffic control and shipping movements are almost all conducted in English.
In areas of Europe where English is not the first language, there are many examples of the mandated primacy of English: for example, in many European companies, such as Airbus, Ford, G.M., Philips, Renault, Volvo, etc. have designated English to be the language of communication for their senior management, and many universities are offering education in English. The language is also a required subject in most European countries. Thus, the percentage of English speakers is expected to rise.
English is the most commonly spoken foreign language in 19 out of 25 European Union countries (excluding the UK and Ireland) In the EU25, working knowledge of English as a foreign language is clearly leading at 38 %, followed by German and French (at 14 % each), Russian and Spanish (at 6 % each), and Italian (3 %). "Very good '' knowledge of English is particularly high in Malta (52 %), Denmark (44 %), Cyprus (42 %) and Sweden (40 %). Working knowledge varies a lot between European countries. It is very high in Malta, Cyprus and Denmark but low in Russia, Spain (12 %), Hungary (14 %) and Slovakia (14 %). On average in 2012, 38 % of citizens of the European Union (excluding the United Kingdom and Ireland) stated that they have sufficient knowledge of English to have a conversation in this language.
Click on a coloured area to see an article about English in that country or region
|
where can carbohydrates be found in the human body | Glycogen - wikipedia
Glycogen is a multibranched polysaccharide of glucose that serves as a form of energy storage in humans, animals, fungi, and bacteria. The polysaccharide structure represents the main storage form of glucose in the body.
Glycogen functions as one of two forms of long - term energy reserves, with the other form being triglyceride stores in adipose tissue (i.e., body fat). In humans, glycogen is made and stored primarily in the cells of the liver and skeletal muscle. In the liver, glycogen can make up from 5 -- 6 % of the organ 's fresh weight and the liver of an adult weighing 70 kg can store roughly 100 -- 120 grams of glycogen. In skeletal muscle, Glycogen is found in a low concentration (1 -- 2 % of the muscle mass) and the skeletal muscle of an adult weighing 70 kg can store roughly 400 grams of glycogen. The amount of glycogen stored in the body -- particularly within the muscles and liver -- mostly depends on physical training, basal metabolic rate, and eating habits. Small amounts of glycogen are also found in other tissues and cells, including the kidneys, red blood cells, white blood cells, and glial cells in the brain. The uterus also stores glycogen during pregnancy to nourish the embryo.
Approximately 4 grams of glucose are present in the blood of humans at all times; in fasted individuals, blood glucose is maintained constant at this level at the expense of glycogen stores in the liver and skeletal muscle. Glycogen stores in skeletal muscle serve as a form of energy storage for the muscle itself; however, the breakdown of muscle glycogen impedes muscle glucose uptake, thereby increasing the amount of blood glucose available for use in other tissues. Liver glycogen stores serve as a store of glucose for use throughout the body, particularly the central nervous system. The human brain consumes approximately 60 % of blood glucose in fasted, sedentary individuals.
Glycogen is the analogue of starch, a glucose polymer that functions as energy storage in plants. It has a structure similar to amylopectin (a component of starch), but is more extensively branched and compact than starch. Both are white powders in their dry state. Glycogen is found in the form of granules in the cytosol / cytoplasm in many cell types, and plays an important role in the glucose cycle. Glycogen forms an energy reserve that can be quickly mobilized to meet a sudden need for glucose, but one that is less compact than the energy reserves of triglycerides (lipids).
Glycogen is a branched biopolymer consisting of linear chains of glucose residues with an average chain length of approximately 10 - 14 glucose units. Glucose units are linked together linearly by α (1 → 4) glycosidic bonds from one glucose to the next. Branches are linked to the chains from which they are branching off by α (1 → 6) glycosidic bonds between the first glucose of the new branch and a glucose on the stem chain.
Due to the way glycogen is synthesised, every glycogen granule has at its core a glycogenin protein.
Glycogen in muscle, liver, and fat cells is stored in a hydrated form, composed of three or four parts of water per part of glycogen associated with 0.45 millimoles of potassium per gram of glycogen.
As a meal containing carbohydrates or protein is eaten and digested, blood glucose levels rise, and the pancreas secretes insulin. Blood glucose from the portal vein enters liver cells (hepatocytes). Insulin acts on the hepatocytes to stimulate the action of several enzymes, including glycogen synthase. Glucose molecules are added to the chains of glycogen as long as both insulin and glucose remain plentiful. In this postprandial or "fed '' state, the liver takes in more glucose from the blood than it releases.
After a meal has been digested and glucose levels begin to fall, insulin secretion is reduced, and glycogen synthesis stops. When it is needed for energy, glycogen is broken down and converted again to glucose. Glycogen phosphorylase is the primary enzyme of glycogen breakdown. For the next 8 -- 12 hours, glucose derived from liver glycogen is the primary source of blood glucose used by the rest of the body for fuel.
Glucagon, another hormone produced by the pancreas, in many respects serves as a countersignal to insulin. In response to insulin levels being below normal (when blood levels of glucose begin to fall below the normal range), glucagon is secreted in increasing amounts and stimulates both glycogenolysis (the breakdown of glycogen) and gluconeogenesis (the production of glucose from other sources).
Muscle cell glycogen appears to function as an immediate reserve source of available glucose for muscle cells. Other cells that contain small amounts use it locally, as well. As muscle cells lack glucose - 6 - phosphatase, which is required to pass glucose into the blood, the glycogen they store is available solely for internal use and is not shared with other cells. This is in contrast to liver cells, which, on demand, readily do break down their stored glycogen into glucose and send it through the blood stream as fuel for other organs.
Glycogen was discovered by Claude Bernard. His experiments showed that the liver contained a substance that could give rise to reducing sugar by the action of a "ferment '' in the liver. By 1857, he described the isolation of a substance he called "la matière glycogène '', or "sugar - forming substance ''. Soon after the discovery of glycogen in the liver, A. Sanson found that muscular tissue also contains glycogen. The empirical formula for glycogen of (C 6H 10 O 5) was established by Kekule in 1858.
Glycogen synthesis is, unlike its breakdown, endergonic -- it requires the input of energy. Energy for glycogen synthesis comes from uridine triphosphate (UTP), which reacts with glucose - 1 - phosphate, forming UDP - glucose, in a reaction catalysed by UTP -- glucose - 1 - phosphate uridylyltransferase. Glycogen is synthesized from monomers of UDP - glucose initially by the protein glycogenin, which has two tyrosine anchors for the reducing end of glycogen, since glycogenin is a homodimer. After about eight glucose molecules have been added to a tyrosine residue, the enzyme glycogen synthase progressively lengthens the glycogen chain using UDP - glucose, adding α (1 → 4) - bonded glucose. The glycogen branching enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a terminal fragment of six or seven glucose residues from a nonreducing end to the C - 6 hydroxyl group of a glucose residue deeper into the interior of the glycogen molecule. The branching enzyme can act upon only a branch having at least 11 residues, and the enzyme may transfer to the same glucose chain or adjacent glucose chains.
Glycogen is cleaved from the nonreducing ends of the chain by the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase to produce monomers of glucose - 1 - phosphate:
In vivo, phosphorolysis proceeds in the direction of glycogen breakdown because the ratio of phosphate and glucose - 1 - phosphate is usually greater than 100. Glucose - 1 - phosphate is then converted to glucose 6 - phosphate (G6P) by phosphoglucomutase. A special debranching enzyme is needed to remove the α (1 - 6) branches in branched glycogen and reshape the chain into a linear polymer. The G6P monomers produced have three possible fates:
The most common disease in which glycogen metabolism becomes abnormal is diabetes, in which, because of abnormal amounts of insulin, liver glycogen can be abnormally accumulated or depleted. Restoration of normal glucose metabolism usually normalizes glycogen metabolism, as well.
In hypoglycemia caused by excessive insulin, liver glycogen levels are high, but the high insulin levels prevent the glycogenolysis necessary to maintain normal blood sugar levels. Glucagon is a common treatment for this type of hypoglycemia.
Various inborn errors of metabolism are caused by deficiencies of enzymes necessary for glycogen synthesis or breakdown. These are collectively referred to as glycogen storage diseases.
Long - distance athletes, such as marathon runners, cross-country skiers, and cyclists, often experience glycogen depletion, where almost all of the athlete 's glycogen stores are depleted after long periods of exertion without sufficient carbohydrate consumption. This phenomenon is referred to as "hitting the wall ''.
Glycogen depletion can be forestalled in three possible ways. First, during exercise, carbohydrates with the highest possible rate of conversion to blood glucose (high glycemic index) are ingested continuously. The best possible outcome of this strategy replaces about 35 % of glucose consumed at heart rates above about 80 % of maximum. Second, through endurance training adaptations and specialized regimens (e.g. fasting low - intensity endurance training), the body can condition type I muscle fibers to improve both fuel use efficiency and workload capacity to increase the percentage of fatty acids used as fuel, sparing carbohydrate use from all sources. Third, by consuming large quantities of carbohydrates after depleting glycogen stores as a result of exercise or diet, the body can increase storage capacity of intramuscular glycogen stores. This process is known as carbohydrate loading. In general, glycemic index of carbohydrate source does not matter since muscular insulin sensitivity is increased as a result of temporary glycogen depletion.
When experiencing glycogen debt, athletes often experience extreme fatigue to the point that it is difficult to move. As a reference, the very best professional cyclists in the world will usually finish a 4 - to 5 - hr stage race right at the limit of glycogen depletion using the first three strategies.
When athletes ingest both carbohydrate and caffeine following exhaustive exercise, their glycogen stores tend to be replenished more rapidly; however, the minimum dose of caffeine at which there is a clinically significant effect on glycogen repletion has not been established.
|
when did the first call of duty come out | Call of Duty - wikipedia
Call of Duty is a first - person shooter video game franchise. The series began on Microsoft Windows, and later expanded to consoles and handhelds. Several spin - off games have been released. The earlier games in the series are set primarily in World War II, but later games like Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare are set in modern times or in futuristic settings. The most recent game, Call of Duty: WWII, was released on November 3, 2017 and returns to the series ' mid-20th century roots.
The Call of Duty games are published and owned by Activision. While Infinity Ward is still a developer, Treyarch and Sledgehammer Games also develop several of the titles with the release of the studios ' games alternating with each other. Some games have been developed by Gray Matter Interactive, Nokia, Exakt Entertainment, Spark Unlimited, Amaze Entertainment, n - Space, Aspyr, Rebellion Developments, Ideaworks Game Studio, and nStigate Games. The games use a variety of engines, including the id Tech 3, the Treyarch NGL, and the IW engine.
As of February 2016, the Call of Duty series has sold over 250 million copies. Sales of all Call of Duty games topped US $ 15 billion.
Other products in the franchise include a line of action figures designed by Plan - B Toys, a card game created by Upper Deck Company, Mega bloks sets by Mega Brands, and a comic book mini-series published by WildStorm Productions.
Call of Duty is a video game based on the Quake III Arena engine (id Tech 3), and was released on October 29, 2003. The game was developed by Infinity Ward and published by Activision. The game simulates the infantry and combined arms warfare of World War II. An expansion pack, Call of Duty: United Offensive, was developed by Gray Matter Interactive with contributions from Pi Studios and produced by Activision. The game follows American and British paratroopers and the Red Army. The Mac OS X version of the game was ported by Aspyr Media. In late 2004, the N - Gage version was developed by Nokia and published by Activision. Other versions were released for PC, including Collector 's Edition (with soundtrack and strategy guide), Game of the Year Edition (includes game updates), and the Deluxe Edition (which contains the United Offensive expansion and soundtrack; in Europe the soundtrack was not included). On September 22, 2006, Call of Duty, United Offensive, and Call of Duty 2 were released together as Call of Duty: War Chest for PC. Since November 12, 2007, Call of Duty games have been available for purchase via Valve 's content delivery platform Steam.
Call of Duty 2 is a first - person shooter video game and the sequel to Call of Duty. It was developed by Infinity Ward and published by Activision. The game is set during World War II and is experienced through the perspectives of soldiers in the Red Army, British Army, and United States Army. It was released on October 25, 2005 for Microsoft Windows, November 15, 2005 for the Xbox 360, and June 13, 2006 for Mac OS X. Other versions were made for mobile phones, Pocket PCs, and smartphones.
Call of Duty 3 is a World War II first - person shooter and the third installment in the Call of Duty video game series. Released on November 7, 2006, the game was developed by Treyarch, and was the first major installment in the Call of Duty series not to be developed by Infinity Ward. It was also the first not to be released on the PC platform. It was released on the PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Wii, Xbox, and Xbox 360. Call of Duty 3 follows the American, Canadian, British, and Polish armies as well as the French Resistance after D - Day in the Falaise Gap.
Call of Duty: WWII is the fourteenth game in the series and was developed by Sledgehammer Games. It was released worldwide on November 3, 2017 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. The game is set in the European theatre, and is centered around a squad in the 1st Infantry Division, following their battles on the Western Front, and set mainly in the historical events of Operation Overlord.
Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare is the fourth installment of the main series, and was developed by Infinity Ward. It is the first game in the series not to be set during World War II, but set in the modern day. It is the first to receive a Mature rating from the ESRB, except for the Nintendo DS version, which was rated Teen. The game was released for Microsoft Windows, Nintendo DS, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 on November 7, 2007. Download and retail versions for Mac OS X were released by Aspyr in September 2008. As of May 2009, Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare has sold over 13 million copies.
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 is the sixth installment of the main series. It was developed by Infinity Ward and published by Activision. Activision Blizzard officially announced Modern Warfare 2 on February 11, 2009. The game was released worldwide on November 10, 2009, for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows. A Nintendo DS iteration of the game, titled Call of Duty: Modern Warfare: Mobilized, was released alongside the game and the Wii port of Call of Duty: Modern Warfare. Modern Warfare 2 is the direct sequel to Call of Duty 4 and continues the same storyline, taking place five years after the first game and featuring several returning characters including Captain Price and "Soap '' MacTavish.
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 is a first - person shooter video game. It is the eighth installment of the Call of Duty series and the third installment of the Modern Warfare arc. Due to a legal dispute between the game 's publisher Activision and the former co-executives of Infinity Ward -- which caused several lay - offs and departures within the company -- Sledgehammer Games assisted in the development of the game, while Raven Software was brought in to make cosmetic changes to the menus of the game. The game was said to have been in development since only two weeks after the release of Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2. Sledgehammer was aiming for a "bug free '' first outing in the Call of Duty franchise, and had also set a goal for Metacritic review scores above 95 percent.
The game continues the story from the point at which it ended in the Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 and continues the fictional battle story between the United States and Russia, which evolves into the Third World War between NATO allied nations and Ultra-nationalist Russia (a revolutionary political party idolizing the late days of the Soviet Union).
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare Remastered is a remastered version of Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare that was released alongside the Legacy Edition, Legacy Pro Edition and Digital Deluxe Edition of Call of Duty: Infinite Warfare on November 4, 2016 for PS4, Xbox One, and PC. It was later released standalone on June 27, 2017 for PS4, and July 27, 2017 for Xbox One and PC. The game was developed by Raven Software and executive produced by Infinity Ward.
Call of Duty: World at War, developed by Treyarch, is the fifth installment of the main series and a prologue to Black Ops. It returns to the World War II setting of earlier titles. It is set in the Pacific theater and Eastern front of World War II. The game uses the same proprietary game engine as Call of Duty 4 and was released for the PC, PS3, Wii, Xbox 360 consoles and the Nintendo DS handheld in North America on November 11, 2008, and November 14, 2008 in Europe. As of June 2009, Call of Duty: World at War has sold over 11 million copies.
Call of Duty: Black Ops is the seventh installment in the series, the third developed by Treyarch, and was published by Activision for release on November 9, 2010. It is the first game in the series to take place during the Cold War and also takes place partially in the Vietnam War. It was initially available for Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, and PlayStation 3 and was later released for the Wii as well as the Nintendo DS.
Call of Duty: Black Ops II is the ninth main installment in the series, developed by Treyarch and published by Activision. The game was first revealed on May 1, 2012. It was the first game in the series to feature future warfare technology, and the campaign features multiple branching storylines driven by player choice and multiple endings. It was later released on November 12, 2012.
Call of Duty: Black Ops III is the twelfth main installment in the series, developed by Treyarch and published by Activision. The game was released on November 6, 2015.
Call of Duty: Ghosts is the tenth main installment in the series, and was developed by Infinity Ward with Neversoft and Raven Software. The game was released on November 5, 2013.
Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare is the eleventh main installment in the series, developed by Sledgehammer Games with assistance from Raven Software and High Moon Studios. It was released in November 2014.
Call of Duty: Infinite Warfare is the thirteenth main installment in the series, developed by Infinity Ward, and was published by Activision. The game was released on November 4, 2016.
In 2006, Treyarch launched Call of Duty 3, their first official Call of Duty game to the main series. Treyarch and Infinity Ward signed a contract stating that the producer of each upcoming title in the series would alternate between the two companies. In 2010, Sledgehammer Games announced they were working on a main series title for the franchise. This game was postponed in order to help Infinity Ward produce Modern Warfare 3. In 2014, it was confirmed that Sledgehammer Games would produce the 2014 title, Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare, and the studios would begin a three - year rotation. Advanced Warfare was followed by Treyarch 's Call of Duty: Black Ops III in 2015, and Infinity Ward 's Call of Duty: Infinite Warfare in 2016.
Call of Duty: Finest Hour is the first console installment of Call of Duty, and was released on the GameCube, PlayStation 2, and Xbox. The PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions of the game include an online multiplayer mode which supports up to 32 players. It also includes new game modes.
Call of Duty 2: Big Red One is a spin - off of Call of Duty 2 developed by Treyarch, and based on the American 1st Infantry Division 's exploits during World War II. The game was released on GameCube, PlayStation 2, and Xbox.
Call of Duty: World at War -- Final Fronts is the PlayStation 2 adaptation of Call of Duty: World at War. Developed by Rebellion Developments, Final Fronts features three campaigns involving the U.S. fighting in the Pacific theater and the Battle of the Bulge in Europe, as well as the British advancing on the Rhine River into Germany.
Call of Duty: The War Collection is a boxed set compilation of Call of Duty 2, Call of Duty 3 and Call of Duty: World at War. It was released for the Xbox 360 on June 1, 2010.
Call of Duty: Roads to Victory is a PSP game that was based on Call of Duty 3.
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare: Mobilized is the Nintendo DS companion game for Modern Warfare 2. Developed by n - Space, the game takes place in the same setting as the main console game, but follows a different storyline and cast of characters. Playing as the S.A.S. and the Marines in campaign mode, both forces are trying to find a nuclear bomb.
Call of Duty: Black Ops is the Nintendo DS companion game for Black Ops. Developed by n - Space, the game takes place in the same setting as the main console game, but follows a different storyline and cast of characters.
Call of Duty: Zombies is a first - person shooter video game developed by Ideaworks Game Studio, and published by Activision for iOS. It is a spin - off of the Call of Duty series, and based on the "Nazi Zombies '' mode of Call of Duty: World at War. A sequel for the iPhone and iPod Touch includes Shi No Numa that was originally released on the Xbox 360, PS3, and PC.
Call of Duty: Black Ops: Declassified is a PlayStation Vita Call of Duty game.
Call of Duty: Strike Team is a first - and third - person shooter game developed by The Blast Furnace, and published by Activision for iOS. The game is set in 2020 with players tasked with leading a US Joint Special Operations Team after the country "finds themselves in a war with an unknown enemy ''. The game was released on September 5, 2013.
Call of Duty: Heroes is a real - time strategy game developed by Faceroll Games, and published by Activision for Android & iOS. The game takes a resemblance to Clash of Clans and was released on November 26, 2014.
Call of Duty Online was announced by Activision when the company first stated their interest in an Massively multiplayer online game (MMO) in early 2011. By then, it had been in development for two years. Call of Duty Online is free - to - play for mainland China and is hosted by Tencent. Since Activision had lost the publishing rights to Call of Duty and several other franchises in China due to a legal dispute on most of the Western gaming consoles (Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Wii), it had been rumored that it would be Microsoft Windows - exclusive, since PCs hold the dominant share of gamers in mainland China.
Call of Duty: Combined Forces was a proposed concept draft originally intended to be a sequel to Call of Duty: Finest Hour. However, due to multiple legal issues that arose between Spark Unlimited, Electronic Arts, and Activision as well as other production problems, the game 's draft and scripts never came to be. The game was projected to cost $10.5 million to produce after Finest Hour was complete. Eventually Activision deemed the pitch as more of an expansion than something entirely new, causing the company to reject the proposal and end their contract with Spark Unlimited shortly after.
Call of Duty: Devil 's Brigade was a canceled first - person shooter for the Xbox 360 developed by Underground Entertainment. The game was set in World War II, mainly focusing on the Italian Campaign.
Call of Duty: Vietnam was a third - person shooter set during the Vietnam War. It was in development for at least six to eight months at Sledgehammer Games. The development was stopped because Infinity Ward needed help finishing Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 due to the employee firings and departures in 2010.
Call of Duty: Roman Wars was a canceled third - person and first - person video game in the Call of Duty franchise. The game was set in ancient Rome, and allowed players to take control of famous historical figure Julius Caesar, along with "low grunts '', and officers of the Tenth Legion. It was eventually canceled, as Activision had uncertainties about branding it as a Call of Duty title.
Modern Warfare 2: Ghost is a six - part comic book mini-series based on Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2. The storyline focuses on the backstory of the character Ghost. The series is published by WildStorm and the first issue was released on November 10, 2009, alongside the game.
The Call of Duty Real - Time Card Game was announced by card manufacturer Upper Deck.
In 2004, Activision, in cooperation with the companies Plan - B Toys and Radioactive Clown, released the "Call of Duty: Series 1 '' line of action figures, which included three American soldiers and three German soldiers from the World War II era. While the American G.I. action figure was made in 2004, Plan - B Toys later discontinued a controversial Nazi SS Guard action figure based on the Nazi Totenkopf officer seen in Call of Duty.
In 2008, McFarlane Toys announced their partnership with Activision to produce action figures for the Call of Duty series. McFarlane Toys ' first series of action figures were released in October 2008 and consists of four different figures: Marine with Flamethrower, Marine Infantry, British Special Ops, and Marine with Machine Gun.
Find Makarov is a fan - made film that was well received by Call of Duty publishers, Activision, who contacted We Can Pretend and subsequently produced a second short film, Operation Kingfish.
Find Makarov: Operation Kingfish is a fan - made prequel to Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 and was first shown at Call of Duty XP. The video was produced by We Can Pretend, with visual effects by The Junction, and was endorsed by Activision. The video tells the story of how Captain Price ended up in a Russian Gulag set before the events of Modern Warfare 2.
On November 6, 2015, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Activision Blizzard launched a production studio called Activision Blizzard Studios and are planning a live action Call of Duty cinematic universe in 2018 or 2019.
The Call of Duty games were used in Esports, starting in 2006, alongside the game released at the time, Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare. Over the years, the series has extended with releases such as Call of Duty: World at War, Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2, Call of Duty: Black Ops, Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3, Call of Duty: Black Ops II, and Call of Duty: Ghosts. Games are played in leagues like Major League Gaming.
Players can compete in ladders or tournaments. The ladders are divided into several sub ladders such as: the singles ladder, doubles ladder, team ladder (3v3 -- 6v6) and hardcore team ladder (3v3 -- 6v6). The difference between the regular team ladder and the hardcore team ladder is the in game settings and thus a rule differentiation. Winning ladder matches on a competitive website rewards the user with experience points which add up to give them an overall rank.
The tournaments offered on these websites provide players with the opportunity to win cash prizes and trophies. The trophies are registered and saved on the player 's profile if / when they win a tournament and the prize money is deposited into his or her bank account. Call of Duty: Ghosts was the most competitively played game in 2014, with an average of 15,000 teams participating every season.
For the past 6 seasons in competitive Call of Duty, Full Sail University has hosted a prize giveaway, giving $2,500 to the top team each season. The other ladders give out credits and medals registered on players ' profiles. Tournaments hosted on the Call of Duty: Ghosts 's Arena give cost from 15 to 30 credits, thus averaging at a cost of about $18.75 per tournament. If the player competes with a team, the prize money is divided and an equal cut is given to each player. Other tournaments with substantial prizes are hosted in specific cities and countries for LAN teams.
The biggest Call of Duty tournament hosted was Call of Duty: Experience 2011, a tournament that began when Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 was released.
Playing Call of Duty competitively is most popular in Europe and North America, with users who participate in tournaments and ladder matches daily. Competitive players have an average of 500,000 followers on social media.
The Call of Duty Endowment (CODE) is a non-profit foundation created by Activision Blizzard to help find employment for U.S. military veterans. The first donation, consisting of $125,000, was presented to the Paralyzed Veterans of America.
Co-chairman General James Jones is a former U.S. National Security Advisor. Founder Robert Kotick is the CEO of Activision Blizzard. Upon its founding in 2009, the organization announced a commitment to create thousands of career opportunities for veterans, including those returning from the Middle East. Annual awards given by the endowment include the "Seal of Distinction, '' a $30,000 initial grant given to selected veteran 's service organizations. In November 2014, the endowment launched the "Race to 1,000 Jobs '' campaign to encourage gamers to donate money to and get involved in organizations that provide veterans with services. As of 2015, the Call of Duty Endowment had provided around $12 million in grants to veterans ' organizations in the United States, which has helped find jobs for 14,700 veterans.
On March 30, 2010, CODE presented 3,000 copies of Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2, approximately $180,000 in value, to the U.S. Navy. The copies were delivered to over 300 ships and submarines as well as Navy Morale, Welfare, and Recreation facilities worldwide.
|
what type of ammo is used for skeet shooting | Skeet shooting - wikipedia
Skeet shooting is a recreational and competitive activity where participants, using shotguns, attempt to break clay targets mechanically flung into the air from two fixed stations at high speed from a variety of angles.
Skeet is one of the three major disciplines of competitive clay pigeon shooting. The others are trap shooting and sporting clays. There are several types of skeet, including one with Olympic status (often called Olympic skeet or international skeet) and many with only national recognition.
For the American version of the game, the clay discs are 4 ⁄ inches (109.54 mm) in diameter, 1 ⁄ inches (28.58 mm) thick, and fly a distance of 62 yards.
The international version of skeet uses a target that is slightly larger in diameter ((110 ± 1) mm vs. 109.54 mm), thinner in cross section ((25.5 ±. 5) mm vs. 28.58 mm), and has a thicker dome center, making it harder to break. International targets are also thrown a longer distance from similar heights (over 70 yards), resulting in a faster target speed.
The firearm of choice for this task is usually a high - quality, double - barreled over and under shotgun with 26 - to 30 - inch barrels and very open chokes. Often, shooters will choose an improved cylinder choke (one with a tighter pattern) or a skeet choke (one with a wider pattern), but this is a matter of preference. Some gun shops refer to this type of shotgun as a skeet gun. Skeet chokes are designed to be a 30 - inch circle at 21 yards distance. Alternatively a sporting gun or a trap gun is sometimes used. These have longer barrels (up to 34 inches) and tighter choke. Many shooters of American skeet and other national versions use semi-automatic and pump - action shotguns.
The event is in part meant to simulate the action of bird hunting. The shooter shoots from seven positions on a semicircle with a radius of 21 yards (19 m), and an eighth position halfway between stations 1 and 7. There are two houses that hold devices known as "traps '' that launch the targets, one at each corner of the semicircle. The traps launch the targets to a point 15 feet above ground and 18 feet outside of station 8. One trap launches targets from 10 feet above the ground ("high '' house) and the other launches it from 3 feet above ground ("low '' house).
At stations 1 and 2 the shooter shoots at single targets launched from the high house and then the low house, then shoots a double where the two targets are launched simultaneously but shooting the high house target first. At stations 3, 4, and 5 the shooter shoots at single targets launched from the high house and then the low house. At stations 6 and 7 the shooter shoots at single targets launched from the high house and then the low house, then shoots a double, shooting the low house target first then the high house target. At station 8 the shooter shoots one high target and one low target.
The shooter must then re-shoot his first missed target or, if no targets are missed, must shoot his 25th shell at the low house station 8. This 25th shot was once referred to as the shooter 's option, as he was able to take it where he preferred. Now, to speed up rounds in competition, the shooter must shoot the low 8 twice for a perfect score.
Charles Davis and William Harnden Foster of Andover, Massachusetts invented skeet shooting. In 1920 Davis, an avid grouse hunter, and Foster, an avid hunter, painter, illustrator and author of "New England Grouse Hunting '', developed a game which was informally called "Shooting around the clock ''. The original course took the form of a circle with a radius of 25 yards with its circumference marked off like the face of a clock and a trap set at the 12 - o'clock position. The practice of shooting from all directions had to cease, however, when a chicken farm started next door. The game evolved to its current setup by 1923 when one of the shooters, William Harnden Foster, solved the problem by placing a second trap at the 6 - o'clock position and cutting the course in half. Foster quickly noticed the appeal of this kind of competition shooting, and set out to make it a national sport. The game was introduced in the February 1926 issues of National Sportsman and Hunting and Fishing magazines, and a prize of 100 dollars was offered to anyone who could come up with a name for the new sport. The winning entry was "skeet '', chosen by Gertrude Hurlbutt. The word "skeet '' allegedly derived from the Norwegian word for "shoot '' (skyte). During World War II the American military used skeet to teach gunners the principles of leading and timing on a flying target. The first National Skeet Championship took place in 1926. Shortly thereafter, the National Skeet Shooting Association formed. For his role in perfecting and developing the sport, William "Bill '' Foster was named as one of the first members to the National Skeet Shooters Association Hall of Fame in 1970, and is now known as "The Father of Skeet ''.
Olympic and international skeet is one of the ISSF shooting events. It has had Olympic status since 1968, and, until 1992, was open to both sexes. After that year, all ISSF events have been open to only one sex, and so women were disallowed to compete in the Olympic skeet competitions. This was controversial because the 1992 Olympic Champion was a woman, Zhang Shan of China. However, women had their own World Championships, and in 2000, a female skeet event was introduced to the Olympic program.
In Olympic skeet, there is a random delay of between 0 and 3 seconds after the shooter has called for the target. Also, the shooter must hold his gun so that the buttstock is at mid-torso level until the target appears.
Another difference with American skeet is that the sequence to complete the 25 targets in a round of Olympic skeet requires shooters to shoot at doubles, not only in stations 1, 2, 6, and 7, as in American skeet, but also on 3, 4, and 5. This includes a reverse double (low house first) on station 4. This last double was introduced in the sequence starting in 2005.
With her bronze in women 's skeet shooting at the 2016 Rio Olympic games, Kim Rhode became the first American to medal in 6 successive Olympic games. Her prior Olympic medals were for trap shooting in 1996, 2000 and 2004 and for skeet shooting in 2008 and 2012.
American skeet is administered by the National Skeet Shooting Association (NSSA). The targets are shot in a different order and are slower than in Olympic skeet. There is also no delay after the shooter has called for them, and the shooter may do this with the gun held "up '', i.e. pre-mounted on the shoulder (as is allowed in trap shooting).
A full tournament is typically conducted over the course of five events. These include four events each shot with a different maximum permissible gauge. These maximum gauges are 12, 20, 28 and. 410 bore. The fifth event, usually shot first in a five event competition, is Doubles, during which a pair of targets is thrown simultaneously at stations 1 through 7, and then from station 6 back through either station 2 or 1, depending on the round. The maximum gauge permitted in Doubles is 12. Each of the five events usually consists of 100 targets (four standard boxes of ammunition). All ties in potential winning scores are broken by shoot offs, usually sudden death by station, and usually shot as doubles, from stations 3, 4 and 5. Tournament management has the right to change the shoot format with respect to the order in which events are conducted, the number of events in a given shoot, and the rules governing shoot offs.
Each event normally constitutes a separate championship. In addition, the scores in the four singles events are combined to crown a High Over All ("HOA '') champion for the tournament, a coveted title. On occasion, the scores for all five events are also combined, to determine the High All Around ("HAA '') champion.
The requisite use of the small bore shotguns, including the difficult. 410, is a major differentiation between the American version of the sport and the International version. Some would argue that it makes the American version at least as difficult as the International version, though perhaps at greater expense, given the necessity of one or more guns capable of shooting in all events.
For practical purposes, there are three types of shotguns if the shooter must have two shots in rapid succession, a requirement for American skeet. The types are: the pump gun, the automatic and a two barrel gun. Pumps operate with one hand on the grip and trigger, and the other on a sliding wooden or composite forearm. In turn, the forearm is attached to one or two bars that operate the action, both to load the chamber with the first round and to cycle the action after firing, putting another round in the chamber for the second shot. The power is supplied by the shooter pulling the forearm back and then pushing it forward: a process prone to error on the skeet field because it requires speed, consistency, and precision from the shooter. However, pumps are the least expensive repeating shotgun. Further, the pumping action, when well executed, is a joy to watch and a pleasure for the shooter.
A semi-automatic gun has a fixed forearm: it relies on either the burning, expanding, gas from the first fired round, or the recoil from the same fired round, to cycle the action. Such a gun cycles "automatically '' each time it is fired: ejecting the just fired, now empty, shell casing, and ramming a new round into the chamber for a second shot. One sees semi-automatics in tournaments, occasionally, now. They shoot well when clean, but are prone to jamming when dirty, when fouled by debris, or when there is something unusual about the rounds in gun. Just how prone to jamming varies by brand, design and shooter maintenance. They largely supplanted pump guns in skeet tournaments during the 1960s, because, even if they jam from time to time, semi-automatics still invite less error than all the activity the shooter must control with a pump gun. Further, semi-automatics usually offer a softer recoil, a real benefit given all the rounds fired in a skeet tournament. Automatics are most reliable with 12 ga. rounds, and are thus most used in the 12 ga. skeet events.
A two barrel gun is just that: two single shot barrels and hammer sets attached to the same receiver and trigger assembly. The barrels are attached to each other and are aimed to hit the same spot a given distance: say, 21 yards or so at skeet (though the shot pattern from both barrels will still be very close both before and after that yardage, because the barrels are very close together). The barrel set hinges on the bottom of the gun 's receiver and is locked in place by lever on top of the action. When the lever is pushed, it releases the barrels, allowing them to swing down from the hinge, exposing the chambers for each barrel. The shooter drops one round into each chamber and then swings the barrels back up, closing and locking the breech. The act of opening and closing the gun cocks both hammers, each of which are activated, in a modern gun, by a single trigger: once the action is closed, the gun will fire two shots as fast as a person can pull the trigger twice. A two barrel gun can have the two barrels side by side or one on top of the other (stacked). All serious skeet tournament two barrel guns are stacked (the narrow sighting picture is an advantage), and are most commonly referred to as "over and under '' shotguns. Two barrel guns are the least fussy about ammunition and surest method of getting two fast shots from a shotgun. These guns also permit the shooter to recover every just - fired shotgun shell, to be reloaded and used again, a convenient and valuable characteristic.
Regardless of the type of gun employed, tournament skeet shooters have a problem. American skeet tournaments consist of at least four events: the 12 ga., the 20 ga., the 28 ga. and the. 410 bore. These are four different sized shotgun shells (diminishing in size, in the order listed), requiring four different sets of chambers. Historically, that required four different guns, each weighing, balancing and presenting, differently, undermining a shooter 's consistency. There is relatively little manufacturer interest in a cure for the problem with pumps and automatics. However, double guns present opportunities. One solution is to build four matched weight sets of barrels to fit one action (a "four barrel set ''). This is expensive, but in the 1970s to early 1990s, four barrel sets reigned supreme in American skeet, and they remain thoroughly competitive. Beyond the expense, the principal criticism is that the four barrel set can still present a different sight picture for each gauge, because each barrel set, in diminishing gauge, is narrower than the prior set.
The answer was to build barrel inserts for 12 ga. two barrel guns: these allow the shooter to switch out matching sets of full length light weight aluminum tubes (10 - 12 oz. per set) chambered for 20, 28 and. 410, in almost any 12 ga. double gun. One could then use one gun to shoot the 20, 28 and. 410 events with the same weight, balance and sight picture for each of these gauges. However, with tubes removed to shoot 12 ga. rounds, the gun will be 10 - 12 oz. lighter, and thus will swing faster and kick harder, undermining some of the consistency intrinsic to the concept. The solutions are: to stop shooting 12 ga. rounds at all in tournaments, thus always shooting through the inserts; buying a second, pre-weighted 12 ga. barrel (the latter makes the combination a "two barrel tube set ''); or, three, adding removable weights to the 12 ga. barrels when shooting without the sub-gauge tubes, to try to match the weight and balance of the gun when tubed. All three solutions are employed, depending upon shooter preferences and / or resources, and tubed over and under shoguns now dominate American skeet tournaments.
So effective is the tubed gun solution that perfect scores are often required to win the open title in individual events, and combined scores of 395 to 400 may be required to win the open HOA in a major shoot, depending on the weather (though a perfect score of 400 remains a rare and noteworthy event). For example, the HOA title at the 2007 U.S. Open tournament, shot in Albuquerque, New Mexico between September 6 and 9, was won in a shoot off between two competitors, each of whom shot a combined score of 399 out of a possible 400.
Recognizing that a high level of perfection is beyond the skill, interest, or time available to most shooters, NSSA competitions are subdivided into several classes, each based on the running average score shot over the last 5 most recent events shot in each gauge, prior to any given competition. This permits shooters of roughly equal ability at the relevant point in time to compete against each other for the individual and HOA titles in their class.
Other national versions of skeet (e.g., English skeet) typically make similar changes to the rules to make them easier.
3. "The History of Skeet '' - The National Skeet Shooting Association (NSSA.org) - http://mynssa.nssa-nsca.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2010/08/GCMSect-C-2002.pdf
4. "History: William Harnden Foster, illustrator, writer and ' the father of skeet ' '' - Wilmington Town Crier - http://homenewshere.com/wilmington_town_crier/news/article_3b4194d6-5ce1-11e7-bc94-d7911609bb86.html
|
you gonna miss me when i'm gone pitch perfect | Cups (song) - wikipedia
"Cups '' is a version of the 1931 Carter Family song "When I 'm Gone '', usually performed a cappella with a cup used to provide percussion, as in the cup game. It was first performed this way in a YouTube video by Luisa Gerstein and Heloise Tunstall - Behrens as Lulu and The Lampshades in 2009 (under the title "You 're Gonna Miss Me ''). Composition of the song is credited to A.P. Carter and Luisa Gerstein of Lulu and the Lampshades.
The song became popular after it was performed by Anna Kendrick in the 2012 film Pitch Perfect. That version also became the official theme song of the 2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup tournament.
The original song "When I 'm Gone '' was written by A.P. Carter, then recorded in 1931 by the Carter Family (not to be confused with their 1928 song "Will You Miss Me When I 'm Gone? ''). The song was reworked in 1937 by J.E. Mainer. Over the years it has been recorded by many people including Mainer 's Mountaineers and Charlie Monroe. In 1940 it was released by Elizabeth Cotten. A vocalist and guitar player. It can also be heard in the film Dan in Real Life.
Lulu and the Lampshades were the first to perform the song using the cup game for percussion. Anna Burden made her own version of the Lulu on Youtube and the Lamspshades video that was discovered by Reddit, and where Anna Kendrick learned the routine, prompting dozens of other Youtube users to submit cover versions of the song using the Cup Clap technique. It was soon dubbed The Cup Song.
The song is also used for the theme song for the BBC Two sitcom ' Mum ' starring Lesley Manville.
Though the song had been popular online for years, mainstream success came when it was incorporated into the film Pitch Perfect in 2012. In the film it is performed by the main character, Beca Mitchell (Anna Kendrick) during an audition for a college a cappella group. Unlike the soundtrack version, the single version of the song was re-produced with additional instrumentation (notably the banjo) by American Music Award - winning music producer Ali Dee Theodore, Jordan Yaeger and Harvey Mason, Jr... The single version was extended by an additional minute. Prior to the single 's release, covers of the song as well as tutorials on how to do the song (using cups) went viral. Kendrick has stated that she learned the song and its cup percussion from watching and doing it many times on Reddit prior to being cast in Pitch Perfect, and it was therefore written into the film.
Prior to the song 's release as a single in March 2013, the song debuted at number 93 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week ending January 12, 2013. Afterward, the single was released and the song began a slow but steady ascent up the chart. In its 32nd week on the chart, the song reached number 6, its peak position to date. By October 2013, all versions of the song had sold 2.5 million downloads in the US.
On May 4, 2013, "Cups '' returned to the top 50 of the ARIA Charts at a new peak of number 44, achieved in part due to the DVD of Pitch Perfect being released in Australia on April 13, 2013. It originally made it to number 48 in January 2013.
The song 's music video was shot in the fourth week of March 2013, and it was directed by Pitch Perfect 's director Jason Moore. It was released on April 12, 2013 on Anna Kendrick 's Vevo channel; as of February 2018, it has over 400 million views.
It opens with Anna Kendrick in a restaurant 's kitchen cutting dough into biscuits with a styrene - acrylonitrile pebbled tumbler, while looking up longingly at some postcards of far - away places, such as Scotland and Paris, stuck to the refrigerator. She puts the biscuits in the oven, sets a timer, and dusts her hands off with an oscillating fan, before pausing a moment, and then starting the song using the cup on the table. In a long continuous shot, she washes her hands, takes a plate of food from the chef, and makes her way out into the dining area, where all the customers are drumming the cups in various ways. The camera then follows her singing while collecting dirty dishes and cleaning tables, before it pans around and back out wide, showing the entire diner synchronously doing the routine during the bridge section. It then cuts back to her walking back to the kitchen, passing the chef now drumming with a cup instead of wooden utensils, and follows back to her at the table. The timer rings as the song ends, and she looks back up, out towards the dining area where everyone is now normal, realizing it was all her imagination. Taking one last look at the chef, she smiles and exits through the back door.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on - demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads.
The Maccabeats, a Jewish a capella group from Yeshiva University, covered Kendrick 's version and parodied her music video with group members sitting around a Shabbat table singing the Shabbat morning table song "D'ror Yikra '' while performing the cups routine.
|
when did united last win the fa cup | List of FA Cup finals - wikipedia
The Football Association Challenge Cup, commonly known as the FA Cup, is a knockout competition in English football, organised by and named after The Football Association (the FA). It is the oldest existing football competition in the world, having commenced in the 1871 -- 72 season. The tournament is open to all clubs in the top 10 levels of the English football league system, although a club 's home stadium must meet certain requirements prior to entering the tournament. The competition culminates at the end of the league season usually in May with the FA Cup Final, officially named The Football Association Challenge Cup Final Tie, which has traditionally been regarded as the showpiece finale of the English football season.
All of the final venues, apart from four, have been in London with most being played at the original Wembley Stadium, which was used from 1923 until the stadium closed in 2000. The other venues that were used for the final prior to 1923 were Kennington Oval, Crystal Palace, Stamford Bridge and Lillie Bridge, all in London, Goodison Park in Liverpool and Fallowfield Stadium and Old Trafford in Manchester. The Millennium Stadium in Cardiff hosted the final for six years (2001 -- 2006), while the new Wembley Stadium was under construction. Other grounds have been used for replays, which until 1999 took place if the initial match ended in a draw. The new Wembley Stadium has been the permanent venue of the final since 2007.
As of 2017, the record for the most wins is held by Arsenal with 13 victories. The cup has been won by the same team in two or more consecutive years on ten occasions, and four teams have won consecutive finals more than once: Wanderers, Blackburn Rovers, Tottenham Hotspur and Arsenal. The cup has been won by a non-English team once. The cup is currently held by Arsenal, who defeated Chelsea in the 2017 final.
The winners of the first tournament were Wanderers, a team of former public schoolboys based in London, who went on to win the competition five times in its first seven seasons. The early winners of the competition were all teams of wealthy amateurs from the south of England, but in 1883, Blackburn Olympic became the first team from the north to win the cup, defeating Old Etonians. Upon his team 's return to Blackburn, Olympic captain Albert Warburton proclaimed: "The Cup is very welcome to Lancashire. It 'll have a good home and it 'll never go back to London. ''
With the advent of professionalism at around the same time, the amateur teams quickly faded from prominence in the competition. The leading professional clubs formed The Football League in 1888. Since then, one non-league team has won the cup. Tottenham Hotspur, then of the Southern League, defeated Sheffield United of The Football League to win the 1901 final. A year later Sheffield United returned to the final and won the cup, which then remained in the hands of Northern and Midland clubs until Tottenham won it again in 1921. In 1927, Cardiff City, a team which plays in the English football league system despite being based in Wales, won the cup, the only non-English club to do so. Scottish club Queens Park reached the final twice in the early years of the competition.
Newcastle United enjoyed a brief spell of FA Cup dominance in the 1950s, winning the trophy three times in five years, and in the 1960s, Tottenham Hotspur enjoyed a similar spell of success, with three wins in seven seasons. This marked the start of a successful period for London - based clubs, with 11 wins in 22 seasons. Teams from the second tier of English football, at the time called the Second Division, experienced an unprecedented run of cup success between 1973 and 1980. Sunderland won the cup in 1973, Southampton repeated the feat in 1976, and West Ham United won in 1980, the most recent victory by a team from outside the top division.
Until 1999, a draw in the final would result in the match being replayed at a later date; since then the final has always been decided on the day, with a penalty shootout as required. As of 2017 a penalty shoot - out has been required on only two occasions, in the 2005 and 2006 finals. The competition did not take place during the First and Second World Wars, other than in the 1914 -- 15 season, when it was completed, and the 1939 -- 40 season, when it was abandoned during the qualifying rounds.
All teams are English, except where marked (Scottish) or (Welsh).
A. ^ The official attendance for the 1923 final was reported as 126,047, but the actual figure is believed to be anywhere between 150,000 and 300,000.
Teams shown in italics are no longer in existence. Additionally, Queen 's Park ceased to be eligible to enter the FA Cup after a Scottish Football Association ruling in 1887.
|
alphabetical list of cities and towns in kentucky | List of cities in Kentucky - wikipedia
Kentucky is a state located in the Southern United States. There are 419 active cities in the Commonwealth of Kentucky.
Since January 1, 2015, Kentucky cities have been divided into two classes based on their form of government:
This system went into effect on January 1, 2015, following the 2014 passage of House Bill 331 by the Kentucky General Assembly and the bill 's signing into law by Governor Steve Beshear.
The new system replaced one in which cities were divided into six classes based on their population at the time of their classification. Prior to the enactment of House Bill 331, over 400 classification - related laws affected public safety, alcohol beverage control, revenue options and others. Lexington and Fayette County are completely merged in a unitary urban county government (UCG); Louisville and other cities within Jefferson County have also merged into a single metro government. However, under state law, both major cities retained their pre-merger classification before the new scheme took effect. The General Assembly had historically reclassified cities only when requested by the city government. If all cities had been reclassified in the pre-2015 scheme according to actual population, about one - third of classifications would have changed. In particular, Lexington would have been classified as a first - class (Class 1) city.
Although basic city classification changed in 2015, the old classifications will remain relevant for some time. Because many provisions of state law applied only to cities of certain pre-2015 classes, House Bill 331 was explicitly written to address such issues. In certain areas of law, class - based distinctions between cities have been replaced by population - based distinctions. In certain other areas that were more controversial, the pre-2015 status quo is being maintained through a registry of cities that were covered by prior laws.
At the time the new system went into effect, the state 's two largest cities of Louisville and Lexington were the only ones classified as first - class. All other cities in the state are now in the "home rule class. ''
Click on the double triangles at the top of a column to sort the table by that column. County seat
Louisville, the largest city in Kentucky
Lexington, home of the University of Kentucky
Fountain Square in Bowling Green, a base of GM 's Corvette production
Covington, a suburb of Cincinnati
Paducah
Newport
Danville, home of Centre College.
Campbellsville
Middlesboro
Berea
Paris
Maysville
Corbin
Frankfort, the state capital
Nicholasville
Jeffersontown
Harrodsburg
Middletown
Mount Sterling
La Grange
Pikeville
Williamsburg
Hazard
Bardstown, home of "My Old Kentucky Home ''
Georgetown
Ashland
Winchester
Paintsville
Carrollton
Williamstown
West Liberty
Hodgenville
Irvine
Horse Cave
Albany
Carlisle
Pineville
Falmouth
Harlan
Catlettsburg
Owingsville
Midway
Owenton
Taylorsville
Brooksville
Willisburg
Hyden
Mount Olivet
Booneville
|
who plays miss honey in matilda the musical | Matilda the Musical - wikipedia
Matilda the Musical is a stage musical based on the 1988 children 's novel of the same name by Roald Dahl. It was adapted by Dennis Kelly, with music and lyrics by Tim Minchin. The musical 's narrative centres on Matilda, a precocious 5 - year - old girl with the gift of telekinesis, who loves reading, overcomes obstacles caused by her family and school, and helps her teacher to reclaim her life. After a twelve - week trial run staged by the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) at Stratford - upon - Avon from November 2010 to January 2011, it received its West End premiere on 24 November 2011 at the Cambridge Theatre and its Broadway premiere on 11 April 2013 at the Shubert Theatre.
Matilda has received widespread critical acclaim and box - office popularity, winning seven 2012 Olivier Awards, including Best New Musical -- at the time, the most such awards ever won by a single show. At the 2013 Olivier Awards, the show jointly held the record with the play The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night - Time before both were overtaken by Harry Potter and the Cursed Child in 2017 with 9 awards, however Matilda still holds the record for most Olivier awards won by a musical, tying with Hamilton in 2018. At the 2013 Tony Awards, the show won five awards, including the Tony Award for Best Book of a Musical.
In 2009, the Royal Shakespeare Company announced its intention to stage a musical adaptation of Matilda, engaging Dennis Kelly as playwright, Tim Minchin as the composer and lyricist, Matthew Warchus as director, Chris Nightingale as orchestrator and music supervision, Rob Howell as set designer and Paul Kieve as illusionist and special effects creator. The musical (originally titled Matilda, A Musical) opened at the Courtyard Theatre in Stratford - upon - Avon, England, on 9 December 2010 following previews from 9 November. The show was choreographed by Peter Darling. Bertie Carvel played Miss Trunchbull, with Paul Kaye and Josie Walker as Matilda 's parents Mr and Mrs Wormwood, and Lauren Ward as Miss Honey. Three young actresses, Adrianna Bertola, Josie Griffiths and Kerry Ingram, alternated in the title role. The show ended its premiere engagement on 30 January 2011.
In 2011, the musical received its West End debut (under the new title of Matilda the Musical) at London 's Cambridge Theatre. The show was originally scheduled to begin previews on 18 October 2011, but because of structural and installation work at the theatre, the start of the performances was delayed until 25 October. The opening night was postponed from 22 November to 24 November. The musical opened in London to uniformly positive reviews; Kaye and Carvel received high praise for their performances. Many of the principal adult cast from the Stratford run reprised their roles in London. Eleanor Worthington Cox, Cleo Demetriou, Sophia Kiely and Kerry Ingram -- the only one to reprise her role from Stratford -- rotated in the title role.
In October 2011, Matilda won Best Musical and Best Actor (Bertie Carvel) in the Theatre Awards UK, and in November 2011 it won the Ned Sherrin Award for Best Musical as part of The Evening Standard Awards. The production was nominated in all 10 categories for which it was eligible at the 2012 Olivier Awards. The ' Four Matildas ' performed "Naughty '' at the awards show. Matilda won 7 Oliviers: Best New Musical, Best Director (Warchus), Best Actor in a Musical (Carvel), Best Actress in a Musical (all four Matildas), Best Theatre Choreographer (Darling), Best Set Design (Howell) and Best Sound Design (Baker). This was a record number for any show in the event 's 36 - year history.
In April 2012, Steve Furst and Haley Flaherty took over the roles of Mr. Wormwood and Miss Honey from Kaye and Ward. Two of the original London Matildas (Ingram and Kiely) were replaced by Jade Marner and Isobelle Molloy (Molloy originally played Amanda in the original London cast before being cast as Matilda). Bertie Carvel left in July 2012 and the role of Miss Trunchbull was filled by David Leonard, although he did not start until the main cast change in August because of injury. At this cast change four new girls took over as Matilda; Lucy - Mae Beacock, Hayley Canham, Chloe Hawthorn and Lara Wollington.
On 19 November 2012, the London cast were invited to perform at the 100th "Royal Variety Performance '' for television station ITV which was broadcast live on 3 December. They performed "When I Grow Up '' and "Naughty '' with Chloe in the lead role, with the other 3 girls appearing in the announcement of the performance.
In March 2013, Hayley Canham left the show and was replaced as Matilda by Elise Blake and Cristina Fray. Lucy - Mae Beacock left in early May 2013. The next cast change occurred in September 2013. This time most of the adult cast changed, along with Chloe Hawthorn who left on 1 September. Two new Matildas -- Lollie McKenzie and Georgia Pemberton -- started the following week. Lara Wollington stayed for another four weeks, finishing on 29 September -- making her run the longest of any Matilda, and she held that title until October 2017.
The cast opened the 2013 Children in Need appeal. They performed a medley, with Georgia as Matilda.
Of the Matildas only Lollie McKenzie stayed during the cast change in March 2014. This cast change started with the departure of Elise Blake on 9 March along with other child cast members. She was replaced by Tasha Chapple. Fray and Pemberton were replaced by two new Matildas, Cara Jenkins and Lottie Sicilia, who debuted in the role in the following weeks, on 18 March and 25 March respectively.
McKenzie and Jenkins departed the show on 7 September and 5 October. Two new Matildas -- Matilda Shapland and Violet Tucker -- debuted in the roles on 09 and 19 September. Shapland was previously in Les Misérables, while Tucker had her West End debut in the title role. Of the Matildas only Shapland and Tucker stayed during the cast change in March 2015. This cast change started with the departure of Tasha Chapple and Lottie Sicilia along with other child cast members. They have been replaced by Anna - Louise Knight and Lara McDonnell. Over September 2015, Tucker and Shapland departed the show and were replaced by Evie Hone and Lizzie Wells. On 27 January 2016, three new Matildas - Clara Read, Emily - May Stephenson and Zaris - Angel Hator - were announced and joined Hone in the role in March. In late September 2016 it was confirmed that Hone would be leaving along with Stephenson after her relatively short stint. The two girls would be replaced by two new Matildas - Sara Sheen and Abbie Vena. Both of whom, Sara on 13 September (also Roald Dahl day) and Abbie on 22 September, made their Matilda debut.
On 21 December 2016 the 7: 30pm performance was cancelled due to multiple illnesses in the cast, including principal child performers and their understudies. Because of this Lara McDonnell and Emily May Stephenson (both past Matildas) came back to cover the few performances 22 -- 24 December. This illness coincided with similar incidents at nearby musicals Dreamgirls and Rent which caused disruptions to their primary cast members, but it is unclear as to whether these events are linked or not.
On 2 March 2017, it was announced that from 14 March 2017 the lead role would be shared by Lillian Hardy, Emma Moore, Eva - Marie Saffrey, and Abbie Vena, upon the departure of Sheen, Hator, and Read. This team had two public appearances. Abbie performed "Naughty '' at West End Live on 24 June 2017, and Emma performed the same song on day two of West End Live on 25 June 2017. Hardy, Saffrey, and Vena departed the production on 12 September 2017.
On 5 September 2017, the RSC announced that three new girls would be stepping into the role of Matilda following the departure of Hardy, Saffrey, and Vena: Lily - Mae Evans, Kitty Peterkin, and Savannah Read. They join Emma Moore who is staying through the cast change. Additional cast changes include David Shannon as Miss Trunchbull, Gina Beck as Miss Honey, and Tom Edden and Marianne Benedict as Mr. and Mrs. Wormwood. This team began performances on 12 September 2017. Past Matilda Abbie Vena, however, performed "Naughty '' on CCBC 's Blue Peter on 19 October 2017 to accompany an interview with the new Matildas (Evans, Peterkin and Read), making her the longest running Matilda to date, having taken the title from Lara Wollington who also performed in the West End.
The next cast change was announced on 2 March 2018. Read and Evans would be continuing in the role of Matilda, while Peterkin and Moore were replaced by Sara Munday and Olivia Wells. Much of the children 's cast also changed at this time. This new team began performances on 13 March 2018. Also at this time, the RSC announced a new online ticket lottery, giving audience members the opportunity to purchase "the best seats in the house '' at reduced prices.
On 28 May 2018, the London cast was invited to perform on Britain 's Got Talent. They performed a medley of songs from the show, including "Naughty '' and "Revolting Children '', and received a standing ovation. Lily - Mae played the role of Matilda in this performance.
On 29 February 2012, the RSC announced the show would transfer to Broadway in spring 2013; it would still be set in England despite initial pressure for the show to be Americanised. On 19 July 2012, it was announced that the show would open on 11 April 2013 at the Shubert Theatre, with previews commencing on 4 March 2013. Bertie Carvel and Lauren Ward reprised their roles as Miss Trunchbull and Miss Honey. Ted Wilson also continued as Eric. A four girl cast consisting of Sophia Gennusa, Oona Laurence, Bailey Ryon, and Milly Shapiro played the titular role of Matilda.
The transfer cost US $16 million to produce; it opened as planned on 11 April 2013, with Sophia Gennusa playing the leading role. Small changes were made from the London production; some lyrics were changed to suit American audiences and more scenes used the orchestra pit / front stalls area of the theatre. The Broadway production also introduced an overture and pre-show curtain, as of June 2013.
On 1 September 2013, Carvel and Ward played their final performances, Jill Paice joined the cast as Miss Honey and played her first performance on 3 September. Craig Bierko took over as Miss Trunchbull on 17 September, after recovering from an injury. In October 2013, Matilda broke the box office record for the Shubert Theatre. On 19 November, it was announced that Bierko will not return to the role of Miss Trunchbull due to "medical circumstances '', following a shoulder injury sustained during rehearsals. Chris Hoch, understudy for Miss Trunchbull, has been given a contract to perform the role for the duration of Bierko 's absence into January.
On 25 November 2013, The Wall Street Journal reported that the original Matildas would be bowing out "in the next two months ''. On 11 December, it was announced that Paige Brady, Gabriella Pizzolo, Ripley Sobo and Ava Ulloa would take over the title role. Brady, Pizzolo and Ulloa were making their Broadway debuts; Sobo previously appeared in Once.
On 31 January 2014, it was reported that Christopher Sieber and Matt Harrington would be joining the company as Miss Trunchbull and Mr Wormwood, respectively. Harrington made his debut on 4 March. Sieber would initially join the company on 18 March but, after sustaining a hand injury during rehearsals, would have his debut in the role sometime in April. While Sieber recovered from his injury, understudy Ben Thompson played the role for a limited engagement. Sieber finally stepped into the role on 18 April.
On 21 August 2014, it was reported that Tori Feinstein, Eliza Holland Madore, Brooklyn Shuck and Fina Strazza would take over the title role. Feinstein and Strazza made their Broadway debuts; Madore and Shuck had previously appeared in Once and Annie, respectively. Strazza and Shuck debuted in the role on 24 and 31 August while Madore and Feinstein had their debuts on 7 and 14 September. The Broadway production recouped its $16 million investment in December after more than a year and a half.
Between 4 and 26 July 2015, the production introduced four new girls, Mattea Conforti, Rileigh McDonald, Mimi Ryder, and Alexandra Vlachos, in the title role. On 8 September, Allison Case, Amy Spanger, Rick Holmes, and Natalie Venetia Belcon joined the production as Miss Honey, Mrs. Wormwood, Mr. Wormwood, and Mrs. Phelps, taking over Alison Luff, Lesli Margherita, Matt Harrington, and Karen Aldridge.
In April and May 2016, three new girls, Ava Briglia, Willow McCarthy, and Aviva Winick were cast in the title role. Lesli Margherita and Karen Aldridge also returned to reprise their roles as Mrs. Wormwood and Mrs. Phelps, respectively. In December 2016, it was announced that Winick had sustained an injury and would not be continuing with the rest of her run. Former Matilda Tori Feinstein rejoined the cast for the remaining run time.
The Broadway production closed on 1 January 2017 after 1,555 performances.
On 1 June 2013, Tim Minchin announced during an interview that the show was preparing for a US national tour. Minchin said, "We just got it up in New York, there 's a touring version that is meant to be going on in America... ''. Once again produced by the Royal Shakespeare Company and The Dodgers, the tour began technical rehearsals and performances in May 2015 at the Shubert Theatre in New Haven, Connecticut, before its official launch on 7 June at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles, California. Announced stops included the SHN Orpheum Theare in San Francisco, California, the 5th Avenue Theatre in Seattle, Washington, the AT&T Performing Arts Center in Dallas, Texas, the Kennedy Center Opera House in Washington, DC, and the Straz Center for the Performing Arts in Tampa, Florida. The cast was announced on 21 April 2015. Three girls would alternate in the lead role: Mia Sinclair Jenness, Gabby Gutierrez, and Mabel Tyler. Gutierrez and Tyler made their tour debuts; Jenness had appeared in the Original Broadway Cast and 25th Anniversary Tour of Les Misérables. Other principal cast members included Jennifer Blood as Miss Honey, Bryce Ryness as Miss Trunchbull, and Quinn Mattfeld and Cassie Silva as Mr. and Mrs. Wormwood.
The national tour of Matilda had its first official performance on 7 June 2015 at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles, California. Mia Sinclair Jenness played the title role. On 15 June 2015, the three Matildas along with Tim Minchin performed on Conan. On 29 November 2015, Jenness left the touring cast and was replaced by former Broadway Matilda Tori Feinstein on 5 December 2015. Shortly after, it was announced that three new girls would be stepping into the role of Matilda: Lily Brooks O'Briant, Savannah Grace Elmer, and Sarah McKinley Austin. Matilda was the tour debut for both Elmer and Brooks; Austin had previously toured with Once. Tyler, Feinstein, and Gutierrez bowed out over the next few weeks, with Tyler playing her last performance on 20 December, Feinstein departing on 28 December, and Gutierrez ending her run on 10 January 2016. Elmer, Brooks, and Austin debuted on 19 December 2015, 2 January 2016, and 9 January 2016, respectively. This second cast concluded touring on 26 June 2016, with the tour scheduled to resume again later for another six months.
After the closing of the Toronto production of Matilda, the cast went directly into the 2017 touring season. Hannah Levinson, Jaime MacLean, and Jenna Weir played Matilda until Levinson left the cast on 12 February 2017, and was replaced by former tour Matilda Gabby Gutierrez. Other lead roles were played by Paula Brancati (Miss Honey), Dan Chameroy (Miss Trunchbull), Keisha T. Fraser (Mrs. Phelps), Brandon McGibbon (Mr. Wormwood), and Darcy Stewart (Mrs. Wormwood). The tour launched on 12 January 2017 at the Popejoy Hall in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The US National Tour took its final bow on 25 June 2017 at the Chapman Music Hall in Tulsa, OK.
Sydney: In July 2013, Minchin said that an Australian production is planned for 2015. The production, produced by Louise Withers, had preview performances from 28 July before opening at the Sydney Lyric theatre on 20 August 2015. The ticketing release date (October 2014) was announced at Pier 2 / 3 in Walsh Bay, with Minchin, International Executive Producer André Ptaszynski, NSW Deputy Premier Andrew Stoner and Sydney press in attendance. The cast included Marika Aubrey and Daniel Frederiksen as Mr. and Mrs. Wormwood, Elise McCann as Miss Honey and James Millar as Miss Trunchbull. Sasha Rose (12), Georgia Taplin (11), Molly Barwick (10) and Bella Thomas (13) shared the title role with Thomas playing Matilda on the opening night. The Sydney season ended on Sunday 29 February with Georgia Taplin playing the title role, before transferring to Melbourne.
Melbourne: For the Melbourne season, Dusty Bursill, Alannah Parfett, Tiana Mirra and Ingrid Torelli were announced to rotate playing the title role. On 3 January, Sydney Matilda Bella Thomas was injured and Parfett began her run early in Sydney, covering Thomas until she was better and joining the girls in a rotation until the end of the Sydney run. Mirra and Torelli made their debuts in Sydney 's final week on 24 and 27 February respectively. The show opened at Melbourne 's Princess Theatre on 13 March and was extended to perform until 11 November 2016. Some of the Sydney child cast members reprised their roles for selected performances in Melbourne; for example, certain performances featured Molly Barwick as Matilda and Ryan Kepper as Bruce.
Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide and Auckland: A new season was announced to start in Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide, and Auckland. Izellah Connelly, Annabella Cowley, Venice Harris, Eva Murawski rotated the leading role of Matilda. The Matilda tour continued on to Brisbane from 25 November 2016 to 12 February 2017 at the Queensland Performing Arts Centre (QPAC) before moving on to perform at the Crown Theatre in Perth from 28 February until 7 May 2017 and from 21 May to 16 July 2017 at the Adelaide Festival Theatre in South Australia. The show ran in at the Civic Theatre in Auckland until 22 October 2017. Lucy Maunder was initially scheduled to take on the role of Miss Honey from McCann beginning the Brisbane leg. However, due to Maunder 's pregnancy, the transition was postponed until 20 March 2017 midway through the Perth leg.
After the successful launches of Once and the Tony Award - winning Kinky Boots, Mirvish Productions chose to open a Canadian production of Matilda the Musical. The company opened at the Ed Mirvish Theatre beginning in July 2016, closing on 7 January 2017. Hannah Levinson, Jenna Weir, and Jaime MacLean rotated playing the title role. In October 2016, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and family attended a performance.
On 11 April 2017, a tour was announced to begin at Curve, Leicester from 5 -- 24 March 2018 before touring to Bord Gáis Energy Theatre, Dublin (4 - 28 April), Sunderland Empire (8 May - 2 June), Milton Keynes Theatre (5 - 30 June), Birmingham Hippodrome (3 July - 8 September), Manchester Palace Theatre (18 September - 24 November) and Wales Millennium Centre, Cardiff (4 December - 12 January 2019). Further venues are to be announced. On 17 October 2017, the adult cast was announced, to include Craige Els as Miss Trunchbull, Carly Thoms as Miss Honey, Sebastien Torkia as Mr Wormwood and Rebecca Thornhill as Mrs Wormwood. On 16 January 2018, the children 's cast was announced, with the role of Matilda being shared between Annalise Bradbury, Lara Cohen, Poppy Jones and Nicola Turner.. The tour officially opened as scheduled on 5 March 2018 at the Curve theatre in Leicester, with Poppy Jones in the title role on opening night. The tour completed its Leicester run on 24 March 2018. On 4 April 2018, the tour opened at the Bord Gais Theatre in Dublin, with Jones again playing the leading role. This run marked Matilda the Musical 's Irish debut.
Matilda had its Asian premiere in the Philippines on 10 November 2017. The production closed on 10 December 2017. This production was the first licenced production; it was not produced by the Royal Shakespeare Company, and has no links to the original production. The show featured Esang de Torres, Uma Martin, and Felicity Kyle Napuli alternating the title role. The Manila production also had a 16 - child strong cast alternating 8 other student roles.
In July 2017, Seensee Company announced they would be producing a production of Matilda the Musical in September 2018. The production will be in arrangement with the RSC and be the first non-English version of Matilda produced.
As a chorus of children boast about being their parents ' miracles, the ballroom dancing obsessed Mrs. Wormwood gives birth to a baby girl called Matilda. The doctor thinks Matilda is the most beautiful child he has ever seen, but Mrs. Wormwood is only worried about a dancing contest she has missed. Similarly shallow, Mr. Wormwood -- a used - car salesman and television addict -- dismisses the child when he realizes she is a girl (' Miracle '). Five years later, Matilda is an avid reader and lives unhappily with her parents and her older, gormless brother Michael. The Wormwoods are oblivious to her genius and frequently mock and verbally abuse her. Matilda adds some of her mother 's hydrogen peroxide to her father 's hair oil, leaving Mr. Wormwood with bright green hair (' Naughty ').
At the local library Matilda tells Mrs. Phelps a story about a world - famous acrobat and escapologist couple who long to have a child but can not. To distract themselves from their sadness they announce to the world 's press that they will perform an exciting and dangerous new act. The next day is Matilda 's first day at school (' School Song '). Her teacher Miss Honey is impressed by Matilda 's precociousness and ability, so she recommends that Matilda is moved to the top class with the older children (' Pathetic '). However, the child - hating, disciplinarian headmistress Miss Trunchbull dismisses Miss Honey 's suggestion and lectures her on the importance of following rules (' The Hammer ').
At the Wormwood 's house, Mr. Wormwood is frustrated about losing a sale of worn - out cars to a group of rich Russians. He takes his frustration out on Matilda and destroys one of her library books, prompting her to put superglue around the rim of his hat and fix it to his head. At school, Matilda learns of Miss Trunchbull 's cruel punishments, including Chokey: a tiny cupboard lined with sharp objects in which she locks disobedient children for hours (' Chokey Chant '). Matilda sees Miss Trunchbull spin a small girl around by her pigtails and throw her across the playing field. Meanwhile, Miss Honey decides to visit the Wormwoods to express her recommendation that Matilda be put in an advanced class. She meets Mrs. Wormwood and her dance partner Rudolpho. It soon becomes apparent that Mrs. Wormwood does not care about her daughter 's intelligence, and she mocks Miss Honey and Matilda 's interest in books and intellect (' Loud '). Alone outside the Wormwood 's house, Miss Honey is desperate to help Matilda but feels powerless to do so (' This Little Girl ').
Matilda tells Mrs. Phelps more about the acrobat and the escapologist. The acrobat 's sister, a former world champion hammer - thrower who loved to scare small children, has arranged their performance. The escapologist announces that the performance has been cancelled because the acrobat is pregnant. The crowd is thrilled but the acrobat 's sister is furious at the prospect of refunding the crowd 's money and produces a contract binding them to perform the act or go to jail. At school, Bruce Bogtrotter, a boy in Matilda 's class, has stolen a slice of Miss Trunchbull 's personal chocolate cake. Miss Trunchbull punishes Bruce by forcing him to eat the entire cake in front of the class, who bravely support him (' Bruce '). After Bruce has finished the cake, the class celebrates his success but Miss Trunchbull drags Bruce away to the Chokey.
Mr. Wormwood advises the audience against reading in favour of watching television (' Telly '). Lavender, a girl in Matilda 's class, tells the audience that she is going to put a newt in Miss Trunchbull 's jug of water later on in the show. The children gather and sing about their hopes for when they grow up (' When I Grow Up '). Matilda resolves to end Miss Trunchbull 's cruelty. She tells Mrs. Phelps more of the story of the acrobat and the escapologist. Bound by their contract, they perform their feat, which goes well until the last moment when the acrobat is fatally injured, living just long enough to give birth to a girl. The escapologist invites the acrobat 's sister to move in with him to help look after his daughter. Unknown to the escapologist, the girl 's aunt is secretly cruel to her, forcing her to perform menial tasks and abusing her verbally and physically.
Mr. Wormwood returns home from work pleased because he has sold his worn - out cars to the wealthy Russians, having used an automatic drill to wind back their speedometers. Matilda is annoyed at her father 's deceit and scolds him, which angers him and he locks her in her bedroom. That night, Matilda continues the story of the acrobat and the escapologist. After years of cruelty, the aunt 's rage has grown; one day she beats the child, locks her in the cellar and goes out. That evening, the escapologist returns home early and discovers the extent of the aunt 's cruelty. As he comforts his daughter, he promises her he will always be there for her. Filled with rage, he runs out to find the aunt but is never seen again (' I 'm Here ').
The next day, Miss Trunchbull forces Miss Honey 's class to undergo a gruelling physical education lesson (' The Smell of Rebellion '). Miss Trunchbull discovers the newt in her jug; she accuses one of the boys, Eric, who has already riled her during the lesson. She starts to punish him. Matilda scolds Miss Trunchbull for being a bully. Miss Trunchbull verbally abuses Matilda, but Matilda discovers she can move objects with her mind (' Quiet '). She tips over the water jug and the newt lands on Miss Trunchbull, and climbs up her leg. After Miss Trunchbull leaves Matilda demonstrates her powers to Miss Honey, who is surprised and invites Matilda to her house for tea. On the way Matilda admits that her father is not proud of her and calls her names.
Miss Honey tells Matilda of her cruel and abusive aunt, who looked after her as a child after her parents died. When Miss Honey first became a teacher, her aunt produced a bill detailing everything Miss Honey consumed as a child, along with other expenses, and forced her to sign a contract binding her to pay it all back. Desperate to escape, Miss Honey found refuge in an old farm shed which she moved into and lives in abject poverty. Despite this, Miss Honey finds beauty in her meagre living conditions (' My House '). As Miss Honey tells her story, she produces a scarf which Matilda recognises from her story of the acrobat and the escapologist -- which she realises is the true story of Miss Honey 's childhood, and that her wicked aunt is Miss Trunchbull.
Back at school, Miss Trunchbull forces the children to take a spelling test; anyone who misspells a word will be sent to Chokey. The children fail to misspell a single word, so Miss Trunchbull invents a word in order to be able to punish Lavender. As Lavender is about to be taken to Chokey, her classmates deliberately misspell simple words, telling her she can not send them all to Chokey. However, Miss Trunchbull has built many more Chokeys. Matilda uses her powers to write on the blackboard and convinces Miss Trunchbull that it is the ghost of Miss Honey 's father, demanding that she gives his daughter back her house or he will get her. Miss Trunchbull runs from the school screaming and the children celebrate their freedom (' Revolting Children ').
At the library, Miss Honey and Mrs. Phelps relay the aftermath of the events. A few days after Miss Trunchbull ran away, Miss Honey 's parents ' will has been found; they left all their money and their house to her. Miss Trunchbull is never seen again and Miss Honey becomes the new headmistress of the school. Matilda can not use her powers again and Miss Honey is sad that a child who has helped others this way is stuck in an unloving home. The Wormwoods arrive at the library in a panic, telling Matilda that she must leave with them because they are fleeing to Spain. The wealthy Russians Mr. Wormwood was dealing with are the Russian Mafia, who are unhappy about being sold broken cars. Miss Honey asks if Matilda can stay with her, but the mafia arrive before a decision can be made. Sergei, the head of the Mafia, is impressed and moved by Matilda 's intellect and respect, and he agrees not to harm the Wormwoods providing he never has to deal with Mr. Wormwood again (' This Little Girl Reprise '). Mr. Wormwood agrees to let Matilda live with Miss Honey. (' When I Grow Up Reprise ')
# Not present on any of the cast recordings except the ITunes exclusive extended American cast recording
The instrumentation uses a ten - to - thirteen - piece orchestra, including keyboards, reeds, brass, strings and percussion. The performances run 2 hours and 40 minutes, including one interval. The "Overture '' is included in the Broadway production only while the "Entr'acte '' was only used in the London production where it has now been cut apart from the final bars which lead into "When I Grow Up ''.
The cast album recorded by the original Stratford company was released on CD in September 2011 and a month later as a Digital Download. It features a hidden spoken track which follows "When I Grow Up '' (Reprise). This is the full version speech that is heard in part, before, during and after "Quiet '' in the show
A new Original Broadway cast album was released on 22 September 2013 as a CD. This contains more tracks than the UK recording and includes "The Chokey Chant ''. The deluxe version features Matilda 's stories of the Acrobat and the Escapologist, the song "Perhaps a Child '' sung by Sergei, which was cut from the show early on in the Stratford previews due to time constraints, and "Naughty '' with all four Broadway Matildas singing.
In June 2013, Tim Minchin said a future film adaption was being planned. Minchin said during an interview, "We just got (the show) up in New York, there 's a touring version that is meant to be going on in America, concurrently the English version is up, there 's a film that will probably be made in the next 4 or 5 years and all this sort of stuff. '' Mara Wilson, who played Matilda in the original 1996 film adaptation of Dahl 's novel, has expressed an interest in having a cameo in a film version if asked. On 15 November 2013, in an article in the Daily Mail it was revealed that Dennis Kelly, who won the Tony for Best Book for Matilda, will write the movie 's script, with Minchin penning any additional music required and Warchus, returning to direct. The movie will be released in 2019 at the earliest, due to a Broadway contract stipulating that any film version can not be released before six years have expired following the show 's opening there.
Michael Billington, writing for The Guardian, gave the musical four stars out of five. He praised the adaptation of the book, the "ebullient music and lyrics '', the direction, the stage design and the performances -- especially Bertie Carvel as Miss Trunchbull. The Independent also gave the show four out of five stars and said, "The Royal Shakespeare Company has struck gold with this wildly entertaining musical... Kelly 's clever adaptation and the witty, intricate songs by... Minchin create a new, improved version of Dahl 's story... Warchus 's wondrously well - drilled production finds just the right balance between gleeful grotesque humour and heart - warming poignancy. ''
Charles Spencer, writing for The Daily Telegraph awarded the show all five stars and praised the "splendidly witty, instantly hummable songs, dazzling choreography, a cast of impossibly cute and delightful children and a fantastic star turn from Bertie Carvel... (Kelly 's) script has both deepened the emotion of Dahl 's story while adding loads of splendid jokes of his own '', and concluded, "It is funny, heart - warming, and bang - on target ''. Matt Wolf of The Arts Desk said: "I was struck by the sight of many a child grinning as openly as their adult companions were wiping away tears ''. Henry Hitchings of the London Evening Standard also praised the performances, direction and design and commented on Minchin 's "witty songs (in which) he switches between styles with remarkable dexterity ''. He continued, "There 's a playfulness throughout (the book) that proves intoxicating... In this lovingly created show, Matilda 's magic positively sparkles. There 's a cleverness in the writing which ensures that, while it appeals to children, there is plenty for adults to savour... it 's blissfully funny. ''
The reviews of the London performances were also very positive. Julie Carpenter of the Daily Express awarded the show all five stars and called the musical "(g) loriously over the top '', and said, "it 's an irresistible and ingenious mix of fun, fizz, cruelty, incredible choreography and above all warmth which means we root for the kids from the start. Fantastic. '' Henry Hitchings ' review in the Evening Standard ranked the piece five stars, praising the music and lyrics, book, set design, choreography, direction and performances. The review in The Guardian said, "You 'd be a nitwit to miss this hit show. '' The only complaint in Quentin Letts ' five - star review in the Daily Mail was about "overdone amplification ''. The Stage also gave Matilda five stars, as did Spencer, writing again for The Telegraph. Confirming his impression of the 2010 production, he wrote about the West End transfer:
"I suspect it will delight audiences for years to come... (Kelly 's) script actually improves and deepens Dahl 's original... (Minchin 's) smashing score... combines take - home melodies with delicious lyrical wit in songs that consistently develop both the plot and our understanding of the characters. There is an exuberant sense here of two writers who have clicked together... (Matilda) so wittily excoriates the cruelty and crassness of our age... Warchus 's thrilling, warm - hearted production, exuberantly designed by Rob Howell and with pin - sharp choreography by Peter Darling, constantly combines comedy with a sense of wonder. The children (and the adult performances are ' hilarious ' (Bailey), ' memorable ' (Walker and Kaye) and ' touchingly sweet ' (Ward))... But the star turn is Bertie Carvel ''.
The Financial Times, The Times and The Sunday Times each awarded the show four stars out of five, but found little to criticise. Ben Brantley, writing for The New York Times, called the adaptation "a sweet and sharp - witted work of translation, which... turns dark and sodden anxieties into bright and buoyant fantasies (that address) a raging thirst these days for (such) tonics ''. A year after the show opened, Time Out gave the production four stars out of five, noting the departure of Carvel and calling the show "a little too long and, dramatically, a tad wayward '', but nevertheless "wise, wicked, glorious fun. ''
Most of the New York critics gave the Broadway transfer their highest marks. Brantley wrote: "Matilda works with astonishing slyness and grace to inculcate us with its radical point of view. (It) is about words and language, books and stories, and their incalculable worth as weapons of defense, attack and survival... Above all it 's an exhilarating tale of empowerment ''. He also said the child actors "strengthen their diction '' so that the "tasty lyrics '' could be clearly heard. Richard Zoglin, in Time magazine said that the show is "a fresh start for the Broadway musical '' with "a score that seems all but woven into the scenery -- simple but distinctive tunes... intricate lyrics... Every element of the show seems hand - crafted and right ''. He said that director Warchus "lets the characters go gloriously over the top (the way children see them), but also brings a hushed intensity ''. He also said that the second act "runs a bit too long '' and that "the combination of shrill child voices, British accents and heavy miking causes many of the lyrics to get muddled ''. Elisabeth Vincentelli 's review in the New York Post said, "Once in a blue moon, a show comes out blazing and restores your faith in Broadway. Matilda The Musical is that show. '' David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter said the stage show captured "the unique flavor of Roald Dahl 's classic 1988 children 's novel '', and added, "this funhouse fairy tale is by turns riotous and poignant, grotesque and menacing, its campy comic exaggeration equaled only by its transporting emotional power ''.
David Cote, in Time Out New York wondered whether the show was too English for Broadway tastes; he wrote, "Matilda is a kids ' musical, not a musical that happens to be about a kid. As such, its attractions may be limited to younger spectators and die - hard Dahl fans. That would be a pity, since Matilda is wickedly smart and wildly fun ''. A review in USA Today said the show tries too hard to be clever, but it is affecting and enchanting. Of the British papers reviewing the transfer, The Telegraph gave the show four stars out of five, and said, "There 's a harder - edged quality to the New York staging: the general tenor is louder and more exaggerated, and the Gilbertian finesse of (the) astonishing lyrics did n't translate for my companion... But the tremendous heart and intelligence of the piece remains undimmed. '' A review by Brendan Lemon in the Financial Times also gave the piece four stars out of five.
|
on an instrument panel what does class of instrument refer to | Instrument panel - wikipedia
Instrument panel may refer to:
|
who was the first person to invented the light bulb | Joseph Swan - wikipedia
Sir Joseph Wilson Swan FRS (31 October 1828 -- 27 May 1914) was a British physicist, chemist, and inventor. He is known as an independent early developer of a successful incandescent light bulb, and is the person responsible for developing and supplying the electric lights used in the world 's first homes and public buildings (including the Savoy Theatre, London in 1881) to be lit with electric light bulbs.
In 1904, Swan was knighted by King Edward VII, awarded the Royal Society 's Hughes Medal, and was made an honorary member of the Pharmaceutical Society. He had received the highest decoration in France, the Légion d'honneur, when he visited an international exhibition in Paris in 1881. The exhibition included exhibits of his inventions, and the city was lit with his electric lighting.
Swan was the maternal grandfather of Christopher Morcom, Alan Turing 's close friend and first love during their studies at the Sherborne boarding school.
Joseph Wilson Swan was born in 1828 at Pallion Hall in Pallion, in the Parish of Bishopwearmouth, Sunderland, County Durham. His parents were John Swan and Isabella Cameron. Swan was apprenticed for six years to a Sunderland firm of druggists, Hudson and Osbaldiston. However, it is not known if Swan completed his six - year apprenticeship, as both partners subsequently died. He was said to have had an enquiring mind, even as a child. He augmented his education with a fascination of his surroundings, the industry of the area, and reading at Sunderland Library. He attended lectures at the Sunderland Atheneum. Swan subsequently joined Mawson 's, a firm of manufacturing chemists in Newcastle upon Tyne, started in the year of Swan 's birth by John Mawson (9 September 1819 -- 17 December 1867), the husband of his sister, Elizabeth Swan (22 Nov 1822 -- 2 August 1905). In 1846, Swan was offered a partnership at Mawson 's. This company subsequently existed as Mawson, Swan and Morgan until 1973, formerly located on Grey Street in Newcastle upon Tyne, near Grey 's Monument. The premises, now occupied by burger chain restaurant Byron, can be identified by a line of Victorian - style electric street lamps in front of the store on Grey Street.
Swan lived at Underhill, Low Fell, Gateshead, a large house on Kells Lane North, where he conducted most of his experiments in the large conservatory. The house was later converted into a private fee paying, grant aided co-educational grammar school named Beaconsfield School. Here, students could still find examples of Swan 's original electrical fittings.
In 1850, Swan began working on a light bulb using carbonised paper filaments in an evacuated glass bulb. By 1860, he was able to demonstrate a working device, and obtained a British patent covering a partial vacuum, carbon filament incandescent lamp. However, the lack of a good vacuum and an adequate electric source resulted in an inefficient light bulb with a short lifetime.
In 1875, Swan returned to consider the problem of the light bulb with the aid of a better vacuum and a carbonised thread as a filament. The most significant feature of Swan 's improved lamp was that there was little residual oxygen in the vacuum tube to ignite the filament, thus allowing the filament to glow almost white - hot without catching fire. However, his filament had low resistance, thus needing heavy copper wires to supply it.
Swan first publicly demonstrated his incandescent carbon lamp at a lecture for the Newcastle upon Tyne Chemical Society on 18 December 1878. However, after burning with a bright light for some minutes in his laboratory, the lamp broke down due to excessive current. On 17 January 1879, this lecture was successfully repeated with the lamp shown in actual operation; Swan had solved the problem of incandescent electric lighting by means of a vacuum lamp. On 3 February 1879, he publicly demonstrated a working lamp to an audience of over seven hundred people in the lecture theatre of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne, Sir William Armstrong of Cragside presiding. Swan turned his attention to producing a better carbon filament, and the means of attaching its ends. He devised a method of treating cotton to produce ' parchmentised thread ', and obtained British Patent 4933 on 27 November 1880. From that time he began installing light bulbs in homes and landmarks in England.
His house, Underhill, Low Fell, Gateshead, was the world 's first to have working light bulbs installed. The Lit & Phil Library in Westgate Road, Newcastle, was the first public room lit by electric light during a lecture by Swan on 20 October 1880. In 1881, he founded his own company, The Swan Electric Light Company, and started commercial production.
The Savoy, a state - of - the - art theatre in the City of Westminster, London, was the first public building in the world lit entirely by electricity. Swan supplied about 1,200 incandescent lamps, powered by an 88.3 kilowatts (118.4 horsepower) generator on open land near the theatre. The builder of the Savoy, Richard D'Oyly Carte, explained why he had introduced Swan 's electric light: "The greatest drawbacks to the enjoyment of the theatrical performances are, undoubtedly, the foul air and heat which pervade all theatres. As everyone knows, each gas - burner consumes as much oxygen as many people, and causes great heat beside. The incandescent lamps consume no oxygen, and cause no perceptible heat. '' The first generator proved too small to power the whole building, and though the entire front - of - house was electrically lit, the stage was lit by gas until 28 December 1881. At that performance, Carte stepped onstage and broke a glowing lightbulb before the audience to demonstrate the safety of Swan 's new technology. On 29 December 1881, The Times described the electric lighting as superior, visually, to gaslight.
The first private residence, other than the inventor 's, lit by the new incandescent lamp was that of his friend, Sir William Armstrong at Cragside, near Rothbury, Northumberland. Swan personally supervised the installation there in December 1880. Swan had formed ' The Swan Electric Light Company Ltd ' with a factory at Benwell, Newcastle, and had established the first commercial manufacture of incandescent lightbulbs by the beginning of 1881.
Swan 's carbon rod lamp and carbon filament lamp, while functional, were still relatively impractical due to low resistance (needing very expensive thick copper wiring) and short running life. While searching for a better filament for his light bulb, Swan inadvertently made another advance. In 1881, he developed and patented a process for squeezing nitro - cellulose through holes to form conducting fibres. His newly established company (which by merger eventually became the Edison and Swan United Company) used Swan 's cellulose filaments in their bulbs. The textile industry has also used this process.
The first ship to use Swan 's invention was The City of Richmond, owned by the ' Inman Line '. She was fitted with incandescent lamps in June 1881. The Royal Navy also introduced them to their ships soon after; with HMS Inflexible having the new lamps installed in the same year.
Swan was one of the early developers of the electric safety lamp for miners, exhibiting his first in Newcastle upon Tyne at the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers on 14 May 1881. This required a wired supply, so the following year, he presented one with a battery and other improved versions followed. By 1886, a lamp with better light output than a flame safety lamp was in production by the Edison - Swan Company. However, it suffered from problems of reliability and was not a success. It took development by others over the next 20 years or so before effective electric lamps were in common use.
In what is considered to be independent lines of inquiry, Swan 's incandescent electric lamp was developed at the same time Thomas Edison was working on his incandescent lamp with Swan 's first successful lamp and Edison 's lamp both patented in 1879. Edison 's goal in developing his lamp was for it to be used as one part of a much larger system: a long - life high - resistance lamp that could be connected in parallel to work economically with the large - scale electric - lighting utility he was creating. Swan 's original lamp design, with its low resistance (the lamp could only be used in series) and short life span, was not suited for such an application.
Swan 's strong patents in Great Britain led, in 1883, to the two competing companies merging to exploit both Swan 's and Edison 's inventions, with the establishment of the Edison & Swan United Electric Light Company. Known commonly as Ediswan, the company sold lamps made with a cellulose filament that Swan had invented in 1881, while the Edison Company continued using bamboo filaments outside of Britain. In 1892, General Electric (GE) began exploiting Swan 's patents to produce cellulose filaments, until they were replaced in 1904 by a GE developed ' GEM ' (General Electric Metallized) baked cellulose filaments.
In 1886, Ediswan moved production to a former jute mill at Ponders End, North London. In 1916, Ediswan set up the UK 's first radio thermionic valve factory at Ponders End. This area, with nearby Brimsdown subsequently developed as a centre for the manufacture of thermionic valves, cathode ray tubes, etc., and nearby parts of Enfield became an important centre of the electronics industry for much of the 20th century. Ediswan became part of British Thomson - Houston and Associated Electrical Industries (AEI) in the late 1920s.
When working with wet photographic plates, Swan noticed that heat increased the sensitivity of the silver bromide emulsion. By 1871, he had devised a method of using dry plates, and substituting nitro - cellulose plastic for glass plates, thus initiating the age of convenience in photography. Eight years later, he patented bromide paper, developments of which are still used for black - and - white photographic prints.
In 1864, Swan patented the transfer process for making carbon prints, a permanent photographic process. By adding the transfer step, Swan was able to easily make photographs with a full tonal range.
In 1894, Swan was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS), and in September 1901, he was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) from the University of Durham. In 1904, he was knighted, awarded the Royal Society 's Hughes Medal, and made an honorary member of the Pharmaceutical Society. Swan died in 1914 at Warlingham in Surrey.
In 1945, the London Power Company commemorated Swan by naming a new 1,554 GRT coastal collier SS Sir Joseph Swan.
|
when did pounds change to dollars in australia | Australian dollar - Wikipedia
Australia
The Australian dollar (sign: $; code: AUD) is the currency of the Commonwealth of Australia, including its external territories Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and Norfolk Island, as well as the independent Pacific Island states of Kiribati, Nauru, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. The Australian dollar was legal tender of Papua New Guinea until 1 January 1976, when the Papua New Guinean kina became the sole legal tender. Within Australia, it is almost always abbreviated with the dollar sign ($), with A $ or AU $ sometimes used to distinguish it from other dollar - denominated currencies. It is subdivided into 100 cents.
In 2016, the Australian dollar was the fifth most traded currency in the world, accounting for 6.9 % of the world 's daily share (down from 8.6 % in 2013). It trades in the world foreign exchange markets behind the US dollar, the euro, the yen and the pound sterling. The Australian dollar is popular with currency traders, because of the comparatively high interest rates in Australia, the relative freedom of the foreign exchange market from government intervention, the general stability of Australia 's economy and political system, and the prevailing view that the Australian dollar offers diversification benefits in a portfolio containing the major world currencies, especially because of its greater exposure to Asian economies and the commodities cycle. The currency is commonly referred to by foreign - exchange traders as the "Aussie dollar ''.
With pounds, shillings and pence to be replaced by decimal currency on 14 February 1966, many names for the new currency were suggested. In 1963, Prime Minister, Sir Robert Menzies, a monarchist, wished to name the currency the royal. Other proposed names from a public naming competition included more exotic suggestions such as the austral, the oz, the boomer, the roo, the kanga, the emu, the koala, the digger, the zac, the kwid, the dinkum, and the ming (Menzies ' nickname). Menzies ' influence resulted in the selection of the royal, and trial designs were prepared and printed by the Reserve Bank of Australia. Australian treasurer and future Prime Minister, Harold Holt, announced the decision in Parliament on 5 June 1963. The royal would be subdivided into 100 cents, but the existing names shilling, florin and crown would be retained for the 10 - cent, 20 - cent and 50 - cent coins respectively. The name royal for the currency proved very unpopular, with Holt and his wife even receiving death threats. On 24 July Holt told the Cabinet the decision had been a "terrible mistake '' and it would need to be revisited. On 18 September Holt advised Parliament that the name was to be the dollar, of 100 cents.
The Australian pound, introduced in 1910 and officially distinct in value from the pound sterling since devaluation in 1931, was replaced by the dollar on 14 February 1966. The rate of conversion for the new decimal currency was two dollars per Australian pound, or ten Australian shillings per dollar. The exchange rate was pegged to the pound sterling at a rate of $1 = 8 shillings ($2.50 = UK £ 1). In 1967, Australia effectively left the sterling area, when the pound sterling was devalued against the US dollar and the Australian dollar did not follow. It maintained its peg to the US dollar at the rate of A $1 = US $1.12.
On 27 September 2012, the Reserve Bank of Australia stated that it had ordered work on a project to upgrade the current banknotes. The upgraded banknotes would incorporate a number of new future proof security features and include Braille dots for ease of use of the visually impaired. The first new banknotes (of the five dollar denomination) were issued from 1 September 2016, with the remaining denominations to be issued in the coming years.
In 1966, coins were introduced in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 cents. The initial 50 - cent coins contained 80 % silver and were withdrawn after a year when the intrinsic value of the silver content was found to considerably exceed the face value of the coins. One - dollar coins were introduced in 1984, followed by two - dollar coins in 1988 to replace the banknotes of that value, while the one - and two - cent coins were discontinued in 1991 and withdrawn from circulation. In commemoration of the 40th anniversary of decimal currency, the 2006 mint proof and uncirculated sets included one - and two - cent coins. In early 2013, Australia 's first triangular coin was introduced to mark the 25th anniversary of the opening of Parliament House. The silver $5 coin is 99.9 % silver, and depicts Parliament House as viewed from one of its courtyards. Cash transactions are rounded to the nearest five cents. As with most public changes to currency systems, there has been a great amount of seignorage of the discontinued coins. All coins portray the reigning Australian Sovereign, Queen Elizabeth II, on the obverse, and are produced by the Royal Australian Mint.
Australia has regularly issued commemorative 50 - cent coins. The first was in 1970, commemorating James Cook 's exploration along the east coast of the Australian continent, followed in 1977 by a coin for Queen Elizabeth II 's Silver Jubilee, the wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales and Lady Diana Spencer in 1981, the Brisbane Commonwealth Games in 1982, and the Australian Bicentenary in 1988. Issues expanded into greater numbers in the 1990s and the 21st century, responding to collector demand. Australia has also made special issues of 20 - cent, one - dollar and two - dollar coins.
Current Australian 5 -, 10 - and 20 - cent coins are identical in size to the former Australian, New Zealand, and British sixpence, shilling, and two shilling (florin) coins. Australia is the last Commonwealth country where pre-decimal sixpences, shillings and florins, while now rare, may still be found in circulation. In 1990 and 1993, the UK replaced these coins with smaller versions, as did New Zealand in 2006 -- at the same time discontinuing the five - cent coin. With a mass of 15.55 grams (0.549 oz) and a diameter of 31.51 millimetres (1 ⁄ in), the Australian 50 - cent coin is one of the largest coins used in the world today. In circulation, the old New Zealand 5 -, 10 - and 20 - cent coins were often mistaken for Australian coins of the same value, owing to their identical size and shape. Until the size of the New Zealand coins was changed in 2004, Australian coins below the dollar in value were in circulation in both countries. Still, some confusion occurs with the larger - denomination coins in the two countries; Australia 's $1 coin is similar in size to New Zealand 's $2 coin, and the New Zealand $1 coin is similar in size to Australia 's $2 coin. As a result, Australian coins are occasionally found in New Zealand and vice versa.
The first paper issues of the Australian dollar were issued in 1966. The $1, $2, $10 and $20 notes had exact equivalents in the former pound banknotes. The $5 note was issued in 1967, the $50 note was issued in 1973 and the $100 was issued in 1984.
The first polymer banknotes were issued in 1988 by the Reserve Bank of Australia, specifically polypropylene polymer banknotes (produced by Note Printing Australia), to commemorate the bicentenary of European settlement in Australia. All Australian notes are now made of polymer. Australia was the first country to develop and use polymer banknotes.
A new series of banknotes is being introduced, starting with the $5 note from 1 September 2016. A new $10 banknote has been released into circulation from September 20, 2017. A new $50 note will be coming out in late 2018.
In 1966, when the dollar was introduced, the international currency relationships were maintained under the Bretton Woods system, a fixed exchange rate system using a U.S. dollar standard. The Australian dollar, however, was effectively pegged to the British pound at an equivalent value of approximately 1 gram of gold.
The highest valuation of the Australian dollar relative to the U.S. dollar was during the period of the peg to the U.S. dollar. On 9 September 1973, the peg was adjusted to US $1.4875, the fluctuation limits being changed to US $1.485 -- US $1.490; on both 7 December 1973 and 10 December 1973, the noon buying rate in New York City for cable transfers payable in foreign currencies reached its highest point of 1.4885 U.S. dollars to one dollar.
On 12 December 1983, the dollar was floated, allowing its value to fluctuate dependent on supply and demand on international money markets. The decision was made on 8 December 1983 and announced on 9 December 1983.
In the two decades that followed, its highest value relative to the US dollar was $0.881 in December 1988. The lowest ever value of the dollar after it was floated was 47.75 US cents in April 2001. It returned to above 96 US cents in June 2008, and reached 98.49 later that year. Although the value of the dollar fell significantly from this high towards the end of 2008, it gradually recovered in 2009 to 94 US cents.
On 15 October 2010, the dollar reached parity with the US dollar for the first time since becoming a freely traded currency, trading above US $1 for a few seconds. The currency then traded above parity for a sustained period of several days in November, and fluctuated around that mark into 2011. On 27 July 2011, the dollar hit a record high since floating. It traded at a $1.1080 against the US dollar.
Some commentators speculated that the value of the dollar in 2011 was related to Europe 's sovereign debt crisis, and Australia 's strong ties with material importers in Asia and in particular China.
Economists posit that commodity prices are the dominant driver of the Australian dollar, and this means changes in exchange rates of the Australian dollar occur in ways opposite to many other currencies. For decades, Australia 's balance of trade has depended primarily upon commodity exports such as minerals and agricultural products. This means the Australian dollar varies significantly during the business cycle, rallying during global booms as Australia exports raw materials, and falling during recessions as mineral prices slump or when domestic spending overshadows the export earnings outlook. This movement is in the opposite direction to other reserve currencies, which tend to be stronger during market slumps as traders move value from falling stocks into cash.
The Australian dollar is a reserve currency and one of the most traded currencies in the world. Other factors in its popularity include a relative lack of central bank intervention, and general stability of the Australian economy and government. In January 2011 at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, Alexey Ulyukaev announced that the Central Bank of Russia would begin keeping Australian dollar reserves.
Prior to 1983, Australia maintained a fixed exchange rate. The first peg was between the Australian and British pounds, initially at par, and later at 0.8 GBP (16 shillings sterling). This reflected its historical ties as well as a view about the stability in value of the British pound. From 1946 to 1971, Australia maintained a peg under the Bretton Woods system, a fixed exchange rate system that pegged the U.S. dollar to gold, but the Australian dollar was effectively pegged to sterling until 1967.
With the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system in 1971, Australia converted the traditional peg to a fluctuating rate against the US dollar. In September 1974, Australia valued the dollar against a basket of currencies called the trade weighted index (TWI) in an effort to reduce the fluctuations associated with its tie to the US dollar. The daily TWI valuation was changed in November 1976 to a periodically adjusted valuation.
On 12 December 1983, the Australian Labor government led by Prime Minister Bob Hawke and Treasurer Paul Keating floated the dollar, with the exchange rate reflecting the balance of payments and other market drivers.
Australian banknotes are a legal tender throughout the Commonwealth of Australia and its territories, as provided in section 36 (1) of the Reserve Bank Act 1959.
For legal tender of Australian coinage, as outlined in section 16 of the Currency Act 1965, the following limits are set out:
Australia was the first country in the world to have a complete system of banknotes made from plastic (polymer). These notes provide much greater security against counterfeiting. The polymer notes are cleaner than paper notes, are more durable and easily recyclable.
Australia 's currency comprises coins of 5, 10, 20 and 50 cent and one and two dollar denominations; and notes of 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 dollar denominations.
Many forms of currency were used in the Australian colonies after the arrival of the first European settlers in 1788. In the rough early conditions barter was necessary, and payment in commodities like rum sometimes replaced money in transactions. Some of the first official notes used in Australia were Police Fund Notes, issued by the Bank of New South Wales in 1816.
After 1901, when the Australian colonies federated into a single Commonwealth, the federal government became responsible for the currency. The Bank Notes Tax Act 1910 effectively brought private and state currencies to an end. In 1913 the first series of Australian notes was issued, based on the old British system of 12 pence to a shilling, 20 shillings to a pound.
In 1963, Australia initiated the change to decimal currency. More than 1000 submissions were made about the name of the new currency unit. The Prime Minister of the day, Sir Robert Menzies, proposed the ' royal '. The ' dollar ' was eventually chosen as the name, and decimal currency was introduced on 14 February 1966.
Shortly after the changeover, substantial counterfeiting of $10 notes was detected. This provided an impetus for the Reserve Bank of Australia to develop new note technologies jointly with the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation.
The revolutionary polymer notes were first introduced in 1988 with the issue of a commemorative $10 note, marking Australia 's bicentenary by featuring the theme of settlement. The note depicted on one side a young male Aboriginal person in body paint, with other elements of Aboriginal culture. On the reverse side was the ship Supply from the First Fleet, with a background of Sydney Cove, as well as a group of people to illustrate the diverse backgrounds from which Australia has evolved over 200 years.
Polymer note technology was developed by Australia, and Australia prints polymer banknotes for a number of other countries. In 1988, Australia introduced its first polymer bank note and in 1996, Australia became the first country in the world to have a complete series of polymer notes. Australia 's notes are printed by Note Printing Australia, a wholly owned subsidiary of the Reserve Bank of Australia. Note Printing Australia prints polymer notes or simply supplies the polymer substrate for a growing number of other countries including Bangladesh, Brunei, Chile, Indonesia, Kuwait, Malaysia, Mexico, Nepal, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Romania, Samoa, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam. Many other countries are showing a strong interest in the new technology.
All Australian coins depict Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse, with different images on the reverse of each coin.
The 5, 10, 20 and 50 cent coins are made of cupronickel (75 percent copper and 25 percent nickel). The one and two dollar coins are made of aluminium bronze (92 percent copper, 6 per cent aluminium and 2 per cent nickel). The two dollar, one dollar, 50 and 20 cent circulating coins occasionally feature commemorative designs.
Australia 's coins are produced by the Royal Australian Mint, which is located in the nation 's capital, Canberra. Since opening in 1965, the Mint has produced more than 14 billion circulating coins, and has the capacity to produce more than two million coins per day, or more than 600 million coins per year. The Royal Australian Mint has an international reputation for producing quality numismatic coins, and won an international award for ' Best Silver Coin 2006 ' for its Silver Kangaroo coin design.
In early 2015 the Reserve Bank of Australia announced that a tactile feature will be added to all new notes. The tactile feature is an embossed feature to assist the vision - impaired in identifying the denomination. A similar feature is used on the Canadian currency.
|
which country won the fifa u-17 world cup football in 2017 | 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup - Wikipedia
The 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup was the 17th FIFA U-17 World Cup, a biennial international football tournament contested by men 's under - 17 national teams. Organized by FIFA, the tournament took place in India between 6 and 28 October 2017, after the country was awarded the hosting rights on 5 December 2013. The tournament marked the first time India have hosted a FIFA tournament and the first Asian hosted U-17 World Cup since 2013. The attendance for this World Cup was a record 1,347,133 surpassing China 's 1985 edition where it was 1,230,976.
The matches were played in six stadiums in six host cities around the country, with the final taking place at the Salt Lake Stadium in Kolkata, West Bengal. Twenty - three teams, besides the host India, managed to qualify for the tournament via participating in their various continental under - 17 tournaments. In the first round of the tournament finals, the teams competed in round - robin groups of four for points, where the top two teams in each group along with the top four third placed teams would advance to the next round. These 16 teams will advance to the knockout stage, where three rounds of play will decide which teams would participate in the final.
The reigning FIFA U-17 World Cup champions, Nigeria, did not have the opportunity to defend their title after failing to qualify for this edition. In failing to qualify, Nigeria became the first incumbent title holder since Switzerland in 2009 to fail to qualify for the subsequent edition.
England won the U-17 World Cup for the first time after coming back from a two - goal deficit and beating Spain 5 -- 2 in the final. This meant England became the second nation, after Brazil in 2003, to win both of FIFA 's under - age (U-20 and U-17) World Cup tournaments in the same calendar year. England has also become the third country, after Brazil and North Korea, to win both U-17 and U-20 World Cup in their respective gender tournaments on the same year, as North Korea had also won both U-17 and U-20 Women 's World Cup last year. The Official Match Ball of the Tournament is Adidas Krasava.
The bids for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup had to be submitted by 15 November 2013. On 28 May 2013 it was announced by FIFA that Azerbaijan, India, Republic of Ireland, and Uzbekistan would bid for the hosting rights.
Finally, on 5 December 2013, FIFA announced that India had won the 2017 FIFA World Cup hosting rights.
As host, India made their first ever appearance at the FIFA U-17 World Cup and their first appearance in the World Cup at any age level. As well as India, New Caledonia and Niger also made their first appearance in the FIFA U-17 World Cup.
The previous U-17 World Cup title holders, Nigeria, failed to qualify for this edition. In failing to qualify, Nigeria became the first nation since Switzerland in 2009 to fail to qualify for the next edition of the FIFA U-17 World Cup after winning the previous edition.
A total of 24 teams qualified for the final tournament. In addition to India, the other 23 teams qualified from six separate continental competitions. Starting from 2017, the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) will receive an additional spot (in total two spots), while UEFA will have five instead of six spots.
The six venues selected for the tournament were given major renovations prior to the FIFA U-17 World Cup. All the stadiums were given new bucket seats, new dressing rooms, new evacuation exits for fans, and new training grounds. Javier Ceppi, the Local Organising Committee director, stated that despite work starting slowly, things eventually became quicker. "It has been a long process in the last two and half years. In India, it takes time to start things but once things start it kind of picks its own pace and in terms of implementation I always say that India is a very good country when it comes to implementation. ''
The official emblem for the tournament was launched on 27 September 2016 at a hotel in Goa during the 2016 AFC U-16 Championship. According to the press release from FIFA the emblem was designed "as a celebration of the country 's richness and diversity of cultures, with the main elements of the Indian Ocean, the banyan tree, the kite and the starburst, which is an interpretation of the Ashoka Chakra, an integral part of the national identity. ''
Sales of tickets for the FIFA U-17 World Cup began on 16 May 2017 during a function in Delhi. Carles Puyol was present during the ticket sales launch as special guest. General ticket sales officially began on 17 May 2017 at 19: 11. The time was selected as a tribute to when Mohun Bagan defeated East Yorkshire Regiment in the IFA Shield in 1911, marking the first time an Indian football club defeated a British side in British India. Tickets for the tournament were sold in four phases: Phase one only sold tickets for categories 1 to 3 at each venue with a 60 % discount while phase two allowed people to buy tickets for all categories, but only if you are a Visa card holder, at a 50 % discount. Phase three allowed anyone to buy tickets with a 25 % discount while phase four had tickets at full price. The attendance for matches breached the million mark in the final match of the Round of 16, which made India only the third nation after China and Mexico to register an attendance of over a million for the event. On 28 October 2017, in the 3rd place match - up between Brazil and Mali, India finally beat the existing record of 1,230,976 set in the 1985 FIFA U-16 World Championship edition in China on 28 October 2017. The final attendance figures were 1,347,133.
After being awarded the hosting rights for the FIFA U-17 World Cup, eight locations were shortlisted: Bangalore, Delhi, Goa, Guwahati, Kochi, Kolkata, Mumbai, and Pune. On 29 May 2015, Bangalore, Chennai, Delhi, Goa, and Pune were provisionally selected as host locations. On 27 October 2016, FIFA officially announced Delhi, Goa, Guwahati, Kochi, Kolkata, and Navi Mumbai as the official host cities for the FIFA U-17 World Cup.
The draw for the FIFA U-17 World Cup was held on 7 July 2017 in Mumbai. The draw was attended by former U-17 World Cup champions Nwankwo Kanu (Nigeria) and Esteban Cambiasso (Argentina), as well as India senior international Sunil Chhetri and badminton player P.V. Sindhu.
The 24 teams were drawn into six groups of four teams, with hosts India being allocated to position A1. The rest of the teams were allocated into their respective pots based on a ranking which was built according to past performances during the last five FIFA U-17 World Cups. Importance was given to the most recent U-17 World Cups.
FIFA 's Referees ' Committee selected 21 referees, representing all six confederations, to officiate at the U-17 World Cup: Seven from UEFA, four from CONMEBOL, three each from the AFC, CAF, and CONCACAF, and one from the OFC. No referee from host country India were selected to officiate.
Each team 's squad for the FIFA U-17 World Cup will consist of 21 players. Each participating national association had to confirm their final 21 - player squad by 21 September 2017. A total of 504 players will be participating in the tournament. The squads were announced by FIFA on 26 September 2017.
The top two teams of each group and the four best third - placed teams advance to the round of 16. The rankings of teams in each group are determined as follows (regulations Article 17.7):
If two or more teams are equal on the basis of the above three criteria, their rankings are determined as follows:
All times are local, IST (UTC + 5: 30).
The four best teams among those ranked third are determined as follows (regulations Article 17.7):
The specific match - ups involving the third - placed teams depend on which four third - placed teams qualified for the round of 16:
In the knockout stages, if a match is level at the end of normal playing time, no extra time shall be played and the winner shall be determined by a penalty shoot - out.
The following awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament.
Source: FIFA
FIFA released the media licensing rights for the U-17 World Cup on 21 September 2017. In India, the official broadcaster is Sony TEN and Sony ESPN. In the United States, the tournament is being broadcast on Fox Sports 2 while the United Kingdom has the tournament broadcast on Eurosport.
The 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup was regarded as a success by the media, FIFA and the tournament organisers. Jaime Yarza, Head of FIFA Tournaments, said, "It 's been a fantastic tournament with an overwhelming response of everybody involved. First and foremost, the fans have filled the stadiums in all the matches, showing fair play and respect, cheering on all the teams, and really loving the football they have seen. The figures speak for themselves: more than 1.2 million fans attended games at the stadiums. By the final matchday, we 're probably going to break the (attendance) record of all the other U-17 World Cups and we might even break the record for the U-20 World Cup, which is an amazing achievement. It really shows that India is a footballing nation in every sense. The hard work put in place during so many years has received a great response from everybody. It has been a very proud moment for all of us. ''
The tournament was the most attended and highest scoring edition of the FIFA U-17 World Cup in history. It was also the highest attended men 's age - group World Cup ever, surpassing the attendance record of the FIFA U-20 World Cup. The attendance for this World Cup was a record 1,347,133 surpassing China 's 1985 edition where it was 1,230,976, and the 2011 U-20 World Cup in Columbia which was attended by 1,309,929 people.
The 177 goals scored during the tournament made it the highest scoring U-17 World Cup in history, surpassing the previous record of 172 during the 2013 edition in the United Arab Emirates. The 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup also recorded the highest goal average of 3.40 per match since the tournament format was expanded from 16 teams to 24 teams in 2007.
In September 2017, India submitted a bid to host the 2019 FIFA U-20 World Cup, but lost to Poland.
|
i am a rock i am a mountain | I Am a Rock - wikipedia
"I Am a Rock '' is a song written by Paul Simon. It was first performed by Simon alone as the opening track on his album The Paul Simon Songbook which he originally recorded and released in August 1965, only in the United Kingdom. Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel, as the American folk rock duo Simon and Garfunkel, re-recorded it on December 14, 1965, and included as the final track on their album Sounds of Silence, which they released on January 17, 1966.
The song was not included on Simon & Garfunkel 's first album, Wednesday Morning, 3 A.M., which they released on October 19, 1964. The folk - rock nature of the music makes it unlikely that Simon would have written it much earlier than 1964, when he first began experimenting with the folk genre. Some sources say that it was performed by Simon on January 27, 1965, on a promo show for the BBC. In any case, Simon seems to have written the song before the end of January 1965, and certainly had it down before May, when he recorded it. Thematically, the song deals with isolation and emotional detachment.
The original version of "I Am a Rock '' was first released on The Paul Simon Songbook, and became, in the summer of 1965, the A-side to Simon 's only single released from the album, backed with "Leaves That Are Green '' on CBS 201797. Like the album, the single was not a commercial success. It is an extremely rare single to locate. Meanwhile, The Paul Simon Songbook, which for a long time Simon himself had disdained as an album, remained available only in the United Kingdom until 1981.
While Paul Simon was in Europe during the summer of 1965, Tom Wilson, the producer of Wednesday Morning, 3 A.M., responded to requests for "The Sound of Silence '' from American radio stations and dubbed an electric guitar, bass, and drums onto the original track. He then released the song as a single, whereupon it entered the United States pop charts. When Simon heard about the success of this song, he was still touring in Europe as a poor solo folk singer. He immediately returned to the United States, and in December 1965 he and Garfunkel began a series of hasty recording sessions to match the electric "mold '' created by Wilson with many of the other songs that Simon had recorded on the Song Book, including "I Am a Rock, '' which was re-recorded during these sessions on 14 December 1965. The result was the album Sounds of Silence, which the duo released the following January. "I Am a Rock '' was the fifth and closing track on Side 2 of the record. With "The Sound of Silence '' (the opening track), it bookends the rest of the material. This album quickly capitalized on the success of the new album 's title track as a # 1 single, and itself rose to # 21 on the Billboard charts.
The duo cashed in quickly on their new - found success. They released "I Am a Rock '' as a single in the late spring of 1966, and the song reached # 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 charts, the third single (chronologically) by Simon & Garfunkel to reach the top 5 (after "The Sound of Silence '' and "Homeward Bound '').
This single had two incarnations. First, as a promotion, it was released on red vinyl to radio stations, with a mono mix on one side and a stereo version on the other. These copies are somewhat difficult to locate for collectors. The standard version sold in stores, however, was the black vinyl 45 rpm record with the red Columbia Records label. The B - side was a version of "Flowers Never Bend with the Rainfall, '' which was later released on Simon & Garfunkel 's even - more - successful (and critically acclaimed) album Parsley, Sage, Rosemary and Thyme. The single mix of the song features a more prominent lead vocal track (and different phrasing in the opening lines) by Paul Simon, and less reverb, than the more common LP version.
Until 1981, the initial official recording of "I Am a Rock '' on The Paul Simon Song Book remained unavailable in North America. This was partly because Simon himself disdained the album, saying on the album 's liner notes:
"This L.P. contains twelve of the songs that I have written over the past two years. There are some here that I would not write today. I do n't believe in them as I once did. I have included them because they played an important role in the transition. It is discomforting, almost painful, to look back over something someone else created and realize that someone else was you. I am not ashamed of where I 've been and what I 've thought. It 's just not me anymore. It is perfectly clear to me that the songs I write today will not be mine tomorrow. I do n't regret the loss. ''
As a result, the Song Book album was only made available in North America when it was released as part of the box set of albums Paul Simon: Collected Works. The album was not released on CD until March 23, 2004. When it was, Columbia Legacy included two bonus tracks, one of which was an alternate take of "I Am a Rock '', during which one can plainly hear Simon stamping his foot for a beat.
|
comin thro the rye meaning in catcher in the rye | Comin ' thro ' the rye - wikipedia
"Comin ' Thro ' the Rye '' is a poem written in 1782 by Robert Burns (1759 -- 96). The words are put to the melody of the Scottish Minstrel Common ' Frae The Town. This is a variant of the tune to which Auld Lang Syne is usually sung -- the melodic shape is almost identical, the difference lying in the tempo and rhythm.
G.W. Napier, in an 1876 Notes and Queries, wrote that,
The original words of "Comin ' thro ' the rye '' can not be satisfactorily traced. There are many different versions of the song. The version which is now to be found in the Works of Burns is the one given in Johnson 's Museum, which passed through the hands of Burns; but the song itself, in some form or other, was known long before Burns.
The protagonist, "Jenny '', is not further identified, but there has been reference to a "Jenny from Dalry '' and a longstanding legend in the Drakemyre suburb of the town of Dalry, North Ayrshire, holds that "comin thro ' the rye '' describes crossing a ford through the Rye Water at Drakemyre to the north of the town, downstream from Ryefield House and not far from the confluence of the Rye with the River Garnock. When this story appeared in the Glasgow Herald in 1867, it was soon disputed with the assertion that everyone understood the rye to be a field of rye, wet with dew, which also fits better with other stanzas that substitute "wheat '' and "grain '' for "rye ''. An alternative suggestion is that "the rye '' was a long narrow cobblestone paved lane, prone to puddles of water.
While the original poem is already full of sexual imagery, an alternative version makes this more explicit. It has a different chorus, referring to a phallic "staun o ' staunin ' graith '' (roughly "an erection of astonishing size ''), "kiss '' is replaced by "fuck '', and Jenny 's "thing '' in stanza four is identified as her "cunt ''.
O, Jenny 's a ' weet, poor body, Jenny 's seldom dry: She draigl 't a ' her petticoatie, Comin thro ' the rye! Chorus: Comin thro ' the rye, poor body, Comin thro ' the rye, She draigl 't a ' her petticoatie, Comin thro ' the rye! Gin a body meet a body Comin thro ' the rye, Gin a body kiss a body, Need a body cry? (chorus) Gin a body meet a body Comin thro ' the glen Gin a body kiss a body, Need the warl ' ken? (chorus) Gin a body meet a body Comin thro ' the grain; Gin a body kiss a body, The thing 's a body 's ain. (chorus)
Even the "cleaner '' version of the Burns lyrics is very bawdy, and it is this one, or an "Anglized '' version of it, that is most commonly "covered ''.
Gin a body meet a body Comin ' thro ' the rye Gin a body kiss a body Need a body cry? Chorus: Ilka lassie has her laddie Nane, they say, hae I Yet a ' the lads they smile at me When comin ' thro ' the rye. Gin a body meet a body Comin ' frae the town Gin a body kiss a body Need a body frown? (Chorus) Gin a body meet a body, Comin ' frae the well, Gin a body kiss a body, Need a body tell? (Chorus) ' Mang the train there is a swain I dearly lo'e myself But what his name or whaur his hame I dinna care to tell (Chorus)
The title of the novel The Catcher in the Rye (1951) by J.D. Salinger comes from the poem 's name. Holden Caulfield, the protagonist, misinterprets a part of this poem to mean "if a body catch a body '' rather than "if a body meet a body. '' He keeps picturing children playing in a field of rye near the edge of a cliff, and him catching them when they start to fall off.
:
|
serious effects of plastic pollution on human health | Plastic pollution - wikipedia
Plastic pollution is the accumulation of plastic objects (e.g.: plastic bottles and much more) in the Earth 's environment that adversely affects wildlife, wildlife habitat and humans. Plastics that act as pollutants are categorized into micro -, meso -, or macro debris, based on size. Plastics are inexpensive and durable, and as a result levels of plastic production by humans are high. Moreover, the chemical structure of most plastics renders them resistant to many natural processes of degradation and as a result they are slow to degrade. Together, these two factors have led to a high prominence of plastic pollution in the environment.
Plastic pollution can afflict land, waterways and oceans. Living organisms, particularly marine animals, can be harmed either by mechanical effects, such as entanglement in plastic objects or problems related to ingestion of plastic waste, or through exposure to chemicals within plastics that interfere with their physiology. Humans are also affected by plastic pollution, such as through disruption of various hormonal mechanisms.
As of 2018, about 380 million tonnes of plastic is produced worldwide each year. From the 1950s up to 2018, an estimated 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic has been produced worldwide, of which an estimated 9 % has been recycled and another 12 % has been incinerated. In the UK alone, more than 5 million tonnes of plastic are consumed each year, of which only an estimated one - quarter is recycled, with the remainder going to landfills. This large amount of plastic waste inevitably enters the environment, with studies suggesting that the bodies of 90 % of seabirds contain plastic debris. In some areas there have been significant efforts to reduce the prominence of plastic pollution, through reducing plastic consumption and promoting plastic recycling.
Some researchers suggest that by 2050 there could be more plastic than fish in the oceans by weight.
There are three major forms of plastic that contribute to plastic pollution: microplastics as well as mega - and macro-plastics. Mega - and micro plastics have accumulated in highest densities in the Northern Hemisphere, concentrated around urban centers and water fronts. Plastic can be found off the coast of some islands because of currents carrying the debris. Both mega - and macro-plastics are found in packaging, footwear, and other domestic items that have been washed off of ships or discarded in landfills. Fishing - related items are more likely to be found around remote islands. These may also be referred to as micro -, meso -, and macro debris.
Plastic debris is categorized as either primary or secondary. Primary plastics are in their original form when collected. Examples of these would be bottle caps, cigarette butts, and microbeads. Secondary plastics, on the other hand, account for smaller plastics that have resulted from the degradation of primary plastics.
Microdebris are plastic pieces between 2 mm and 5 mm in size. Plastic debris that starts off as meso - or macrodebris can become microdebris through degradation and collisions that break it down into smaller pieces. Microdebris is more commonly referred to as nurdles. Nurdles are recycled to make new plastic items, but they easily end up released into the environment during production because of their small size. They often end up in ocean waters through rivers and streams. Microdebris that come from cleaning and cosmetic products are also referred to as scrubbers. Because microdebris and scrubbers are so small in size, filter - feeding organisms often consume them.
Primary microplastics, a type of microdebris, known as Nurdles enter the ocean by means of spills during transportation or from land based sources. These micro-plastics can accumulate in the oceans and allow for the accumulation of Persistent Bio-accumulating Toxins such as DDT and PCB 's which are hydrophobic in nature and can cause adverse health affects.
A 2004 study by Richard Thompson from the University of Plymouth, UK, found a great amount of microdebris on the beaches and waters in Europe, the Americas, Australia, Africa, and Antarctica. Thompson and his associates found that plastic pellets from both domestic and industrial sources were being broken down into much smaller plastic pieces, some having a diameter smaller than human hair. If not ingested, this microdebris floats instead of being absorbed into the marine environment. Thompson predicts there may be 300,000 plastic items / km of sea surface and 100,000 plastic particles / km of seabed. International pellet watch collected samples of polythene pellets from 30 beaches from 17 countries which were then analysed for organic micro-pollutants. It was found that pellets found on beaches in America, Vietnam and southern Africa contained compounds from pesticides suggesting a high use of pesticides in the areas.
Plastic debris is categorized as macrodebris when it is larger than 20 mm. These include items such as plastic grocery bags. Macrodebris are often found in ocean waters, and can have a serious impact on the native organisms. Fishing nets have been prime pollutants. Even after they have been abandoned, they continue to trap marine organisms and other plastic debris. Eventually, these abandoned nets become too difficult to remove from the water because they become too heavy, having grown in weight up to 6 tons.
Plastics themselves contribute to approximately 10 % of discarded waste. Many kinds of plastics exist depending on their precursors and the method for their polymerization. Depending on their chemical composition, plastics and resins have varying properties related to contaminant absorption and adsorption. Polymer degradation takes much longer as a result of saline environments and the cooling effect of the sea. These factors contribute to the persistence of plastic debris in certain environments. Recent studies have shown that plastics in the ocean decompose faster than was once thought, due to exposure to sun, rain, and other environmental conditions, resulting in the release of toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A. However, due to the increased volume of plastics in the ocean, decomposition has slowed down. The Marine Conservancy has predicted the decomposition rates of several plastic products. It is estimated that a foam plastic cup will take 50 years, a plastic beverage holder will take 400 years, a disposable nappy will take 450 years, and fishing line will take 600 years to degrade.
It was estimated that global production of plastics is approximately 250 mt / yr. Their abundance has been found to transport persistent organic pollutants, also known as POPs. These pollutants have been linked to an increased distribution of algae associated with red tides.
The distribution of plastic debris is highly variable as a result of certain factors such as wind and ocean currents, coastline geography, urban areas, and trade routes. Human population in certain areas also plays a large role in this. Plastics are more likely to be found in enclosed regions such as the Caribbean. It serves as a means of distribution of organisms to remote coasts that are not their native environments. This could potentially increase the variability and dispersal of organisms in specific areas that are less biologically diverse. Plastics can also be used as vectors for chemical contaminants such as persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals.
Chlorinated plastic can release harmful chemicals into the surrounding soil, which can then seep into groundwater or other surrounding water sources and also the ecosystem of the world. This can cause serious harm to the species that drink the water.
Landfill areas contain many different types of plastics. In these landfills, there are many microorganisms which speed up the biodegradation of plastics. The microorganisms include bacteria such as Pseudomonas, nylon - eating bacteria, and Flavobacteria. These bacteria break down nylon through the activity of the nylonase enzyme. Breakdown of biodegradable plastics releases methane, a very powerful greenhouse gas that contributes significantly to global warming.
In 2012, it was estimated that there was approximately 165 million tons of plastic pollution in the world 's oceans. One type of plastic that is of concern in terms of ocean plastic pollution is nurdles. Nurdles are manufactured plastic pellets (a type of microplastic) used in the creation of plastic products and are often shipped via cargo ship. Many billions of nurdles are spilled into oceans each year, and it has been estimated that globally, around 10 % of beach litter consists of nurdles. Plastics in oceans typically degrade within a year, but not entirely. In the process, toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A and polystyrene can leach into waters from some plastics. Polystyrene pieces and nurdles are the most common types of plastic pollution in oceans, and combined with plastic bags and food containers make up the majority of oceanic debris.
One study estimated that there are more than 5 trillion plastic pieces (defined into the four classes of small microplastics, large microplastics, meso - and macroplastics) afloat at sea.
The litter that is being delivered into the oceans is toxic to marine life, and humans. The toxins that are components of plastic include diethylhexyl phthalate, which is a toxic carcinogen, as well as lead, cadmium, and mercury.
Plankton, fish, and ultimately the human race, through the food chain, ingest these highly toxic carcinogens and chemicals. Consuming the fish that contain these toxins can cause an increase in cancer, immune disorders, and birth defects.
The majority of the litter near and in the ocean is made up of plastics and is a persistent pervasive source of marine pollution. According to Dr. Marcus Eriksen of The 5 Gyres Institute, there are 5.25 trillion particles of plastic pollution that weigh as much as 270,000 tons (2016). This plastic is taken by the ocean currents and accumulates in large vortexes known as ocean gyres. The majority of the gyres become pollution dumps filled with plastic.
Almost 90 % of plastic debris that pollutes ocean water, which translates to 5.6 million tons, comes from ocean - based sources. Merchant ships expel cargo, sewage, used medical equipment, and other types of waste that contain plastic into the ocean. Naval and research vessels eject waste and military equipment that are deemed unnecessary. Pleasure crafts release fishing gear and other types of waste, either accidentally or through negligent handling. The largest ocean - based source of plastic pollution is discarded fishing gear (including traps and nets), estimated to be up to 90 % of plastic debris in some areas.
Continental plastic litter enters the ocean largely through storm - water runoff, flowing into watercourses or directly discharged into coastal waters. Plastic in the ocean has been shown to follow ocean currents which eventually form into what is known as Great Garbage Patches. Knowledge of the routes that plastic follows in ocean currents comes from accidental container drops from ship carriers. For example, in May 1990 The Hansa Carrier, sailing from Korea to the United States, broke apart due to a storm, ultimately resulting in thousands of dumped shoes; these eventually started showing up on the U.S western coast, and Hawaii.
The amount of plastic pollution accumulating in the oceans is estimated at over five trillion pieces floating in the waters. This paper provides an overview of the amount of plastic pollution in the world 's waterways, and why it is there. Researching credible sources on this topic aided in answering the research question: "what would it take to reduce the amount of plastic in the ocean? '' The findings suggest businesses to replace 50 %, or more, of their common plastic products with biodegradable, or compostable, items because of the following: The main type of plastic being used by businesses is petroleum - based plastics. Businesses should switch to compostable items which break down within 90 days and do not leave a toxic residue (EPA, 2018a). The effect of plastic waste in the ocean has a negative impact on animal life, as well as, the coral reefs. The oceans are filled with harmful plastics which are being digested and entangled by sea life on a daily basis (Dissanayake, 2016). Single - use items are contributing to the amount of plastic found in the five ocean gyres. There were over 260,000 tons of plastic debris in the ocean in 2013 (Eriksen et al., 2014). The problem with single - use items is the waste it involves. While it is very convenient to the consumer and provider to have access to disposable items, it poses a significant problem in landfills and waterway volumes. Industrialized countries need to take aggressive action on the types of plastic being used, or evoke a monetary discipline (Dissanayake, 2016). By creating legislative mandates for recycling, ocean life may be able to thrive, and human life may be able to improve from a healthier environment. Using existing resources to convert from petroleum - based plastics to bioplastics. These conclusions identified a potential solution in reducing plastic pollution. With education and awareness, people can begin to clean the rivers and waters, and make them a safe place for sea animals to live.
Estimates for the contribution of land - based plastic vary widely. While one study estimated that a little over 10 % of plastic debris in ocean water comes from land - based sources, responsible for 0.8 million tonnes (790,000 long tons; 880,000 short tons) every year. In 2015, Jambeck et al. calculated that 275 million tonnes (271,000,000 long tons; 303,000,000 short tons) of plastic waste was generated in 192 coastal countries in 2010, with 4.8 to 12.7 million tonnes (12,500,000 long tons; 14,000,000 short tons) entering the ocean - a percentage of only up to 5 %.
In a study published by Science, Jambeck et al (2015) estimated that the 10 largest emitters of oceanic plastic pollution worldwide are, from the most to the least, China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Egypt, Malaysia, Nigeria, and Bangladesh.
A source that has caused concern is landfills. Most waste in the form of plastic in landfills are single - use items such as packaging. Discarding plastics this way leads to accumulation. Although disposing of plastic waste in landfills has less of a gas emission risk than disposal through incineration, the former has space limitations. Another concern is that the liners acting as protective layers between the landfill and environment can break, thus leaking toxins and contaminating the nearby soil and water. Landfills located near oceans often contribute to ocean debris because content is easily swept up and transported to the sea by wind or small waterways like rivers and streams. Marine debris can also result from sewage water that has not been efficiently treated, which is eventually transported to the ocean through rivers. Plastic items that have been improperly discarded can also be carried to oceans through storm waters.
In the Pacific Gyre, specifically 20 ° N - 40 ° N latitude, large bodies with floating marine debris can be found. Models of wind patterns and ocean currents indicate that the plastic waste in the northern Pacific is particularly dense where the Subtropical Convergence Zone (STCZ), 23 ° N - 37 ° N latitude, meets a southwest - northeast line, found north of the Hawaiian archipelago.
In the Pacific, there are two mass buildups: the western garbage patch and the eastern garbage patch, the former off the coast of Japan and the latter between Hawaii and California. The two garbage patches are both part of the great Pacific garbage patch, and are connected through a section of plastic debris off the northern coast of the Hawaiian islands. It is approximated that these garbage patches contain 100 million tons of debris. The waste is not compact, and although most of it is near the surface of the pacific, it can be found up to more than 100 feet deep in the water.
Research published in April 2017 reported "the highest density of plastic rubbish anywhere in the world '' on remote and uninhabited Henderson Island in South Pacific as a result of the South Pacific Gyre. The beaches contain an estimated 37.7 million items of debris together weighing 17.6 tonnes. In a study transect on North Beach, each day 17 to 268 new items washed up on a 10 - metre section. The study noted that purple hermit crabs (Coenobita spinosus) make their homes in plastic containers washed up on beaches.
A 2017 study found that 83 % of tap water samples taken around the world contained plastic pollutants. This was the first study to focus on global drinking water pollution with plastics, and showed that with a contamination rate of 94 %, tap water in the United States was the most polluted, followed by Lebanon and India. European countries such as the United Kingdom, Germany and France had the lowest contamination rate, though still as high as 72 %. This means that people may be ingesting between 3,000 and 4,000 microparticles of plastic from tap water per year. The analysis found particles of more than 2.5 microns in size, which is 2500 times bigger than a nanometer. It is currently unclear if this contamination is affecting human health, but if the water is also found to contain nano - particle pollutants, there could be adverse impacts on human well - being, according to scientists associated with the study.
However, plastic tap water pollution remains under - studied, as are the links of how pollution transfers between humans, air, water, and soil.
Plastic pollution has the potential to poison animals, which can then adversely affect human food supplies. Plastic pollution has been described as being highly detrimental to large marine mammals, described in the book Introduction to Marine Biology as posing the "single greatest threat '' to them. Some marine species, such as sea turtles, have been found to contain large proportions of plastics in their stomach. When this occurs, the animal typically starves, because the plastic blocks the animal 's digestive tract. Sometimes Marine mammals are entangled in plastic products such as nets, which can harm or kill them.
Entanglement in plastic debris has been responsible for the deaths of many marine organisms, such as fish, seals, turtles, and birds. These animals get caught in the debris and end up suffocating or drowning. Because they are unable to untangle themselves, they also die from starvation or from their inability to escape predators. Being entangled also often results in severe lacerations and ulcers. In a 2006 report known as Plastic Debris in the World 's Oceans, it was estimated that at least 267 different animal species have suffered from entanglement and ingestion of plastic debris. It has been estimated that over 400,000 marine mammals perish annually due to plastic pollution in oceans. Marine organisms get caught in discarded fishing equipment, such as ghost nets. Ropes and nets used to fish are often made of synthetic materials such as nylon, making fishing equipment more durable and buoyant. These organisms can also get caught in circular plastic packaging materials, and if the animal continues to grow in size, the plastic can cut into their flesh. Equipment such as nets can also drag along the seabed, causing damage to coral reefs.
Sea turtles are affected by plastic pollution. Some species are consumers of jelly fish, but often mistake plastic bags for their natural prey. This plastic debris can kill the sea turtle by obstructing the oesophagus. So too are whales; large amounts of plastics have been found in the stomachs of beached whales In June 2018, more than 80 plastic bags were found inside a dying pilot whale that washed up on the shores of Thailand.
Some of the tiniest bits of plastic are being consumed by small fish, in a part of the pelagic zone in the ocean called the Mesopelagic zone, which is 200 to 1000 metres below the ocean surface, and completely dark. Not much is known about these fish, other than that there are many of them. They hide in the darkness of the ocean, avoiding predators and then swimming to the ocean 's surface at night to feed. Plastics found in the stomachs of these fish were collected during Malaspina 's circumnavigation, a research project that studies the impact of global change on the oceans.
A study conducted by Scripps Institution of Oceanography showed that the average plastic content in the stomachs of 141 mesopelagic fish over 27 different species was 9.2 %. Their estimate for the ingestion rate of plastic debris by these fish in the North Pacific was between 12000 and 24000 tons per year. The most popular mesopelagic fish is the lantern fish. It resides in the central ocean gyres, a large system of rotating ocean currents. Since lantern fish serve as a primary food source for the fish that consumers purchase, including tuna and swordfish, the plastics they ingest become part of the food chain. The lantern fish is one of the main bait fish in the ocean, and it eats large amounts of plastic fragments, which in turn will not make them nutritious enough for other fish to consume.
Deep sea animals have been found with plastics in their stomachs.
Plastic pollution does not only affect animals that live solely in oceans. Seabirds are also greatly affected. In 2004, it was estimated that gulls in the North Sea had an average of thirty pieces of plastic in their stomachs. Seabirds often mistake trash floating on the ocean 's surface as prey. Their food sources often has already ingested plastic debris, thus transferring the plastic from prey to predator. Ingested trash can obstruct and physically damage a bird 's digestive system, reducing its digestive ability and can lead to malnutrition, starvation, and death. Toxic chemicals called polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) also become concentrated on the surface of plastics at sea and are released after seabirds eat them. These chemicals can accumulate in body tissues and have serious lethal effects on a bird 's reproductive ability, immune system, and hormone balance. Floating plastic debris can produce ulcers, infections and lead to death. Marine plastic pollution can even reach birds that have never been at the sea. Parents may accidentally feed their nestlings plastic, mistaking it for food. Seabird chicks are the most vulnerable to plastic ingestion since they ca n't vomit up their food like the adult seabirds.
After the initial observation that many of the beaches in New Zealand had high concentrations of plastic pellets, further studies found that different species of prion ingest the plastic debris. Hungry prions mistook these pellets for food, and these particles were found intact within the birds ' gizzards and proventriculi. Pecking marks similar to those made by northern fulmars in cuttlebones have been found in plastic debris, such as styrofoam, on the beaches on the Dutch coast, showing that this species of bird also mistake plastic debris for food.
An estimate of 1.5 million Laysan albatrosses, which inhabit Midway Atoll, all have plastics in their digestive system. Midway Atoll is halfway between Asia and North America, and north of the Hawaiian archipelago. In this remote location, the plastic blockage has proven deadly to these birds. These seabirds choose red, pink, brown, and blue plastic pieces because of similarities to their natural food sources. As a result of plastic ingestion, the digestive tract can be blocked resulting in starvation. The windpipe can also be blocked, which results in suffocation. The debris can also accumulate in the animal 's gut, and give them a false sense of fullness which would also result in starvation. On the shore, thousands of birds corpses can be seen with plastic remaining where the stomach once was. The durability of the plastics is visible among the remains. In some instances, the plastic piles are still present while the bird 's corpse has decayed.
Similar to humans, animals exposed to plasticizers can experience developmental defects. Specifically, sheep have been found to have lower birth weights when prenatally exposed to bisphenol A. Exposure to BPA can shorten the distance between the eyes of a tadpole. It can also stall development in frogs and can result in a decrease in body length. In different species of fish, exposure can stall egg hatching and result in a decrease in body weight, tail length, and body length.
Due to the use of chemical additives during plastic production, plastics have potentially harmful effects that could prove to be carcinogenic or promote endocrine disruption. Some of the additives are used as phthalate plasticizers and brominated flame retardants. Through biomonitoring, chemicals in plastics, such as BPA and phthalates, have been identified in the human population. Humans can be exposed to these chemicals through the nose, mouth, or skin. Although the level of exposure varies depending on age and geography, most humans experience simultaneous exposure to many of these chemicals. Average levels of daily exposure are below the levels deemed to be unsafe, but more research needs to be done on the effects of low dose exposure on humans. A lot is unknown on how severely humans are physically affected by these chemicals. Some of the chemicals used in plastic production can cause dermatitis upon contact with human skin. In many plastics, these toxic chemicals are only used in trace amounts, but significant testing is often required to ensure that the toxic elements are contained within the plastic by inert material or polymer.
It can also affect humans in which it may create an eyesore that interferes with enjoyment of the natural environment.
Due to the pervasiveness of plastic products, most of the human population is constantly exposed to the chemical components of plastics. 95 % of adults in the United States have had detectable levels of BPA in their urine. Exposure to chemicals such as BPA have been correlated with disruptions in fertility, reproduction, sexual maturation, and other health effects. Specific phthalates have also resulted in similar biological effects.
Bisphenol A affects gene expression related to the thyroid hormone axis, which affects biological functions such as metabolism and development. BPA can decrease thyroid hormone receptor (TR) activity by increasing TR transcriptional corepressor activity. This then decreases the level of thyroid hormone binding proteins that bind to triiodothyronine. By affecting the thyroid hormone axis, BPA expoure can lead to hypothyroidism.
BPA can disrupt normal, physiological levels of sex hormones. It does this by binding to globulins that normally bind to sex hormones such as androgens and estrogens, leading to the disruption of the balance between the two. BPA can also affect the metabolism or the catabolism of sex hormones. It often acts as an antiandrogen or as an estrogen, which can cause disruptions in gonadal development and sperm production.
Efforts to reduce the use of plastics and to promote plastic recycling have occurred. Some supermarkets charge their customers for plastic bags, and in some places more efficient reusable or biodegradable materials are being used in place of plastics. Some communities and businesses have put a ban on some commonly used plastic items, such as bottled water and plastic bags.
The use of biodegradable plastics has many advantages and disadvantages. Biodegradables are biopolymers that degrade in industrial composters. Biodegradables do not degrade as efficiently in domestic composters, and during this slower process, methane gas may be emitted.
There are also other types of degradable materials that are not considered to be biopolymers, because they are oil - based, similar to other conventional plastics. These plastics are made to be more degradable through the use of different additives, which help them degrade when exposed to UV rays or other physical stressors. yet, biodegradation - promoting additives for polymers have been shown not to significantly increase biodegradation.
Although biodegradable and degradable plastics have helped reduce plastic pollution, there are some drawbacks. One issue concerning both types of plastics is that they do not break down very efficiently in natural environments. There, degradable plastics that are oil - based may break down into smaller fractions, at which point they do not degrade further.
Up to 60 % of used plastic medical equipment is incinerated rather than deposited in a landfill as a precautionary measure to lessen the transmission of disease. This has allowed for a large decrease in the amount of plastic waste that stems from medical equipment. If plastic waste is not incinerated and disposed of properly, a harmful amount of toxins can be released and dispersed as a gas through air or as ash through air and waterways. Many studies have been done concerning the gaseous emissions that result from the incineration process.
Agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency and the Food and Drug Administration often do not assess the safety of new chemicals until after a negative side effect is shown. Once they suspect a chemical may be toxic, it is studied to determine the human reference dose, which is determined to be the lowest observable adverse effect level. During these studies, a high dose is tested to see if it causes any adverse health effects, and if it does not, lower doses are considered to be safe as well. This does not take into account the fact that with some chemicals found in plastics, such as BPA; lower doses can have a discernible effect. Even with this often complex evaluation process, policies have been put into place in order to help alleviate plastic pollution and its effects. Government regulations have been implemented that ban some chemicals from being used in specific plastic products.
In Canada, the United States, and the European Union, BPA has been banned from being incorporated in the production of baby bottles and children 's cups, due to health concerns and the higher vulnerability of younger children to the effects of BPA. Taxes have been established in order to discourage specific ways of managing plastic waste. The landfill tax, for example, creates an incentive to choose to recycle plastics rather than contain them in landfills, by making the latter more expensive. There has also been a standardization of the types of plastics that can be considered compostable. The European Norm EN 13432, which was set by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN), lists the standards that plastics must meet, in terms of compostability and biodegradability, in order to officially be labeled as compostable.
The Canadian federal government formed a current institution that protects marine areas; this includes the mitigation of plastic pollution. In 1997, Canada adopted legislation for oceans management and passed the Oceans Act. Federal governance, Regional Governance, and Aboriginal Peoples are the actors involved in the process of decision - making and implementation of the decision. The Regional Governance bodies are federal, provincial, and territorial government agencies that hold responsibilities of the marine environment. Aboriginal Peoples in Canada have treaty and non-treaty rights related to ocean activities. According to the Canadian government, they respect these rights and work with Aboriginal groups in oceans management activities.
With the Oceans Act made legal, Canada made a commitment to conserve and protect the oceans. The Ocean Acts ' underlying principle is sustainable development, precautionary and integrated management approach to ensure that there is a comprehensive understanding in protecting marine areas. In the integrated management approach, the Oceans Act designates federal responsibility to the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans Canada for any new and emerging ocean - related activities. The Act encourages collaboration and coordination within the government that unifies interested parties. Moreover, the Oceans Act engages any Canadians who are interested in being informed of the decision - making regarding ocean environment.
In 2005, federal organizations developed the Federal Marine Protected Areas Strategy. This strategy is a collaborative approach implemented by Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Parks Canada, and Environment Canada to plan and manage federal marine protected areas. The federal marine protected areas work with Aboriginal groups, industries, academia, environmental groups, and NGOs to strengthen marine protected areas. The federal marine protected areas network consists of three core programs: Marine Protected Areas, Marine Wildlife Areas, and National Marine Conservation Areas. The MPA is a program to be noted because it is significant in protecting ecosystems from the effects of industrial activities. The MPA guiding principles are Integrated Management, ecosystem - based management approach, Adaptive Management Approach, Precautionary Principle, and Flexible Management Approach. All five guiding principles are used collectively and simultaneously to collaborate and respect legislative mandates of individual departments, to use scientific knowledge and traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) to manage human activities, to monitor and report on programs to meet conservation objectives of MPAs, to use best available information in the absence of scientific certainty, and to maintain a balance between conservation needs and sustainable development objectives.
The two common forms of waste collection include curbside collection and the use of drop - off recycling centers. About 87 percent of the population in the United States (273 million people) have access to curbside and drop - off recycling centers. In curbside collection, which is available to about 63 percent of the United States population (193 million people), people place designated plastics in a special bin to be picked up by a public or private hauling company. Most curbside programs collect more than one type of plastic resin; usually both PETE and HDPE. At drop - off recycling centers, which are available to 68 percent of the United States population (213 million people), people take their recyclables to a centrally located facility. Once collected, the plastics are delivered to a materials recovery facility (MRF) or handler for sorting into single - resin streams to increase product value. The sorted plastics are then baled to reduce shipping costs to reclaimers.
There are varying rates of recycling per type of plastic, and in 2011, the overall plastic recycling rate was approximately 8 % in the United States. Approximately 2.7 million tons of plastics were recycled in the U.S. in 2011. Some plastics are recycled more than others; in 2011 "29 percent of HDPE bottles and 29 percent of PET bottles and jars were recycled. ''
The Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of India, has requested various governmental departments to avoid the use of plastic bottles to provide drinking water during governmental meetings, etc., and to instead make arrangements for providing drinking water that do not generate plastic waste. The state of Sikkim has restricted the usage of plastic water bottles (in government functions and meetings) and styrofoam products. The state of Bihar has banned the usage of plastic water bottles in governmental meetings.
The 2015 National Games of India, organised in Thiruvananthapuram, was associated with green protocols. This was initiated by Suchitwa Mission that aimed for "zero - waste '' venues. To make the event "disposable - free '', there was ban on the usage of disposable water bottles. The event witnessed the usage of reusable tableware and stainless steel tumblers. Athletes were provided with refillable steel flasks. It is estimated that these green practices stopped the generation of 120 metric tonnes of disposable waste.
In July 2018, Albania became the first country in Europe to ban lightweight plastic bags. Albania 's environment minister Blendi Klosi said that businesses importing, producing or trading plastic bags less than 35 microns in thickness risk facing fines between 1 million to 1.5 million lek (€ 7,900 to € 11,800).
On 11 April 2013 in order to create awareness, artist Maria Cristina Finucci founded The Garbage Patch State at UNESCO -- Paris in front of Director General Irina Bokova. First of a series of events under the patronage of UNESCO and of Italian Ministry of the Environment. International organisations have also been raising awareness of plastic pollution.
Every year, June 5 is observed as World Environment Day to raise awareness and increase government action on the pressing issue. In 2018, India is the host to this year 's World Environment Day and the theme is ' Beat Plastic Pollution ' with focus on single - use or disposable plastic. The Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change of India invited people to take care of their Green Social Responsibility and urged them to take up Green Good Deeds in everyday life.
|
where does haemopoiesis take place after day 18 | Haematopoiesis - wikipedia
Haematopoiesis (from Greek αἷμα, "blood '' and ποιεῖν "to make ''; also hematopoiesis in American English; sometimes also haemopoiesis or hemopoiesis) is the formation of blood cellular components. All cellular blood components are derived from haematopoietic stem cells. In a healthy adult person, approximately 10 -- 10 new blood cells are produced daily in order to maintain steady state levels in the peripheral circulation.
Haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) reside in the medulla of the bone (bone marrow) and have the unique ability to give rise to all of the different mature blood cell types and tissues. HSCs are self - renewing cells: when they differentiate, at least some of their daughter cells remain as HSCs, so the pool of stem cells is not depleted. This phenomenon is called asymmetric division. The other daughters of HSCs (myeloid and lymphoid progenitor cells) can follow any of the other differentiation pathways that lead to the production of one or more specific types of blood cell, but can not renew themselves. The pool of progenitors is heterogeneous and can be divided into two groups; long - term self - renewing HSC and only transiently self - renewing HSC, also called short - terms. This is one of the main vital processes in the body.
All blood cells are divided into three lineages.
Granulopoiesis (or granulocytopoiesis) is haematopoiesis of granulocytes, except of mast cells which are granulocytes but with an extramedullar maturation.
Megakaryocytopoiesis is haematopoiesis of megakaryocytes.
In developing embryos, blood formation occurs in aggregates of blood cells in the yolk sac, called blood islands. As development progresses, blood formation occurs in the spleen, liver and lymph nodes. When bone marrow develops, it eventually assumes the task of forming most of the blood cells for the entire organism. However, maturation, activation, and some proliferation of lymphoid cells occurs in the spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes. In children, haematopoiesis occurs in the marrow of the long bones such as the femur and tibia. In adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and sternum.
In some cases, the liver, thymus, and spleen may resume their haematopoietic function, if necessary. This is called extramedullary haematopoiesis. It may cause these organs to increase in size substantially. During fetal development, since bones and thus the bone marrow develop later, the liver functions as the main haematopoetic organ. Therefore, the liver is enlarged during development.
In some vertebrates, haematopoiesis can occur wherever there is a loose stroma of connective tissue and slow blood supply, such as the gut, spleen or kidney.
As a stem cell matures it undergoes changes in gene expression that limit the cell types that it can become and moves it closer to a specific cell type (cellular differentiation). These changes can often be tracked by monitoring the presence of proteins on the surface of the cell. Each successive change moves the cell closer to the final cell type and further limits its potential to become a different cell type.
Two models for hematopoiesis have been proposed: determinism and stochastic theory. For the stem cells and other undifferentiated blood cells in the bone marrow, the determination is generally explained by the determinism theory of haematopoiesis, saying that colony stimulating factors and other factors of the haematopoietic microenvironment determine the cells to follow a certain path of cell differentiation. This is the classical way of describing haematopoiesis. In stochastic theory, undifferentiated blood cells differentiate to specific cell types by randomness. This theory has been supported by experiments showing that within a population of mouse haematopoietic progenitor cells, underlying stochastic variability in the distribution of Sca - 1, a stem cell factor, subdivides the population into groups exhibiting variable rates of cellular differentiation. For example, under the influence of erythropoietin (an erythrocyte - differentiation factor), a subpopulation of cells (as defined by the levels of Sca - 1) differentiated into erythrocytes at a sevenfold higher rate than the rest of the population. Furthermore, it was shown that if allowed to grow, this subpopulation re-established the original subpopulation of cells, supporting the theory that this is a stochastic, reversible process. Another level at which stochasticity may be important is in the process of apoptosis and self - renewal. In this case, the haematopoietic microenvironment prevails upon some of the cells to survive and some, on the other hand, to perform apoptosis and die. By regulating this balance between different cell types, the bone marrow can alter the quantity of different cells to ultimately be produced.
Red and white blood cell production is regulated with great precision in healthy humans, and the production of leukocytes is rapidly increased during infection. The proliferation and self - renewal of these cells depend on growth factors. One of the key players in self - renewal and development of haematopoietic cells is stem cell factor (SCF), which binds to the c - kit receptor on the HSC. Absence of SCF is lethal. There are other important glycoprotein growth factors which regulate the proliferation and maturation, such as interleukins IL - 2, IL - 3, IL - 6, IL - 7. Other factors, termed colony - stimulating factors (CSFs), specifically stimulate the production of committed cells. Three CSFs are granulocyte - macrophage CSF (GM - CSF), granulocyte CSF (G - CSF) and macrophage CSF (M - CSF). These stimulate granulocyte formation and are active on either progenitor cells or end product cells.
Erythropoietin is required for a myeloid progenitor cell to become an erythrocyte. On the other hand, thrombopoietin makes myeloid progenitor cells differentiate to megakaryocytes (thrombocyte - forming cells). The diagram to the right provides examples of cytokines and the differentiated blood cells they give rise to.
Growth factors initiate signal transduction pathways, which lead to activation of transcription factors. Growth factors elicit different outcomes depending on the combination of factors and the cell 's stage of differentiation. For example, long - term expression of PU. 1 results in myeloid commitment, and short - term induction of PU. 1 activity leads to the formation of immature eosinophils. Recently, it was reported that transcription factors such as NF - κB can be regulated by microRNAs (e.g., miR - 125b) in haematopoiesis.
The first key player of differentiation from HSC to a multipotent progenitor (MPP) is transcription factor CCAAT - enhancer binding protein α (C / EBP α). Mutations in C / EBPα are associated with acute myeloid leukaemia. From this point, cells can either differentiate along the Erythroid - megakaryocyte lineage or lymphoid and myeloid lineage, which have common progenitor, called lymphoid - primed multipotent progenitor. There are two main transcription factors. PU. 1 for Erythroid - megakaryocyte lineage and GATA - 1, which leads to a lymphoid - primed multipotent progenitor.
Other transcription factors include Ikaros (B cell development), and Gfi1 (promotes Th2 development and inhibits Th1) or IRF8 (basophils and mast cells). Significantly, certain factors elicit different responses at different stages in the haematopoiesis. For example, CEBPα in neutrophil development or PU. 1 in monocytes and dendritic cell development. It is important to note that processes are not unidirectional: differentiated cells may regain attributes of progenitor cells.
An example is PAX5 factor, which is important in B cell development and associated with lymphomas. Surprisingly, pax5 conditional knock out mice allowed peripheral mature B cells to de-differentiate to early bone marrow progenitors. These findings show that transcription factors act as caretakers of differentiation level and not only as initiators.
Mutations in transcription factors are tightly connected to blood cancers, as acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) or acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). For example, Ikaros is known to be regulator of numerous biological events. Mice with no Ikaros lack B cells, Natural killer and T cells. Ikaros has six zinc fingers domains, four are conserved DNA - binding domain and two are for dimerization. Very important finding is, that different zinc fingers are involved in binding to different place in DNA and this is the reason for pleiotropic effect of Ikaros and different involvement in cancer, but mainly are mutations associated with BCR - Abl patients and it is bad prognostic marker.
For a decade now, the evidence is growing that HSC maturation follows a myeloid - based model instead of the ' classical ' schoolbook dichotomy model. In the latter model, the HSC first generates a common myeloid - erythroid progenitor (CMEP) and a common lymphoid progenitor (CLP). The CLP produces only T or B cells. The myeloid - based model postulates that HSCs first diverge into the CMEP and a common myelo - lymphoid progenitor (CMLP), which generates T and B cell progenitors through a bipotential myeloid - T progenitor and a myeloid - B progenitor stage. The main difference is that in this new model, all erythroid, T and B lineage branches retain the potential to generate myeloid cells (even after the segregation of T and B cell lineages). The model proposes the idea of erythroid, T and B cells as specialized types of a prototypic myeloid HSC.
|
what percentage of us gdp is government spending | Government spending - wikipedia
Government spending or expenditure includes all government consumption, investment, and transfer payments. In national income accounting the acquisition by governments of goods and services for current use, to directly satisfy the individual or collective needs of the community, is classed as government final consumption expenditure. Government acquisition of goods and services intended to create future benefits, such as infrastructure investment or research spending, is classed as government investment (government gross capital formation). These two types of government spending, on final consumption and on gross capital formation, together constitute one of the major components of gross domestic product.
Government spending can be financed by government borrowing, or taxes. Changes in government spending is a major component of fiscal policy used to stabilize the macroeconomic business cycle.
Government spending can be a useful economic policy tool for governments. Fiscal policy can be defined as the use of government spending and / or taxation as a mechanism to influence an economy. There are two types of fiscal policy: expansionary fiscal policy, and contractionary fiscal policy. Expansionary fiscal policy is an increase in government spending or a decrease in taxation, while contractionary fiscal policy is a decrease in government spending or an increase in taxes. Expansionary fiscal policy can be used by governments to stimulate the economy during a recession. For example, an increase in government spending directly increases demand for goods and services, which can help increase output and employment. On the other hand, contractionary fiscal policy can be used by governments to cool down the economy during an economic boom. A decrease in government spending can help keep inflation in check. During economic downturns, in the short run, government spending can be changed either via automatic stabilization or discretionary stabilization. Automatic stabilization is when existing policies automatically change government spending or taxes in response to economic changes, without the additional passage of laws. A primary example of an automatic stabilizer is unemployment insurance, which provides financial assistance to unemployed workers. Discretionary stabilization is when a government takes actions to change government spending or taxes in direct response to changes in the economy. For instance, a government may decide to increase government spending as a result of a recession. With discretionary stabilization, the government must pass a new law to make changes in government spending.
John Maynard Keynes was one of the first economists to advocate for government deficit spending as part of the fiscal policy response to an economic contraction. According to Keynesian economics, increased government spending raises aggregate demand and increases consumption, which leads to increased production and faster recovery from recessions. Classical economists, on the other hand, believe that increased government spending exacerbates an economic contraction by shifting resources from the private sector, which they consider productive, to the public sector, which they consider unproductive.
In economics, the potential "shifting '' in resources from the private sector to the public sector as a result of an increase in government deficit spending is called Crowding Out. The figure to the right depicts the Market for Capital, otherwise known as the Market for Loanable Funds. The downward sloping demand curve D1 represents demand for private capital by firms and investors, and the upward sloping supply curve S1 represents savings by private individuals. The initial equilibrium in this market is represented by point A, where the equilibrium quantity of capital is K1 and the equilibrium interest rate is R1. If the government increases deficit spending, it will borrow money from the private capital market and reduce the supply of savings to S2. The new equilibrium is at point B, where the interest rate has increased to R2 and the quantity of capital available to the private sector has decreased to K1. The government has essentially made borrowing more expensive and has taken away savings from the market, which "crowds out '' some private investment. The crowding out of private investment could limit the economic growth from the initial increase government spending.
Government acquisition of goods and services for current use to directly satisfy individual or collective needs of the members of the community is called government final consumption expenditure (GFCE.) It is a purchase from the national accounts "use of income account '' for goods and services directly satisfying of individual needs (individual consumption) or collective needs of members of the community (collective consumption). GFCE consists of the value of the goods and services produced by the government itself other than own - account capital formation and sales and of purchases by the government of goods and services produced by market producers that are supplied to households -- without any transformation -- as "social transfers '' in kind.
The United States spends vastly more than other countries on national defense. The table below shows the top 10 countries with largest military expenditures as of 2015, the most recent year with publicly available data. As the table suggests, the United States spent nearly 3 times as much on the military than China, the country with the next largest military spending. The U.S. military budget dwarfed spending by all other countries in the top 10, with 8 out of countries spending less than $100 billion in 2016.
Research Australia found 91 % of Australians think ' improving hospitals and the health system ' should be the Australian Government 's first spending priority.
Crowding ' in ' also happens in university life science research Subsidies, funding and government business or projects like this are often justified on the basis of their positive return on investment. Life science crowding in contrasts with crowding out in public funding of research more widely: "10 % increase in government R&D funding reduced private R&D expenditure by 3 %... In Australia the average cost of public funds is estimated to be $1.20 and $1.30 for each dollar raised (Robson, 2005). The marginal cost is probably higher, but estimates differ widely depending on the tax that is increased. ''
Government acquisition intended to create future benefits, such as infrastructure investment or research spending, is called gross fixed capital formation, or government investment, which usually is the largest part of the government. Acquisition of goods and services is made through production by the government (using the government 's labour force, fixed assets and purchased goods and services for intermediate consumption) or through purchases of goods and services from market producers. In economic theory or in macroeconomics, investment is the amount purchased per unit of time of goods which are not consumed but are to be used for future production (i.e. capital). Examples include railroad or factory construction.
Infrastructure spending is considered government investment because it will usually save money in the long run, and thereby reduce the net present value of government liabilities.
Spending on physical infrastructure in the U.S. returns an average of about $1.92 for each $1.00 spent on nonresidential construction because it is almost always less expensive to maintain than repair or replace once it has become unusable.
Likewise, government spending on social infrastructure, such as preventative health care, can save several hundreds of billions of dollars per year in the U.S., because for example cancer patients are more likely to be diagnosed at Stage I where curative treatment is typically a few outpatient visits, instead of at Stage III or later in an emergency room where treatment can involve years of hospitalization and is often terminal.
Government expenditures that are not acquisition of goods and services, and which represent transfers of money such as social security payments, are called transfer payments. These payments are considered to be non-exhaustive because they do not directly absorb resources or create output. In other words, transfers are made without an exchange of goods or services. Examples of certain transfer payments include welfare (financial aid), social security, and government giving subsidies to certain businesses (firms).
In 2010 national governments spent an average of $2,376 per person, while the average for the world 's 20 largest economies (in terms of GDP) was $16,110 per person. Norway and Sweden expended the most at $40,908 and $26,760 per capita respectively. The federal government of the United States spent $11,041 per person. Other large economy country spending figures include South Korea ($4,557), Brazil ($2,813), Russia ($2,458), China ($1,010), and India ($226). The figures below of 42 % of GDP spending and a GDP per capita of $54,629 for the U.S. indicate a total per person spending including national, state, and local governments was $22,726 in the U.S.
This is a list of countries by government spending as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) for the listed countries, according to the 2014 Index of Economic Freedom by The Heritage Foundation and The Wall Street Journal. Tax revenue is included for comparison.
Public social spending comprises cash benefits, direct in - kind provision of goods and services, and tax breaks with social purposes provided by general government (that is central, state, and local governments, including social security funds).
|
how many u.s. states currently have right-to-carry laws | Concealed carry in the United states - wikipedia
Concealed carry or carrying a concealed weapon (CCW), is the practice of carrying a weapon (such as a handgun) in public in a concealed manner, either on one 's person or in close proximity. Not all weapons that fall under CCW laws are lethal. For example, in Florida, carrying pepper spray in more than a specified volume (2 oz.) of chemical requires a CCW permit, whereas anyone may legally carry a smaller, "self - defense chemical spray '' device hidden on their person without a CCW permit. As of 2017 there have been 16.3 million concealed weapon permits issued in the United States.
There is no federal statutory law concerning the issuance of concealed - carry permits. All fifty states have passed laws allowing qualified individuals to carry certain concealed firearms in public, either without a permit or after obtaining a permit from a designated government authority at the state and / or local level.
The number of permit revocations is typically small. The grounds for revocation in most states, other than expiration of a time - limited permit without renewal, is typically the commission of a gross misdemeanor or felony by the permit holder. While these crimes are often firearm - related (including unlawful carry), a study of eight years of Texas data found that concealed handgun licensees were much less likely to be convicted of crimes than were nonlicensees. The same study found that licensees ' convictions were more likely to be for less common crimes, "such as sexual offenses, gun offenses, or offenses involving a death. '' This is also in line with a much cited research study published in 1997 researching county level data from 1977 to 1992 concluding that allowing citizens to carry concealed weapons deters violent crimes and it appears to produce no increase in accidental deaths. However, 2004 National Academies National Research Council 's report examining that study found the results sensitive to the specification and time period examined, and concluded no evidence that passage of right - to - carry laws reduces crime, further a 2014 Stanford University study reported that these laws were associated with an 8 % increase of aggravated assaults, and a 2017 NBER working paper found that the laws caused a 13 -- 15 % increase in violent crime, though the murder and property crime rates were unaffected. The results were disputed by crime researcher John Lott.
Concealed weapons bans were passed in Kentucky and Louisiana in 1813. (In those days open carry of weapons for self - defense was considered acceptable; concealed carry was denounced as the practice of criminals.) By 1859, Indiana, Tennessee, Virginia, Alabama, and Ohio had followed suit. By the end of the nineteenth century, similar laws were passed in places such as Texas, Florida, and Oklahoma, which protected some gun rights in their state constitutions. Before the mid 1900s, most U.S. states had passed concealed carry laws rather than banning weapons completely. Until the late 1990s, many Southern states were either "No - Issue '' or "Restrictive May - Issue ''. Since then, these states have largely enacted "Shall - Issue '' licensing laws, with numerous states legalizing "Unrestricted concealed carry ''.
Regulations differ widely by state, with most states currently maintaining a "Shall - Issue '' policy. As recently as the mid - ' 90s most states were no - issue or may - issue, but over the past 30 years states have consistently migrated to less restrictive alternatives.
There is currently a circuit split between several federal circuit courts regarding the standards for issuance of permits and the right to carry weapons outside the home. The 9th and 3rd circuits have ruled in favor of may - issue permitting policies, while the 7th and D.C. circuits have ruled that states are required to implement shall - issue policies, because the right to carry weapons extends outside the home.
The Federal Gun Free School Zones Act limits where an unlicensed person may carry; carry of a weapon, openly or concealed, within 1,000 feet (300 m) of a school zone is prohibited, with exceptions granted in the Federal law to holders of valid State - issued weapons permits (State laws may reassert the illegality of school zone carry by license holders), and under LEOSA to current and honorably retired law enforcement officers (regardless of permit, usually trumping State law).
When in contact with an officer, some states require you to inform that officer that you are carrying a handgun. For detailed information on individual states ' permitting policies, see Gun laws in the United States by state.
Resident permits only
Resident permits only
Resident permits only
Resident permits only
Resident permits only
Mix of resident / non-resident permits recognized
Resident permits only
State regulations relating to the issuance of concealed carry permits generally fall into four categories described as Unrestricted, Shall Issue, May Issue, and No Issue.
An unrestricted jurisdiction is one in which a permit is not required to carry a concealed handgun. This is sometimes called constitutional carry. Within the unrestricted category, there exists states that are fully unrestricted, where no permit is required for lawful open or concealed carry, and partially unrestricted, where certain forms of concealed carry may be legal without a permit, while other forms of carry may require a permit.
Among U.S. states, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Idaho (residents only), Kansas, Maine, Mississippi, Missouri, New Hampshire, North Dakota (residents only; concealed carry only), Vermont, West Virginia and Wyoming (residents only) are fully unrestricted, and allow those who are not prohibited from owning a firearm to carry a concealed firearm in any place not deemed off - limits by law without a permit. Idaho, North Dakota and Wyoming only extend permitless carry to residents of the state; non-residents must still have a permit issued by their home state to legally carry concealed in these states. Permitless concealed carry in Mississippi only covers certain manners of carrying; see table above. These states also allow the open carry of a handgun without a permit with the exception of North Dakota and certain localities in Missouri.
Vermont does not have any provision for issue of concealed - carry licenses, as none has ever been necessary. As such, Vermont residents wishing to carry handguns in other states must acquire a license from a state which is valid in their destination. A popular choice is Florida 's concealed handgun permit, which is valid for nonresident holders in 28 other states. All other constitutional carry states previously had concealed - carry license requirements prior to adoption of unrestricted carry laws, and continue to issue licenses on a shall - issue basis for the purposes of inter-state reciprocity (allowing residents of the state to travel to other states with a concealed weapon, abiding by that state 's law).
The states of Montana, New Mexico, and Oklahoma are partially unrestricted states. Specifically, Montana currently allows concealed carry without a permit in places outside of any incorporated municipality. New Mexico laws allow an individual to conceal carry an unloaded handgun without a permit. New Mexico further allows one to carry a loaded handgun either openly or concealed while traveling in a vehicle, including motorcycles, recreational vehicles (RVs), bicycles or while riding a horse. Oklahoma allows residents of permitless carry states to carry openly or concealed without a permit, provided such individuals have a valid ID from their home state. All of the aforementioned states grant permits on a shall - issue basis for modes of concealed carry that require a permit.
On July 24, 2014, Washington D.C. became a constitutional carry jurisdiction for a brief moment when its ban on carrying a handgun was ruled unconstitutional and the ruling was not stayed. The ruling said that any resident who had a legally registered handgun could carry it without a permit and non-residents without felony convictions could carry as well. The ruling was then stayed on July 29, 2014.
A shall - issue jurisdiction is one that requires a license to carry a concealed handgun, but where the granting of such licenses is subject only to meeting determinate criteria laid out in the law; the granting authority has no discretion in the awarding of the licenses, and there is no requirement of the applicant to demonstrate "good cause ''. The laws in a Shall - Issue jurisdiction typically state that a granting authority shall issue a license if the criteria are met, as opposed to laws in which the authority may issue a license at their discretion.
Typical license requirements include residency, minimum age, submitting fingerprints, passing a computerized instant background check (or a more comprehensive manual background check), attending a certified handgun / firearm safety class, passing a practical qualification demonstrating handgun proficiency, and paying a required fee. These requirements vary widely by jurisdiction, with some having few or none of these and others having most or all.
The following are shall - issue states: Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island (for permits issued by local authorities), South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. The territory of Guam is also Shall - Issue with the passage of Bill 296.
Certain states and jurisdictions, while "may - issue '' by law, direct their issuing authorities to issue licenses to all or nearly all qualified applicants, and as such they are considered "shall - issue '' in practice. Connecticut, and certain cities and counties in California, Massachusetts, and New York are examples.
Connecticut law specifies that CCW licenses be granted on a may - issue basis, but the state 's courts have established that issuing authorities must grant CCW licenses on a shall - issue basis for applicants who meet all statutory qualifications, as unlike other may - issue states Connecticut law does not contain a requirement for the applicant to show "necessary and proper reason '' for obtaining a license.
States with pure shall - issue licensing laws require the issuing authority to issue permits to any applicant who has submitted a properly - completed application, passed a background check, completed any required training, and met any other criteria specified by law. The issuing authority has no discretion to deny permits based on factors beyond the qualification criteria specified by law.
Shall - issue with limited discretion is a subset of shall - issue licensing that borders between pure shall - issue and may - issue policy, where an issuing authority has a limited degree of discretion to deny applicants a concealed carry permit based either on the applicant 's suitability or reason for requesting a permit, even after the applicant has completed any required training and passed a background check. In states with such licensing practices, the issuing authority would be required to demonstrate with substantiating evidence, that the applicant is either not suitable or lacks appropriate need for the permit. Most denials in such states are typically reversed upon appeal provided the applicant has passed a background check and fulfilled any training requirements for the permit. States with shall - issue laws that allow a limited degree of discretion include Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, New Hampshire, Oregon, and Pennsylvania. Although may - issue by statute, Connecticut also falls into this subset, in practice.
Some shall - issue jurisdictions allow for automatic renewal of concealed carry permits, as long as the permit - holder files the renewal application before the permit expires (or in some states, a short grace period following expiration of the original permit). Other jurisdictions require a permit - holder to complete refresher training in firearms safety and undergo a criminal background check before applying for renewal. Some jurisdictions periodically run permit holders ' IDs through the NICS background check system. Other jurisdictions require a judge to suspend a permit if the holder is arrested for certain offenses (return / revocation of the permit depending on later disposition of the case).
A may - issue jurisdiction is one that requires a permit to carry a concealed handgun, and where the granting of such permits is partially at the discretion of local authorities (frequently the sheriff 's department or police), with a few states consolidating this discretionary power under state - level law enforcement. Moreover, issuing authorities in most may - issue jurisdictions are not required to provide a substantive reason for the denial of a concealed carry permit. Some may - issue jurisdictions may provide administrative and legal avenues for an applicant to appeal a permit denial, while others do not.
The law typically states that a granting authority "may issue '' a permit if various criteria are met, or that the permit applicant must have "good cause '' (or similar) to carry a concealed weapon. In most such situations, self - defense in and of itself often does not satisfy the "good cause '' requirement, and issuing authorities in some may - issue jurisdictions have been known to arbitrarily deny applications for CCW permits without providing the applicant with any substantive reason for the denial. Some may - issue jurisdictions require a permit - holder to provide justification for continued need for a concealed carry permit upon renewal, and may deny the renewal of an expiring permit without sufficient showing of "good cause. '' Some of these jurisdictions may revoke a permit after it has been issued when the issuing authority in its discretion has determined that the "good cause '' used in approving the permit application no longer exists. Other may - issue jurisdictions allow for automatic renewal of the permit, as long as the permit - holder completes any required firearms safety training and files the renewal application before the permit expires. Some may - issue jurisdictions give issuing authorities discretion in granting concealed carry permits based on an applicant 's suitability (e.g., moral character) by requiring the applicant to submit evidence (resume / curriculum vitae, letters of reference, credit history, etc.) showing the applicant is of suitable character to be issued a permit.
When distinguishing between shall - issue and may - issue, that distinction may not necessarily be explicitly apparent in the exact letter of the law. Rather, a more accurate determinant as to whether a state is shall - issue versus may - issue is whether or not the applicant is required to show "good cause '' when applying for a permit. Court precedent also plays an important role in determining whether a state is may - issue or shall - issue without regard to the verbiage in state law. For example, New York is a may - issue state, even though its concealed carry licensing laws includes the words "shall issue, '' because New York law requires applicants to show "good cause '' when applying for a concealed carry permit. Since "good cause '' is highly subjective, issuing authorities in New York have wide discretion in determining what constitutes "good cause, '' and the ability for an ordinary citizen to obtain a concealed carry permit varies widely throughout the state. In contrast, the pistol permit law in neighboring Connecticut contains the words "may issue, '' despite Connecticut effectively being a shall - issue state. This is because Connecticut 's pistol permit law does not require the applicant to show "good cause '' to the issuing authority when applying for a pistol permit. Because Connecticut 's permitting law lacks a subjective "good cause '' standard, that state 's courts have repeatedly and consistently ruled that issuing authorities must issue pistol permits to applicants who meet the state 's statutory qualifications for a pistol permit.
May - issue can be compared to shall - issue where in a may - issue jurisdiction, the burden of proof for justifying the need for a permit rests with the applicant, whereas in a shall - issue jurisdiction the burden of proof to justify denying a permit rests with the issuing authority.
The following are may - issue states by law: California, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Rhode Island.
A state that is de jure a may - issue jurisdiction may range anywhere from shall - issue to no - issue in practice, i.e., permissive may - issue to restrictive may - issue, based on each licensing authority 's willingness to issue permits to applicants:
In some may - issue jurisdictions, permits are only issued to individuals with celebrity status, have political connections, or have a high degree of wealth, resulting in accusations of systematic corruption in how CCW permit applications are adjudicated in some such jurisdictions. Additionally, issuing authorities charge arbitrarily defined fees that go well beyond the basic processing fee for a CCW permit, thereby making the CCW permit unaffordable to most applicants. For example, applying for a New York City concealed carry permit typically costs around $5,000 when the filing fee and other administrative fees are combined.
In recent cases challenging restrictive discretionary issue laws, federal district and appeals courts have generally applied intermediate scrutiny to these and other Second Amendment related cases, where the courts recognize that restrictive concealed carry laws "infringe on an individual 's right to keep and bear arms, '' but also recognizes that such infringement is permitted to further "an important government interest in public safety. '' Any and all other Rights that are described as "individual '' and "fundamental '' by the SCOTUS require a "strict scrutiny '' standard as shown in prior decisions involving fully applicable incorporation cases. In Maryland, Woollard v. Sheridan, the United States District Court for the District of Maryland decided in favor of a Maryland resident who was denied a permit renewal due to lack of "good cause '' in accordance with Maryland law. The United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit reversed, holding the "good cause '' requirement met the standard of intermediate scrutiny applicable to restrictions on the right to carry arms outside the home, and reinstated the "good cause '' requirement on March 21, 2013. The plaintiffs in the case filed a petition for certiorari in the United States Supreme Court; the court denied certiorari without comment on October 15. New York 's similar "good cause '' requirement was also under challenge in Kachalsky v. Cacase. However, certiorari before SCOTUS was denied on April 15, 2013. Drake v. Filko, involving several plaintiffs (including one kidnap victim) denied permits under New Jersey 's permitting system; the suit challenged New Jersey 's "justifiable need '' requirement for obtaining a carry permit. The United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit affirmed the lower court 's judgment holding the requirement constitutional, holding (much like the 4th Circuit in Woollard and the 2nd Circuit in Kachalsky) that the New Jersey statute survived intermediate scrutiny. The common theme from Courts of Appeals rulings upholding may - issue laws is that state or local policies in limiting who is granted permits to carry firearms in public "furthers an important government interest in public safety, '' by which state legislatures enact laws making licensed concealed carry available but establish criteria to limit the number of concealed carry permit - holders to as few as practicable to pass constitutional muster. The courts have opined that these laws survive intermediate scrutiny on that basis. However, all other "fundamental '' and "individual '' Rights are subjected to a "strict scrutiny '' standard, see, Duncan, 391 U.S. at 149, and n. 15, supra., "A right that is fundamental from an American perspective applies equally to the Federal Government and the States. ''
While members of the Armed Services may receive extensive small arms training, United States Military installations have some of the most restrictive rules for the possession, transport, and carrying of personally - owned firearms in the country.
Overall authority for carrying a personally - owned firearm on a military installation rests with the installation commander, although the authority to permit individuals to carry firearms on an installation is usually delegated to the Provost Marshal. Military installations do not recognize state - issued concealed carry permits, and state firearms laws generally do not apply to military bases, regardless of the state in which the installation is located. Federal law (18 USC, Section 930) generally forbids the possession, transport, and carrying of firearms on military installations without approval from the installation commander. Federal law gives installation commanders wide discretion in establishing firearms policies for their respective installations. In practice, local discretion is often constrained by policies and directives from the headquarters of each military branch and major commands.
Installation policies can vary from no - issue for most bases to shall - issue in rare circumstances. Installations that do allow the carrying of firearms typically restrict carrying to designated areas and for specific purposes (i.e., hunting or officially sanctioned shooting competitions in approved locations on the installation). Installation commanders may require the applicant complete extensive firearms safety training, undergo a mental health evaluation, and obtain a letter of recommendation from his or her unit commander (or employer) before such authorization is granted. Personnel that reside on a military installation are typically required to store their personally - owned firearms in the installation armory, although the installation commander or provost marshal may permit a servicemember to store his or her personal firearms in their on - base dwelling if he or she has a gun safe or similarly designed cabinet where the firearms can be secured.
Prior to 2011, military commanders could impose firearms restrictions to servicemembers residing off - base, such as mandatory registration of firearms with the base Provost Marshal, restricting or banning the carrying of firearms by servicemembers either on or off the installation regardless of whether the member had a state permit to carry, and requiring servicemembers to have a gun safe or similar container to secure firearms when not in use. A provision was included in the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011 that limited commanders ' authority to impose restrictions on the possession and use of personally - owned firearms by servicemembers who reside off - base.
A no - issue jurisdiction is one that -- with very limited exceptions -- does not allow any private citizen to carry a concealed handgun in public. The term refers to the fact that no concealed carry permits will be issued (or recognized). Since July 2013, with the legalization of concealed carry in Illinois, there are no patently no - issue states.
While technically may - issue under state law, Hawaii, Maryland, New Jersey, Rhode Island (for statewide permits issued by the Attorney General 's Office) and certain cities and counties within California, Massachusetts, and New York are no - issue jurisdictions in practice, with governmental policy directing officials with discretionary power to rarely or never issue licenses. Additionally, some of the United States ' insular territories (Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, etc.) are no - issue jurisdictions either by law or in practice. Most no - issue jurisdictions have exceptions to their laws that permit open or concealed carry by active and retired law enforcement officials, armed security personnel while on duty and in uniform, and for members of the Armed Forces. Wisconsin and Illinois were the last remaining no - issue states, until licensed concealed carry was legalized in 2011 and 2013, respectively. Prior to legalization, Wisconsin outlawed concealed carry, but open carry was legal statewide. Illinois had banned concealed carry, and generally prohibited open carry in most locations as well.
Prohibitions of the concealed carry of firearms and other weapons by local governments predate the establishment of the United States. In 1686, New Jersey law stated "no person or persons... shall presume privately to wear any pocket pistol... or other unusual or unlawful weapons within this Province. '' After the federal government was established, states and localities continued to restrict people from carrying hidden weapons. Tennessee law prohibited this as early as 1821. By 1837, Georgia passed into effect "An Act to guard and protect the citizens of this State, against the unwarrantable and too prevalent use of deadly weapons. '' Two years later, Alabama followed suit with "An Act to Suppress the Evil Practice of Carrying Weapons Secretly. '' Delaware prohibited the practice in 1852. Ohio did the same in 1859, a policy that remained in effect until 1974. Cities also regulated weapons within their boundaries. In 1881, Tombstone, Arizona enacted Ordinance No. 9 "To Provide against Carrying of Deadly Weapons, '' a regulation that sparked the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral later that year.
Most may - issue jurisdictions, and some shall - issue jurisdictions allow issuing authorities to impose limitations on CCW permits, such as the type and caliber of handguns that may be carried (Massachusetts, New Mexico), restrictions on places where the permit is valid (New York, Rhode Island, Illinois), restricting concealed carry to purposes or activities specified on the approved permit application (California, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York), limitations on magazine size (Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York), or limitations on the number of firearms that may be carried concealed by a permit - holder at any given time (some states). Permits issued by all but two states (New York and Hawaii) are valid statewide. New York State pistol licenses, which are generally issued by counties, are valid statewide with one exception. A permit not issued by New York City is invalid in that city, unless validated by its police commissioner. Permits issued by Hawaii are valid only in the county of issuance.
Some states require concealed carry applicants to certify their proficiency with a firearm through some type of training or instruction. Certain training courses developed by the National Rifle Association that combine classroom and live - fire instruction typically meet most state training requirements. Some states recognize prior military or police service as meeting training requirements.
Classroom instruction would typically include firearm mechanics and terminology, cleaning and maintenance of a firearm, concealed carry legislation and limitations, liability issues, carry methods and safety, home defense, methods for managing and defusing confrontational situations, and practice of gun handling techniques without firing the weapon. Most required CCW training courses devote a considerable amount of time to liability issues.
Depending on the state, a practical component during which the attendee shoots the weapon for the purpose of demonstrating safety and proficiency, may be required. During range instruction, applicants would typically learn and demonstrate safe handling and operation of a firearm and accurate shooting from common self - defense distances. Some states require a certain proficiency to receive a passing grade, whereas other states (e.g., Florida) technically require only a single - shot be fired to demonstrate handgun handling proficiency.
CCW training courses are typically completed in a single day and are good for a set period, the exact duration varying by state. Some states require re-training, sometimes in a shorter, simpler format, for each renewal.
A few states, e.g., South Carolina, recognize the safety and use - of - force training given to military personnel as acceptable in lieu of formal civilian training certification. Such states will ask for a military ID (South Carolina) for active persons or DD214 for honorably discharged persons. These few states will commonly request a copy of the applicant 's BTR (Basic Training Record) proving an up - to - date pistol qualification. Active and retired law enforcement officers are generally exempt from qualification requirements, due to a federal statute permitting retired law enforcement officers to carry concealed weapons in the United States.
Virginia recognizes eight specific training options to prove competency in handgun handling, ranging from DD214 for honorably discharged military veterans, to certification from law enforcement training, to firearms training conducted by a state or NRA certified firearms instructor including electronic, video, or on - line courses. While any one of the eight listed options will be considered adequate proof, individual circuit courts may recognize other training options. A small number of states, such as Alabama and Georgia, have no training requirements to obtain a permit -- only a requirement that the applicant successfully pass the required background check before issuance.
Permit reciprocity
CCW Reciprocity
Many jurisdictions recognize (honor) a permit or license issued by other jurisdictions. Recognition may be granted to all jurisdictions or some subset which meets a set of permit - issuing criteria, such as training comparable to the honoring jurisdiction or certain background checks. Several states have entered into formal agreements to mutually recognize permits. This arrangement is commonly called reciprocity or mutual recognition. A few states do not recognize permits issued by any other jurisdiction, but offer non-resident permits for out - of - state individuals (who possess a valid concealed carry permit from their home state) who wish to carry while visiting such states. There are also states that neither recognize out - of - state concealed carry permits nor issue permits to non-residents, resulting in a complete ban on concealed carry by non-residents in such states.
Recognition and reciprocity of concealed carry privileges varies. Some states (e.g. Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio) unilaterally recognize all permits. Others such as Michigan, limit such universal recognition to residents of the permit - issuing state. While 37 states have reciprocity agreements with at least one other state and several states honor all out - of - state concealed carry permits, some states have special requirements like training courses or safety exams, and therefore do not honor permits from states that do not have such requirements for issue. Some states make exceptions for persons under the minimum age (usually 21) if they are active or honorably - discharged members of the military or a police force (the second of these two is allowed under Federal law). States that do not have this exemption generally do not recognize any license from states that do. An example of this is the State of Washington 's refusal to honor any Texas LTC as Texas has the military exception to age. Idaho and Missouri also have standard and enhanced permits that have different requirements to obtain and also have unique reciprocity with different states.
Ohio permits have the highest recognition in 40 states. One can obtain multiple state permits in an effort to increase the number of states where that user can carry a legally concealed weapon. It is common practice to use a CCW Reciprocity Map to gain clarity on which states will honor the person 's combination of resident and non-resident permits given the variety of standards and legal policies from state to state. There are also various mobile applications that guide users in researching state concealed carry permit reciprocity.
Although carry may be legal under State law in accordance with reciprocity agreements, the Federal Gun Free School Zones Act subjects an out - of - state permit holder to federal felony prosecution if they carry a firearm within 1000 feet of any K -- 12 school 's property line; however, the enforcement of this statute is rare given several states ' nullification statutes prohibiting state law enforcement officers from enforcing federal firearms laws.
While generally a concealed carry permit allows the permit holder to carry a concealed weapon in public, a state may restrict carry of a firearm including a permitted concealed weapon while in or on certain properties, facilities or types of businesses that are otherwise open to the public. These areas vary by state (except for the first item below; Federal offices are subject to superseding Federal law) and can include:
Some states allow private businesses to post a specific sign prohibiting concealed carry within their premises. The exact language and format of such a sign varies by state. By posting the signs, businesses create areas where it is illegal to carry a concealed handgun; similar to regulations concerning schools, hospitals, and public gatherings.
Violation of such a sign, in some of these states, is grounds for revocation of the offender 's concealed carry permit and criminal prosecution. Other states, such as Virginia, enforce only trespassing laws when a person violates a "Gun Free Zone '' sign. In some jurisdictions trespass by a person carrying a firearm may have more severe penalties than "simple '' trespass, while in other jurisdictions, penalties are lower than for trespass.
Such states include: Arizona, Arkansas, Connecticut, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and Wisconsin.
There is considerable dispute over the effectiveness of such "gun - free zones ''. Opponents of such measures, such as OpenCarry.org, state that, much like other malum prohibitum laws banning gun - related practices, only law - abiding individuals will heed the signage and disarm. Individuals or groups intent on committing far more serious crimes, such as armed robbery or murder, will not be deterred by signage prohibiting weapons. Further, the reasoning follows that those wishing to commit mass murder might intentionally choose gun - free venues like shopping malls, schools and churches (where weapons carry is generally prohibited by statute or signage) because the population inside is disarmed and thus less able to stop them.
In some states, business owners have been documented posting signs that appear to prohibit guns, but legally do not because the signs do not meet local or state laws defining required appearance, placement, or wording of signage. Such signage can be posted out of ignorance to the law, or intent to pacify gun control advocates while not actually prohibiting the practice. The force of law behind a non-compliant sign varies based on state statutes and case law. Some states interpret their statutes ' high level of specification of signage as evidence that the signage must meet the specification exactly, and any quantifiable deviation from the statute makes the sign non-binding. Other states have decided in case law that if efforts were made in good faith to conform to the statutes, the sign carries the force of law even if it fails to meet current specification. Still others have such lax descriptions of what is a valid sign that virtually any sign that can be interpreted as "no guns allowed '' is binding on the license holder.
Note that virtually all jurisdictions allow some form of oral communication by the lawful owner or controller of the property that a person is not welcome and should leave. This notice can be given to anyone for any reason (except for statuses that are protected by the Federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 and other CRAs, such as race), including due to the carrying of firearms by that person, and refusal to heed such a request to leave may constitute trespassing.
Printing refers to a circumstance where the shape or outline of a firearm is visible through a garment while the gun is still fully covered, and is generally not desired when carrying a concealed weapon. Brandishing can refer to different actions depending on jurisdiction. These actions can include printing through a garment, pulling back clothing to expose a gun, or unholstering a gun and exhibiting it in the hand. The intent to intimidate or threaten someone may or may not be required legally for it to be considered brandishing.
Brandishing is a crime in most jurisdictions, but the definition of brandishing varies widely.
Under California law, the following conditions have to be present to prove brandishing:
(1) A person, in the presence of another person, drew or exhibited a (deadly weapon, other than a firearm) (firearm, whether loaded or unloaded); (and) (2) That person did so in a rude, angry, or threatening manner (or) (2) That person, in any manner, unlawfully used the (deadly weapon) (firearm) in a fight or quarrel) (.) (; and (3) The person was not acting in lawful self - defense.)
In Virginia law:
It shall be unlawful for any person to point, hold or brandish any firearm or any air or gas operated weapon or any object similar in appearance, whether capable of being fired or not, in such manner as to reasonably induce fear in the mind of another or hold a firearm or any air or gas operated weapon in a public place in such a manner as to reasonably induce fear in the mind of another of being shot or injured. However, this section shall not apply to any person engaged in excusable or justifiable self - defense.
The Gun Control Act passed by Congress in 1968 lists felons, illegal aliens, and other codified persons as prohibited from purchasing or possessing firearms. During the application process for concealed carry states carry out thorough background checks to prevent these individuals from obtaining permits. Additionally the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act created an FBI maintained system in 1994 for instantly checking the backgrounds of potential firearms buyers in an effort to prevent these individuals from obtaining weapons.
The Firearm Owners Protection Act (FOPA) of 1986 allows a gun owner to travel through states in which their firearm possession is illegal as long as it is legal in the states of origination and destination, the owner is in transit and does not remain in the state in which firearm possession is illegal, and the firearm is transported unloaded and in a locked container. The FOPA addresses the issue of transport of private firearms from origin to destination for purposes lawful in state of origin and destination; FOPA does not authorize concealed carry as a weapon of defense during transit. New York State Police do not recognize this law. If caught you will be arrested and then required to use FOPA as an affirmative defense to the charges of illegal possession.
In 2004, the United States Congress enacted the Law Enforcement Officers Safety Act, 18 U.S. Code 926B and 926C. This federal law allows two classes of persons -- the "qualified law enforcement officer '' and the "qualified retired law enforcement officer '' -- to carry a concealed firearm in any jurisdiction in the United States, regardless of any state or local law to the contrary, with certain exceptions.
The Federal Gun Free School Zone Act limits where a person may legally carry a firearm. It does this by making it generally unlawful for an armed citizen to be within 1000 feet (extending out from the property lines) of a place that the individual knows, or has reasonable cause to believe, is a K -- 12 school. Although a State - issued carry permit may exempt a person from this restriction in the State that physically issued their permit, it does not exempt them in other States which recognize their permit under reciprocity agreements made with the issuing State. The law 's failure to provide adequate protection to LEOSA - qualified officers, licensed concealed carry permit holders, and other armed citizens, is an issue that the United States Congress so far has not addressed.
Some federal statutes restrict the carrying of firearms on the premises of certain Federal properties such as military installations or land controlled by the USACE.
On May 22, 2009, President Barack Obama signed H.R. 627, the "Credit Card Accountability Responsibility and Disclosure Act of 2009, '' into law. The bill contained a rider introduced by Senator Tom Coburn (R - OK) that prohibits the Secretary of the Interior from enacting or enforcing any regulations that restrict possession of firearms in National Parks or Wildlife Refuges, as long as the person complies with laws of the state in which the unit is found. This provision was supported by the National Rifle Association and opposed by the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence, the National Parks Conservation Association, and the Coalition of National Park Service Retirees, among other organizations. As of February 2010 concealed handguns are for the first time legal in all but 3 of the nation 's 391 national parks and wildlife refuges so long as all applicable federal, state, and local regulations are adhered to. Hawaii is a notable exception. Concealed and open carry are both illegal in Hawaii for all except retired military or law enforcement personnel. Previously firearms were allowed into parks if cased and unloaded.
Attempts were made in the 110th Congress, United States House of Representatives (H.R. 226) and the United States Senate (S. 388), to enact legislation to compel complete reciprocity for concealed carry licenses. Opponents of national reciprocity have pointed out that this legislation would effectively require states with more restrictive standards of permit issuance (e.g., training courses, safety exams, "good cause '' requirements, et al.) to honor permits from states with more liberal issuance policies. Supporters have pointed out that the same situation already occurs with marriage certificates, adoption decrees and other state documents under the "full faith and credit '' clause of the U.S. Constitution. Some states have already adopted a "full faith and credit '' policy treating out - of - state carry permits the same as out - of - state driver 's license or marriage certificates without federal legislation mandating such a policy.
Prior to the 1897 supreme court case Robertson v. Baldwin, the federal courts had been silent on the issue of concealed carry. In the dicta from a maritime law case the Supreme Court commented that state laws restricting concealed weapons do not infringe upon the right to bear arms protected by the Federal Second Amendment.
In the majority decision in the 2008 Supreme Court case of District of Columbia v. Heller, Justice Antonin Scalia wrote;
Like most rights, the Second Amendment right is not unlimited. It is not a right to keep and carry any weapon whatsoever in any manner whatsoever and for whatever purpose: For example, concealed weapons prohibitions have been upheld under the Amendment or state analogues... The majority of the 19th - century courts to consider the question held that prohibitions on carrying concealed weapons were lawful under the Second Amendment or state analogues.
Heller was a landmark case because for the first time in United States history a Supreme Court decision defined the right to bear arms as constitutionally guaranteed to private citizens rather than a right restricted to "well regulated militia (s) ''. The Justices asserted that sensible restrictions on the right to bear arms are constitutional, however, an outright ban on a specific type of firearm, in this case handguns, was in fact unconstitutional. The Heller decision is limited because it only applies to federal enclaves such as the District of Columbia. In 2010 the SCOTUS expanded Heller in McDonald v. Chicago incorporating the 2nd Amendment through the 14th Amendment as applying to local and state laws. Various Circuit Courts have upheld their local and state laws using intermediate scrutiny. The correct standard is strict scrutiny review for all "fundamental '' and "individual '' rights. On June 28, 2010, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down the handgun ban enacted by the city of Chicago, Illinois, in McDonald v. Chicago, effectively extending the Heller decision to states and local governments nationwide. Banning handguns in any jurisdiction has the effect of rendering invalid any licensed individual 's right to carry concealed in that area except for federally exempted retired and current law enforcement officers and other government employees acting in the discharge of their official duties.
Even when self - defense is justified, there can be serious civil or criminal liabilities related to self - defense when a concealed carry permit holder brandishes or fires his / her weapon. For example, if innocent bystanders are hurt or killed, there could be both civil and criminal liabilities even if the use of deadly force was completely justified. Some states technically allow an assailant who is shot by a gun owner to bring civil action. In some states, liability is present when a resident brandishes the weapon, threatens use, or exacerbates a volatile situation, or when the resident is carrying while intoxicated. It is important to note that simply pointing a firearm at any person constitutes felony assault with a deadly weapon unless circumstances validate a demonstration of force. A majority of states who allow concealed carry, however, forbid suits being brought in such cases, either by barring lawsuits for damages resulting from a criminal act on the part of the plaintiff, or by granting the gun owner immunity from such a civil suit if it is found that he or she was justified in shooting.
Simultaneously, increased passage of "Castle Doctrine '' laws allow persons who own firearms and / or carry them concealed to use them without first attempting to retreat. The "Castle Doctrine '' typically applies to situations within the confines of one 's own home. Nevertheless, many states have adopted escalation of force laws along with provisions for concealed carry. These include the necessity to first verbally warn a trespasser or lay hands on a trespasser before a shooting is justified (unless the trespasser is armed or assumed to be so). This escalation of force does not apply if the shooter reasonably believes a violent felony has been or is about to be committed on the property by the trespasser. Additionally some states have a duty to retreat provision which requires a permit holder, especially in public places, to vacate him or herself from a potentially dangerous situation before resorting to deadly force. The duty to retreat does not restrictively apply in a person 's home or business though escalation of force may be required. In 1895 the Supreme Court ruled in Beard v. United States (1895) that if an individual does not provoke an assault and is residing in a place they have a right to be then they may use considerable force against someone they reasonably believe may do them serious harm without being charged with murder or manslaughter should that person be killed. Further, in Texas and California homicide is justifiable solely in defense of property. In other states, lethal force is only authorized when serious harm is presumed to be imminent.
Even given these relaxed restrictions on use of force, using a handgun must still be a last resort in some jurisdictions; meaning the user must reasonably believe that nothing short of deadly force will protect the life or property at stake in a situation. Additionally, civil liabilities for errors that cause harm to others still exist, although civil immunity is provided in the Castle Doctrine laws of some states (e.g., Texas).
Criminal possession of a weapon is the unlawful possession of a weapon by a citizen. Many societies both past and present have placed restrictions on what forms of weaponry private citizens (and to a lesser extent police) are allowed to purchase, own, and carry in public. Such crimes are public order crimes and are considered mala prohibita, in that the possession of a weapon in and of itself is not evil. Rather, the potential for use in acts of unlawful violence creates a possible need to control them. Some restrictions are strict liability, whereas others require some element of intent to use the weapon for an illegal purpose. Some regulations allow a citizen to obtain a permit or other authorization to possess the weapon under certain circumstances. Lawful uses of weapons by civilians commonly include hunting, sport, collection and self - preservation.
The penalties for carrying a firearm in an unlawful manner varies widely from state - to - state, and may range from a simple infraction punishable by a fine to a felony conviction and mandatory incarceration. An individual may also be charged and convicted of criminal charges other than unlawful possession of a firearm, such as assault, disorderly conduct, or disturbing the peace.
|
where did the last name jack come from | Joker (character) - wikipedia
The Joker is a fictional supervillain created by Bill Finger, Bob Kane, and Jerry Robinson who first appeared in the debut issue of the comic book Batman (April 25, 1940), published by DC Comics. Credit for the Joker 's creation is disputed; Kane and Robinson claimed responsibility for the Joker 's design, while acknowledging Finger 's writing contribution. Although the Joker was planned to be killed off during his initial appearance, he was spared by editorial intervention, allowing the character to endure as the archenemy of the superhero Batman.
In his comic book appearances, the Joker is portrayed as a criminal mastermind. Introduced as a psychopath with a warped, sadistic sense of humor, the character became a goofy prankster in the late 1950s in response to regulation by the Comics Code Authority, before returning to his darker roots during the early 1970s. As Batman 's nemesis, the Joker has been part of the superhero 's defining stories, including the murder of Jason Todd -- the second Robin and Batman 's ward -- and the paralysis of one of Batman 's allies, Barbara Gordon. The Joker has had various possible origin stories during his decades of appearances. The most common story involves him falling into a tank of chemical waste which bleaches his skin white, turns his hair green, and his lips bright red; the resulting disfigurement drives him insane. The antithesis of Batman in personality and appearance, the Joker is considered by critics to be his perfect adversary.
The Joker possesses no superhuman abilities, instead using his expertise in chemical engineering to develop poisonous or lethal concoctions, and thematic weaponry, including razor - tipped playing cards, deadly joy buzzers, and acid - spraying lapel flowers. The Joker sometimes works with other Gotham City supervillains such as the Penguin and Two - Face, and groups like the Injustice Gang and Injustice League, but these relationships often collapse due to the Joker 's desire for unbridled chaos. The 1990s introduced a romantic interest for the Joker in his former psychiatrist, Harley Quinn, who becomes his villainous sidekick. Although his primary obsession is Batman, the Joker has also fought other heroes including Superman and Wonder Woman.
One of the most iconic characters in popular culture, the Joker has been listed among the greatest comic book villains and fictional characters ever created. The character 's popularity has seen him appear on a variety of merchandise, such as clothing and collectable items, inspire real - world structures (such as theme park attractions), and be referenced in a number of media. The Joker has been adapted to serve as Batman 's adversary in live - action, animated, and video game incarnations, including the 1960s Batman television series (played by Cesar Romero) and in film by Jack Nicholson in Batman (1989), Heath Ledger in The Dark Knight (2008), and Jared Leto in Suicide Squad (2016). Mark Hamill, Troy Baker, and others have provided the character 's voice.
Bill Finger, Bob Kane, and Jerry Robinson are credited with creating the Joker, but their accounts of the character 's conception differ, each providing his own version of events. Finger 's, Kane 's, and Robinson 's versions acknowledge that Finger produced an image of actor Conrad Veidt in character as Gwynplaine (a man with a disfigured face, giving him a perpetual grin) in the 1928 film The Man Who Laughs as an inspiration for the Joker 's appearance, and Robinson produced a sketch of a joker playing card (right).
Robinson claimed that it was his 1940 card sketch that served as the character 's concept, and which Finger associated with Veidt 's portrayal. Kane hired the 17 - year - old Robinson as an assistant in 1939, after he saw Robinson in a white jacket decorated with his own illustrations. Beginning as a letterer and background inker, Robinson quickly became primary artist for the newly created Batman comic book series. In a 1975 interview in The Amazing World of DC Comics, Robinson said he wanted a supreme arch - villain who could test Batman, but not a typical crime lord or gangster designed to be easily disposed. He wanted an exotic, enduring character as an ongoing source of conflict for Batman (similar to the relationship between Sherlock Holmes and Professor Moriarty), designing a diabolically sinister - but - clownish villain. Robinson was intrigued by villains; his studies at Columbia University taught him that some characters are made up of contradictions, leading to the Joker 's sense of humor. He said that the name came first, followed by an image of a playing card from a deck he often had at hand: "I wanted somebody visually exciting. I wanted somebody that would make an indelible impression, would be bizarre, would be memorable like the Hunchback of Notre Dame or any other villains that had unique physical characters. '' He told Finger about his concept by telephone, later providing sketches of the character and images of what would become his iconic Joker playing - card design. Finger thought the concept was incomplete, providing the image of Veidt with a ghastly, permanent rictus grin.
Kane countered that the Robinson 's sketch was produced only after Finger had already shown the Gwynplaine image to Kane, and that it was only used as a card design belonging to the Joker in his early appearances. Finger said that he was also inspired by an image in Steeplechase Park at Coney Island that resembled a Joker 's head, which he sketched and later shared with future editorial director Carmine Infantino. In a 1994 interview with journalist Frank Lovece, Kane stated his position:
Bill Finger and I created the Joker. Bill was the writer. Jerry Robinson came to me with a playing card of the Joker. That 's the way I sum it up. (The Joker) looks like Conrad Veidt -- you know, the actor in The Man Who Laughs, (the 1928 movie based on the novel) by Victor Hugo... Bill Finger had a book with a photograph of Conrad Veidt and showed it to me and said, ' Here 's the Joker '. Jerry Robinson had absolutely nothing to do with it, but he 'll always say he created it till he dies. He brought in a playing card, which we used for a couple of issues for him (the Joker) to use as his playing card.
Robinson credited himself, Finger and Kane for the Joker 's creation. He said he created the character as Batman 's larger - than - life nemesis when extra stories were quickly needed for Batman # 1, and he received credit for the story in a college course:
In that first meeting when I showed them that sketch of the Joker, Bill said it reminded him of Conrad Veidt in The Man Who Laughs. That was the first mention of it... He can be credited and Bob himself, we all played a role in it. The concept was mine. Bill finished that first script from my outline of the persona and what should happen in the first story. He wrote the script of that, so he really was co-creator, and Bob and I did the visuals, so Bob was also.
Finger provided his own account in 1966:
I got a call from Bob Kane... He had a new villain. When I arrived he was holding a playing card. Apparently Jerry Robinson or Bob, I do n't recall who, looked at the card and they had an idea for a character... the Joker. Bob made a rough sketch of it. At first it did n't look much like the Joker. It looked more like a clown. But I remembered that Grosset & Dunlap formerly issued very cheap editions of classics by Alexandre Dumas and Victor Hugo... The volume I had was The Man Who Laughs -- his face had been permanently operated on so that he will always have this perpetual grin. And it looked absolutely weird. I cut the picture out of the book and gave it to Bob, who drew the profile and gave it a more sinister aspect. Then he worked on the face; made him look a little clown - like, which accounted for his white face, red lips, green hair. And that was the Joker!
Although Kane adamantly refused to share credit for many of his characters (and refuted Robinson 's claim until Kane 's death), many comic historians credit Robinson with the Joker 's creation and Finger with the character 's development. By 2011, Finger, Kane, and Robinson had died, leaving the story unresolved.
The Joker debuted in Batman # 1 (Spring 1940) as the eponymous character 's first villain, shortly after Batman 's debut in Detective Comics # 27 (May 1939). The Joker initially appeared as a remorseless serial killer, modeled after a joker playing card with a mirthless grin, who killed his victims with "Joker venom '': a toxin which left their faces smiling grotesquely. The character was intended to be killed in his second appearance in Batman # 1, after being stabbed in the heart. Finger wanted the Joker to die because of his concern that recurring villains would make Batman appear inept, but was overruled by then - editor Whitney Ellsworth; a hastily drawn panel, indicating that the Joker was still alive, was added to the comic. The Joker went on to appear in nine of Batman 's first twelve issues.
The character 's regular appearances quickly defined him as the archenemy of the dynamic duo, Batman and Robin; he killed dozens of people, and even derailed a train. By issue # 13, Kane 's work on the syndicated Batman newspaper strip left him little time for the comic book; artist Dick Sprang assumed his duties, and editor Jack Schiff collaborated with Finger on stories. Around the same time, DC Comics found it easier to market its stories to children without the more mature pulp elements that had originated many superhero comics. During this period, the first changes in the Joker began to appear, portraying him more as a prankster than threat; when he kidnaps Robin, Batman pays the ransom by check, meaning that the Joker can not cash it without being arrested. Comic book writer Mark Waid suggests that the 1942 story "The Joker Walks the Last Mile '' was the beginning point for the character 's transformation into a more goofy incarnation, a period that Grant Morrison considered lasted the following thirty years.
The 1942 cover of Detective Comics # 69, known as "Double Guns '' (with the Joker emerging from a genie lamp, aiming two guns at Batman and Robin), is considered one of the greatest superhero comic covers of the Golden Age and is the only image of the character using traditional guns. Robinson said that other contemporary villains used guns, and the creative team wanted the Joker -- as Batman 's adversary -- to be more resourceful.
The Joker was one of the few popular villains continuing to appear regularly in Batman comics from the Golden Age into the Silver Age, as the series continued during the rise in popularity of mystery and romance comics. In 1951, Finger wrote an origin story for the Joker in Detective Comics # 168, which introduced the characteristic of him formerly being the criminal Red Hood, and his disfigurement the result of a fall into a chemical vat.
By 1954, the Comics Code Authority had been established in response to increasing public disapproval of comic book content. The backlash was inspired by Frederic Wertham, who hypothesized that mass media (especially comic books) was responsible for the rise in juvenile delinquency, violence and homosexuality, particularly in young males. Parents forbade their children from reading comic books, and there were several mass burnings. The Comics Code banned gore, innuendo and excessive violence, stripping Batman of his menace and transforming the Joker into a goofy, thieving trickster without his original homicidal tendencies.
The character appeared less frequently after 1964, when Julius Schwartz (who disliked the Joker) became editor of the Batman comics. The character risked becoming an obscure figure of the preceding era until this goofy prankster version of the character was adapted into the 1966 television series Batman, in which he was played by Cesar Romero. The show 's popularity compelled Schwartz to keep the comics in a similar vein. As the show 's popularity waned, however, so did that of the Batman comics. After the TV series ended in 1968, the increase in public visibility had not stopped the comic 's sales decline; editorial director Carmine Infantino resolved to turn things around, moving stories away from schoolboy - friendly adventures. The Silver Age introduced several of the Joker 's defining character traits: lethal joy buzzers, acid - squirting flowers, trick guns, and goofy, elaborate crimes.
In 1973, after a four - year disappearance, the Joker was revived (and revised) by writer Dennis O'Neil and artist Neal Adams. Beginning with Batman # 251 's "The Joker 's Five - Way Revenge '', the character returns to his roots as an impulsive, homicidal maniac who matches wits with Batman. This story began a trend in which the Joker was used, sparingly, as a central character. O'Neil said his idea was "simply to take it back to where it started. I went to the DC library and read some of the early stories. I tried to get a sense of what Kane and Finger were after. '' O'Neil's 1973 run introduced the idea of the Joker being legally insane, to explain why the character is sent to Arkham Asylum (introduced by O'Neil in 1974 as Arkham Hospital) instead of to prison. Adams modified the Joker 's appearance, changing his more average figure by extending his jaw and making him taller and leaner.
DC Comics was a hotbed of experimentation during the 1970s, and in 1975 the character became the first villain to feature as the title character in a comic book series, The Joker. The series followed the character 's interactions with other supervillains, and the first issue was written by O'Neil. Stories balanced between emphasizing the Joker 's criminality and making him a likable protagonist whom readers could support. Although he murdered thugs and civilians, he never fought Batman; this made The Joker a series in which the character 's villainy prevailed over rival villains, instead of a struggle between good and evil. Because the Comics Code Authority mandated punishment for villains, each issue ended with the Joker being apprehended, limiting the scope of each story. The series never found an audience, and The Joker was cancelled after nine issues (despite a "next issue '' advertisement for an appearance by the Justice League). The complete series became difficult to obtain over time, often commanding high prices from collectors. In 2013, DC Comics reissued the series as a graphic novel.
When Jenette Kahn became DC editor in 1976, she redeveloped the company 's struggling titles; during her tenure, the Joker would become one of DC 's most popular characters. While O'Neil and Adams ' work was critically acclaimed, writer Steve Englehart and penciller Marshall Rogers 's eight - issue run in Detective Comics # 471 -- 476 (August 1977 - April 1978) defined the Joker for decades to come with stories emphasizing the character 's insanity. In "The Laughing Fish '', the Joker disfigures fish with a rictus grin resembling his own (expecting copyright protection), and is unable to understand that copyrighting a natural resource is legally impossible. Englehart and Rogers ' work on the series influenced the 1989 film Batman, and was adapted for 1992 's Batman: The Animated Series. Rogers expanded on Adams ' character design, drawing the Joker with a fedora and trench coat. Englehart outlined how he understood the character by saying that the Joker "was this very crazy, scary character. I really wanted to get back to the idea of Batman fighting insane murderers at 3 a.m. under the full moon, as the clouds scuttled by. ''
Years after the end of the 1966 television series, sales of Batman continued to fall and the title was nearly canceled. Although the 1970s restored the Joker as an insane, lethal foe of Batman, it was during the 1980s that the Batman series started to turn around and the Joker came into his own as part of the "dark age '' of comics: mature tales of death and destruction. The shift was derided for moving away from tamer superheroes (and villains), but comic audiences were no longer primarily children. Several months after Crisis on Infinite Earths launched the era by killing off Silver - Age icons such as the Flash and Supergirl and undoing decades of continuity, Frank Miller 's The Dark Knight Returns (1986) re-imagined Batman as an older, retired hero and the Joker as a lipstick - wearing celebrity who can not function without his foe. The late 1980s saw the Joker exert a significant impact on Batman and his supporting cast. In the 1988 -- 89 story arc "A Death in the Family '', the Joker murders Batman 's sidekick (the second Robin, Jason Todd). Todd was unpopular with fans; rather than modify his character, DC opted to let them vote for his fate and a 72 - vote plurality had the Joker beat Todd to death with a crowbar. This story altered the Batman universe: instead of killing anonymous bystanders, the Joker murdered a core character in the Batman fiction; this had a lasting effect on future stories. Written at the height of tensions between the United States and Iran, the story 's conclusion had Iranian leader Ayatollah Khomeini appoint the Joker his country 's ambassador to the United Nations (allowing him to temporarily escape justice).
Alan Moore and Brian Bolland 's 1988 graphic novel The Killing Joke expands on the Joker 's origins, describing the character as a failed comedian who adopts the identity of Red Hood to support his pregnant wife. Unlike The Dark Knight Returns, The Killing Joke takes place in mainstream continuity. The novel is described by critics as one of the greatest Joker stories ever written, influencing later comic stories (including the forced retirement of then - Batgirl Barbara Gordon after she is paralyzed by the Joker) and films such as 1989 's Batman and 2008 's The Dark Knight. Grant Morrison 's 1989 Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth explores the psychoses of Batman, the Joker and other rogues in the eponymous facility.
The 1992 animated series introduced the Joker 's female sidekick: Harley Quinn, a psychiatrist who falls for -- and ends up in an abusive relationship with -- the Joker, becoming his supervillain accomplice. The character was popular, and was adapted into the comics as the Joker 's romantic interest in 1999. In the same year, Alan Grant and Norm Breyfogle 's comic book Anarky concluded with the revelation that the titular character was the Joker 's son. Breyfogle conceived the idea as a means to expand on Anarky 's characterization, but O'Neil (by then the editor for the Batman series of books) was opposed to it, and only allowed it to be written under protest, and with a promise that the revelation would eventually be revealed incorrect. However, the Anarky series was cancelled before the rebuttal could be published. The Joker 's first major storyline in The New 52, DC Comics ' 2011 reboot of story continuity, was 2012 's "Death of the Family '' by writer Scott Snyder and artist Greg Capullo. The story arc explores the symbiotic relationship between Joker and Batman, and sees the villain shatter the trust between Batman and his adopted family. Capullo 's Joker design replaced his traditional outfit with a utilitarian, messy, and disheveled appearance to convey that the character was on a mission; his face (surgically removed in 2011 's Detective Comics # 1) was reattached with belts, wires, and hooks, and he was outfitted with mechanics overalls. The Joker 's face was restored in Snyder 's and Capullo 's "Endgame '' (2014), the concluding chapter to "Death of the Family ''.
The Joker has undergone many revisions since his 1940 debut. The most common interpretation of the character is that he is disguised as the criminal Red Hood, and pursued by Batman. The Joker falls into a vat of chemicals which bleaches his skin, colors his hair green and his lips red, and drives him insane. The reasons why the Joker was disguised as the Red Hood, and his identity before his transformation have changed over time.
The character was introduced in Batman # 1 (1940), in which he announces that he will kill three of Gotham 's prominent citizens (including Mayor Henry Claridge). Although the police protect Claridge, the Joker had poisoned him before making his announcement and Claridge dies with a ghastly grin on his face; Batman eventually defeats him, sending him to prison. The Joker commits whimsical, brutal crimes for reasons that, in Batman 's words, "make sense to him alone ''. Detective Comics # 168 (1951) introduced the Joker 's first origin story as Red Hood: a criminal who, during his final heist, vanishes after leaping into a vat of chemicals to escape Batman. His resulting disfigurement led him to adopt the name "Joker '', from the playing card figure he came to resemble. The Joker 's Silver - Age transformation into a figure of fun was established in 1952 's "The Joker 's Millions ''. In this story the Joker is obsessed with maintaining his illusion of wealth and celebrity as a criminal folk hero, afraid to let Gotham 's citizens know that he is penniless and was tricked out of his fortune. The 1970s redefined the character as a homicidal psychopath. "The Joker 's Five - Way Revenge '' has the Joker taking violent revenge on the former gang members who betrayed him; in "The Laughing Fish '' the character chemically adds his face to Gotham 's fish (hoping to profit from a copyright), killing bureaucrats who stand in his way.
Batman: The Killing Joke (1988) built on the Joker 's 1951 origin story, portraying him as a failed comedian pressured into committing crime as the Red Hood to support his pregnant wife. Batman 's interference causes him to leap into a chemical vat, which disfigures him. This, combined with the trauma of his wife 's earlier accidental death, causes him to go insane and become the Joker. However, the Joker says that this story may not be true, as he prefers his past to be "multiple choice ''. In this graphic novel, the Joker shoots and paralyzes Barbara Gordon and tortures her father, Commissioner James Gordon, to prove that it only takes one bad day to drive a normal man insane. After Batman rescues Gordon and subdues the Joker, he offers to rehabilitate his old foe and end their rivalry. Although the Joker refuses, he shows his appreciation by sharing a joke with Batman. Following the character 's maiming of Barbara, she became a more important character in the DC Universe: Oracle, a data gatherer and superhero informant, who has her revenge in Birds of Prey by shattering the Joker 's teeth and destroying his smile.
In the 1988 story "A Death in the Family '', the Joker beats Jason Todd with a crowbar and leaves him to die in an explosion. Todd 's death haunts Batman, and for the first time he considers killing the Joker. The Joker temporarily escapes justice when Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini appoints him the Iranian ambassador to the United Nations, giving him diplomatic immunity. However, when he tries to poison the UN membership, he is brought down by Batman and Superman.
In the 1999 "No Man 's Land '' storyline, the Joker murders Commissioner Gordon 's second wife, Sarah, as she shields a group of infants. He taunts Gordon, who shoots him in the kneecap. The Joker, lamenting that he may never walk again, collapses with laughter when he realizes that the commissioner has avenged Barbara 's paralysis. This story also introduced the Joker 's girlfriend, Harley Quinn.
The 2000s began with the crossover story "Emperor Joker '', in which the Joker steals Mister Mxyzptlk 's reality - altering power and remakes the universe in his image (torturing and killing Batman daily, before resurrecting him). When the supervillain then tries to destroy the universe, his reluctance to eliminate Batman makes him lose control and Superman defeats him. Broken by his experience, Batman 's experiences of death are transferred to Superman by the Spectre so he can heal mentally. In "Joker 's Last Laugh '' (2001), the doctors at Arkham Asylum convince the character that he is dying in an attempt to rehabilitate him. Instead, the Joker (flanked by an army of "Jokerized '' supervillains) launches a final crime spree. Believing that Robin (Tim Drake) has been killed in the chaos, Dick Grayson beats the Joker to death (although Batman revives his foe to keep Grayson from being a murderer) and the character succeeds in making a member of the Bat - family break their rule against killing.
In "Under the Hood '' (2005), a resurrected Todd tries to force Batman to avenge his death by killing the Joker. Batman refuses, arguing that if he allows himself to kill the Joker, he will not be able to stop killing other criminals. The Joker kills Alexander Luthor in Infinite Crisis (2005) for excluding him from the Secret Society of Super Villains, which considers him too unpredictable for membership. In Morrison 's "Batman and Son '' (2006), a deranged police officer who impersonates Batman shoots the Joker in the face, scarring and disabling him. The supervillain returns in "The Clown at Midnight '' (2007) as a cruel, enigmatic force who awakens and tries to kill Harley Quinn to prove to Batman that he has become more than human. In the 2008 story arc "Batman R.I.P. '' the Joker is recruited by the Black Glove to destroy Batman, but betrays the group, killing its members one by one. After Batman 's apparent death in "Final Crisis '' (2008), Grayson investigates a series of murders (which leads him to a disguised Joker). The Joker is arrested, and then - Robin Damian Wayne beats him with a crowbar, paralleling Todd 's murder. When the Joker escapes, he attacks the Black Glove, burying its leader Simon Hurt alive after the supervillain considers him a failure as an opponent; the Joker is then defeated by the recently returned Batman.
In DC 's New 52, a 2011 relaunch of its titles following Flashpoint, the Joker has his own face cut off. He disappears for a year, returning to launch an attack on Batman 's extended family in "Death of the Family '' so he and Batman can be the best hero and villain they can be. At the end of the storyline, the Joker falls off a cliff into a dark abyss. The Joker returns in the 2014 storyline "Endgame '' in which he brainwashes the Justice League into attacking Batman, believing he has betrayed their relationship. The story implies that the Joker is immortal -- having existed for centuries in Gotham as a cause of tragedy after exposure to a substance the Joker terms ' dionesium ' -- and is able to regenerate from mortal injuries. "Endgame '' restores the Joker 's face, and also reveals that he knows Batman 's secret identity. The story ends with the apparent deaths of Batman and the Joker at each other 's hands.
Though a number of backstories have been given, a definitive one has not yet been established for the Joker. An unreliable narrator, the character is uncertain of who he was before and how he became the Joker: "Sometimes I remember it one way, sometimes another... if I 'm going to have a past, I prefer it to be multiple choice! '' A story about the Joker 's origin appeared in Detective Comics # 168 (February 1951), nearly a decade after the character 's debut. Here, the character is a laboratory worker who becomes the Red Hood (a masked criminal) to steal a million dollars from his employer and retire. He falls into a vat of chemical waste when his heist is thwarted by Batman, emerging with bleached white skin, red lips, green hair and a permanent grin.
This story was the basis for the most often - cited origin tale, Moore 's one - shot The Killing Joke. The Joker quits his job as a Lab assistant, becoming a stand - up comedian to support his pregnant wife. Unsuccessful, he agrees to help mobsters with a robbery and dons the Red Hood. The heist goes awry; the comedian leaps into a chemical vat to escape Batman, surfacing disfigured. This, combined with the earlier accidental death of his wife and unborn child, drives the comedian insane and he becomes the Joker. This version has been cited in many stories, including Batman: The Man Who Laughs (in which Batman deduces that the Red Hood survived his fall and became the Joker), Batman # 450 (in which the Joker dons the Red Hood to aid his recovery after the events in A Death in the Family, but finds the experience too traumatic) and "Death of the Family ''. Other stories have expanded on this origin; "Pushback '' explains that the Joker 's wife was murdered by a corrupt policeman working for the mobsters, and "Payback '' gives the Joker 's first name as "Jack ''.
However, the Joker 's unreliable memory has allowed writers to develop other origins for the character. "Case Study '', a Paul Dini - Alex Ross story, describes the Joker as a sadistic gangster who creates the Red Hood identity to continue the thrill of small - time criminality. He has his fateful first meeting with Batman, which results in his disfigurement. It is suggested that the Joker is sane, and feigns insanity to avoid the death penalty. In Batman Confidential (# 7 -- 12), the character, Jack, is a talented criminal who is bored with his work. He encounters (and becomes obsessed with) Batman during a heist, embarking on a crime spree to attract his attention. After Jack injures Batman 's girlfriend, Batman scars Jack 's face with a permanent grin and betrays him to a group of mobsters, who torture him in a chemical plant. Jack escapes, but falls into an empty vat as gunfire punctures chemical tanks above him. The flood of chemicals (used in anti-psychotic medication) alters his appearance and completes his transformation. The superhero Atom sees the Joker 's memory of burning his parents alive (after they find him killing animals) in The Brave and the Bold # 31, and Snyder 's "Zero Year '' (2013) suggests that the pre-disfigured Joker was a criminal mastermind leading a gang of Red Hoods.
The Joker has claimed a number of origins, including being the child of an abusive father who broke his nose and the long - lived jester of an Egyptian pharaoh. As Batman says, "Like any other comedian, he uses whatever material will work ''.
A number of alternate universes in DC Comics publications allow writers to introduce variations on the Joker, in which the character 's origins, behavior, and morality differ from the mainstream setting. The Dark Knight Returns depicts the final battle between an aged Batman and Joker; others portray the aftermath of the Joker 's death at the hands of a number of characters, including Superman. Still others describe distant futures in which the Joker is a computer virus or a hero trying to defeat the era 's tyrannical Batman. In some stories, the Joker is someone else entirely; "Flashpoint '' features Batman 's mother Martha Wayne as the Joker in response to her son 's murder, and in Superman: Speeding Bullets Lex Luthor becomes the Joker in a world where Superman is Batman.
Renowned as Batman 's greatest enemy, the Joker is known by a number of nicknames, including the Clown Prince of Crime, the Jester of Genocide, the Harlequin of Hate, and the Ace of Knaves. During the evolution of the DC Universe, interpretations and versions of the Joker have taken two forms. The original, dominant image is that of an extreme psychopath, with genius - level intelligence and a warped, sadistic sense of humor. The other version, popular in comic books from the late 1940s to the 1960s and in the 1960s television series, is an eccentric, harmless prankster and thief. Like other long - lived characters, the Joker 's character and cultural interpretations have changed with time, however unlike other characters who may need to reconcile or ignore previous versions to make sense, more than any other comic book character, the Joker thrives on his mutable and irreconcilable identities. The Joker is typically seen in a purple suit with a long - tailed, padded - shoulder jacket, a string tie, gloves, striped pants and spats on pointed - toe shoes (sometimes with a wide - brimmed hat). This appearance is such a fundamental aspect of the character that when the 2004 animated series The Batman placed the Joker in a straitjacket, it quickly redesigned him in his familiar suit.
The Joker is obsessed with Batman, the pair representing a yin - yang of opposing dark and light force; although it is the Joker who represents humor and color and Batman who dwells in the dark. Murder, theft, and terrorism, no crime is beyond the Joker, and his exploits are a theatrical performance that are funny to him alone. Spectacle is more important than success for the Joker, and if it is not spectacular it is boring. Although the Joker claims indifference to everything, he secretly craves Batman 's attention and validation. The character was described as having killed over 2,000 people in The Joker: Devil 's Advocate (1996). Despite this body count, he is always found not guilty by reason of insanity and sent to Arkham Asylum, avoiding the death penalty. Many of the Joker 's acts attempt to force Batman to kill; if the most orderly and self - controlled of humans can murder, anyone is capable of becoming a monster like the Joker. The villain displays no instinct for self - preservation, and is willing to die to prove his point. The Joker is the "personification of the irrational '', and represents "everything Batman (opposes) ''.
The Joker 's main characteristic is his apparent insanity, although he is not described as having any particular psychological disorder. Like a psychopath, he lacks empathy, a conscience, and concern over right and wrong. In A Serious House on Serious Earth, the Joker is described as capable of processing outside sensory information only by adapting to it. This enables him to create a new personality every day (depending on what would benefit him) and explains why, at different times, he is a mischievous clown or a psychopathic killer. In "The Clown at Midnight '' (Batman # 663, 2007), the Joker enters a meditative state where he evaluates his previous selves to consciously create a new personality, effectively modifying himself for his needs.
The Killing Joke (in which the Joker is the unreliable narrator) explains the roots of his insanity as "one bad day '': losing his wife and unborn child and being disfigured by chemicals, paralleling Batman 's origin in the loss of his parents. He tries (and fails) to prove that anyone can become like him after one bad day by torturing Commissioner Gordon, physically and psychologically. Batman offers to rehabilitate his foe; the Joker apologetically declines, believing it too late for him to be saved. Other interpretations show that the Joker is fully aware of how his actions affect others and that his insanity as merely an act. Comics scholar Peter Coogan describes the Joker as trying to reshape reality to fit himself by imposing his face on his victims (and fish) in an attempt to make the world comprehensible by creating a twisted parody of himself. Englehart 's "The Laughing Fish '' demonstrates the character 's illogical nature: trying to copyright fish which bear his face, and not understanding why threatening the copyright clerk can not produce the desired result.
The Joker is alternatively depicted as sexual and asexual. In The Dark Knight Returns and Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth, the Joker is seductive toward Batman; it is uncertain if their relationship has homoerotic undertones or if the Joker is simply trying to manipulate his nemesis. Frank Miller interpreted the character as fixated on death and uninterested in sexual relationships, while Robinson believes that the Joker is capable of a romantic relationship. His relationship with Harley Quinn is abusively paradoxical; although the Joker keeps her at his side, he heedlessly harms her (for example, throwing her out a window without seeing if she survives). Harley loves him but the Joker does not reciprocate her feelings, chiding her for distracting him from other plans.
Snyder 's "Death of the Family '' describes the Joker as in love with Batman, although not in a traditionally romantic way. The Joker believes that Batman has not killed him because he makes Batman better, and he loves the villain for that. Batman comic book writer Peter Tomasi concurred, stating that the Joker 's main goal is to make Batman the best that he can be. The Joker and Batman represent opposites: the extroverted Joker wears colorful clothing and embraces chaos, while the introverted, monochromatic Batman represents order and discipline. The Joker is often depicted as defining his existence through his conflict with Batman. In 1994 's "Going Sane '', the villain tries to lead a normal life after Batman 's (apparent) death, only to become his old self again when Batman reappears; in "Emperor Joker '', an apparently omnipotent Joker can not destroy Batman without undoing himself. Since the Joker is simply "the Joker '', he believes that Batman is "Batman '' (with or without the costume) and has no interest in what is behind Batman 's mask, ignoring opportunities to learn Batman 's secret identity. Given the opportunity to kill Batman, the villain demurs; he believes that without their game, winning is pointless. The character has no desire for typical criminal goals like money or power; his criminality is designed only to continue his game with Batman.
The Joker is portrayed as having no fear; when fellow supervillain Scarecrow doses him with fear toxin in Knightfall (1993), the Joker merely laughs and says, "Boo! ''. The villain has been temporarily rendered sane by several means, including telepathic manipulation by the Martian Manhunter and being resurrected in a life - restoring Lazarus Pit (an experience typically inducing temporary insanity in the subject). At these moments, the Joker is depicted as expressing remorse for his acts; however, during a medically induced period of partial sanity in Batman: Cacophony he tells his opponent: "I do n't hate you ' cause I 'm crazy. I 'm crazy ' cause I hate you, '' and confirms that he will only stop murdering when Batman is dead.
The Joker has no inherent superhuman abilities. He commits crimes with a variety of weaponized thematic props such as a deck of razor - tipped playing cards, rolling marbles, Jack - in - the - boxes with unpleasant surprises and exploding cigars capable of leveling a building. The flower in his lapel sprays acid, and his hand often holds a lethal joy buzzer conducting a million volts of electricity, although both items were introduced in 1952 as harmless joke items. However, his chemical genius provides his most - notable weapon: Joker venom, a liquid or gaseous toxin which sends its targets into fits of uncontrollable laughter; higher doses can lead to paralysis, coma or death, leaving its victim with a ghoulish, pained rictus grin. The Joker has used venom since his debut; only he knows the formula, and is shown to be gifted enough to manufacture the toxin from ordinary household chemicals. Another version of the venom (used in "Joker 's Last Laugh '') makes its victims resemble the Joker, susceptible to his orders. The villain is immune to venom and most poisons; in Batman # 663 (2007), Morrison writes that being "an avid consumer of his own chemical experiments, the Joker 's immunity to poison concoctions that might kill another man in an instant has been developed over years of dedicated abuse. ''
The character 's arsenal is inspired by his nemesis ' weaponry, such as batarangs. In "The Joker 's Utility Belt '' (1952), he mimicked Batman 's utility belt with non-lethal items, such as Mexican jumping beans and sneezing powder. In 1942 's "The Joker Follows Suit '' the villain built his versions of the Batplane and Batmobile, the Jokergyro and Jokermobile (the latter with a large Joker face on its hood), and created a Joker signal with which criminals could summon him for their heists. The Jokermobile lasted for several decades, evolving with the Batmobile. His technical genius is not limited by practicality, allowing him to hijack Gotham 's television airwaves to issue threats, transform buildings into death traps, launch a gas attack on the city and rain poisoned glass shards on its citizens from an airship.
The Joker is portrayed as skilled in melee combat, from his initial appearances when he defeats Batman in a sword fight (nearly killing him), and others when he overwhelms Batman but declines to kill him. He is talented with firearms, although even his guns are theatrical; his long - barreled revolver often releases a flag reading "Bang '', and a second trigger - pull launches the flag to skewer its target. Although formidable in combat, the Joker 's chief asset is his mind.
The Joker 's unpredictable, homicidal nature makes him one of the most feared supervillains in the DC Universe; the Trickster says in the 2005 mini-series Underworld Unleashed, "When super-villains want to scare each other, they tell Joker stories ''. Gotham 's villains also feel threatened by the character; depending on the circumstances, he is as likely to fight with his rivals for control of the city as he is to join them for an entertaining outcome. The Joker interacts with other supervillains who oppose Batman, whether he is on the streets or in Arkham Asylum. He has collaborated with criminals like the Penguin, the Riddler and Two - Face, although these partnerships rarely end well due to the Joker 's desire for unbridled chaos, and uses his stature to lead others (such as Killer Croc and the Scarecrow). The Joker 's greatest rival is the smartest man in the world, Lex Luthor. Although they have a friendly partnership in 1950 's World 's Finest Comics # 88, later unions emphasized their mutual hostility and clashing egos.
Despite his tendency to kill subordinates on a whim, the Joker has no difficulty attracting henchmen with a seemingly infinite cash supply and intimidation: they are too afraid of their employer to refuse his demands that they wear red clown noses or laugh at macabre jokes. Even with his unpredictability and lack of superhuman powers, the 2007 limited series Salvation Run sees hundreds of villains fall under his spell because they are more afraid of him than the alternative: Luthor. Batman # 186 (1966) introduced the Joker 's first sidekick: the one - shot character, Gaggy Gagsworth, who is short, and dressed like a clown; the character was later resurrected as an enemy of his replacement, Harley Quinn. Introduced in the 1992 animated series, Quinn is the Joker 's former Arkham psychiatrist who develops an obsessive infatuation with him and dons a red - and - black harlequin costume to join him in the 1999 graphic novel Batman: Harley Quinn. Although Quinn loves the Joker, he is obsessed with Batman and uses her to achieve his goals at her expense. Despite violent abuse, she returns to him. The Joker is sometimes shown to keep hyenas as pets; this trait was introduced in the 1977 animated series The New Adventures of Batman. A 1976 issue of Batman Family introduced Duela Dent as the Joker 's daughter, though her parentage claim was later proven to be false.
Although his chief obsession is Batman, the character has occasionally ventured outside Gotham City to fight Batman 's superhero allies. In "To Laugh and Die in Metropolis '' (1987) the character kidnaps Lois Lane, distracting Superman with a nuclear weapon. The story is notable for the Joker taking on a (relative) god and the ease with which Superman defeats him -- it took only 17 pages. Asked why he came to Metropolis, the Joker replies simply: "Oh Superman, why not? '' In 1995, the Joker fought his third major DC hero: Wonder Woman, who drew on the Greek god of trickery to temper the Joker 's humor and shatter his confidence. The character has joined supervillain groups like the Injustice Gang and the Injustice League, to take on superhero groups like the Justice League.
The Joker is considered one of, if not, the most - recognizable and iconic fictional characters in popular culture (Batman 's arguable equal), one of the best comic villains, and one of the greatest villains of all - time. The character was well - liked following his debut, appearing in nine out of the first twelve Batman issues, and remained one of Batman 's most popular foes throughout his publication. The character is considered one of the four top comic book characters, alongside Batman, Superman, and Spider - Man. Indeed, when DC Comics released the original series of Greatest Stories Ever Told (1987 -- 1988) featuring collections of stories about heroes like Batman and Superman, the Joker was the only villain included alongside them. The character has been the focus of ethical discussion on the desirability of Batman (who adheres to an unbreakable code forbidding killing) saving lives by murdering the Joker (a relentless dealer of death). These debates weigh the positive (stopping the Joker permanently) against its effect on Batman 's character and the possibility that he might begin killing all criminals.
In 2006, the Joker was number one on Wizard magazine 's "100 Greatest Villains of All Time ''. In 2008 Wizard 's list of "200 Greatest Comic Book Characters of All Time '' placed the Joker fifth, and the character was eighth on Empire 's list of "50 Greatest Comic Book Characters '' (the highest - ranked villain on both lists). In 2009 the Joker was second on IGN 's list of "Top 100 Comic Book Villains '', and in 2011 Wired named him "Comics ' Greatest Supervillain ''. Complex, CollegeHumor and WhatCulture named the Joker the greatest comic book villain of all time while IGN listed him the top DC Comics villain in 2013, and Newsarama as the greatest Batman villain.
The Joker 's popularity (and his role as Batman 's enemy) has involved the character in most Batman - related media, from television to video games. These adaptations of the character have been received positively on film, television, and in video games. As in the comics, the character 's personality and appearance shift; he is campy, ferocious or unstable, depending on the author and the intended audience.
The character inspired theme - park roller coasters (The Joker 's Jinx, The Joker in Mexico and California, and The Joker Chaos Coaster), and featured in story - based rides such as Justice League: Battle for Metropolis. The Joker is one of the few comic book supervillains to be represented on children 's merchandise and toys, appearing on items including action figures, trading cards, board games, money boxes, pajamas, socks, and shoes. The Jokermobile was a popular toy; a Corgi die - cast metal replica was successful during the 1950s, and in the 1970s a Joker - styled, Flower power - era Volkswagen microbus was manufactured by Mego. In 2015, "The Joker: A Serious Study of the Clown Prince of Crime '' became the first academic book to be published about a supervillain.
Since the Bronze Age of Comics, the Joker has been interpreted as an archetypal trickster, displaying talents for cunning intelligence, social engineering, pranks, theatricality, and idiomatic humor. Like the trickster, the Joker alternates between malicious violence and clever, harmless whimsy. He is amoral and not driven by ethical considerations, but by a shameless and insatiable nature, and although his actions are condemned as evil, he is necessary for cultural robustness. The trickster employs amoral and immoral acts to destabilize the status quo and reveal cultural, political, and ethical hypocrisies that society attempts to ignore. However, the Joker differs in that his actions typically only benefit himself. The Joker possesses abnormal body imagery, reflecting an inversion of order. The trickster is simultaneously subhuman and superhuman, a being that indicates a lack of unity in body and mind. In Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth, the Joker serves as Batman 's trickster guide through the hero 's own psyche, testing him in various ways before ultimately offering to cede his rule of the Asylum to Batman.
Rather than the typical anarchist interpretation, others have analysed the character as a Marxist (opposite to Batman 's capitalist), arguing that anarchism requires the rejection of all authority in favor of uncontrolled freedom. The Joker rejects most authority, but retains his own, using his actions to coerce and consolidate power in himself and convert the masses to his own way of thinking, while eliminating any that oppose him. In The Killing Joke, the Joker is an abused member of the underclass who is driven insane by failings of the social system. The Joker rejects material needs, and his first appearance in Batman # 1 sees him perpetrate crimes against Gotham 's wealthiest men and the judge who had sent him to prison. Batman is wealthy, yet the Joker is able to triumph through his own innovations.
Ryan Litsey described the Joker as an example of a "Nietzschean Superman '', arguing that a fundamental aspect of Friedrich Nietzsche 's Superman, the "will to power '', is exemplified in all of the Joker 's actions, providing a master morality to Batman 's slave morality. The character 's indomitable "will to power '' means he is never discouraged by being caught or defeated and he is not restrained by guilt or remorse. Joker represents the master, who creates rules and defines them, who judges others without needing approval, and for whom something is good because it benefits him. He creates his own morality and is bound only by his own rules without aspiring to something higher than himself, unlike Batman, the slave, who makes a distinction between good and evil, and is bound to rules outside of himself (such as his avoidance of killing), in his quest for justice. The Joker has no defined origin story that requires him to question how he came to be, as like the Superman he does not regret or assess the past and only moves forward.
The Joker 's controlling and abusive relationship with Harley Quinn has been analysed as a means of the Joker reinforcing his own belief in his power in a world where he may be killed or neutralized by another villain or Batman. Joker mirrors his identity through Harley in her appearance, and even though he may ignore or act indifferent towards her, he continues to try and subject her to his control. When Harley successfully defeats Batman in Mad Love (1994), the Joker, emasculated by his own failure, severely injures her out of fear of what the other villains will think of him. However, while Harley recovers, the Joker sends her flowers which she accepts, reasserting his control over her.
Harley 's co-creator, Paul Dini, describes their relationship as Harley being someone who makes the Joker feel better about himself, and who can do the work that he does not want to do himself. In the 1999 one - shot comic Batman: Harley Quinn, the Joker decides to kill Harley, after admitting that he does care for her, that their relationship is romantic, and that these feelings prevent him from fulfilling his purpose. Removing the traditional male - female relationship, such as in the Batman: Thrillkiller storyline where the Joker (Bianca Steeplechase) is a female and involved in a lesbian relationship with Harley, their relationship lacks any aspects of violence or subjugation.
The Joker has appeared in a variety of media, including television series, animated and live - action films. WorldCat (a catalog of libraries in 170 countries) records over 250 productions featuring the Joker as a subject, including films, books, and video games, and Batman films featuring the character are typically the most successful. The character 's earliest on - screen adaptation was in the 1966 television series Batman and its film adaptation Batman, in which he was played as a cackling prankster by Cesar Romero (reflecting his contemporary comic counterpart). The Joker then appeared in the animated television series The Adventures of Batman (1968, voiced by Larry Storch), The New Adventures of Batman (1977, voiced by Lennie Weinrib) and The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guardians (1985, voiced by Frank Welker).
A darker version of the Joker (played by Jack Nicholson) made his film debut in 1989 's Batman, which earned over $400 million at the worldwide box office. The role was a defining performance in Nicholson 's career and was considered to overshadow Batman 's, with film critic Roger Ebert saying that the audience must sometimes remind themselves not to root for the Joker. Batman 's success led to the 1992 television series, Batman: The Animated Series. Voiced by Mark Hamill, the Joker retained the darker tone of the comics in stories acceptable for young children. Hamill 's Joker is considered a defining portrayal, and he voiced the character in spin - off films (1993 's Batman: Mask of the Phantasm and 2000 's Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker), video games (2001 's Batman: Vengeance), related series (1996 's Superman: The Animated Series, 2000 's Static Shock and 2001 's Justice League), action figures, toys and amusement - park voiceovers. A redesigned Joker, voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson, appeared in 2004 's The Batman; Richardson was the first African - American to play the character.
After Christopher Nolan 's successful 2005 Batman film reboot, Batman Begins, which ended with a teaser for the Joker 's involvement in a sequel, the character appeared in 2008 's The Dark Knight, played by Heath Ledger as an avatar of anarchy and chaos. While Batman Begins earned a worldwide total of $370 million; The Dark Knight earned over $1 billion and was the highest - grossing film of the year, setting several box - office records (including highest - grossing midnight opening, opening day and opening weekend). Ledger won a posthumous Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance, the first acting Oscar ever won for a superhero film. The Joker has featured in a number of animated projects, such as 2009 's Batman: The Brave and the Bold (voiced by Jeff Bennett) and 2011 's Young Justice (voiced by Brent Spiner), and comic book adaptations (including 2010 's Batman: Under the Red Hood, in which he is voiced by John DiMaggio). In 2012, Michael Emerson voiced the character in a two - part animated adaptation of The Dark Knight Returns. Jared Leto portrayed the Joker in Suicide Squad (2016), and Zach Galifianakis voiced the character in The Lego Batman Movie (2017).
The Joker has also been featured in video games. Hamill returned to voice the character in 2009 's critically acclaimed Batman: Arkham Asylum, its equally praised 2011 sequel Batman: Arkham City and the multiplayer DC Universe Online. Hamill was replaced by Troy Baker for the 2013 prequel, Batman: Arkham Origins, and the Arkham series ' animated spin - off Batman: Assault on Arkham, while Hamill returned for the 2015 series finale, Batman: Arkham Knight. Richard Epcar voiced the Joker in the 2008 fighting game, Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe, 2013 's Injustice: Gods Among Us, and 2017 's Injustice 2. The character also appeared in Lego Batman: The Videogame (2008), Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes (2012) and its animated adaptation, and Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham (2014) (the latter three voiced by Christopher Corey Smith). Anthony Ingruber voices the Joker in Batman: The Telltale Series (2016) and Batman: The Enemy Within (2017).
|
where is the ductus arteriosus located in the fetal heart | Ductus arteriosus - wikipedia
In the developing fetus, the ductus arteriosus, also called the ductus Botalli, is a blood vessel connecting the main pulmonary artery to the proximal descending aorta. It allows most of the blood from the right ventricle to bypass the fetus 's fluid - filled non-functioning lungs. Upon closure at birth, it becomes the ligamentum arteriosum. There are two other fetal shunts, the ductus venosus and the foramen ovale.
The ductus arteriosus is formed from the left 6th aortic arch during embryonic development and attaches to the final part of the aortic arch (the isthmus of aorta) and the first part of the pulmonary artery
Failure of the DA to close after birth results in a condition called patent ductus arteriosus and the generation of a left - to - right shunt. If left uncorrected, patency leads to pulmonary hypertension and possibly congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias.
The E series of prostaglandins are responsible for maintaining the patency of the DA (by dilation of vascular smooth muscle) throughout the fetal period. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE), produced by both the placenta and the DA itself, is the most potent of the E prostaglandins, but prostaglandin E1 (PGE) also has a role in keeping the DA open. PGE and PGE keep the DA open via involvement of specific PGE - sensitive receptors (such as EP4 and EP2). EP4 is the major receptor associated with PGE - induced dilation of the DA and can be found across the DA in smooth muscle cells. Immediately after birth, the levels of both PGE and the EP4 receptors reduce significantly, allowing for closure of the DA and establishment of normal postnatal circulation.
In some types of congenital heart defect (e.g., transposition of the great arteries), prostaglandins may be administered to maintain DA patency, allowing for the continual circulation and oxygenation of blood, until surgery can be performed.
DA closure may be induced by administration of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), which inhibit prostaglandin production. The most common NSAID that is used to force DA closure is Indomethacin (a prostaglandin synthetase inhibitor), which can be administered after birth (used in first week of life). However, in the presence of a congenital defect with impaired lung perfusion (e.g. Pulmonary stenosis and left - to - right shunt through the ductus), it may be advisable to improve oxygenation by maintaining the ductus open with prostaglandin treatment. However, such treatments are ineffective in an abnormal ductus. Persistence of the ductus may be associated with other abnormalities, and is much more common in females. By inhibiting PGE formation, EP4 receptor activation will decrease and normal circulation can begin. NSAIDs taken late in pregnancy can cross the placenta and lead to premature closure of the DA in the fetus. In this case, exogenous PDE can be administered to reverse the effects of the NSAIDs and maintain the patency of the DA for the remainder of the pregnancy.
A patent ductus arteriosus affects approximately 4 % of infants with Down syndrome (DS). A failure to thrive is a very common sign of this condition.
|
what do the stripes on the georgia flag mean | Flag of Georgia (U.S. state) - Wikipedia
The current flag of the state of Georgia was adopted on May 8, 2003. The flag bears three stripes consisting of red - white - red, and a blue canton containing a ring of 13 white stars encompassing the state 's coat of arms in gold. In the coat of arms, the arch symbolizes the state 's constitution and the pillars represent the three branches of government: legislative, executive, and judicial. The words of the state motto, "Wisdom, Justice, and Moderation '', are wrapped around the pillars, guarded by a male figure dressed in colonial attire dating back to the time of the American Revolutionary War. Within the arms, a sword is drawn to represent the defense of the state 's constitution. An additional motto, In God We Trust, is positioned underneath these elements acting as the state 's "foundation ''. The ring of stars that encompass the state 's coat of arms symbolize Georgia 's status as one of the original Thirteen Colonies. The design principle is based on the first national flag of the Confederacy, which was nicknamed the "Stars and Bars ''.
I pledge allegiance to the Georgia Flag and to the principles for which it stands: Wisdom, Justice, and Moderation.
The 1879 flag was introduced by Georgia state senator Herman H. Perry and was adopted to memorialize Confederate soldiers during the American Civil War. Perry was a former colonel in the Confederate army during the war, and based the design of the flag on the first national flag of the Confederacy, also known as the "Stars and Bars ''. Over the following decades, the flag was changed by adding, and then changing the "charge '' on the flag.
The Georgia state flag that was used from 1956 to 2001 featured a prominent Confederate battle flag and was designed by Southern Democrat John Sammons Bell, a World War II veteran and an attorney who was an outspoken supporter of segregation.
The 1956 flag was adopted in an era when the Georgia General Assembly "was entirely devoted to passing legislation that would preserve segregation and white supremacy '', according to a 2000 research report by the Georgia Senate. There are few, if any, written records of what was said on the Georgia House and Senate floors when the 1956 flag bill was being introduced and passed by the Georgia legislature, nor does Georgia law provide for a statement of legislative intent when a bill is introduced, although former U.S. Congressman James Mackay, one of the 32 House members who opposed the change, later stated, "There was only one reason for putting the flag on there: like the gun rack in the back of a pickup truck, it telegraphs a message. '' Additionally, the 2000 report concluded that the "1956 General Assembly changed the state flag '' during "an atmosphere of preserving segregation and resentment '' to the U.S. government 's rulings on integration.
The 2000 report states that the people who had supported the flag 's change in the 1950s said, in recalling the event years later, that "the change was made in preparation for the Civil War centennial, which was five years away; or that the change was made to commemorate and pay tribute to the Confederate veterans of the Civil War. '' Bell, who designed the 1956 flag and supported its adoption during the 1950s as a defense of the state 's "institutions '', which at the time included segregation, claimed years later that he did so to honor Confederate soldiers. The 2000 report states that the claims that the flag was ostensibly changed in 1956 to honor Confederate soldiers came much later after the flag 's adoption, in an attempt by the change 's supporters to backtrack from prior support of segregationism in an era where it was no longer fashionable, saying that the "argument that the flag was changed in 1956 in preparation for the approaching Civil War centennial appears to be a retrospective or after - the - fact argument '' and that "no one in 1956, including the flag 's sponsors, claimed that the change was in anticipation of the coming anniversary ''.
At the time, opposition to changing the flag came from various sides, including from Confederate historical groups like the United Daughters of the Confederacy (UDC). Opponents to a change of the flag stated that incorporating the Confederate battle flag into the design would be too sectionalist, counterproductive, and divisive, saying that people should show patriotism towards the United States rather than the defunct Confederacy, referring to the U.S. Pledge of Allegiance, which states that the U.S. was "one nation '' and "indivisible ''. Opponents to the flag 's change also said that there was nothing wrong with the 1920 flag and that people were content with it. Others opposed changing the flag out of the burden it would place on those who would have to purchase a new flag to replace the outdated one.
The 2000 Georgia senate report and other critics have interpreted the adoption of the 1956 flag as a symbol of racist protest, citing legislation passed in 1956 which included bills rejecting Brown v. Board of Education and pro-segregationist comments by then - Governor Marvin Griffin, such as "The rest of the nation is looking to Georgia for the lead in segregation. ''
Political pressure for a change in the official state flag increased during the 1990s, in particular during the run - up to the 1996 Olympic Games that were held in Atlanta. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) focused on the Georgia flag as a major issue and some business leaders in Georgia felt that the perceptions of the flag were causing economic harm to the state. In 1992, Governor Zell Miller announced his intention to get the battle flag element removed, but the state legislature refused to pass any flag - modifying legislation. The matter was dropped after the 1993 legislative session. Many Atlanta residents and some Georgia politicians refused to fly the 1956 flag and flew the pre-1956 flag instead.
Miller 's successor as governor, Roy Barnes, responded to the increasing calls for a new state flag, and in 2001 hurried a replacement through the Georgia General Assembly. His new flag, designed by architect Cecil Alexander, sought a compromise, by featuring small versions of some (but not all) of Georgia 's former flags, including the controversial 1956 flag, under the words "Georgia 's History. '' Those flags are a thirteen - star U.S. flag of the "Betsy Ross '' design; the first Georgia flag (before 1879); the 1920 -- 1956 Georgia flag; the previous state flag (1956 -- 2001); and the current fifty - star U.S. flag.
In a 2001 survey on state and provincial flags in North America conducted by the North American Vexillological Association, the redesigned Georgia flag was ranked the worst by a wide margin. The group stated that the flag "violates all the principles of good flag design. '' After the 1956 state flag was replaced in 2001, the Georgia city of Trenton adopted a modified version as its official city flag, to protest its discontinuation.
In 2002, Sonny Perdue was elected Governor of Georgia, partially on a platform of allowing Georgians to choose their own flag in a state referendum. He authorized the Georgia legislature to draft a new flag in 2003.
The Georgia General Assembly 's proposed flag combined elements of Georgia 's previous flags, creating a composition that was inspired by the Confederate First National flag, the Stars and Bars, rather than the Confederate Battle Flag. Perdue signed the legislation into law on May 8, 2003.
The 2003 flag legislation also authorized a public referendum on which of the two most recent flags (the 2001 and 2003 versions) would be adopted as the flag of the state. The referendum took place during the state 's March 2, 2004 presidential primary election. If the 2003 flag was rejected, the pre-2001 design would have been put to a vote. The 2003 design won 73.1 % of the vote in the referendum.
|
what happened to russell jackson on madame secretary | Madam Secretary (TV series) - wikipedia
Madam Secretary is an American political drama television series created by Barbara Hall and executive produced by Lori McCreary and Morgan Freeman. It stars Téa Leoni as Elizabeth McCord, a former CIA analyst and political science professor turned Secretary of State. The series premiered on September 21, 2014. On October 27, 2014, CBS placed a full season order consisting of 22 episodes for the first season. On March 23, 2017, CBS renewed the series for a fourth season. In 2017, CBS sealed a multi-platform syndication deal worth an estimated $2 million per episode. On April 18, 2018, the series was renewed for a fifth season.
Madam Secretary explores Secretary Elizabeth McCord 's life as the determined United States Secretary of State. McCord drives international diplomacy, battles office politics, and circumvents protocol if needed as she negotiates worldwide issues. The show also focuses on the personal lives of the characters.
In Canada, the series airs on Global at the same time as the original broadcast. In Finland, it premiered January 1, 2016, on MTV3. The series has been popular in Finland: 11 % of Finnish people watched the first episode. In Australia, it premiered on October 2, 2014 on Network Ten. On October 23, 2014, it was announced that it will air on Sky Living in the United Kingdom, along with new formats to air TV3 in Ireland, and other international channels. The series launched in the United Kingdom on April 23, 2015. It is broadcast on Sony Channel Asia.
Madam Secretary has been met with generally positive reviews from TV critics. On Metacritic, the show has a score of 66 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the show holds a rating of 66 %, based on 50 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9 / 10. The site 's consensus reads, "Bolstered by Tea Leoni 's strong central performance, Madam Secretary is a solid but unspectacular political drama. ''
Three women have served as Secretary of State to date: Madeleine Albright from 1997 to 2001 under Bill Clinton, Condoleezza Rice from 2005 to 2009 under George W. Bush, and Hillary Clinton from 2009 to 2013 under Barack Obama. Shortly after the series ' debut, Fox News asked if the show therefore served as a campaign ad supporting Hillary Clinton, but quoted the Los Angeles Times saying the lead character was "no Hillary knockoff '' and a New York publicist calling the casting of a woman "simple business and smart on CBS ' behalf ''. Conservative activist organization Culture and Media Institute, however, said the connection was clear, citing the women 's blond hair and pantsuits.
When the trailer of the fifteenth episode of Season 3 (Break in Diplomacy) was released showing McCord punching fictional Philippine president Datu Andrada in the face as a response to the latter making sexual advancements to the protagonist, it became controversial in the Philippines due to what was seen as Andrada having parallelism with real - life President Rodrigo Duterte, who was known for making inappropriate and sexist remarks. The Philippine Embassy in Washington even published a statement protesting the negative depiction on its Facebook page.
The first episode of the fourth season, News Cycle, led to a hard protest from East Timor 's Minister of State and Nobel Peace Prize laureate José Ramos - Horta. "It 's a slander against a country that only shows ignorance and racism, '' he explained. The TV show used the border dispute between Australia and East Timor in the Timor Sea (The dispute is transferred in the TV show to the South China Sea, although neither Australia nor East Timor is bordering to it) as background story. East Timor is shown as a country controlled by a Mexican drug cartel and used for drug transfer. US Secretary of State McCord is asking China to take measures to prevent the leader of the drug cartel from making a narco - state out of East Timor.
|
kamen rider decade all rider vs dai shocker | Kamen Rider Decade: all Riders vs. Dai - Shocker - wikipedia
Kamen Rider Decade the Movie: All Riders vs. Dai - Shocker (劇場 版 仮面 ライダー ディケイド オール ライダー 対 大 ショッカー, Gekijōban Kamen Raidā Dikeido Ōru Raidā Tai Daishokkā, Masked Rider Decade the Movie: All Riders vs. Dai - Shocker) is the superhero film adaptation of the 2009 Kamen Rider Series Kamen Rider Decade. The film was released in Japanese theaters on August 8, 2009, alongside the Samurai Sentai Shinkenger film, Samurai Sentai Shinkenger The Movie: The Fateful War. In its first week in theaters, it opened at the # 1 spot, edging out Harry Potter (# 2) and Pokémon (# 3), earning over 2 billion yen (approx. US $21 M) in box office revenues. It is the highest grossing Kamen Rider film to date.
As Decade is billed as the 10th anniversary series of the Heisei period run of the Kamen Rider Series, the film features all ten of the lead Heisei Kamen Riders, as well as all of the Shōwa period Kamen Riders, leading to a total of 25 Riders (with three secondary Riders and three Diend - summoned Riders). Tetsuo Kurata reprises his role as Kotaro Minami and Toshiki Kashu reprises his role as Shouichi Tsugami. New actors portraying old redesigned characters include Renji Ishibashi as Doctor Shinigami and Ren Osugi as Ambassador Hell. The film also features Moe Arai as Tsukasa 's sister Sayo Kadoya and Ryuichi Oura as Nobuhiko Tsukikage, Decade 's incarnation of Shadow Moon. Filming began in May 2009.
Gackt, also celebrating his 10th anniversary as a solo artist, released "The Next Decade '' for the film 's theme song, as he had released "Journey through the Decade '' as the theme song for the television series. Gackt also appears in the film as Jōji Yūki.
The film also features the debut appearances of Kamen Rider Kuuga Rising Ultimate and the 11th Heisei Kamen Rider: Kamen Rider Double.
To promote the film, Ren Osugi and Renji Ishibashi appeared as their characters in Tokyo promoting themselves as members of the Dai - Shocker Party, tying in with the House of Representatives of Japan election of 2009. Also for the film, 7 - Eleven stores in Japan have contests to win All Riders vs. Dai - Shocker collectibles, in addition to selling special Kamen Rider Decade merchandise with Ganbaride cards and Heisei Rider 10th Anniversary merchandise. Also aired on Indosiar.
The Hikari Studio arrives in a new A.R. World where, after seeing that Tsukasa 's photos of this world are coming out perfectly, Natsumi realizes they may be in Tsukasa 's home world. Tsukasa realizes he remembers the mansion depicted on the backdrop that took them here. Finding the manor, Tsukasa opens the door as he Natsumi and Yuusuke meet a girl named Sayo, who identifies Tsukasa as her older brother. As Sayo learns that Tsukasa lost his memories, revealing how he left her a year ago, her caretaker Nobuhiko Tsukikage arrives and confronts him about leaving his sister alone for so long. But when the Nine Worlds fusion starts to influence the World of Decade, Tsukikage reveals that Tsukasa 's journey has now enabled a solution to the crisis by determining the strongest Kamen Rider in existence: The Rider Battle. When his memories return, Tsukasa gives Tsukikage the clearance to make it happen. Three days later, after numerous matches, it comes down to a 6 - man tag team match between the team of Decade, Kuuga, and Diend vs. V3, BLACK, and Super-1. With Diend running off and Kuuga wounded, Decade is forced to defeat all three on his own. Upon victory, a castle emerges from the stadium with Yusuke and Natsumi finding themselves in the throne room surrounded by various monsters as they are welcomed to Dai - Shocker before Eijiro appears as he suddenly reveals himself to be Doctor Shinigami, toasting to their leader 's return: Tsukasa. Revealing all of their actions were to ensure Dai - Shocker would achieve its goal of dominion of all the saved worlds, Tsukasa sends the horrified Natsumi and Yusuke into the sewers.
The two escape to the Kadoya mansion, learning of Tsukasa 's childhood from Sayo before learning that she and Tsukikage are with Dai - Shocker as the latter becomes Shadow Moon while the former uses her Stone of the Earth on Yusuke, unleashing the greatest and most dangerous of Kuuga 's powers within him. Yusuke tells Natsumi to run away before the powers are unleashed. At DaiShocker 's castle, seeing the worlds still gathering, Tsukasa learns from Tsukikage that the Battle Fight was a farce as Sayo arrives, declaring herself High Priestess Bishium as Tsukikage reveals he outlived his purpose before dropping himself into the sewers, where he is attacked by Yusuke as Kuuga Rising Ultimate Form, under the control of Sayo. Tsukasa goes to the Hikari Studio to try to reconcile with Natsumi, who can no longer trust him for using her to achieve his ends. Tsukasa pleads with her as the Hikari Studio is now his only home, but Natsumi still refuses, as she is now alone in the world. The next day, Dai - Shocker begins its attack across the worlds starting with the World of Decade. Finding herself in the middle of it, Natsumi is saved by Narutaki into another conquered world before they run into Daiki who had disguised himself as one of the attacking Dai - Shocker Soldiers. Seeing hope in Daiki 's ability to travel across worlds, Narutaki sees the only way to possibly save the worlds is to gather the Kamen Riders.
Elsewhere, with no one to turn to, Tsukasa is confronted by Jōji Yūki who attempts to get revenge on him for having lost his arm while working for Dai - Shocker. He is about to finish Tsukasa off until he realizes that Tsukasa has changed and that he is now Dai - Shocker 's target. Yūki pulls off his arm, revealing its robotic replacement and allows Tsukasa to escape as he prepares his transformation into Riderman. Elsewhere, after an attempt to recruit Kamen Riders Ouja and Kick Hopper ends bad, Diend and Natsumi are attacked by a Dai - Shocker platoon under General Jark. Though he summons Raia, Gai, and Punch Hopper to distract their new enemies as he flees the area with Natsumi, Diend is cornered by Jark as Tsukasa arrives, now intent on fighting Dai - Shocker and saving his friends. With Diend 's help, Decade drives off the monsters as Jark is destroyed by Diend.
Making their way to Dai - Shocker 's castle, Natsumi and the two Kamen Riders are confronted by the entire Dai - Shocker army led by Doctor Shinigami and Ambassador Hell as Ikadevil and Garagaranda respectively. Things seem bleak until all of the other Riders arrive to help. After Garagaranda and Ikadevil are destroyed, the Bishium - controlled Rising Ultimate Kuuga arrives to kill Decade. Attempting to get to his sister, he convinces her that she can fly like him and realize that Tsukikage is only using her to further his goals. Sayo realizes the error of her ways, and destroys the Stone of the Earth, freeing Yusuke from its control as Shadow Moon decides to finish them off himself. Before Shadow Moon could move in for the kill after defeating Decade and Kuuga, the unexpected arrival of Kamen Rider Double (Shotaro Hidari & Phillip) tips the scales as he takes out Shadow Moon on their own before taking his leave, pinning Shadow Moon into the castle. All of the other Riders join Decade in an All Rider Kick, destroying Shadow Moon and the Dai - Shocker castle. The resulting shock awakens King Dark as Diend arrives with Kamen Rider J. Using the Decadriver Final FormRide card, he turns Decade into the Jumbo Decadriver which then turns J into Decade Complete Form Jumbo Formation and he destroys King Dark with a variation of the Dimension Kick, using the other Riders as giant Kamen Ride Cards. After parting ways with the Riders, and making amends with Sayo as she begins her own journey, Tsukasa begins his true journey within the Hikari Studio, his true home, where Eijiro reappears as if nothing had happened.
The film primarily takes place within the A.R. World that is the true home of Tsukasa Kadoya and the center of Dai - Shocker 's operations, whose symbol connects Tsukasa to them. Tsukasa is reunited with his sister Sayo, who is somehow involved in Dai - Shocker as she is protected by Nobuhiko Tsukikage who can transform into Shadow Moon.
Much like with the Kamen Rider Kiva film Kamen Rider Kiva: King of the Castle in the Demon World, Kamen Rider Decade the Movie: All Riders vs. Dai - Shocker will had a series of Internet and cellphone spin - off films titled Net Edition Kamen Rider Decade: All Riders Super Spin - off (ネット 版 仮面 ライダー ディケイド オール ライダー 超 スピンオフ, Nettoban Kamen Raidā Dikeido Ōru Raidā Sūpā Supin'ofu). Thirty of these short films are made, taking place on the World of Net (ネット の 世界, Netto no Sekai), with the first aired on July 17, 2009. There were main five different formats for the web movies:
|
asian countries prime ministers and presidents list 2017 | List of state leaders in 2017 - wikipedia
This is a list of heads of state, government leaders, and other rulers in the year 2017.
|
where does the river taff start and finish | River Taff - wikipedia
The River Taff (Welsh: Afon Taf) is a river in Wales. It rises as two rivers in the Brecon Beacons -- the Taf Fechan (Little Taff) and the Taf Fawr (Big Taff) -- before joining to form the Taff north of Merthyr Tydfil. The river supports a number of migratory fish, including salmon, sea trout, and eel.
From its confluence at Cefn - coed - y - cymmer, the river flows south, passing several towns. It picks up a few tributaries, such as the River Cynon, River Rhondda, Bargoed Taf and Nant Clydach. It flows through Pontypridd and through to Taff 's Well, the site of Wales ' only thermal spring. It flows underneath the M4 Motorway, before turning southeastward and flowing through the Cardiff suburbs of Radyr, Whitchurch, Llandaff, Pontcanna, the city centre and Grangetown, before emptying into Cardiff Bay, near to the mouth of the River Ely.
In the early 1840s the South Wales Railway was trying to find a suitable site for a railway station, but the area that is now Cardiff Central railway station was prone to flooding. At this point the main route of the Taff was around Cardiff Castle and down what is now Westgate Street, with the lands where Cardiff Arms Park and the Millennium Stadium are now sited tidal flats which were prone to flood.
It was Isambard Kingdom Brunel 's solution to divert the Taff to the west, creating a larger and safer site for the station. The station was opened by the South Wales Railway in 1850.
The Taf Fawr rises below Corn Du, south - west of Pen y Fan and flows south through Beacons Reservoir, Cantref Reservoir and Llwyn - on Reservoir.
The Taf Fechan rises immediately to the south of Pen y Fan and runs southwards through the two Neuadd Reservoirs, Pentwyn Reservoir and finally Pontsticill reservoir before descending into a wooded gorge known as the Blue Pool and flowing south - westwards around the hamlet of Trefechan. To the south of Cefn - coed - y - cymmer, the Taf Fechan and Taf Fawr merge at the wooded confluence that gives Cefn - coed - y - cymmer its name.
The river holds a large population of wild brown trout, many of which were killed in 2006 when a large quantity of aluminium sulphate was flushed into the river from the Pontsticill Water Treatment Works, which United Utilities operate on behalf of Dwr Cymru Welsh Water. The pollution turned the water white for at least 5km downstream of the works and killed approximately 23,000 fish, including wild brown trout, bullheads, stickleback and pike, and a large number of invertebrates. Environment Agency Wales estimated that the river would take six to twelve years to recover. The trout population had resumed breeding by 2009.
Underneath the Cefn Coed Viaduct, the Nant Ffrwd, a tributary that runs eastward in a deep wooded gorge before flowing into the Taf Fawr above the confluence with the Taf Fechan, emerges into the river from a deep, narrow gorge.
The Taff continues south through the centre of Merthyr Tydfil, where it is joined by the Nant Morlais which emerges at Abermorlais from a culvert in the east bank. Just south of Merthyr weir, the Nant Rhydycar joins.
South of Merthyr, the Taff begins to meander its way between Pentrebach and Abercanaid and through Troed - y - rhiw, Merthyr Vale and Aberfan towards Quakers Yard. Here, the Taff Bargoed, Nant Mafon and then down into Abercynon in the Cynon Valley where the Afon Cynon merge with the Taff and, slightly further downstream the Nant Clydach joins. At Pontypridd it is joined by the Afon Rhondda. From Pontypridd, it runs roughly south, through Taff 's Well and Radyr, before arriving at the northern boundary of the city of Cardiff in Llandaff.
In Cardiff, the natural course of the river was changed during the 19th century; from Cardiff Castle it now follows an artificial riverbed west of where it previously flowed, now following a path through Bute Park and next to the Cardiff Arms Park and the former National Stadium, now the Millennium Stadium, and into Cardiff Bay, which has now become an artificial lake due to the construction of a barrage across the mouth of this river and the River Ely. It then flows out into the Severn Estuary.
The derogatory term "Taffy '' for a Welsh person is sometimes erroneously stated to have originated with the river. This may have given rise to a colloquial usage of the term by Cardiff residents for people from the Taff 's northern reaches (Mid Glamorgan Valleys).
The name actually originates as a corruption of the name Dafydd, with the Oxford English Dictionary describing the origin as "representing a supposed Welsh pronunciation of the given name Davy or David (Welsh Dafydd) ''. It was common for people in times of war to dehumanise an enemy by ascribing a singular name to them all. It is therefore an equivalent of other historic English pejoratives such as Paddy and Jock.
The term is a common nickname within the British army, with individual Welsh troops, units and especially the Welsh Guards sometimes referred to as "The Taffs ''. However, it has been reported that the guardsmen themselves never use that term.
Coordinates: 51 ° 28 ′ N 3 ° 11 ′ W / 51.467 ° N 3.183 ° W / 51.467; - 3.183
|
who was the first person known to wear a diamond engagement ring | Engagement ring - wikipedia
An engagement ring is a ring indicating that the person wearing it is engaged to be married, especially in Western cultures. In Western countries, engagement rings are worn mostly by women, and rings can feature diamonds or other gemstones. In some other cultures men and women wear matching rings. In some cultures, engagement rings may also be used as wedding rings.
A ring is presented as an engagement gift by a partner to their prospective spouse when they propose marriage or directly after a marriage proposal is accepted. It represents a formal agreement to future marriage.
In Western countries, it is customarily worn on the left hand ring finger, though customs vary across the world.
A couple in a committed relationship may give each other and wear pre-engagement rings, also called friendship or promise rings. Neither the engagement nor any other ring is worn during the wedding ceremony, when the wedding ring is put by the groom on the finger of the bride as part of the ceremony, and sometimes by the bride onto the groom 's finger. After the wedding, the engagement ring is usually put back on, and is usually worn on the outside of the wedding ring. Some brides have their engagement and wedding rings permanently soldered together after the wedding.
Although the ancient Egyptians are sometimes credited with having invented the engagement ring, and the ancient Greeks with having adopted the tradition, the history of the engagement ring can only be reliably traced as far back as ancient Rome.
In many countries, engagement rings are placed on the ring finger of the left hand. At one time it was believed that this finger contained a vein (the vena amoris) that led to the heart. This idea was popularized by Henry Swinburne in A treatise of Spousals, or Matrimonial Contracts (1686). The story seems to have its origin in the ancient Roman book Attic Nights by Aulus Gellius quoting Apion 's Aegyptiacorum, where the alleged vein was originally a nervus (a word that can be translated either as "nerve '' or "sinew '').
The popular belief that an engagement ring was originally part of the bride price which represented purchase and ownership of the bride, has been called into question by contemporary scholarship.
In the second century BC, the Roman bride - to - be was given two rings, a gold one which she wore in public, and one made of iron which she wore at home while attending to household duties. At one time Roman citizens wore rings made of iron. In later years senators who served as ambassadors were given gold seal rings for official use when abroad. Later the privilege of wearing gold rings was extended to other public officials, then to the knights, later to all freeborn, and finally under Justinian, to freedmen. For several centuries it was the custom for Romans to wear iron rings at home, gold rings in public. During this period a girl or woman might receive two engagement rings, one of iron and one of gold.
The mid-7th century Visigothic Code required "that when the ceremony of betrothal has been performed,..., and the ring shall have been given or accepted as a pledge, although nothing may have been committed to writing, the promise shall, under no circumstances, be broken. ''
In 860 AD, Pope Nicholas I wrote a letter to Boris I of Bulgaria in reply to questions regarding differences between Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox practices. Pope Nicholas describes how in the Western church the man gives his betrothed an engagement ring. At the Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215, convoked by Pope Innocent III, the banns of marriage was instituted, prohibiting clandestine marriages and requiring that marriages be made public in advance. Some legal scholars have seen in this a parallel with the engagement - ring tradition described by Pope Nicholas I.
The first well - documented use of a diamond ring to signify engagement was by the Archduke Maximilian of Austria in imperial court of Vienna in 1477, upon his betrothal to Mary of Burgundy. This then influenced those of higher social class and of significant wealth to give diamond rings to their loved ones.
During the Protestant Reformation the wedding ring replaced the betrothal ring as the primary ring associated with marriage. In Catholic countries the transition took place somewhat later.
There is a modern belief that in early colonial New England, where Puritans shunned ornaments and jewels, a thimble substituted for both engagement ring and wedding ring; and some women would remove the tops of the thimble in order to create a ring. Some researchers strongly believe this to be just a myth without basis in reality.
During the Age of Enlightenment both the gimmal rings and posie rings were popular, although the latter was more often used as an expression of sentiment than to indicate a formal engagement.
In South Africa, diamonds were first found in 1866, although they were not identified as such until 1867. By 1872, the output of the diamond mines exceeded one million carats per year. As production increased, those of lesser means were able to join in on this movement. However, diamond engagement rings were for a long time seen as the domain of the nobility and aristocracy, and tradition often favoured simpler engagement bands.
In the United States, the popularity of diamond engagement rings declined after World War I, even more so after the onset of the Great Depression.
In 1938, the diamond cartel De Beers began a marketing campaign that would have a major impact on engagement rings. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the price of diamonds collapsed. At the same time, market research indicated that engagement rings were going out of style with the younger generation. While the first phase of the marketing campaign consisted of market research, the advertising phase began in 1939. One of the first elements of this campaign was to educate the public about the 4 Cs (cut, carats, color, and clarity). In 1947 the slogan "a diamond is forever '' was introduced. Ultimately, the De Beers campaign sought to persuade the consumer that an engagement ring is indispensable, and that a diamond is the only acceptable stone for an engagement ring.
In the 20th century, if he could afford it, the typical Western groom privately selected and purchased an engagement ring, which he then presented to his desired bride when he proposed marriage. In countries where both partners wear engagement rings, matching rings may be selected and purchased together. In the United States and Canada, where only women traditionally wear engagement rings, women also occasionally present their partners with an engagement gift.
Like all jewelry, the price for an engagement ring varies considerably depending on the materials used: the design of the ring, whether it includes a gemstone, the value of any gemstone, and the seller. The price of the gemstones, if any, in the ring depends on the type and quality of the gem. Diamonds have a standardized description that values them according to their carat weight, color, clarity and cut. Other gemstones, such as sapphires, rubies, emeralds, have different systems. These may be chosen to honor a family tradition, to use family heirlooms, to be unique, to be socially responsible (they are not associated with blood diamonds or the pollution caused by gold mining and cyanide process), to fit the individual 's stylistic preferences, or to manage cost. Synthetic stones and diamond substitutes such as cubic zirconias and moissanites are also popular choices that are socially responsible and reduce cost while maintaining the desired appearance.
The idea that a man should spend a significant fraction of his annual income for an engagement ring originated from De Beers marketing materials in the mid-20th century in an effort to increase the sale of diamonds. In the 1930s, they suggested that a man should spend the equivalent of one month 's income in the engagement ring; later they suggested that he should spend two months ' income on it. In 2012, the average cost of an engagement ring in USA as reported by the industry was US $4,000. In the UK, estimates of the average cost of an engagement ring range from £ 1200 to £ 2000.
One reason for the increased popularity of expensive engagement rings is its relationship to human sexuality and the woman 's marriage prospects. In the United States, until the Great Depression, a man who broke off a marriage engagement could be sued for breach of promise. Monetary damages included actual expenses incurred in preparing for the wedding, plus damages for emotional distress and loss of other marriage prospects. Damages were greatly increased if the woman had engaged in sexual intercourse with her fiancé. Beginning in 1935, these laws were repealed or limited. However, the social and financial cost of a broken engagement was no less: marriage was the only financially sound option for most women, and if she was no longer a virgin, her prospects for a suitable future marriage were greatly decreased. The diamond engagement ring thus became a source of financial security for the woman.
The online purchase of engagement rings is growing, disrupting the market for the diamonds by bringing greater transparency to an industry that has traditionally relied on opacity. Online diamond retailers and e-commerce platforms include Rare Carat, Blue Nile, Brilliant Earth, and Costco.
Tradition generally holds that if the betrothal fails because the man himself breaks off the engagement, the woman is not obliged to return the ring. This reflects the ring 's role as a form of compensation for the woman 's damaged reputation. Legally, this condition can be subject to either a modified or a strict fault rule. Under the former, the fiancé can demand the return of the ring unless he breaks the engagement. Under the latter, the fiancé is entitled to the return unless his actions caused the breakup of the relationship, the same as the traditional approach. However, a no - fault rule is being advanced in some jurisdictions, under which the fiancé is always entitled to the return of the ring. The ring only becomes the property of the woman when marriage occurs. An unconditional gift approach is another possibility, wherein the ring is always treated as a gift, to be kept by the fiancée whether or not the relationship progresses to marriage. Recent court rulings have determined that the date in which the ring was offered can determine the condition of the gift. E.g. Valentine 's Day and Christmas are widely recognized as gift giving holidays in the United States and some other countries. A ring offered in the form of a Christmas present is likely to remain the personal property of the recipient in the event of a breakup.
In most states of the United States, engagement rings are considered "conditional gifts '' under the legal rules of property. This is an exception to the general rule that gifts can not be revoked once properly given. See, for example, the case of Meyer v. Mitnick, 625 N.W. 2d 136 (Michigan, 2001), whose ruling found the following reasoning persuasive: "the so - called ' modern trend ' holds that because an engagement ring is an inherently conditional gift, once the engagement has been broken, the ring should be returned to the donor. Thus, the question of who broke the engagement and why, or who was ' at fault, ' is irrelevant. This is the no - fault line of cases. '' Though in certain states, whether a judicial action can be maintained at all to require return of an engagement ring is blocked by statute, as many states have statutes which state that no civil action shall be maintained for breach of promise to marry.
One case in New South Wales, Australia ended in the man suing his former fiancée because she threw the ring away, after he told her she could keep it even though the marriage plans had fallen through. The Supreme Court of New South Wales held that, despite what the man said, the ring remained a conditional gift (partly because his saying that she could keep it reflected his desire to salvage the relationship) and she was ordered to pay him its A $15,250 cost.
In England and Wales, the gift of an engagement ring is presumed to be an absolute gift to the fiancée. This presumption may be rebutted however by proving that the ring was given on condition (express or implied) that it must be returned if the marriage did not take place, for whatever reason. This was decided in the case Jacobs v Davis (1917).
Engagement rings, like any other kind of jewelry, come in many different styles.
Gold (Available in Yellow Gold, White Gold and Rose Gold) and platinum are preferred for engagement rings, but common metal types such as titanium, silver, and stainless steel are also used for engagement rings. This allows for the bride - to - be to exert her own individual style into the ring in a simple manner.
In the United States, where engagement rings are worn by women, diamonds have been widely featured in engagement rings since the middle of the 20th century. Solitaire rings have one single diamond. The most common setting for engagement rings is the solitaire prong setting, which was popularized by Tiffany & Co. in 1886 and its six - claw prong setting design sold under the "Tiffany setting '' trademark. The modern favorite cut for an engagement ring is the brilliant cut, which provides the maximum amount of sparkle to the gemstone. The traditional engagement rings may have different prong settings and bands. Another major category is engagement rings with side stones. Rings with a larger diamond set in the middle and smaller diamonds on the side fit under this category. Three - stone diamond engagement rings, sometimes called trinity rings or trilogy rings, are rings with three matching diamonds set horizontally in a row with the bigger stone placed in the center. The three diamonds on the ring are typically said to represent the couple 's past, present, and future, but other people give religious significance to the arrangement.
A wedding set, or bridal set, includes an engagement ring and a wedding band that matches and can be bought as a set. In some cases, the wedding ring looks "incomplete ''; it is only when the two halves, engagement and wedding, are assembled that the ring looks whole. In other cases, a wedding set consists of two rings that match stylistically and are worn stacked, although either piece would look appropriate as a separate ring. Although the wedding band is not to be worn until the wedding day, the two rings are usually sold together as a wedding set. After the wedding, the bride may choose to have the two pieces welded together, to increase convenience and reduce the likelihood of losing one of the rings. A trio ring set includes a ladies engagement ring, ladies wedding band and a men 's wedding band. These sets often have matching rings and are lower in price.
In Nordic countries, engagement rings are worn by both men and women. Traditionally they are plain gold bands, although more ornate designs and other materials are gaining popularity. The engagement rings resemble the wedding bands sold in the United States, whereas women 's wedding rings may resemble US engagement rings.
In North America and the United Kingdom, it is customarily worn on the left hand ring finger. Similar traditions purportedly date to classical times, dating back from an early usage reportedly referring to the fourth finger of the left hand as containing the vena amoris or "vein of love ''. This custom may have its origins in an ancient Egyptian myth that the finger contained a vein leading directly to the heart, or it may simply be because the heart lies slightly to the left side of the body. In Germany the ring is worn on the left hand while engaged, but moved to the right hand when married. In Poland and Turkey, the engagement ring and wedding band are traditionally worn on the right hand but modern practice varies considerably.
In some countries it is common for both men and women to wear engagement rings. The rings are often in the form of a plain band of a precious metal. Sometimes, the engagement ring eventually serves as the wedding ring for the man. In Brazil, for example, the groom and bride - to - be usually wear a plain wedding band on the right hand during the course of their engagement. After the wedding, the band is moved to the left hand. In Argentina, it is also known for the groom and bride - to - be to wear a plain silver band on the left hand while engaged. Then, after the wedding the silver band is either replaced with the wedding ring or moved to the right hand.
Traditionally, women in the British Isles may propose marriage to men during a leap year. Women proposing has become more common in recent years, to the point that some jewelry companies have started manufacturing men 's engagement rings. They resemble typical men 's rings, often with a diamond centrepiece. In the countries where both sexes have traditionally worn engagement rings, the rings tend to be plainer bands, and there is no real difference between men 's and women 's engagement ring designs.
|
mention two outstanding features of the renaissance art | Renaissance art - wikipedia
Renaissance art is the painting, sculpture and decorative arts of the period of European history, emerging as a distinct style in Italy in about 1400, in parallel with developments which occurred in philosophy, literature, music, and science. Renaissance art, perceived as the noblest of ancient traditions, took as its foundation the art of Classical antiquity, but transformed that tradition by absorbing recent developments in the art of Northern Europe and by applying contemporary scientific knowledge. Renaissance art, with Renaissance Humanist philosophy, spread throughout Europe, affecting both artists and their patrons with the development of new techniques and new artistic sensibilities. Renaissance art marks the transition of Europe from the medieval period to the Early Modern age.
In many parts of Europe, Early Renaissance art was created in parallel with Late Medieval art. Renaissance art, painting, sculpture, architecture, music, and literature produced during the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries in Europe under the combined influences of an increased awareness of nature, a revival of classical learning, and a more individualistic view of man. Scholars no longer believe that the Renaissance marked an abrupt break with medieval values, as is suggested by the French word renaissance, literally "rebirth. '' Rather, historical sources suggest that interest in nature, humanistic learning, and individualism were already present in the late medieval period and became dominant in 15th - and 16th - century Italy concurrently with social and economic changes such as the secularization of daily life, the rise of a rational money - credit economy, and greatly increased social mobility. The influences upon the development of Renaissance men and women in the early 15th century are those that also affected Philosophy, Literature, Architecture, Theology, Science, Government, and other aspects of society. The following list presents a summary, dealt with more fully in the main articles that are cited above.
In Italy in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, the sculpture of Nicola Pisano and his son Giovanni Pisano, working at Pisa, Siena and Pistoia shows markedly classicising tendencies, probably influenced by the familiarity of these artists with ancient Roman sarcophagi. Their masterpieces are the pulpits of the Baptistery and Cathedral of Pisa.
Contemporary with Giovanni Pisano, the Florentine painter Giotto developed a manner of figurative painting that was unprecedentedly naturalistic, three - dimensional, lifelike and classicist, when compared with that of his contemporaries and teacher Cimabue. Giotto, whose greatest work is the cycle of the Life of Christ at the Arena Chapel in Padua, was seen by the 16th century biographer Giorgio Vasari as "rescuing and restoring art '' from the "crude, traditional, Byzantine style '' prevalent in Italy in the 13th century.
The painters of the Low Countries in this period included Jan van Eyck, his brother Hubert van Eyck, Robert Campin, Hans Memling, Rogier van der Weyden and Hugo van der Goes. Their painting developed partly independently of Early Italian Renaissance painting, and without the influence of a deliberate and conscious striving to revive antiquity.
The style of painting grew directly out of medieval painting in tempera, on panels and illuminated manuscripts, and other forms such as stained glass; the medium of fresco was less common in northern Europe. The medium used was oil paint, which had long been utilised for painting leather ceremonial shields and accoutrements, because it was flexible and relatively durable. The earliest Netherlandish oil paintings are meticulous and detailed like tempera paintings. The material lent itself to the depiction of tonal variations and texture, so facilitating the observation of nature in great detail.
The Netherlandish painters did not approach the creation of a picture through a framework of linear perspective and correct proportion. They maintained a medieval view of hierarchical proportion and religious symbolism, while delighting in a realistic treatment of material elements, both natural and man - made. Jan van Eyck, with his brother Hubert, painted The Altarpiece of the Mystical Lamb. It is probable that Antonello da Messina became familiar with Van Eyck 's work, while in Naples or Sicily. In 1475, Hugo van der Goes ' Portinari Altarpiece arrived in Florence where it was to have a profound influence on many painters, most immediately Domenico Ghirlandaio who painted an altarpiece imitating its elements.
A very significant Netherlandish painter towards the end of the period was Hieronymus Bosch, who employed the type of fanciful forms that were often utilized to decorate borders and letters in illuminated manuscripts, combining plant and animal forms with architectonic ones. When taken from the context of the illumination and peopled with humans, these forms give Bosch 's paintings a surreal quality which have no parallel in the work of any other Renaissance painter. His masterpiece is the triptych The Garden of Earthly Delights.
Although both the Pisanos and Giotto had students and followers, the first truly Renaissance artists were not to emerge in Florence until 1401 with the competition to sculpt a set of bronze doors of the Baptistery of Florence Cathedral which drew entries from seven young sculptors including Brunelleschi, Donatello and the winner, Lorenzo Ghiberti. Brunelleschi, most famous as the architect of the dome of Florence Cathedral and the Church of San Lorenzo, created a number of sculptural works, including a lifesized Crucifix in Santa Maria Novella, renowned for its naturalism. His studies of perspective are thought to have influenced the painter Masaccio. Donatello became renowned as the greatest sculptor of the Early Renaissance, his masterpieces being his Humanist and unusually erotic statue of David, one of the icons of the Florentine republic, and his great monument to Gattamelata, the first large equestrian bronze to be created since Roman times.
The contemporary of Donatello, Masaccio, was the painterly descendant of Giotto and began the Early Renaissance in Italian Painting in 1425, furthering the trend towards solidity of form and naturalism of face and gesture that Giotto had begun a century earlier. From 1425 - 28, Masaccio completed several panel paintings but is best known for the fresco cycle that he began in the Brancacci Chapel with the older artist Masolino and which had profound influence on later painters, including Michelangelo. Masaccio 's developments were carried forward in the paintings of Fra Angelico, particularly in his frescos at the Convent of San Marco in Florence.
The treatment of the elements of perspective and light in painting was of particular concern to 15th - century Florentine painters. Uccello was so obsessed with trying to achieve an appearance of perspective that, according to Vasari, it disturbed his sleep. His solutions can be seen in his masterpiece set of three paintings, the Battle of San Romano which is believed to have been completed by 1460. Piero della Francesca made systematic and scientific studies of both light and linear perspective, the results of which can be seen in his fresco cycle of The History of the True Cross in San Francesco, Arezzo.
In Naples, the painter Antonello da Messina began using oil paints for portraits and religious paintings at a date that preceded other Italian painters, possibly about 1450. He carried this technique north and influenced the painters of Venice. One of the most significant painters of Northern Italy was Andrea Mantegna, who decorated the interior of a room, the Camera degli Sposi for his patron Ludovico Gonzaga, setting portraits of the family and court into an illusionistic architectural space.
The end period of the Early Renaissance in Italian art is marked, like its beginning, by a particular commission that drew artists together, this time in cooperation rather than competition. Pope Sixtus IV had rebuilt the Papal Chapel, named the Sistine Chapel in his honour, and commissioned a group of artists, Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Rosselli to decorate its wall with fresco cycles depicting the Life of Christ and the Life of Moses. In the sixteen large paintings, the artists, although each working in his individual style, agreed on principals of format, and utilised the techniques of lighting, linear and atmospheric perspective, anatomy, foreshortening and characterisation that had been carried to a high point in the large Florentine studios of Ghiberti, Verrocchio, Ghirlandaio and Perugino.
The artists of France, (including duchies such as Burgundy) were often associated with courts, providing illuminated manuscripts and portraits for the nobility as well as devotional paintings and altarpieces. Among the most famous were the Limbourg brothers, Flemish illuminators and creators of the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. Jean Fouquet, painter of the royal court, visited Italy in 1437 and reflects the influence of Florentine painters such as Paolo Uccello. Although best known for his portraits such as that of Charles VII of France Fouquet also created illuminations, and is thought to be the inventor of the portrait miniature. There were a number of artists at this date who painted famed altarpieces, that are stylistically quite distinct from both the Italian and the Flemish. These include two enigmatic figures, Enguerrand Quarton to whom is ascribed the Pieta of Villeneuve - lès - Avignon, and Jean Hey, otherwise known as "the Master of Moulins '' after his most famous work, the Moulins Altarpiece. In these works realism and close observation of the human figure, emotions and lighting are combined with a Medieval formality, which includes gilt backgrounds.
The "universal genius '' Leonardo da Vinci was to further perfect the aspects of pictorial art (lighting, linear and atmospheric perspective, anatomy, foreshortening and characterisation) that had preoccupied artists of the Early Renaissance, in a lifetime of studying and meticulously recording his observations of the natural world. His adoption of oil paint as his primary media meant that he could depict light and its effects on the landscape and objects more naturally and with greater dramatic effect than had ever been done before, as demonstrated in the Mona Lisa. His dissection of cadavers carried forward the understanding of skeletal and muscular anatomy, as seen in the unfinished St Jerome. His depiction of human emotion in The Last Supper, completed 1495 - 98, set the benchmark for religious painting.
The art of Leonardo 's younger contemporary Michelangelo took a very different direction. Michelangelo, in neither his painting nor his sculpture demonstrates any interest in the observation of any natural object except the human body. He perfected his technique in depicting it, while in his early twenties, by the creation of the enormous marble statue of David and the group the Pieta, in St Peter 's Basilica, Rome. He then set about an exploration of the expressive possibilities of the human anatomy. His commission by Pope Julius II to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling resulted in the supreme masterpiece of figurative composition, which was to have profound effect on every subsequent generation of European artists. His later work, The Last Judgement, painted on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel between 1534 and 1541 shows a Mannerist (also called Late Renaissance) style with generally elongated bodies which took over from the High Renaissance style between 1520 and 1530.
Standing alongside Leonardo and Michelangelo as the third great painter of the High Renaissance was the younger Raphael, who in a short life span painted a great number of lifelike and engaging portraits, including those of Pope Julius II and his successor Pope Leo X, and numerous portrayals of the Madonna and Christ Child, including the Sistine Madonna. His death in 1520 at age 37 is considered by many art historians to be the end of the High Renaissance period, although some individual artists continued working in the High Renaissance style for many years thereafter.
In Northern Italy the High Renaissance is represented by the latter works of Giovanni Bellini, especially religious paintings, which include several large altarpieces of a type known as "Sacred Conversation '' which show a group of saints around the enthroned Madonna. His contemporary Giorgione, who died at about the age of 32 in 1510, left a small number of enigmatic works, including The Tempest, the subject of which has remained a matter of speculation. The earliest works of Titian date from the era of the High Renaissance, including a massive altarpiece The Assumption of the Virgin which combines human action and drama with spectacular colour and atmosphere. Titian continued painting in a High Renaissance style until the end of his career in the 1570s.
German Renaissance art falls into the broader category of the Renaissance in Northern Europe, also known as the Northern Renaissance. Renaissance influences began to appear in German art in the 15th century, but this trend was not widespread. Gardner 's Art Through the Ages identifies Michael Pacher, a painter and sculptor, as the first German artist whose work begins to show Italian Renaissance influences. According to that source, Pacher 's painting, St. Wolfgang Forces the Devil to Hold His Prayerbook (c. 1481), is Late Gothic in style, but also shows the influence of the Italian artist, Mantegna. Artisans, such as engravers, became more concerned with aesthetics rather than just perfecting their craft. Germany had master engravers, such as Martin Schongauer, who did metal engravings in the late 1400s. Gardner relates this mastery of the graphic arts to advances in printing which occurred in Germany, and says that metal engraving began to replace the woodcut during the Renaissance. However, some artists, such as Albrecht Dürer, continued to do woodcuts. Both Gardner and Russell describe the fine quality of Dürer 's woodcuts, with Russell stating, in The World of Dürer, that Dürer "elevated them into high works of art. ''
In the 1500s, Renaissance art in Germany became more common as, according to Gardner, "The art of northern Europe during the sixteenth century is characterized by a sudden awareness of the advances made by the Italian Renaissance and by a desire to assimilate this new style as rapidly as possible. '' One of the best known practitioners of German Renaissance art was Albrecht Dürer (1471 -- 1528). Dürer 's fascination with classical ideas led him to Italy to study art. Both Gardner and Russell recognized the importance of Durer 's contribution to German art in bringing Italian Renaissance styles and ideas to Germany. Russell calls this "Opening the Gothic windows of German art, '' while Gardner calls it Dürer 's "life mission. '' Importantly, as Gardner points out, Dürer "was the first northern artist who fully understood the basic aims of the southern Renaissance, '' although his style did not always reflect that. The same source says that Hans Holbein the Younger (1497 -- 1543) successfully assimilated Italian ideas while also keeping "northern traditions of close realism. '' This is contrasted against Dürer 's tendency to work in "his own native German style '' instead of combining German and Italian styles. Other important artists of the German Renaissance were Grünewald, Albrecht Altdorfer, and Lucas Cranach the Elder.
Britain was very late to develop a Renaissance style and most artists of the Tudor court were imported foreigners, usually from the Low countries, including Hans Holbein the Younger, who died in England. One exception was the portrait miniature, which artists including Nicholas Hilliard developed into a distinct genre, well before it became popular in the rest of Europe. Renaissance art in Scotland was similarly dependent on imported artists, and largely restricted to the court.
Renaissance artists painted a wide variety of themes. Religious altarpieces, fresco cycles, and small works for private devotion were very popular. For inspiration, painters in both Italy and northern Europe frequently turned to Jacobus de Voragine 's Golden Legend (1260), a highly influential source book for the lives of saints that had already had a strong influence on Medieval artists. The rebirth of classical antiquity and Renaissance humanism also resulted in many Mythological and history paintings. Ovidian stories, for example, were very popular. Decorative ornament, often used in painted architectural elements, was especially influenced by classical Roman motifs.
Main articles: Early Netherlandish painting for 15th - century artists, Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting for 16th - century artists
|
who did the phillies get for jimmy rollins | Jimmy Rollins - wikipedia
James Calvin Rollins (born November 27, 1978), nicknamed "J - Roll '', is an American professional baseball shortstop who is currently a free agent. In past years he played for the Philadelphia Phillies from 2000 to 2014, the Los Angeles Dodgers in 2015, and the Chicago White Sox in 2016.
After growing up in Alameda, California, and attending Encinal High School, Rollins was drafted by the Phillies in the second round of the 1996 MLB draft, spending most of five seasons with Phillies minor league teams before earning a promotion to the MLB team.
In Philadelphia, Rollins earned a reputation as an excellent defensive shortstop. In July 2001, Rollins became the Phillies ' leadoff hitter, a role he retained for almost ten years. He made three All - Star Game appearances early in his career. While a Phillie, Rollins compiled a 38 - game hitting streak, which spanned the end of the 2005 season and the start of the 2006 season, the longest in team history. Rollins was named the National League Most Valuable Player in 2007, as the Phillies won their division in the first of five consecutive seasons. He was also a key component of the 2008 World Series champion team. In his final season with the Phillies, he became the franchise 's all - time leader in hits. During the offseason, he was traded to the Dodgers for the 2015 season.
Rollins grew up in Alameda as a member of an athletic family. His mother played competitive fastpitch softball, and credits the experience for helping him develop a cerebral approach to the game as well as a passion for the middle infield; His father was a wrestler and weightlifter. Jimmy has been described as having "a near - photographic memory of games and at - bats and pitches ''. Rollins ' brother, Antwon, played with minor league affiliates of the Texas Rangers and the Montreal Expos. His sister, Shay Rollins, was a starter on the University of San Francisco 's women 's basketball team, and he is the cousin of former MLB player Tony Tarasco. Despite the athletes in his family, his father encouraged Rollins to pursue music as well as baseball; Rollins played the trumpet while growing up, and participated in various MC Hammer and Mavis Staples music videos during his adolescent years.
Rollins attended Encinal High School in Alameda, graduating in 1996. His parents refused to let him continue playing football, instead directing him to focus on baseball. He finished his high school baseball career as the holder of 10 school records, including highest batting average (. 484), and most stolen bases (99). For his performance, USA Today named him a member of its All - USA High School Baseball Team, and Baseball America named him the top infielder in Northern California as well as a second - team All - American. He committed to play college baseball at Arizona State University on a scholarship, but after "effusive '' praise from Phillies ' Bay Area scout Bob Poole, the team drafted him in the second round of the 1996 Major League Baseball draft.
After being drafted by the Phillies in the second round of the 1996 draft, Rollins was assigned to the rookie - league Martinsville Phillies. He led the team in walks and stole 20 bases, but batted only. 238. However, he still earned a promotion to low - A Piedmont for the 1997 season. The youngest player on the team at age 18, Rollins led the team in games played, at - bats, runs, hits, triples, stolen bases, and walks all in the same year. He batted. 270, stole 46 bases, and had 560 at - bats, over 100 more than second - place Dave Francia. For his performance, he was named a co-winner of the Paul Owens Award, given to the Phillies ' top minor league player. At the end of the season, he played in the Florida Instructional League.
Rollins was promoted to high - A Clearwater in 1998. While playing alongside future Phillies teammates Pat Burrell, Johnny Estrada, Adam Eaton, and Brandon Duckworth, Rollins batted. 244 with 18 doubles and 23 stolen bases; once again, he was the youngest player on the team. Eaton, Burrell, and Rollins were all promoted to AA Reading together the next year, and Rollins led the team in games and at - bats, as well as hits. His 145 hits gave him an average of. 273, and led to a late - season promotion to Scranton / Wilkes - Barre, where he played four games. In 2000, he led Scranton in games played, doubles, and triples, and helped lead the team to the playoffs.
Rollins received a September callup to the Phillies. He debuted on September 17 against the Florida Marlins and had two hits in four at - bats in the game, with his first MLB hit being a triple off of Chuck Smith of the Marlins. He batted. 321 in 14 games, stealing three bases and batting in five runs. After the season, Baseball America named him the Phillies ' top organizational prospect. He was a finalist for the United States national baseball team to participate in the 2000 Olympics, but did not survive the final cut.
Rollins spent the entire 2001 season with the major league Phillies and hit his first MLB home run on May 2 off of Brian Bohanon of the Colorado Rockies. He achieved several statistical milestones, including a "quadruple - double '' (double digit doubles, triples, home runs, and stolen bases). Moreover, he led the National League in triples and stolen bases, becoming the first rookie to do so since 1951, as well as leading the NL in at bats. He was a member of the NL all - star team in the 2001 Major League Baseball All - Star Game, the Phillies only representative. In July, he took over from Doug Glanville as the Phillies ' leadoff hitter, a role he seldom ceded for nearly a decade. At the conclusion of the season, the Negro Leagues Baseball Museum named him the co-winner of the Cool Papa Bell Award, given to the stolen bases leader, MLB managers voted him to the Topps Major League Rookie All - Star team, and Baseball America named him the fifth - best rookie in MLB.
Entering the 2002 season, despite his youth, Rollins sought to be a leader in the Phillies ' clubhouse; an article in The Philadelphia Inquirer said, "Rollins, even at just 23 years old, may now have the clout needed to be a stern voice that makes a difference in the clubhouse and on the field. '' Rollins ' season was characterized by a strong first half, and a "sophomore jinx '' at the plate that plagued him in the second half of the season. For his performance in the early months of the season, he earned his second consecutive selection to the MLB All - Star game, in doing so becoming the first Phillie and first MLB shortstop ever to reach the game in each of his first two seasons. After the all - star game, however, he struggled at the plate, striking out frequently and chasing many high pitches that were out of the strike zone. Ultimately, Rollins finished the season among the NL leaders in defensive statistics -- he compiled a. 980 fielding percentage (second in NL), 695 total chances (third in NL), 504 assists (fourth in NL), and 226 putouts (fifth in NL). Meanwhile, offensively, he regressed from his 2001 campaign, posting a. 245 batting average with 11 home runs, but still leading the NL with 10 triples; he stole 31 bases, 15 fewer than he did in 2001. After the season, he participated in the Major League Baseball Japan All - Star Series.
Prior to the 2003 season, he worked with Tony Gwynn on skills at the plate, predominantly using the whole field and being more of a "slap hitter ''. However, he began the season slowly, sustaining a hamstring injury in spring training that hindered his progress, and ultimately struggling at the plate early in the season, causing manager Larry Bowa to drop him in the lineup. Throughout the season, he sought to maintain the focus that he admitted to having lost the previous season, and he eventually rebounded to post a "respectable '' stat line -- a. 263 batting average with eight home runs and 62 RBIs, although he stole what at the time was a career - low 20 bases. Among his season highlights were a game - winning RBI against John Smoltz in June, and stealing his 100th career base in September, both of which occurred in games against the Atlanta Braves.
On January 15, Rollins signed a US $2,400,000 contract with the Phillies to avoid salary arbitration. According to one biography of Rollins,
"In 2004, Jimmy finally became the player the Phillies had been waiting for. He batted. 289 with a. 455 slugging percentage, scored 119 runs, led the league in triples, cut down considerably on his strikeouts, batted well from both sides of the plate, and hit well in the clutch. The workouts with Gwynn had helped, but it was joining morning sessions with (Bobby) Abreu that enabled him to sting the ball with authority and consistency. ''
Overall, he achieved another "quadruple -- double '' (home runs, stolen bases, doubles, and triples in double figures in a single season), his first career grand slam, and posted career highs in a plethora of offensive categories including batting average, slugging percentage, RBIs, and hits.
Under new manager Charlie Manuel, whose offensive strategy predominantly revolved around hitting lots of home runs, Rollins struggled to post a strong batting average early in the Phillies ' 2005 season, as he too tried to hit home runs. Nevertheless, he was again selected to the NL All - Star team. His offensive strategy changed in early August, when he began a hitting streak that spanned the season 's final 36 games; during the streak, he hit. 379. It was the longest hitting streak in Phillies ' history, surpassing Ed Delahanty, whose streak lasted 31 games. Throughout the streak, Rollins aspired to maintain a team - first mentality, and noted that he would trade the streak for a playoff berth: "If we lose and I keep the streak, what does that mean? The season is automatically over. The playoffs is everything. That 's what we all want. '' Ultimately, the Phillies missed the playoffs by one game. Overall, Rollins compiled his fourth career quadruple - double, tying Johnny Damon for most among active players, and posted a. 290 batting average with 12 home runs, 54 RBIs, and 41 stolen bases.
The 2006 Phillies season began with much hype surrounding Rollins, and whether he could extend his hitting streak to pass Joe DiMaggio 's record 56 games. He extended the streak two games into the season, but it ended on April 6 when he failed to get a hit in a game against the St. Louis Cardinals. He struggled during the first half of the season, posting a batting average of just. 259, but rebounded during the second half, ultimately posting strong cumulative numbers once again. He became the third player in Phillies ' history to score at least 100 runs in three consecutive seasons (Chuck Klein and Bobby Abreu), and led all NL shortstops in RBIs, runs scored, extra-base hits, and total bases. He was just short, however, of another quadruple - double. Cumulatively, he hit. 277 with 25 home runs and 83 RBIs (at the time, the latter two were career - highs). Once again, the Phillies barely missed the playoffs.
Before spring training, Rollins announced that the Phillies were the "Team to Beat '' in the National League East:
The Mets had a chance to win the World Series last year. Last year is over. I think we are the team to beat in the NL East, finally. But, that 's only on paper. ''
It became a sports media sensation, especially given that the New York Mets had won the division in 2006 with relative ease. The claim was widely reported, often without the second part of the quote ("only on paper ''). USA Today columnist Hal Bodley opined, "The Phillies have needed someone to light a fire, especially in April. Rollins ' bold, if not arrogant, prediction might just do that. '' During the first half of the season, it appeared Rollins had spoken prematurely, as the Mets jumped out to an early divisional lead. On June 28, Rollins had a four - hit game against the Cincinnati Reds, including a game - tying triple. The triple was Rollins ' 10th, which gave him his fifth career "quadruple -- double ''.
In August, the Mets ' lead began to dissipate, as the Phillies combined several solid series; Rollins was a key component of their success. Rollins was named the National League Player of the Week for August 27 to September 2, 2007. On September 25 against the Atlanta Braves, Rollins hit the home run that completed his 30 -- 30 season. On the last day of the 2007 season, Rollins became the seventh player to collect at least 20 doubles, 20 triples, and 20 home runs in one season when he hit his 20th triple of the year in a 6 -- 1 win over the Washington Nationals that clinched the National League East division championship for the Phillies, which confirmed Rollins ' preseason assertion of the Phillies preeminence. The club advanced to the playoffs for the first time since their 1993 World Series loss; however, they were swept by the Colorado Rockies in the National League Division Series.
Rollins was named the National League 's Most Valuable Player. He also received the NLBM Oscar Charleston Legacy Award (NL MVP), and won the first of three consecutive Gold Glove Awards, becoming the first Phillies shortstop to win a Gold Glove since Larry Bowa in 1978. He was the first player in MLB history to record 200 hits, 20 triples, 30 home runs, and 30 stolen bases in a season.
Unlike in spring training 2007, Rollins "made no guarantees heading into the next season, but that did n't mean the Phillies were n't confident '' entering their 2008 season, despite the Mets ' acquisition of Johan Santana and a "2007 Rollins-esque '' guarantee of winning the division from Carlos Beltrán. After beginning the season by hitting a home run on opening day, Rollins landed on the disabled list (DL) for the first time in his career in early April, suffering an ankle sprain. He returned in May, and had a "productive '' summer, ultimately posting a career - high 47 stolen bases, notwithstanding his batting average dropping to. 277, and his home run and RBI totals dropping to 11 and 59 respectively. In the postseason, Rollins was a focal point of the team, which ultimately won the 2008 World Series; in the division series (NLDS), he hit a leadoff home run in game four, and in the championship series (NLCS), he hit a leadoff home run in game five, and despite struggles early in the World Series, he eventually contributed with strong situational hitting, helping the Phillies win the series in five games. At the conclusion of the season, Rollins was honored with a Fielding Bible Award for defensive excellence as the top MLB shortstop during the year.
Rollins began 2009 by participating in the 2009 World Baseball Classic (WBC) as a member of Team USA; he hit. 417 and was named to the all - tournament team. After setting a career high in stolen bases in 2008, he did not steal one in the season 's first 17 games, his longest drought to begin a season since 2004. On May 21, he reached the 1500 - hit milestone in a game against the Cincinnati Reds. As of the end of June, however, he was hitting just. 205 (he went 28 consecutive at - bats without a hit from the end of June until July 2), and was benched for four games by Charlie Manuel in an effort to encourage him to regain the shorter, lower half - driven swing that he used in his 2007 MVP campaign. He did improve in the second half of the season, batting. 288 from July 3 to the end of the year. Overall, he compiled an NL - leading 672 at - bats, finished fourth in doubles (43) and stolen bases (31), and tenth in runs (100); in addition, he had a. 250 batting average, 21 home runs (five of which were leadoff, the most in his career), and 77 RBIs, also winning the National League Gold Glove award for shortstops. In the postseason, he helped the Phillies reach the 2009 World Series by hitting a walk - off double in game four of the NLCS. The Phillies failed to repeat as champions, however. They lost to the New York Yankees.
Rollins 's 2010 season was marked by injuries; he missed a total of 74 games, playing in only 88, the lowest total of his major league career. While warming up in the outfield prior to the Phillies ' game on April 12, he strained his right calf, and eventually was placed on the disabled list. He spent April 13 -- May 16, and May 22 -- June 21 on the DL with that injury; Wilson Valdez served as his backup. When he returned, he hit his first career walk - off home run on June 23, powering the Phillies to a 7 -- 6 victory over the Cleveland Indians. On July 3, he hit his 150th career home run in a game against the Pittsburgh Pirates, and on October 1, he hit his third career grand slam in a game against the Atlanta Braves. Overall, he hit. 243 with eight home runs and 41 RBIs. He maintained his strong defense despite poor offense, but after his third consecutive mediocre offensive season, some questioned whether his MVP campaign in 2007 was a fluke.
2011 was a contract year for Rollins, and his performance concurrently rebounded, insofar as he improved his batting average, and home run and RBI totals. He made his 11th consecutive opening day start, and, for the first time in several seasons, he was healthy at the beginning of the season, starting the season 's first 49 games. Nevertheless, it took him 54 plate appearances to record his first RBI, the longest drought of his career. On July 20, for the second time in his career, he had a multi-home run game in which one home run came batting right - handed and the other left - handed, the first Phillies player to do it multiple times. His season was not entirely devoid of injuries; on August 22, a right groin strain landed him on the DL, causing him to miss 18 games. He returned in time for the playoffs, and set several Phillies records in the 2011 NLDS, including hits (9), doubles (4), and multi-hit games (4). Despite the records, the Phillies lost the series to the St. Louis Cardinals. Overall, he posted a. 268 batting average with 16 home runs and 63 RBIs. At the season 's conclusion, Rollins was selected as the shortstop on the MLB Insiders Club Magazine All - Postseason Team. On December 17, 2011, Rollins signed a three - year, $33 million deal with a vesting option for a fourth year, worth another $11 million. The option vested when he reached 1,100 plate appearances in 2013 - 14.
In 2012, Rollins epitomized the Phillies ' general "averageness '' by posting a. 250 batting average with 23 home runs and 68 RBIs. He hit poorly in the beginning of the season, and did not hit a home run until his 136th at bat of the season, the second - longest it had ever taken him to hit a home run at the beginning of a season. He missed three games from May 21 -- 23 for the birth of his first daughter. On July 31, he hit his fourth career inside - the - park home run, which led active players. His hitting improved over the latter half of the season, and in September, he hit eight home runs. He missed the final three games of the season with a calf strain. During the season, he joined Craig Biggio, Barry Larkin, and Paul Molitor as the only players in MLB history to record 2000 hits, 350 stolen bases, and 150 home runs as a member of one team. It was his fourth career season during which he hit at least 20 home runs and stole 30 bases, which trailed only Bobby and Barry Bonds.
Prior to the 2013 season, Rollins played for Team USA in the 2013 World Baseball Classic (WBC), and was the only player from Team USA to make the event 's all - star team; it was his second WBC, and second placement on the all - star team. He was back to the Phillies in time for opening day, and made his 13th consecutive start on opening day. Overall, he tied for fifth in the NL in games (160), and led the team with 600 at - bats, 151 hits, 36 doubles, and 59 walks. He achieved several career milestones during the season, including his 800th RBI (April 22), his 433 double (breaking Ed Delahanty 's record on May 15), and his 45th career leadoff home run (fourth most in MLB history; hit on July 20). Despite the achievements, overall, the season was a decline from previous years; his isolated power (ISO) was among the worst in the major leagues, he attempted to steal the fewest amount of bases in his career, and his defense "tanked '' according to fielding metrics. He "struggled mightily '', and ultimately posted a. 252 batting average with six home runs and 39 RBIs. which "could be the beginning of his decline as an effective Major League hitter ''.
Rollins attracted media attention in the offseason prior to 2014 when he supposedly expressed disinclination or lack of motivation after commenting "who cares '' in regards to spring training; Buster Olney penned a column suggesting that there was a sentiment within the Phillies ' organization that he should be traded (the rumors were dispelled by Rollins and Phillies general manager Rubén Amaro, Jr. as ridiculous). He opened the season by hitting a grand slam against the Texas Rangers, which was also his 200th career home run. After two games, Rollins left the team on paternity leave to be with his wife as the couple had their second child. On April 12, he hit a walk - off home run against the Miami Marlins. On June 14, Rollins singled to right field for his 2,235 th hit to surpass Mike Schmidt as the Phillies ' all - time leader in hits. The game paused as Schmidt and the remainder of the Phillies congratulated Rollins at first base. Following the season, Rollins became the first ever co-winner of the Roberto Clemente Award when he and recently retired Chicago White Sox captain Paul Konerko being announced as the awards ' recipients.
On December 19, 2014, Rollins was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers in exchange for minor league pitchers Tom Windle and Zach Eflin. Rollins waived his no - trade clause in order for the trade to be accomplished and he stated that he was expecting to take on a leadership position with his new team.
Rollins played his first game with the Dodgers during opening day against the San Diego Padres on April 6, 2015, hitting a 3 - run homer off of Shawn Kelley, giving the Dodgers a 6 - 3 victory over the Padres. He struggled offensively with the Dodgers, hitting a career low. 224 with 13 homers and 41 RBI. He also stole eight bases. In September, he lost his starting job to rookie Corey Seager. On the final day of the season, in a meaningless game, manager Don Mattingly let Rollins manage the club for the game.
On February 22, 2016, Rollins signed a minor league contract with the Chicago White Sox that included an invitation to major league spring training. He competed with Tyler Saladino for a starting role at shortstop. At the end of spring training, the team announced that Rollins would serve as their Opening Day shortstop.
Rollins batted. 221 in 41 games for the White Sox. On June 10, he was designated for assignment so the White Sox could promote Tim Anderson from the minor leagues.
On December 19, 2016, Rollins signed a minor league contract with the San Francisco Giants that included an invitation to spring training. He was released on March 31, 2017.
Growing up, Rollins admired Rickey Henderson, one of the best leadoff hitters in MLB history, and especially early in his career, sought to emulate Henderson at the plate. This contributed to his propensity to swing early in the count, and chase high pitches, seeking to hit home runs rather than get on base, the stereotypical role of a leadoff hitter. Consequently, he struggled to make contact with the ball, striking out too much, and rarely walking. To help alleviate those predominantly negative tendencies, he worked with Tony Gwynn, Sr. prior to the 2003 season to work on using the whole field, and hit more ground balls than pop - ups. Overall, he "always had a hard time accepting that he is vertically challenged at 5 - foot - 8 '', which contributed to his inclination to strive to hit for power rather than contact, and to seek to pull the ball rather than use the whole field. The Phillies all - time leader in hits, he also is second in Phillies history in stolen bases.
A "supreme defensive shortstop '', Rollins has won four Gold Glove Awards, and only Omar Vizquel has a better fielding percentage among shortstops who have played at least 10 seasons. Rollins attributes some of his defensive prowess to experience, noting that he has played in MLB for a long enough time to know most hitters ' tendencies and to learn how to read swings, both of which help him appropriately position himself to get to as many balls as possible. In their 2011 season preview, Lindy 's Sports commented that Rollins is an upper - echelon shortstop "with soft hands, excellent agility and plus range left and right '', going on to praise his strong throwing arm, especially from the hole.
Rollins resides in the Tampa, Florida area, and is married to Johari Smith. They were married on January 23, 2010, in the Cayman Islands. On May 21, 2012, Johari gave birth to the couple 's first daughter, Camryn Drew Rollins. Their second daughter, Logan Aliya, was born in early April 2014. When he played for the Phillies, Rollins resided in Woolwich Township, New Jersey.
An active philanthropist, Rollins and his wife Johari have participated in several charitable endeavors including the creation of The Johari & Jimmy Rollins Center for Animal Rehabilitation, which is located in Woolwich Township, New Jersey and provides several medical rehabilitation services for animals, and an annual BaseBOWL charity bowling tournament to benefit the Arthritis Foundation. Rollins is also active politically, and campaigned for Barack Obama in the 2008 Presidential Election.
Rollins is an investor for esports team NRG Esports.
|
toni braxton ft future let me know lyrics | Let Me Know (Tamar Braxton song) - wikipedia
"Let Me Know '' is a song by American singer Tamar Braxton, featuring collaborative vocals by American rapper Future. Epic and Streamline Records released it as a digital download on October 7, 2014. Initially promoted as the lead single from Braxton 's fourth studio album Calling All Lovers, it was replaced by her 2015 release "If I Do n't Have You '' and was only included on the record 's Walmart deluxe edition.
Al Sherrod "A-Rod '' Lambert, Braxton, and Ericka J. Coulter wrote "Let Me Know '', while Harmony Samuels and Tiyon "TC '' Mack produced the song. It is a R&B ballad, with lyrics revolving around the need for communication within a relationship. It samples the chorus of American singer Aaliyah 's 1994 cover of The Isley Brothers ' single "(At Your Best) You Are Love '' (1976).
Critical response to "Let Me Know '' was positive; several critics praised Braxton 's vocals, specifically her whistle register. It peaked at number four on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles Billboard chart; the single also appeared on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs and R&B / Hip - Hop Airplay Billboard charts. Braxton directed the song 's music video, which featured her in various outfits. Critics complimented the visual, with Braxton 's glittery bodysuit noted as one of the highlights.
"Let Me Know '' was written by Al Sherrod "A-Rod '' Lambert, Tamar Braxton, and Ericka J. Coulter, while it was produced by Harmony Samuels and Tiyon "TC '' Mack. Mack was also the track 's engineer, with Jaycen Joshua handling mixing and Gene Grimaldi serving as the mastering engineer. Ryan Kaul and Maddoxx Chhim provided additional support as assistant engineers. Jamia Nash sang background vocals. The single includes guest vocals by American rapper Future. After recording her parts of the song, Braxton said that she "felt (Future) should be on it '' and had her manager Vincent Herbert set up the collaboration.
Epic and Streamline Records released the song as a digital download on October 7, 2014. It was initially promoted as the lead single from Braxton 's fourth studio album Calling All Lovers, but was later replaced by the 2015 track "If I Do n't Have You '' as its lead single. The Walmart deluxe edition of the album includes the song as a bonus track. In a 2017 interview, Braxton said that radio stations refused to play "Let Me Know '' because it included a rapper. According to her, radio stations had requested a version without Future for airplay. Due to the experience, she said that she would never release a hip hop song in her future career.
"Let Me Know '' is a R&B ballad that lasts three minutes and 59 seconds. Its composition samples American singer Aaliyah 's 1994 cover of The Isley Brothers ' single "(At Your Best) You Are Love '' (1976), by adopting the chorus "let me know ''. Elias Leight of Billboard described the sample as "chipmunked '', or heavily edited. When discussing the reference, Braxton said that she was friends with Aaliyah through the business connections between Tamar 's sister Toni Braxton and Aaliyah 's uncle Barry Hankerson. She also identified herself as a fan of Aaliyah 's music. Bianca Gracie of Idolator described the song as having a "smooth mid-tempo '' composition. The instrumentation also includes a piano.
The song 's lyrics revolve around the need for better communication between a couple. Jeff Benjamin of Fuse connected the content with Braxton 's comment on the state of R&B music, when she said: "(the genre) is on the rise because we 're not afraid to talk about what 's really happening in our personal relationships. '' Throughout the song, Braxton sings lyrics to her partner such as: "We 've been through so many things / Ups and downs and in - betweens / If you need more love from me / I give you more, just let me know. '' She also talks about love, saying: "When it 's right, you do n't let go '' and "You do n't give it up to nobody / When you love somebody. '' "Let Me Know '' ends with Braxton singing in belts and whistle notes.
Future does not sing a separate verse, but provides the song 's hook instead; his vocals are processed through Auto - Tune, which Benjamin described as part of the performer 's "signature '' style. Future 's lyrics include: "Do you love the way I do / When I 'm loving your body. '' Wetpaint 's Afiya Augustine described Future as "the male persona to complement Tamar 's lyrics of staying by her man 's side no matter what. ''
Critical reception to "Let Me Know '' was primarily positive on its release. Elias Leight chose it as one of the best singles of the week, calling it Braxton 's best release to date. Writing for Mic, Leight praised her inclusion of the Aaliyah sample, and her decision to work with Future, as indications of her awareness of trends in contemporary music. Tanya Rena Jefferson of AXS described "Let Me Know '' as Braxton 's best song from her first three studio albums. Idolator 's Bradley Stern wrote that it was a strong choice as a lead single, and commended it as "a dreamy R&B ode. '' Stacy Lambe of The Boombox described the single as a way to "surely heat up some cold nights this winter. '' She complimented the "sultry '' lyrics and referred to the production as a "slick beat. ''
Music critics praised Braxton 's voice. Afiya Augustine compared it to Chanté Moore. Due to her use of whistle notes in the single, she also compared Braxton to American singer Mariah Carey, as did Jeff Benjamin, who wrote that "(she) is not playing when it comes to vocal acrobatics. '' Latoya Cross of Jet commended the singer 's range and her connection with the song, explaining that "it 's obvious she 's in touch with every lyric. '' The collaboration between Braxton 's and Future 's voices received primarily positive reviews from critics, but Kevin Apaza of Direct Lyrics criticized Future 's contributions as "unintelligible adlibs. ''
"Let Me Know '' peaked at number four on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles Billboard chart on February 14, 2015, and remained on the chart for 12 weeks. The same day, it reached number 31 on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs Billboard chart, and stayed on the chart for a total of 17 weeks. For the R&B / Hip - Hop Airplay Billboard chart, it peaked at number eight simultaneously, and remained on the chart for a span of 20 weeks.
Braxton directed the single 's accompanying music video, which premiered on October 22, 2014 on 106 & Park. On Vevo, the director is credited as "Rene & Radka ''. It was the first music video Braxton directed. Throughout the video, she is shown "yearning for her man to come get her loving. '' The singer is featured in seven looks, while wearing blonde, brunette, and black wigs. Scenes include Braxton in her bedroom, lying on a diving board, and relaxing in lingerie and fishnets. A writer for Essence wrote that the bedroom scenes featured the singer channeling Marilyn Monroe. In the latter half of the video, Braxton performs in a nude bodysuit covered with glitter. Future does not appear in the video. Braxton first performed "Let Me Know '' live during the For Sisters Only concert, on October 11, 2014.
The video received a positive response from critics. A writer from Rap - Up praised it for allowing Braxton to appear "in all her diva glory, '' and Vibe 's Sharifa Daniels felt the visual showcased Braxton 's creative vision. Bradley Stern described the singer as "turn (ing) up the heat '' with her wardrobe choices, and described her glitter look as "eye - popping. '' The glitter bodysuit was also positively received by Stacy Lambe, who felt that it was inspired by Britney Spears ' music video for her 2004 single "Toxic '' and Beyoncé 's photoshoot for Flaunt.
Credits adapted from Tidal.
|
what is the play oh what a lovely war about | Oh, what a Lovely War! - Wikipedia
Oh, What a Lovely War! is an epic musical developed by Joan Littlewood and her ensemble at the Theatre Workshop in 1963.
The idea for the production started on Armistice Day 1962 when Gerry Raffles heard the repeat of the second version of Charles Chilton 's radio musical for the BBC Home Service, called The Long Long Trail about World War I. Written and produced by Chilton in memory of his father whose name was inscribed on the memorial at Arras, the piece was a radio documentary that used facts and statistics, juxtaposed with reminiscences and versions of songs of the time, as an ironic critique of the reality of the war. The songs were found in a book published in 1917 called Tommy 's Tunes which had new lyrics written in the trenches to well - known songs of the era, many from hymns or from west end shows. Bud Flanagan provided the voice of the ' ordinary soldier '. The title came from the popular music hall song "There 's a Long Long Trail A-Winding '' published in 1913, mentioned in the introduction of Tommy 's Tunes.
Raffles proposed the idea of using it as the basis of a production to his partner, Joan Littlewood, but she detested the idea, hating World War I, military uniforms, and everything they stood for. Gerry though, brought Chilton along to the theatre and they played through the songs. Eventually Littlewood considered it might work, but refused any military uniforms, deciding on pierrot costumes from Commedia dell'arte very early on as a "soft, fluffy entertainment mode '' providing an ironic contrast to the tin hats which they also wore. Littlewood said, in 1995, that "Nobody died on my stage, they died in the film - that they ruined ''. She wanted audiences to leave the theatre laughing at the "vulgarity of war ''. The idea was to portray how groups of people could lose their sense of individuality by conforming to those of a higher authority, which Littlewood despised.
The Theatre Workshop developed productions through improvisation and initially the cast would learn the original script but then have that taken away and have to retell the story in their own words for performance. Each member of the Theatre Workshop was tasked with learning about a particular topic, such as Ypres or gas. As the production developed it also used scenes from The Donkeys by military historian (and future Conservative politician) Alan Clark initially without acknowledgement, Clark took Littlewood to court to get credited.
Some scenes in the production, notably one on the first time the trenches were gassed, were worked on for many days only for Littlewood to conclude they were too horrific for an audience, and delete them. This was another reason why uniforms were not worn in the production.
A satire on World War I (and by extension against war in general) the title is derived from the music hall song "Oh! It 's a Lovely War, '' which is one of the major numbers in the production.
The musical premiered at the Theatre Royal Stratford East on 19 March 1963 to rave audience reaction. Press reviews were mixed, with The Guardian noting "it was as unfair as any powerful cartoon '', The Times "repeating the familiar view of the war as a criminally wasteful adventure. A sitting target for anyone who wants to deliver a bludgeoning social criticism without giving offence '', but Kenneth Tynan 's review in The Observer was titled "Littlewood returns in triumph ''.
The official censor did not grant permission for a transfer to the West End until Princess Margaret attended a performance and commented to the Lord Chamberlain, Lord Cobbold, that "What you 've said here tonight should have been said long ago, do n't you agree, Lord Cobbold? ''; at this point the transfer was more or less assured despite the objections of the family of Field Marshal Haig. It was an ensemble production featuring members of the theatre 's regular company, which included Brian Murphy, Victor Spinetti and Glynn Edwards, all of whom played several roles. The sets were designed by John Bury. The production subsequently transferred to Wyndham 's Theatre in June of the same year. The production was a surprise hit, and the musical was adapted by the BBC for radio several times.
The musical premiered in the United States on Broadway at the Broadhurst Theatre on 30 September 1964 and closed on 16 January 1965 after 125 performances. It was seen there by actor and former subaltern Basil Rathbone, who wrote to Charles Chilton that "we were duped, it was a disgusting war ''. Directed by Littlewood, the cast featured Spinetti and Murphy, plus Barbara Windsor. It received four Tony Award nominations: for Best Musical, Best Direction, Best Featured Actress, and Best Featured Actor, winning Best Featured Actor. Spinetti also won the Theatre World Award.
The original production was performed with the cast in pierrot costumes and metal helmets due to Littlewood 's abhorrence of the colour khaki and anti-war feelings. Behind them projected slides (operated by projectionist Tom Carr) showed images from the war and a moving display (what Littlewood called her "electronic newspaper '' from having seen one in East Berlin on a railway bridge) across the full stage width with statistics, such as "Sept 25... Loos... British loss 8,236 men in 3 hours... German loss nil '' and "Average life of a machine gunner under attack on the Western Front: 4 minutes ''.
Separating the performers from the actual events in this way would stop the audience collapsing in tears, and the production features such World War I - era songs as "It 's a Long Way to Tipperary, '' "Pack up Your Troubles '' and "Keep the Home Fires Burning. '' Harsh images of war and shocking statistics are projected onto the backdrop, providing a contrast with the comedy of the action taking place before it. The audience were also invited to join in with singing the songs.
The first act was designed to draw the audience in with the sentimentality of the songs, and the first explosion does not take place until the end of Act 1 during Goodbye... ee. Act 2 then brings the horror of war to the production.
The song "Oh! It 's a Lovely War '' was written by J.P. Long and Maurice Scott in 1917 and was part of the repertoire of music hall star and male impersonator Ella Shields. The lyrics of the first verse and the chorus are as follows:
Two renditions of the song, one from 1918, can be heard at firstworldwar.com. Almost all of the songs featured in the musical also appear on the CD41 album series Oh! It 's A Lovely War (four volumes).
Several Australian World War I movies and miniseries (e.g. The Lighthorsemen and Gallipoli) have used these songs to give a stronger sense of period to them. The 1985 series Anzacs used "Oh, it 's a lovely war '' as one of the numbers while the credits rolled, had "I wore a tunic '' performed as part of an entertainment piece while the characters were on easy duties, used "Keep the home fires burning '' as another credit number, and featured "The Bells of Hell '' sung by Tony Bonner and Andrew Clarke.
|
when does god of war 4 release date | God of War (2018 video game) - Wikipedia
God of War (commonly referred to as God of War 4) is an upcoming third - person action - adventure video game in development by Santa Monica Studio and to be published by Sony Interactive Entertainment (SIE). It is scheduled to be released in early 2018 for the PlayStation 4 (PS4) console. It will be the eighth installment in the God of War series, the eighth chronologically, and the sequel to 2010 's God of War III. The game will be a soft reboot for the franchise and will take the series to the world of Norse mythology -- all previous games were based on Greek mythology. Series protagonist Kratos will return as the main character, and he now has a son named Atreus. Kratos acts as a mentor and protector to his son, and has to master the rage that has driven him for many years.
The gameplay will be vastly different from the previous installments, as it has been rebuilt from the ground up. Although the previous installment, Ascension (2013), introduced multiplayer to the series, this new installment will be single - player - only. The game will feature elements similar to role playing games (RPG), such as archery knowledge points, as well as a Spartan Rage timed - ability during battle. This ability appears to be a new take on the "Rage '' ability of the previous installments. There will also be crafting resources for the player to find. The new installment features a third - person, over-the - shoulder free camera, a departure from the previous installments, which featured a third - person, fixed cinematic camera (with the exception of 2007 's 2D side - scroller Betrayal).
A major change is that Kratos will no longer use his signature double - chained blades, as he lost these at the conclusion of God of War III (2010). Instead, he will use a magical battle axe, which can be infused with elemental abilities and thrown at enemies. The E3 2016 and 2017 trailers showed that the axe can be engulfed in ice, to which Kratos can hurl at an enemy and magically summon it back to his hand. Kratos will also be able to charge the axe and let out a burst of energy that will damage nearby enemies. Game director Cory Barlog said that the axe has a deep rooted history and connection with the characters; it is connected to both the son and his mother. Another new weapon that Kratos will utilize is a shield. When not in use, it folds up and appears like armor on Kratos ' left forearm. When summoned, the shield can be used offensively and defensively. Kratos will also utilize hand - to - hand combat, a feature originally introduced in Ascension.
Although players will play as Kratos throughout the entire game, there will be times when the player will passively control Kratos ' son, Atreus. One button is dedicated to Atreus and its use depends on the context. Barlog stated that Atreus is "like magic, an additional combat resource, and (the player is) training him and teaching him. '' Atreus can shoot lightning arrows with his bow, depending on where the player looks. Over the course of the game, Atreus helps in combat, traversal, exploration, and puzzle - solving. When facing a large amount of enemies, he will freely act as a distraction for the weaker enemies as Kratos fights the stronger ones.
The developers claim that they have matched the new gameplay with the same level of accessibility of the previous installments. Barlog confirmed that the game will be open, but it will not be open - world, and quick time events will not be like they were in previous games. The game will not feature any morality system or branching story; all players will have the same story experience. The developers also confirmed that some of the more controversial mini-games found in previous entries will not return.
While the first seven games were loosely based on Greek mythology, this new installment will be based on Norse mythology. Barlog explained the transition: "it 's kind of this BC -- AD change over kind of thing. We 're moving and starting from zero and kind of moving forward on that. '' Before settling on Norse mythology, Egyptian mythology was also considered. Barlog said that half of the team was for it, but since "there 's a lot more about civilization - it 's less isolated, less barren '', they decided on the Norse setting because they wanted the focus to stay on Kratos: "Having too much around distracts from that central theme of a stranger in a strange land. '' In explaining why Kratos is now in the Norse world, Barlog said that different cultures ' belief systems coexisted, but they were "separated by geography '', suggesting that Kratos traveled from Greece to Norway (Scandinavia) after the conclusion of God of War III. Barlog also confirmed that this game predates the Vikings; it is the time in which their gods walked the Earth. Throughout the game, players will be able to visit some of the nine realms of Norse mythology.
Many years have passed since Kratos took his vengeance against the Olympian gods. Having survived his final encounter with his father Zeus, Kratos now lives with his young son Atreus in the world of the Norse gods, a savage land inhabited by many ferocious monsters and warriors. In order to teach his son how to survive in such a world, Kratos must master the rage that has driven him for many years and embrace his newfound role as a father and mentor. Kratos must also contend with the Norse gods themselves as they are taking precautions against him, due to them being aware of his role in the destruction of Olympus. Over the course of their time together, Atreus learns more about his father 's complicated and shady past, while struggling with whether to be like his father or choose to be his own person.
At the first annual PlayStation Experience on December 6, 2014, Santa Monica Studios 's creative director Cory Barlog confirmed that a new God of War was in very early development. He said that the game would not be a prequel, but it might be a reboot. In April 2016, Polygon reported that concept art of the next installment had been leaked. The images showed Kratos in the world of Norse mythology; a concept originally considered by series creator David Jaffe after Kratos eliminated the Greek gods. At the 2016 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3), the next installment was officially announced with a gameplay demo and confirmed the concept art to be true. The demo showed a fully bearded Kratos, who now has a son, and Kratos is teaching the boy how to hunt. The pair also battle a troll, a creature from the mythology. The end of the demo showed the title God of War and confirmed it is in development for PlayStation 4. E3 also confirmed that Barlog had returned to the series as game director for the new installment. Barlog has been a major contributor in the development of the God of War series since the original installment in 2005, with his prior most notable role being game director of God of War II (2007). This new installment is his fifth God of War game that he has worked on. Barlog stated that the game was deliberately titled God of War with no numeral or subtitle because although it is a continuation of the series, "we are reimagining everything. ''
Most of the development team that worked on the original God of War is working on the new installment. In regards to the camera change, Barlog said "We wanted a much more intimate experience, a much more up close, and a much more player - controlled experience, so the camera really is a mechanic that we 're leaning into heavily for everything in the game. '' The entire game will be a single shot, meaning there will be no loading screens or fade - to - black. The frame rate will be 30 frames per second, and the enemy count has been increased to up to 100 enemies on - screen; God of War III and Ascension could do up to 50. Unlike the previous games, Santa Monica will not be making a demo specifically for public release. Barlog explained that making another demo would delay the game by a couple of months; he did not mention whether or not the E3 2016 demo would become available. He also confirmed that the game was built for the standard PlayStation 4, but the game "will benefit from the power '' of the PlayStation 4 Pro; an updated version of the PlayStation 4 that can render games in 4K and was released a few months after God of War was announced. God of War was absent from the annual PlayStation Experience event in early December 2016, with Barlog promising that "we will be showing something really awesome when it is ready. '' In late December 2016, Barlog confirmed that the game was playable from start to finish.
At E3 2017, a new trailer was shown featuring new gameplay, cinematics, and characters. In the trailer, Kratos was shown using a shield that he could use offensively and defensively. At one point in the trailer, Kratos finds a Greek vase with himself on it, wielding his infamous double - chained blades. During the trailer, an unnamed woman warns Kratos about the Norse gods, as they know what he did to the Greek gods, while a pair of wolves were also shown. The trailer ends with Kratos and Atreus encountering the World Serpent. Atreus is able to translate what it says, which is that it wants to help the pair. It was confirmed that the game would release in early 2018.
During early development, there was talk about having a different protagonist for the game, but it was decided to keep Kratos. Referencing the Nintendo character Mario and the Mario games, Barlog said that just like Mario, "Kratos is intrinsically tied '' to the God of War series. In regards to the new changes, Barlog said that:
I knew I did n't want to simply reboot the franchise, starting over with a retelling of the origin story. I wanted to reimagine the gameplay, give players a fresh perspective and a new tactile experience while delving deeper into the emotional journey of Kratos to explore the compelling drama that unfolds when an immortal demigod makes a decision to change.
Barlog explained that Kratos had to change his cycle of violence and learn how to control his rage. He said that Kratos had made many bad decisions, which led to the destruction of Olympus, and wanted to know what would happen if Kratos made a good decision. The birth of Barlog 's own son influenced the idea of Kratos ' character change. The canceled live - action Star Wars television series was also an influence. The bond between Kratos and his son is at the heart of the game and Barlog said "This game is about Kratos teaching his son how to be a god, and his son teaching Kratos how to be human again. '' Referencing the Marvel Comics character Hulk, Barlog said that in regards to Kratos, "We 've already told the story of The Hulk. We want to tell the story of Banner now. '' Christopher Judge, best known as Teal'c from Stargate SG - 1, replaces T.C. Carson as the voice of Kratos in the game; Carson had voiced Kratos since the original God of War. Commenting in response to the change, Carson said, "Sony went in a new direction. ''
During E3 2016, GameSpot mistakenly reported that Kratos ' son 's name was Charlie, which Barlog laughingly denied. In January 2017, after a fan downloaded the God of War overture and saw the track 's details that said "An introduction to Kratos and Atreus '', Barlog confirmed on Twitter that Atreus is in fact the son 's name. Barlog said that Atreus knows that Kratos is a demigod, but does not know about his past, and Barlog confirmed that this would not be Kratos ' last game. In regards to Atreus ' mother, Barlog said they are not talking about her yet, as she is a critical part of the story.
Bear McCreary, who is best known for his work on television shows, such as Battlestar Galactica and The Walking Dead, will be scoring God of War, composing all - new themes for the game. McCreary said that he was called into Santa Monica Studio in November 2014 to meet with music producers Pete Scaturro and Keith Leary to discuss "a secret project ''; McCreary had previously collaborated with Scaturro and Leary on 2011 's SOCOM 4: U.S. Navy SEALs. Ideas of folk music, mythology, Nordic ethnic instruments, vocal writing, and classical thematic development were discussed, to which McCreary correctly guessed that the discussions were about a new God of War. He met with Barlog early on, and they discussed Barlog 's narrative vision for the game. After meeting with Barlog, he knew the franchise was in good hands because God of War II, which Barlog also directed, was his favorite installment.
McCreary 's initial efforts focused on writing the new main theme, or what he calls the Kratos Theme. He spent several months working with Barlog, Scaturro, Leary, Sony music director Chuck Doud, and the rest of the development team in making this new theme. McCreary described the Kratos Theme as "arguably one of my most structurally satisfying and catchy melodies. '' The main theme features low orchestral instruments, Icelandic choir, deep male vocals, powerful female vocals (in particular Faroese singer Eivør Pálsdóttir), folk percussion, and Nordic stringed instruments, such as the nyckelharpa and hurdy gurdy. When it was decided that God of War would be revealed at E3 2016, Sony wanted McCreary to perform his original score with a live orchestra at the press conference. McCreary opened the show with the new main theme before the unveiling of God of War, and performed the gameplay demo 's music live during the presentation.
On January 13, 2017, a live recording from E3 2016 of God of War 's overture was released for free for a limited time. Barlog released the overture as a thank you to fans for God of War 's E3 2016 trailer reaching fifteen million views on YouTube.
God of War 's E3 2016 impressions were positive. Marty Sliva of IGN said that although the original trilogy are three of the most influential action games of the past fifteen years, he was never able to connect with the series, mainly because of Kratos. The developing relationship between Kratos and his son and the more intimate experience of the new installment, based on the E3 2016 demo, has changed Sliva 's attitude and made him care for the series. Peter Brown of GameSpot said that changing the camera was a "smart move '' and a change he was hoping for; "it 's super impressive. '' He said the intimate moment between Kratos and his son killing the deer "inspired emotion from me, '' something that previous installments did not do for him. Alexa Ray Corriea, also of GameSpot, is also glad there is no fixed camera and that players can explore the world. Steve Watts of Shacknews noted that like recent games, it has a theme of parenthood, and that "it 's a more thoughtful premise than we 've seen from the series, and it allows for narrative possibilities more complex than a deific murder spree. ''
|
a customer makes an offer by bringing an item to the cashier to pay for it | Fisher v Bell - wikipedia
Fisher v Bell (1961) 1 QB 394 is an English contract law case concerning the requirements of offer and acceptance in the formation of a contract. The case established that, where goods are displayed in a shop together with a price label, such display is treated as an invitation to treat by the seller, and not an offer. The offer is instead made when the customer presents the item to the cashier together with payment. Acceptance occurs at the point the cashier takes payment.
The defendant displayed a flick knife in the window of his shop next to a ticket bearing the words Ejector knife -- 4s, (i.e. four shillings).
Under section 1 of the Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1959 (which was expanded in 1961 after this case finished to deal with the gap in the law):
(1) Any person who manufactures, sells or hires or offers for sale or hire, or lends or gives to any other person --
(a) any knife which has a blade which opens automatically by hand pressure applied to a button, spring or other device in or attached to the handle of the knife, sometimes known as a "flick knife '' or "flick gun ''; or (b) any knife which has a blade which is released from the handle or sheath thereof by the force of gravity or the application of centrifugal force and which, when released, is locked in place by means of a button, spring, lever, or other device, sometimes known as a "gravity knife '' shall be guilty of an offence... and in the case of a second or subsequent offence to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or to a fine not exceeding... or to both such imprisonment and fine.
(2) The importation of any such knife as is described in the foregoing subsection is hereby prohibited.
In late 1959, the claimant, a chief inspector of police, brought forward information against the defendant alleging he contravened section 1 (1) by offering the flick knife for sale.
At first instance, the Prosecutor submitted that the Defendant has displayed the knife and ticket in the window with the objective of attracting a buyer, and that this constituted an offer of sale sufficient to create a criminal liability under section 1 (1) of the Act. Mr Obby Simakampa submitted that this was not sufficient to constitute an offer. The judges at first instance found that displaying the knife was merely an invitation to treat, not an offer, and thus no liability arose. The Prosecutor appealed the judges ' decision.
Lord Parker CJ in the Divisional Court held there was no offence because there was no "offer for sale ''. Although the display of a knife in a window might at first appear to "lay people '' to be an offer inviting people to buy it, and that it would be "nonsense to say that (it) was not offering it for sale '', whether an item is offered for the purpose of the statute in question must be construed in the context of the general law of the country. He stated that the general law of the country clearly established that merely displaying an item constituted an invitation to treat. He also read the statute on an exclusive construction (inclusio unius est exclusio alterius), noting that other legislation prohibiting the sale of weapons referred to "offering or exposing for sale '' (emphasis added). The lack of the words exposing for sale in the Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1959 suggested that only a true offer would be prohibited by the Act. The court dismissed the appeal. Goods displayed in a shop are merely an invitation to treat or invitation to trade.
Ashworth J and Elwes J agreed.
The 1959 Act was almost immediately amended by the Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1961 section 1 to add (to the offence) or exposes or has in his possession for the purpose of sale or hire, which remains the law. A similar shopkeeper would today be successfully prosecuted. The principles of offer and acceptance in the case remain good law.
Draft statute writers, prohibiting certain sales, made almost identical drafting mistakes in Partridge v Crittenden and British Car Auctions v Wright.
|
names of the countries in the 2018 world cup | 2018 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 2018 FIFA World Cup was the 21st FIFA World Cup, an international football tournament contested by the men 's national teams of the member associations of FIFA once every four years. It took place in Russia from 14 June to 15 July 2018. It was the first World Cup to be held in Eastern Europe, and the 11th time that it had been held in Europe. At an estimated cost of over $14.2 billion, it was the most expensive World Cup. It was also the first World Cup to use the video assistant referee (VAR) system.
The finals involved 32 teams, of which 31 came through qualifying competitions, while the host nation qualified automatically. Of the 32 teams, 20 had also appeared in the previous tournament in 2014, while both Iceland and Panama made their first appearances at a FIFA World Cup. A total of 64 matches were played in 12 venues across 11 cities.
The final took place on 15 July at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, between France and Croatia. France won the match 4 -- 2 to claim their second World Cup title, marking the fourth consecutive title won by a European team.
The bidding procedure to host the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cup tournaments began in January 2009, and national associations had until 2 February 2009 to register their interest. Initially, nine countries placed bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, but Mexico later withdrew from proceedings, and Indonesia 's bid was rejected by FIFA in February 2010 after the Indonesian government failed to submit a letter to support the bid. During the bidding process, the three remaining non-UEFA nations (Australia, Japan, and the United States) gradually withdrew from the 2018 bids, and the UEFA nations were thus ruled out of the 2022 bid. As such, there were eventually four bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, two of which were joint bids: England, Russia, Netherlands / Belgium, and Portugal / Spain.
The 22 - member FIFA Executive Committee convened in Zürich on 2 December 2010 to vote to select the hosts of both tournaments. Russia won the right to be the 2018 host in the second round of voting. The Portugal / Spain bid came second, and that from Belgium / Netherlands third. England, which was bidding to host its second tournament, was eliminated in the first round.
The voting results were as follows:
The English Football Association and others raised concerns of bribery on the part of the Russian team and corruption from FIFA members. They claimed that four members of the executive committee had requested bribes to vote for England, and Sepp Blatter had said that it had already been arranged before the vote that Russia would win. The 2014 Garcia Report, an internal investigation led by Michael J. Garcia, was withheld from public release by Hans - Joachim Eckert, FIFA 's head of adjudication on ethical matters. Eckert instead released a shorter revised summary, and his (and therefore FIFA 's) reluctance to publish the full report caused Garcia to resign in protest. Because of the controversy, the FA refused to accept Eckert 's absolving of Russia from blame, with Greg Dyke calling for a re-examination of the affair and David Bernstein calling for a boycott of the World Cup.
For the first time in the history of the FIFA World Cup, all eligible nations -- the 209 FIFA member associations minus automatically qualified hosts Russia -- applied to enter the qualifying process. Zimbabwe and Indonesia were later disqualified before playing their first matches, while Gibraltar and Kosovo, who joined FIFA on 13 May 2016 after the qualifying draw but before European qualifying had begun, also entered the competition. Places in the tournament were allocated to continental confederations, with the allocation unchanged from the 2014 World Cup. The first qualification game, between Timor - Leste and Mongolia, began in Dili on 12 March 2015 as part of the AFC 's qualification, and the main qualifying draw took place at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, on 25 July 2015.
Of the 32 nations qualified to play at the 2018 FIFA World Cup, 20 countries competed at the previous tournament in 2014. Both Iceland and Panama qualified for the first time, with the former becoming the smallest country in terms of population to reach the World Cup. Other teams returning after absences of at least three tournaments include: Egypt, returning to the finals after their last appearance in 1990; Morocco, who last competed in 1998; Peru, returning after 1982; and Senegal, competing for the second time after reaching the quarter - finals in 2002. It is the first time three Nordic countries (Denmark, Iceland and Sweden) and four Arab nations (Egypt, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and Tunisia) have qualified for the World Cup.
Notable countries that failed to qualify include four - time champions Italy (for the first time since 1958), three - time runners - up and third placed in 2014 the Netherlands (for the first time since 2002), and four reigning continental champions: 2017 Africa Cup of Nations winners Cameroon, two - time Copa América champions and 2017 Confederations Cup runners - up Chile, 2016 OFC Nations Cup winners New Zealand, and 2017 CONCACAF Gold Cup champions United States (for the first time since 1986). The other notable qualifying streaks broken were for Ghana and Ivory Coast, who had both made the previous three tournaments.
Note: Numbers in parentheses indicate positions in the FIFA World Rankings at the time of the tournament.
The draw was held on 1 December 2017 at 18: 00 MSK at the State Kremlin Palace in Moscow. The 32 teams were drawn into 8 groups of 4, by selecting one team from each of the 4 ranked pots.
For the draw, the teams were allocated to four pots based on the FIFA World Rankings of October 2017. Pot 1 contained the hosts Russia (who were automatically assigned to position A1) and the best seven teams, pot 2 contained the next best eight teams, and so on for pots 3 and 4. This was different from previous draws, when only pot 1 was based on FIFA rankings while the remaining pots were based on geographical considerations. However, teams from the same confederation still were not drawn against each other for the group stage, except that two UEFA teams could be in each group.
Russia (65) (hosts) Germany (1) Brazil (2) Portugal (3) Argentina (4) Belgium (5) Poland (6) France (7)
Spain (8) Peru (10) Switzerland (11) England (12) Colombia (13) Mexico (16) Uruguay (17) Croatia (18)
Denmark (19) Iceland (21) Costa Rica (22) Sweden (25) Tunisia (28) Egypt (30) Senegal (32) Iran (34)
Serbia (38) Nigeria (41) Australia (43) Japan (44) Morocco (48) Panama (49) South Korea (62) Saudi Arabia (63)
Initially, each team had to name a preliminary squad of 30 players but, in February 2018, this was increased to 35. From the preliminary squad, the team had to name a final squad of 23 players (three of whom must be goalkeepers) by 4 June. Players in the final squad may be replaced for serious injury up to 24 hours prior to kickoff of the team 's first match and such replacements do not need to have been named in the preliminary squad.
For players named in the 35 - player preliminary squad, there was a mandatory rest period between 21 and 27 May 2018, except for those involved in the 2018 UEFA Champions League Final played on 26 May.
On 29 March 2018, FIFA released the list of 36 referees and 63 assistant referees selected to oversee matches. On 30 April 2018, FIFA released the list of 13 video assistant referees, who solely acted in this capacity in the tournament.
Referee Fahad Al - Mirdasi of Saudi Arabia was removed in 30 May 2018 over a match - fixing attempt, along with his two assistant referees, compatriots Mohammed Al - Abakry and Abdulah Al - Shalwai. A new referee was not appointed, but two assistant referees, Hasan Al Mahri of the United Arab Emirates and Hiroshi Yamauchi of Japan, were added to the list. Assistant referee Marwa Range of Kenya also withdrew after the BBC released an investigation conducted by a Ghanaian journalist which implicated Marwa in a bribery scandal.
Shortly after the International Football Association Board 's decision to incorporate video assistant referees (VARs) into the Laws of the Game, on 16 March 2018, the FIFA Council took the much - anticipated step of approving the use of VAR for the first time in a FIFA World Cup tournament.
VAR operations for all games are operating from a single headquarters in Moscow, which receives live video of the games and are in radio contact with the on - field referees. Systems are in place for communicating VAR - related information to broadcasters and visuals on stadiums ' large screens are used for the fans in attendance.
VAR had a significant impact in several games. On 15 June 2018, Diego Costa 's goal against Portugal became the first World Cup goal based on a VAR decision; the first penalty as a result of a VAR decision was awarded to France in their match against Australia on 16 June and resulted in a goal by Antoine Griezmann. A record number of penalties were awarded in the tournament, with this phenomenon being partially attributed to VAR. Overall, the new technology has been both praised and criticised by commentators. FIFA declared the implementation of VAR a success after the first week of competition.
Russia proposed the following host cities: Kaliningrad, Kazan, Krasnodar, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Rostov - on - Don, Saint Petersburg, Samara, Saransk, Sochi, Volgograd, Yaroslavl, and Yekaterinburg. Most cities are in European Russia, while Sochi and Yekaterinburg are very close to the Europe - Asia border, to reduce travel time for the teams in the huge country. The bid evaluation report stated: "The Russian bid proposes 13 host cities and 16 stadiums, thus exceeding FIFA 's minimum requirement. Three of the 16 stadiums would be renovated, and 13 would be newly constructed. ''
In October 2011, Russia decreased the number of stadiums from 16 to 14. Construction of the proposed Podolsk stadium in the Moscow region was cancelled by the regional government, and also in the capital, Otkrytiye Arena was competing with Dynamo Stadium over which would be constructed first.
The final choice of host cities was announced on 29 September 2012. The number of cities was further reduced to 11 and number of stadiums to 12 as Krasnodar and Yaroslavl were dropped from the final list. Of the 12 stadiums used for the tournament, 3 (Luzhniki, Yekaterinburg and Sochi) have been extensively renovated and the other 9 stadiums to be used are brand new; $11.8 billion has been spent on hosting the tournament.
Sepp Blatter stated in July 2014 that, given the concerns over the completion of venues in Russia, the number of venues for the tournament may be reduced from 12 to 10. He also said, "We are not going to be in a situation, as is the case of one, two or even three stadiums in South Africa, where it is a problem of what you do with these stadiums ''.
In October 2014, on their first official visit to Russia, FIFA 's inspection committee and its head Chris Unger visited St Petersburg, Sochi, Kazan and both Moscow venues. They were satisfied with the progress.
On 8 October 2015, FIFA and the Local Organising Committee agreed on the official names of the stadiums used during the tournament.
Of the twelve venues used, the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow and the Saint Petersburg Stadium -- the two largest stadiums in Russia -- were used most, both hosting seven matches. Sochi, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara all hosted six matches, including one quarter - final match each, while the Otkrytiye Stadium in Moscow and Rostov - on - Don hosted five matches, including one round - of - 16 match each. Volgograd, Kaliningrad, Yekaterinburg and Saransk all hosted four matches, but did not host any knockout stage games.
A total of twelve stadiums in eleven Russian cities were built and renovated for the FIFA World Cup.
Base camps were used by the 32 national squads to stay and train before and during the World Cup tournament. On 9 February 2018, FIFA announced the base camps for each participating team.
At an estimated cost of over $14.2 billion as of June 2018, it is the most expensive World Cup in history, surpassing the cost of the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil.
The Russian government had originally earmarked a budget of around $20 billion which was later slashed to $10 billion for the preparations of the World Cup, of which half is spent on transport infrastructure. As part of the program for preparation to the 2018 FIFA World Cup, a federal sub-program "Construction and Renovation of Transport Infrastructure '' was implemented with a total budget of 352.5 billion rubles, with 170.3 billion coming from the federal budget, 35.1 billion from regional budgets, and 147.1 billion from investors. The biggest item of federal spending was the aviation infrastructure (117.8 billion rubles). Construction of new hotels was a crucial area of infrastructure development in the World Cup host cities. Costs continued to balloon as preparations were underway.
Platov International Airport in Rostov - on - Don was upgraded with automated air traffic control systems, modern surveillance, navigation, communication, control, and meteorological support systems. Koltsovo Airport in Yekaterinburg was upgraded with radio - engineering tools for flight operation and received its second runway strip. Saransk Airport received a new navigation system; the city also got two new hotels, Mercure Saransk Centre (Accor Hotels) and Four Points by Sheraton Saransk (Starwood Hotels) as well as few other smaller accommodation facilities. In Samara, new tram lines were laid. Khrabrovo Airport in Kaliningrad was upgraded with radio navigation and weather equipment. Renovation and upgrade of radio - engineering tools for flight operation was completed in the airports of Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Volgograd, Samara, Yekaterinburg, Kazan and Sochi. On 27 March, the Ministry of Construction Industry, Housing and Utilities Sector of Russia reported that all communications within its area of responsibility have been commissioned. The last facility commissioned was a waste treatment station in Volgograd. In Yekaterinburg, where four matches are hosted, hosting costs increased to over 7.4 billion rubles, over-running the 5.6 billion rubles originally allocated from the state and regional budget.
Volunteer applications to the Russia 2018 Local Organising Committee opened on 1 June 2016. The 2018 FIFA World Cup Russia Volunteer Program received about 177,000 applications, and engaged a total of 35,000 volunteers. They received training at 15 Volunteer Centres of the Local Organising Committee based in 15 universities, and in Volunteer Centres in the host cities. Preference, especially in the key areas, was given to those with knowledge of foreign languages and volunteering experience, but not necessarily to Russian nationals.
Free public transport services were offered for ticketholders during the World Cup, including additional trains linking between host cities, as well as services such as bus service within them.
The full schedule was announced by FIFA on 24 July 2015 (without kick - off times, which were confirmed later). On 1 December 2017, following the final draw, six kick - off times were adjusted by FIFA.
Russia was placed in position A1 in the group stage and played in the opening match at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow on 14 June against Saudi Arabia, the two lowest - ranked teams of the tournament at the time of the final draw. The Luzhniki Stadium also hosted the second semi-final on 11 July and the final on 15 July. The Krestovsky Stadium in Saint Petersburg hosted the first semi-final on 10 July and the third place play - off on 14 July.
The opening ceremony took place on Thursday, 14 June 2018, at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, preceding the opening match of the tournament between hosts Russia and Saudi Arabia.
Former Brazilian World Cup - winning striker Ronaldo walked out with a child wearing a Russia 2018 shirt. English pop singer Robbie Williams then performed two songs before he and Russian soprano Aida Garifullina performed a duet while other performers emerged, dressed in the flags of all 32 teams and carrying a sign bearing the name of each nation. Dancers were also present. Ronaldo returned with the official match ball of the 2018 World Cup which was sent into space with the International Space Station crew in March and came back to Earth in early June.
Competing countries were divided into eight groups of four teams (groups A to H). Teams in each group played one another in a round - robin basis, with the top two teams of each group advancing to the knockout stage. Ten European teams and four South American teams progressed to the knockout stage, together with Japan and Mexico.
For the first time since 1938, Germany (reigning champions) did not advance past the first round. For the first time since 1982, no African team progressed to the second round. For the first time, the fair play criteria came into use, when Japan qualified over Senegal due to having received fewer yellow cards. Only one match, France v Denmark, was goalless. Until then there were a record 36 straight games in which at least one goal was scored.
All times listed below are local time.
The ranking of teams in the group stage was determined as follows:
In the knockout stages, if a match is level at the end of normal playing time, extra time is played (two periods of 15 minutes each) and followed, if necessary, by a penalty shoot - out to determine the winners.
If a match went into extra time, each team was allowed to make a fourth substitution, the first time this had been allowed in a FIFA World Cup tournament.
There were 169 goals scored in 64 matches, for an average of 2.64 goals per match.
Twelve own goals were scored during the tournament, doubling the record of six set in 1998.
6 goals
4 goals
3 goals
2 goals
1 goal
1 own goal
Source: FIFA
In total, only four players were sent off in the entire tournament, the fewest since 1978. International Football Association Board technical director David Elleray stated a belief that this was due to the introduction of VAR, since players would know that they would not be able to get away with anything under the new system.
A player is automatically suspended for the next match for the following offences:
The following suspensions were served during the tournament:
The following awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament. The Golden Boot (top scorer), Golden Ball (best overall player) and Golden Glove (best goalkeeper) awards were all sponsored by Adidas.
Additionally, FIFA.com shortlisted 18 goals for users to vote on as the tournaments ' best. The poll closed on 23 July. The award was sponsored by Hyundai.
As was the case during the 2010 and 2014 editions, FIFA did not release an official All - Star Team, but instead invited users of FIFA.com to elect their Fan Dream Team.
FIFA also published an alternate team of the tournament based on player performances evaluated through statistical data.
Prize money amounts were announced in October 2017.
The tournament logo was unveiled on 28 October 2014 by cosmonauts at the International Space Station and then projected onto Moscow 's Bolshoi Theatre during an evening television programme. Russian Sports Minister Vitaly Mutko said that the logo was inspired by "Russia 's rich artistic tradition and its history of bold achievement and innovation '', and FIFA President Sepp Blatter stated that it reflected the "heart and soul '' of the country. For the branding, Portuguese design agency Brandia Central created materials in 2014, with a typeface called Dusha (from душа, Russian for soul) designed by Brandia Central and edited by Adotbelow of DSType Foundry in Portugal.
The official mascot for the tournament was unveiled 21 October 2016, and selected through a design competition among university students. A public vote was used to select from three finalists -- a cat, a tiger, and a wolf. The winner, with 53 % of approximately 1 million votes, was Zabivaka -- an anthropomorphic wolf dressed in the colours of the Russian national team. Zabivaka 's name is a portmanteau of the Russian words забияка ("hothead '') and забивать ("to score ''), and his official backstory states that he is an aspiring football player who is "charming, confident and social ''.
The first phase of ticket sales started on 14 September 2017, 12: 00 Moscow Time, and lasted until 12 October 2017.
The general visa policy of Russia did not apply to participants and spectators, who were able to visit Russia without a visa right before and during the competition regardless of their citizenship. Spectators were nonetheless required to register for a "Fan - ID '', a special photo identification pass. A Fan - ID was required to enter the country visa - free, while a ticket, Fan - ID and a valid passport were required to enter stadiums for matches. Fan - IDs also granted World Cup attendees free access to public transport services, including buses, and train service between host cities. Fan - ID was administered by the Ministry of Digital Development, Communications and Mass Media, who could revoke these accreditations at any time to "ensure the defence capability or security of the state or public order ''.
The official match ball of the 2018 World Cup group stage was "Telstar 18 '', based on the name and design of the first Adidas World Cup ball from 1970. It was introduced on 9 November 2017.
After the group stage, "Telstar Mechta '' was used for the knockout stage. The word mechta (Russian: мечта) means dream or ambition. The difference between Telstar 18 and Mechta is the red details on the design.
On 30 April 2018, EA announced a free expansion for FIFA 18 based on the 2018 FIFA World Cup, featuring all 32 participating teams and all 12 stadiums used at the 2018 FIFA World Cup.
The official song of the tournament was "Live It Up '', with vocals from Will Smith, Nicky Jam and Era Istrefi, released on 25 May 2018. Its music video was released on 8 June 2018.
Thirty - three footballers who are alleged to be part of the steroid program are listed in the McLaren Report. On 22 December 2017, it was reported that FIFA fired a doctor who had been investigating doping in Russian football. On 22 May 2018 FIFA confirmed that the investigations concerning all Russian players named for the provisional squad of the FIFA World Cup in Russia had been completed, with the result that insufficient evidence was found to assert an anti-doping rule violation. FIFA 's medical committee also decided that Russian personnel would not be involved in performing drug testing procedures at the tournament; the action was taken to reassure teams that the samples would remain untampered.
The choice of Russia as host has been challenged. Controversial issues have included the level of racism in Russian football, and discrimination against LGBT people in wider Russian society. Russia 's involvement in the ongoing conflict in Ukraine has also caused calls for the tournament to be moved, particularly following the annexation of Crimea. In 2014, FIFA President Sepp Blatter stated that "the World Cup has been given and voted to Russia and we are going forward with our work ''.
Allegations of corruption in the bidding processes for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups caused threats from England 's FA to boycott the tournament. FIFA appointed Michael J. Garcia, a US attorney, to investigate and produce a report on the corruption allegations. Although the report was never published, FIFA released a 42 - page summary of its findings as determined by German judge Hans - Joachim Eckert. Eckert 's summary cleared Russia and Qatar of any wrongdoing, but was denounced by critics as a whitewash. Garcia criticised the summary as being "materially incomplete '' with "erroneous representations of the facts and conclusions '', and appealed to FIFA 's Appeal Committee. The committee declined to hear his appeal, so Garcia resigned in protest of FIFA 's conduct, citing a "lack of leadership '' and lack of confidence in the independence of Eckert.
On 3 June 2015, the FBI confirmed that the federal authorities were investigating the bidding and awarding processes for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. In an interview published on 7 June 2015, Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA 's Audit And Compliance Committee, stated that "should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled ''. Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and former British Prime Minister David Cameron attended a meeting with FIFA vice-president Chung Mong - joon in which a vote - trading deal for the right to host the 2018 World Cup in England was discussed.
In response to the March 2018 poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, British Prime Minister Theresa May announced that no British ministers or members of the royal family would attend the World Cup, and issued a warning to any travelling England fans. Iceland diplomatically boycotted the World Cup. Russia responded to the comments from the UK Parliament claiming that "the west are trying to deny Russia the World Cup ''. The Russian Foreign Ministry denounced Boris Johnson 's statements that compared the event to the 1936 Olympics held in Nazi Germany as "poisoned with venom of hate, unprofessionalism and boorishness '' and "unacceptable and unworthy '' parallel towards Russia, a "nation that lost millions of lives in fighting Nazism ''.
The British Foreign Office and MPs had repeatedly warned English football fans and "people of Asian or Afro - Caribbean descent '' travelling to Russia of "racist or homophobic intimidation, hooligan violence and anti-British hostility ''. English football fans who have travelled have said they have received a warm welcome from ordinary citizens after arriving in Russia.
At the close of the World Cup Russia was widely praised for its success in hosting the tournament, with Steve Rosenberg of the BBC deeming it "a resounding public relations success '' for Putin, adding, "The stunning new stadiums, free train travel to venues and the absence of crowd violence has impressed visiting supporters. Russia has come across as friendly and hospitable: a stark contrast with the country 's authoritarian image. All the foreign fans I have spoken to are pleasantly surprised. ''
FIFA President Gianni Infantino stated, "Everyone discovered a beautiful country, a welcoming country, that is keen to show the world that everything that has been said before might not be true. A lot of preconceived ideas have been changed because people have seen the true nature of Russia. '' Infantino has proclaimed Russia 2018 to be "the best World Cup ever '', as 98 % of the stadiums were sold out, there were three billion viewers on TV all around the world and 7 million fans visited the fan fests.
FIFA, through several companies, sold the broadcasting rights for the 2018 FIFA World Cup to various local broadcasters.
In the United States, the 2018 World Cup was the first men 's World Cup whose English rights were held by Fox Sports, and Spanish rights held by Telemundo. The elimination of the US national team in qualifying led to concerns that US interest and viewership of this World Cup would be reduced (especially among "casual '' viewers interested in the US team), especially noting how much Fox paid for the rights, and that US games at the 2014 World Cup peaked at 16.5 million viewers. During a launch event prior to the elimination, Fox stated that it had planned to place a secondary focus on the Mexican team in its coverage to take advantage of their popularity among US viewers (factoring Hispanic and Latino Americans). Fox stated that it was still committed to broadcasting a significant amount of coverage for the tournament.
In February 2018, Ukrainian rightsholder UA: PBC stated that it would not broadcast the World Cup. This came in the wake of growing boycotts of the tournament among the Football Federation of Ukraine and sports minister Ihor Zhdanov. Additionally, the Football Federation of Ukraine refused to accredit journalists for the World Cup and waived their quota of tickets. However, the Ukrainian state TV still broadcast the World Cup, and more than 4 million Ukrainians watched the opening match.
Broadcast rights to the tournament in the Middle East were hampered by an ongoing diplomatic crisis in Qatar over alleged support of extremist groups. Qatar is the home country of the region 's rightsholder, beIN Sports. Bahrain, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates cut diplomatic ties with Qatar over the matter. On 2 June 2018, beIN pulled its channels from Du and Etisalat, but with service to the latter restored later that day. Etisalat subsequently announced that it would air the World Cup in the UAE, and continue to offer beIN normally and without interruptions. In Saudi Arabia, beIN 's channels have been widely and illegally repackaged by a broadcaster identifying itself as beoutQ; while FIFA attempted to indirectly negotiate the sale of a package consisting of Saudi matches, as well as the opening and final games, they were unable to do so. On 12 July 2018, FIFA stated that it "has engaged counsel to take legal action in Saudi Arabia and is working alongside other sports rights owners that have also been affected to protect its interests. ''
|
who plays andre dimera on days of our lives | Thaao Penghlis - wikipedia
Thaao Penghlis (/ ˈteɪoʊ ˈpɛŋɡlɪs /; born 15 December 1945) is an Australian actor. He is best known for roles in United States daytime soap operas such as Days of Our Lives, Santa Barbara, and General Hospital, but has also guest - starred on a number of crime dramas, such as Kojak, Cannon, Tenspeed and Brown Shoe, Hart to Hart, Nero Wolfe and Magnum, P.I.. He also starred in the late 1980s remake of Mission: Impossible. Penghlis has studied under Hollywood acting teacher Milton Katselas.
Penghlis was born in Surry Hills, New South Wales of Greek parentage. Penghlis started his career in acting on stage, performing in Jockeys under Milton Katselas 's direction. Penghlis first appeared to daytime audiences in 1981 on General Hospital during the Ice Princess saga when he played the role of Victor Cassadine, brother of Mikkos and Anthony Cassadine. After his character was written out of the show by being taken to prison, he was cast as the villainous Count Tony DiMera, the son of villain Stefano DiMera in the NBC daytime drama Days of Our Lives. Penghlis returned to daytime in his one - time role of Victor Cassadine on General Hospital from 30 January 2014 to 4 March 2014.
Penghlis starred in the 1980 's revival of Mission: Impossible, which was filmed in his native Australia. Penghlis ' role as actor, makeup artist, and voice impersonator Nicholas Black in the revival was a counterpart to Martin Landau 's Rollin Hand and Leonard Nimoy 's The Great Paris.
In 2003, Penghlis was nominated for the Soap Opera Digest Award for Favorite Return for his return to the cast of Days of our Lives. He left the show in fall 2005. Penghlis returned to Days on 24 May 2007 to reprise the role of André DiMera. He also began reprising the role of nice guy Tony DiMera on 17 July 2007. Penghlis was nominated for Outstanding Leading Actor at the Daytime Emmy Awards in 2008. In 2009, Penghlis ' character was once again written out by having him die. In 2010 Penghlis returned to stage acting, performing in New Jersey 's Cape May Stage theatre. He starred in Charles Evered 's play Class with Heather Matarazzo.
Penghlis played a role in the 2013 film The Book of Esther.
|
what type of gun is used in the olympics | Biathlon - wikipedia
The biathlon is a winter sport that combines cross-country skiing and rifle shooting. It is treated as a race where the contestant with the shortest total time wins. Depending on the competition, missed shots result in extra distance or time added to the contestant 's total skiing distance or time.
According to Encyclopædia Britannica, the biathlon "is rooted in the skiing traditions of Scandinavia, where early inhabitants revered the Norse god Ullr as both the ski god and the hunting god ''. In modern times, the activity that developed into this sport was an exercise for Norwegian people that was an alternative training for the military. Norwegian skiing regiments organized military skiing contests in the 18th century, divided in four classes: shooting at mark while skiing at top speed, downhill race among trees, downhill race on big hills without falling, and a long race on flat ground while carrying rifle and military pack. In modern terminology these military contests included downhill, slalom, biathlon, and cross-country skiing. One of the world 's first known ski clubs, the Trysil Rifle and Ski Club, was formed in Norway in 1861 to promote national defense at the local level. 20th century variants include Forsvarsrennet (the military contest) -- a 17 km cross-country race with shooting, and the military cross-country race at 30 km including marksmanship. The modern biathlon is a civilian variant of the old military combined exercise. In Norway, the biathlon was until 1984 a branch of Det frivillige Skyttervesen, an organization set up by the government to promote civilian marksmanship in support of national defense. In Norwegian, the biathlon is called skiskyting (literally ski shooting). In Norway there are still separate contests in skifeltskyting, a cross-country race at 12 km with large - caliber rifle shooting at various targets with unknown range.
Called military patrol, the combination of skiing and shooting was contested at the Winter Olympic Games in 1924, and then demonstrated in 1928, 1936, and 1948, but did not regain Olympic recognition then because the small number of competing countries disagreed on the rules. During the mid-1950s, however, the biathlon was introduced into the Soviet and Swedish winter sport circuits and was widely enjoyed by the public. This newfound popularity aided the effort of having the biathlon gain entry into the Winter Olympics.
The first Biathlon World Championship was held in 1958 in Austria, and in 1960 the sport was finally included in the Olympic Games. At Albertville in 1992, women were first allowed in the Olympic biathlon.
The competitions from 1958 to 1965 used high - power centerfire cartridges, such as the. 30 - 06 Springfield and the 7.62 × 51mm NATO, before the. 22 Long Rifle rimfire cartridge was standardized in 1978. The ammunition was carried in a belt worn around the competitor 's waist. The sole event was the men 's 20 kilometres (12 mi) individual, encompassing four separate ranges and firing distances of 100 metres (330 ft), 150 metres (490 ft), 200 metres (660 ft), and 250 metres (820 ft). The target distance was reduced to 150 metres (490 ft) with the addition of the relay in 1966. The shooting range was further reduced to 50 metres (160 ft) in 1978 with the mechanical targets making their debut at the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid.
In 1948, the Union Internationale de Pentathlon Moderne et Biathlon (UIPMB) was founded, to standardise the rules for the biathlon and the modern pentathlon. In 1993, the biathlon branch of the UIPMB created the International Biathlon Union (IBU), which officially separated from the UIPMB in 1998.
Presidents of the UIPMB / IBU:
The following articles list major international biathlon events and medalists. Contrary to the Olympics and World Championships (BWCH), the World Cup (BWC) is an entire winter season of (mostly) weekly races, where the medalists are those with the highest sums of World Cup points at the end of the season.
The complete rules of the biathlon are given in the official IBU rule books.
A biathlon competition consists of a race in which contestants ski through a cross-country trail system whose total distance is divided into either two or four shooting rounds, half in prone position, the other half standing. Depending on the shooting performance, extra distance or time is added to the contestant 's total skiing distance / time. The contestant with the shortest total time wins.
For each shooting round, the biathlete must hit five targets or receive a penalty for each missed target, which varies according to the competition rules, as follows:
In order to keep track of the contestants ' progress and relative standing throughout a race, split times (intermediate times) are taken at several points along the skiing track and upon finishing each shooting round. The large display screens commonly set up at biathlon arenas, as well as the information graphics shown as part of the TV picture, will typically list the split time of the fastest contestant at each intermediate point and the times and time differences to the closest runners - up.
In the Olympics, all cross-country skiing techniques are permitted in the biathlon, allows the use of skate skiing, which is overwhelmingly the choice of competitors. The minimum ski length is the height of the skier minus 4 centimetres (1.6 in). The rifle has to be carried by the skier during the race at all times.
The biathlete carries a small - bore rifle, which weighs at least 3.5 kilograms (7.7 lb), excluding ammunition and magazines. The rifles use. 22 LR ammunition and are bolt action or Fortner (straight - pull bolt) action. The rifle must weight more than 3.5 kilograms. Each rifle holds 4 magazines with 5 rounds each. Additional rounds can be kept on the stock of the rifle for a relay race.
The target range shooting distance is 50 metres (160 ft). There are five circular targets to be hit in each shooting round. When shooting in the prone position, the target diameter is 45 millimetres (1.8 in); when shooting in the standing position, the target diameter is 115 millimetres (4.5 in). On all modern biathlon ranges, the targets are self - indicating, in that they flip from black to white when hit, giving the biathlete, as well as the spectators, instant visual feedback for each shot fired.
The 20 kilometres (12 mi) individual race (15 kilometres (9.3 mi) for women) is the oldest biathlon event; the distance is skied over five laps. The biathlete shoots four times at any shooting lane, in the order of prone, standing, prone, standing, totaling 20 targets. For each missed target a fixed penalty time, usually one minute, is added to the skiing time of the biathlete. Competitors ' starts are staggered, normally by 30 seconds.
The sprint is 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) for men and 7.5 kilometres (4.7 mi) for women; the distance is skied over three laps. The biathlete shoots twice at any shooting lane, once prone and once standing, for a total of 10 shots. For each miss, a penalty loop of 150 metres (490 ft) must be skied before the race can be continued. As in the individual competition, the biathletes start in intervals.
In a pursuit, biathletes ' starts are separated by their time differences from a previous race, most commonly a sprint. The contestant crossing the finish line first is the winner. The distance is 12.5 kilometres (7.8 mi) for men and 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) for women, skied over five laps; there are four shooting bouts (two prone, two standing, in that order), and each miss means a penalty loop of 150 metres (490 ft). To prevent awkward or dangerous crowding of the skiing loops, and overcapacity at the shooting range, World Cup Pursuits are held with only the 60 top ranking biathletes after the preceding race. The biathletes shoot on a first - come, first - served basis at the lane corresponding to the position they arrived for all shooting bouts.
In the mass start, all biathletes start at the same time and the first across the finish line wins. In this 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) for men or 12.5 kilometres (7.8 mi) for women competition, the distance is skied over five laps; there are four bouts of shooting (two prone, two standing, in that order) with the first shooting bout being at the lane corresponding to the competitor 's bib number (Bib # 10 shoots at lane # 10 regardless of position in race), with the rest of the shooting bouts being on a first - come, first - served basis (If a competitor arrives at the lane in fifth place, they shoot at lane 5). As in sprint and pursuit, competitors must ski one 150 metres (490 ft) penalty loop for each miss. Here again, to avoid unwanted congestion, World Cup Mass starts are held with only the 30 top ranking athletes on the start line (half that of the Pursuit as here all contestants start simultaneously).
The relay teams consist of four biathletes, who each ski 7.5 kilometres (4.7 mi) (men) or 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) (women), each leg skied over three laps, with two shooting rounds; one prone, one standing. For every round of five targets there are eight bullets available, though the last three can only be single - loaded manually one at a time from spare round holders or bullets deposited by the competitor into trays or onto the mat at the firing line. If after eight bullets there are still misses, one 150 m (490 ft) penalty loop must be taken for each missed target remaining. The first - leg participants start all at the same time, and as in cross-country skiing relays, every athlete of a team must touch the team 's next - leg participant to perform a valid changeover. On the first shooting stage of the first leg, the participant must shoot in the lane corresponding to their bib number (Bib # 10 shoots at lane # 10 regardless of position in race), then for the remainder of the relay, the relay team shoots on a first - come, first - served basis (arrive at the range in fifth place, shoot at lane 5).
The most recent addition to the number of biathlon competition variants, the mixed relay is similar to the ordinary relay but the teams are composed of two women and two men. Legs 1 and 2 are done by the women, legs 3 and 4 by the men. The women 's legs are 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) and men 's legs are 7.5 kilometres (4.7 mi) as in ordinary relay competitions.
In 2014, single mixed relay was introduced by the IBU. Each team has a man and a woman, and each runs two 3.0 kilometres (1.9 mi) legs, except the last leg where the man completes 4.5 kilometres (2.8 mi) for a total 13.5 kilometres (8.4 mi).
This event was first held at the Biathlon World Championships 2005 in Khanty - Mansiysk, and it was added to the 2014 Winter Olympics.
A team consists of four biathletes, but unlike the relay competition, all team members start at the same time. Two athletes must shoot in the prone shooting round, the other two in the standing round. In case of a miss, the two non-shooting biathletes must ski a penalty loop of 150 m (490 ft). The skiers must enter the shooting area together, and must also finish within 15 seconds of each other; otherwise a time penalty of one minute is added to the total time. Since 2004, this race format has been obsolete at the World Cup level.
Biathlon events are broadcast most regularly where the sport enjoys its greatest popularity, namely Germany (ARD, ZDF), Austria (ORF), Norway (NRK), France (L'Équipe 21), Finland (YLE), Estonia (ETV), Latvia (LTV), Lithuania (LRT), Croatia (HRT), Poland (Polsat), Sweden (SVT), Russia (Russia - 2, Channel One), Belarus (TVR), Slovenia (RTV), Bosnia and Herzegovina (BHRT), Bulgaria (BNT), and South Korea (KBS); it is broadcast on European - wide Eurosport, which also broadcasts to the Asia - Pacific region. World Cup races are streamed (without commentary) via the IBU website.
The broadcast distribution being one indicator, the constellation of a sport 's main sponsors usually gives a similar, and correlated, indication of popularity: for biathlon, these are the Germany - based companies E. ON Ruhrgas (energy), Krombacher (beer), and Viessmann (boilers and other heating systems).
The IBU maintains biathlon records, rules, news, videos, and statistics for many years back, all of which are available at its web site.
Biathlon 's two sports disciplines:
Other multi-discipline sports (otherwise unrelated to biathlon):
|
who is running for illinois house of representatives | Illinois House of Representatives election, 2018 - wikipedia
Mike Madigan Democratic
TBD
The 2018 elections for the Illinois House of Representatives will take place on Tuesday, November 6, 2018. Elections will be held to elect representatives from all 118 districts. The winners of this election will serve in the 101st General Assembly, with seats apportioned among the states based on the 2010 United States Census. The Democratic Party has held a House majority since 1997, although they experienced a net loss of four seats in the 2016 elections.
The elections for Illinois 's 18 congressional districts, Governor, statewide constitutional officers, and some seats in the State Senate will also be held on this date.
The Illinois House of Representatives has seen an unusually large number of legislators choose to retire.
District 1 District 2 District 3 District 4 District 5 District 6 District 7 District 8 District 9 District 10 District 11 District 12 District 13 District 14 District 15 District 16 District 17 District 18 District 19 District 20 District 21 District 22 District 23 District 24 District 25 District 26 District 27 District 28 District 29 District 30 District 31 District 32 District 33 District 34 District 35 District 36 District 37 District 38 District 39 District 40 District 41 District 42 District 43 District 44 District 45 District 46 District 47 District 48 District 49 District 50 District 51 District 52 District 53 District 54 District 55 District 56 District 57 District 58 District 59 District 60 District 61 District 62 District 63 District 64 District 65 District 66 District 67 District 68 District 69 District 70 District 71 District 72 District 73 District 74 District 75 District 76 District 77 District 78 District 79 District 80 District 81 District 82 District 83 District 84 District 85 District 86 District 87 District 88 District 89 District 90 District 91 District 92 District 93 District 94 District 95 District 96 District 97 District 98 District 99 District 100 District 101 District 102 District 103 District 104 District 105 District 106 District 107 District 108 District 109 District 110 District 111 District 112 District 113 District 114 District 115 District 116 District 117 District 118
The 20th district includes all or parts of the Chicago neighborhoods of Edison Park, Norwood Park, and O'Hare, along with all or parts the neighboring suburbs of Des Plaines, Franklin Park, Harwood Heights, Niles, Norridge, Park Ridge, Rosemont, and Schiller Park. According to a 2017 analysis by Ballotpedia, the 20th is the most Democratic district represented by a Republican in the Illinois House. The district is represented by Assistant Republican Leader Michael McAuliffe; the sole House Republican from Chicago. He has represented the district since his July 1996 appointment.
In 2016, incumbent Republican Michael McAuliffe, defeated Democratic businesswoman and anti-O'Hare noise activist Merry Marwig by 5,597 votes in one of the state 's most expensive House races that cycle. On September 12, 2017, Marwig announced she is seeking a rematch. McAuliffe is also expected to run for reelection.
Republican Lindsay Parkhurst was first elected to represent the 79th district in 2016, defeating Democrat Kate Cloonen. The 79th district includes all or parts of Kankakee, Bourbonnais, Bradley, Essex, Hopkins Park, Peotone, Herscher and Braceville. Cloonen 's predecessor, Democrat Lisa Dugan, who represented the 79th district from 2003 - 2013 has announced she will run for the seat. The race, dubbed a "battle royale '' by political observers, is expected to cost in the millions of dollars.
The 82nd district includes all or parts of Lemont, Indian Head Park, LaGrange, Western Springs, Homer Glen, Burr Ridge, Darien, Willowbrook, Woodridge, and Bolingbrook. The district has been represented by Republican Leader Jim Durkin since his January 2006 appointment. He previous served in the Illinois House from January 1995 to January 2003. In 2016, Minority Leader Jim Durkin ran unopposed.
Durkin is being challenged by Burr Ridge Mayor Mickey Straub. Straub is being backed by radio host and political operative Dan Proft. While Michael Madigan was challenged by Jason Gonzalez in 2016, it is rare that one of the "four tops '' is challenged, let alone in a primary election. On October 26, 2017, Durkin was endorsed by a number of Republican mayors from DuPage County.
Darien Alderman Tom Chlystek has filed to run for the Democratic nomination.
Republican Primary Endorsements
|
7 wonders of the world wikipedia in english | Wonders of the World - wikipedia
Various lists of the Wonders of the World have been compiled from antiquity to the present day, to catalogue the world 's most spectacular natural wonders and manmade structures.
The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World is the first known list of the most remarkable creations of classical antiquity; it was based on guidebooks popular among Hellenic sightseers and only includes works located around the Mediterranean rim and in Mesopotamia. The number seven was chosen because the Greeks believed it represented perfection and plenty, and because it was the number of the five planets known anciently, plus the sun and moon. Many similar lists have been made.
The historian Herodotus (484 -- ca. 425 BC) and the scholar Callimachus of Cyrene (ca. 305 -- 240 BC), at the Museum of Alexandria, made early lists of seven wonders. Their writings have not survived, except as references.
The classic seven wonders were:
The only ancient world wonder that still exists is the Great Pyramid of Giza.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, some writers wrote their own lists with names such as Wonders of the Middle Ages, Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages, Seven Wonders of the Medieval Mind, and Architectural Wonders of the Middle Ages. However, it is unlikely that these lists originated in the Middle Ages, because the word "medieval '' was not invented until the Enlightenment - era, and the concept of a Middle Age did not become popular until the 16th century. Brewer 's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable refers to them as "later list (s) '', suggesting the lists were created after the Middle Ages.
Many of the structures on these lists were built much earlier than the Medieval Ages but were well known.
Typically representative are:
Other sites sometimes included on such lists:
Following in the tradition of the classical list, modern people and organisations have made their own lists of wonderful things ancient and modern. Some of the most notable lists are presented below.
In 1994, the American Society of Civil Engineers compiled a list of Seven Wonders of the Modern World, paying tribute to the "greatest civil engineering achievements of the 20th century ''.
In November 2006 the American national newspaper USA Today and the American television show Good Morning America revealed a new list of New Seven Wonders as chosen by six judges. An eighth wonder was chosen on November 24, 2006 from viewer feedback.
Similar to the other lists of wonders, there is no consensus on a list of seven natural wonders of the world, and there has been debate over how large the list should be. One of the many existing lists was compiled by CNN:
In 2001 an initiative was started by the Swiss corporation New7Wonders Foundation to choose the New7Wonders of the World from a selection of 200 existing monuments. Twenty - one finalists were announced January 1, 2006. Egyptians were not happy that the only surviving original wonder, the Great Pyramid of Giza, would have to compete with the likes of the Statue of Liberty, the Sydney Opera House, and other landmarks, calling the project absurd. In response, Giza was named an honorary Candidate. The results were announced on July 7, 2007, in Lisbon, Portugal:
New7Wonders of Nature (2007 -- 11), a contemporary effort to create a list of seven natural wonders chosen through a global poll, was organized by the same group as the New7Wonders of the World campaign.
New7Wonders Cities is the third global vote organized by New7Wonders.
The Seven Underwater Wonders of the World was a list drawn up by CEDAM International, an American - based non-profit group for divers, dedicated to ocean preservation and research.
In 1989 CEDAM brought together a panel of marine scientists, including Dr. Eugenie Clark, to pick underwater areas which they considered to be worthy of protection. The results were announced at The National Aquarium in Washington DC by actor Lloyd Bridges, star of TV 's Sea Hunt:
British author Deborah Cadbury wrote Seven Wonders of the Industrial World, a book telling the stories of seven great feats of engineering of the 19th and early 20th centuries. In 2003, the BBC aired a seven - part docudrama exploring the same feats, with Cadbury as a producer. Each episode dramatised the construction of one of the following industrial wonders:
Seven Wonders of the World is a 1956 film in which Lowell Thomas searches the world for natural and man made wonders and invites the audience to try to update the ancient Greek Wonders of the World list.
In a 1999 article, Astronomy magazine listed the "Seven Wonders of the Solar System ''. This article was later made into a video.
Numerous other authors and organisations have composed lists of the wonders of the world. For example:
|
who are the candidates running for oklahoma governor | Oklahoma gubernatorial Election, 2018 - wikipedia
Mary Fallin Republican
The 2018 Oklahoma gubernatorial election will take place on November 6, 2018, to elect the next Governor of Oklahoma. Incumbent Republican Governor Mary Fallin is term - limited and can not seek re-election to a third consecutive term. Primary elections occurred on June 26, 2018, with primary runoff elections scheduled for August 28, 2018. The Democratic Party nominated former state Attorney General Drew Edmondson. The Republican primary will advance to a runoff between former Oklahoma City mayor Mick Cornett and businessman Kevin Stitt. The Libertarian primary will advance to a runoff between former OKLP chairman Chris Powell and Rex L. Lawhorn.
Hypothetical polling
Hypothetical polling
|
when does the movie true or dare come out | Truth or Dare (2018 film) - wikipedia
Blumhouse 's Truth or Dare, or simply Truth or Dare, is a 2018 American supernatural horror film directed by Jeff Wadlow and written by Michael Reisz, Jillian Jacobs, Chris Roach and Wadlow. It stars Lucy Hale, Tyler Posey, Violett Beane, Hayden Szeto, and Landon Liboiron, and follows a group of college students who play a game of truth or dare? while on vacation in Mexico, only to realize it has deadly consequences if they do n't follow through on their tasks. Jason Blum produced through his Blumhouse Productions banner, and Universal Pictures distributed the film.
Released in theaters on April 13, 2018, the film received negative reviews from critics, who said it was "neither inventive nor scary enough to set itself apart from the decades of dreary slashers that came before it ''. Despite this, the film was a massive box office success and grossed $82 million worldwide, over twenty - times its $3.5 million production budget.
Olivia Barron, her best friend Markie Cameron, Markie 's boyfriend Lucas Moreno, along with Penelope Amari and her boyfriend Tyson Curran, and Brad Chang go on a trip to Rosarito, Mexico. In Mexico, Olivia runs into fellow student Ronnie who proceeds to harass her until a man intervenes on her behalf. The man introduces himself as Carter and eventually convinces her and her friends to join him for drinks at the ruins of a mansion. There, Carter initiates a game of "Truth or Dare? '' with Olivia and her friends, plus Ronnie, who followed the group. Eventually, the game ends when Carter reveals that he deceived Olivia as a means of tricking her and her friends to the mission to offer them in his place in the supernatural game of Truth or Dare. As Carter leaves, he explains to Olivia that the game will follow them and they must not refuse it.
Upon returning Olivia begins to see "Truth or Dare? '' written in several places, initially believing it to be a prank. However, at the library she sees everyone asking her "Truth or Dare? '' until she picks truth and is forced to say that Markie cheated on Lucas. Olivia realized that only she saw / heard the truth or dare challenge.
Later at a local college bar Ronnie dies when he fails to complete a dare. Olivia, having become convinced that Carter was telling the truth, gathers and attempts to convince her friends that the game is real. The game, playing in accordance to the order the group played in Mexico, turns to Markie, having already appeared to Olivia and Lucas, and she is forced to break Olivia 's hand. At the hospital, Brad is then forced by the game into revealing to his father, Officer Han Chang, his homosexuality.
The next day, the skeptical Tyson lies when forced to tell a truth and, as a result, dies. A drunken Penelope is next forced by the game to drink and finish a full bottle of vodka whilst walking along the edge of the roof of a house. She eventually falls from the roof after finishing the bottle, but is saved by Brad, Markie, and Olivia. The group manage to come into contact with a woman named Giselle, who is also a participant in a separate incarnation of the game, and the group go to meet her.
Giselle reveals that she and her friends played the game and her friend Sam, the only other survivor of her incarnation of the game, was responsible for the game becoming reality in the first place, having wrecked the ruins of the mission. Giselle reveals that a truth can only be chosen twice before the next player is forced to choose dare. Giselle draws a handgun on Olivia and shoots, confessing that she was dared to kill her. However, Penelope jumps in front of Olivia and is shot and killed. Failing to kill Olivia, Giselle shoots herself in the head.
Olivia and Lucas drive to Tijuana and meet with a mute woman and former nun who operated out of the church in which they originally played the game. The woman informs them that they are dealing with a demon she first summoned, who possessed the game of Truth or Dare and can only be stopped if the last person who evoked it sacrifices their tongue into an urn and seals it with wax after an incantation is made in the church.
Later, following Olivia, Lucas, and Markie 's turns in the game, Brad is dared to withdraw his father 's gun and make him beg for his life. However, in the act, Brad is shot and killed by an approaching officer. At the precinct, Olivia learns that Carter is Sam.
Olivia, Markie, and Lucas find Sam and force him at gunpoint back to the ruins of the church in Mexico. There, Sam begins the ritual and is about to sever his tongue when it becomes Lucas ' turn to play the game. Lucas is dared to kill either Olivia or Markie, which he refuses. Possessed by the demon controlling the game, Lucas is forced to kill Sam, before the latter can complete the ritual to end the game. He then proceeds to slit his throat and die.
Olivia forces the demon to reveal to her whether or not there was a definitive way to end the game with Markie and herself alive. The demon reveals that now that Sam is dead, there is not - but they can draw more people into the game and prolong their turn in it. Olivia hastily records and uploads a video to YouTube, warning of the game and its rules, before challenging the viewers around the world to Truth or Dare, initiating them.
Initially, director Jeff Wadlow explained that he was hired to direct the film after spitballing an opening scene based on the title of the movie in his initial meetings with Blumhouse. Subsequently, he joined with his friend Chris Roach, and his wife, Jill Jacobs, and started thinking of ideas to approach the final concept.
Principal photography on the film began on June 7, 2017, and wrapped on July 12, 2017 in Los Angeles.
The film was initially set for release on April 27, 2018, but in January 2018, the date was moved up two weeks, to April 13, 2018, Friday the 13th. The official trailer for the film was released on January 3, 2018.
As of May 27, 2018, Truth or Dare has grossed $40.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $41.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $82.4 million, against a production budget of $3.5 million.
In the United States and Canada, Truth or Dare was released alongside the openings of Rampage and Sgt. Stubby: An American Hero, as well as the wide expansion of Isle of Dogs, and was projected to gross $12 -- 15 million from 3,029 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $8.2 million on its first day (including $750,000 from Thursday night previews), $6.8 million on Saturday and a total of $19.1 million over the weekend, finishing third behind Rampage ($34.5 million) and fellow horror film A Quiet Place ($32.6 million). It fell 58 % in its second weekend (slightly above - average for Blumhouse horror films), grossing $7.8 million and finishing fifth. The film continued to hold well in its third weekend, dropping 58 % again to $3.2 million, finishing seventh.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 14 % based on 127 reviews, and an average rating of 3.6 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Truth or Dare 's slick presentation is n't enough to make this mediocre horror outing much more frightening than an average round of the real - life game. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 35 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Simon Abrams of RogerEbert.com gave the film 2 / 4 stars and wrote that "director Jeff Wadlow and his three credited co-writers do n't go far enough towards either of their film 's primary impulses -- humanizing their immature subjects and / or making them die amusingly sadistic deaths. '' Exclaim! 's Alex Hudson called the film a "by - the - numbers horror that delivers clichés rather than surprises, '' though added "as dumb as this movie was, I kind of enjoyed it. ''
Variety 's Owen Gleiberman called it a "scare - free horror film '' and wrote, "The movie is n't scary, it is n't gripping, it is n't fun, and it is n't fueled by any sort of clever compulsion. It 's just a strangely arduous exercise that feels increasingly frantic and arbitrary as it goes along. ''
|
where was the final episode of the bachelor filmed | The Bachelor (Australian TV series) - Wikipedia
The Bachelor Australia is an Australian reality television adaptation of the U.S. series of the same name. The series, hosted by Osher Günsberg, first premiered on Network Ten on 8 September 2013. The show is premiered 7: 30pm twice a week every Wednesdays and Thursdays on Network Ten.
The Bachelor Australia was officially renewed for a second season on 19 November 2013, which premiered on 30 July 2014. A third season was confirmed in November 2014, which premiered on 29 July 2015.
On 17 September 2015, the series was renewed for a fourth season, which premiered on 27 July 2016. In addition, it was announced in November 2015 that unlike the previous three seasons which were produced by Shine Australia, season four would be produced by Warner Bros. International Television Production.
On 16 September 2016, the series was renewed for a fifth season, which premiered on 26 July 2017.
The season revolves around a single bachelor and a pool of romantic interests, which could include a potential wife for the bachelor. The conflicts in the series, both internal and external, stem from the elimination - style format of the show. Early in the season, the bachelor goes on large group dates with the women, with the majority of women eliminated during rose ceremonies. As the season progresses, women are also eliminated on single dates, elimination two - on - one dates and in cocktail parties. The process culminates with hometown visits to the families of the final four women, overnight dates, should they choose to accept, at exotic locations with the final three women, and interaction with the bachelor 's family with the final two women. In many cases, the bachelor proposes to his final selection.
The bachelor and one woman go on a date. The bachelor is given a chance to get to know the woman on a more personal level, and the dates are usually very intimate. If the date goes well and the bachelor wishes to spend more time with the woman or get to know them further, he may present them with a rose at the date. This means that during the rose ceremony at the end of each episode, she will be safe and there will be no chance of her going home.
The bachelor and a group of women participate in an activity. Sometimes the activity takes the form of a competition, with the winner or winners spending more time with the bachelor. The bachelor typically presents a rose to the woman who makes the best impression during the group date.
The women who have not been eliminated stand in rows at one end of the room, and the bachelor faces them. The bachelor has a tray with roses. The bachelor takes a rose and calls a woman by name. The woman steps forward, and the bachelor asks, "Will you accept this rose? '' The woman accepts, takes the rose, and makes her way to the other side of the room (where all the women who have been given a rose are required to stand.) When there is one rose remaining, host Osher Günsberg tells the bachelor, "When you 're ready. '' After all roses are distributed, the host tells the women who did not receive a rose to "please take some time to say goodbye. ''
The bachelor visits the home towns and families of each of the four remaining women. At the rose ceremony, one woman is eliminated, leaving three. Another episode airs before the final rose ceremony, leaving two women.
The two remaining women separately meet with the bachelor 's family. At the end of the episode, the bachelor will reveal their true love to the woman of his choice and will often propose to her. That woman is said to be the winner of The Bachelor Australia.
The show has been subjected to allegations of sexism, in relation to its hyper - sexualised and stereotypical portrayal of women. This feminist reading of the show has prompted an ironic following, which has also manifested online through humorous columns and episode reviews.
On 14 November 2014, it was announced that Network Ten had commissioned the spin - off series The Bachelorette Australia. It was revealed in October 2015 that Network Ten were exploring launching local adaptations of some of the Bachelor spin - off programs including After the Rose, Bachelor Pad, and Bachelor in Paradise. In October 2017, Network Ten officially confirmed that a local adaptation of Bachelor in Paradise Australia will go into production and is slated to air in 2018.
In New Zealand, The Bachelor Australia airs on Bravo TV. "The Bachelor Australia ''.
|
which would be evidence of more income inequality over time in the united states | Income inequality in the United States - Wikipedia
Income inequality in the United States has increased significantly since the 1970s after several decades of stability, meaning the share of the nation 's income received by higher income households has increased. This trend is evident with income measured both before taxes (market income) as well as after taxes and transfer payments. Income inequality has fluctuated considerably since measurements began around 1915, moving in an arc between peaks in the 1920s and 2000s, with a 30 - year period of relatively lower inequality between 1950 -- 1980. Recasting the 2012 income using the 1979 income distribution, the bottom 99 % of families would have averaged about $7,100 more income.
Measured for all households, U.S. income inequality is comparable to other developed countries before taxes and transfers, but is among the highest after taxes and transfers, meaning the U.S. shifts relatively less income from higher income households to lower income households. Measured for working - age households, market income inequality is comparatively high (rather than moderate) and the level of redistribution is moderate (not low). These comparisons indicate Americans shift from reliance on market income to reliance on income transfers later in life and less than households in other developed countries do.
The U.S. ranks around the 30th percentile in income inequality globally, meaning 70 % of countries have a more equal income distribution. U.S. federal tax and transfer policies are progressive and therefore reduce income inequality measured after taxes and transfers. Tax and transfer policies together reduced income inequality slightly more in 2011 than in 1979.
While there is strong evidence that it has increased since the 1970s, there is active debate in the United States regarding the appropriate measurement, causes, effects and solutions to income inequality. The two major political parties have different approaches to the issue, with Democrats historically emphasizing that economic growth should result in shared prosperity (i.e., a pro-labor argument advocating income redistribution), while Republicans tend to avoid government involvement in income and wealth generation (i.e., a pro-capital argument against redistribution).
U.S. income inequality has grown significantly since the early 1970s, after several decades of stability, and has been the subject of study of many scholars and institutions. The U.S. consistently exhibits higher rates of income inequality than most developed nations due to the nation 's enhanced support of free market capitalism and less progressive spending on social services.
The top 1 % of households received approximately 20 % of the pre-tax income in 2013, versus approximately 10 % from 1950 to 1980. The top 1 % is not homogeneous, with the very top income households pulling away from others in the top 1 %. For example, the top 0.1 % of households received approximately 10 % of the pre-tax income in 2013, versus approximately 3 -- 4 % between 1951 -- 1981. According to IRS data, adjusted gross income (AGI) of approximately $430,000 was required to be in the top 1 % in 2013.
Most of the growth in income inequality has been between the middle class and top earners, with the disparity widening the further one goes up in the income distribution. The bottom 50 % earned 20 % of the nation 's pre-tax income in 1979; this fell steadily to 14 % by 2007 and 13 % by 2014. Income for the middle 40 % group, a proxy for the middle class, fell from 45 % in 1979 to 41 % in both 2007 and 2014.
To put this change into perspective, if the US had the same income distribution it had in 1979, each family in the bottom 80 % of the income distribution would have had $11,000 more per year in income on average in 2012, or $916 per month. This figure would be $7,100 per year for the bottom 99 % of families comparing 1979 and 2012, or about $600 / month.
The trend of rising income inequality is also apparent after taxes and transfers. A 2011 study by the CBO found that the top earning 1 percent of households increased their income by about 275 % after federal taxes and income transfers over a period between 1979 and 2007, compared to a gain of just under 40 % for the 60 percent in the middle of America 's income distribution. U.S. federal tax and transfer policies are progressive and therefore substantially reduce income inequality measured after taxes and transfers. They became moderately less progressive between 1979 and 2007 but slightly more progressive measured between 1979 and 2011. Income transfers had a greater impact on reducing inequality than taxes from 1979 to 2011.
Americans are not generally aware of the extent of inequality or recent trends. There is a direct relationship between actual income inequality and the public 's views about the need to address the issue in most developed countries, but not in the U.S., where income inequality is larger but the concern is lower. The U.S. was ranked the 6th from the last among 173 countries (4th percentile) on income equality measured by the Gini index.
There is significant and ongoing debate as to the causes, economic effects, and solutions regarding income inequality. While before - tax income inequality is subject to market factors (e.g., globalization, trade policy, labor policy, and international competition), after - tax income inequality can be directly affected by tax and transfer policy. U.S. income inequality is comparable to other developed nations before taxes and transfers, but is among the worst after taxes and transfers. Income inequality may contribute to slower economic growth, reduced income mobility, higher levels of household debt, and greater risk of financial crises and deflation.
Labor (workers) and capital (owners) have always battled over the share of the economic pie each obtains. The influence of the labor movement has waned in the U.S. since the 1960s along with union participation and more pro-capital laws. The share of total worker compensation has declined from 58 % of national income (GDP) in 1970 to nearly 53 % in 2013, contributing to income inequality. This has led to concerns that the economy has shifted too far in favor of capital, via a form of corporatism, corpocracy or neoliberalism.
Although some have spoken out in favor of moderate inequality as a form of incentive, others have warned against the current high levels of inequality, including Yale Nobel prize for economics winner Robert J. Shiller, (who called rising economic inequality "the most important problem that we are facing now today ''), former Federal Reserve Board chairman Alan Greenspan, ("This is not the type of thing which a democratic society -- a capitalist democratic society -- can really accept without addressing ''), and President Barack Obama (who referred to the widening income gap as the "defining challenge of our time '').
The level of concentration of income in the United States has fluctuated throughout its history. The first era of inequality lasted roughly from the post-civil war era or "the Gilded Age '' to sometime around 1937. In 1915, an era in which the Rockefellers and Carnegies dominated American industry, the richest 1 % of Americans earned roughly 18 % of all income. By 2007, the top 1 percent accounted for 24 % of all income and in between, their share fell below 10 % for three decades.
From about 1937 to 1947, a period dubbed as the "Great Compression '' -- income inequality in the United States fell dramatically. Highly progressive New Deal taxation, the strengthening of unions, and regulation of the National War Labor Board during World War II raised the income of the poor and working class and lowered that of top earners. From the early 20th century, when income statistics started to become available, there has been a "great economic arc '' from high inequality "to relative equality and back again '', according to Nobel laureate economist Paul Krugman.
For about three decades ending in the early 1970s, this "middle class society '' with a relatively low level of inequality remained fairly steady, the product of relatively high wages for the US working class and political support for income leveling government policies. Wages remained relatively high because American manufacturing lacked foreign competition, and because of strong trade unions. By 1947 more than a third of non-farm workers were union members, and unions both raised average wages for their membership, and indirectly, and to a lesser extent, raised wages for workers in similar occupations not represented by unions. According to Krugman political support for equalizing government policies was provided by high voter turnout from union voting drives, the support of the otherwise conservative South for the New Deal, and prestige that the massive mobilization and victory of World War II had given the government.
On the other hand, a Marxist writing in the 1950s and 1960s believed "While the American worker enjoys the highest standard of living of any worker in the world, he is also the most heavily exploited. This tremendously productive working class gets back for its own consumption a smaller part of its output and hands over in the form of profit to the capitalist owners of the instruments of production a greater part of its output than does either the English or the French working class. ''
The return to high inequality, or to what Krugman and journalist Timothy Noah have referred as the "Great Divergence '', began in the 1970s. Studies have found income grew more unequal almost continuously except during the economic recessions in 1990 -- 91, 2001 (Dot - com bubble), and 2007 sub-prime bust.
The Great Divergence differs in some ways from the pre-Depression era inequality. Before 1937, a larger share of top earners income came from capital (interest, dividends, income from rent, capital gains). After 1970, income of high - income taxpayers comes predominantly from labor: employment compensation.
Until 2011, the Great Divergence had not been a major political issue in America, but stagnation of middle - class income was. In 2009 the Barack Obama administration White House Middle Class Working Families Task Force convened to focus on economic issues specifically affecting middle - income Americans. In 2011, the Occupy movement drew considerable attention to income inequality in the country.
CBO reported that for the 1979 - 2007 period, after - tax income of households in the top 1 percent of earners grew by 275 %, compared to 65 % for the next 19 %, just under 40 % for the next 60 %, 18 % for the bottom fifth of households. "As a result of that uneven income growth, '' the report noted, "the share of total after - tax income received by the 1 percent of the population in households with the highest income more than doubled between 1979 and 2007, whereas the share received by low - and middle - income households declined... The share of income received by the top 1 percent grew from about 8 % in 1979 to over 17 % in 2007. The share received by the other 19 percent of households in the highest income quintile (one fifth of the population as divided by income) was fairly flat over the same period, edging up from 35 % to 36 %. ''
According to the CBO, the major reason for observed rise in unequal distribution of after - tax income was an increase in market income, that is household income before taxes and transfers. Market income for a household is a combination of labor income (such as cash wages, employer - paid benefits, and employer - paid payroll taxes), business income (such as income from businesses and farms operated solely by their owners), capital gains (profits realized from the sale of assets and stock options), capital income (such as interest from deposits, dividends, and rental income), and other income. Of them, capital gains accounted for 80 % of the increase in market income for the households in top 20 %, in the 2000 -- 2007 period. Even over the 1991 -- 2000 period, according to the CBO, capital gains accounted for 45 % of the market income for the top 20 % households.
In a July 2015 op - ed article, Martin Feldstein, Professor of Economics at Harvard University, stated that the CBO found that from 1980 to 2010 real median household income rose by 15 %. However, when the definition of income was expanded to include benefits and subtracted taxes, the CBO found that the median household 's real income rose by 45 %. Adjusting for household size, the gain increased to 53 %.
Just as higher - income groups are more likely to enjoy financial gains when economic times are good, they are also likely to suffer more significant income losses during economic downturns and recessions when they are compared to lower income groups. Higher - income groups tend to derive relatively more of their income from more volatile sources related to capital income (business income, capital gains, and dividends), as opposed to labor income (wages and salaries). For example, in 2011 the top 1 % of income earners derived 37 % of their income from labor income, versus 62 % for the middle quintile. On the other hand, the top 1 % derived 58 % of their income from capital as opposed to 4 % for the middle quintile. Government transfers represented only 1 % of the income of the top 1 % but 25 % for the middle quintile; the dollar amounts of these transfers tend to rise in recessions.
This effect occurred during the Great Recession of 2007 -- 2009, when total income going to the bottom 99 percent of Americans declined by 11.6 %, but fell by 36.3 % for the top 1 %. Declines were especially steep for capital gains, which fell by 75 % in real (inflation - adjusted) terms between 2007 and 2009. Other sources of capital income also fell: interest income by 40 % and dividend income by 33 %. Wages, the largest source of income, fell by a more modest 6 %.
The share of pretax income received by the top 1 % fell from 18.7 % in 2007 to 16.0 % in 2008 and 13.4 % in 2009, while the bottom four quintiles all had their share of pretax income increase from 2007 to 2009. The share of aftertax income received by the top 1 % income group fell from 16.7 %, in 2007, to 11.5 %, in 2009.
The distribution of household incomes has become more unequal during the post-2008 economic recovery as the effects of the recession reversed. CBO reported in November 2014 that the share of pre-tax income received by the top 1 % had risen from 13.3 % in 2009 to 14.6 % in 2011. During 2012 alone, incomes of the wealthiest 1 percent rose nearly 20 %, whereas the income of the remaining 99 percent rose 1 % in comparison.
by 2012, the share of pre-tax income received by the top 1 % had returned to its pre-crisis peak, at around 23 % of the pre-tax income according to an article in The New Yorker. This is based on widely cited data from economist Emmanuel Saez, which uses "market income '' and relies primarily on IRS data. The CBO uses both IRS data and census data in its computations and reports a lower pre-tax figure for the top 1 %. The two series were approximately 5 percentage points apart in 2011 (Saez at about 19.7 % versus CBO at 14.6 %), which would imply a CBO figure of about 18 % in 2012 if that relationship holds, a significant increase versus the 14.6 % CBO reported for 2011. The share of after - tax income received by the top 1 % rose from 11.5 % in 2009 to 12.6 % in 2011.
Between 2010 and 2013, inflation - adjusted pre-tax income for the bottom 90 % of American families fell, with the middle income groups dropping the most, about 6 % for the 40th - 60th percentiles and 7 % for the 20th - 40th percentiles. Incomes in the top decile rose 2 %.
During the 2009 - 2012 recovery period, the top 1 % captured 91 % of the real income growth per family with their pre-tax incomes growing 34.7 % adjusted for inflation while the pre-tax incomes of the bottom 99 % grew 0.8 %. Measured from 2009 -- 2015, the top 1 % captured 52 % of the total real income growth per family, indicating the recovery was becoming less "lopsided '' in favor of higher income families. By 2015, the top 10 % (top decile) had a 50.5 % share of the pre-tax income, close its highest all - time level.
In 2013, tax increases on higher income earners were implemented with the Affordable Care Act and American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012. CBO estimated that "average federal tax rates under 2013 law would be higher -- relative to tax rates in 2011 -- across the income spectrum. The estimated rates under 2013 law would still be well below the average rates from 1979 through 2011 for the bottom four income quintiles, slightly below the average rate over that period for households in the 81st through 99th percentiles, and well above the average rate over that period for households in the top 1 percent of the income distribution. '' In 2016, the economists Peter H. Lindert and Jeffrey G. Williamson contended that inequality is the highest it has been since the nation 's founding.
French economist Thomas Piketty attributed the victory of Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election, which he characterizes as an "electoral upset, '' to "the explosion in economic and geographic inequality in the United States over several decades and the inability of successive governments to deal with this. ''
In May 2017, new data sets from the economists Piketty, Saez, and Gabriel Zucman of University of California, Berkeley demonstrate that inequality runs much deeper than previous data indicated. The share of incomes for those in the bottom half of the U.S. population stagnated and declined during the years 1980 to 2014 from 20 % in 1980 to 12 % in 2014. By contrast, the top 1 % share of income grew from 12 % in 1980 to 20 % in 2014. The top 1 % now makes on average 81 times more than the bottom 50 % of adults, where as in 1981 they made 27 times more. Pretax incomes for the top 0.001 % surged 636 % during the years 1980 to 2014. The economists also note that the growth of inequality during the 1970s to the 1990s can be attributed to wage growth among top earners, but the ever - widening gap has been "a capital - driven phenomenon since the late 1990s. '' They posit that "the working rich are either turning into or being replaced by rentiers. ''
A 2017 report by Philip Alston, the United Nations special rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, asserted that Donald Trump and the Republican Congress are pushing policies that would make the United States the "world champion of extreme inequality ''.
According to the CBO and others, "the precise reasons for the (recent) rapid growth in income at the top are not well understood '', but "in all likelihood, '' an "interaction of multiple factors '' was involved. "Researchers have offered several potential rationales. '' Some of these rationales conflict, some overlap. They include:
Paul Krugman put several of these factors into context in January 2015: "Competition from emerging - economy exports has surely been a factor depressing wages in wealthier nations, although probably not the dominant force. More important, soaring incomes at the top were achieved, in large part, by squeezing those below: by cutting wages, slashing benefits, crushing unions, and diverting a rising share of national resources to financial wheeling and dealing... Perhaps more important still, the wealthy exert a vastly disproportionate effect on policy. And elite priorities -- obsessive concern with budget deficits, with the supposed need to slash social programs -- have done a lot to deepen (wage stagnation and income inequality). ''
According to a 2018 report by the OECD, the U.S. has higher income inequality and a larger percentage of low income workers than almost any other advanced nation because the unemployed and at - risk workers get almost no support from the government and are further set back by a very weak collective bargaining system.
There is an ongoing debate as to the economic effects of income inequality. For example, Alan B. Krueger, President Obama 's Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisors, summarized the conclusions of several research studies in a 2012 speech. In general, as income inequality worsens:
Among economists and related experts, many believe that America 's growing income inequality is "deeply worrying '', unjust, a danger to democracy / social stability, or a sign of national decline. Yale professor Robert Shiller, who was among three Americans who won the Nobel prize for economics in 2013, said after receiving the award, "The most important problem that we are facing now today, I think, is rising inequality in the United States and elsewhere in the world. '' Economist Thomas Piketty, who has spent nearly 20 years studying inequality primarily in the US, warns that "The egalitarian pioneer ideal has faded into oblivion, and the New World may be on the verge of becoming the Old Europe of the twenty - first century 's globalized economy. ''
On the other side of the issue are those who have claimed that the increase is not significant, that it does n't matter because America 's economic growth and / or equality of opportunity are what 's important, that it is a global phenomenon which would be foolish to try to change through US domestic policy, that it "has many economic benefits and is the result of... a well - functioning economy '', and has or may become an excuse for "class - warfare rhetoric '', and may lead to policies that "reduce the well - being of wealthier individuals ''.
Economist Alan B. Krueger wrote in 2012: "The rise in inequality in the United States over the last three decades has reached the point that inequality in incomes is causing an unhealthy division in opportunities, and is a threat to our economic growth. Restoring a greater degree of fairness to the U.S. job market would be good for businesses, good for the economy, and good for the country. '' Krueger wrote that the significant shift in the share of income accruing to the top 1 % over the 1979 to 2007 period represented nearly $1.1 trillion in annual income. Since the wealthy tend to save nearly 50 % of their marginal income while the remainder of the population saves roughly 10 %, other things equal this would reduce annual consumption (the largest component of GDP) by as much as 5 %. Krueger wrote that borrowing likely helped many households make up for this shift, which became more difficult in the wake of the 2007 -- 2009 recession.
Inequality in land and income ownership is negatively correlated with subsequent economic growth. A strong demand for redistribution will occur in societies where a large section of the population does not have access to the productive resources of the economy. Rational voters must internalize such issues. High unemployment rates have a significant negative effect when interacting with increases in inequality. Increasing inequality harms growth in countries with high levels of urbanization. High and persistent unemployment also has a negative effect on subsequent long - run economic growth. Unemployment may seriously harm growth because it is a waste of resources, because it generates redistributive pressures and distortions, because it depreciates existing human capital and deters its accumulation, because it drives people to poverty, because it results in liquidity constraints that limit labor mobility, and because it erodes individual self - esteem and promotes social dislocation, unrest and conflict. Policies to control unemployment and reduce its inequality - associated effects can strengthen long - run growth.
Concern extends even to such supporters (or former supporters) of laissez - faire economics and private sector financiers. Former Federal Reserve Board chairman Alan Greenspan, has stated reference to growing inequality: "This is not the type of thing which a democratic society -- a capitalist democratic society -- can really accept without addressing. '' Some economists (David Moss, Paul Krugman, Raghuram Rajan) believe the "Great Divergence '' may be connected to the financial crisis of 2008. Money manager William H. Gross, former managing director of PIMCO, criticized the shift in distribution of income from labor to capital that underlies some of the growth in inequality as unsustainable, saying:
Even conservatives must acknowledge that return on capital investment, and the liquid stocks and bonds that mimic it, are ultimately dependent on returns to labor in the form of jobs and real wage gains. If Main Street is unemployed and undercompensated, capital can only travel so far down Prosperity Road.
He concluded: "Investors / policymakers of the world wake up -- you 're killing the proletariat goose that lays your golden eggs. ''
Among economists and reports that find inequality harming economic growth are a December 2013 Associated Press survey of three dozen economists ', a 2014 report by Standard and Poor 's, economists Gar Alperovitz, Robert Reich, Joseph Stiglitz, and Branko Milanovic.
A December 2013 Associated Press survey of three dozen economists found that the majority believe that widening income disparity is harming the US economy. They argue that wealthy Americans are receiving higher pay, but they spend less per dollar earned than middle class consumers, the majority of the population, whose incomes have largely stagnated.
A 2014 report by Standard and Poor 's concluded that diverging income inequality has slowed the economic recovery and could contribute to boom - and - bust cycles in the future as more and more Americans take on debt in order to consume. Higher levels of income inequality increase political pressures, discouraging trade, investment, hiring, and social mobility according to the report.
Economists Gar Alperovitz and Robert Reich argue that too much concentration of wealth prevents there being sufficient purchasing power to make the rest of the economy function effectively.
Joseph Stiglitz argues that concentration of wealth and income leads the politically powerful economic elite seek to protect themselves from redistributive policies by weakening the state, and this leads to less public investments by the state -- roads, technology, education, etc. -- that are essential for economic growth.
According to economist Branko Milanovic, while traditionally economists thought inequality was good for growth, "The view that income inequality harms growth -- or that improved equality can help sustain growth -- has become more widely held in recent years. The main reason for this shift is the increasing importance of human capital in development. When physical capital mattered most, savings and investments were key. Then it was important to have a large contingent of rich people who could save a greater proportion of their income than the poor and invest it in physical capital. But now that human capital is scarcer than machines, widespread education has become the secret to growth. '' He continued that "Broadly accessible education '' is both difficult to achieve when income distribution is uneven and tends to reduce "income gaps between skilled and unskilled labor. ''
Robert Gordon wrote that such issues as ' rising inequality; factor price equalization stemming from the interplay between globalization and the Internet; the twin educational problems of cost inflation in higher education and poor secondary student performance; the consequences of environmental regulations and taxes... '' make economic growth harder to achieve than in the past.
In response to the Occupy movement Richard A. Epstein defended inequality in a free market society, maintaining that "taxing the top one percent even more means less wealth and fewer jobs for the rest of us. '' According to Epstein, "the inequalities in wealth... pay for themselves by the vast increases in wealth '', while "forced transfers of wealth through taxation... will destroy the pools of wealth that are needed to generate new ventures. One report has found a connection between lowering high marginal tax rates on high income earners (high marginal tax rates on high income being a common measure to fight inequality), and higher rates of employment growth.
Economic sociologist Lane Kenworthy has found no correlation between levels of inequality and economic growth among developed countries, among states of the US, or in the US over the years from 1947 to 2005. Jared Bernstein found a nuanced relation he summed up as follows: "In sum, I 'd consider the question of the extent to which higher inequality lowers growth to be an open one, worthy of much deeper research ''. Tim Worstall commented that capitalism would not seem to contribute to an inherited - wealth stagnation and consolidation, but instead appears to promote the opposite, a vigorous, ongoing turnover and creation of new wealth.
Income inequality was cited as one of the causes of the Great Depression by Supreme Court Justice Louis D. Brandeis in 1933. In his dissent in the Louis K. Liggett Co. v. Lee (288 U.S. 517) case, he wrote: "Other writers have shown that, coincident with the growth of these giant corporations, there has occurred a marked concentration of individual wealth; and that the resulting disparity in incomes is a major cause of the existing depression. ''
Central Banking economist Raghuram Rajan argues that "systematic economic inequalities, within the United States and around the world, have created deep financial ' fault lines ' that have made (financial) crises more likely to happen than in the past '' -- the Financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 being the most recent example. To compensate for stagnating and declining purchasing power, political pressure has developed to extend easier credit to the lower and middle income earners -- particularly to buy homes -- and easier credit in general to keep unemployment rates low. This has given the American economy a tendency to go "from bubble to bubble '' fueled by unsustainable monetary stimulation.
Greater income inequality can lead to monopolization of the labor force, resulting in fewer employers requiring fewer workers. Remaining employers can consolidate and take advantage of the relative lack of competition, leading to declining customer service, less consumer choice, market abuses, and relatively higher prices.
Income inequality lowers aggregate demand, leading to increasingly large segments of formerly middle class consumers unable to afford as many luxury and essential goods and services. This pushes production and overall employment down.
Deep debt may lead to bankruptcy and researchers Elizabeth Warren and Amelia Warren Tyagi found a fivefold increase in the number of families filing for bankruptcy between 1980 and 2005. The bankruptcies came not from increased spending "on luxuries '', but from an "increased spending on housing, largely driven by competition to get into good school districts. '' Intensifying inequality may mean a dwindling number of ever more expensive school districts that compel middle class -- or would - be middle class -- to "buy houses they ca n't really afford, taking on more mortgage debt than they can safely handle ''.
The ability to move from one income group into another (income mobility) is a means of measuring economic opportunity. A higher probability of upward income mobility theoretically would help mitigate higher income inequality, as each generation has a better chance of achieving higher income groups. Conservatives and libertarians such as economist Thomas Sowell, and Congressman Paul Ryan (R., Wisc.) argue that more important than the level of equality of results is America 's equality of opportunity, especially relative to other developed countries such as western Europe.
Nonetheless, results from various studies reflect the fact that endogenous regulations and other different rules yield distinct effects on income inequality. A study examines the effects of institutional change on age - based labor market inequalities in Europe. There is a focus on wage - setting institutions on the adult male population and the rate of their unequal income distribution. According to the study, there is evidence that unemployment protection and temporary work regulation affect the dynamics of age - based inequality with positive employment effects of all individuals by the strength of unions. Even though the European Union is within a favorable economic context with perspectives of growth and development, it is also very fragile.
However, several studies have indicated that higher income inequality corresponds with lower income mobility. In other words, income brackets tend to be increasingly "sticky '' as income inequality increases. This is described by a concept called the Great Gatsby curve. In the words of journalist Timothy Noah, "you ca n't really experience ever - growing income inequality without experiencing a decline in Horatio Alger - style upward mobility because (to use a frequently - employed metaphor) it 's harder to climb a ladder when the rungs are farther apart. ''
The centrist Brookings Institution said in March 2013 that income inequality was increasing and becoming permanent, sharply reducing social mobility in the US. A 2007 study (by Kopczuk, Saez and Song in 2007) found the top population in the United States "very stable '' and that income mobility had "not mitigated the dramatic increase in annual earnings concentration since the 1970s. ''
Economist Paul Krugman, attacks conservatives for resorting to "extraordinary series of attempts at statistical distortion ''. He argues that while in any given year, some of the people with low incomes will be "workers on temporary layoff, small businessmen taking writeoffs, farmers hit by bad weather '' -- the rise in their income in succeeding years is not the same ' mobility ' as poor people rising to middle class or middle income rising to wealth. It 's the mobility of "the guy who works in the college bookstore and has a real job by his early thirties. ''
Studies by the Urban Institute and the US Treasury have both found that about half of the families who start in either the top or the bottom quintile of the income distribution are still there after a decade, and that only 3 to 6 % rise from bottom to top or fall from top to bottom.
On the issue of whether most Americans do not stay put in any one income bracket, Krugman quotes from 2011 CBO distribution of income study
Household income measured over a multi-year period is more equally distributed than income measured over one year, although only modestly so. Given the fairly substantial movement of households across income groups over time, it might seem that income measured over a number of years should be significantly more equally distributed than income measured over one year. However, much of the movement of households involves changes in income that are large enough to push households into different income groups but not large enough to greatly affect the overall distribution of income. Multi-year income measures also show the same pattern of increasing inequality over time as is observed in annual measures.
In other words, "many people who have incomes greater than $1 million one year fall out of the category the next year -- but that 's typically because their income fell from, say, $1.05 million to 0.95 million, not because they went back to being middle class. ''
Several studies have found the ability of children from poor or middle - class families to rise to upper income -- known as "upward relative intergenerational mobility '' -- is lower in the US than in other developed countries -- and at least two economists have found lower mobility linked to income inequality.
In their Great Gatsby curve, White House Council of Economic Advisers Chairman Alan B. Krueger and labor economist Miles Corak show a negative correlation between inequality and social mobility. The curve plotted "intergenerational income elasticity '' -- i.e. the likelihood that someone will inherit their parents ' relative position of income level -- and inequality for a number of countries.
Aside from the proverbial distant rungs, the connection between income inequality and low mobility can be explained by the lack of access for un-affluent children to better (more expensive) schools and preparation for schools crucial to finding high - paying jobs; the lack of health care that may lead to obesity and diabetes and limit education and employment.
Krueger estimates that "the persistence in the advantages and disadvantages of income passed from parents to the children '' will "rise by about a quarter for the next generation as a result of the rise in inequality that the U.S. has seen in the last 25 years. ''
Greater income inequality can increase the poverty rate, as more income shifts away from lower income brackets to upper income brackets. Jared Bernstein wrote: "If less of the economy 's market - generated growth -- i.e., before taxes and transfers kick in -- ends up in the lower reaches of the income scale, either there will be more poverty for any given level of GDP growth, or there will have to be a lot more transfers to offset inequality 's poverty - inducing impact. '' The Economic Policy Institute estimated that greater income inequality would have added 5.5 % to the poverty rate between 1979 and 2007, other factors equal. Income inequality was the largest driver of the change in the poverty rate, with economic growth, family structure, education and race other important factors. An estimated 16 % of Americans lived in poverty in 2012, versus 26 % in 1967.
A rise in income disparities weakens skills development among people with a poor educational background in term of the quantity and quality of education attained. Those with a low level of expertise will always consider themselves unworthy of any high position and pay
Lisa Shalett, chief investment officer at Merrill Lynch Wealth Management noted that, "for the last two decades and especially in the current period,... productivity soared... (but) U.S. real average hourly earnings are essentially flat to down, with today 's inflation - adjusted wage equating to about the same level as that attained by workers in 1970... So where have the benefits of technology - driven productivity cycle gone? Almost exclusively to corporations and their very top executives. '' In addition to the technological side of it, the affected functionality emanates from the perceived unfairness and the reduced trust of people towards the state. The study by Kristal and Cohen showed that rising wage inequality has brought about an unhealthy competition between institutions and technology. The technological changes, with computerization of the workplace, seem to give an upper hand to the high - skilled workers as the primary cause of inequality in America. The qualified will always be considered to be in a better position as compared to those dealing with hand work leading to replacements and unequal distribution of resources.
Economist Timothy Smeeding summed up the current trend:
Americans have the highest income inequality in the rich world and over the past 20 -- 30 years Americans have also experienced the greatest increase in income inequality among rich nations. The more detailed the data we can use to observe this change, the more skewed the change appears to be... the majority of large gains are indeed at the top of the distribution.
According to Janet L. Yellen, chair of the Federal Reserve,
... from 1973 to 2005, real hourly wages of those in the 90th percentile -- where most people have college or advanced degrees -- rose by 30 % or more... among this top 10 percent, the growth was heavily concentrated at the very tip of the top, that is, the top 1 percent. This includes the people who earn the very highest salaries in the U.S. economy, like sports and entertainment stars, investment bankers and venture capitalists, corporate attorneys, and CEOs. In contrast, at the 50th percentile and below -- where many people have at most a high school diploma -- real wages rose by only 5 to 10 % --
Economists Jared Bernstein and Paul Krugman have attacked the concentration of income as variously "unsustainable '' and "incompatible '' with real democracy. American political scientists Jacob S. Hacker and Paul Pierson quote a warning by Greek - Roman historian Plutarch: "An imbalance between rich and poor is the oldest and most fatal ailment of all republics. '' Some academic researchers have written that the US political system risks drifting towards a form of oligarchy, through the influence of corporations, the wealthy, and other special interest groups.
Rising income inequality has been linked to the political polarization in Washington DC. According to a 2013 study published in the Political Research Quarterly, elected officials tend to be more responsive to the upper income bracket and ignore lower income groups.
Paul Krugman wrote in November 2014 that: "The basic story of political polarization over the past few decades is that, as a wealthy minority has pulled away economically from the rest of the country, it has pulled one major party along with it... Any policy that benefits lower - and middle - income Americans at the expense of the elite -- like health reform, which guarantees insurance to all and pays for that guarantee in part with taxes on higher incomes -- will face bitter Republican opposition. '' He used environmental protection as another example, which was not a partisan issue in the 1990s but has since become one.
As income inequality has increased, the degree of House of Representatives polarization measured by voting record has also increased. The voting is mostly by the rich and for the rich making it hard to achieve equal income and resource distribution for the average population (Bonica et al., 2013). There is a little number of people who turn to government insurance with the rising wealth and real income since they consider inequality within the different government sectors. Additionally, there has been an increased influence by the rich on the regulatory, legislative and electoral processes within the country that has led to improved employment standards for the bureaucrats and politicians. Professors McCarty, Pool and Rosenthal wrote in 2007 that polarization and income inequality fell in tandem from 1913 to 1957 and rose together dramatically from 1977 on. They show that Republicans have moved politically to the right, away from redistributive policies that would reduce income inequality. Polarization thus creates a feedback loop, worsening inequality.
The IMF warned in 2017 that rising income inequality within Western nations, in particular the United States, could result in further political polarization.
Several economists and political scientists have argued that economic inequality translates into political inequality, particularly in situations where politicians have financial incentives to respond to special interest groups and lobbyists. Researchers such as Larry Bartels of Vanderbilt University have shown that politicians are significantly more responsive to the political opinions of the wealthy, even when controlling for a range of variables including educational attainment and political knowledge.
Historically, discussions of income inequality and capital vs. labor debates have sometimes included the language of class warfare, from President Theodore Roosevelt (referring to the leaders of big corporations as "malefactors of great wealth ''), to President Franklin Roosevelt ("economic royalists... are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred ''), to more the recent "1 % versus the 99 % '' issue and the question of which political party better represents the interests of the middle class.
Investor Warren Buffett said in 2006 that: "There 's class warfare, all right, but it 's my class, the rich class, that 's making war, and we 're winning. '' He advocated much higher taxes on the wealthiest Americans, who pay lower effective tax rates than many middle - class persons.
Two journalists concerned about social separation in the US are economist Robert Frank, who notes that: "Today 's rich had formed their own virtual country... (T) hey had built a self - contained world unto themselves, complete with their own health - care system (concierge doctors), travel network (Net jets, destination clubs), separate economy... The rich were n't just getting richer; they were becoming financial foreigners, creating their own country within a country, their own society within a society, and their economy within an economy.
George Packer wrote that "Inequality hardens society into a class system... Inequality divides us from one another in schools, in neighborhoods, at work, on airplanes, in hospitals, in what we eat, in the condition of our bodies, in what we think, in our children 's futures, in how we die. Inequality makes it harder to imagine the lives of others.
Even these class levels can affect the politics in certain ways. There has been an increased influence by the rich on the regulatory, legislative and electoral processes within the country that has led to improved employment standards for the bureaucrats and politicians. They have a greater influence through their lobbying and contributions that give them an opportunity to immerse wealth for themselves.
Loss of income by the middle class relative to the top - earning 1 % and 0.1 % is both a cause and effect of political change, according to journalist Hedrick Smith. In the decade starting around 2000, business groups employed 30 times as many Washington lobbyists as trade unions and 16 times as many lobbyists as labor, consumer, and public interest lobbyists combined.
From 1998 through 2010 business interests and trade groups spent $28.6 billion on lobbying compared with $492 million for labor, nearly a 60 - to - 1 business advantage.
The result, according to Smith, is a political landscape dominated in the 1990s and 2000s by business groups, specifically "political insiders '' -- former members of Congress and government officials with an inside track -- working for "Wall Street banks, the oil, defense, and pharmaceutical industries; and business trade associations. '' In the decade or so prior to the Great Divergence, middle - class - dominated reformist grassroots efforts -- such as civil rights movement, environmental movement, consumer movement, labor movement -- had considerable political impact.
Joseph Stiglitz
Economist Joseph Stiglitz argues that hyper - inequality may explain political questions -- such as why America 's infrastructure (and other public investments) are deteriorating, or the country 's recent relative lack of reluctance to engage in military conflicts such as the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Top - earning families, wealthy enough to buy their own education, medical care, personal security, and parks, have little interest in helping pay for such things for the rest of society, and have the political influence to make sure they do n't have to. So too, the lack of personal or family sacrifice involved for top earners in the military intervention of their country -- their children being few and far between in the relatively low - paying all - volunteer military -- may mean more willingness by influential wealthy to see its government wage war.
Economist Branko Milanovic argued that globalization and the related competition with cheaper labor from Asia and immigrants have caused U.S. middle - class wages to stagnate, fueling the rise of populist political candidates such as Donald Trump.
The relatively high rates of health problems and social problems, (obesity, mental illness, homicides, teenage births, incarceration, child conflict, drug use) and lower rates of social goods (life expectancy, educational performance, trust among strangers, women 's status, social mobility, even numbers of patents issued per capita), in the US compared to other developed countries may be related to its high income inequality. Using statistics from 23 developed countries and the 50 states of the US, British researchers Richard G. Wilkinson and Kate Pickett have found such a correlation which remains after accounting for ethnicity, national culture, and occupational classes or education levels. Their findings, based on UN Human Development Reports and other sources, locate the United States at the top of the list in regards to inequality and various social and health problems among developed countries. The authors argue inequality creates psychosocial stress and status anxiety that lead to social ills. A 2009 study conducted by researchers at Harvard University and published in the British Medical Journal attribute one in three deaths in the United States to high levels of inequality. According to The Earth Institute, life satisfaction in the US has been declining over the last several decades, which has been attributed to soaring inequality, lack of social trust and loss of faith in government.
It is claimed in a 2015 study by Princeton University researchers Angus Deaton and Anne Case that income inequality could be a driving factor in a marked increase in deaths among white males between the ages of 45 to 54 in the period 1999 to 2013.
Paul Krugman argues that the much lamented long - term funding problems of Social Security and Medicare can be blamed in part on the growth in inequality as well as the usual culprits like longer life expectancies. The traditional source of funding for these social welfare programs -- payroll taxes -- is inadequate because it does not capture income from capital, and income above the payroll tax cap, which make up a larger and larger share of national income as inequality increases.
Upward redistribution of income is responsible for about 43 % of the projected Social Security shortfall over the next 75 years.
Disagreeing with this focus on the top - earning 1 %, and urging attention to the economic and social pathologies of lower - income / lower education Americans, is conservative journalist David Brooks. Whereas in the 1970s, high school and college graduates had "very similar family structures '', today, high school grads are much less likely to get married and be active in their communities, and much more likely to smoke, be obese, get divorced, or have "a child out of wedlock. ''
The zooming wealth of the top one percent is a problem, but it 's not nearly as big a problem as the tens of millions of Americans who have dropped out of high school or college. It 's not nearly as big a problem as the 40 percent of children who are born out of wedlock. It 's not nearly as big a problem as the nation 's stagnant human capital, its stagnant social mobility and the disorganized social fabric for the bottom 50 percent.
Contradicting most of these arguments, classical liberals such as Friedrich Hayek have maintained that because individuals are diverse and different, state intervention to redistribute income is inevitably arbitrary and incompatible with the concept of general rules of law, and that "what is called ' social ' or distributive ' justice is indeed meaningless within a spontaneous order ''. Those who would use the state to redistribute, "take freedom for granted and ignore the preconditions necessary for its survival. ''
The growth of inequality has provoked a political protest movement -- the Occupy movement -- starting in Wall Street and spreading to 600 communities across the United States in 2011. Its main political slogan -- "We are the 99 % '' -- references its dissatisfaction with the concentration of income in the top 1 %.
A December 2011 Gallup poll found a decline in the number of Americans who felt reducing the gap in income and wealth between the rich and the poor was extremely or very important (21 percent of Republicans, 43 percent of independents, and 72 percent of Democrats). In 2012, several surveys of voters ' attitudes toward growing income inequality found the issue ranked less important than other economic issues such as growth and equality of opportunity, and relatively low in affecting voters "personally ''. In 1998 a Gallup poll had found 52 % of Americans agreeing that the gap between rich and the poor was a problem that needed to be fixed, while 45 % regarded it as "an acceptable part of the economic system ''. In 2011, those numbers are reversed: Only 45 % see the gap as in need of fixing, while 52 % do not. However, there was a large difference between Democrats and Republicans, with 71 % of Democrats calling for a fix.
In contrast, a January 2014 poll found 61 % of Republicans, 68 % of Democrats and 67 % of independents accept the notion that income inequality in the US has been growing over the last decade. The Pew Center poll also indicated that 69 % of Americans supported the government doing "a lot '' or "some '' to address income inequality and that 73 % of Americans supported raising the minimum wage from $7.25 to $10.10 per hour.
Opinion surveys of what respondents thought was the right level of inequality have found Americans no more accepting of income inequality than other citizens of other nations, but more accepting of what they thought the level of inequality was in their country, being under the impression that there was less inequality than there actually was. Dan Ariely and Michael Norton show in a study (2011) that US citizens across the political spectrum significantly underestimate the current US wealth inequality and would prefer a more egalitarian distribution of wealth. Joseph Stiglitz in "The Price of Inequality '' has argued that this sense of unfairness has led to distrust in government and business.
Income inequality (as measured by the Gini coefficient) is not uniform among the states: after - tax income inequality in 2009 was greatest in Texas and lowest in Maine. Income inequality has grown from 2005 to 2012 in more than 2 out of 3 metropolitan areas.
The household income Gini index for the United States was 0.468 in 2009, according to the US Census Bureau, though it varied significantly between states. The states of Utah, Alaska and Wyoming have a pre-tax income inequality Gini coefficient that is 10 % lower than the average, while Washington D.C. and Puerto Rico 10 % higher. After including the effects of federal and state taxes, the U.S. Federal Reserve estimates 34 states in the USA have a Gini coefficient between 0.30 and 0.35, with the state of Maine the lowest. At the county and municipality levels, the pre-tax Gini index ranged from 0.21 to 0.65 in 2010 across the United States, according to Census Bureau estimates.
Measured for all households, U.S. income inequality is comparable to other developed countries before taxes and transfers, but is among the worst after taxes and transfers, meaning the U.S. shifts relatively less income from higher income households to lower income households. Measured for working - age households, market income inequality is comparatively high (rather than moderate) and the level of redistribution is moderate (not low). These comparisons indicate Americans shift from reliance on market income to reliance on income transfers later in life and less fully than do households in other developed countries.
The U.S. was ranked the 41st worst among 141 countries (30th percentile) on income equality measured by the Gini index. The UN, CIA World Factbook, and OECD have used the Gini index to compare inequality between countries, and as of 2006, the United States had one of the highest levels of income inequality among similar developed or high income countries, as measured by the index. While inequality has increased since 1981 in two - thirds of OECD countries most developed countries are in the lower, more equal, end of the spectrum, with a Gini coefficient in the high twenties to mid thirties.
The gini rating (after taxes and government income transfers) of the United States is sufficiently high, however, to put it among less developed countries. The US ranks above (more unequal than) South American countries such Guyana, Nicaragua, and Venezuela, and roughly on par with Uruguay, Nicaragua, and Venezuela, according to the CIA.
The NYT reported in 2014: "With a big share of recent income gains in this country flowing to a relatively small slice of high - earning households, most Americans are not keeping pace with their counterparts around the world. '' Real median per capita income in many other industrialized countries was rising from 2000 - 2010 while the U.S. measure stagnated. The poor in much of Europe receive more than their U.S. counterparts.
One 2013 study indicated that U.S. income inequality is comparable to other developed countries before taxes and transfers, but rated last (worst) among 22 developed countries after taxes and transfers. This means that public policy choices, rather than market factors, drive U.S. income inequality disparities relative to comparable wealthy nations.
Some have argued that inequality is higher in other countries than official statistics indicate because of unreported income. European countries have higher amounts of wealth in offshore holdings.
The NYT reported in 2014 that there were three key reasons for other industrialized countries improving real median income relative to the United States over the 2000 - 2010 period:
According to The New York Times, Canadian middle class incomes are now higher than those in the United States as of 2014, and some European nations are closing the gap as their citizens have been receiving higher raises than their American counterparts. Bloomberg reported in August 2014 that only the wealthy saw pay increases since the 2008 recession, while average American workers saw no boost in their paychecks.
Economists have proposed a variety of solutions for addressing income inequality. For example, Federal Reserve Chair Janet Yellen described four "building blocks '' that could help address income and wealth inequality in an October 2014 speech. These included expanding resources available to children, affordable higher education, business ownership, and inheritance. While before - tax income inequality is subject to market factors, after - tax income inequality can be directly affected by tax and transfer policy. U.S. income inequality is comparable to other developed nations before taxes and transfers, but is among the worst after taxes and transfers. This suggests that more progressive tax and transfer policies would be required to align the U.S. with other developed nations. The Center for American Progress recommended a series of steps in September 2014, including tax reform, subsidizing and reducing healthcare and higher education costs, and strengthening labor influence.
However, there is debate regarding whether a public policy response is appropriate for income inequality. For example, Federal Reserve Economist Thomas Garrett wrote in 2010: "It is important to understand that income inequality is a byproduct of a well - functioning capitalist economy. Individuals ' earnings are directly related to their productivity... A wary eye should be cast on policies that aim to shrink the income distribution by redistributing income from the more productive to the less productive simply for the sake of ' fairness. ' ''
Public policy responses addressing causes and effects of income inequality include: progressive tax incidence adjustments, strengthening social safety net provisions such as Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, welfare, the food stamp program, Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid, increasing and reforming higher education subsidies, increasing infrastructure spending, and placing limits on and taxing rent - seeking. Democrat and Republican politicians also provided a series of recommendations for increasing median wages in December 2014. These included raising the minimum wage, infrastructure stimulus, and tax reform.
Research shows that children from lower - income households who get good - quality pre-Kindergarten education are more likely to graduate from high school, attend college, hold a job and have higher earnings. In 2010, the U.S. ranked 28th out of 38 advanced countries in the share of four - year - olds enrolled in public or private early childhood education. Gains in enrollment stalled after 2010, as did growth in funding, due to budget cuts arising from the Great Recession. Per - pupil spending in state - funded programs declined by 12 % after inflation since 2010. The U.S. differs from other countries in that it funds public education primarily through sub-national (state and local) taxes. The quality of funding for public education varies based on the tax base of the school system, with significant variation in local taxes and spending per pupil. Better teachers also raise the educational attainment and future earnings of students, but they tend to migrate to higher income school districts. Among developed countries, 70 % of 3 - year - olds go to preschool, versus 38 % in the United States.
Raising taxes on higher income persons to fund healthcare for lower income persons reduces after - tax inequality. The CBO described how the Affordable Care Act (ACA or "Obamacare '') reduced income inequality for calendar year 2014 in a March 2018 report:
Median annual earnings of full - time workers with a four - year bachelor 's degree is 79 % higher than the median for those with only a high school diploma. The wage premium for a graduate degree is considerably higher than the undergraduate degree. College costs have risen much faster than income, resulting in an increase in student loan debt from $260 billion in 2004 to $1.1 trillion in 2014. From 1995 to 2013, outstanding education debt grew from 26 % of average yearly income to 58 %, for households with net worth below the 50th percentile. The unemployment rate is also considerably lower for those with higher educational attainment. A college education is nearly free in many European countries, often funded by higher taxes.
The OECD asserts that public spending is vital in reducing the ever - expanding wealth gap. Lane Kenworthy advocates incremental reforms to the U.S. welfare state in the direction of the Nordic social democratic model, thereby increasing economic security and equal opportunity. Currently, the U.S. has the weakest social safety net of all developed nations.
Welfare spending may entice the poor away from finding remunerative work and toward dependency on the state. Eliminating social safety nets can discourage free market entrepreneurs by increasing the risk of business failure from a temporary setback to financial ruin.
CBO reported that less progressive tax and transfer policies contributed to an increase in after - tax income inequality between 1979 and 2007. This indicates that more progressive income tax policies (e.g., higher income taxes on the wealthy and a higher earned - income tax credit) would reduce after - tax income inequality.
Policies enacted under President Obama increased taxes on the wealthy, including the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 and the Affordable Care Act. As reported by The New York Times in January 2014, these laws include several tax increases on individuals earning over $400,000 and couples earning over $450,000:
These changes are estimated to add $600 billion to revenue over 10 years, while leaving the tax burden on everyone else mostly as it was. This reverses a long - term trend of lower tax rates for upper income persons.
The NYT reported in July 2018 that: "The top - earning 1 percent of households -- those earning more than $607,000 a year -- will pay a combined $111 billion less this year in federal taxes than they would have if the laws had remained unchanged since 2000. That 's an enormous windfall. It 's more, in total dollars, than the tax cut received over the same period by the entire bottom 60 percent of earners. '' This represents the tax cuts for the top 1 % from the Bush tax cuts and Trump tax cuts, partially offset by the tax increases on the top 1 % by Obama.
The CBO estimated that the average tax rate for the top 1 % rose from 28.1 % in 2008 to 33.6 % in 2013, reducing after - tax income inequality relative to a baseline without those policies.
The economists Emmanuel Saez and Thomas Piketty recommend much higher top marginal tax rates on the wealthy, up to 50 percent, or 70 percent or even 90 percent. Ralph Nader, Jeffrey Sachs, the United Front Against Austerity, among others, call for a financial transactions tax (also known as the Robin Hood tax) to bolster the social safety net and the public sector.
The Pew Center reported in January 2014 that 54 % of Americans supported raising taxes on the wealthy and corporations to expand aid to the poor. By party, 29 % of Republicans and 75 % of Democrats supported this action.
During 2012, investor Warren Buffett advocated higher minimum effective income tax rates on the wealthy, considering all forms of income: "I would suggest 30 percent of taxable income between $1 million and $10 million, and 35 percent on amounts above that. '' This would eliminate special treatment for capital gains and carried interest, which are taxed at lower rates and comprise a relatively larger share of income for the wealthy. He argued that in 1992, the tax paid by the 400 highest incomes in the United States averaged 26.4 % of adjusted gross income. In 2009, the rate was 19.9 %.
Tax expenditures (i.e., exclusions, deductions, preferential tax rates, and tax credits) cause revenues to be much lower than they would otherwise be for any given tax rate structure. The benefits from tax expenditures, such as income exclusions for healthcare insurance premiums paid for by employers and tax deductions for mortgage interest, are distributed unevenly across the income spectrum. They are often what the Congress offers to special interests in exchange for their support. According to a report from the CBO that analyzed the 2013 data:
Understanding how each tax expenditure is distributed across the income spectrum can inform policy choices.
Economist Dean Baker argues that the existence of tax loopholes, deductions, and credits for the corporate income tax contributes to rising income inequality by permitting large corporations with many accountants to reduce their tax burden and by permitting large accounting firms to receive payments from smaller businesses in exchange for helping these businesses reduce their tax burden. He says that this redistributes large sums of money that would otherwise be taxed to individuals who are already wealthy yet contribute nothing to society in order to obtain this wealth. He further argues that since a large portion of corporate income is reinvested in the business, taxing corporate income amounts to a tax on reinvestment, which he says should be left untaxed. He concludes that eliminating the corporate income tax, while needing to be offset by revenue increases elsewhere, would reduce income inequality.
In his 2013 State of the Union address, Barack Obama proposed raising the federal minimum wage. The progressive economic think tank the Economic Policy Institute agrees with this position, stating: "Raising the minimum wage would help reverse the ongoing erosion of wages that has contributed significantly to growing income inequality. '' In response to the fast - food worker strikes of 2013, Labor Secretary Thomas Perez said that it was another sign of the need to raise the minimum wage for all workers: "It 's important to hear that voice... For all too many people working minimum wage jobs, the rungs on the ladder of opportunity are feeling further and further apart. ''
The Economist wrote in December 2013: "A minimum wage, providing it is not set too high, could thus boost pay with no ill effects on jobs... America 's federal minimum wage, at 38 % of median income, is one of the rich world 's lowest. Some studies find no harm to employment from federal of state minimum wages, others see a small one, but none finds any serious damage. ''
The U.S. minimum wage was last raised to $7.25 per hour in July 2009. As of December 2013, there were 21 states with minimum wages above the Federal minimum, with the State of Washington the highest at $9.32. Ten states index their minimum wage to inflation.
The Pew Center reported in January 2014 that 73 % of Americans supported raising the minimum wage from $7.25 to $10.10 per hour. By party, 53 % of Republicans and 90 % of Democrats favored this action. Also in January 2014, six hundred economists sent the President and Congress a letter urging for a minimum wage hike to $10.10 an hour by 2016.
In February 2014, the CBO reported the effects of a minimum wage increase under two scenarios, an increase to $10.10 with indexing for inflation thereafter and an increase to $9.00 with no indexing:
Amalgamated Transit Union international president Lawrence J. Hanley has called for a maximum wage law, which "would limit the amount of compensation an employer could receive to a specified multiple of the wage earned by his or her lowest paid employees. '' CEO pay at the largest 350 U.S. companies was 20 times the average worker pay in 1965; 58 times in 1989 and 273 times in 2012.
Others argue for a basic income guarantee, ranging from civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. to libertarians such as Milton Friedman (in the form of negative income tax), Robert Anton Wilson, Gary Johnson (In the form of the fair tax "prebate '') and Charles Murray to the Green Party.
General limitations on and taxation of rent - seeking is popular with large segments of both Republicans and Democrats.
The economists Richard D. Wolff and Gar Alperovitz claim that greater economic equality could be achieved by extending democracy into the economic sphere. In an essay for Harper 's Magazine, investigative journalist Erik Reece argues that "With the political right entrenched in its opposition to unions, worker - owned cooperatives represent a less divisive yet more radical model for returning wealth to the workers who earned it. ''
The effect on income inequality of monetary policy pursued by the Federal Reserve is challenging to measure. Monetary policy can be used to stimulate the economy (e.g., by lowering interest rates, which encourages borrowing and spending, additional job creation, and inflationary pressure) or tightened, with the opposite effects. Former Fed Chair Ben Bernanke wrote in June 2015 that there are several effects on income and wealth inequality from monetary stimulus that work in opposing directions:
Various methods are used to determine income inequality and different sources may give different figures for gini coefficients or ratio different ratio of percentiles, etc... The United States Census Bureau studies on inequality of household income and individual income show lower levels of inequality than some other sources (Saez and Piketty, and the CBO), but do not include data for the highest - income households where most of change in income distribution has occurred.
Two commonly cited sources of income inequality data are the CBO and economist Emmanuel Saez, which differ somewhat in their sources and methods. According to Saez, for 2011 the share of "market income less transfers '' received by the top 1 % was about 19.5 %. Saez used IRS data in this measure. The CBO uses both IRS data and Census data in its computations and reported a lower "pre-tax '' figure for the top 1 % of 14.6 %. The two data series were approximately 5 percentage points apart in recent years.
Pioneers in the use of IRS income data to analyze income distribution are Emmanuel Saez and Thomas Piketty at the Paris School of Economics showed that the share of income held by the top 1 percent was as large in 2005 as in 1928. Other sources that have noted the increased inequality included economist Janet Yellen who stated, "the growth (in real income) was heavily concentrated at the very tip of the top, that is, the top 1 percent. '' Follow - up research, published in 2014, by Emmanuel Saez and Gabriel Zucman revealed that more than half of those in the top 1 percent had not experienced relative gains in wealth between 1960 and 2012. In fact, those between the top 1 percent and top. 5 percent had actually lost relative wealth. Only those in the top. 1 percent and above had made relative wealth gains during that time.
The comparative use of Census Bureau data, as well as most sources of demographic income data, has been questioned by statisticians for being unable to account for ' mobility of incomes '. At any given time, the Census Bureau ranks all households by household income and then divides this distribution of households into quintiles. The highest - ranked household in each quintile provides the upper income limit for each quintile. Comparing changes in these upper income limits for different quintiles is how changes are measured between one moment in time and the next. The problem with inferring income inequality on this basis is that the census statistics provide only a snapshot of income distribution in the U.S., at individual points in time. The statistics do not reflect the reality that income for many households changes over time -- i.e., incomes are mobile. For most people, income increases over time as they move from their first, low - paying job in high school to a better - paying job later in their lives. Also, some people lose income over time because of business - cycle contractions, demotions, career changes, retirement, etc. The implication of changing individual incomes is that individual households do not remain in the same income quintiles over time. Thus, comparing different income quintiles over time is like comparing apples to oranges, because it means comparing incomes of different people at different stages in their earnings profile.
Gary Burtless of the Brookings Institution notes that many economists and analysts who use U.S. census data fail to recognize recent and significant lower - and middle - income gains, primarily because census data does not capture key information: "A commonly used indicator of middle class income is the Census Bureau 's estimate of median household money income. The main problem with this income measure is that it only reflects households ' before - tax cash incomes. It fails to account for changing tax burdens and the impact of income sources that do not take the form of cash. This means, for example, that tax cuts in 2001 - 2003 and 2008 - 2012 are missed in the census statistics. Furthermore, the Census Bureau measure ignores income received as in - kind benefits and health insurance coverage from employers and the government. By ignoring such benefits as well as sizeable tax cuts in the recession, the Census Bureau 's money income measure seriously overstated the income losses that middle - income families suffered in the recession.
New CBO income statistics are beginning to show the growing importance of these items. In 1980, in - kind benefits and employer and government spending on health insurance accounted for just 6 % of the after - tax incomes of households in the middle one - fifth of the distribution. By 2010 these in - kind income sources represented 17 % of middle class households ' after - tax income. The income items missed by the Census Bureau are increasing faster than the income items included in its money income measure. What many observers miss, however, is the success of the nation 's tax and transfer systems in protecting low - and middle - income Americans against the full effects of a depressed economy. As a result of these programs, the spendable incomes of poor and middle - class families have been better insulated against recession - driven losses than the incomes of Americans in the top 1 %. As the CBO statistics demonstrate, incomes in the middle and at the bottom of the distribution have fared better since 2000 than incomes at the very top. ''
Inequality can be measured before and after the effects of taxes and transfer payments such as social security and unemployment insurance.
Comparisons of income over time should adjust for changes in average age, family size, number of breadwinners, and other characteristics of a population. Measuring personal income ignores dependent children, but household income also has problems -- a household of ten has a lower standard of living than one of two people, though the income of the two households may be the same. People 's earnings tend to rise over their working lifetimes, so "snapshot measures of income inequality can be misleading. '' The inequality of a recent college graduate and a 55 - year - old at the peak of his / her career is not an issue if the graduate has the same career path.
Conservative researchers and organizations have focused on the flaws of household income as a measure for standard of living in order to refute claims that income inequality is growing, becoming excessive or posing a problem for society. According to sociologist Dennis Gilbert, growing inequality can be explained in part by growing participation of women in the workforce. High earning households are more likely to be dual earner households, And according to a 2004 analysis of income quintile data by the Heritage Foundation, inequality becomes less when household income is adjusted for size of household. Aggregate share of income held by the upper quintile (the top earning 20 percent) decreases by 20.3 % when figures are adjusted to reflect household size.
However the Pew Research Center found household income has appeared to decline less than individual income in the twenty - first century because those who are no longer able to afford their own housing have increasingly been moving in with relatives, creating larger households with more income earners in them. The 2011 CBO study "Trends in the Distribution of Household Income '' mentioned in this article adjusts for household size so that its quintiles contain an equal number of people, not an equal number of households. Looking at the issue of how frequently workers or households move into higher or lower quintiles as their income rises or falls over the years, the CBO found income distribution over a multi-year period "modestly '' more equal than annual income. The CBO study confirms earlier studies.
Overall, according to Timothy Noah, correcting for demographic factors (today 's population is older than it was 33 years ago, and divorce and single parenthood have made households smaller), you find that income inequality, though less extreme than shown by the standard measure, is also growing faster than shown by the standard measure.
The Gini coefficient summarizes income inequality in a single number and is one of the most commonly used measures of income inequality. It uses a scale from 0 to 1 -- the higher the number the more inequality. Zero represents perfect equality (everyone having exactly the same income), and 1 represents perfect inequality (one person having all income). (Index scores are commonly multiplied by 100 to make them easier to understand.) Gini index ratings can be used to compare inequality within (by race, gender, employment) and between countries, before and after taxes. Different sources will often give different gini values for the same country or population measured. For example, the U.S. Census Bureau 's official Gini coefficient for the United States was 47.6 in 2013, up from 45.4 in 1993, the earliest year for comparable data. By contrast, the OECD 's Gini coefficient for income inequality in the United States is 37 in 2012 (including wages and other cash transfers), which is still the highest in the developed world, with the lowest being Denmark (24.3), Norway (25.6), and Sweden (25.9).
Professor Salvatore Babones of the University of Sydney notes:
A major gap in the measurement of income inequality is the exclusion of capital gains, profits made on increases in the value of investments. Capital gains are excluded for purely practical reasons. The Census does n't ask about them, so they ca n't be included in inequality statistics.
Obviously, the rich earn much more from investments than the poor. As a result, real levels of income inequality in America are much higher than the official Census Bureau figures would suggest.
Conservative researchers have argued that income inequality is not significant because consumption, rather than income should be the measure of inequality, and inequality of consumption is less extreme than inequality of income in the US. Will Wilkinson of the libertarian Cato Institute states that "the weight of the evidence shows that the run - up in consumption inequality has been considerably less dramatic than the rise in income inequality, '' and consumption is more important than income. According to Johnson, Smeeding, and Tory, consumption inequality was actually lower in 2001 than it was in 1986. The debate is summarized in "The Hidden Prosperity of the Poor '' by journalist Thomas B. Edsall. Other studies have not found consumption inequality less dramatic than household income inequality, and the CBO 's study found consumption data not "adequately '' capturing "consumption by high - income households '' as it does their income, though it did agree that household consumption numbers show more equal distribution than household income.
Others dispute the importance of consumption over income, pointing out that if middle and lower income are consuming more than they earn it is because they are saving less or going deeper into debt. A "growing body of work '' suggests that income inequality has been the driving factor in the growing household debt, as high earners bid up the price of real estate and middle income earners go deeper into debt trying to maintain what once was a middle class lifestyle. Between 1983 and 2007, the top 5 percent saw their debt fall from 80 cents for every dollar of income to 65 cents, while the bottom 95 percent saw their debt rise from 60 cents for every dollar of income to $1.40. Economist Krugman has found a strong correlation between inequality and household debt in the United States over the last hundred years.
Related to income inequality is the topic of wealth inequality, which refers to the distribution of net worth (i.e., what is owned minus what is owed) as opposed to annual income. Net worth is affected by movements in the prices of assets, such as stocks, bonds, and real estate, which can fluctuate significantly over the short - term. Income inequality also has a significant effect over long - term shifts in wealth inequality, as income is accumulated. Wealth inequality is also highly concentrated and increasing:
The increase in wealth for the 1 % was not homogeneous, with much of the wealth gains in the top 0.1 %. Those between the top 1 percent and top 0.5 percent have actually lost a significant share of wealth over the past 50 years.
Further, the top 400 Americans had net worth of $2 trillion in 2013, which was more than the combined net worth of the bottom 50 % of U.S. households. The average net worth of these 400 Americans was $5 billion. The lower 50 % of households held 3 % of the wealth in 1989 and 1 % in 2013. The average net worth of the bottom 50 % of households in 2013 was approximately $11,000.
This wealth inequality is apparent in the share of assets held. In 2010, the top 5 % wealthiest households had approximately 72 % of the financial wealth, while the bottom 80 % of households had 5 %. Financial wealth is measured as net worth minus home values, meaning income - generating financial assets like stocks and bonds, plus business equity.
The Center for American Progress reported in September 2014 that: "The trends in rising inequality are also striking when measured by wealth. Among the top 20 percent of families by net worth, average wealth increased by 120 percent between 1983 and 2010, while the middle 20 percent of families only saw their wealth increase by 13 percent, and the bottom fifth of families, on average, saw debt exceed assets -- in other words, negative net worth... Homeowners in the bottom quintile of wealth lost an astounding 94 percent of their wealth between 2007 and 2010. ''
|
what is the population of twin falls idaho | Twin Falls, Idaho - wikipedia
Twin Falls is the county seat and largest city of Twin Falls County, Idaho, United States. The city had a population of 44,125 as of the 2010 census.
In the Magic Valley region, Twin Falls is the largest city in a one - hundred - mile (160 km) radius, and is the regional commercial center for south - central Idaho and northeastern Nevada. It is the principal city of the Twin Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area, which officially includes the entirety of Twin Falls and Jerome counties. The resort community of Jackpot, Nevada, fifty miles (80 km) south at the state line, is unofficially considered part of the greater Twin Falls area.
Located on a broad plain at the south rim of the Snake River Canyon, Twin Falls is where daredevil Evel Knievel attempted to jump across the canyon in 1974 on a steam - powered rocket. The jump site is northeast of central Twin Falls, midway between Shoshone Falls and the Perrine Bridge.
Excavations at Wilson Butte Cave near Twin Falls in 1959 revealed evidence of human activity, including arrowheads, that rank among the oldest dated artifacts in North America. Later Native American tribes predominant in the area included the Northern Shoshone and Bannock.
The first people of European ancestry to visit the Twin Falls area are believed to be members of a group led by American Wilson Price Hunt, which attempted to blaze an all - water trail westward from St. Louis, Missouri, to Astoria, Oregon, in 1811 and 1812. Hunt 's expedition met with disaster: much of his expedition was destroyed and one man was killed in rapids on the Snake River known as Caldron Linn near present - day Murtaugh. Hunt and the surviving members of his expedition completed the journey to Astoria by land.
In 1812 and 1813, Robert Stuart successfully led an overland expedition eastward from Astoria to St. Louis, which passed through the Twin Falls area. Stuart 's route formed the basis of what became the Oregon Trail. Some 150 years later, Robert Stuart Middle School in Twin Falls was named in his honor.
The first permanent settlement in the area was a stage stop established in 1864 at Rock Creek near the present - day townsite. By 1890 there were a handful of successful agricultural operations in the Snake River Canyon, but the lack of infrastructure and the canyon 's geography made irrigating the dry surrounding area improbable at best.
To address this issue, in 1900 I.B. Perrine founded the Twin Falls Land and Water Company, largely to build an irrigation canal system for the area. After an August 1900 area survey of 244,025 acres (98,753 hectares), in October 1900 the company was granted the necessary water rights to begin construction of the irrigation system. Several lots in the surveyed area were set aside specifically for future townsites. These lots eventually became the settlements of Twin Falls, Kimberly, Buhl, Filer, Hansen and Murtaugh. In 1902, the project nearly failed as most of the original investors pulled out, with only Salt Lake businessman Stanley Milner maintaining a stake in the company.
By 1903, Perrine, who had been a successful farmer and rancher in the Snake River Canyon, had obtained private financing from Milner and others under the provisions of the Carey Act of 1894 to build a dam on the Snake River near Caldron Linn. Completed in 1905, Milner Dam and its accompanying canals made commercial irrigation outside the Snake River Canyon practical for the first time. As a result, Perrine is generally credited as the founder of Twin Falls.
A land drawing was held for the future townsite in July 1903 with disappointing results. A much more successful drawing was held in October 1904. Twin Falls city was founded in 1904 as a planned community, designed by celebrated Franco - American architect Emmanuel Louis Masqueray, with proceeds from sales of townsite lots going toward construction of irrigation canals. Twin Falls was incorporated as a village on April 12, 1905. The city is named for a nearby waterfall on the Snake River of the same name. In 1907, Twin Falls became the seat of the newly formed Twin Falls County.
The original townsite follows a unique design. It is laid out on northeast - to - southwest and northwest - to - southeast roads. It is purported that the reason this was done was to allow sun to come into every room in the home at some point during the day. The northwest - to - southeast roads were numbered and called avenues, while the northeast - to - southwest roads were numbered and called streets. Only two central streets, the northwest - to - southeast Main Avenue and the northeast - to - southwest Shoshone Street, were named. This system created situations where one side of a street may have an entirely different address than the other, and where the corner of "3rd and 3rd, '' for example, was in more than one location. In 2003 the numbered northeast - to - southwest streets were renamed to alleviate decades of confusion. Later city roads, such as Blue Lakes Boulevard, Addison Avenue, and Washington Street, are laid out in standard north -- south and east -- west orientations. Addison Avenue honors Addison T. Smith (1862 -- 1956), a ten - term congressman (1913 -- 33) from Twin Falls.
After Milner Dam was constructed agricultural production in south - central Idaho increased substantially. In 1909, the privately owned Twin Falls Land and Water Company was reorganized as the shareholder - owned Twin Falls Canal Company. Twin Falls became a major regional economic center serving the agriculture industry, a role which it has sustained to the present day. The city became a processing center for several agricultural commodities, notably beans and sugar beets. In later years other food processing operations augmented the local economy. By 1960, Twin Falls had become one of Idaho 's largest cities even though its origins were still within living memory for many.
Twin Falls became the center of national attention 44 years ago in September 1974, when daredevil Evel Knievel attempted to jump the Snake River Canyon in a specially modified rocket cycle. Watched by millions on closed - circuit television on a Sunday afternoon, the attempt ultimately failed due to high winds and a premature deployment of Knievel 's parachute. The launch ramp 's foundation lies on private land on the canyon 's south rim. Less than two miles west (3 km) of Shoshone Falls, it is still visible (42 ° 35 ′ 49 '' N 114 ° 25 ′ 23 '' W / 42.597 ° N 114.423 ° W / 42.597; - 114.423).
During the last quarter of the 20th century, gradual diversification of the agriculture - based economy allowed the city to continue to grow. Major Twin Falls employers in 2006 included computer maker Dell, Inc., Glanbia, and Jayco, a recreational vehicle manufacturer. In September 2009, Dell announced it would close its Twin Falls facility by January 2010. Later in 2010, the call center company C3 opened a facility in the former Dell location. In 2012 Chobani, one of the U.S. 's largest Greek yogurt manufacturers, opened its largest factory and distribution center in Twin Falls.
In recent years, Twin Falls has become quite multicultural. Thanks in large part to a refugee center operated by the College of Southern Idaho, since 1995 significant numbers of people from Bosnia and Herzegovina and the former Soviet Union have settled in Twin Falls. The city also has a sizable Hispanic population.
Twin Falls is one of only three Idaho cities which has a council - manager form of government. The seven - member Twin Falls City Council is directly elected in non-partisan municipal elections to four - year terms. The mayor, who holds little executive power, is periodically selected among current city council members to chair meetings and is "considered the official representative of the city. '' City council meetings are usually held on Mondays.
The city 's day - to - day operations are overseen by a city manager, who is appointed by the city council. The city government through various citizen boards oversees parks and recreation, planning and zoning, sanitation and garbage collection, street maintenance, wastewater collection, and maintains police and fire departments. Twin Falls Public Library, Twin Falls Municipal Golf Course and Joslin Field - Magic Valley Regional Airport are also under the city 's jurisdiction.
Twin Falls is home to the College of Southern Idaho (CSI), a large community college in the northwestern part of the city. The three state universities (Boise State University, Idaho State University, and the University of Idaho) offer classes on the CSI campus. The nursing program received money from the 2007 - 2008 state budget to construct a state of the art nursing facility which complements the nursing program. The CSI men 's basketball team won its third NJCAA Division I Championship in March 2011.
Public schools are administered by the Twin Falls School District, including Twin Falls High School, Canyon Ridge High School, the alternative Magic Valley High School, two middle schools and nine elementary schools. Also, Twin Falls is home to Xavier Charter School and the recently established Wings Charter Middle School. The superintendent for the Twin Falls School District is the recipient of the Idaho Association of School Administrator 's 2012 / 2013 Superintendent of the Year award and the district was awarded best title 1C district in the state.
On March 14, 2006, registered voters approved a bond to build an additional high school. A citywide contest was held to determine the school 's nickname. In November 2006, the Twin Falls School Board selected "River Hawks, '' thus officially giving birth to the Canyon Ridge High School River Hawks. Also on the bond were plans to make general improvements to existing school facilities and to convert the junior high schools to middle schools. These projects were completed for the 2009 - 10 school year. The addition of Canyon Ridge High School meant that the student population was split nearly in half. Athletics for both schools are designated 4A rather than 5A by IHSAA
Private schools include Lighthouse Christian School, Xavier Charter School, St. Edward 's Catholic School and Twin Falls Christian Academy.
Twin Falls, the state 's 7th largest city, is the fastest growing city in South - Central Idaho. As of April 2011 unemployment in Twin Falls county stood at 9.5 %, below Idaho 's average of 9.6 %. From 1998 to 2007 the unemployment rate was steadily decreasing, to a low of just under 2 %. Then, in tandem with the national economy, the unemployment rate increased to nearly 9.5 % as of April 2011.
Twin Falls is the home of cheese producer Glanbia Foods, a major American division of the Irish food company Glanbia plc.
Falls Brand, another award - winning food company, is located in the southern part of Twin Falls. In early 2011, Falls Brands ' Old Fashioned Basque Chorizo sausage won the "Hold The Mustard '' award presented by the National Meat Association (NMA) every year during their annual "NMA Annual Gourmet Sausagefest. ''
Another mainstay is The College of Southern Idaho (CSI). Boasting a student - population of 3,433 students, this Junior College may be an alternative for students not yet ready to attend a four - year university. Many students are from out - of - state and live in CSI 's residential halls.
Other large employers include Amalgamated Sugar Company, makers of White Satin sugar; and Lamb Weston, which has a food processing plant located in west Twin Falls. It employs 500 residents and its annual revenue is about $100 million per annum.
In spite of a troubled national economy, Twin Falls has seen rapid development since 2006. Many major retail outlets have opened stores in Twin Falls between 2006 and 2011.
In November 2009 a new Walmart Supercenter opened, bringing to the region an estimated 100 additional jobs. Less than a year later, in October 2010, C3, a customer call center, opened in the former Dell facility. It was a large boost to an already busy economy, providing close to 1,000 jobs. In July 2011 C3 announced it was filling another 300 C3 jobs in Twin Falls due to brisk business.
In November 2011 Agro-Farma announced that they will construct a state - of - the - art processing facility in Twin Falls to produce the company 's Chobani brand Greek - style yogurt. They project 400 initial jobs and at least $100 million for constructing the processing facility, with an estimated $300 million in additional revenue for Southern Idaho dairymen on an annual basis. Creating 40 - 50 new jobs, Magic Valley Cinema 13 constructed a new theater equipped with D - BOX seating. The new entertainment center was developed in association with the unprecedented growth in the Magic Valley.
In response to a growing population base, Twin Falls County voters voted to construct a new hospital in the northwest section of Twin Falls to replace the city 's existing hospital. In spring 2011 the new 700,000 sq / ft. facility, St. Luke 's Magic Valley, was opened. One of the features of the new hospital is that all 186 rooms are private with family accommodations.
Other businesses which have recently opened locations in Twin Falls include Five Guys Burgers and Fries, Buffalo Wild Wings, and Coldwater Creek. Wanting to catch some momentum a movement has begun to rebuild downtown in hopes of moving some business back to where it originated.
Twin Falls hosted the 2012 Idaho Republican Party convention, which was expected to create more positive economic activity.
China Mountain Wind, LLC. has proposed and may construct a 300,000 acres (1,200 km) wind farm after the Environmental Impacts are weighed. Twin Falls County can expect to generate $33.4 million in tax revenues. Local schools and services will receive a portion of the tax revenue. The construction of the wind farm will bring to the area 396 - 749 full and part - time jobs during construction and 24 - 46 new jobs to maintain the facility.
Chobani Yogurt Company, in 2012, opened the world 's largest yogurt manufacturing plant providing an additional 300 jobs to the Twin Falls community.
The Times - News is a local daily morning newspaper based in Twin Falls.
Over-the - air television stations include:
Cable television subscribers also receive stations from Boise and Salt Lake City, Utah.
Several radio stations broadcast in the Twin Falls area, including (but not limited to):
Twin Falls had the first live call - in radio show in the United States. Called "Party Line, '' the show was hosted by L. James Koutnik and Ed Prater on KLIX. The FCC attempted to time delay the program, but Koutnik and station owner Charlie Tuma and his partner Ed Prater thwarted their efforts and continued to allow live callers on the air.
Twin Falls is the largest city in Idaho that is not directly on the Interstate Highway System; it is served by several major highways, including U.S. Route 30 and U.S. Route 93. Access to nearby Interstate 84 is across the canyon via the Perrine Bridge (U.S. 93); the junction is approximately five miles (8 km) north, in Jerome County. State Highway 74 provides direct access from downtown Twin Falls to southbound locations on U.S. 93, including Hollister and Rogerson, then crosses into Nevada at Jackpot and continues to a junction with Interstate 80 at Wells.
Trans IV, a small public transportation system operated by the College of Southern Idaho, is also available.
Limited commercial air service is provided at Magic Valley Regional Airport, also known as Joslin Field. As of August 2017, daily flights to Salt Lake City are available from Delta Connection (fulfilled by SkyWest Airlines) using the Canadair CRJ200. Twice - weekly service to Las Vegas was previously operated by Allegiant Air, but the airline discontinued the route in January 2012, citing insufficient ticket prices.
Twin Falls is located at 42 ° 34'N 114 ° 28'W (42.561, - 114.464).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 18.16 square miles (47.03 km), of which, 18.10 square miles (46.88 km) is land and 0.06 square miles (0.16 km) is water.
The Snake River Canyon forms the city 's northern limits, separating it from Jerome County. There are three waterfalls in the immediate area. Shoshone Falls is located approximately 5 miles (8.0 kilometres) east of Twin Falls city. Pillar Falls is located approximately 1 ⁄ mi (2 ⁄ km) upstream from the Perrine Bridge while Twin Falls, the city 's namesake, is located upstream of Shoshone Falls.
Shoshone Falls stands at 213 ft (65 m), which is 46 feet (14 m) higher than Niagara Falls.
The Perrine Bridge, which spans the Snake River Canyon immediately north of the city, is one of only a handful of artificial structures worldwide where BASE jumping is legal. In September 2005 Miles Daisher of Twin Falls set a BASE jumping world record by jumping off Perrine Bridge 57 times in a 24 - hour period. In July 2006 Dan Schilling jumped off the bridge 201 times in 21 hours to raise money for charity. Unlike Daisher, Schilling was hoisted to the top of the bridge by a crane after every jump.
Twin Falls experiences a semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification, Bsk).
Monthly temperature averages in Twin Falls range from 34.9 ° F (1.6 ° C) in January to 85.0 ° F (29.4 ° C) in July, with lows below freezing from December through March. Highs reach 90 ° F (32 ° C) on average 18.8 days per year, but very rarely exceed 100 ° F (38 ° C). Winter snowfall averages 29.5 inches (74.9 cm) per year, though much heavier amounts have fallen. However, in Twin Falls proper after an average snowfall it is uncommon to see more than six inches of snow on streets and sidewalks. Summer and autumn months are very dry in Twin Falls, with less than 1 inch (2.5 cm) inch of precipitation falling each month between June and October. It is not uncommon to experience fast moving, intense electrical storms common in the deserts of the southwestern U.S..
According to 2009 estimates from the United States Census Bureau, the population swelled to 42,741, an increase of nearly 20 % from the 2000 United States Census, with an average household size of 3.20 residents. There were 9,422 owner - occupied homes with an average value, as of 2009, of $136,000.
The population density is 3,743 people per square mile. The racial makeup of the city is 92.0 % White, 0.5 % Black, 0.9 % Native American, 1.0 % Asian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 2.9 % from other races, and 2.6 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 12.3 % of the population.
There were 15,458 households out of which 34.1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.0 % were married couples living together, 12.7 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.1 % were non-families. 26.8 % of all households were made up of individuals and 10.7 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 3.20.
In the city, the population was spread out with 23.5 % under the age of 14, 15.6 % from 15 to 24, 27.6 % from 25 to 44, 20.2 % from 45 to 64, and 13.4 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.8 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $40,970 and the mean income for a family was $49,295.
As of the census of 2010, there were 44,125 people, 16,744 households, and 11,011 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,437.8 inhabitants per square mile (941.2 / km). There were 18,033 housing units at an average density of 996.3 per square mile (384.7 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 88.5 % White, 0.7 % African American, 0.8 % Native American, 1.8 % Asian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 5.7 % from other races, and 2.6 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13.1 % of the population.
There were 16,744 households of which 35.1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.3 % were married couples living together, 12.2 % had a female householder with no husband present, 5.2 % had a male householder with no wife present, and 34.2 % were non-families. 26.6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 10.9 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 3.13.
The median age in the city was 31.9 years. 27 % of residents were under the age of 18; 11.7 % were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.5 % were from 25 to 44; 21.4 % were from 45 to 64; and 13.4 % were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.7 % male and 51.3 % female.
On the Livability.com list of "Top Ten Cities to Defy Death '', Twin Falls ranked No. 1.
Notable musicians who spent parts of their childhood in the Twin Falls area include Tom White with Mr. Rezistor, Gary Puckett, Paul Durham of Black Lab, Nikki Sixx of Mötley Crüe, and Doug Martsch of Built to Spill.
|
who was the last baton carrier at the opening ceremony of the 2014 commonwealth games | 2014 Commonwealth Games opening ceremony - wikipedia
The opening ceremony for the 2014 Commonwealth Games was held at Celtic Park in Glasgow, Scotland, between 21: 00 and 23: 40 BST, on 23 July 2014.
The ceremony was directed by David Zolkwer and included the 2014 Commonwealth Games Parade of Nations where 71 athletes, bearing the flags of their respective nations and territories, led their national delegations as they paraded into the stadium. The games were formally opened by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. She referred to the Commonwealth 's "shared ideals and ambitions '' and the "bonds that unite '' its members.
The programme, which included about 2,000 performers, featured Karen Dunbar, John Barrowman, Amy Macdonald, Rod Stewart, Susan Boyle, Nicola Benedetti, Julie Fowlis, Pumeza Matshikiza, Eric Whitacre and the National Youth Choir of Scotland, as well as a message from the International Space Station. The ceremony began with a countdown and a recorded video message from Scottish actor Ewan McGregor, explaining the partnership between the Games and UNICEF.
Following the arrival of the Queen there was a flypast by the Red Arrows display team. The venue featured the largest LED video screen in Europe, supplied by Sports Technology. Scotland 's then First Minister Alex Salmond welcomed the participants and spectators, and introduced a moment of silence in memory of the Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 disaster.
The final part of the Queen 's Baton Relay was run by 32 Scottish volunteers nominated for giving their time to developing the nation 's youth through sport. The baton was then passed to Sir Chris Hoy, who delivered it to President of the Commonwealth Games Federation HRH Prince Imran and the Queen. The display of the message concealed within the baton was delayed by a difficulty in opening the device.
The Games were launched in partnership with UNICEF, to save and change children 's lives. The unique partnership aimed "to use the power of sport to reach every child in Scotland and benefit children in every Commonwealth nation and territory. ''
The ceremony was broadcast by BBC One, and was introduced by Gary Lineker, Hazel Irvine, Clare Balding and Huw Edwards. The estimated worldwide television audience was one billion, with 9 million in the UK.
|
who is the head coach of florida atlantic | Lane Kiffin - wikipedia
Lane Monte Kiffin (born May 9, 1975) is an American football coach who is currently the head football coach at Florida Atlantic University.
Kiffin formerly served as the offensive coordinator for the USC Trojans football team from 2005 to 2006, head coach of the National Football League 's Oakland Raiders from 2007 to 2008, head coach of the University of Tennessee Volunteers college football team in 2009, and head coach of the Trojans from 2010 to 2013. He was the youngest head coach in modern NFL history at the time when he joined the Raiders (until in 2017 when Sean McVay joined the Rams), and, for a time, was the youngest head coach of a BCS Conference team in college football. Kiffin was the offensive coordinator at the University of Alabama from 2014 until 2016, when he was hired at Florida Atlantic. Kiffin is the son of longtime NFL defensive coordinator Monte Kiffin.
Kiffin graduated from Bloomington Jefferson High School in Minnesota in 1994, and committed to Fresno State University to play college football. He played backup quarterback for the Bulldogs, giving up his senior season to become a Student Assistant Coach for position coach Jeff Tedford, who would later become the head coach at Cal in 2002. Kiffin graduated from Fresno State in 1998.
Kiffin worked as a graduate assistant for one year at Colorado State University. In 1999, while he was working with the offensive line, the Rams played in the Liberty Bowl. Kiffin secured a job with the Jacksonville Jaguars of the NFL as a quality control assistant for one year. He was then hired by head coach Pete Carroll as a tight ends coach at USC.
Kiffin began working with the University of Southern California (USC) staff during the 2001 season and became the wide receivers coach prior to the 2002 season. For the 2004 season, he added the duties of passing game coordinator, and he was promoted to offensive coordinator along with Steve Sarkisian for the 2005 season after Norm Chow left USC for the same position with the NFL 's Tennessee Titans. In addition to his duties as offensive coordinator, Kiffin took the reins as recruiting coordinator that year. Along with these duties, Kiffin continued as the wide receivers coach. Under Kiffin and Sarkisian, the 2005 USC offense produced numerous school records, averaging 49.1 points and 579 yards per game and becoming the first in NCAA history to have a 3,000 yard passer (Matt Leinart), two 1,000 yard rushers (Reggie Bush and LenDale White), and a 1,000 yard receiver (Dwayne Jarrett). Steve Smith fell a few yards short of also surpassing 1,000 yards in receiving. In Kiffin 's three years as recruiting coordinator at USC, the Trojans had the top ranked recruiting class in college football every year. The Trojans finished first in the Pac - 10 in passing efficiency by averaging 142.8 passer rating, produced two, 1,000 - yard receivers -- Dwayne Jarrett (1,105) and Steve Smith (1,083) -- and a 3,000 - yard passer John David Booty, with 3,347 yards. The team produced top 20 statistics in most NCAA offensive categories and concluded with a 32 -- 18 win over the then # 3 ranked team the University of Michigan in the Rose Bowl.
Kiffin helped guide USC to a 23 -- 3 record during his tenure as offensive coordinator, an 88.5 % win percentage; however, in June 2010, the NCAA retroactively declared Reggie Bush ineligible for the entire 2005 season, and forced USC to vacate all of its 2005 wins. Litigation from former coach Todd McNair to overturn those vacancies is still ongoing.
Raiders ' owner Al Davis hired the 31 year - old Kiffin on January 23, 2007, making him the youngest head coach in Oakland Raiders history, and the youngest head coach in the NFL 's "modern era '' (since 1946), and signed Kiffin to a two - year contract worth about $4 million with a team option for 2009. Pro Football Hall of Fame Coach John Madden was 32 when he was elevated to the head post by Davis in 1969. Davis had been known to select young, up - and - coming coaches in their thirties; those hires who fared well include John Madden, Mike Shanahan, and Jon Gruden. All have won Super Bowls, though Madden is the only one of the three to win a championship with the Raiders. Age 31 at the time of his hiring by the Raiders (32 when he coached his first game), Kiffin became the youngest head coach in modern NFL history; he also surpassed the New York Jets ' Eric Mangini and the Pittsburgh Steelers ' Mike Tomlin as the youngest head coach since the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970.
On August 12, 2007, in his NFL head coaching debut, Kiffin and the Raiders won their preseason opener 27 -- 23 over the Arizona Cardinals. Kiffin vehemently opposed the selection of LSU quarterback JaMarcus Russell in the 2007 NFL Draft, who would eventually be regarded as one of the biggest draft busts in NFL history. Russell held out until September 12, and did not make his first start until December 2, long after the season was effectively over. Kiffin recorded his first regular season win as an NFL head coach on September 23, 2007; the Raiders defeated the Cleveland Browns by a score of 26 -- 24 when defensive lineman Tommy Kelly blocked a late Cleveland field goal. At his end - of - the - season press conference, Kiffin told the media and his players that he had many plans and changes he was going to make in the 2008 offseason. When asked by his players about rumors that Kiffin was interested in open coaching positions in college football, he told them he never thought the rumors were important enough to address because he was never planning to leave.
On January 25, 2008, ESPN NFL analyst Chris Mortensen reported that Davis, who was not known for being patient with his coaches, tried to force Kiffin to resign after his first season ended with a 4 -- 12 record. A source allegedly close to Kiffin told Mortensen that Kiffin would not resign, and would not sign the letter of resignation that would cause him to forfeit his $2 million salary for the remaining guaranteed year of his contract. However, the Raiders denied the story, while Kiffin refused to comment.
On September 15, 2008, NBC Sports reported Davis was unhappy with Kiffin, and intended to fire him as soon as the following Monday or Tuesday. On September 30, 2008, Davis fired Kiffin over the telephone. At the televised news conference announcing the firing, Davis called Kiffin "a flat - out liar '' and said he was guilty of "bringing disgrace to the organization ''. The Raiders said the move was made for cause, meaning they would terminate his contract immediately without paying the $2.6 million that was left on it for 2008. Kiffin later added in an interview with ESPN that he was not proud to be associated with Davis 's accusations and was actually more embarrassed for Davis than himself. The Raiders subsequently released a letter Davis sent to Kiffin on September 12 that warned him that he was on the verge of being fired for "conduct detrimental to the Raiders, '' including repeated instances of making excuses and outright lies. Kiffin 's post-firing press conference was canceled. Kiffin filed a grievance against the Raiders, claiming that he was fired without cause, but on November 15, 2010, an arbitrator ruled that Davis did indeed have cause to fire Kiffin. Kiffin 's short tenure as the Raiders ' head coach ended with a 5 -- 15 record. Offensive line coach Tom Cable was given interim head coaching duties for the remainder of the 2008 season and was later made their permanent head coach on February 4, 2009.
Several of his former Raider staff expressed interest as Kiffin began assembling his new staff at the University of Tennessee. On December 15, 2008, Raiders head coach Tom Cable lashed out at Kiffin for hiring one of his assistants, James Cregg, with two weeks remaining in the NFL season. Cable called the timing of Cregg 's departure "wrong in the business of coaching '' and indicated he had lost respect for Kiffin and planned to confront him about it. Nothing further was said publicly regarding the incident.
Despite the animosity between the Raiders and Kiffin, he released a statement following Al Davis 's death in October 2011 stating that although their relationship had not ended well, he appreciated the opportunity Davis had given him and had "nothing but the greatest respect '' for the late Raiders owner.
On November 28, 2008, multiple media outlets reported that Kiffin would be the next head football coach for the University of Tennessee Volunteers in 2009, replacing head coach Phillip Fulmer, who retired. Tennessee formally introduced Kiffin as the school 's 21st head football coach on December 1, 2008 in a 2: 00 p.m. news conference.
At the age of 33, Kiffin was hired by Tennessee and became the youngest active head coach in Division I FBS, surpassing Northwestern 's Pat Fitzgerald.
Kiffin signed a memorandum of understanding with the University of Tennessee on November 30, 2008. The deal included $2 million in 2009, with additional performance bonuses, including a $300,000 bonus if Tennessee was to compete for the national championship. His salary was set to increase over the six - year - deal, reaching a high of $2.75 million in 2014. The average salary of the deal was $2.375 million. If Kiffin had been fired in 2009 or 2010, the school would have to pay him $7.5 million under a buyout clause; after the 2012 season, the buyout clause decreased to $5 million. Kiffin 's contract stated that if he resigned, he would have to pay UT $1 million in 2009, with the sum decreasing by $200,000 each year of his contract.
Kiffin led the Vols to a 7 -- 6 record in 2009, an improvement from their 5 -- 7 record in 2008. The Vols increased their offensive output by more than 60 percent in 2009 with Kiffin calling the offensive plays. Highlights included wins over South Carolina, Georgia, and Kentucky. However, the season was marred by losses to UCLA, Florida, Auburn, Alabama, and Ole Miss, as well as a 23 - point blow - out loss to Virginia Tech in the Chick - fil - A Bowl. After one season as coach, Kiffin left the Vols during the 2010 recruiting season to accept the head coaching job at the University of Southern California after Pete Carroll left to go to the Seattle Seahawks.
On February 5, 2009, during a Tennessee booster breakfast at the Knoxville Convention Center, Kiffin accused Urban Meyer, then head coach of the Florida Gators and currently head coach of the Ohio State Buckeyes, of violating NCAA recruiting rules.
"I 'm going to turn Florida in right here in front of you, '' Kiffin told the crowd. "As Nu'Keese (Richardson) was here on campus, his phone keeps ringing. And so one of our coaches is sitting in the meeting with him and says, ' Who is that? ' And he looks at the phone and says, ' Urban Meyer. ' Just so you know, you ca n't call a recruit on another campus. But I love the fact that Urban had to cheat and still did n't get him. ''
While Kiffin accused Meyer of violating NCAA rules, he incidentally violated a Southeastern Conference rule that prevented coaches from mentioning a recruit by name. Kiffin 's accusations against Meyer were mistaken. Southeastern Conference commissioner Mike Slive issued a public reprimand to Kiffin because of the comment. In addition to the SEC 's public reprimand, Florida Athletic Director Jeremy Foley demanded a public apology from Kiffin. Kiffin issued a public apology one day after making the comment. In a statement released by the University of Tennessee, Kiffin wrote, "In my enthusiasm for our recruiting class, I made some statements that were meant solely to excite those at the breakfast. If I offended anyone at the University of Florida, including Mr. Foley and Urban Meyer, I sincerely apologize. That was not my intention. ''
Kiffin generated further controversy when he told wide receiver recruit Alshon Jeffery that if Jeffery chose the Gamecocks, "he would end up pumping gas for the rest of his life like all the other players from that state who had gone to South Carolina. '' Jeffery went on to sign with the University of South Carolina Gamecocks and became the second round, 45th pick overall in the 2012 NFL Draft being signed by the Chicago Bears, and selected to the 2014 Pro Bowl. Kiffin denied making the statement, however the incident was corroborated by Jeffery 's high school coach Walter Wilson, who was listening to Kiffin 's remarks on speakerphone.
Kiffin 's departure for USC in 2010 after just one season as head coach of the Volunteers upset some students and fans of the University of Tennessee. When Tennessee athletic director Mike Hamilton was asked for an assessment of Kiffin 's tenure coaching the Volunteers, he responded with just one word: "Brief. '' Hundreds of students rioted on campus at the news of Kiffin 's departure. Knoxville police and fire department were brought in after students blocked the exit from the Neyland Thompson Sports Center and started several small fires.
On January 12, 2010, Kiffin returned to USC to become the Trojans ' head coach. This came following Pete Carroll 's departure from USC to become the head coach of the Seattle Seahawks.
In June 2010, after a prolonged four - year investigation into whether former USC running back Reggie Bush and his family had accepted financial benefits and housing from two sports agents in San Diego while he was a student athlete at USC, the NCAA imposed sanctions against the Trojan football program for a "lack of institutional control, '' including a two - year postseason ban, the loss of 30 scholarships over three years, and the vacation of all wins in which Bush participated as an "ineligible '' player, including the 2005 Orange Bowl, in which the Trojans won the BCS National Championship. The severity of these sanctions has been criticized by some NCAA football writers, including ESPN 's Ted Miller, who wrote, "It 's become an accepted fact among informed college football observers that the NCAA sanctions against USC were a travesty of justice, and the NCAA 's refusal to revisit that travesty are a massive act of cowardice on the part of the organization. ''
Kiffin 's tenure at USC was widely considered a disappointment. Questionable coaching calls and the restrictions of sanctions contributed to a sense of missed opportunity for Kiffin and the Trojans.
In 2010, his first season at USC, Kiffin 's Trojans team finished the season with an 8 -- 5 record but were ineligible for post-season play due to the NCAA sanctions. After the NCAA issued a guideline allowing current USC juniors and seniors to automatically transfer from USC without having to sit out a year, several USC players left before the start of the 2010 season, including Malik Jackson and Byron Moore to Tennessee, Travon Patterson to Colorado, D.J. Shoemate to Connecticut, Uona Kaveinga to BYU, and Blake Ayles to Miami, among others. Seantrel Henderson, who had signed a letter of intent to USC, was granted a release by Kiffin and immediately enrolled at Miami. Both Kiffin and former head coach Pete Carroll publicly referred to this NCAA - transfer exception as "free agency '' because it allowed current USC players to be targeted for transfer opportunities and granted them immediate eligibility at their transfer destination. USC played the 2010 season with just 71 scholarship players, some of whom were redshirt candidates who did not play, instead of the normal NCAA allowance of 85 scholarship players.
Season highlights included a 48 -- 14 win over the California Golden Bears in which quarterback Matt Barkley tied the USC record for touchdown passes in a game by completing five in just the first half to put the Trojans up 42 -- 0 at halftime. After losing to rival Notre Dame for the first time in eight years, USC bounced back to close their season with a win over cross-town rival UCLA to retain the Victory Bell. Quarterback Matt Barkley returned after missing the previous week and threw one of the team 's two touchdown passes. Allen Bradford led the Trojans by gaining 212 yards rushing and catching a 47 - yard touchdown pass.
In 2011, Kiffin coached the Trojans to a 10 -- 2 record (7 -- 2 in the Pac - 12), despite being ineligible for post-season play for the second consecutive season. On May 26, 2011, the NCAA 's Appeals Committee upheld the sanctions against USC, after ruling that the use of precedent was not allowed under NCAA Bylaws, so the USC football team could not participate in the Pac - 12 Football Championship Game (although they held the best record in the South division) or play in a bowl game during the 2011 -- 12 season. The BCS announced June 6, 2011, that it had stripped USC of the 2004 title, though USC still retains the 2003 and 2004 AP National Championships.
Season highlights included road wins against the California Golden Bears, Notre Dame Fighting Irish, and Oregon Ducks. Kiffin 's Trojans lost in triple overtime to the Stanford Cardinal, who were led by quarterback Andrew Luck, but they bounced back by winning their last four games and defeating the UCLA Bruins 50 -- 0 at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, which extended the Trojans ' victory streak against the Bruins to five.
USC ended the season with two thousand - yard receivers (Robert Woods and Marqise Lee), a thousand - yard rusher (Curtis McNeal), and a 3,000 - yard passer (Matt Barkley) for the first time since the 2005 season, when Kiffin was the offensive coordinator.
Kiffin for the first time became a voting member of the USA Today Coaches ' Poll, but he resigned after just one vote amidst controversy over his preseason selection of USC as No. 1. After being informed that Arizona coach Rich Rodriguez had voted the Trojans as the top team, Kiffin told reporters, "I would not vote USC No. 1, I can tell you that much. '' However, USA Today, citing the need to "protect the poll 's integrity '', revealed that Kiffin had voted his team for the top spot. Kiffin apologized and explained that his comments were from the perspective of an opposing coach voting for USC. The Trojans finished the season with a 7 -- 6 record overall and a 5 -- 4 record in Pac - 12 conference play. The Trojans were ranked # 1 in both major polls at the start of the season, but a lackluster season (including a. 500 record in conference play) left them unranked by the end of the season. Prior to 2012, the last time a team that was the pre-season ranked # 1 finished the season unranked was USC in 1963.
The Trojans lost their first two conference games of the 2013 season against Washington State and Arizona State, making Kiffin 's record 4 -- 7 in his last eleven games. On September 28, 2013, after the 62 -- 41 loss to Arizona State, USC Athletics Director Pat Haden fired Kiffin hours after the game, when the team arrived back in Los Angeles at 3 a.m. Kiffin was called off the team bus that was preparing to head back to campus from Los Angeles International Airport and taken to a small room inside the terminal where Haden told Kiffin he was being dismissed. Haden supposedly met with USC president Max Nikias in the third quarter and they decided Kiffin should be terminated. Haden formally announced the decision to dismiss Kiffin the next day. Assistant coach Ed Orgeron took over for Kiffin and led the team to a 6 -- 2 finish, including an upset win against Stanford at the Coliseum. USC won the 2013 Las Vegas Bowl under interim head coach Clay Helton against Fresno State. Former USC associate head coach and Washington head coach Steve Sarkisian was hired by Haden following the season.
In December 2013, Kiffin spent eight days in Tuscaloosa, Alabama reviewing the Alabama Crimson Tide football team 's offense. On January 9, 2014, after Michigan hired Alabama offensive coordinator Doug Nussmeier, Kiffin interviewed for the vacant coordinator job. Kiffin was offered the job as offensive coordinator at Alabama and accepted on January 10. In 2014, Kiffin was a finalist for the Broyles Award, given annually to the nation 's top college football assistant coach. On January 2, 2017, Kiffin was relieved of his duties as Offensive Coordinator. He was replaced by another former USC head coach and his successor at that job, Steve Sarkisian, for the 2017 College Football Playoff National Championship 35 -- 31 loss against Clemson and for the upcoming season.
On December 12, 2016, Kiffin accepted the head coaching position at Florida Atlantic University. After a 1 - 3 start, the FAU Owl reeled off ten straight wins, culminating in the Conference USA football championship against University of North Texas, 41 - 17, on their home field. FAU was slated to play the University of Akron in the Boca Raton Bowl on December 19, 2017. On December 19, 2017, before the game against Akron it was announced on ESPN that Kiffin and FAU had agreed to a new deal that would keep him on for the next ten years through the 2027 season. John Kelly, the President of FAU was quoted in the article as saying, "This is further proof of FAU 's unbridled ambition... I thought we could be a Top - 25 program and we need a coach who can do that, he 's on the verge of doing that. We 're obviously looking toward keeping Lane long term. '' In his first year with FAU, Kiffin led the Owls to an 11 - 3 season after a 50 - 3 victory over Akron in the Boca Raton Bowl on December 19, 2017. The 11 - 3 season was the first season over. 500 for the FAU Owls since 2008, and the first time they have achieved over ten wins while competing at the Division 1 Football level. The 2017 FAU Football Season is only the 4th time in school history they had a winning record in Division 1 Football.
Lane is the son of Monte Kiffin, a long time defensive coordinator in the National Football League, most notably for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Monte resigned as the defensive coordinator on Lane 's staff at USC and was hired for the same position with the Dallas Cowboys.
Lane and his ex-wife Layla, who is a University of Florida alumna, have three children, daughters Landry and Pressley and son, Monte Knox Kiffin. Kiffin 's brother, Chris, was a defensive lineman at Colorado State University and is the current defensive coordinator for FAU. Kiffin 's former father - in - law, John Reaves, was a former starting NFL and USFL quarterback who played college football for the Florida Gators. On February 28, 2016, Lane and Layla announced that they were separating and had mutually decided to divorce.
‡ Ineligible for Pac - 12 title, bowl game and Coaches ' Poll due to NCAA sanctions.
Kiffin was fired mid-season on September 29, 2013.
Assistant coaches under Lane Kiffin who became NCAA or NFL head coaches:
# denotes interim head coach
# denotes interim head coach
# denotes interim head coach
# denotes interim head coach
|
who was the statue of david modeled after | David (Michelangelo) - wikipedia
David (Italian pronunciation: (ˈdaːvid)) is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture created between 1501 and 1504 by Michelangelo.
It is a 5.17 - metre (17.0 ft) marble statue of a standing male nude. The statue represents the Biblical hero David, a favoured subject in the art of Florence. Originally commissioned as one of a series of statues of prophets to be positioned along the roofline of the east end of Florence Cathedral, the statue was placed instead in a public square, outside the Palazzo Vecchio, the seat of civic government in Florence, in the Piazza della Signoria where it was unveiled on September 8, 1504.
Because of the nature of the hero it represented, the statue soon came to symbolize the defense of civil liberties embodied in the Republic of Florence, an independent city - state threatened on all sides by more powerful rival states and by the hegemony of the Medici family. The eyes of David, with a warning glare, were turned towards Rome. The statue was moved to the Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence, in 1873, and later replaced at the original location by a replica.
The history of the statue begins before Michelangelo 's work on it from 1501 to 1504. Prior to Michelangelo 's involvement, the Overseers of the Office of Works of Florence Cathedral, consisting mostly of members of the influential woolen cloth guild, the Arte della Lana, had plans to commission a series of twelve large Old Testament sculptures for the buttresses of the cathedral. In 1410 Donatello made the first of the statues, a figure of Joshua in terracotta. A figure of Hercules, also in terracotta, was commissioned from the Florentine sculptor Agostino di Duccio in 1463 and was made perhaps under Donatello 's direction. Eager to continue their project, in 1464, the Operai contracted Agostino to create a sculpture of David. A block of marble was provided from a quarry in Carrara, a town in the Apuan Alps in northern Tuscany. Agostino only got as far as beginning to shape the legs, feet and the torso, roughing out some drapery and probably gouging a hole between the legs. His association with the project ceased, for reasons unknown, with the death of Donatello in 1466, and ten years later Antonio Rossellino was commissioned to take up where Agostino had left off.
Rossellino 's contract was terminated soon thereafter, and the block of marble remained neglected for 26 years, all the while exposed to the elements in the yard of the cathedral workshop. This was of great concern to the Opera authorities, as such a large piece of marble not only was costly but represented a large amount of labour and difficulty in its transportation to Florence. In 1500, an inventory of the cathedral workshops described the piece as "a certain figure of marble called David, badly blocked out and supine. '' A year later, documents showed that the Operai were determined to find an artist who could take this large piece of marble and turn it into a finished work of art. They ordered the block of stone, which they called The Giant, "raised on its feet '' so that a master experienced in this kind of work might examine it and express an opinion. Though Leonardo da Vinci and others were consulted, it was Michelangelo, only 26 years old, who convinced the Operai that he deserved the commission. On 16 August 1501, Michelangelo was given the official contract to undertake this challenging new task. He began carving the statue early in the morning on 13 September, a month after he was awarded the contract. He would work on the massive statue for more than two years.
On 25 January 1504, when the sculpture was nearing completion, Florentine authorities had to acknowledge there would be little possibility of raising the more than six - ton statue to the roof of the cathedral. They convened a committee of 30 Florentine citizens that comprised many artists, including Leonardo da Vinci and Sandro Botticelli, to decide on an appropriate site for David. While nine different locations for the statue were discussed, the majority of members seem to have been closely split between two sites. One group, led by Giuliano da Sangallo and supported by Leonardo and Piero di Cosimo, among others, believed that, due to the imperfections in the marble, the sculpture should be placed under the roof of the Loggia dei Lanzi on Piazza della Signoria; the other group thought it should stand at the entrance to the Palazzo della Signoria, the city 's town hall (now known as Palazzo Vecchio). Another opinion, supported by Botticelli, was that the sculpture should be situated on or near the cathedral. In June 1504, David was installed next to the entrance to the Palazzo Vecchio, replacing Donatello 's bronze sculpture of Judith and Holofernes, which embodied a comparable theme of heroic resistance. It took four days to move the statue the half mile from Michelangelo 's workshop into the Piazza della Signoria. Later that summer the sling and tree - stump support were gilded, and the figure was given a gilded loin - garland.
In 1873, the statue of David was removed from the piazza, to protect it from damage, and displayed in the Accademia Gallery, Florence, where it attracted many visitors. A replica was placed in the Piazza della Signoria in 1910.
In 1991, a mentally disturbed artist named Piero Cannata attacked the statue with a hammer he had concealed beneath his jacket; in the process of damaging the toes of the left foot, he was restrained.
On 12 November 2010, a fiberglass replica of the David was installed on the roofline of Florence Cathedral, for one day only. Photographs of the installation reveal the statue the way the Operai who commissioned the work originally expected it to be seen.
In 2010, a dispute over the ownership of David arose when, based on a legal review of historical documents, the Italian Culture Ministry claimed ownership of the statue in opposition to the city of Florence, where it has always been located. Florence disputes the state claim.
In the mid 1800s, small cracks were noticed on the left leg on David which can possibly be attributed to an uneven sinking of the ground under the massive statue.
The pose of Michelangelo 's David is unlike that of earlier Renaissance depictions of David. The bronze statues by Donatello and Verrocchio represented the hero standing victorious over the head of Goliath, and the painter Andrea del Castagno had shown the boy in mid-swing, even as Goliath 's head rested between his feet, but no earlier Florentine artist had omitted the giant altogether. According to Helen Gardner and other scholars, David is depicted before his battle with Goliath. Instead of being shown victorious over a foe much larger than he, David looks tense and ready for combat.
The statue appears to show David after he has made the decision to fight Goliath but before the battle has actually taken place, a moment between conscious choice and action. His brow is drawn, his neck tense and the veins bulge out of his lowered right hand. His left hand holds a sling that is draped over his shoulder and down to his right hand, which holds a rock. The twist of his body effectively conveys to the viewer the feeling that he is in motion, an impression heightened with contrapposto. The statue is a Renaissance interpretation of a common ancient Greek theme of the standing heroic male nude. In the High Renaissance, contrapposto poses were thought of as a distinctive feature of antique sculpture. This is typified in David, as the figure stands with one leg holding its full weight and the other leg forward. This classic pose causes the figure 's hips and shoulders to rest at opposing angles, giving a slight s - curve to the entire torso. The contrapposto is emphasised by the turn of the head to the left, and by the contrasting positions of the arms.
Michelangelo 's David has become one of the most recognized works of Renaissance sculpture, a symbol of strength and youthful beauty.
Just the colossal size of the statue impressed Michelangelo 's contemporaries. Vasari described it as "certainly a miracle that of Michelangelo, to restore to life one who was dead, '' and then listed all of the largest and most grand of the ancient statues that he had ever seen, concluding that Michelangelo 's work surpassed "all ancient and modern statues, whether Greek or Latin, that have ever existed. ''
The proportions of the David are atypical of Michelangelo 's work; the figure has an unusually large head and hands (particularly apparent in the right hand). The small size of the genitals, though, is in line with his other works and with Renaissance conventions in general, perhaps referencing the ancient Greek ideal of pre-pubescent male nudity. These enlargements may be due to the fact that the statue was originally intended to be placed on the cathedral roofline, where the important parts of the sculpture may have been accentuated in order to be visible from below. The statue is unusually slender (front to back) in comparison to its height, which may be a result of the work done on the block before Michelangelo began carving it.
It is possible that the David was conceived as a political statue before Michelangelo began to work on it. Certainly David the giant - killer had long been seen as a political figure in Florence, and images of the Biblical hero already carried political implications there. Donatello 's bronze David, made for the Medici family, perhaps c. 1440, had been appropriated by the Signoria in 1494, when the Medici were exiled from Florence, and the statue was installed in the courtyard of the Palazzo della Signoria, where it stood for the Republican government of the city. By placing Michelangelo 's statue in the same general location, the Florentine authorities ensured that David would be seen as a political parallel as well as an artistic response to that earlier work. These political overtones led to the statue being attacked twice in its early days. Protesters pelted it with stones the year it debuted, and, in 1527, an anti-Medici riot resulted in its left arm being broken into three pieces.
Commentators have noted the presence on David 's penis of his foreskin, which is at odds with the Judaic practice of circumcision, but is consistent with the conventions of Renaissance art.
During World War II, David was entombed in brick to protect it from damage from airborne bombs.
In 1991, the foot of the statue was damaged by a man with a hammer. The samples obtained from that incident allowed scientists to determine that the marble used was obtained from the Fantiscritti quarries in Miseglia, the central of three small valleys in Carrara. The marble in question contains many microscopic holes that cause it to deteriorate faster than other marbles. Because of the marble 's degradation, from 2003 to 2004 the statue was given its first major cleaning since 1843. Some experts opposed the use of water to clean the statue, fearing further deterioration. Under the direction of Franca Falleti, senior restorers Monica Eichmann and Cinzia Parnigoni undertook the job of restoring the statue.
In 2008, plans were proposed to insulate the statue from the vibration of tourists ' footsteps at Florence 's Galleria dell'Accademia, to prevent damage to the marble.
David has stood on display at Florence 's Galleria dell'Accademia since 1873. In addition to the full - sized replica occupying the spot of the original in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, a bronze version overlooks Florence from the Piazzale Michelangelo. The plaster cast of David at the Victoria and Albert Museum has a detachable plaster fig leaf which is displayed nearby. Legend claims that the fig leaf was created in response to Queen Victoria 's shock upon first viewing the statue 's nudity, and was hung on the figure prior to royal visits, using two strategically placed hooks. In 2010, the Italian government began a campaign to solidify its claim to the iconic marble statue.
David has been endlessly reproduced, in plaster and imitation marble fibreglass, signifying an attempt to lend an atmosphere of culture even in some unlikely settings such as beach resorts, gambling casinos and model railroads.
Coordinates: 43 ° 46 ′ 36.13 '' N 11 ° 15 ′ 34.02 '' E / 43.7767028 ° N 11.2594500 ° E / 43.7767028; 11.2594500
|
how many nba finals sweeps have there been | List of NBA champions - wikipedia
The National Basketball Association (NBA) (formerly Basketball Association of America (BAA) from 1946 to 1949) Finals is the championship series for the NBA and the conclusion of the NBA 's postseason. All Finals have been played in a best - of - seven format, and contested between the winners of the Eastern Conference and the Western Conference (formerly Divisions before 1970), except in 1950 in which the Eastern Division champion faced the winner between the Western and Central Division champions. Prior to 1949, the playoffs were instituted a three - stage tournament where the two semifinal winners played each other in the finals. The winning team of the series receives the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy.
The home - and - away format in the NBA Finals is in a 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format (the team with the better regular season record plays on their home court in Games 1, 2, 5 and 7) during 1947 -- 1948, 1950 -- 1952, 1957 -- 1970, 1972 -- 1974, 1976 -- 1977, 1979 -- 1984, 2014 -- present. It was previously in a 2 -- 3 -- 2 format (the team with the better regular season record plays on their home court in Games 1, 2, 6 and 7) during 1949, 1953 -- 1955, and 1985 -- 2013, in a 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format during 1956 and 1971 and in a 1 -- 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 format during 1975 and 1978.
The Eastern Conference / Division leads the Western Conference / Division in series won (38 -- 32). The defunct Central Division won one championship. The Boston Celtics and the Minneapolis / Los Angeles Lakers alone own almost half of the titles, having won a combined 33 of 72 championships.
|
who sings the song let's get it on | Let 's Get It On (song) - wikipedia
"Let 's Get It On '' is a song and hit single by soul musician Marvin Gaye, released June 15, 1973, on Motown - subsidiary label Tamla Records. The song was recorded on March 22, 1973, at Hitsville West in Los Angeles, California. The song features romantic and sexual lyricism and funk instrumentation by The Funk Brothers. The title track of Gaye 's landmark album Let 's Get It On (1973), it was written by Marvin Gaye and producer Ed Townsend. "Let 's Get It On '' became Gaye 's most successful single for Motown and one of his most well - known songs. With the help of the song 's sexually explicit content, "Let 's Get It On '' helped give Gaye a reputation as a sex icon during its initial popularity.
Co-written with producer Ed Townsend, "Let 's Get It On '' was Gaye 's plea for sexual liberation. When originally conceived by Townsend, who was released from a rehab facility for alcoholism, it was written with a religious theme. Gaye confidante Kenneth Stover changed some of the words around as a political song and Gaye recorded the version as it was written, but Townsend protested that the song was n't a politically conscious song but a song dedicated to love and sex. Gaye and Townsend then collaborated on new lyrics and using the original backing tracks as recorded, Gaye transformed the song into an emotional centerpiece. The album version of "Let 's Get It On '' features soulful and emotional singing by Gaye that is backed by multi-tracked background vocals, also provided by Gaye, along with the song 's signature, and most notable, funky guitar arrangements. In an article for Rolling Stone magazine, music critic Jon Landau wrote of the song:
"Let 's Get It On '' is a classic Motown single, endlessly repeatable and always enjoyable. It begins with three great wah - wah notes that herald the arrival of a vintage Fifties melody. But while the song centers around classically simple chord changes, the arrangement centers around a slightly eccentric rhythm pattern that deepens the song 's power while covering it with a contemporary veneer. Above all, it has Marvin Gaye 's best singing at its center, fine background voices on the side, and a long, moody fade - out that challenges you not to play the cut again.
The song was reprised on the fourth track of Let 's Get It On as "Keep Gettin ' It On '', which was a sequel and continuation of the original. The recording of the title track also inspired Gaye to revive previous recordings from his earlier 1970 sessions at the Hitsville U.S.A. Studio, which would consist of the rest of the album 's material.
In 2001, when the album Let 's Get It On was reissued by Motown as a two - disc deluxe edition release, the original demo that Gaye had recorded with lyrics by Kenneth Stover was included. It has a running time of 5: 12.
During the time of the recording of the song and its subsequent album of the same name, Marvin had befriended the family of jazz guitarist Slim Gaillard and had become smitten with Gaillard 's seventeen - year - old daughter, Janis Hunter. A widely reported story has been told that Hunter was in the studio when Gaye recorded the song at the recording booth. Gaye and Hunter were said to be smitten with each other and, within months, Gaye and Hunter began dating. Hunter would become Gaye 's live - in lover by 1974. Their relationship would produce two children and a 1977 marriage.
"Let 's Get It On '' became, and remains to this day, one of Gaye 's most successful singles, as it reached number 1 on the Billboard Pop Singles chart on September 8, 1973. The single remained at number 1 for two weeks, while also remaining at the top of the Billboard Soul Singles chart for eight weeks. In its first week at the top of the chart, "Let 's Get It On '' replaced "Brother Louie '' by Stories, and was replaced by "Delta Dawn '' by Helen Reddy; it later replaced "Delta Dawn '' and was finally knocked off the top of the chart by Grand Funk Railroad 's "We 're an American Band ''. The single stayed inside the Billboard Hot 100 top 10 for 13 weeks, 10 of those weeks inside the top five. Billboard ranked it as the No. 4 song for 1973.
The song became the biggest selling Motown release in the United States at the time, selling over two - million copies within the first six weeks of following its release. "Let 's Get It On '' also became the second best - selling single of 1973, only surpassed in sales by Tony Orlando & Dawn 's "Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree ''. At the time, the single was Motown 's largest - selling recording ever, selling over three - million copies between 1973 and 1975. The single has gone on to sell over 1 million copies, and, on June 25, 2007, was certified platinum in sales by the RIAA.
A bluegrass version of the song was later recorded by Shannon Lawson on his 2002 album Chase the Sun. "Let 's Get It On '' was given a remix in 2004, when producers mixed Gaye 's vocals with a different musical production labeled as "stepper 's music ''. Released in 2005 as a single, "Let 's Get it On (The Producers Mix) '' returned the song to the Billboard R&B charts, thirty years after its original release. The re-released version of "Let 's Get It On '' was certified as a gold single with sales in excess of 500,000 copies in 2005 by the RIAA. In 2004, the song was ranked number 167 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time; in a revised 2012 list, the song was ranked at number 168. In 2008, "Let 's Get It On '' was ranked # 32 on Billboard magazine 's Hot 100 All - Time Top Songs list.
The song appeared in a 2005 TV commercial for the Chevrolet Malibu Maxx.
It has appeared in ads for Reese 's Peanut Butter Cups and the Starz app.
These are the formats and track listings of the major single releases of "Let 's Get It On '':
Original US vinyl release, T - 54234F.
A-side
B - side
Collectables 7 - inch reissue single from the Back To Back Hit Series, COL - 563.
A-side
B - side
|
time of my life david cook song meaning | The Time of My Life (David Cook song) - wikipedia
"The Time of My Life '' is the debut single by American singer - songwriter David Cook, released through RCA Records and 19 Entertainment on May 22, 2008 after Cook won the seventh season of American Idol. It was written by Regie Hamm and produced by Steve Lipson. The song is included as a bonus track on his self - titled debut major - label album.
"The Time of My Life '' debuted at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and at number two on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100. The song was a success at adult radio, peaking at number seven on the Adult Pop Songs chart and at number one on the Adult Contemporary, holding the latter position for 15 non-consecutive weeks. It has been certified Platinum by RIAA and has sold over 1.4 Million copies in the US as of October 2012. "The Time of My Life '' was the best - selling Idol coronation single between 2009 and 2012 before being overtaken by Phillip Phillips 's "Home ''.
The song is the winner out of thousands of entries for the 2008 American Idol Songwriter 's Competition, and was written by Regie Hamm. It was released as Cook 's first single exclusively on iTunes on May 22, 2008. The next day, it was made available at all digital retailers. The song was sent to the radio stations following the end of the airing of American Idol finale in Hawaii.
On the 2008 ESPY 's the song was used. The song was also used at the end of 2008 Summer Olympics Games opening ceremony on August 8, 2008 by NBC to recap the events that took place during the opening ceremonies. It has also been used throughout the Olympics to recap the days victories for the United States. This song was also used for a Viennese Waltz on So You Think You Can Dance season 4, performed by Courtney G. and Mark; and a Viennese Waltz on So You Think You Can Dance Canada season 2, performed by Corynne and Anthony.
In June 2009, in the ABC soap opera One Life to Live, the Llanview school chorus sang the song.
In the U.S., the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart dated June 7, 2008 at number three with 236,000 copies sold in its first week of release. These figures give it the strongest first week sales of an Idol coronation single since season 2. Due to low first - week airplay in the U.S., the song was prevented from debuting at number one by Lil Wayne 's "Lollipop '' featuring Static Major and Leona Lewis 's "Bleeding Love ''. In addition to its high opening week sales, "The Time of My Life '' showed strong sales longevity, and has passed the one - million mark in digital sales. The song 's sales and radio longevity allowed it to stay in the top 50 on the Hot 100 for nineteen weeks, before being removed from the chart after its twentieth week per Billboard chart recurrent rules.
On June 1, 2008, the single entered the UK Singles Chart at number 61. It also debuted in New Zealand at number 29. The song debuted at number two on the Canadian Hot 100, blocked by Madonna 's "4 Minutes ''.
"The Time of My Life '' entered the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart dated June 7, 2008. It reached number one in its sixteenth week on the chart dated September 20, 2008, breaking a 36 - week streak of number one adult contemporary songs by female artists. The song ceded the top spot to "Bleeding Love '' for two weeks before returning to number one on the chart dated October 11, 2008. It remained atop the AC chart for ten straight weeks. During the holiday season, Faith Hill 's "A Baby Changes Everything '' commanded the chart for three weeks, but "The Time of My Life '' returned to the top for four additional weeks in January 2009, bringing the song 's total to 15 non-consecutive weeks at number one. The song enjoyed one of the longest runs at number one on the chart for a male artist, with Cook being only the fifteenth solo male to reach the top position. Cook is the second American Idol winner to top the adult contemporary chart, and the fourth contestant from the show to top it. The song additionally reached a peak position of seven on the Adult Pop Songs chart and at number 28 on the Pop Songs chart. It is only the second coronation single of an American Idol winner to reach the top 40 on U.S. mainstream radio, following Kelly Clarkson 's "A Moment Like This '', which reached number four.
The RIAA certified "The Time of My Life '' Platinum on December 12, 2008 for selling over 1 million digital downloads, making it the second platinum - selling coronation song for an American Idol winner, after Kelly Clarkson 's "A Moment Like This ''. It became the best selling coronation song by June 2009, which distinction it held until 2012, when season 11 winner Phillip Phillips 's "Home '' sold over 2 million digital copies. As of October 2012, "The Time of My Life '' has sold 1,463,000 copies in the US.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
"The Time of My Life '' took Song of the Year honors at the Nashville Music Awards October 7, 2009. Billboard has declared it "... one of the longest -- running chart -- toppers by a solo male artist in AC history. '' The hit single has joined the ranks of selected Nashville -- penned songs that have achieved remarkable success at the number one spot, including Elvis ' "Heartbreak Hotel '' in 1956. The song hit the number one spot on the Billboard Hot AC chart fifteen times, passing the fourteen - week mark that Whitney Houston hit with Dolly Parton 's "I Will Always Love You '' in 1993.
|
who is called as chota nagpur ki rani | Chota Nagpur plateau - wikipedia
The Chhota Nagpur Plateau is a plateau in eastern India, which covers much of Jharkhand state as well as adjacent parts of Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar and Chhattisgarh. The Indo - Gangetic plain lies to the north and east of the plateau, and the basin of the Mahanadi River lies to the south. The total area of the Chota Nagpur Plateau is approximately 65,000 square kilometres (25,000 sq mi).
The name Nagpur is probably taken from Nagavanshis, who ruled in this part of the country. Chhota (= small in Hindi and Urdu) is also the name of a village in the outskirts of Ranchi, which has the remains of an old fort belonging to the Nagavanshis.
The Chhota Nagpur Plateau is a continental plateau -- an extensive area of land thrust above the general land. The plateau has been formed by continental uplift from forces acting deep inside the earth. The Gondwana substrates attest to the plateau 's ancient origin. It is part of the Deccan Plate, which broke free from the southern continent during the Cretaceous to embark on a 50 - million - year journey that was violently interrupted by the northern Eurasian continent. The northeastern part of the Deccan Plateau, where this ecoregion sits, was the first area of contact with Eurasia.
The Chhota Nagpur Plateau consists of three steps. The highest step is in the western part of the plateau, where pats, as a plateau is locally called, are 910 to 1,070 metres (3,000 to 3,500 ft) above sea level. The highest point is 1,164 metres (3,819 ft). The next part contains larger portions of the old Ranchi and Hazaribagh districts and some parts of old Palamu district, before these were broken up into smaller administrative units. The general height is 610 metres (2,000 ft). The topography in undulating with prominent gneissic hills, often dome - like in outline. The lowest step of the plateau is at an average level of around 300 metres (1,000 ft). It covers the old Manbhum and Singhbhum districts. High hills are a striking part of this section - Parasnath Hills rise to a height of 1,370 metres (4,480 ft) and Dalma Hills to 1,038 metres (3,407 ft). The large plateau is subdivided into several small plateaux or sub plateaux.
The western plateau with an average elevation of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) above mean sea level merges into the plateau of Surguja district of Chhattisgarh. The flat topped plateaux, locally known as pats are characterized by level surface and accordance of their summit levels shows they are part of one large plateau. Examples include Netarhat Pat, Jamira Pat, Khamar Pat, Rudni Pat etc. The area is also referred to as Western Ranchi Plateau. It is believed to be composed of Deccan lava.
It is the largest part of the Chhota Nagpur Plateau. The elevation of the plateau land in this part is about 700 m (2,300 ft) and gradually slopes down towards south - east into the hilly and undulating region of Singhbhum (earlier Singhbhum district or what is now Kolhan division). The plateau is highly dissected. Damodar River originates here and flows through a rift valley. To the north it is separated from the Hazaribagh plateau by the Damodar trough. To the west is a group of plateaux called pat
There are many waterfalls at the edges of Ranchi plateau where rivers coming from over the plateau surface form waterfalls when they descend through the precipitous escarpments of the plateau and enter the area of significantly lower height. The North Karo River has formed a 17 m (56 ft) high Pheruaghaugh Falls at the southern margin of Ranchi plateau. Such falls are called scarp falls. Hundru Falls (75 m) on Subarnarekha River near Ranchi, Dassam Falls (39.62 m) on Kanchi River, east of Ranchi, Sadni Falls (60 m) on Sankh River (Ranchi plateau) are examples of scarp falls. Sometimes waterfalls of various dimensions are formed when tributary streams join the master stream from great height forming hanging valleys. At Rajrappa (10 m), the Bhera river coming over from the Ranchi plateau hangs above the Damodar River at its point of confluence with the latter. The Jonha Falls (25.9 m) is another example of this category of falls. In fact the Gunga River hangs over its master stream, Raru River (to the east of Ranchi city) and forms the said falls.
The Hazaribagh plateau is often subdivided into two parts -- the higher plateau and the lower plateau. Here the higher plateau is referred to as Hazaribagh plateau and the lower plateau as Koderma plateau. The Hazaribagh plateau on which Hazaribagh town is built is about 64 km (40 mi) east by west and 24 km (15 mi) north by south with an average elevation of 610 m (2,000 ft). The north - eastern and southern faces are mostly abrupt; but to the west it narrows and descends slowly in the neighbourhood. of Simaria and Jabra where it curves to the south and connects with the Ranchi Plateau through Tori pargana. It is generally separated from the Ranchi plateau by the Damodar trough.
The western portion of Hazaribagh plateau constitutes a broad watershed between the Damodar drainage on the south and the Lilajan and Mohana rivers on the north. The highest hills in this area are called after the villages of Kasiatu, Hesatu and Hudu, and rise fronting the south 180 m (600 ft) above the general level of the plateau. Further east along the southern face a long spur projects right up to the Damodar river where it ends in Aswa Pahar, elevation 751 metres (2,465 ft). At the south - eastern corner of the plateau is Jilinga Hill at 932 metres (3,057 ft). Mahabar Jarimo at 666 m (2,185 ft) and Barsot at 660 m (2,180 ft) stand in isolation to the east, and on the north - west edge of the plateau Sendraili at 670 m (2,210 ft) and Mahuda at 734 m (2,409 ft) are the most prominent features. Isolated on the plateau, in the neighbourhood of Hazaribagh town are four hills of which the highest Chendwar rises to 860 m (2,810 ft). On all sides it has an exceedingly abrupt scarp, modified only on the south - east. In the south it falls almost sheer in a swoop of 670 m (2,200 ft) to the bed of Bokaro River, below Jilinga Hill. Seen from the north the edge of this plateau has the appearance of a range of hills, at the foot of which (on the Koderma plateau) runs the Grand Trunk Road and NH 2 (new NH19).
The Koderma plateau is also referred to as the Hazaribagh lower plateau or as the Chauparan - Koderma - Girighi sub-plateau.
The northern face of the Koderma plateau, elevated above the plains of Bihar, has the appearance of a range of hills, but in reality it is the edge of a plateau, 240 metres (800 ft) from the level of the Gaya plain. Eastward this northern edge forms a well - defined watershed between heads of the tributaries of Gaya and those of the Barakar River, which traverses the Koderma and Giridih districts in an easterly direction. The slope of this plateau to the east is uniform and gentle and is continued past the river, which bears to the south - east, into the Santhal Parganas and gradually disappears in the lower plains of Bengal. The western boundary of the plateau is formed by the deep bed of the Lilajan River. The southern boundary consists of the face of the higher plateau, as far as its eastern extremity, where for some distance a low and undistinguished watershed runs eastward to the western spurs of Parasnath Hills. The drainage to the south of this low line passes by the Jamunia River to the Damodar.
The Damodar basin forms a trough between the Ranchi and Hazaribagh plateaux resulting from enormous fractures at their present edges, which caused the land between to sink to a great depth and incidentally preserved from denudation the Karanpura, Ramgarh and Bokaro coalfields. The northern boundary of the Damodar valley is steep as far as the south eastern corner of the Hazaribagh plateau. On the south of the trough the Damodar keeps close to the edge of the Ranchi plateau till it has passed Ramgarh, after which a turn to the north - east leaves on the right hand a wide and level valley on which the Subarnarekha begins to intrude, south of Gola till the Singhpur Hills divert it to the south. Further to the east the Damodar River passes tamely into the Manbhum sector of lowest step of the Chotanagpur plateau.
The Palamu division generally lies at a lower height than the surrounding areas of Chota Nagpur Plateau. On the east the Ranchi plateau intrudes into the division and the southern part of the division merges with the Pat region. On the west are the Surguja highlands of Chhattishgarh and Sonbhadra district of Uttar Pradesh. The Son River touches the north - western corner of the division and then forms the state boundary for about 72 kilometres (45 mi). The general system of the area is a series of parallel ranges of hills running east and west through which the North Koel River passes. The hills in the south are the highest in the area, and the picturesque and isolated cup - like Chhechhari valley is surrounded by lofty hills on every side. Lodh Falls drops from a height of 150 metres (490 ft) from these hills, making it the highest waterfall on the Chota Nagpur Plateau. Netarhat and Pakripat plateaux are physiographically part of the Pat region.
In the lowest step of the Chota Nagpur Plateau, the Manbhum area covers the present Purulia district in West Bengal, and Dhanbad district and parts of Bokaro district in Jharkhand, and the Singhbhum area broadly covers Kolhan division of Jharkhand. The Manbhum area has a general elevation of about 300 metres (1,000 ft) and it consists of undulating land with scattered hills -- Baghmundi and Ajodhya range, Panchakot and the hills around Jhalda are the prominent ones. Adjacent Bankura district of West Bengal has been described as the "connecting link between the plains of Bengal on the east and Chota Nagpur plateau on the west. '' The same could be said of the Asansol and Durgapur subdivisions of Bardhaman district. Recently a website launched for chotonagpur Manbhum - Singhbhum region specially with the mission to save wildlife and conserve the forest in plateau. Visit chotonagpurplateau.in for a detail information and articles.
The Singhbhum area contains much more hilly and broken country. The whole of the western part is a mass of hill ranges rising to 910 metres (3,000 ft) in the south - west. Jamshedpur sits on an open plateau, 120 to 240 metres (400 to 800 ft) above mean sea level, with a higher plateau to the south of it. The eastern part is mostly hilly, though near the borders of West Bengal it flattens out into an alluvial plain. In the Singhbhum area, there are hills alternating with valleys, steep mountains, deep forests on the mountain slopes, and, in the river basins, some stretches of comparatively level or undulating country. The centre of the area consists of an upland plateau enclosed by hill ranges. This strip, extending from the Subarnarekha River on the east to the Angarbira range to the west of Chaibasa, is a very fertile area. Saranda forest is reputed to have the best Sal forests in Asia.
The Chhota Nagpur Plateau has an attractive climate. For five to six months of the year, from October onward the days are sunny and bracing. The mean temperature in December is 23 ° C (73 ° F). The nights are cool and temperatures in winter may drop below freezing point in many places. In April and May the day temperature may cross 38 ° C (100 ° F) but it is very dry and not sultry as in the adjacent plains. The rainy season (June to September) is pleasant. The Chota Nagpur Plateau receives an annual average rainfall of around 1,400 millimetres (55 in), which is less than the rainforested areas of much of India and almost all of it in the monsoon months between June and August.
The Chhota Nagpur dry deciduous forests, a tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests ecoregion, encompasses the plateau. The ecoregion has an area of 122,100 square kilometres (47,100 sq mi), covering most of Jharkhand state and adjacent portions of Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh.
The ecoregion is drier than surrounding ones, including the Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests that covers the Eastern Ghats and Satpura Range to the south, and the Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests in the lowlands to the east and north.
The plateau is covered with a variety of various habitats of which Sal forest is predominant. The plateau is home to the Palamau Tiger Reserve and other large blocks of natural habitat which are among the few remaining refuges left in India for large populations of tiger and Asian elephants.
Forests range from dry to wet and reach up to 25 metres (82 ft) tall. The plateau is also swampy in some places and in other parts is covered with bamboo grasslands and shrubs such as Holarrhena and Dodonaea. The flora of the plateau is distinct from the wetter parts of India that surround it and includes a number of endemic plants such as Aglaia haslettiana and endangered plant species including Madhuca longifolia and Butea monosperma.
Tigers, Asian elephants, four - horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis), blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), chinkara (Gazella bennettii), dhole wild dog (Cuon alpinus) and sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) are some of the animals found here while birds include the threatened lesser florican (Eupodotis indica), Indian grey hornbill and other hornbills.
More than half of the natural forest on the plateau has been cleared for grazing land and the scale of the mining operations on the plateau is disturbing to the movement and therefore the survival of wildlife including elephants and tigers.
About 6 percent of the ecoregion 's area is within protected areas, comprising 6,720 square kilometres (2,590 sq mi) in 1997. The largest are Palamau Tiger Reserve and Sanjay National Park.
Chhota Nagpur plateau is a store house of minerals like mica, bauxite, copper, limestone, iron ore and coal. The Damodar valley is rich in coal and it is considered as the prime centre of coking coal in the country. Massive coal deposits are found in the central basin spreading over 2,883 square kilometres (1,113 sq mi). The important coalfields in the basin are Jharia, Raniganj, West Bokaro, East Bokaro, Ramgarh, South Karanpura and North Karanpura.
|
do wilds count as colors in phase 10 | Phase 10 - wikipedia
Phase 10 is a card game created in 1982 by Kenneth Johnson and sold by Mattel, which purchased the rights from Fundex Games in 2010. Phase 10 is based on a variant of rummy known as Liverpool Rummy, and is a member (along with Liverpool) of the contract rummy family. It requires a special deck or two regular decks of cards; it can be played by two to six people. The game is named after ten phases (or melds) that a player must advance through in order to win. Phase 10 was Fundex 's best selling product, selling over 32,600,000 units to date, making it the 2nd best - selling commercial card game behind Mattel 's Uno. In December 2010, Fundex sold the rights to Phase 10 to Mattel, and now develops and markets a line of games based on brands and other IP formerly exclusive to Mattel as well as Fundex 's own brands.
There is a new version called "Phase 10 Mod '' that comes in a yellow and white case or a newer case that is blue, a green and yellow stripe and bits of red on the front and back If the player lays down their phase and are out of cards and a player has a phase after them, they can still lay that hand down. The person at the end of the game with the least points wins.
The object of the game is to be the first person to complete all ten phases. In the case of two players completing the last phase in the same hand, the player who completed the last phase with the lowest overall score is the winner. If those scores also happen to be tied, a tiebreaker round is played where the tying players attempt to complete phase ten (or in variants, the last phase each player had tried to complete in the previous round).
For each hand, each player 's object is to complete and lay down the current phase, and then rid their hand of remaining cards by discarding them on laid - down Phases, called "hitting ''. The player who does this first wins the hand and scores no penalty; all other players earn penalty points according to the value of cards remaining in their hand.
There are one hundred and eight cards in a deck:
With two regular decks of cards, the suits can represent the four different colors, kings can represent the wild cards, and jokers can represent the skip cards.
A phase is a combination of cards. Phases are usually composed of sets (multiple cards of the same value), runs (multiple cards in consecutive ascending order), cards of one color, or a combination of these. As the name suggests, there are ten phases: Also if you get 30 or 31 cards you skip a phase.
Original and Master 's Edition Phases:
Phase 10 Twist Phases:
Each player can make only one phase per hand. For instance, a run of nine cards when the player is on Phase 4 can not also count as Phase 5 and / or 6. In the original and Phase 10 Twist versions, the phases must also be completed in order, but the Master 's Edition variant has a rule allowing players to choose the phase they will attempt to complete after being dealt their hand and before play begins.
One player is chosen to be the dealer (alternately, the deal can rotate to the left after each hand). The dealer shuffles the deck and deals 10 cards, face down, one at a time, to each player. Players hold their 10 cards in hand so that the other players can not see them. The remaining deck is placed face - down in the center of the play area to become the draw pile. A wild card turned up goes to the next player. The dealer then turns the top card of the draw pile over and places it next to the draw pile, to become the discard pile. During the first hand, all players try to complete Phase 1. Play consists of;
If, during a player 's turn, they are able to make their current Phase with the cards in their hand, they lay the Phase down, face - up on the table before discarding.
Hitting is the way to get rid of leftover cards after making a Phase. A hit is made by putting a card directly on a Phase already laid down. The cards must properly fit with the cards already down. Before a player can make a hit, their own Phase must already be laid down. A player may only hit during their turn. A player may hit any combination of their own Phase and other player 's Phases, and may hit with as many cards as can be played from the player 's hand on a single turn. Players are not allowed to replace a wild card in a Phase with the card from their hand matching the card the Wild stands for. Replacing Wild Cards is possible Variant Rule.
After laying down a Phase, players try to "go out '' as soon as possible. To go out, a player must get rid of all of their cards by hitting and discarding. The player to go out first wins the hand. The winner of the hand, and any other players who also complete their Phase, will advance to the next Phase for the next hand, while any player not able to complete their Phase remain stuck on that Phase. Players count up the total value of cards left in their hands (the fewer cards left in their hand, the better) and score them as follows;
Each player 's score for the hand is added to that player 's running total (players who did not complete their Phase can not have a score of less than 50 for the hand and often have far more with the inclusion of extra points for large values and wilds; this is known as being "set '' similar to Hearts or Spades), the deal rotates to the left, all the cards are shuffled and a new hand begins. Again, if a player did not complete their Phase before another player went out, they must work on the same Phase again in the next hand.
The first player that has completed Phase 10 at the end of a hand wins the game, regardless of whether they also discarded all their cards. If two or more players complete Phase 10 in the same hand, then the player who has the lowest total points is the winner. In the event of a tie, the players that tied replay Phase number 10 and the first player to complete their phase and discard all their cards wins.
Phase 10 Island Paradise:
Phase 10 Cocoa Canyon:
Phase 10 Disco Fever:
Phase 10 Cupcake Lounge / Savannah Sunset:
Phase 10 Candy Castle / Mountain Vista:
Phase 10 Prehistoric Valley:
Phase 10 Moonlight Drive - In:
Phase 10 Ancient Greece:
Phase 10 Jazz Club:
Phase 10 Vintage Gas Station:
Phase 10 Ocean Reef:
Phase 10 Southwest:
A variation of play is to allow Floating. Instead of going out by discarding their last card, a player draws a card and then play all cards in their hand without discarding. This is known as going out "floating ''. Because the player must be able to discard a card in order to actually end the hand, other players now have at least one extra turn in which to go out themselves or at least improve their score. In addition, a "floating '' player must draw a card and play it if able, and must draw the top card from the discard pile if it can be played; thus the floating player can be forced to play on their next turn instead of drawing and discarding. The floating player can also be skipped as normal. If someone else goes out before the "floater '', the floater receives a zero score, but does not technically win the hand.
The strategic value of floating is that the person immediately preceding the floating player is generally forced to try to "keep them afloat '' for at least a few turns, either by discarding cards the floating player is required to pick up and play, or by skipping the floater. This generally puts the player preceding the floater at a disadvantage compared to the other players and makes it less likely that that player will be able to finish their Phase if they have not yet done so. Players can use this strategy to "gang up '' on one player; the player after them will float, forcing the player to try to keep them afloat while all other players get a number of extra turns to try to lay down their Phase or go out. Of course, the player preceding the floater is not actually forced to keep them afloat and may be able to go out themselves, lay down their Phase (thus drastically reducing their score for the hand), or may simply concede the hand by allowing the floater to draw (the card drawn is likely to be an unplayable, thus discardable, card).
If a player is floating, and there is no possible card that could be discarded or drawn to prevent that player from being able to discard, they are known as "floating dead ''; it is extremely likely the floating player will be forced to end the hand on their next turn. This is rare, and usually happens when the floating player completes a phase involving a long run of cards, no - one else has completed their Phase, and the floater 's run has expanded through all 12 values. If no - one else can lay down a hittable Phase in that turn, only another player playing a Skip or the floater drawing a Skip will keep the hand going, and only four exist in the deck.
If the dealer turns over a wild card at the beginning of the hand to start the discard pile, the dealer gets to decide who gets the wild card, instead of it automatically going to the player to the left of the dealer. The recipient of the wild card will choose a card from their hand to discard (the card can not be a Skip), and then play continues with the player to the left of the dealer (or if that player had received the wild card, with the next player to the left after them). This slightly reduces the luck component inherent in the game, increasing the strategic and / or social element.
A similar rule can be used in the case of a Skip card being turned over as the first card.
The Masters Edition of the game can be played by two to four players and includes additional rules:
The Masters Edition comes with 10 Phase cards for each player to keep track of the Phases which they have completed during gameplay. The Masters Edition also includes only two Skip cards instead of the four that the original edition contains. This makes the playable number of cards 106, plus the forty phase cards, for a total of 146 cards in the box.
Same rules as Masters Edition except the player declares what phase they are completing as they lay down the phase.
Same rules as Masters Edition except;
In Anti-phase, you have to complete your phase in order to stay on your present phase, if you do n't complete your phase you move down a phase.
In Anti-phase for others, a rule card is left in the deck and it is discarded as your last card. Then you get to name who moves down a phase... if it 's stuck in your hand at the end of the hand you move down a phase. It also may be discarded face down but may be picked up by the next player who can draw from the deck.
Phase 10 Dice is dice game inspired by Phase 10 and also published by Fundex Games. The goal is the same, to try to complete the phases, 1 - 10, in order. Instead of cards, players each take turns rolling 10 six - sided dice, 6 marked with 5 - 10 and the other four with 1 - 4 and two wilds each. In each turn the player rolls all 10 dice, then may set aside any of them and re-roll the rest up to two times, for a total of three rolls. If they 've completed a phase, the total sum of the dice used in the phase are added to their score and next turn they move on to a new phase. Like in the card game, failing to complete a set means having to try for it again next turn, and the game ends once a player finishes phase 10.
The object of Phase 10 Twist is to be the first player to complete phase 10 by moving around the game board. Every player starts with their pawn on phase 1 on the game board. They must complete phase 1 in order to move their pawn. There are three pawn movements; move 3 spaces if you complete the phase and discard all of your cards, move 2 spaces if you complete the phase but do not discard all of your cards, or move 1 space if you do n't complete the phase. If you land on a twist phase you can decide to play a twist phase or one of the phases on either side of the twist phase space. If you play a twist phase the pawn movements change to 6 spaces if you complete the phase and discard all of your cards, 4 if you complete the phase but do not discard all of your cards, or move back one space if you do not complete the phase.
Arkansas Rules differs from standard Phase 10 rules in two ways: 1) Each player can complete all ten phases in any order he / she sees fit, and 2) SKIP cards are valid throughout a round (i.e. whenever a SKIP card is played, the appropriate player is skipped whether he / she has been skipped before or not). Arkansas Rules allows players to capitalize on the hand that is dealt if it contains most of the cards needed for an uncompleted phase. The rule regarding completing phases in any order is similar to the commercialized "Masters Edition '' of the game.
In order to win, a player must complete all ten phases. Scoring is the same as standard rules Phase 10.
Postal Rules follow the standard Phase 10 rules with two additions: 1) No player can go out (play all 10 cards), thus ending the hand, until play has completed one circuit of the table and play has returned to the dealer. The dealer is the first player who can end the hand by playing all 10 of their cards. 2) Players working to complete any of the first seven phases can use the number card that matches the phase they are working to complete as a wild card. For example, ones are wild for all players during the first hand. During the second hand twos are wild for those players who completed phase one in the previous hand, while ones remain wild for any player not completing phase one. This adds the challenge of remembering the wild card of the person on your left so as to not discard cards that, for them are wild, but for you are not. This variation is called Postal Rules in honor of the group of postal employees who have played Phase 10 everyday during lunch since 1996.
In 2007 Fundex and Magmic signed a deal that brought Phase 10 to BlackBerry devices. In 2009 Magmic released the title for iOS, with a Masters Edition in - app purchase available for download in February 2012. In March 2012 Magmic released both a free and paid version of Phase 10 for Android devices. The Google Play Store also has a scorekeeper app for Phase 10. In September 2013, Magmic released Phase 10 Dice in the iTunes App Store.
|
Subsets and Splits
No saved queries yet
Save your SQL queries to embed, download, and access them later. Queries will appear here once saved.