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where did god bless you come from when someone sneezes | God bless you - wikipedia
God bless you (variants include God bless or bless you) is a common English expression, used to wish a person blessings in various situations, especially as a response to a sneeze, and also, when parting or writing a valediction.
The phrase has been used in the Hebrew Bible by Jews (cf. Numbers 6: 24), and by Christians, since the time of the early Church as a benediction, as well as a means of bidding a person Godspeed. Many clergy, when blessing their congregants individually or as a group, use the phrase "God bless you ''.
A typical polite response after being told "bless you '' in response to sneezing is to thank the person who has said it.
National Geographic reports that during the plague of AD 590, "Pope Gregory I ordered unceasing prayer for divine intercession. Part of his command was that anyone sneezing be blessed immediately ('' God bless you "), since sneezing was often the first sign that someone was falling ill with the plague. '' By AD 750, it became customary to say "God bless you '' as a response to one sneezing.
The practice of blessing someone who sneezes dates as far back as at least AD 77, although it is far older than most specific explanations can account for. Some have offered an explanation suggesting that people once held the folk belief that a person 's soul could be thrown from their body when they sneezed, that sneezing otherwise opened the body to invasion by the Devil or evil spirits, or that sneezing was the body 's effort to force out an invading evil presence. In these cases, "God bless you '' or "bless you '' is used as a sort of shield against evil. The Irish Folk story "Master and Man '' by Thomas Crofton Croker, collected by William Butler Yeats, describes this variation. Moreover, in the past some people may have thought that the heart stops beating during a sneeze, and that the phrase "God bless you '' encourages the heart to continue beating.
In some cultures, sneezing is seen as a sign of good fortune or God 's beneficence. As such, alternative responses to sneezing are the German word Gesundheit (meaning "health '') sometimes adopted by English speakers, the Irish word sláinte (meaning "good health ''), the Spanish salud (also meaning "health '') and the Hebrew laBri'ut (colloquial) or liVriut (classic) (both spelled: "לבריאות '') (meaning "to health '').
In Persian culture, sneezing sometimes is called "sabr = صبر, '' meaning "to wait or be patient. '' And when trying to do something or go somewhere and suddenly sneezing, one should stop or sit for a few minutes and then re-start. By this act the "bad thing '' passes and one will be saved. This is observed in Indian culture as well.
In Greek culture, sneezing was widely recognized as a divine omen. In Book 17 of Homer 's Odyssey, Penelope speaks to Eumaeus in private about the suitors feasting in the halls of the king 's palace, and how surely Odysseus will return and kill them. Suddenly her son Telemachus sneezes and Penelope laughed. A sneeze meant the intercession of the gods to make her statement come true. It was a blessing from the gods, connecting the sneeze to the "God Bless You. ''
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who sang na na na na hey hey hey goodbye | Na na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye - wikipedia
"Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye '' is a song written and recorded by Paul Leka, Gary DeCarlo and Dale Frashuer, attributed to a then - fictitious band they named "Steam ''. It was released under the Mercury subsidiary label Fontana and became a number one pop single on the Billboard Hot 100 in late 1969, and remained on the charts in early 1970. In 1977, Chicago White Sox organist Nancy Faust began playing the song when White Sox sluggers knocked out the opposing pitcher. The fans would sing and a sports ritual was born. The song 's chorus remains well - known, and is still frequently used as a crowd chant at many sporting events generally directed at the losing side in an elimination contest when the outcome is all but certain or when an individual player is ejected or disqualified. It has also been observed by crowds in political rallies to drown out and mock disruptive protestors who are being escorted out by security.
Paul Leka, Gary DeCarlo and Dale Frashuer wrote a blues shuffle version of the song in the early 1960s when they were members of a doo - wop group from Bridgeport, Connecticut, called the Glenwoods, the Citations, and the Chateaus, of which Leka was the piano player. The group disbanded when Leka talked Frashuer into going into New York City with him to write and possibly produce. In 1968, DeCarlo recorded four songs at Mercury Records in New York with Leka as producer. The singles impressed the company 's executives, who wanted to issue all of them as A-side singles. In need of a B - side, Leka and DeCarlo resurrected an old song from their days as the Glenwoods, "Kiss Him Goodbye '', with their old bandmate, Frashuer.
With DeCarlo as lead vocalist, they recorded the song in one recording session. Instead of using a full band, Leka played keyboards himself and had engineer Warren Dewey splice together a drum track from one of DeCarlo 's four singles and a conga drum solo by Ange DiGeronimo recorded in Mr. Leka 's Bridgeport, Conn. studio for an entirely different session. "I said we should put a chorus to it (to make it longer) '', Leka told Fred Bronson in The Billboard Book of Number One Hits. "I started writing while I was sitting at the piano going ' na, na, na, na, na, na, na, na '... Everything was ' na na ' when you did n't have a lyric. '' Gary added "hey hey ''. The group that is seen on the album cover and in the old black and white video was a road group that had nothing to do with the recording. The road group was lip syncing to DeCarlo 's vocal in the video.
"Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye '' reached number one in the United States for two weeks, on December 6 and 13, 1969; it was Billboard 's final multi-week number 1 hit of the 1960s and also peaked at number twenty on the soul chart. In Canada, the song reached number six. By the beginning of the 21st century, sales of "Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye '' had exceeded 6.5 million records.
The Supremes included a cover of the song on their 1970 album New Ways but Love Stays.
The Belmonts recorded an acappella version, which can be found as a track on their 1972 album Cigars, Acappella, Candy.
Dave Clark & Friends released the song in October 1973 under the title "Sha - Na - Na - Na (Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye) '' (EMI 2082), but the single did n't chart.
In 1987, Canadian quartet The Nylons released an a cappella version of this song as a single under the shortened title "Kiss Him Goodbye ''. It became their biggest hit on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number twelve that summer.
In 2014 the Norwegian artist Adelén used the chorus line of the song on her World Cup song "Olé. '' The song was one of the tracks on the One Love, One Rhythm - The 2014 FIFA World Cup Official Album. The song peaked at number # 3 in Norway.
In February 1983, UK girl group Bananarama released the song as a single from their album Deep Sea Skiving. This version became a top ten hit in the United Kingdom (# 5), but only a minor hit in the US (Billboard # 101) later that year.
This was the fifth single released from their first album in 1983. It peaked at number five in the UK singles chart, and number 38 in Australia on the Kent Music Report chart.
UK: London Records NANA 4; USA: London Records 810 115 - 7
London Records NANX 4
The music video features the band playing in a school playground and then being made to move by a group of lads. They then decide to join a boxing club so the video features them singing the song whilst boxing. By the end of the video they return to the playground wearing leathers and this time make the group of lads move away. They then ride off into the night on motorbikes.
On January 23, 2006, Paul Martin was defeated by Stephen Harper as Prime Minister of Canada. Martin had acceded to the prime ministry following the ouster of Jean Chrétien. The next day 's issue of La Voix de l'Est, a French newspaper in Granby, Quebec, included a cartoon by Paquette showing Chrétien calling Martin and singing Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye. This cartoon demonstrates that the impact of the song did not stop at the U.S. border, and its impact also went beyond the English - speaking world.
On May 4, 2017, after the House of Representatives voted to pass the American Health Care Act, Democratic representatives chanted "Na na na na, hey hey, goodbye '' to Republican representatives, implying that in voting for the bill, they would lose their seats in the House in the next election. DeCarlo was happy to hear of the song getting renewed exposure, but said he opposed Obamacare. It was not the first time the song had been sung in Congress; in 1993, after Democrats voted for then - President Bill Clinton 's tax bill, House Republicans sung "Goodbye ''.
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first black female actress to win an oscar | List of black Academy Award winners and nominees - wikipedia
This list of black Academy Award winners and nominees is current as of the 89th Academy Awards ceremony, and incomplete with regard to the winners for the 90th Academy Awards, which were held on March 4, 2018.
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list of billboard hot 100 number-one singles of 2002 | List of Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles of 2002 - wikipedia
The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best - performing singles of the United States. Published by Billboard magazine, the data are compiled by Nielsen SoundScan based collectively on each single 's weekly physical sales and airplay. In 2002, there were seven singles that topped the chart, the lowest number of singles to top the chart in a single year ever (if the two songs which peaked in 2001 are included, 2002 would have the second lowest number of chart - topping singles in a year, behind 2005). Although nine singles reached number one in fifty - two issues of the magazine in the calendar year, two songs began their peak position in 2001 and are thus excluded.
In 2002, five acts earned their first U.S. number one single, either as a lead artist or featured guest. Singer Ashanti was the first act to achieve the feat with rapper Ja Rule 's "Always on Time ''. She later scored her first number - one single as a lead artist with "Foolish ''. Singer Kelly Rowland, then - member of the girl group Destiny 's Child, earned her first number - one solo single with "Dilemma '', a song by rapper Nelly, who received his first number - one with "Hot in Herre '' during this year. The ascent of "Lose Yourself '' to number one gave rapper Eminem his first chart - topping single since he began releasing albums in 1999. Kelly Clarkson gained her first number - one single with "A Moment Like This ''. Clarkson and Ashanti were the only acts to have topped the chart this year with a debut single. In 2002, Ja Rule, Ashanti, and Nelly had two number - one singles in the Billboard Hot 100.
Most of the number - one singles in 2002 were extended chart - toppers. "Lose Yourself '' is the longest - running single, topping the Billboard Hot 100 for 12 consecutive weeks, eight of which were in this calendar year. "Foolish '' and "Dilemma '' both stayed at number one for 10 weeks, the latter of which was non-consecutive. "Ai n't It Funny '' by Jennifer Lopez peaked at number one for seven weeks.
Rock band Nickelback 's "How You Remind Me '', which first peaked at number one in 2001, is the best - performing single of 2002. "Lose Yourself '', which is the soundtrack to the 2002 film 8 Mile, is the second most - successful soundtrack song in the entire rock era. It is behind Whitney Houston 's version of "I Will Always Love You '', having topped the chart for 14 weeks. "Lose Yourself '' is also the longest - running Oscar - winning number - one song since singer - actor Bing Crosby 's "White Christmas '' had 14 weeks on top in the 1940s. "A Moment Like This '' is noted for its fifty - two - to - one leap in 2002, breaking the 38 - year - old record set by The Beatles ' "Ca n't Buy Me Love '', which jumped from number twenty - seven to one.
Nelly became the first act to have consecutive number - one singles since 1995, when Boyz II Men had consecutive number - ones.
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who sang the original do you love me | Do You Love Me - wikipedia
"Do You Love Me '' is a 1962 hit single recorded by The Contours for Motown 's Gordy Records label. Written and produced by Motown CEO Berry Gordy, Jr., "Do You Love Me? '' was the Contours ' only Top 40 single on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the United States. Notably, the record achieved this feat twice, once in 1962 and again in 1988. A main point of the song is to name the Mashed Potato, The Twist, and a variation of the title "I like it like that '', as "You like it like this '', and many other fad dances of the 1960s.
The song is noted for the spoken recitation heard in the introduction which goes: "You broke my heart / ' Cause I could n't dance / You did n't even want me around / And now I 'm back / To let you know / I can really shake ' em down ''
The song is noted for its false ending at 2: 26.
Berry Gordy wrote "Do You Love Me '' with the intention that The Temptations, who had no Top 40 hits to their name yet, would record it. However, when Gordy wanted to locate the group and record the song, they were nowhere to be found (the Temptations had not been made aware of Gordy 's intentions and had departed Motown 's Hitsville USA recording studio for a local Detroit gospel music showcase).
After spending some time looking for the Temptations, Gordy ran into the Contours (Billy Gordon, Hubert Johnson, Billy Hoggs, Joe Billingslea, Sylvester Potts, and guitarist Hugh Davis) in the hallway. Wanting to record and release "Do You Love Me '' as soon as possible, Gordy decided to let them record his "sure - fire hit '' instead of the Temptations. The Contours, who were in danger of being dropped from the label after their first two singles ("Whole Lotta ' Woman '' and "The Stretch '') failed to chart, were so elated at Gordy 's offer that they immediately began hugging and thanking him.
"Do You Love Me, '' the fifth release on Gordy Records, became a notably successful dance record, built around Gordon 's screaming vocals. Selling over a million copies, "Do You Love Me '' peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 for three weeks starting on October 20, 1962 and was a number - one hit on the Billboard R&B Singles chart. An album featuring the single, Do You Love Me (Now That I Can Dance), was also released. None of the Contours ' future singles lived up to the success of "Do You Love Me '', although its success won the group a headlining position on Motown 's very first Motor Town Revue tour.
Like many American R&B songs of the 1960s, "Do You Love Me? '' was covered by a number of British Invasion groups. Three British groups who recorded their own versions of the song were Brian Poole and the Tremeloes (who hit number one with it in the UK Singles Chart after learning it from Liverpool 's Faron 's Flamingos), the Dave Clark Five, and The Hollies on their 1964 album Stay with the Hollies. The song has also been covered by The Sonics, The Kingsmen, Paul Revere & the Raiders, and Johnny Thunders and the Heartbreakers. In 1965, Bob Marley and the Wailers recorded the song "Playboy, '' which incorporates "Do You Love Me '' 's chorus. The song was covered by the English glam rock band Mud for their album mud rock (1974). The song was one of the highlights of The Blues Brothers ' live set. Bruce Springsteen frequently ended his shows in the mid-1980s with the song, as part of a medley with "Twist and Shout ''. Alvin and the Chipmunks covered the song for their 1988 album The Chipmunks and The Chipettes: Born to Rock. Indie band Steadman has a well known cover of the song, played in the style of the Dave Clark Five. Andy Fraser covered the song in the style of the 1980s back in 1984. Westlife performed a live version for their The Greatest Hits Tour in 2003. German girl group Preluders covered the song for their cover album Prelude to History in 2004. In 1992 David Hasselhoff famously sang the song in an episode of Baywatch. In November 2013, The Overtones covered the song for their album Saturday Night at the Movies. In February 2015, Chester See & Andy Lange uploaded a cover of "Do You Love Me '' to See 's YouTube channel. In 2017 Colt Prattes, Nicole Scherzinger, and J. Quinton Johnson covered the song for ABC 's Dirty Dancing movie remake.
"Do You Love Me '' is featured prominently in the 1987 film Dirty Dancing, reviving the record 's popularity. Re-issued as a single from the More Dirty Dancing soundtrack album, "Do You Love Me '' became a hit for the second time, peaking at number eleven on the Billboard Hot 100 in August 1988. The Contours, by then composed of Joe Billingslea and three new members, joined Ronnie Spector and Bill Medley, among others, on a ' Dirty Dancing Tour ' resulting from the success of the film. The song also appeared in the episode "The End '' in season 5 of TV series Supernatural. The song was also made into a music video in the Tiny Toon Adventures episode "Toon TV ''. David Hasselhoff performed it on Baywatch in the 1992 episode "The Reunion ''. He later performed "Do You Love Me '' with Kids Incorporated in 1984 in the Season 1 episode "School 's For Fools ''. Kids Incorporated covered "Do You Love Me '' in 1991 during the Season 7 episode "Teen Spotlight ''.
With the re-release of the single in 1988, Motown also released a 12 '' maxi - single (Motown 68009) with an extended dance remix, running 6: 26. The remix was also included in the late 1988 Motown CD reissue of the album Do You Love Me (Now That I Can Dance) on Motown 37463 - 5415 - 2. This remix only appears on the CD and Cassette tape issues, as the Vinyl LP of the same release has the original 2: 54 minute hit version.
This song was in the soundtrack for Dirty Dancing (1987), Sleepwalkers (1992), and Getting Even with Dad (1994). It was featured in the 1979 movie The Wanderers. The song also had an appearance in Beethoven 's 2nd, where George Newton (Charles Grodin) dances to the song while preparing his breakfast. Was also in Teen Wolf Too, sang by Jason Bateman in 1987.
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how far is a city block in miles | City block - wikipedia
A city block, urban block or simply block is a central element of urban planning and urban design.
A city block is the smallest area that is surrounded by streets. City blocks are the space for buildings within the street pattern of a city, and form the basic unit of a city 's urban fabric. City blocks may be subdivided into any number of smaller land lots usually in private ownership, though in some cases, it may be other forms of tenure. City blocks are usually built - up to varying degrees and thus form the physical containers or ' streetwalls ' of public space. Most cities are composed of a greater or lesser variety of sizes and shapes of urban block. For example, many pre-industrial cores of cities in Europe, Asia and the Middle - east tend to have irregularly shaped street patterns and urban blocks, while cities based on grids have much more regular arrangements.
In most cities of the world that were planned, rather than developing gradually over a long period of time, streets are typically laid out on a grid plan, so that city blocks are square or rectangular. Using the perimeter block development principle, city blocks are developed so that buildings are located along the perimeter of the block, with entrances facing the street, and semi-private courtyards in the rear of the buildings. This arrangement is intended to provide good social interaction among people.
Since the spacing of streets in grid plans varies so widely among cities, or even within cities, it is difficult to generalize about the size of a city block. However, as reference points for US cities, the standard square blocks of Portland, Houston, and Sacramento are 264 by 264 feet (80 m × 80 m), 330 by 330 feet (100 m × 100 m), and 410 by 410 feet (120 m × 120 m) respectively (to the street center line). Oblong blocks range considerably in width and length. The standard block in Manhattan is about 264 by 900 feet (80 m × 274 m); and in some U.S. cities standard blocks are as wide as 660 feet (200 m). The blocks in Calgary, Canada, are 330 by 560 feet (100 m × 170 m), while those in Edmonton, Canada are 197 by 560 feet (60 m × 171 m). The blocks in central Melbourne, Australia, are 330 by 660 feet (100 m × 200 m), formed by splitting the square blocks in an original grid with a narrow street down the middle. In Chicago, Illinois and Minneapolis, Minnesota, a typical city block is 660 by 330 feet (200 m × 100 m) (w × h), meaning that 16 east - west blocks or 8 north - south blocks measure one mile.
Many world cities have grown by accretion over time rather than being planned from the outset. For this reason, a regular pattern of even, square or rectangular city blocks is not so common among European cities, for example. An exception is represented by those cities that were founded as Roman military settlements, and that often preserve the original grid layout around two main orthogonal axes. One notable example is Turin, Italy. Following the example of Philadelphia, New York City adopted the Commissioners ' Plan of 1811 for a more extensive grid plan. By the middle of the 20th century, the adoption of the uniform, rectilinear block subsided almost completely, and different layouts prevailed, with random sized and either curvilinear or non-orthogonal blocks and corresponding street patterns.
In much of the United States and Canada, the addresses follow a block and lot number system, in which each block of a street is allotted 100 building numbers.
The concept of city block can be generalized as a superblock or sub-block.
A superblock or super-block is an area of urban land bounded by arterial roads that is the size of multiple typically - sized city blocks. Within the superblock, the local road network, if any, is designed to serve local needs only.
Within the broad concept of a superblock, various typologies emerge based primarily on the internal road networks within the superblock, their historical context, and whether they are auto - centric or pedestrian - centric. The context in which superblocks are being studied or conceived gives rise to varying definitions.
An internal road network characterised by cul - de-sacs is typical of auto - centric suburban development primarily in Western countries throughout the 20th century. The Oxford Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture 's definition is rooted within this typically suburban conception:
"Area containing residential accommodation, shops, schools, offices, etc., with public open space (e.g. a green), surrounded by roads and penetrated by cul - de-sac service - roads. It is linked to other super-blocks and a town centre by means of paths over or under the roads (e.g. in Radburn planning). ''
Though the aim of such superblocks is generally to minimise traffic within the superblock by directing it to arterial roads, the effect in many cases has been to entrench automobile dependence by limiting pedestrian permeability. Superblocks can also contain an orthogonal internal road network, including ones based on a grid plan or quasi-grid plan. This typology is prevalent in Japan and China, for example. Chen defines the supergrid and superblock urban morphology in this context as follows:
"The Supergrid is a large - scale net of wide roads that defines a series of cells or Superblocks, each containing a network of narrower streets. ''
Superblocks can also be retroactively superimposed on pre-existing grid plan by changing the traffic rules and streetscape of internal streets within the superblock, as in the case of Barcelona 's superilles (Catalan for superblocks). Each superilla comprises nine city blocks, with speed limits on the internal roads slowed to 10 -- 20 km / h and through traffic disallowed, with through travel only possible on the perimeter roads.
Superblocks were popular during the early and mid-20th century auto - centric suburban development, arising from modernist ideas in architecture and urban planning. Planning in this era was based upon the distance and speed scales for the automobile and discounted the pedestrian and cyclist modes, as obsolete transportation vehicles. A superblock is much larger than a traditional city block, with a greater setback for buildings, and is typically bounded by widely spaced, high - speed, arterial or circulating routes rather than by local streets. Superblocks are often found in suburbs or planned cities, or are the result of urban renewal of the mid-20th century, where a street hierarchy has replaced the traditional grid. In a residential area of a suburb, the interior of the superblock is typically served by dead - ended or looped streets. The discontinuous streets served the automobile as longer distances, and the extra fuel required to go between destinations, was not a concern, but at the pedestrian scale, the discontinuity of the roads added to the distance that must be traveled. The discontinuity inside the superblock forced car dependency, discouraged errand walking, and forced more traffic onto the fewer continuous streets, increasing demand for through streets, which led ultimately to these streets having more travel lanes added for cars, thereby making it more difficult for any pedestrian to cross such streets. In this way, superblocks cut up the city into isolated units, expanded automobile dominance, and made it impossible for pedestrians and cyclists to get anywhere outside of the superblock. Superblocks can also be found in central city areas, where they are more often associated with institutional, educational, recreational and corporate rather than residential uses.
Urban planner Clarence Perry argued for use of superblocks and related ideas in his "neighborhood unit '' plan, which aimed to organize space in a way that was more "pedestrian - friendly '' and provided open plazas and other space for residents to socialize. Planners, today, now know that the street discontinuity and the multi-lane roads associated with superblocks have caused the decline of pedestrian and bicycle use every where this "sprawl '' pattern is present. The traditional urban block diffused automobile traffic onto several narrower roads at slower speeds. This more finely connected network of narrower roads better allowed the pedestrian and cyclist realms to flourish. The superblock, at the scale only suitable for automobiles, and not pedestrians, was the means for ultimate automobile dominance by the end of the 20th century. The same intention to facilitate pedestrian movement and socializing is captured by an influential 1989 conceptual design of a Pedestrian Pocket (see diagram). It is, similarly, a superblock composed of nine normal city blocks clustered around a light rail station and a central open space. Its circulation pattern consists primarily of a dense pedestrian network which is complementary to but independent from the car network. Access by car is provided by means of three loops. This superblock differs from Perry 's concept in that it makes it impossible for cars to traverse it rather than very difficult; it is car - impermeable.
In the 1930s, superblocks were often used in urban renewal public housing projects in American cities. In using superblocks, housing projects aimed to eliminate back alleys, which were often associated with slum conditions.
Superblocks are also used when functional units such as rail yards or shipyards, inherited from the 19th and early 20th centuries, are too big to fit in an average city block. A contemporary function which reflects ancient practices that also requires larger than typical blocks is the sports stadium or arena. Just as the Colosseum in ancient Rome, sports complexes require superblocks. The Providence Park stadium in Portland, for example, takes up four normal city blocks as does the equally large Greensboro Coliseum in North Carolina. Other contemporary institutions, establishments or functions that use superblocks are: city halls like Government Center, Boston and Toronto City Hall; regional general hospitals or specialized medical centres; convention and exhibition centers, such as Exhibition Place in Toronto and the Boston Convention and Exhibition Center; and downtown enclosed Shopping Malls such as Eaton Centre in Toronto, echoing the large gallerias of the 19th century. Cultural complexes, such as the Lincoln Center in New York City, often occupy a superblock achieved through the consolidation of regular city blocks. A recent superblock user is the merchandise distribution centre, which can range in area from one to ten city blocks.
Most notably, however, the largest superblocks in contemporary cities are used by university and college campuses such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the University of Illinois at Chicago, the City College of New York, Columbia University and the University of Alberta in Edmonton. The "campus '' impact on the city block structure is quite prominent particularly in small university towns such as Waterloo, Ontario or Ithaca, New York where the university superblock counts for a sizeable portion of the total city area. Campuses, in general, are fully walkable and sociable environments within the superblock structure. On some university campuses the extensive and exclusive pedestrian path network at grade is supplemented with below grade paths. New Urbanists would argue that separating circulation modes effectively kills the social interaction that bolsters urban areas.
Additional users of the superblock concept are large national or multinational corporations who constructed campuses in the late 1900s and 2000s. Examples of superblock campuses include Google in Mountain View, California; and Apple and Hewlett - Packard in San Jose, California. Another well - known commercial superblock is the World Trade Center site in New York City, where several streets of Manhattan 's downtown grid were removed and de-mapped to make room for the center.
Social and housing agencies in the U.S., Canada and the UK used the superblock model for large housing projects such as Regent Park in Toronto and Benny Farm in Montreal, Canada. In New York City, the Stuyvesant Town private market, residential development superblock takes up about 18 normal city blocks and provides a large green amenity for its residents and neighbours. It uses crescent (loop) rather than dead - ended streets inside the superblock and an extensive network of paths that provide excellent connectivity within the block and to the neighbouring areas (see drawing).
Where the superblock is used for housing projects like Stuyvesant Town, the advantages sought are an improved separation of vehicular and pedestrian circulation, enhanced tranquility and reduced accident risk within the neighbourhood. In 2003, Vauban (a rail suburb of Freiburg, Germany) was constructed with similar goals. Its layout consists mainly of a superblock with a central pedestrian spine and a few narrow looped and dead - ended streets. The British new town of Milton Keynes is built around a grid of one - kilometre square superblocks (see drawing).
Superblocks have been proposed as a potential solution to road space prioritisation and increased pedestrian flows in the CBD of Melbourne, Australia. The City of Melbourne 's 2018 Transport Discussion Paper: City Space suggests, based on the example of Barcelona 's superilles, that "' Superblocks ' could be applied in Melbourne to make streets in the central city safer, greener, more inclusive and more vibrant. ''
The superblock concept has been applied retroactively in Barcelona 's La Ribera and Gràcia districts, which both have a medieval street network with narrow and irregular streets, since 1993. In these two cases it resulted in an increase of journeys on foot (over 10 %) and by bicycle (> 15 %) and in a higher level of commercial and service activity.
Superblocks, or super illes in the native Catalan, are now being superimposed in the Eixample District 's famous Ildefons Cerdà - designed late 19th century grid plan. Each superilla comprises nine city blocks, or illes, in which the internal traffic flows have been altered to disallow through traffic, and speed limits on internal roads reduced. After entering a superilla from a perimeter road, vehicles are only able to circumnavigate one city block and return out to the same perimeter road again, meaning that local access to garages and businesses is maintained, but making it impossible to cut through to the other side. Speed limits have also been reduced to 20 km / h initially. It was estimated that this could be implemented city - wide for less than € 20 million, simply by changing traffic signals.
It is planned to further reduce speeds to 10 km / h and remove on - street parking by building more off - street car parks. This is intended to make the internal streets safer for pedestrians and create more space for playing games, sports, and cultural activities such as outdoor cinemas.
The concept was initially spurred by a redesign of the city 's bus network that consolidated bus routes into a simpler orthogonal network, with more frequent services. With many streets freed from buses as a result, and the idea was formulated to create the superilles in order to reduce traffic, cut the high levels of air and noise pollution in the city, and reallocate space to pedestrians and cyclists. The superilles have been met with criticism and resistance from some residents however, who have complained about the dramatically increased distance for some previously short car trips, and the increased traffic on the arterial perimeter roads. This is, however, a necessary part of the strategy to discourage driving and boost the number of trips made by active transport modes or on the revamped bus network.
Superblocks have been the prevalent mode of urban land use planning in Japan, even being described as the "sine qua non of Japanese urban design '', present in all medium to large Japanese cities to a greater or lesser degree. Cities are typically arranged around a system of wide arterial roads, often approximating a grid and flanked by generous sidewalks, and an orthogonal network of narrow internal streets, normally operating as shared zones with no sidewalks. The grid plan layout of Japanese cities such as Kyoto and Nara dates back to the eighth century, which were in turn derived from Chinese grid models. The system of superblocks were created mostly in the early to mid 20th century by physically widening arterial roads, superimposing the supergrid and superblock structure in a physical sense. This contrasts with the Barcelona model wherein the superblock model was imposed through changed traffic signalling rather than physical street widening. They further contrast to Western auto - centric models described above as they are typically characterised by highly walkable and cycle - able street networks, featuring high - density mixed use development and supported by highly effective and efficient public transport systems.
Resulting largely from planning controls which link building height with street width, Japanese superblocks are typically characterised by a ' hard shell ' of tall buildings with commercial uses along the perimeter arterial roads, with a ' soft yolk ' of low - rise residential use in the centre.
The spatial structure of superblocks can also be analysed, per a taxonomy detailed by Barrie Shelton, through the classification of roads as ' global ', being the arterial roads which provide for cross-city travel, ' local ' roads, which provide local access to buildings within the superblock, and ' glocal ' roads, which may cross the entire superblock, allowing through travel, and in many instances into neighbouring superblocks. Glocal roads differ from global roads however, in that they are narrow, have lower speed limits, and do not form part of the ' supergrid ' structure. Shelton also describes the sidewalks of the global arterial roads as functioning as streets in themselves, or ' sidewalk streets ', operating in a similar manner to the local streets.
In a geoprocessing perspective there are two complementary ways of modeling city blocks:
Always a block without sidewalks is within a block with sidewalks. The geometric subtraction of a block without sidewalks from block with sidewalks, contains the sidewalk, the alley, and any other non-lot sub-structure.
A perimeter block is a type of city block which is built up on all sides surrounding a central space that is semi-private. They may contain a mixture of uses, with commercial or retail functions on the ground floor. Perimeter blocks are a key component of many European cities and are an urban form that allows very high urban densities to be achieved without high - rise buildings.
In North American English and Australian English, the word "block '' is used as an informal unit of distance. For example, someone giving directions might say, "It 's three blocks from here ''.
In British English the term is very rarely used to express a measure of distance owing to blocks not being used in town or city planning in most countries. However it is often used to describe a short walk around the local area, as in "walk around the block ''.
There have been online innovations and websites such as msnbc. com - owned EveryBlock, which uses geo - specific feeds from neighborhood blogs, Flickr, Yelp, Craigslist, YouTube, Twitter, Facebook and other aggregated data to give readers a picture of what is going on in their town or neighborhood down to the block.
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the speed of sound wave in air depends on | Speed of sound - wikipedia
The speed of sound is the distance travelled per unit time by a sound wave as it propagates through an elastic medium. In dry air at 0 ° C (32 ° F), the speed of sound is 331.2 metres per second (1,087 ft / s; 1,192 km / h; 741 mph; 644 kn). At 20 ° C (68 ° F), the speed of sound is 343 metres per second (1,125 ft / s; 1,235 km / h; 767 mph; 667 kn), or a kilometre in 2.91 s or a mile in 4.69 s.
The speed of sound in an ideal gas depends only on its temperature and composition. The speed has a weak dependence on frequency and pressure in ordinary air, deviating slightly from ideal behavior.
In common everyday speech, speed of sound refers to the speed of sound waves in air. However, the speed of sound varies from substance to substance: sound travels most slowly in gases; it travels faster in liquids; and faster still in solids. For example, (as noted above), sound travels at 343 m / s in air; it travels at 1,484 m / s in water (4.3 times as fast as in air); and at 5,120 m / s in iron (about 15 times as fast as in air). In an exceptionally stiff material such as diamond, sound travels at 12,000 metres per second (26,843 mph); (about 35 times as fast as in air) which is around the maximum speed that sound will travel under normal conditions.
Sound waves in solids are composed of compression waves (just as in gases and liquids), and a different type of sound wave called a shear wave, which occurs only in solids. Shear waves in solids usually travel at different speeds, as exhibited in seismology. The speed of compression waves in solids is determined by the medium 's compressibility, shear modulus and density. The speed of shear waves is determined only by the solid material 's shear modulus and density.
In fluid dynamics, the speed of sound in a fluid medium (gas or liquid) is used as a relative measure for the speed of an object moving through the medium. The ratio of the speed of an object to the speed of sound in the fluid is called the object 's Mach number. Objects moving at speeds greater than Mach 1 are said to be traveling at supersonic speeds.
Sir Isaac Newton computed the speed of sound in air as 979 feet per second (298 m / s), which is too low by about 15 %,. Newton 's analysis was good save for neglecting the (then unknown) effect of rapidly - fluctuating temperature in a sound wave (in modern terms, sound wave compression and expansion of air is an adiabatic process, not an isothermal process). This error was later rectified by Laplace.
During the 17th century, there were several attempts to measure the speed of sound accurately, including attempts by Marin Mersenne in 1630 (1,380 Parisian feet per second), Pierre Gassendi in 1635 (1,473 Parisian feet per second) and Robert Boyle (1,125 Parisian feet per second).
In 1709, the Reverend William Derham, Rector of Upminster, published a more accurate measure of the speed of sound, at 1,072 Parisian feet per second. Derham used a telescope from the tower of the church of St Laurence, Upminster to observe the flash of a distant shotgun being fired, and then measured the time until he heard the gunshot with a half - second pendulum. Measurements were made of gunshots from a number of local landmarks, including North Ockendon church. The distance was known by triangulation, and thus the speed that the sound had travelled was calculated.
The transmission of sound can be illustrated by using a model consisting of an array of spherical objects interconnected by springs.
In real material terms, the spheres represent the material 's molecules and the springs represent the bonds between them. Sound passes through the system by compressing and expanding the springs, transmitting the acoustic energy to neighboring spheres. This helps transmit the energy in - turn to the neighboring sphere 's springs (bonds), and so on.
The speed of sound through the model depends on the stiffness / rigidity of the springs, and the mass of the spheres. As long as the spacing of the spheres remains constant, stiffer springs / bonds transmit energy quicker, while larger spheres transmit the energy slower.
In a real material, the stiffness of the springs is known as the "elastic modulus '', and the mass corresponds to the material density. Given that all other things being equal (ceteris paribus), sound will travel slower in spongy materials, and faster in stiffer ones. Effects like dispersion and reflection can also be understood using this model.
For instance, sound will travel 1.59 times faster in nickel than in bronze, due to the greater stiffness of nickel at about the same density. Similarly, sound travels about 1.41 times faster in light hydrogen (protium) gas than in heavy hydrogen (deuterium) gas, since deuterium has similar properties but twice the density. At the same time, "compression - type '' sound will travel faster in solids than in liquids, and faster in liquids than in gases, because the solids are more difficult to compress than liquids, while liquids in turn are more difficult to compress than gases.
Some textbooks mistakenly state that the speed of sound increases with increasing density. This is usually illustrated by presenting data for three materials, such as air, water and steel, which also have vastly different levels compressibilities which more than make up for the density differences. An illustrative example of the two effects is that sound travels only 4.3 times faster in water than air, despite enormous differences in compressibility of the two media. The reason is that the larger density of water, which works to slow sound in water relative to air, nearly makes up for the compressibility differences in the two media.
A practical example can be observed in Edinburgh when the "One o ' Clock Gun '' is fired at the eastern end of Edinburgh Castle. Standing at the base of the western end of the Castle Rock, the sound of the Gun can be heard through the rock, slightly before it arrives by the air route, partly delayed by the slightly longer route. It is particularly effective if a multi-gun salute such as for "The Queen 's Birthday '' is being fired.
In a gas or liquid, sound consists of compression waves. In solids, waves propagate as two different types. A longitudinal wave is associated with compression and decompression in the direction of travel, and is the same process in gases and liquids, with an analogous compression - type wave in solids. Only compression waves are supported in gases and liquids. An additional type of wave, the transverse wave, also called a shear wave, occurs only in solids because only solids support elastic deformations. It is due to elastic deformation of the medium perpendicular to the direction of wave travel; the direction of shear - deformation is called the "polarization '' of this type of wave. In general, transverse waves occur as a pair of orthogonal polarizations.
These different waves (compression waves and the different polarizations of shear waves) may have different speeds at the same frequency. Therefore, they arrive at an observer at different times, an extreme example being an earthquake, where sharp compression waves arrive first and rocking transverse waves seconds later.
The speed of a compression wave in a fluid is determined by the medium 's compressibility and density. In solids, the compression waves are analogous to those in fluids, depending on compressibility and density, but with the additional factor of shear modulus which affects compression waves due to off - axis elastic energies which are able to influence effective tension and relaxation in a compression. The speed of shear waves, which can occur only in solids, is determined simply by the solid material 's shear modulus and density.
The speed of sound in mathematical notation is conventionally represented by c, from the Latin celeritas meaning "velocity ''.
For fluids in general, the speed of sound c is given by the Newton -- Laplace equation:
where
Thus the speed of sound increases with the stiffness (the resistance of an elastic body to deformation by an applied force) of the material and decreases with an increase in density. For ideal gases, the bulk modulus K is simply the gas pressure multiplied by the dimensionless adiabatic index, which is about 1.4 for air under normal conditions of pressure and temperature.
For general equations of state, if classical mechanics is used, the speed of sound c is given by
where
If relativistic effects are important, the speed of sound is calculated from the relativistic Euler equations.
In a non-dispersive medium, the speed of sound is independent of sound frequency, so the speeds of energy transport and sound propagation are the same for all frequencies. Air, a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, constitutes a non-dispersive medium. However, air does contain a small amount of CO which is a dispersive medium, and causes dispersion to air at ultrasonic frequencies (> 28 kHz).
In a dispersive medium, the speed of sound is a function of sound frequency, through the dispersion relation. Each frequency component propagates at its own speed, called the phase velocity, while the energy of the disturbance propagates at the group velocity. The same phenomenon occurs with light waves; see optical dispersion for a description.
The speed of sound is variable and depends on the properties of the substance through which the wave is travelling. In solids, the speed of transverse (or shear) waves depends on the shear deformation under shear stress (called the shear modulus), and the density of the medium. Longitudinal (or compression) waves in solids depend on the same two factors with the addition of a dependence on compressibility.
In fluids, only the medium 's compressibility and density are the important factors, since fluids do not transmit shear stresses. In heterogeneous fluids, such as a liquid filled with gas bubbles, the density of the liquid and the compressibility of the gas affect the speed of sound in an additive manner, as demonstrated in the hot chocolate effect.
In gases, adiabatic compressibility is directly related to pressure through the heat capacity ratio (adiabatic index), while pressure and density are inversely related to the temperature and molecular weight, thus making only the completely independent properties of temperature and molecular structure important (heat capacity ratio may be determined by temperature and molecular structure, but simple molecular weight is not sufficient to determine it).
In low molecular weight gases such as helium, sound propagates faster as compared to heavier gases such as xenon. For monatomic gases, the speed of sound is about 75 % of the mean speed that the atoms move in that gas.
For a given ideal gas the molecular composition is fixed, and thus the speed of sound depends only on its temperature. At a constant temperature, the gas pressure has no effect on the speed of sound, since the density will increase, and since pressure and density (also proportional to pressure) have equal but opposite effects on the speed of sound, and the two contributions cancel out exactly. In a similar way, compression waves in solids depend both on compressibility and density -- just as in liquids -- but in gases the density contributes to the compressibility in such a way that some part of each attribute factors out, leaving only a dependence on temperature, molecular weight, and heat capacity ratio which can be independently derived from temperature and molecular composition (see derivations below). Thus, for a single given gas (assuming the molecular weight does not change) and over a small temperature range (for which the heat capacity is relatively constant), the speed of sound becomes dependent on only the temperature of the gas.
In non-ideal gas behavior regimen, for which the van der Waals gas equation would be used, the proportionality is not exact, and there is a slight dependence of sound velocity on the gas pressure.
Humidity has a small but measurable effect on the speed of sound (causing it to increase by about 0.1 % -- 0.6 %), because oxygen and nitrogen molecules of the air are replaced by lighter molecules of water. This is a simple mixing effect.
In the Earth 's atmosphere, the chief factor affecting the speed of sound is the temperature. For a given ideal gas with constant heat capacity and composition, the speed of sound is dependent solely upon temperature; see Details below. In such an ideal case, the effects of decreased density and decreased pressure of altitude cancel each other out, save for the residual effect of temperature.
Since temperature (and thus the speed of sound) decreases with increasing altitude up to 11 km, sound is refracted upward, away from listeners on the ground, creating an acoustic shadow at some distance from the source. The decrease of the speed of sound with height is referred to as a negative sound speed gradient.
However, there are variations in this trend above 11 km. In particular, in the stratosphere above about 20 km, the speed of sound increases with height, due to an increase in temperature from heating within the ozone layer. This produces a positive speed of sound gradient in this region. Still another region of positive gradient occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly - named thermosphere above 90 km.
The approximate speed of sound in dry (0 % humidity) air, in meters per second, at temperatures near 0 ° C, can be calculated from
where θ (\ displaystyle \ vartheta) is the temperature in degrees Celsius (° C).
This equation is derived from the first two terms of the Taylor expansion of the following more accurate equation:
Dividing the first part, and multiplying the second part, on the right hand side, by √ 273.15 gives the exactly equivalent form
which can also be written as
where T denotes the thermodynamic temperature.
The value of 331.3 m / s, which represents the speed at 0 ° C (or 273.15 K), is based on theoretical (and some measured) values of the heat capacity ratio, γ, as well as on the fact that at 1 atm real air is very well described by the ideal gas approximation. Commonly found values for the speed of sound at 0 ° C may vary from 331.2 to 331.6 due to the assumptions made when it is calculated. If ideal gas γ is assumed to be 7 / 5 = 1.4 exactly, the 0 ° C speed is calculated (see section below) to be 331.3 m / s, the coefficient used above.
This equation is correct to a much wider temperature range, but still depends on the approximation of heat capacity ratio being independent of temperature, and for this reason will fail, particularly at higher temperatures. It gives good predictions in relatively dry, cold, low - pressure conditions, such as the Earth 's stratosphere. The equation fails at extremely low pressures and short wavelengths, due to dependence on the assumption that the wavelength of the sound in the gas is much longer than the average mean free path between gas molecule collisions. A derivation of these equations will be given in the following section.
A graph comparing results of the two equations is at right, using the slightly different value of 331.5 m / s for the speed of sound at 0 ° C.
For an ideal gas, K (the bulk modulus in equations above, equivalent to C, the coefficient of stiffness in solids) is given by
thus, from the Newton -- Laplace equation above, the speed of sound in an ideal gas is given by
where
Using the ideal gas law to replace p with nRT / V, and replacing ρ with nM / V, the equation for an ideal gas becomes
where
This equation applies only when the sound wave is a small perturbation on the ambient condition, and the certain other noted conditions are fulfilled, as noted below. Calculated values for c have been found to vary slightly from experimentally determined values.
Newton famously considered the speed of sound before most of the development of thermodynamics and so incorrectly used isothermal calculations instead of adiabatic. His result was missing the factor of γ but was otherwise correct.
Numerical substitution of the above values gives the ideal gas approximation of sound velocity for gases, which is accurate at relatively low gas pressures and densities (for air, this includes standard Earth sea - level conditions). Also, for diatomic gases the use of γ = 1.4000 requires that the gas exists in a temperature range high enough that rotational heat capacity is fully excited (i.e., molecular rotation is fully used as a heat energy "partition '' or reservoir); but at the same time the temperature must be low enough that molecular vibrational modes contribute no heat capacity (i.e., insignificant heat goes into vibration, as all vibrational quantum modes above the minimum - energy - mode, have energies too high to be populated by a significant number of molecules at this temperature). For air, these conditions are fulfilled at room temperature, and also temperatures considerably below room temperature (see tables below). See the section on gases in specific heat capacity for a more complete discussion of this phenomenon.
For air, we introduce the shorthand
In addition, we switch to the Celsius temperature θ (\ displaystyle \ vartheta) = T − 273.15, which is useful to calculate air speed in the region near 0 ° C (about 273 kelvin). Then, for dry air,
where θ (\ displaystyle \ vartheta) (theta) is the temperature in degrees Celsius (° C).
Substituting numerical values
for the molar gas constant in J / mole / Kelvin, and
for the mean molar mass of air, in kg; and using the ideal diatomic gas value of γ = 1.4000, we have
Finally, Taylor expansion of the remaining square root in θ (\ displaystyle \ vartheta) yields
The above derivation includes the first two equations given in the "Practical formula for dry air '' section above.
The speed of sound varies with temperature. Since temperature and sound velocity normally decrease with increasing altitude, sound is refracted upward, away from listeners on the ground, creating an acoustic shadow at some distance from the source. Wind shear of 4 m / (s km) can produce refraction equal to a typical temperature lapse rate of 7.5 ° C / km. Higher values of wind gradient will refract sound downward toward the surface in the downwind direction, eliminating the acoustic shadow on the downwind side. This will increase the audibility of sounds downwind. This downwind refraction effect occurs because there is a wind gradient; the sound is not being carried along by the wind.
For sound propagation, the exponential variation of wind speed with height can be defined as follows:
where
In the 1862 American Civil War Battle of Iuka, an acoustic shadow, believed to have been enhanced by a northeast wind, kept two divisions of Union soldiers out of the battle, because they could not hear the sounds of battle only 10 km (six miles) downwind.
In the standard atmosphere:
In fact, assuming an ideal gas, the speed of sound c depends on temperature only, not on the pressure or density (since these change in lockstep for a given temperature and cancel out). Air is almost an ideal gas. The temperature of the air varies with altitude, giving the following variations in the speed of sound using the standard atmosphere -- actual conditions may vary.
Given normal atmospheric conditions, the temperature, and thus speed of sound, varies with altitude:
The medium in which a sound wave is travelling does not always respond adiabatically, and as a result, the speed of sound can vary with frequency.
The limitations of the concept of speed of sound due to extreme attenuation are also of concern. The attenuation which exists at sea level for high frequencies applies to successively lower frequencies as atmospheric pressure decreases, or as the mean free path increases. For this reason, the concept of speed of sound (except for frequencies approaching zero) progressively loses its range of applicability at high altitudes. The standard equations for the speed of sound apply with reasonable accuracy only to situations in which the wavelength of the soundwave is considerably longer than the mean free path of molecules in a gas.
The molecular composition of the gas contributes both as the mass (M) of the molecules, and their heat capacities, and so both have an influence on speed of sound. In general, at the same molecular mass, monatomic gases have slightly higher speed of sound (over 9 % higher) because they have a higher γ (5 / 3 = 1.66...) than diatomics do (7 / 5 = 1.4). Thus, at the same molecular mass, the speed of sound of a monatomic gas goes up by a factor of
This gives the 9 % difference, and would be a typical ratio for speeds of sound at room temperature in helium vs. deuterium, each with a molecular weight of 4. Sound travels faster in helium than deuterium because adiabatic compression heats helium more since the helium molecules can store heat energy from compression only in translation, but not rotation. Thus helium molecules (monatomic molecules) travel faster in a sound wave and transmit sound faster. (Sound travels at about 70 % of the mean molecular speed in gases; the figure is 75 % in monatomic gases and 68 % in diatomic gases).
Note that in this example we have assumed that temperature is low enough that heat capacities are not influenced by molecular vibration (see heat capacity). However, vibrational modes simply cause gammas which decrease toward 1, since vibration modes in a polyatomic gas give the gas additional ways to store heat which do not affect temperature, and thus do not affect molecular velocity and sound velocity. Thus, the effect of higher temperatures and vibrational heat capacity acts to increase the difference between the speed of sound in monatomic vs. polyatomic molecules, with the speed remaining greater in monatomics.
By far the most important factor influencing the speed of sound in air is temperature. The speed is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature, giving an increase of about 0.6 m / s per degree Celsius. For this reason, the pitch of a musical wind instrument increases as its temperature increases.
The speed of sound is raised by humidity but decreased by carbon dioxide. The difference between 0 % and 100 % humidity is about 1.5 m / s at standard pressure and temperature, but the size of the humidity effect increases dramatically with temperature. The carbon dioxide content of air is not fixed, due to both carbon pollution and human breath (e.g., in the air blown through wind instruments).
The dependence on frequency and pressure are normally insignificant in practical applications. In dry air, the speed of sound increases by about 0.1 m / s as the frequency rises from 10 Hz to 100 Hz. For audible frequencies above 100 Hz it is relatively constant. Standard values of the speed of sound are quoted in the limit of low frequencies, where the wavelength is large compared to the mean free path.
Mach number, a useful quantity in aerodynamics, is the ratio of air speed to the local speed of sound. At altitude, for reasons explained, Mach number is a function of temperature. Aircraft flight instruments, however, operate using pressure differential to compute Mach number, not temperature. The assumption is that a particular pressure represents a particular altitude and, therefore, a standard temperature. Aircraft flight instruments need to operate this way because the stagnation pressure sensed by a Pitot tube is dependent on altitude as well as speed.
A range of different methods exist for the measurement of sound in air.
The earliest reasonably accurate estimate of the speed of sound in air was made by William Derham and acknowledged by Isaac Newton. Derham had a telescope at the top of the tower of the Church of St Laurence in Upminster, England. On a calm day, a synchronized pocket watch would be given to an assistant who would fire a shotgun at a pre-determined time from a conspicuous point some miles away, across the countryside. This could be confirmed by telescope. He then measured the interval between seeing gunsmoke and arrival of the sound using a half - second pendulum. The distance from where the gun was fired was found by triangulation, and simple division (distance / time) provided velocity. Lastly, by making many observations, using a range of different distances, the inaccuracy of the half - second pendulum could be averaged out, giving his final estimate of the speed of sound. Modern stopwatches enable this method to be used today over distances as short as 200 -- 400 meters, and not needing something as loud as a shotgun.
The simplest concept is the measurement made using two microphones and a fast recording device such as a digital storage scope. This method uses the following idea.
If a sound source and two microphones are arranged in a straight line, with the sound source at one end, then the following can be measured:
Then v = x / t.
In these methods, the time measurement has been replaced by a measurement of the inverse of time (frequency).
Kundt 's tube is an example of an experiment which can be used to measure the speed of sound in a small volume. It has the advantage of being able to measure the speed of sound in any gas. This method uses a powder to make the nodes and antinodes visible to the human eye. This is an example of a compact experimental setup.
A tuning fork can be held near the mouth of a long pipe which is dipping into a barrel of water. In this system it is the case that the pipe can be brought to resonance if the length of the air column in the pipe is equal to (1 + 2n) λ / 4 where n is an integer. As the antinodal point for the pipe at the open end is slightly outside the mouth of the pipe it is best to find two or more points of resonance and then measure half a wavelength between these.
Here it is the case that v = fλ.
The effect of impurities can be significant when making high - precision measurements. Chemical desiccants can be used to dry the air, but will, in turn, contaminate the sample. The air can be dried cryogenically, but this has the effect of removing the carbon dioxide as well; therefore many high - precision measurements are performed with air free of carbon dioxide rather than with natural air. A 2002 review found that a 1963 measurement by Smith and Harlow using a cylindrical resonator gave "the most probable value of the standard speed of sound to date. '' The experiment was done with air from which the carbon dioxide had been removed, but the result was then corrected for this effect so as to be applicable to real air. The experiments were done at 30 ° C but corrected for temperature in order to report them at 0 ° C. The result was 331.45 ± 0.01 m / s for dry air at STP, for frequencies from 93 Hz to 1,500 Hz.
In a solid, there is a non-zero stiffness both for volumetric deformations and shear deformations. Hence, it is possible to generate sound waves with different velocities dependent on the deformation mode. Sound waves generating volumetric deformations (compression) and shear deformations (shearing) are called pressure waves (longitudinal waves) and shear waves (transverse waves), respectively. In earthquakes, the corresponding seismic waves are called P - waves (primary waves) and S - waves (secondary waves), respectively. The sound velocities of these two types of waves propagating in a homogeneous 3 - dimensional solid are respectively given by
where
The last quantity is not an independent one, as E = 3K (1 − 2ν). Note that the speed of pressure waves depends both on the pressure and shear resistance properties of the material, while the speed of shear waves depends on the shear properties only.
Typically, pressure waves travel faster in materials than do shear waves, and in earthquakes this is the reason that the onset of an earthquake is often preceded by a quick upward - downward shock, before arrival of waves that produce a side - to - side motion. For example, for a typical steel alloy, K = 170 GPa, G = 80 GPa and ρ = 7,700 kg / m, yielding a compressional speed c of 6,000 m / s. This is in reasonable agreement with c measured experimentally at 5,930 m / s for a (possibly different) type of steel. The shear speed c is estimated at 3,200 m / s using the same numbers.
The speed of sound for pressure waves in stiff materials such as metals is sometimes given for "long rods '' of the material in question, in which the speed is easier to measure. In rods where their diameter is shorter than a wavelength, the speed of pure pressure waves may be simplified and is given by:
where E is Young 's modulus. This is similar to the expression for shear waves, save that Young 's modulus replaces the shear modulus. This speed of sound for pressure waves in long rods will always be slightly less than the same speed in homogeneous 3 - dimensional solids, and the ratio of the speeds in the two different types of objects depends on Poisson 's ratio for the material.
In a fluid, the only non-zero stiffness is to volumetric deformation (a fluid does not sustain shear forces).
Hence the speed of sound in a fluid is given by
where K is the bulk modulus of the fluid.
In fresh water, sound travels at about 1481 m / s at 20 ° C (see the External Links section below for online calculators). Applications of underwater sound can be found in sonar, acoustic communication and acoustical oceanography.
In salt water that is free of air bubbles or suspended sediment, sound travels at about 1500 m / s (1500.235 m / s at 1000 kilopascals, 10 ° C and 3 % salinity by one method). The speed of sound in seawater depends on pressure (hence depth), temperature (a change of 1 ° C ~ 4 m / s), and salinity (a change of 1 ‰ ~ 1 m / s), and empirical equations have been derived to accurately calculate the speed of sound from these variables. Other factors affecting the speed of sound are minor. Since in most ocean regions temperature decreases with depth, the profile of the speed of sound with depth decreases to a minimum at a depth of several hundred meters. Below the minimum, sound speed increases again, as the effect of increasing pressure overcomes the effect of decreasing temperature (right). For more information see Dushaw et al.
A simple empirical equation for the speed of sound in sea water with reasonable accuracy for the world 's oceans is due to Mackenzie:
where
The constants a, a,..., a are
with check value 1550.744 m / s for T = 25 ° C, S = 35 parts per thousand, z = 1,000 m. This equation has a standard error of 0.070 m / s for salinity between 25 and 40 ppt. See Technical Guides. Speed of Sound in Sea - Water for an online calculator.
Other equations for the speed of sound in sea water are accurate over a wide range of conditions, but are far more complicated, e.g., that by V.A. Del Grosso and the Chen - Millero - Li Equation.
The speed of sound in a plasma for the common case that the electrons are hotter than the ions (but not too much hotter) is given by the formula (see here)
where
In contrast to a gas, the pressure and the density are provided by separate species, the pressure by the electrons and the density by the ions. The two are coupled through a fluctuating electric field.
When sound spreads out evenly in all directions in three dimensions, the intensity drops in proportion to the inverse square of the distance. However, in the ocean, there is a layer called the ' deep sound channel ' or SOFAR channel which can confine sound waves at a particular depth.
In the SOFAR channel, the speed of sound is lower than that in the layers above and below. Just as light waves will refract towards a region of higher index, sound waves will refract towards a region where their speed is reduced. The result is that sound gets confined in the layer, much the way light can be confined to a sheet of glass or optical fiber. Thus, the sound is confined in essentially two dimensions. In two dimensions the intensity drops in proportion to only the inverse of the distance. This allows waves to travel much further before being undetectably faint.
A similar effect occurs in the atmosphere. Project Mogul successfully used this effect to detect a nuclear explosion at a considerable distance.
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what was the first plague god sent on egypt | Plagues of Egypt - wikipedia
The Plagues of Egypt (Hebrew: מכות מצרים, Makot Mitzrayim), also called the ten biblical plagues, were ten calamities that, according to the biblical Book of Exodus, God inflicted upon Egypt as a demonstration of power, after which the Pharaoh conceded to Moses ' demands to let the enslaved Israelites go into the wilderness to make sacrifices. God repeatedly hardened the Pharaoh 's heart to prevent him from consenting until after the tenth plague. The Israelites ' eventual departure began the Exodus of the Hebrew people.
The plagues served to contrast the power of the God of Israel with the Egyptian gods, invalidating them. Some commentators have associated several of the plagues with judgment on specific gods associated with the Nile, fertility and natural phenomena. According to Exodus 12: 12, all the gods of Egypt would be judged through the tenth and final plague: "On that same night I will pass through Egypt and strike down every firstborn of both people and animals, and I will bring judgment on all the gods of Egypt. I am the LORD. ''
The reason for the plagues appears to be twofold: to answer Pharaoh 's taunt, "Who (is) the LORD, that I should obey his voice to let Israel go? '', and to indelibly impress the Israelites with God 's power as an object lesson for all time, which was also meant to become known "throughout the world ''.
According to the Book of Exodus, God hardened Pharaoh 's heart so he would be strong enough to persist in his unwillingness to release the people, so that God could manifest his great power and cause his power to be declared among the nations, so that other people would discuss it for generations afterward. In this view, the plagues were punishment for the Egyptians ' long abuse of the Israelites, as well as proof that the gods of Egypt were false and powerless. If God triumphed over the gods of Egypt, a world power at that time, then the people of God would be strengthened in their faith, although they were a small people, and would not be tempted to follow the deities that God proved false. Exodus 9: 15 -- 16 (JPS Tanakh) portrays Yahweh explaining why he did not accomplish the freedom of the Israelites immediately: "I could have stretched forth My hand and stricken you (Pharaoh) and your people with pestilence, and you would have been effaced from the earth. Nevertheless I have spared you for this purpose: in order to show you My power and in order that My fame may resound throughout the world. ''
The plagues seemed to affect "all the land of Egypt '', but the children of Israel were unaffected. For the last plague, the Torah indicates that they were only spared from the final plague by sacrificing the Paschal lamb, marking their place directly above their doors with the lamb 's blood, and hastily eating the roasted sacrifice together with unleavened bread (now known as Matzoh) which they took from their ovens in haste, as they made ready for the Exodus. The Torah describes God as actually passing through Egypt to kill all firstborn children and cattle, but passing over (hence "Passover '') houses which have the sign of lambs ' blood on the doorpost. It is debated whether it was actually God who came through the streets or one of his angels. Some also think it may be the Holy Spirit. It is most commonly known as the "Angel of Death ''. The night of this plague, Pharaoh finally relents and sends the Israelites away under their terms.
After the Israelites leave en masse, a departure known as The Exodus, God introduces himself by name and makes an exclusive covenant with the Israelites on the basis of this miraculous deliverance. The Ten Commandments encapsulate the terms of this covenant. Joshua, the successor to Moses, reminds the people of their deliverance through the plagues. According to 1 Samuel, the Philistines also knew of the plagues and feared their author. Later, the psalmist sang of these events.
The Torah also relates God 's instructions to Moses that the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt must be celebrated yearly on the holiday of Passover (Pesaḥ פסח); the rituals observed on Passover recall the events surrounding the exodus from Egypt. The month of Nisan has become important to the Jews. The Torah additionally cites God 's sparing of the Israelite firstborn as a rationale for the commandment of the redemption of the firstborn. This event is also commemorated by the Fast of the Firstborn on the day preceding Passover but which is traditionally not observed because a siyum celebration is held which obviates the need for a fast.
It seems that the celebration of Passover waned from time to time, since other biblical books provide references to revival of the holiday. For example, it was reinstated by Joshua at Gilgal, by Josiah, by Hezekiah and, after the return from the captivity, by Ezra. By the time of the Second Temple it was firmly established in Israel.
The plagues as they appear in the 1984 New International Version of the Book of Exodus are:
This is what the LORD says: By this you will know that I am the LORD: With the staff that is in my hands I will strike the water of the Nile, and it will be changed into blood. The fish in the Nile will die, and the river will stink and the Egyptians will not be able to drink its water.
This is what the great LORD says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go, I will plague your whole country with frogs. The Nile will teem with frogs. They will come up into your palace and your bedroom and onto your bed, into the houses of your officials and on your people, and into your ovens and kneading troughs. The frogs will go up on you and your people and all your officials.
"And the LORD said (...) Stretch out thy rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice throughout all the land of Egypt. '' (...) When Aaron stretched out his hand with the rod and struck the dust of the ground, lice came upon men and animals. All the dust throughout the land of Egypt became lice.
The Hebrew noun כִּנִּים (kinim) could be translated as lice, gnats, or fleas.
The fourth plague of Egypt was of creatures capable of harming people and livestock. The Torah emphasizes that the ' arob (עָרוֹב, meaning "mixture '' or "swarm '') only came against the Egyptians, and that it did not affect the Land of Goshen (where the Israelites lived). Pharaoh asked Moses to remove this plague and promised to allow the Israelites ' freedom. However, after the plague was gone, the LORD "hardened Pharaoh 's heart '', and he refused to keep his promise.
The word ' arob has caused a difference of opinion among traditional interpreters. The root meaning is (ע. ר. ב), meaning a mixture - implying a diversity, array, or assortment of harmful animals. While Jewish interpreters understand the plague as "wild animals '' (most likely scorpions, venomous snakes, and other venomous arthropods and reptiles), Gesenius along with many Christian interpreters understand the plague as a swarm of flies.
This is what the LORD, the God of the Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go and continue to hold them back, the hand of the LORD will bring a terrible plague on your livestock in the field -- on your horses and donkeys and camels and on your cattle and sheep and goats.
Then the LORD said to Moses and Aaron, "Take handfuls of soot from a furnace and have Moses toss it into the air in the presence of Pharaoh. It will become fine dust over the whole land of Egypt, and festering boils will break out on men and animals throughout the land. ''
This is what the LORD, the God of the Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me, or this time I will send the full force of my plagues against you and against your officials and your people, so you may know that there is no one like me in all the earth. For by now I could have stretched out my hand and struck you and your people with a plague that would have wiped you off the earth. But I have raised you up for this very purpose, that I might show you my power and that my name might be proclaimed in all the earth. You still set yourself against my people and will not let them go. Therefore, at this time tomorrow I will send the worst hailstorm that has ever fallen on Egypt, from the day it was founded till now. Give an order now to bring your livestock and everything you have in the field to a place of shelter, because the hail will fall on every man and animal that has not been brought in and is still out in the field, and they will die. (...) The LORD sent thunder and hail, and lightning flashed down to the ground. So the LORD rained hail on the land of Egypt; hail fell and lightning flashed back and forth. It was the worst storm in all the land of Egypt since it had become a nation.
This is what the LORD, the God of the Jews, says: ' How long will you refuse to humble yourself before me? Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go, I will bring locusts into your country tomorrow. They will cover the face of the ground so that it can not be seen. They will devour what little you have left after the hail, including every tree that is growing in your fields. They will fill your houses and those of all your officials and all the Egyptians -- something neither your fathers nor your forefathers have ever seen from the day they settled in this land till now.
Then the LORD said to Moses, "Stretch out your hand toward the sky so that darkness will spread over Egypt -- darkness that can be felt. '' So Moses stretched out his hand toward the sky, and total darkness covered all Egypt for three days. No one could see anyone else or leave his place for three days.
This is what the LORD says: "About midnight I will go throughout Egypt. Every firstborn son in Egypt will die, from the firstborn son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the firstborn of the slave girl, who is at her hand mill, and all the firstborn of the cattle as well. There will be loud wailing throughout Egypt -- worse than there has ever been or ever will be again. ''
Before this final plague, God commanded Moses to inform all the Israelites to mark lamb 's blood above their doors on every door in which case the LORD will pass over them and not "suffer the destroyer to come into your houses and smite you '' (chapter 12, v. 23).
After this, Pharaoh, furious, saddened, and afraid that he would be killed next, ordered the Israelites to leave, taking whatever they wanted, and asking Moses to bless him in the name of the Lord. The Israelites did not hesitate, believing that soon Pharaoh would once again change his mind, which he did; and at the end of that night Moses led them out of Egypt with "arms upraised ''. However, as the Israelites left Egypt, the Pharaoh changed his mind again and sent his army after Moses ' people. The Israelites were trapped by the Red Sea. God split the sea, and they were able to pass safely. As the Egyptian army descended on them, the sea closed before they could reach the Israelites.
In the view of Islam, the plagues were almost identical. It is mentioned in the Quran, specifically in Surah Al - A'raf verse 133 "So We sent on them: the Tuwfan (a calamity causing wholesale death, a flood or a typhoon - Ali, Note 1090 to S. VII. 133), the locusts, the Qummal, the frogs, and the blood (as a succession of) manifest signs, yet they remained arrogant, and they were of those people who were criminals ''. The Quran further relates that the plagues included a mighty blast, showers of stones and earthquakes (Ali, Notes 3462 - 3464 to S. XXIX. 40).
The Book of Deuteronomy, in reviewing previous events, mentions the "diseases of Egypt '' (Deuteronomy 7: 15 and 28: 60), but refers to something that afflicted the Israelites, not the Egyptians; Deuteronomy 7: 19 mentions the plagues of the book of Exodus. The Exodus plagues are divine judgments, a series of curses like those in Deuteronomy 28: 15 -- 68, verses which mention many of the same afflictions; they are even closer to the curses in the Holiness code (Leviticus 26), since like the Holiness Code they leave room for repentance. The theme that divine punishment should lead to repentance is echoed:
The 6th - century prophets refer to the theme of Pharaoh 's obstinacy -- Isaiah 6: 9 -- 13, Jeremiah 5: 3, and Ezekiel 3: 7 -- 9.
While proponents of biblical archaeology argue that the plague stories are true, a large consensus of historians believe them to be allegorical or inspired by passed - down accounts of disconnected disasters. Some scientists claim the plagues can be attributed to a chain of natural phenomena triggered by changes in the climate and environmental disasters hundreds of miles away. The Ipuwer Papyrus, written probably in the late Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt (c. 1991 - 1803 BCE) has often put forward in popular literature as confirmation of the Biblical account, most notably because of its statement that "the river is blood '' and its frequent references to servants running away, but these arguments ignore the many points on which Ipuwer contradicts Exodus, such as the fact that its Asiatics are arriving in Egypt rather than leaving, and the likelihood that the "river is blood '' phrase may refer to the red sediment colouring the Nile during disastrous floods, or may simply be a poetic image of turmoil.
Some archaeologists believe the plagues occurred at the ancient city of Pi - Rameses in the Nile Delta, which was the capital of Egypt during the reign of Ramesses II. There is some archaeological material which such archaeologists, for example William F. Albright, have considered to be historical evidence of the ten plagues; for example, an ancient water trough found in El Arish bears hieroglyphic markings detailing a period of darkness. Albright and other Christian archaeologists have claimed that such evidence, as well as careful study of the areas ostensibly travelled by the Israelites after the Exodus, make discounting the biblical account untenable.
Some historians have suggested that the plagues are passed - down accounts of several natural disasters, some disconnected, others playing part of a chain reaction. Natural explanations have been suggested for most of the phenomena:
A volcanic eruption did occur in antiquity and could have caused some of the plagues if it occurred at the right time. The eruption of the Thera volcano was 1,050 kilometres (650 mi) away from the northwest part of Egypt. Controversially dated to about 1628 BC, this eruption is one of the largest on record, rivaling that of Tambora, which resulted in 1816 's Year Without a Summer. The enormous global impact of this eruption has been recorded in an ash layer deposit found in the Nile delta, tree ring frost scars in the bristlecone pines of the western United States, and a layer of ash in the Greenland ice caps, all dated to the same time and with the same chemical fingerprint as the ash from Thera.
However, all estimates of the date of this eruption are hundreds of years before the Exodus is believed to have taken place; thus the eruption can only have caused some of the plagues if one or other of the dates is wrong, or if the plagues did not actually immediately precede the Exodus.
Following the assumption that at least some of the details are accurately reported, many modern Jews believe that some of the plagues were indeed natural disasters, but argue for the fact that, since they followed one another with such uncommon rapidity, "God 's hand was behind them ''. Indeed, several biblical commentators (Nachmanides and, more recently, Rabbi Yaakov Kamenetzky) have pointed out that, for the plagues to be a real test of faith, they had to contain an element leading to religious doubt.
In his book The Plagues of Egypt: Archaeology, History, and Science Look at the Bible, Siro Igino Trevisanato explores the theory that the plagues were initially caused by the Santorini eruption in Greece. His hypothesis considers a two - stage eruption over a time of a bit less than two years. His studies place the first eruption in 1602 BC, when volcanic ash taints the Nile, causing the first plague and forming a catalyst for many of the subsequent plagues. In 1600 BC, the plume of a Santorini eruption caused the ninth plague, the days of darkness. Trevisanato hypothesizes that the Egyptians (at that time under the occupation of Hyksos), resorted to human sacrifice in an attempt to appease the gods, for they had viewed the ninth plague as a precursor to more. This human sacrifice became known as the tenth plague.
In an article published in 1996, physician - epidemiologist John S. Marr and co-author Curt Malloy integrated biblical, historical and Egyptological sources with modern scientific conjectures in a comprehensive review of natural explanations for the ten plagues, postulating their own specific explanations for the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and tenth plagues. Their explanation also accounted for the apparent selectiveness of the plagues, as implied in the Bible. The paper served as the basis for a website and documentary aired on the Learning Channel from 1998 to 2005.
In visual art, the plagues have generally been reserved for works in series, especially engravings. Still, relatively few depictions in art emerged compared to other religious themes until the 19th century, when the plagues became more common subjects, with John Martin and Joseph Turner producing notable canvases. This trend probably reflected a Romantic attraction to landscape and nature painting, for which the plagues were suited, a Gothic attraction to morbid stories, and a rise in Orientalism, wherein exotic Egyptian themes found currency. Given the importance of noble patronage throughout Western art history, the plagues may have found consistent disfavor because the stories emphasize the limits of a monarch 's power, and images of lice, locusts, darkness, and boils were ill - suited for decoration in palaces and churches.
Taking direct inspiration from the ten plagues, Iced Earth 's eleventh studio album Plagues of Babylon contains many references and allusions to the plagues. Metallica 's song "Creeping Death '' makes references to a few of the plagues, in addition to the rest of the story of the Exodus. Perhaps the most successful artistic representation of the plagues is Handel 's oratorio Israel in Egypt, which, like his perennial favorite, "Messiah '', takes a libretto entirely from scripture. The work was especially popular in the 19th century because of its numerous choruses, generally one for each plague, and its playful musical depiction of the plagues. For example, the plague of frogs is performed as a light aria for alto, depicting frogs jumping in the violins, and the plague of flies and lice is a light chorus with fast scurrying runs in the violins.
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what is the purpose of the drake equation | Drake equation - wikipedia
The Drake equation is a probabilistic argument used to estimate the number of active, communicative extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way galaxy. The number of such civilizations N, is assumed to be equal to the mathematical product of
for a combined expression of:
The equation was written in 1961 by Frank Drake, not for purposes of quantifying the number of civilizations, but as a way to stimulate scientific dialogue at the first scientific meeting on the search for intelligent extraterrestrial life (SETI). The equation summarizes the main concepts which scientists must contemplate when considering the question of other radio - communicative life.
Criticism related to the Drake equation focuses not on the equation itself, but on the fact that the estimated values for several of its factors are highly conjectural, the combined effect being that the uncertainty associated with any derived value is so large that the equation can not be used to draw firm conclusions.
In September 1959, physicists Giuseppe Cocconi and Philip Morrison published an article in the journal Nature with the provocative title "Searching for Interstellar Communications. '' Cocconi and Morrison argued that radio telescopes had become sensitive enough to pick up transmissions that might be broadcast into space by civilizations orbiting other stars. Such messages, they suggested, might be transmitted at a wavelength of 21 cm (1,420.4 MHz). This is the wavelength of radio emission by neutral hydrogen, the most common element in the universe, and they reasoned that other intelligences might see this as a logical landmark in the radio spectrum.
Two months later, Harvard University astronomy professor Harlow Shapley speculated on the number of inhabited planets in the universe, saying "The universe has 10 million, million, million suns (10 followed by 18 zeros) similar to our own. One in a million has planets around it. Only one in a million million has the right combination of chemicals, temperature, water, days and nights to support planetary life as we know it. This calculation arrives at the estimated figure of 100 million worlds where life has been forged by evolution. ''
Seven months after Cocconi and Morrison published their article, Drake made the first systematic search for signals from extraterrestrial intelligent beings. Using the 25 m dish of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Green Bank, West Virginia, Drake monitored two nearby Sun - like stars: Epsilon Eridani and Tau Ceti. In this project, which he called Project Ozma, he slowly scanned frequencies close to the 21 cm wavelength for six hours per day from April to July 1960. The project was well designed, inexpensive, and simple by today 's standards. It was also unsuccessful.
Soon thereafter, Drake hosted a "search for extraterrestrial intelligence '' meeting on detecting their radio signals. The meeting was held at the Green Bank facility in 1961. The equation that bears Drake 's name arose out of his preparations for the meeting.
As I planned the meeting, I realized a few day (s) ahead of time we needed an agenda. And so I wrote down all the things you needed to know to predict how hard it 's going to be to detect extraterrestrial life. And looking at them it became pretty evident that if you multiplied all these together, you got a number, N, which is the number of detectable civilizations in our galaxy. This was aimed at the radio search, and not to search for primordial or primitive life forms. -- Frank Drake.
The ten attendees were conference organizer J. Peter Pearman, Frank Drake, Philip Morrison, businessman and radio amateur Dana Atchley, chemist Melvin Calvin, astronomer Su - Shu Huang, neuroscientist John C. Lilly, inventor Barney Oliver, astronomer Carl Sagan and radio - astronomer Otto Struve. These participants dubbed themselves "The Order of the Dolphin '' (because of Lilly 's work on dolphin communication), and commemorated their first meeting with a plaque at the observatory hall.
The Drake equation is:
where:
and
The Drake equation amounts to a summary of the factors affecting the likelihood that we might detect radio - communication from intelligent extraterrestrial life. The last four parameters, f, f, f, and L, are not known and are very difficult to estimate, with values ranging over many orders of magnitude (see criticism). Therefore, the usefulness of the Drake equation is not in the solving, but rather in the contemplation of all the various concepts which scientists must incorporate when considering the question of life elsewhere, and gives the question of life elsewhere a basis for scientific analysis. The Drake equation is a statement that stimulates intellectual curiosity about the universe around us, for helping us to understand that life as we know it is the end product of a natural, cosmic evolution, and for helping us realize how much we are a part of that universe. What the equation and the search for life has done is focus science on some of the other questions about life in the universe, specifically abiogenesis, the development of multi-cellular life and the development of intelligence itself.
Within the limits of our existing technology, any practical search for distant intelligent life must necessarily be a search for some manifestation of a distant technology. After about 50 years, the Drake equation is still of seminal importance because it is a ' road map ' of what we need to learn in order to solve this fundamental existential question. It also formed the backbone of astrobiology as a science; although speculation is entertained to give context, astrobiology concerns itself primarily with hypotheses that fit firmly into existing scientific theories. Some 50 years of SETI have failed to find anything, even though radio telescopes, receiver techniques, and computational abilities have improved enormously since the early 1960s, but it has been discovered, at least, that our galaxy is not teeming with very powerful alien transmitters continuously broadcasting near the 21 cm hydrogen frequency. No one could say this in 1961.
As many observers have pointed out, the Drake equation is a very simple model that does not include potentially relevant parameters, and many changes and modifications to the equation have been proposed. One line of modification, for example, attempts to account for the uncertainty inherent in many of the terms.
Others note that the Drake equation ignores many concepts that might be relevant to the odds of contacting other civilizations. For example, David Brin states: "The Drake equation merely speaks of the number of sites at which ETIs spontaneously arise. The equation says nothing directly about the contact cross-section between an ETIS and contemporary human society ''. Because it is the contact cross-section that is of interest to the SETI community, many additional factors and modifications of the Drake equation have been proposed.
Seager stresses, "We 're not throwing out the Drake Equation, which is really a different topic, '' explaining, "Since Drake came up with the equation, we have discovered thousands of exoplanets. We as a community have had our views revolutionized as to what could possibly be out there. And now we have a real question on our hands, one that 's not related to intelligent life: Can we detect any signs of life in any way in the very near future? ''
There is considerable disagreement on the values of these parameters, but the ' educated guesses ' used by Drake and his colleagues in 1961 were:
Inserting the above minimum numbers into the equation gives a minimum N of 20 (see: Range of results). Inserting the maximum numbers gives a maximum of 50,000,000. Drake states that given the uncertainties, the original meeting concluded that N ≈ L, and there were probably between 1000 and 100,000,000 civilizations in the Milky Way galaxy.
This section discusses and attempts to list the best current estimates for the parameters of the Drake equation.
Latest calculations from NASA and the European Space Agency indicate that the current rate of star formation in our galaxy is about 0.68 -- 1.45 M of material per year. To get the number of stars per year, this must account for the initial mass function (IMF) for stars, where the average new star mass is about 0.5 M. This gives a star formation rate of about 1.5 -- 3 stars per year.
Recent analysis of microlensing surveys has found that f may approach 1 -- that is, stars are orbited by planets as a rule, rather than the exception; and that there are one or more bound planets per Milky Way star.
In November 2013, astronomers reported, based on Kepler space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth - sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of sun - like stars and red dwarf stars within the Milky Way Galaxy. 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting sun - like stars. Since there are about 100 billion stars in the galaxy, this implies f n is roughly 0.4. The nearest planet in the habitable zone may be as little as 12 light - years away, according to the scientists.
The consensus at the Green Bank meeting was that n had a minimum value between 3 and 5. Dutch astronomer Govert Schilling has opined that this is optimistic. Even if planets are in the habitable zone, the number of planets with the right proportion of elements is difficult to estimate. Brad Gibson, Yeshe Fenner, and Charley Lineweaver determined that about 10 % of star systems in the Milky Way galaxy are hospitable to life, by having heavy elements, being far from supernovae and being stable for a sufficient time.
The discovery of numerous gas giants in close orbit with their stars has introduced doubt that life - supporting planets commonly survive the formation of their stellar systems. So - called hot Jupiters may migrate from distant orbits to near orbits, in the process disrupting the orbits of habitable planets.
On the other hand, the variety of star systems that might have habitable zones is not just limited to solar - type stars and Earth - sized planets. It is now estimated that even tidally locked planets close to red dwarf stars might have habitable zones, although the flaring behavior of these stars might argue against this. The possibility of life on moons of gas giants (such as Jupiter 's moon Europa, or Saturn 's moon Titan) adds further uncertainty to this figure.
The authors of the rare Earth hypothesis propose a number of additional constraints on habitability for planets, including being in galactic zones with suitably low radiation, high star metallicity, and low enough density to avoid excessive asteroid bombardment. They also propose that it is necessary to have a planetary system with large gas giants which provide bombardment protection without a hot Jupiter; and a planet with plate tectonics, a large moon that creates tidal pools, and moderate axial tilt to generate seasonal variation.
Geological evidence from the Earth suggests that f may be high; life on Earth appears to have begun around the same time as favorable conditions arose, suggesting that abiogenesis may be relatively common once conditions are right. However, this evidence only looks at the Earth (a single model planet), and contains anthropic bias, as the planet of study was not chosen randomly, but by the living organisms that already inhabit it (ourselves). From a classical hypothesis testing standpoint, there are zero degrees of freedom, permitting no valid estimates to be made. If life were to be found on Mars that developed independently from life on Earth it would imply a value for f close to 1. While this would raise the degrees of freedom from zero to one, there would remain a great deal of uncertainty on any estimate due to the small sample size, and the chance they are not really independent.
Countering this argument is that there is no evidence for abiogenesis occurring more than once on the Earth -- that is, all terrestrial life stems from a common origin. If abiogenesis were more common it would be speculated to have occurred more than once on the Earth. Scientists have searched for this by looking for bacteria that are unrelated to other life on Earth, but none have been found yet. It is also possible that life arose more than once, but that other branches were out - competed, or died in mass extinctions, or were lost in other ways. Biochemists Francis Crick and Leslie Orgel laid special emphasis on this uncertainty: "At the moment we have no means at all of knowing '' whether we are "likely to be alone in the galaxy (Universe) '' or whether "the galaxy may be pullulating with life of many different forms. '' As an alternative to abiogenesis on Earth, they proposed the hypothesis of directed panspermia, which states that Earth life began with "microorganisms sent here deliberately by a technological society on another planet, by means of a special long - range unmanned spaceship ''.
This value remains particularly controversial. Those who favor a low value, such as the biologist Ernst Mayr, point out that of the billions of species that have existed on Earth, only one has become intelligent and from this, infer a tiny value for f. Likewise, the Rare Earth hypothesis, notwithstanding their low value for n above, also think a low value for f dominates the analysis. Those who favor higher values note the generally increasing complexity of life over time, concluding that the appearance of intelligence is almost inevitable, implying an f approaching 1. Skeptics point out that the large spread of values in this factor and others make all estimates unreliable. (See Criticism).
In addition, while it appears that life developed soon after the formation of Earth, the Cambrian explosion, in which a large variety of multicellular life forms came into being, occurred a considerable amount of time after the formation of Earth, which suggests the possibility that special conditions were necessary. Some scenarios such as the snowball Earth or research into the extinction events have raised the possibility that life on Earth is relatively fragile. Research on any past life on Mars is relevant since a discovery that life did form on Mars but ceased to exist might raise our estimate of f but would indicate that in half the known cases, intelligent life did not develop.
Estimates of f have been affected by discoveries that the Solar System 's orbit is circular in the galaxy, at such a distance that it remains out of the spiral arms for tens of millions of years (evading radiation from novae). Also, Earth 's large moon may aid the evolution of life by stabilizing the planet 's axis of rotation.
For deliberate communication, the one example we have (the Earth) does not do much explicit communication, though there are some efforts covering only a tiny fraction of the stars that might look for our presence. (See Arecibo message, for example). There is considerable speculation why an extraterrestrial civilization might exist but choose not to communicate. However, deliberate communication is not required, and calculations indicate that current or near - future Earth - level technology might well be detectable to civilizations not too much more advanced than our own. By this standard, the Earth is a communicating civilization.
Another question is what percentage of civilizations in the galaxy are close enough for us to detect, assuming that they send out signals. For example, existing Earth radio telescopes could only detect Earth radio transmissions from roughly a light year away.
Michael Shermer estimated L as 420 years, based on the duration of sixty historical Earthly civilizations. Using 28 civilizations more recent than the Roman Empire, he calculates a figure of 304 years for "modern '' civilizations. It could also be argued from Michael Shermer 's results that the fall of most of these civilizations was followed by later civilizations that carried on the technologies, so it is doubtful that they are separate civilizations in the context of the Drake equation. In the expanded version, including reappearance number, this lack of specificity in defining single civilizations does not matter for the end result, since such a civilization turnover could be described as an increase in the reappearance number rather than increase in L, stating that a civilization reappears in the form of the succeeding cultures. Furthermore, since none could communicate over interstellar space, the method of comparing with historical civilizations could be regarded as invalid.
David Grinspoon has argued that once a civilization has developed enough, it might overcome all threats to its survival. It will then last for an indefinite period of time, making the value for L potentially billions of years. If this is the case, then he proposes that the Milky Way galaxy may have been steadily accumulating advanced civilizations since it formed. He proposes that the last factor L be replaced with f T, where f is the fraction of communicating civilizations become "immortal '' (in the sense that they simply do not die out), and T representing the length of time during which this process has been going on. This has the advantage that T would be a relatively easy to discover number, as it would simply be some fraction of the age of the universe.
It has also been hypothesized that once a civilization has learned of a more advanced one, its longevity could increase because it can learn from the experiences of the other.
The astronomer Carl Sagan speculated that all of the terms, except for the lifetime of a civilization, are relatively high and the determining factor in whether there are large or small numbers of civilizations in the universe is the civilization lifetime, or in other words, the ability of technological civilizations to avoid self - destruction. In Sagan 's case, the Drake equation was a strong motivating factor for his interest in environmental issues and his efforts to warn against the dangers of nuclear warfare.
As many skeptics have pointed out, the Drake equation can give a very wide range of values, depending on the assumptions, and the values used in portions of the Drake equation are not well - established. In particular, the result can be N ≪ 1, meaning we are likely alone in the galaxy, or N ≫ 1, implying there are many civilizations we might contact. One of the few points of wide agreement is that the presence of humanity implies a probability of intelligence arising of greater than zero.
As an example of a low estimate, combining NASA 's star formation rates, the rare Earth hypothesis value of f n f = 10, Mayr 's view on intelligence arising, Drake 's view of communication, and Shermer 's estimate of lifetime:
gives:
i.e., suggesting that we are probably alone in this galaxy, and possibly in the observable universe.
On the other hand, with larger values for each of the parameters above, values of N can be derived that are greater than 1. The following higher values that have been proposed for each of the parameters:
Use of these parameters gives:
Monte Carlo simulations of estimates of the Drake equation factors based on a stellar and planetary model of the Milky Way have resulted in the number of civilizations varying by a factor of 100.
The Drake equation can be modified to determine just how unlikely intelligent life must be, to give the result that Earth has the only intelligent life that has ever arisen, either in our galaxy or the universe as a whole. This simplifies the calculation by removing the lifetime and communication constraints. Since star and planets counts are known, this leaves the only unknown as the odds that a habitable planet ever develops intelligent life. For Earth to have the only civilization that has ever occurred in the universe, then the odds of any habitable planet ever developing such a civilization must be less than 6976250000000000000 ♠ 2.5 × 10. Similarly, for Earth to host the only civilization in our galaxy for all time, the odds of a habitable zone planet ever hosting intelligent life must be less than 6989170000000000000 ♠ 1.7 × 10 (about 1 in 60 billion). The figure for the universe implies that it is highly unlikely that Earth hosts the only intelligent life that has ever occurred. The figure for our galaxy suggests that other civilizations may have occurred or will likely occur in our galaxy.
Criticism of the Drake equation follows mostly from the observation that several terms in the equation are largely or entirely based on conjecture. Star formation rates are well - known, and the incidence of planets has a sound theoretical and observational basis, but the other terms in the equation become very speculative. The uncertainties revolve around our understanding of the evolution of life, intelligence, and civilization, not physics. No statistical estimates are possible for some of the parameters, where only one example is known. The net result is that the equation can not be used to draw firm conclusions of any kind, and the resulting margin of error is huge, far beyond what some consider acceptable or meaningful.
One reply to such criticisms is that even though the Drake equation currently involves speculation about unmeasured parameters, it was intended as a way to stimulate dialogue on these topics. Then the focus becomes how to proceed experimentally. Indeed, Drake originally formulated the equation merely as an agenda for discussion at the Green Bank conference.
The pessimists ' most telling argument in the SETI debate stems not from theory or conjecture but from an actual observation: the presumed lack of extraterrestrial contact. A civilization lasting for tens of millions of years might be able to travel anywhere in the galaxy, even at the slow speeds foreseeable with our own kind of technology. Furthermore, no confirmed signs of intelligence elsewhere have been recognized as such, either in our galaxy or in the observable universe of 2 trillion galaxies. According to this line of thinking, the tendency to fill up all available territory seems to be a universal trait of living things, so the Earth should have already been colonized, or at least visited, but no evidence of this exists. Hence Fermi 's question "Where is everybody? ''.
A large number of explanations have been proposed to explain this lack of contact; a book published in 2015 elaborated on 75 different explanations. In terms of the Drake Equation, the explanations can be divided into three classes:
These lines of reasoning lead to the Great Filter hypothesis, which states that since there are no observed extraterrestrial civilizations, despite the vast number of stars, then some step in the process must be acting as a filter to reduce the final value. According to this view, either it is very difficult for intelligent life to arise, or the lifetime of such civilizations, or the period of time they reveal their existence, must be relatively short.
The equation was cited by Gene Roddenberry as supporting the multiplicity of inhabited planets shown on Star Trek, the television series he created. However, Roddenberry did not have the equation with him, and he was forced to "invent '' it for his original proposal. The invented equation created by Roddenberry is:
However, a number raised to the first power is merely the number itself.
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who led the soviet union at the beginning of the cold war | Cold War - wikipedia
The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its satellite states) and powers in the Western Bloc (the United States, its NATO allies and others). Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine, a U.S. foreign policy pledging to aid nations threatened by Soviet expansionism, was announced, and either 1989, when communism fell in Eastern Europe, or 1991, when the Soviet Union collapsed. The term "cold '' is used because there was no large - scale fighting directly between the two sides, but they each supported major regional wars known as proxy wars.
The Cold War split the temporary wartime alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union and the United States as two superpowers with profound economic and political differences. The USSR was a Marxist -- Leninist state led by its Communist Party, which in turn was dominated by a leader with different titles over time, and a small committee called the Politburo. The Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and many organizations. It also controlled the other states in the Eastern Bloc, and funded Communist parties around the world, sometimes in competition with Communist China, particularly following the Sino - Soviet split of the 1960s. In opposition stood the capitalist West, led by the United States, a federal republic with a two - party presidential system. The First World nations of the Western Bloc were generally liberal democratic with a free press and independent organizations, but were economically and politically entwined with a network of banana republics and other authoritarian regimes throughout the Third World, most of which were the Western Bloc 's former colonies. Some major Cold War frontlines such as Vietnam, Indonesia, and the Congo were still Western colonies in 1947.
A small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement; it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full - scale armed combat, but they were heavily armed in preparation for a possible all - out nuclear world war. Each side had a nuclear strategy that discouraged an attack by the other side, on the basis that such an attack would lead to the total destruction of the attacker -- the doctrine of mutually assured destruction (MAD). Aside from the development of the two sides ' nuclear arsenals, and their deployment of conventional military forces, the struggle for dominance was expressed via proxy wars around the globe, psychological warfare, massive propaganda campaigns and espionage, rivalry at sports events, and technological competitions such as the Space Race.
The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945. The USSR consolidated its control over the states of the Eastern Bloc, while the United States began a strategy of global containment to challenge Soviet power, extending military and financial aid to the countries of Western Europe (for example, supporting the anti-communist side in the Greek Civil War) and creating the NATO alliance. The Berlin Blockade (1948 -- 49) was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War (1950 -- 53), the conflict expanded. The USSR and the USA competed for influence in Latin America and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets. The expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis (1956), the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Following the Cuban Missile Crisis, a new phase began that saw the Sino - Soviet split complicate relations within the communist sphere, while US allies, particularly France, demonstrated greater independence of action. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, and the Vietnam War (1955 -- 75) ended with the defeat of the US - backed Republic of Vietnam, prompting further adjustments.
By the 1970s, both sides had become interested in making allowances in order to create a more stable and predictable international system, ushering in a period of détente that saw Strategic Arms Limitation Talks and the US opening relations with the People 's Republic of China as a strategic counterweight to the Soviet Union. Détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet -- Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 (1983), and the "Able Archer '' NATO military exercises (1983). The United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the liberalizing reforms of perestroika ("reorganization '', 1987) and glasnost ("openness '', c. 1985) and ended Soviet involvement in Afghanistan. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland. Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully (with the exception of the Romanian Revolution) overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central and Eastern Europe. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the formal dissolution of the USSR in December 1991 and the collapse of communist regimes in other countries such as Mongolia, Cambodia and South Yemen. The United States remained as the world 's only superpower.
The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy. It is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage (notably the internationally successful James Bond book and film franchise) and the threat of nuclear warfare. Meanwhile, a renewed state of tension between the Soviet Union 's successor state, Russia, and the United States in the 2010s (including its Western allies) has been referred to as the Second Cold War.
Part of a series on the History of the Cold War
At the end of World War II, English writer George Orwell used cold war, as a general term, in his essay "You and the Atomic Bomb '', published 19 October 1945 in the British newspaper Tribune. Contemplating a world living in the shadow of the threat of nuclear warfare, Orwell looked at James Burnham 's predictions of a polarized world, writing:
In The Observer of 10 March 1946, Orwell wrote, "after the Moscow conference last December, Russia began to make a ' cold war ' on Britain and the British Empire. ''
The first use of the term to describe the specific post-war geopolitical confrontation between the USSR and the United States came in a speech by Bernard Baruch, an influential advisor to Democratic presidents, on 16 April 1947. The speech, written by journalist Herbert Bayard Swope, proclaimed, "Let us not be deceived: we are today in the midst of a cold war. '' Newspaper columnist Walter Lippmann gave the term wide currency with his book The Cold War; when asked in 1947 about the source of the term, Lippmann traced it to a French term from the 1930s, la guerre froide.
While most historians trace its origins to the period immediately following World War II, others argue that it began with the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 when the Bolsheviks took power. In 1919 Lenin stated that his new state was surrounded by a "hostile capitalist encirclement '', and he viewed diplomacy as a weapon that should be used in order to keep the Soviet Union 's enemies divided, beginning with the establishment of the Communist International, which called for revolutionary upheavals abroad. Historian Max Beloff argues that the Soviets saw "no prospect of permanent peace '', with the 1922 Soviet Constitution proclaiming:
Since the time of the formation of the soviet republics, the states of the world have divided into two camps: the camp of capitalism and the camp of socialism. There - in the camp of capitalism - national enmity and inequality, colonial slavery, and chauvinism, national oppression and pogroms, imperialist brutalities and wars. Here - in the camp of socialism - mutual confidence and peace, national freedom and equality, a dwelling together in peace and the brotherly collaboration of peoples.
According to British historian Christopher Sutton:
In what some have called the First Cold War, from Britain 's intervention in the Russian Civil War in 1918 to its uneasy alliance with the Soviet Union against the Axis powers in 1941, British distrust of the revolutionary and regicidal Bolsheviks resulted in domestic, foreign, and colonial policies aimed at resisting the spread of communism. This conflict after 1945 took on new battlefields, new weapons, new players, and a greater intensity, but it was still fundamentally a conflict against Soviet imperialism (real and imagined).
The idea of long - term continuity is a minority scholarly view that has been challenged. Frank Ninkovich writes:
As for the two cold wars thesis, the chief problem is that the two periods are incommensurable. To be sure, they were joined together by enduring ideological hostility, but in the post-World War I years Bolshevism was not a geopolitical menace. After World War II, in contrast, the Soviet Union was a superpower that combined ideological antagonism with the kind of geopolitical threat posed by Germany and Japan in the Second World War. Even with more amicable relations in the 1920s, it is conceivable that post-1945 relations would have turned out much the same.
After signing the Molotov - Ribbentrop pact and German -- Soviet Frontier Treaty, the Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries -- Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania -- to allow it to station Soviet troops in their countries under pacts of "mutual assistance ''. Finland rejected territorial demands, prompting a Soviet invasion in November 1939. The resulting Winter War ended in March 1940 with Finnish concessions. Britain and France, treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tantamount to its entering the war on the side of the Germans, responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting the USSR 's expulsion from the League of Nations.
In June 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, and the disputed Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and Hertza. But after the German Army invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 and the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the Soviet Union and the Allied powers formed an alliance of convenience. Britain signed a formal alliance and the United States made an informal agreement. In wartime, the United States supplied Britain, the Soviet Union and other Allied nations through its Lend - Lease Program. However, Stalin remained highly suspicious and he believed that the British and the Americans had conspired to ensure that the Soviets bore the brunt of the fighting against Nazi Germany. According to this view, the Western Allies had deliberately delayed opening a second anti-German front in order to step in at the last minute and shape the peace settlement. Thus, Soviet perceptions of the West left a strong undercurrent of tension and hostility between the Allied powers.
The Allies disagreed about how the European map should look, and how borders would be drawn, following the war. Each side held dissimilar ideas regarding the establishment and maintenance of post-war security. Some scholars contend that all the Western Allies desired a security system in which democratic governments were established as widely as possible, permitting countries to peacefully resolve differences through international organizations. Others note that the Atlantic powers were divided in their vision of the new post-war world. Roosevelt 's goals -- military victory in both Europe and Asia, the achievement of global American economic supremacy over the British Empire, and the creation of a world peace organization -- were more global than Churchill 's, which were mainly centered on securing control over the Mediterranean, ensuring the survival of the British Empire, and the independence of Central and Eastern European countries as a buffer between the Soviets and the United Kingdom.
The Soviet Union sought to dominate the internal affairs of countries that bordered it. During the war, Stalin had created special training centers for communists from different countries so that they could set up secret police forces loyal to Moscow as soon as the Red Army took control. Soviet agents took control of the media, especially radio; they quickly harassed and then banned all independent civic institutions, from youth groups to schools, churches and rival political parties. Stalin also sought continued peace with Britain and the United States, hoping to focus on internal reconstruction and economic growth.
In the American view, Stalin seemed a potential ally in accomplishing their goals, whereas in the British approach Stalin appeared as the greatest threat to the fulfillment of their agenda. With the Soviets already occupying most of Central and Eastern Europe, Stalin was at an advantage and the two western leaders vied for his favors.
The differences between Roosevelt and Churchill led to several separate deals with the Soviets. In October 1944, Churchill traveled to Moscow and proposed the "percentages agreement '' to divide the Balkans into respective spheres of influence, including giving Stalin predominance over Romania and Bulgaria and Churchill carte blanche over Greece. At the Yalta Conference of February 1945, Roosevelt signed a separate deal with Stalin in regard of Asia and refused to support Churchill on the issues of Poland and the Reparations. Roosevelt ultimately approved the percentage agreement, but there was still apparently no firm consensus on the framework for a post-war settlement in Europe.
At the Second Quebec Conference, a high - level military conference held in Quebec City, 12 -- 16 September 1944, Churchill and Roosevelt reached agreement on a number of matters, including a plan for Germany, based on Henry Morgenthau Jr. 's original proposal. The memorandum drafted by Churchill provided for "eliminating the warmaking industries in the Ruhr and the Saar... looking forward to converting Germany into a country primarily agricultural and pastoral in its character. '' However, it no longer included a plan to partition the country into several independent states. On 10 May 1945, President Truman signed the U.S. occupation directive JCS 1067. The directive, which was in effect for over two years, and was enthusiastically supported by Stalin, directed the U.S. forces of occupation to "... take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany ''.
Some historians have argued that the Cold War began when the US negotiated a separate peace with Nazi SS General Karl Wolff in northern Italy. The Soviet Union was not allowed to participate and the dispute led to heated correspondence between Franklin Roosevelt and Stalin. General Wolff, a war criminal, appears to have been guaranteed immunity at the Nuremberg trials by Office of Strategic Services (OSS) commander (and later CIA director) Allen Dulles when they met in March 1945. Wolff and his forces were being considered to help implement Operation Unthinkable, a secret plan to invade the Soviet Union which Winston Churchill advocated during this period.
In April 1945, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry S. Truman, who distrusted Stalin and turned for advice to an elite group of foreign policy intellectuals. Both Churchill and Truman opposed, among other things, the Soviets ' decision to prop up the Lublin government, the Soviet - controlled rival to the Polish government - in - exile in London, whose relations with the Soviets had been severed.
Following the Allies ' May 1945 victory, the Soviets effectively occupied Central and Eastern Europe, while strong US and Western allied forces remained in Western Europe. In Germany and Austria, France, Britain, the Soviet Union and the United States established zones of occupation and a loose framework for parceled four - power control.
The 1945 Allied conference in San Francisco established the multi-national United Nations (UN) for the maintenance of world peace, but the enforcement capacity of its Security Council was effectively paralyzed by individual members ' ability to use veto power. Accordingly, the UN was essentially converted into an inactive forum for exchanging polemical rhetoric, and the Soviets regarded it almost exclusively as a propaganda tribune.
At the Potsdam Conference, which started in late July after Germany 's surrender, serious differences emerged over the future development of Germany and the rest of Central and Eastern Europe. Moreover, the participants ' mounting antipathy and bellicose language served to confirm their suspicions about each other 's hostile intentions and entrench their positions. At this conference Truman informed Stalin that the United States possessed a powerful new weapon.
Stalin was aware that the Americans were working on the atomic bomb and, given that the Soviets ' own rival program was in place, he reacted to the news calmly. The Soviet leader said he was pleased by the news and expressed the hope that the weapon would be used against Japan. One week after the end of the Potsdam Conference, the US bombed Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Shortly after the attacks, Stalin protested to US officials when Truman offered the Soviets little real influence in occupied Japan.
During the opening stages of World War II, the Soviet Union laid the foundation for the Eastern Bloc by invading and then annexing several countries as Soviet Socialist Republics, by agreement with Nazi Germany in the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact. These included eastern Poland (incorporated into two different SSRs), Latvia (which became the Latvian SSR), Estonia (which became the Estonian SSR), Lithuania (which became the Lithuanian SSR), part of eastern Finland (which became the Karelo - Finnish SSR) and eastern Romania (which became the Moldavian SSR).
The Central and Eastern European territories liberated from the Nazis and occupied by the Soviet armed forces were added to the Eastern Bloc by converting them into satellite states, such as:
The Soviet - style regimes that arose in the Bloc not only reproduced Soviet command economies, but also adopted the brutal methods employed by Joseph Stalin and the Soviet secret police in order to suppress both real and potential opposition. In Asia, the Red Army had overrun Manchuria in the last month of the war, and it went on to occupy the large swathe of Korean territory located north of the 38th parallel.
As part of consolidating Stalin 's control over the Eastern Bloc, the People 's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD), led by Lavrentiy Beriya, supervised the establishment of Soviet - style secret police systems in the Bloc that were supposed to crush anti-communist resistance. When the slightest stirrings of independence emerged in the Bloc, Stalin 's strategy matched that of dealing with domestic pre-war rivals: they were removed from power, put on trial, imprisoned, and in several instances, executed.
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was concerned that, given the enormous size of Soviet forces deployed in Europe at the end of the war, and the perception that Soviet leader Joseph Stalin was unreliable, there existed a Soviet threat to Western Europe. After World War II, US officials guided Western European leaders in establishing their own secret security force to prevent subversion in the Western bloc, which evolved into Operation Gladio.
In February 1946, George F. Kennan 's "Long Telegram '' from Moscow helped to articulate the US government 's increasingly hard line against the Soviets, and became the basis for US strategy toward the Soviet Union for the duration of the Cold War. That September, the Soviet side produced the Novikov telegram, sent by the Soviet ambassador to the US but commissioned and "co-authored '' by Vyacheslav Molotov; it portrayed the US as being in the grip of monopoly capitalists who were building up military capability "to prepare the conditions for winning world supremacy in a new war ''.
On 6 September 1946, James F. Byrnes delivered a speech in Germany repudiating the Morgenthau Plan (a proposal to partition and de-industrialize post-war Germany) and warning the Soviets that the US intended to maintain a military presence in Europe indefinitely. As Byrnes admitted a month later, "The nub of our program was to win the German people... it was a battle between us and Russia over minds... ''
A few weeks after the release of this "Long Telegram '', former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill delivered his famous "Iron Curtain '' speech in Fulton, Missouri. The speech called for an Anglo - American alliance against the Soviets, whom he accused of establishing an "iron curtain '' from "Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic ''. Only a week later, on 13 March Stalin responded vigorously to the speech, saying that Churchill could be compared to Hitler insofar as he advocated the racial superiority of English - speaking nations so that they could satisfy their hunger for world domination, and that such a declaration was "a call for war on the U.S.S.R. '' The Soviet leader also dismissed the accusation that the USSR was exerting increasing control over the countries lying in its sphere. He argued that there was nothing surprising in "the fact that the Soviet Union, anxious for its future safety, (was) trying to see to it that governments loyal in their attitude to the Soviet Union should exist in these countries ''. 1
By 1947, US president Harry S. Truman was outraged by the Soviet Union 's perceived resistance to American demands in Iran, Turkey and Greece, as well as their rejection of the Baruch Plan on nuclear weapons. In February 1947, the British government announced that it could no longer afford to finance the Kingdom of Greece in its civil war against Communist - led insurgents.
The US government 's response to this announcement was the adoption of containment, the goal of which was to stop the spread of Communism. Truman delivered a speech that called for the allocation of $400 million to intervene in the war and unveiled the Truman Doctrine, which framed the conflict as a contest between free peoples and totalitarian regimes. American policymakers accused the Soviet Union of conspiring against the Greek royalists in an effort to expand Soviet influence even though Stalin had told the Communist Party to cooperate with the British - backed government. (The insurgents were helped by Josip Broz Tito 's Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia against Stalin 's wishes.)
Enunciation of the Truman Doctrine marked the beginning of a US bipartisan defense and foreign policy consensus between Republicans and Democrats focused on containment and deterrence that weakened during and after the Vietnam War, but ultimately persisted thereafter. Moderate and conservative parties in Europe, as well as social democrats, gave virtually unconditional support to the Western alliance, while European and American Communists, financed by the KGB and involved in its intelligence operations, adhered to Moscow 's line, although dissent began to appear after 1956. Other critiques of the consensus policy came from anti-Vietnam War activists, the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and the anti-nuclear movement.
In early 1947, France, Britain and the United States unsuccessfully attempted to reach an agreement with the Soviet Union for a plan envisioning an economically self - sufficient Germany, including a detailed accounting of the industrial plants, goods and infrastructure already removed by the Soviets. In June 1947, in accordance with the Truman Doctrine, the United States enacted the Marshall Plan, a pledge of economic assistance for all European countries willing to participate, including the Soviet Union. Under the plan, which President Harry S. Truman signed on 3 April 1948, the US government gave to Western European countries over $13 billion (equivalent to $189.39 billion in 2016) to rebuild the economy of Europe. Later, the program led to the creation of the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation.
The plan 's aim was to rebuild the democratic and economic systems of Europe and to counter perceived threats to Europe 's balance of power, such as communist parties seizing control through revolutions or elections. The plan also stated that European prosperity was contingent upon German economic recovery. One month later, Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947, creating a unified Department of Defense, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the National Security Council (NSC). These would become the main bureaucracies for US policy in the Cold War.
Stalin believed that economic integration with the West would allow Eastern Bloc countries to escape Soviet control, and that the US was trying to buy a pro-US re-alignment of Europe. Stalin therefore prevented Eastern Bloc nations from receiving Marshall Plan aid. The Soviet Union 's alternative to the Marshall Plan, which was purported to involve Soviet subsidies and trade with central and eastern Europe, became known as the Molotov Plan (later institutionalized in January 1949 as the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance). Stalin was also fearful of a reconstituted Germany; his vision of a post-war Germany did not include the ability to rearm or pose any kind of threat to the Soviet Union.
In early 1948, following reports of strengthening "reactionary elements '', Soviet operatives executed a coup d'état in Czechoslovakia, the only Eastern Bloc state that the Soviets had permitted to retain democratic structures. The public brutality of the coup shocked Western powers more than any event up to that point, set in a motion a brief scare that war would occur and swept away the last vestiges of opposition to the Marshall Plan in the United States Congress.
The twin policies of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan led to billions in economic and military aid for Western Europe, Greece, and Turkey. With the US assistance, the Greek military won its civil war. Under the leadership of Alcide De Gasperi the Italian Christian Democrats defeated the powerful Communist - Socialist alliance in the elections of 1948. At the same time there was increased intelligence and espionage activity, Eastern Bloc defections and diplomatic expulsions.
In September 1947, the Soviets created Cominform, the purpose of which was to enforce orthodoxy within the international communist movement and tighten political control over Soviet satellites through coordination of communist parties in the Eastern Bloc. Cominform faced an embarrassing setback the following June, when the Tito -- Stalin Split obliged its members to expel Yugoslavia, which remained communist but adopted a non-aligned position.
The United States and Britain merged their western German occupation zones into "Bizonia '' (1 January 1947, later "Trizonia '' with the addition of France 's zone, April 1949). As part of the economic rebuilding of Germany, in early 1948, representatives of a number of Western European governments and the United States announced an agreement for a merger of western German areas into a federal governmental system. In addition, in accordance with the Marshall Plan, they began to re-industrialize and rebuild the German economy, including the introduction of a new Deutsche Mark currency to replace the old Reichsmark currency that the Soviets had debased.
Shortly thereafter, Stalin instituted the Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 -- 12 May 1949), one of the first major crises of the Cold War, preventing food, materials and supplies from arriving in West Berlin. The United States, Britain, France, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and several other countries began the massive "Berlin airlift '', supplying West Berlin with food and other provisions.
The Soviets mounted a public relations campaign against the policy change. Once again the East Berlin communists attempted to disrupt the Berlin municipal elections (as they had done in the 1946 elections), which were held on 5 December 1948 and produced a turnout of 86.3 % and an overwhelming victory for the non-communist parties. The results effectively divided the city into East and West versions of its former self. 300,000 Berliners demonstrated and urged the international airlift to continue, and US Air Force pilot Gail Halvorsen created "Operation Vittles '', which supplied candy to German children. In May 1949, Stalin backed down and lifted the blockade.
In 1952, Stalin repeatedly proposed a plan to unify East and West Germany under a single government chosen in elections supervised by the United Nations if the new Germany were to stay out of Western military alliances, but this proposal was turned down by the Western powers. Some sources dispute the sincerity of the proposal.
Britain, France, the United States, Canada and other eight western European countries signed the North Atlantic Treaty of April 1949, establishing the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). That August, the first Soviet atomic device was detonated in Semipalatinsk, Kazakh SSR. Following Soviet refusals to participate in a German rebuilding effort set forth by western European countries in 1948, the US, Britain and France spearheaded the establishment of West Germany from the three Western zones of occupation in April 1949. The Soviet Union proclaimed its zone of occupation in Germany the German Democratic Republic that October.
Media in the Eastern Bloc was an organ of the state, completely reliant on and subservient to the communist party, with radio and television organizations being state - owned, while print media was usually owned by political organizations, mostly by the local communist party. Soviet propaganda used Marxist philosophy to attack capitalism, claiming labor exploitation and war - mongering imperialism were inherent in the system.
Along with the broadcasts of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and the Voice of America to Central and Eastern Europe, a major propaganda effort begun in 1949 was Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty, dedicated to bringing about the peaceful demise of the communist system in the Eastern Bloc. Radio Free Europe attempted to achieve these goals by serving as a surrogate home radio station, an alternative to the controlled and party - dominated domestic press. Radio Free Europe was a product of some of the most prominent architects of America 's early Cold War strategy, especially those who believed that the Cold War would eventually be fought by political rather than military means, such as George F. Kennan.
American policymakers, including Kennan and John Foster Dulles, acknowledged that the Cold War was in its essence a war of ideas. The United States, acting through the CIA, funded a long list of projects to counter the communist appeal among intellectuals in Europe and the developing world. The CIA also covertly sponsored a domestic propaganda campaign called Crusade for Freedom.
In the early 1950s, the US worked for the rearmament of West Germany and, in 1955, secured its full membership of NATO. In May 1953, Beria, by then in a government post, had made an unsuccessful proposal to allow the reunification of a neutral Germany to prevent West Germany 's incorporation into NATO.
In 1949, Mao Zedong 's People 's Liberation Army defeated Chiang Kai - shek 's United States - backed Kuomintang (KMT) Nationalist Government in China, and the Soviet Union promptly created an alliance with the newly formed People 's Republic of China. According to Norwegian historian Odd Arne Westad, the communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai - Shek made, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Moreover, his party was weakened during the war against Japan. Meanwhile, the communists told different groups, such as the peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and they cloaked themselves under the cover of Chinese nationalism.
Chiang and his KMT government retreated to the island of Taiwan. Confronted with the communist revolution in China and the end of the American atomic monopoly in 1949, the Truman administration quickly moved to escalate and expand its containment policy. In NSC 68, a secret 1950 document, the National Security Council proposed to reinforce pro-Western alliance systems and quadruple spending on defense.
United States officials moved thereafter to expand containment into Asia, Africa, and Latin America, in order to counter revolutionary nationalist movements, often led by communist parties financed by the USSR, fighting against the restoration of Europe 's colonial empires in South - East Asia and elsewhere. In the early 1950s (a period sometimes known as the "Pactomania ''), the US formalized a series of alliances with Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand and the Philippines (notably ANZUS in 1951 and SEATO in 1954), thereby guaranteeing the United States a number of long - term military bases.
One of the more significant impacts of containment was the outbreak of the Korean War. In June 1950, Kim Il - sung 's North Korean People 's Army invaded South Korea. Stalin approved and sent advisers to plan the North Korean invasion. To Stalin 's surprise, the UN Security Council backed the defense of South Korea, though the Soviets were then boycotting meetings in protest that Taiwan and not Communist China held a permanent seat on the Council. A UN force of personnel from South Korea, the United States, the United Kingdom, Turkey, Canada, Colombia, Australia, France, South Africa, the Philippines, the Netherlands, Belgium, New Zealand and other countries joined to stop the invasion.
Among other effects, the Korean War galvanised NATO to develop a military structure. Public opinion in countries involved, such as Great Britain, was divided for and against the war. Many feared an escalation into a general war with Communist China, and even nuclear war. The strong opposition to the war often strained Anglo - American relations. For these reasons British officials sought a speedy end to the conflict, hoping to unite Korea under United Nations auspices and withdrawal of all foreign forces.
Even though the Chinese and North Koreans were exhausted by the war and were prepared to end it by late 1952, Stalin insisted that they continue fighting, and the Armistice was approved only in July 1953, after Stalin 's death. North Korean leader Kim Il Sung created a highly centralized, totalitarian dictatorship -- which continues to date -- according himself unlimited power and generating a formidable cult of personality. In the South, the American - backed strongman Syngman Rhee ran a significantly less brutal but deeply corrupt and authoritarian regime. After Rhee was overthrown in 1960, South Korea fell within a year under a period of military rule that lasted until the re-establishment of a multi-party system in the late 1980s.
In 1953, changes in political leadership on both sides shifted the dynamic of the Cold War. Dwight D. Eisenhower was inaugurated president that January. During the last 18 months of the Truman administration, the American defense budget had quadrupled, and Eisenhower moved to reduce military spending by a third while continuing to fight the Cold War effectively.
After the death of Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev became the Soviet leader following the deposition and execution of Lavrentiy Beria and the pushing aside of rivals Georgy Malenkov and Vyacheslav Molotov. On 25 February 1956, Khrushchev shocked delegates to the 20th Congress of the Soviet Communist Party by cataloguing and denouncing Stalin 's crimes. As part of a campaign of de-Stalinization, he declared that the only way to reform and move away from Stalin 's policies would be to acknowledge errors made in the past.
On 18 November 1956, while addressing Western ambassadors at a reception at the Polish embassy in Moscow, Khrushchev used his famous "Whether you like it or not, history is on our side. We will bury you '' expression, shocking everyone present. He later claimed that he had not been talking about nuclear war, but rather about the historically determined victory of communism over capitalism. In 1961, Khrushchev declared that even if the USSR was behind the West, within a decade its housing shortage would disappear, consumer goods would be abundant, and within two decades, the "construction of a communist society '' in the USSR would be completed "in the main ''.
Eisenhower 's secretary of state, John Foster Dulles, initiated a "New Look '' for the containment strategy, calling for a greater reliance on nuclear weapons against US enemies in wartime. Dulles also enunciated the doctrine of "massive retaliation '', threatening a severe US response to any Soviet aggression. Possessing nuclear superiority, for example, allowed Eisenhower to face down Soviet threats to intervene in the Middle East during the 1956 Suez Crisis. US plans for nuclear war in the late 1950s included the "systematic destruction '' of 1200 major urban centers in the Eastern Bloc and China, including Moscow, East Berlin and Beijing, with their civilian populations among the primary targets.
While Stalin 's death in 1953 slightly relaxed tensions, the situation in Europe remained an uneasy armed truce. The Soviets, who had already created a network of mutual assistance treaties in the Eastern Bloc by 1949, established a formal alliance therein, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955.
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 occurred shortly after Khrushchev arranged the removal of Hungary 's Stalinist leader Mátyás Rákosi. In response to a popular uprising, the new regime formally disbanded the secret police, declared its intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and pledged to re-establish free elections. The Soviet Army invaded. Thousands of Hungarians were arrested, imprisoned and deported to the Soviet Union, and approximately 200,000 Hungarians fled Hungary in the chaos. Hungarian leader Imre Nagy and others were executed following secret trials. From 1957 through 1961, Khrushchev openly and repeatedly threatened the West with nuclear annihilation. He claimed that Soviet missile capabilities were far superior to those of the United States, capable of wiping out any American or European city. However, Khrushchev rejected Stalin 's belief in the inevitability of war, and declared his new goal was to be "peaceful coexistence ''. This formulation modified the Stalin - era Soviet stance, where international class conflict meant the two opposing camps were on an inevitable collision course where communism would triumph through global war; now, peace would allow capitalism to collapse on its own, as well as giving the Soviets time to boost their military capabilities, which remained for decades until Gorbachev 's later "new thinking '' envisioning peaceful coexistence as an end in itself rather than a form of class struggle.
The events in Hungary produced ideological fractures within the communist parties of the world, particularly in Western Europe, with great decline in membership as many in both western and communist countries felt disillusioned by the brutal Soviet response. The communist parties in the West would never recover from the effect the Hungarian Revolution had on their membership, a fact that was immediately recognized by some, such as the Yugoslavian politician Milovan Đilas who shortly after the revolution was crushed said that "The wound which the Hungarian Revolution inflicted on communism can never be completely healed ''.
America 's pronouncements concentrated on American strength abroad and the success of liberal capitalism. However, by the late 1960s, the "battle for men 's minds '' between two systems of social organization that Kennedy spoke of in 1961 was largely over, with tensions henceforth based primarily on clashing geopolitical objectives rather than ideology.
During November 1958, Khrushchev made an unsuccessful attempt to turn all of Berlin into an independent, demilitarized "free city '', giving the United States, Great Britain, and France a six - month ultimatum to withdraw their troops from the sectors they still occupied in West Berlin, or he would transfer control of Western access rights to the East Germans. Khrushchev earlier explained to Mao Zedong that "Berlin is the testicles of the West. Every time I want to make the West scream, I squeeze on Berlin. '' NATO formally rejected the ultimatum in mid-December and Khrushchev withdrew it in return for a Geneva conference on the German question.
More broadly, one hallmark of the 1950s was the beginning of European integration -- a fundamental by - product of the Cold War that Truman and Eisenhower promoted politically, economically, and militarily, but which later administrations viewed ambivalently, fearful that an independent Europe would forge a separate détente with the Soviet Union, which would use this to exacerbate Western disunity.
Nationalist movements in some countries and regions, notably Guatemala, Indonesia and Indochina were often allied with communist groups, or perceived in the West to be allied with communists. In this context, the United States and the Soviet Union increasingly competed for influence by proxy in the Third World as decolonization gained momentum in the 1950s and early 1960s; additionally, the Soviets saw continuing losses by imperial powers as presaging the eventual victory of their ideology. Both sides were selling armaments to gain influence.
The United States made use of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to do away with a string of unfriendly Third World governments and to support allied ones. In 1953, President Eisenhower 's CIA implemented Operation Ajax, a covert operation aimed at the overthrow of the Iranian prime minister, Mohammad Mosaddegh. The popularly elected and non-aligned Mosaddegh had been a Middle Eastern nemesis of Britain since nationalizing the British - owned Anglo - Iranian Oil Company in 1951. Winston Churchill told the United States that Mosaddegh was "increasingly turning towards communism. '' The pro-Western shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, assumed control as an autocratic monarch. The shah 's policies included the banning of the communist Tudeh Party of Iran and general suppression of political dissent by SAVAK, the shah 's domestic security and intelligence agency.
In Guatemala, a CIA - backed military coup ousted the left - wing President Jacobo Árbenz in 1954. The post-Arbenz government -- a military junta headed by Carlos Castillo Armas -- repealed a progressive land reform law, returned nationalized property belonging to the United Fruit Company, set up a National Committee of Defense Against Communism, and decreed a Preventive Penal Law Against Communism at the request of the United States.
The non-aligned Indonesian government of Sukarno was faced with a major threat to its legitimacy beginning in 1956, when several regional commanders began to demand autonomy from Jakarta. After mediation failed, Sukarno took action to remove the dissident commanders. In February 1958, dissident military commanders in Central Sumatera (Colonel Ahmad Hussein) and North Sulawesi (Colonel Ventje Sumual) declared the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia - Permesta Movement aimed at overthrowing the Sukarno regime. They were joined by many civilian politicians from the Masyumi Party, such as Sjafruddin Prawiranegara, who were opposed to the growing influence of the communist Partai Komunis Indonesia party. Due to their anti-communist rhetoric, the rebels received arms, funding, and other covert aid from the CIA until Allen Lawrence Pope, an American pilot, was shot down after a bombing raid on government - held Ambon in April 1958. The central government responded by launching airborne and seaborne military invasions of rebel strongholds Padang and Manado. By the end of 1958, the rebels were militarily defeated, and the last remaining rebel guerilla bands surrendered by August 1961.
In the Republic of the Congo, newly independent from Belgium since June 1960, the CIA - cultivated President Joseph Kasa - Vubu ordered the dismissal of the democratically elected Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and the Lumumba cabinet in September; Lumumba called for Kasa - Vubu 's dismissal instead. In the ensuing Congo Crisis, the CIA - backed Colonel Mobutu Sese Seko quickly mobilized his forces to seize power through a military coup d'état.
In British Guiana, the leftist People 's Progressive Party (PPP) candidate Cheddi Jagan won the position of chief minister in a colonially administered election in 1953, but was quickly forced to resign from power after Britain 's suspension of the still - dependent nation 's constitution. Embarrassed by the landslide electoral victory of Jagan 's allegedly Marxist party, the British imprisoned the PPP 's leadership and maneuvered the organization into a divisive rupture in 1955, engineering a split between Jagan and his PPP colleagues. Jagan again won the colonial elections in 1957 and 1961; despite Britain 's shift to a reconsideration of its view of the left - wing Jagan as a Soviet - style communist at this time, the United States pressured the British to withhold Guyana 's independence until an alternative to Jagan could be identified, supported, and brought into office.
Worn down by the communist guerrilla war for Vietnamese independence and handed a watershed defeat by communist Viet Minh rebels at the 1954 Battle of Dien Bien Phu, the French accepted a negotiated abandonment of their colonial stake in Vietnam. In the Geneva Conference, peace accords were signed, leaving Vietnam divided between a pro-Soviet administration in North Vietnam and a pro-Western administration in South Vietnam at the 17th parallel north. Between 1954 and 1961, Eisenhower 's United States sent economic aid and military advisers to strengthen South Vietnam 's pro-Western regime against communist efforts to destabilize it.
Many emerging nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America rejected the pressure to choose sides in the East - West competition. In 1955, at the Bandung Conference in Indonesia, dozens of Third World governments resolved to stay out of the Cold War. The consensus reached at Bandung culminated with the creation of the Belgrade - headquartered Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. Meanwhile, Khrushchev broadened Moscow 's policy to establish ties with India and other key neutral states. Independence movements in the Third World transformed the post-war order into a more pluralistic world of decolonized African and Middle Eastern nations and of rising nationalism in Asia and Latin America.
The period after 1956 was marked by serious setbacks for the Soviet Union, most notably the breakdown of the Sino - Soviet alliance, beginning the Sino - Soviet split. Mao had defended Stalin when Khrushchev attacked him after his death in 1956, and treated the new Soviet leader as a superficial upstart, accusing him of having lost his revolutionary edge. For his part, Khrushchev, disturbed by Mao 's glib attitude toward nuclear war, referred to the Chinese leader as a "lunatic on a throne ''.
After this, Khrushchev made many desperate attempts to reconstitute the Sino - Soviet alliance, but Mao considered it useless and denied any proposal. The Chinese - Soviet animosity spilled out in an intra-communist propaganda war. Further on, the Soviets focused on a bitter rivalry with Mao 's China for leadership of the global communist movement.
Historian Lorenz M. Lüthi argues:
On the nuclear weapons front, the United States and the USSR pursued nuclear rearmament and developed long - range weapons with which they could strike the territory of the other. In August 1957, the Soviets successfully launched the world 's first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) and in October, launched the first Earth satellite, Sputnik 1. The launch of Sputnik inaugurated the Space Race. This culminated in the Apollo Moon landings, which astronaut Frank Borman later described as "just a battle in the Cold War. ''
In Cuba, the 26th of July Movement seized power in 1 January 1959, toppling President Fulgencio Batista, whose unpopular regime had been denied arms by the Eisenhower administration.
Diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States continued for some time after Batista 's fall, but President Eisenhower deliberately left the capital to avoid meeting Cuba 's young revolutionary leader Fidel Castro during the latter 's trip to Washington in April, leaving Vice President Richard Nixon to conduct the meeting in his place. Cuba began negotiating arms purchases from the Eastern Bloc in March 1960.
In January 1961, just prior to leaving office, Eisenhower formally severed relations with the Cuban government. In April 1961, the administration of newly elected American President John F. Kennedy mounted an unsuccessful CIA - organized ship - borne invasion of the island at Playa Girón and Playa Larga in Santa Clara Province -- a failure that publicly humiliated the United States. Castro responded by publicly embracing Marxism -- Leninism, and the Soviet Union pledged to provide further support.
The Berlin Crisis of 1961 was the last major incident in the Cold War regarding the status of Berlin and post -- World War II Germany. By the early 1950s, the Soviet approach to restricting emigration movement was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. However, hundreds of thousands of East Germans annually emigrated to West Germany through a "loophole '' in the system that existed between East and West Berlin, where the four occupying World War II powers governed movement.
The emigration resulted in a massive "brain drain '' from East Germany to West Germany of younger educated professionals, such that nearly 20 % of East Germany 's population had migrated to West Germany by 1961. That June, the Soviet Union issued a new ultimatum demanding the withdrawal of Allied forces from West Berlin. The request was rebuffed, and on 13 August, East Germany erected a barbed - wire barrier that would eventually be expanded through construction into the Berlin Wall, effectively closing the loophole.
Continuing to seek ways to oust Castro following the Bay of Pigs Invasion, Kennedy and his administration experimented with various ways of covertly facilitating the overthrow of the Cuban government. Significant hopes were pinned on a covert program named the Cuban Project, devised under the Kennedy administration in 1961.
In February 1962, Khrushchev learned of the American plans regarding Cuba: a "Cuban project '' -- approved by the CIA and stipulating the overthrow of the Cuban government in October, possibly involving the American military -- and yet one more Kennedy - ordered operation to assassinate Castro. Preparations to install Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba were undertaken in response.
Alarmed, Kennedy considered various reactions, and ultimately responded to the installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba with a naval blockade and presented an ultimatum to the Soviets. Khrushchev backed down from a confrontation, and the Soviet Union removed the missiles in return for an American pledge not to invade Cuba again. Castro later admitted that "I would have agreed to the use of nuclear weapons... we took it for granted that it would become a nuclear war anyway, and that we were going to disappear. ''
The Cuban Missile Crisis (October -- November 1962) brought the world closer to nuclear war than ever before. The aftermath of the crisis led to the first efforts in the nuclear arms race at nuclear disarmament and improving relations, although the Cold War 's first arms control agreement, the Antarctic Treaty, had come into force in 1961.
In 1964, Khrushchev 's Kremlin colleagues managed to oust him, but allowed him a peaceful retirement. Accused of rudeness and incompetence, he was also credited with ruining Soviet agriculture and bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war. Khrushchev had become an international embarrassment when he authorized construction of the Berlin Wall, a public humiliation for Marxism -- Leninism.
In the course of the 1960s and 1970s, Cold War participants struggled to adjust to a new, more complicated pattern of international relations in which the world was no longer divided into two clearly opposed blocs. From the beginning of the post-war period, Western Europe and Japan rapidly recovered from the destruction of World War II and sustained strong economic growth through the 1950s and 1960s, with per capita GDPs approaching those of the United States, while Eastern Bloc economies stagnated.
As a result of the 1973 oil crisis, combined with the growing influence of Third World alignments such as the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the Non-Aligned Movement, less - powerful countries had more room to assert their independence and often showed themselves resistant to pressure from either superpower. Meanwhile, Moscow was forced to turn its attention inward to deal with the Soviet Union 's deep - seated domestic economic problems. During this period, Soviet leaders such as Leonid Brezhnev and Alexei Kosygin embraced the notion of détente.
The unity of NATO was breached early in its history, with a crisis occurring during Charles de Gaulle 's presidency of France from 1958 onwards. De Gaulle protested at the United States ' strong role in the organization and what he perceived as a special relationship between the United States and the United Kingdom. In a memorandum sent to President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Prime Minister Harold Macmillan on 17 September 1958, he argued for the creation of a tripartite directorate that would put France on an equal footing with the United States and the United Kingdom, and also for the expansion of NATO 's coverage to include geographical areas of interest to France, most notably French Algeria, where France was waging a counter-insurgency and sought NATO assistance.
Considering the response given to be unsatisfactory, de Gaulle began the development of an independent French nuclear deterrent and in 1966 withdrew from NATO 's military structures and expelled NATO troops from French soil.
In 1968, a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia called the Prague Spring took place that included "Action Program '' of liberalizations, which described increasing freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of movement, along with an economic emphasis on consumer goods, the possibility of a multiparty government, limiting the power of the secret police and potentially withdrawing from the Warsaw Pact.
In answer to the Prague Spring, on 20 August 1968, the Soviet Army, together with most of their Warsaw Pact allies, invaded Czechoslovakia. The invasion was followed by a wave of emigration, including an estimated 70,000 Czechs and Slovaks initially fleeing, with the total eventually reaching 300,000. The invasion sparked intense protests from Yugoslavia, Romania, China, and from Western European communist parties.
In September 1968, during a speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers ' Party one month after the invasion of Czechoslovakia, Brezhnev outlined the Brezhnev Doctrine, in which he claimed the right to violate the sovereignty of any country attempting to replace Marxism -- Leninism with capitalism. During the speech, Brezhnev stated:
When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries.
The doctrine found its origins in the failures of Marxism -- Leninism in states like Poland, Hungary and East Germany, which were facing a declining standard of living contrasting with the prosperity of West Germany and the rest of Western Europe.
Under the Lyndon B. Johnson Administration, which gained power after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the U.S. took a more hardline stance on Latin America -- sometimes called the "Mann Doctrine ''. In 1964, the Brazilian military overthrew the government of president João Goulart with U.S. backing. In late April 1965, the U.S. sent some 22,000 troops to the Dominican Republic for a one - year occupation in an invasion codenamed Operation Power Pack, citing the threat of the emergence of a Cuban - style revolution in Latin America. Héctor García - Godoy acted as provisional president, until conservative former president Joaquín Balaguer won the 1966 presidential election against non-campaigning former President Juan Bosch. Activists for Bosch 's Dominican Revolutionary Party were violently harassed by the Dominican police and armed forces.
In Indonesia, the hardline anti-communist General Suharto wrested control of the state from his predecessor Sukarno in an attempt to establish a "New Order ''. From 1965 to 1966, with the aid of the United States and other Western governments, the military led the mass killing of more than 500,000 members and sympathizers of the Indonesian Communist Party and other leftist organizations, and detained hundreds of thousands more in prison camps around the country under extremely inhumane conditions. A top - secret CIA report stated that the massacres "rank as one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century, along with the Soviet purges of the 1930s, the Nazi mass murders during the Second World War, and the Maoist bloodbath of the early 1950s. '' These killings served U.S. strategic interests and constitute a major turning point in the Cold War as the balance of power shifted in Southeast Asia.
Escalating the scale of American intervention in the ongoing conflict between Ngô Đình Diệm 's South Vietnamese government and the communist National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) insurgents opposing it, Johnson deployed some 575,000 troops in Southeast Asia to defeat the NLF and their North Vietnamese allies in the Vietnam War, but his costly policy weakened the US economy and, by 1975, it ultimately culminated in what most of the world saw as a humiliating defeat of the world 's most powerful superpower at the hands of one of the world 's poorest nations.
In Chile, the Socialist Party candidate Salvador Allende won the presidential election of 1970, becoming the first democratically elected Marxist to become president of a country in the Americas. The CIA targeted Allende for removal and operated to undermine his support domestically, which contributed to a period of unrest culminating in General Augusto Pinochet 's coup d'état on 11 September 1973. Pinochet consolidated power as a military dictator, Allende 's reforms of the economy were rolled back, and leftist opponents were killed or detained in internment camps under the Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional (DINA). The Pinochet regime would go on to be one of the leading participants in Operation Condor, an international campaign of political assassination and state terrorism organized by right - wing military dictatorships in the Southern Cone of South America that was covertly supported by the US government.
The Middle East remained a source of contention. Egypt, which received the bulk of its arms and economic assistance from the USSR, was a troublesome client, with a reluctant Soviet Union feeling obliged to assist in both the 1967 Six - Day War (with advisers and technicians) and the War of Attrition (with pilots and aircraft) against pro-Western Israel. Despite the beginning of an Egyptian shift from a pro-Soviet to a pro-American orientation in 1972 (under Egypt 's new leader Anwar Sadat), rumors of imminent Soviet intervention on the Egyptians ' behalf during the 1973 Yom Kippur War brought about a massive American mobilization that threatened to wreck détente. Although pre-Sadat Egypt had been the largest recipient of Soviet aid in the Middle East, the Soviets were also successful in establishing close relations with communist South Yemen, as well as the nationalist governments of Algeria and Iraq. Iraq signed a 15 - year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union in 1972. According to historian Charles R.H. Tripp, the treaty upset "the U.S. - sponsored security system established as part of the Cold War in the Middle East. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States. '' In response, the U.S. covertly financed Kurdish rebels led by Mustafa Barzani during the Second Iraqi -- Kurdish War; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians. Indirect Soviet assistance to the Palestinian side of the Israeli -- Palestinian conflict included support for Yasser Arafat 's Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).
In Africa, Somali army officers led by Siad Barre carried out a bloodless coup in 1969, creating the socialist Somali Democratic Republic. The Soviet Union vowed to support Somalia. Four years later, the pro-American Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie was overthrown in a 1974 coup by the Derg, a radical group of Ethiopian army officers led by the pro-Soviet Mengistu Haile Mariam, who built up relations with the Cubans and the Soviets. When fighting between the Somalis and Ethiopians broke out in the 1977 -- 1978 Somali - Ethiopian Ogaden War, Barre lost his Soviet support and turned to the Safari Club -- a group of pro-American intelligence agencies including Iran, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia -- for support and weapons. The Ethiopian military was supported by Cuban soldiers along with Soviet military advisors and armaments.
The 1974 Portuguese Carnation Revolution against the authoritarian Estado Novo returned Portugal to a multi-party system and facilitated the independence of the Portuguese colonies Angola and East Timor. In Africa, where Angolan rebels had waged a multi-faction independence war against Portuguese rule since 1961, a two - decade civil war replaced the anti-colonial struggle as fighting erupted between the communist People 's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), backed by the Cubans and the Soviets, and the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), backed by the United States, the People 's Republic of China, and Mobutu 's government in Zaire. The United States, the apartheid government of South Africa, and several other African governments also supported a third faction, the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). Without bothering to consult the Soviets in advance, the Cuban government sent a number of combat troops to fight alongside the MPLA. Foreign mercenaries and a South African armoured column were deployed to support UNITA, but the MPLA, bolstered by Cuban personnel and Soviet assistance, eventually gained the upper hand.
During the Vietnam War, North Vietnam invaded and occupied parts of Cambodia to use as military bases, which contributed to the violence of the Cambodian Civil War between the pro-American government of Lon Nol and communist Khmer Rouge insurgents. Documents uncovered from the Soviet archives reveal that the North Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia in 1970 was launched at the request of the Khmer Rouge after negotiations with Nuon Chea. US and South Vietnamese forces responded to these actions with a bombing campaign and ground incursion, the effects of which are disputed by historians. Under the leadership of Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge would eventually kill 1 -- 3 million Cambodians in the killing fields, out of a 1975 population of roughly 8 million. Martin Shaw described these atrocities as "the purest genocide of the Cold War era. '' Backed by the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation, an organization of Khmer pro-Soviet Communists and Khmer Rouge defectors led by Heng Samrin, Vietnam invaded Cambodia on 22 December 1978. The invasion succeeded in deposing Pol Pot, but the new state would struggle to gain international recognition beyond the Soviet Bloc sphere -- despite the previous international outcry at Pol Pot 's DK regime 's gross human rights violations, and it would be bogged down in a guerrilla war led from refugee camps located in the border with Thailand. Following Khmer Rouge 's destruction, Cambodia 's national reconstruction would be severely hampered and Vietnam would suffer a punitive Chinese attack.
As a result of the Sino - Soviet split, tensions along the Chinese -- Soviet border reached their peak in 1969, and United States President Richard Nixon decided to use the conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the Cold War. The Chinese had sought improved relations with the Americans in order to gain advantage over the Soviets as well.
In February 1972, Nixon announced a stunning rapprochement with Mao 's China by traveling to Beijing and meeting with Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai. At this time, the USSR achieved rough nuclear parity with the United States; meanwhile, the Vietnam War both weakened America 's influence in the Third World and cooled relations with Western Europe. Although indirect conflict between Cold War powers continued through the late 1960s and early 1970s, tensions were beginning to ease.
Following his visit to China, Nixon met with Soviet leaders, including Brezhnev in Moscow. These Strategic Arms Limitation Talks resulted in two landmark arms control treaties: SALT I, the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. These aimed to limit the development of costly anti-ballistic missiles and nuclear missiles.
Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence '' and established the groundbreaking new policy of détente (or cooperation) between the two superpowers. Meanwhile, Brezhnev attempted to revive the Soviet economy, which was declining in part because of heavy military expenditures. Between 1972 and 1974, the two sides also agreed to strengthen their economic ties, including agreements for increased trade. As a result of their meetings, détente would replace the hostility of the Cold War and the two countries would live mutually.
Meanwhile, these developments coincided with the "Ostpolitik '' of West German Chancellor Willy Brandt. Other agreements were concluded to stabilize the situation in Europe, culminating in the Helsinki Accords signed at the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe in 1975.
In the 1970s, the KGB, led by Yuri Andropov, continued to persecute distinguished Soviet personalities such as Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov, who were criticising the Soviet leadership in harsh terms. Indirect conflict between the superpowers continued through this period of détente in the Third World, particularly during political crises in the Middle East, Chile, Ethiopia, and Angola.
Although President Jimmy Carter tried to place another limit on the arms race with a SALT II agreement in 1979, his efforts were undermined by the other events that year, including the Iranian Revolution and the Nicaraguan Revolution, which both ousted pro-US regimes, and his retaliation against Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in December.
The term second Cold War refers to the period of intensive reawakening of Cold War tensions and conflicts in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Tensions greatly increased between the major powers with both sides becoming more militaristic. Diggins says, "Reagan went all out to fight the second cold war, by supporting counterinsurgencies in the third world. '' Cox says, "The intensity of this ' second ' Cold War was as great as its duration was short. ''
In April 1978, the communist People 's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power in Afghanistan in the Saur Revolution. Within months, opponents of the communist government launched an uprising in eastern Afghanistan that quickly expanded into a civil war waged by guerrilla mujahideen against government forces countrywide. The Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen insurgents received military training and weapons in neighboring Pakistan and China, while the Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA government. Meanwhile, increasing friction between the competing factions of the PDPA -- the dominant Khalq and the more moderate Parcham -- resulted in the dismissal of Parchami cabinet members and the arrest of Parchami military officers under the pretext of a Parchami coup. By mid-1979, the United States had started a covert program to assist the mujahideen.
In September 1979, Khalqist President Nur Muhammad Taraki was assassinated in a coup within the PDPA orchestrated by fellow Khalq member Hafizullah Amin, who assumed the presidency. Distrusted by the Soviets, Amin was assassinated by Soviet special forces in December 1979. A Soviet - organized government, led by Parcham 's Babrak Karmal but inclusive of both factions, filled the vacuum. Soviet troops were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal in more substantial numbers, although the Soviet government did not expect to do most of the fighting in Afghanistan. As a result, however, the Soviets were now directly involved in what had been a domestic war in Afghanistan.
Carter responded to the Soviet intervention by withdrawing the SALT II treaty from the Senate, imposing embargoes on grain and technology shipments to the USSR, and demanding a significant increase in military spending, and further announced that the United States would boycott the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. He described the Soviet incursion as "the most serious threat to the peace since the Second World War ''.
In January 1977, four years prior to becoming president, Ronald Reagan bluntly stated, in a conversation with Richard V. Allen, his basic expectation in relation to the Cold War. "My idea of American policy toward the Soviet Union is simple, and some would say simplistic, '' he said. "It is this: We win and they lose. What do you think of that? '' In 1980, Ronald Reagan defeated Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election, vowing to increase military spending and confront the Soviets everywhere. Both Reagan and new British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher denounced the Soviet Union and its ideology. Reagan labeled the Soviet Union an "evil empire '' and predicted that Communism would be left on the "ash heap of history, '' while Thatcher inculpated the Soviets as "bent on world dominance. ''
By early 1985, Reagan 's anti-communist position had developed into a stance known as the new Reagan Doctrine -- which, in addition to containment, formulated an additional right to subvert existing communist governments. Besides continuing Carter 's policy of supporting the Islamic opponents of the Soviet Union and the Soviet - backed PDPA government in Afghanistan, the CIA also sought to weaken the Soviet Union itself by promoting Islamism in the majority - Muslim Central Asian Soviet Union. Additionally, the CIA encouraged anti-communist Pakistan 's ISI to train Muslims from around the world to participate in the jihad against the Soviet Union.
Pope John Paul II provided a moral focus for anti-communism; a visit to his native Poland in 1979 stimulated a religious and nationalist resurgence centered on the Solidarity movement that galvanized opposition and may have led to his attempted assassination two years later. In December 1981, Poland 's Wojciech Jaruzelski reacted to the crisis by imposing a period of martial law. Reagan imposed economic sanctions on Poland in response. Mikhail Suslov, the Kremlin 's top ideologist, advised Soviet leaders not to intervene if Poland fell under the control of Solidarity, for fear it might lead to heavy economic sanctions, representing a catastrophe for the Soviet economy.
Moscow had built up a military that consumed as much as 25 percent of the Soviet Union 's gross national product at the expense of consumer goods and investment in civilian sectors. Soviet spending on the arms race and other Cold War commitments both caused and exacerbated deep - seated structural problems in the Soviet system, which saw at least a decade of economic stagnation during the late Brezhnev years.
Soviet investment in the defense sector was not driven by military necessity, but in large part by the interests of massive party and state bureaucracies dependent on the sector for their own power and privileges. The Soviet Armed Forces became the largest in the world in terms of the numbers and types of weapons they possessed, in the number of troops in their ranks, and in the sheer size of their military -- industrial base. However, the quantitative advantages held by the Soviet military often concealed areas where the Eastern Bloc dramatically lagged behind the West. For example, the Persian Gulf War demonstrated how the armor, fire control systems and firing range of the Soviet 's most common main battle tank, the T - 72, were drastically inferior to the American M1 Abrams, yet the USSR fielded almost three times as many T - 72 's as the US deployed M1 's.
By the early 1980s, the USSR had built up a military arsenal and army surpassing that of the United States. Soon after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, president Carter began massively building up the United States military. This buildup was accelerated by the Reagan administration, which increased the military spending from 5.3 percent of GNP in 1981 to 6.5 percent in 1986, the largest peacetime defense buildup in United States history.
Tensions continued intensifying in the early 1980s when Reagan revived the B - 1 Lancer program that was canceled by the Carter administration, produced LGM - 118 Peacekeepers, installed US cruise missiles in Europe, and announced his experimental Strategic Defense Initiative, dubbed "Star Wars '' by the media, a defense program to shoot down missiles in mid-flight.
With the background of a buildup in tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States, and the deployment of Soviet RSD - 10 Pioneer ballistic missiles targeting Western Europe, NATO decided, under the impetus of the Carter presidency, to deploy MGM - 31 Pershing and cruise missiles in Europe, primarily West Germany. This deployment would have placed missiles just 10 minutes ' striking distance from Moscow.
After Reagan 's military buildup, the Soviet Union did not respond by further building its military because the enormous military expenses, along with inefficient planned manufacturing and collectivized agriculture, were already a heavy burden for the Soviet economy. At the same time, Saudi Arabia increased oil production, even as other non-OPEC nations were increasing production. These developments contributed to the 1980s oil glut, which affected the Soviet Union, as oil was the main source of Soviet export revenues. Issues with command economics, oil price decreases and large military expenditures gradually brought the Soviet economy to stagnation.
On 1 September 1983, the Soviet Union shot down the Korean Air Lines Flight 007, a Boeing 747 with 269 people aboard, including sitting Congressman Larry McDonald, when it violated Soviet airspace just past the west coast of Sakhalin Island near Moneron Island -- an act which Reagan characterized as a "massacre ''. This act increased support for military deployment, overseen by Reagan, which stood in place until the later accords between Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev. The Able Archer 83 exercise in November 1983, a realistic simulation of a coordinated NATO nuclear release, was perhaps the most dangerous moment since the Cuban Missile Crisis, as the Soviet leadership feared that a nuclear attack might be imminent.
American domestic public concerns about intervening in foreign conflicts persisted from the end of the Vietnam War. The Reagan administration emphasized the use of quick, low - cost counter-insurgency tactics to intervene in foreign conflicts. In 1983, the Reagan administration intervened in the multisided Lebanese Civil War, invaded Grenada, bombed Libya and backed the Central American Contras, anti-communist paramilitaries seeking to overthrow the Soviet - aligned Sandinista government in Nicaragua. While Reagan 's interventions against Grenada and Libya were popular in the United States, his backing of the Contra rebels was mired in controversy. The Reagan administration 's backing of the military government of Guatemala during the Guatemalan Civil War, in particular the regime of Efraín Ríos Montt, was also controversial.
Meanwhile, the Soviets incurred high costs for their own foreign interventions. Although Brezhnev was convinced in 1979 that the Soviet war in Afghanistan would be brief, Muslim guerrillas, aided by the US, China, Britain, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, waged a fierce resistance against the invasion. The Kremlin sent nearly 100,000 troops to support its puppet regime in Afghanistan, leading many outside observers to dub the war "the Soviets ' Vietnam ''. However, Moscow 's quagmire in Afghanistan was far more disastrous for the Soviets than Vietnam had been for the Americans because the conflict coincided with a period of internal decay and domestic crisis in the Soviet system.
A senior US State Department official predicted such an outcome as early as 1980, positing that the invasion resulted in part from a "domestic crisis within the Soviet system... It may be that the thermodynamic law of entropy has... caught up with the Soviet system, which now seems to expend more energy on simply maintaining its equilibrium than on improving itself. We could be seeing a period of foreign movement at a time of internal decay ''.
By the time the comparatively youthful Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary in 1985, the Soviet economy was stagnant and faced a sharp fall in foreign currency earnings as a result of the downward slide in oil prices in the 1980s. These issues prompted Gorbachev to investigate measures to revive the ailing state.
An ineffectual start led to the conclusion that deeper structural changes were necessary and in June 1987 Gorbachev announced an agenda of economic reform called perestroika, or restructuring. Perestroika relaxed the production quota system, allowed private ownership of businesses and paved the way for foreign investment. These measures were intended to redirect the country 's resources from costly Cold War military commitments to more productive areas in the civilian sector.
Despite initial skepticism in the West, the new Soviet leader proved to be committed to reversing the Soviet Union 's deteriorating economic condition instead of continuing the arms race with the West. Partly as a way to fight off internal opposition from party cliques to his reforms, Gorbachev simultaneously introduced glasnost, or openness, which increased freedom of the press and the transparency of state institutions. Glasnost was intended to reduce the corruption at the top of the Communist Party and moderate the abuse of power in the Central Committee. Glasnost also enabled increased contact between Soviet citizens and the western world, particularly with the United States, contributing to the accelerating détente between the two nations.
In response to the Kremlin 's military and political concessions, Reagan agreed to renew talks on economic issues and the scaling - back of the arms race. The first summit was held in November 1985 in Geneva, Switzerland. At one stage the two men, accompanied only by an interpreter, agreed in principle to reduce each country 's nuclear arsenal by 50 percent. A second summit, was held in October 1986, Reykjavík, Iceland. Talks went well until the focus shifted to Reagan 's proposed Strategic Defense Initiative, which Gorbachev wanted eliminated. Reagan refused. The negotiations failed, but the third summit in 1987 led to a breakthrough with the signing of the Intermediate - Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF). The INF treaty eliminated all nuclear - armed, ground - launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers (300 to 3,400 miles) and their infrastructure.
East -- West tensions rapidly subsided through the mid-to - late 1980s, culminating with the final summit in Moscow in 1989, when Gorbachev and George H.W. Bush signed the START I arms control treaty. During the following year it became apparent to the Soviets that oil and gas subsidies, along with the cost of maintaining massive troops levels, represented a substantial economic drain. In addition, the security advantage of a buffer zone was recognised as irrelevant and the Soviets officially declared that they would no longer intervene in the affairs of allied states in Central and Eastern Europe.
In 1989, Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan and by 1990 Gorbachev consented to German reunification, the only alternative being a Tiananmen Square scenario. When the Berlin Wall came down, Gorbachev 's "Common European Home '' concept began to take shape.
On 3 December 1989, Gorbachev and Reagan 's successor, George H.W. Bush, declared the Cold War over at the Malta Summit; a year later, the two former rivals were partners in the Gulf War against Iraq (August 1990 -- February 1991).
By 1989, the Soviet alliance system was on the brink of collapse, and, deprived of Soviet military support, the communist leaders of the Warsaw Pact states were losing power. Grassroots organizations, such as Poland 's Solidarity movement, rapidly gained ground with strong popular bases. In 1989, the communist governments in Poland and Hungary became the first to negotiate the organizing of competitive elections. In Czechoslovakia and East Germany, mass protests unseated entrenched communist leaders. The communist regimes in Bulgaria and Romania also crumbled, in the latter case as the result of a violent uprising. Attitudes had changed enough that US Secretary of State James Baker suggested that the American government would not be opposed to Soviet intervention in Romania, on behalf of the opposition, to prevent bloodshed. The tidal wave of change culminated with the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, which symbolized the collapse of European communist governments and graphically ended the Iron Curtain divide of Europe. The 1989 revolutionary wave swept across Central and Eastern Europe and peacefully overthrew all of the Soviet - style communist states: East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria; Romania was the only Eastern - bloc country to topple its communist regime violently and execute its head of state.
In the USSR itself, glasnost weakened the bonds that held the Soviet Union together and by February 1990, with the dissolution of the USSR looming, the Communist Party was forced to surrender its 73 - year - old monopoly on state power. At the same time freedom of press and dissent allowed by glasnost and the festering "nationalities question '' increasingly led the Union 's component republics to declare their autonomy from Moscow, with the Baltic states withdrawing from the Union entirely.
Gorbachev 's permissive attitude toward Central and Eastern Europe did not initially extend to Soviet territory; even Bush, who strove to maintain friendly relations, condemned the January 1991 killings in Latvia and Lithuania, privately warning that economic ties would be frozen if the violence continued. The USSR was fatally weakened by a failed coup and a growing number of Soviet republics, particularly Russia, who threatened to secede from the USSR. The Commonwealth of Independent States, created on 21 December 1991, is viewed as a successor entity to the Soviet Union but, according to Russia 's leaders, its purpose was to "allow a civilized divorce '' between the Soviet Republics and is comparable to a loose confederation. The USSR was declared officially dissolved on 26 December 1991.
US President at that time, George H.W. Bush, expressed his emotions: "The biggest thing that has happened in the world in my life, in our lives, is this: By the grace of God, America won the Cold War. ''
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia drastically cut military spending, and restructuring the economy left millions unemployed. The capitalist reforms culminated in a recession in the early 1990s more severe than the Great Depression as experienced by the United States and Germany.
The Cold War continues to influence world affairs. The post-Cold War world is considered to be unipolar, with the United States the sole remaining superpower. The Cold War defined the political role of the United States after World War II -- by 1989 the United States had military alliances with 50 countries, with 526,000 troops stationed abroad, with 326,000 in Europe (two - thirds of which in west Germany) and 130,000 in Asia (mainly Japan and South Korea). The Cold War also marked the zenith of peacetime military -- industrial complexes, especially in the United States, and large - scale military funding of science. These complexes, though their origins may be found as early as the 19th century, snowballed considerably during the Cold War.
Cumulative U.S. military expenditures throughout the entire Cold War amounted to an estimated $8 trillion. Further nearly 100,000 Americans lost their lives in the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Although Soviet casualties are difficult to estimate, as a share of their gross national product the financial cost for the Soviet Union was much higher than that incurred by the United States.
In addition to the loss of life by uniformed soldiers, millions died in the superpowers ' proxy wars around the globe, most notably in Southeast Asia. Most of the proxy wars and subsidies for local conflicts ended along with the Cold War; interstate wars, ethnic wars, revolutionary wars, as well as refugee and displaced persons crises have declined sharply in the post-Cold War years. Left over from the Cold War are numbers stations, which are shortwave radio stations thought to be used to broadcast covert messages, some of which can still be heard today.
However, the aftermath of the Cold War is not always easily erased, as many of the economic and social tensions that were exploited to fuel Cold War competition in parts of the Third World remain acute. The breakdown of state control in a number of areas formerly ruled by communist governments produced new civil and ethnic conflicts, particularly in the former Yugoslavia. In Central and Eastern Europe, the end of the Cold War has ushered in an era of economic growth and an increase in the number of liberal democracies, while in other parts of the world, such as Afghanistan, independence was accompanied by state failure.
During the Cold War itself, with the United States and the Soviet Union invested heavily in propaganda designed to influence the hearts and minds of people around the world, especially using motion pictures.
The Cold War endures as a popular topic reflected extensively in entertainment media, and continuing to the present with numerous post-1991 Cold War - themed feature films, novels, television, and other media. In 2013, a KGB - sleeper - agents - living - next - door action drama series, The Americans, set in the early 1980s, was ranked # 6 on the Metacritic annual Best New TV Shows list; its final season will begin airing in March 2018. At the same time, movies like Crimson Tide (1995) are shown in their entirety to educate college students about the Cold War.
As soon as the term "Cold War '' was popularized to refer to post-war tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, interpreting the course and origins of the conflict has been a source of heated controversy among historians, political scientists, and journalists. In particular, historians have sharply disagreed as to who was responsible for the breakdown of Soviet -- US relations after the Second World War; and whether the conflict between the two superpowers was inevitable, or could have been avoided. Historians have also disagreed on what exactly the Cold War was, what the sources of the conflict were, and how to disentangle patterns of action and reaction between the two sides.
Although explanations of the origins of the conflict in academic discussions are complex and diverse, several general schools of thought on the subject can be identified. Historians commonly speak of three differing approaches to the study of the Cold War: "orthodox '' accounts, "revisionism '', and "post-revisionism ''.
"Orthodox '' accounts place responsibility for the Cold War on the Soviet Union and its expansion further into Europe. "Revisionist '' writers place more responsibility for the breakdown of post-war peace on the United States, citing a range of US efforts to isolate and confront the Soviet Union well before the end of World War II. "Post-revisionists '' see the events of the Cold War as more nuanced, and attempt to be more balanced in determining what occurred during the Cold War. Much of the historiography on the Cold War weaves together two or even all three of these broad categories.
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where did the name the bronx come from | The Bronx - Wikipedia
The Bronx (/ brɒŋks /) is the northernmost of the five boroughs of New York City, in the U.S. state of New York. It is south of Westchester County; north and east of Manhattan, across the Harlem River; and north of Queens, across the East River. Since 1914, the borough has had the same boundaries as Bronx County, the third-most densely populated county in the United States.
The Bronx has a land area of 42 square miles (109 km) and a population of 1,471,160 in 2017. Of the five boroughs, it has the fourth - largest area, fourth - highest population, and third - highest population density. It is the only borough predominantly on the U.S. mainland.
The Bronx is divided by the Bronx River into a hillier section in the west, and a flatter eastern section. East and west street names are divided by Jerome Avenue -- the continuation of Manhattan 's Fifth Avenue. The West Bronx was annexed to New York City in 1874, and the areas east of the Bronx River in 1895. Bronx County was separated from New York County in 1914. About a quarter of the Bronx 's area is open space, including Woodlawn Cemetery, Van Cortlandt Park, Pelham Bay Park, the New York Botanical Garden, and the Bronx Zoo in the borough 's north and center. These open spaces are situated primarily on land deliberately reserved in the late 19th century as urban development progressed north and east from Manhattan.
The name "Bronx '' originated with Jonas Bronck, who established the first settlement in the area as part of the New Netherland colony in 1639. The native Lenape were displaced after 1643 by settlers. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the Bronx received many immigrant and migrant groups as it was transformed into an urban community, first from various European countries (particularly Ireland, Germany, and Italy) and later from the Caribbean region (particularly Puerto Rico, Haiti, Jamaica, and the Dominican Republic), as well as African American migrants from the southern United States. This cultural mix has made the Bronx a wellspring of Latin music hip hop and rock.
The Bronx contains one of the five poorest Congressional Districts in the United States, the 15th, but its wide diversity also includes affluent, upper - income and middle - income neighborhoods such as Riverdale, Fieldston, Spuyten Duyvil, Schuylerville, Pelham Bay, Pelham Gardens, Morris Park, and Country Club. The Bronx, particularly the South Bronx, saw a sharp decline in population, livable housing, and the quality of life in the late 1960s and the 1970s, culminating in a wave of arson. Since then the communities have shown significant redevelopment starting in the late 1980s before picking up pace from the 1990s until today.
The Bronx was called Rananchqua by the native Siwanoy band of Lenape (also known historically as the Delawares), while other Native Americans knew the Bronx as Keskeskeck. It was divided by the Aquahung River.
The origin of Jonas Bronck (c. 1600 -- 43) is contested. Some sources claim he was a Swedish born emigrant from Komstad, Norra Ljunga parish in Småland, Sweden, who arrived in New Netherland during the spring of 1639. Bronck became the first recorded European settler in the area now known as the Bronx and built a farm named "Emmanus '' close to what today is the corner of Willis Avenue and 132nd Street in Mott Haven. He leased land from the Dutch West India Company on the neck of the mainland immediately north of the Dutch settlement in Harlem (on Manhattan Island), and bought additional tracts from the local tribes. He eventually accumulated 500 acres (200 ha) between the Harlem River and the Aquahung, which became known as Bronck 's River or the Bronx (River). Dutch and English settlers referred to the area as Bronck 's Land. The American poet William Bronk was a descendant of Pieter Bronck, either Jonas Bronck 's son or his younger brother. More recent research indicates that Pieter was probably Jonas ' nephew or cousin, but certainly of the same family.
The Bronx is referred to with the definite article as "The Bronx '', both legally and colloquially. The County of Bronx does not place "The '' immediately before "Bronx '' in formal references, unlike the coextensive Borough of the Bronx, nor does the United States Postal Service in its database of Bronx addresses (the city and state mailing - address format is simply "Bronx, NY ''). The region was apparently named after the Bronx River and first appeared in the "Annexed District of The Bronx '' created in 1874 out of part of Westchester County. It was continued in the "Borough of The Bronx '', which included a larger annexation from Westchester County in 1898. The use of the definite article is attributed to the style of referring to rivers. Another explanation for the use of the definite article in the borough 's name is that the original form of the name was a possessive or collective one referring to the family, as in visiting "the Broncks '', "the Bronck 's '', or "the Broncks ' ''.
The capitalization of The Bronx 's name is sometimes disputed. Generally, the definite article is lowercase in place names ("the Bronx '') except in official references to the borough. It would be capitalized ("The Bronx '') at the beginning of a sentence or in any other situation when a normally lowercase word would be capitalized. However, some people and groups refer to the borough with a capital letter at all times, such as Lloyd Ultan, a Bronx County Historical Society historian, and the Great and Glorious Grand Army of The Bronx, a Bronx - based organization. These people say that the definite article is part of the proper name. In particular, the Great and Glorious Grand Army of The Bronx is leading efforts to make the city refer to the borough with an uppercase definite article in all uses, comparing the lowercase article in The Bronx 's name to "not capitalizing the ' s ' in ' Staten Island. ' ''
European colonization of the Bronx began in 1639. The Bronx was originally part of Westchester County, but it was ceded to New York County in two major parts (West Bronx, 1874 and East Bronx, 1895) before it became Bronx County. Originally, the area was part of the Lenape 's Lenapehoking territory inhabited by Siwanoy of the Wappinger Confederacy. Over time, European colonists converted the borough into farmlands.
The development of the Bronx is directly connected to its strategic location between New England and New York (Manhattan). Control over the bridges across the Harlem River plagued the period of British colonial rule. The King 's Bridge, built in 1693 where Broadway reached the Spuyten Duyvil Creek, was a possession of Frederick Philipse, lord of Philipse Manor. The tolls were resented by local farmers on both sides of the creek, and in 1759, Jacobus Dyckman and Benjamin Palmer led them into building a free bridge across the Harlem River. After the American Revolutionary War, the King 's Bridge toll was abolished.
The territory now contained within Bronx County was originally part of Westchester County, one of the 12 original counties of the English Province of New York. The present Bronx County was contained in the town of Westchester and parts of the towns in Yonkers, Eastchester, and Pelham. In 1846, a new town was created by division of Westchester, called West Farms. The town of Morrisania was created, in turn, from West Farms in 1855. In 1873, the town of Kingsbridge was established within the former borders of Yonkers, roughly corresponding to the modern Bronx neighborhoods of Kingsbridge, Riverdale, and Woodlawn.
Among famous settlers in the Bronx during the 19th and early 20th centuries were author Willa Cather, tobacco merchant Pierre Lorillard, and inventor Jordan L. Mott, who established Mott Haven to house the workers at his iron works.
The consolidation of the Bronx into New York City proceeded in two stages. In 1873, the state legislature annexed Kingsbridge, West Farms, and Morrisania to New York, effective in 1874; the three towns were soon abolished in the process.
The whole territory east of the Bronx River was annexed to the city in 1895, three years before New York 's consolidation with Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island. This included the Town of Westchester (which had voted against consolidation in 1894) and portions of Eastchester and Pelham. The nautical community of City Island voted to join the city in 1896.
On January 1, 1898, the consolidated City of New York was born, including the Bronx as one of the five distinct boroughs. (At the same time, the Bronx 's territory moved from Westchester County into New York County, which already contained Manhattan and the rest of pre-1874 New York City.)
On April 19, 1912, those parts of New York County which had been annexed from Westchester County in the past decades were newly constituted as Bronx County, the 62nd and last county to be created by the state, effective in 1914. Bronx County 's courts opened for business on January 2, 1914 (the same day that John P. Mitchel started work as Mayor of New York City). Marble Hill, Manhattan was now connected to the Bronx, but it did not become part of that county by a historical accident due to changes in waterways.
The history of the Bronx during the 20th century may be divided into four periods: a boom period during 1900 -- 29, with a population growth by a factor of six from 200,000 in 1900 to 1.3 million in 1930. The Great Depression and post World War II years saw a slowing of growth leading into an eventual decline. The mid to late century were hard times, as the Bronx declined 1950 -- 85 from a predominantly moderate - income to a predominantly lower - income area with high rates of violent crime and poverty. The Bronx has experienced an economic and developmental resurgence starting in the late 1980s that continues into today.
The Bronx was a mostly rural area for many generations, small farms supplying the city markets, but it grew into a railroad suburb in the late 19th century. Faster transportation enabled rapid population growth in the late 19th century, involving the move from horse - drawn street cars to elevated railways and the subway system, which linked to Manhattan in 1904.
The South Bronx was a manufacturing center for many years and was noted as a center of piano manufacturing in the early part of the 20th century. In 1919, the Bronx was the site of 63 piano factories employing more than 5,000 workers.
At the end of World War I, the Bronx hosted the rather small 1918 World 's Fair at 177th Street and DeVoe Avenue.
The Bronx underwent rapid urban growth after World War I. Extensions of the New York City subway contributed to the increase in population as thousands of immigrants came to the Bronx, resulting in a major boom in residential construction. Among these groups, many Irish Americans, Italian Americans, and especially Jewish Americans settled here. In addition, French, German, Polish, and other immigrants moved into the borough. The Jewish population also increased notably during this time. In 1937, 592,185 Jews lived in The Bronx (43.9 % of the borough 's population), while only 54,000 Jews lived in the borough in 2011. Many synagogues still stand in the Bronx, but most have been converted to other uses.
Bootleggers and gangs were active in the Bronx during Prohibition (1920 -- 33). Irish, Italian, Jewish, and Polish gangs smuggled in most of the illegal whiskey, and the oldest sections of the borough became poverty - stricken.
Between 1930 and 1960, moderate and upper income Bronxites (predominantly non-Hispanic Whites) began to relocate from the southwestern neighborhoods of the borough. This migration has left a mostly poor African American and Hispanic (largely Puerto Rican) population in the West Bronx. One significant factor that shifted the racial and economic demographics was the construction of Co-op City, built with the intent of housing middle - class residents in family - sized apartments. The high - rise complex played a significant role in draining middle - class residents from older tenement buildings in the borough 's southern and western fringes. Most predominantly non-Hispanic White communities today are located in the eastern and northwestern sections of the borough.
From the early 1960s to the early 1980s, the quality of life declined sharply for many Bronx residents. Historians and social scientists have suggested many factors, including the theory that Robert Moses ' Cross Bronx Expressway destroyed existing residential neighborhoods and created instant slums, as put forward in Robert Caro 's biography The Power Broker. Another factor in the Bronx 's decline may have been the development of high - rise housing projects, particularly in the South Bronx. Yet another factor may have been a reduction in the real estate listings and property - related financial services offered in some areas of the Bronx, such as mortgage loans or insurance policies -- a process known as redlining. Others have suggested a "planned shrinkage '' of municipal services, such as fire - fighting. There was also much debate as to whether rent control laws had made it less profitable (or more costly) for landlords to maintain existing buildings with their existing tenants than to abandon or destroy those buildings.
In the 1970s, the Bronx was plagued by a wave of arson. The burning of buildings was predominantly in the poorest communities, such as the South Bronx. One explanation of what occurred was that landlords decided to burn their low property - value buildings and take the insurance money, as it was more lucrative to get insurance money than to refurbish or sell a building in a severely distressed area. The Bronx became identified with a high rate of poverty and unemployment, which was mainly a persistent problem in the South Bronx.
Out of 289 census tracts in the Bronx borough, 7 tracts lost more than 97 % of their buildings to fire and abandonment between 1970 and 1980; another 44 tracts had more than 50 % of their buildings meet the same fate. By the early 1980s, the South Bronx was considered one of the most blighted urban areas in the country, with a loss of 60 % of the population and 40 % of housing units. However, starting in the 1990s, many burned - out and run - down tenements were replaced by multi-unit housing.
Since the late 1980s, significant development has occurred in the Bronx, first stimulated by the city 's "Ten - Year Housing Plan '' and community members working to rebuild the social, economic and environmental infrastructure by creating affordable housing. Groups affiliated with churches in the South Bronx erected the Nehemiah Homes with about 1,000 units. The grass roots organization Nos Quedamos ' endeavor known as Melrose Commons began to rebuild areas in the South Bronx. The IRT White Plains Road Line (2 and 5 trains) began to show an increase in riders. Chains such as Marshalls, Staples, and Target opened stores in the Bronx. More bank branches opened in the Bronx as a whole (rising from 106 in 1997 to 149 in 2007), although not primarily in poor or minority neighborhoods, while the Bronx still has fewer branches per person than other boroughs.
In 1997, the Bronx was designated an All America City by the National Civic League, acknowledging its comeback from the decline of the mid-century. In 2006, The New York Times reported that "construction cranes have become the borough 's new visual metaphor, replacing the window decals of the 1980s in which pictures of potted plants and drawn curtains were placed in the windows of abandoned buildings. '' The borough has experienced substantial new building construction since 2002. Between 2002 and June 2007, 33,687 new units of housing were built or were under way and $4.8 billion has been invested in new housing. In the first six months of 2007 alone total investment in new residential development was $965 million and 5,187 residential units were scheduled to be completed. Much of the new development is springing up in formerly vacant lots across the South Bronx.
In addition, there is a revitalization of the existing housing market in areas such as Hunts Point, the Lower Concourse, and the neighborhoods surrounding the Third Avenue Bridge as people buy apartments and renovate them. Several boutique and chain hotels have opened in recent years in the South Bronx.
New developments are underway. The Bronx General Post Office on the corner of the Grand Concourse and East 149th Street is being converted into a market place, boutiques, restaurants and office space with a USPS concession. The Kingsbridge Armory, often cited as the largest armory in the world, is scheduled for redevelopment as the Kingsbridge National Ice Center.
Under consideration for future development is the construction of a platform over the New York City subway 's Concourse Yard adjacent to Lehman College. The construction would permit approximately 2,000,000 square feet (190,000 m) of development and would cost US $350 -- 500 million. In addition, a La Quinta Inn has been proposed for the Mott Haven waterfront.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Bronx County has a total area of 57 square miles (150 km), of which 42 square miles (110 km) is land and 15 square miles (39 km) (27 %) is water.
The Bronx is the only part of New York City that is almost entirely situated on the North American mainland. Its bedrock is primarily Fordham gneiss, a high - grade heavily banded metamorphic rock containing significant amounts of pink feldspar. Marble Hill -- politically part of Manhattan but now physically attached to the Bronx -- is so - called because of the formation of Inwood marble there as well as in Inwood, Manhattan and parts of the Bronx and Westchester County.
The Hudson River separates the Bronx on the west from Alpine, Tenafly and Englewood Cliffs in Bergen County, New Jersey; the Harlem River separates it from the island of Manhattan to the southwest; the East River separates it from Queens to the southeast; and to the east, Long Island Sound separates it from Nassau County in western Long Island. Directly north of the Bronx are (from west to east) the adjoining Westchester County communities of Yonkers, Mount Vernon, Pelham Manor and New Rochelle. (There is also a short southern land boundary with Marble Hill in the Borough of Manhattan, over the filled - in former course of the Spuyten Duyvil Creek. Marble Hill 's postal ZIP code, telephonic area codes and fire service, however, are shared with the Bronx and not Manhattan.)
The Bronx River flows south from Westchester County through the borough, emptying into the East River; it is the only entirely freshwater river in New York City. A smaller river, the Hutchinson River (named after the religious leader Anne Hutchinson, killed along its banks in 1641), passes through the East Bronx and empties into Eastchester Bay.
The Bronx also includes several small islands in the East River and Long Island Sound, such as City Island and Hart Island. Rikers Island in the East River, home to the large jail complex for the entire city, is also part of the Bronx.
The Bronx 's highest elevation at 280 feet (85 m) is in the northwest corner, west of Van Cortlandt Park and in the Chapel Farm area near the Riverdale Country School. The opposite (southeastern) side of the Bronx has four large low peninsulas or "necks '' of low - lying land that jut into the waters of the East River and were once salt marsh: Hunt 's Point, Clason 's Point, Screvin 's Neck and Throggs Neck. Further up the coastline, Rodman 's Neck lies between Pelham Bay Park in the northeast and City Island. The Bronx 's irregular shoreline extends for 75 square miles (194 km).
Although Bronx County was the third most densely populated county in the United States as of 2006 (after Manhattan and Brooklyn), 7,000 acres (28 km) of the Bronx -- about one - fifth of the Bronx 's area, and one - quarter of its land area -- is given over to parkland. The vision of a system of major Bronx parks connected by park - like thoroughfares is usually attributed to John Mullaly.
Woodlawn Cemetery, one of the largest cemeteries in New York City, sits on the western bank of the Bronx River near Yonkers. It opened in 1863, at a time when the Bronx was still considered a rural area.
The northern side of the borough includes the largest park in New York City -- Pelham Bay Park, which includes Orchard Beach -- and the third - largest, Van Cortlandt Park, which is west of Woodlawn Cemetery and borders Yonkers. Also in the northern Bronx, Wave Hill, the former estate of George W. Perkins -- known for a historic house, gardens, changing site - specific art installations and concerts -- overlooks the New Jersey Palisades from a promontory on the Hudson in Riverdale. Nearer the borough 's center, and along the Bronx River, is Bronx Park; its northern end houses the New York Botanical Gardens, which preserve the last patch of the original hemlock forest that once covered the entire county, and its southern end the Bronx Zoo, the largest urban zoological gardens in the United States. Just south of Van Cortlandt Park is the Jerome Park Reservoir, surrounded by 2 miles (3 km) of stone walls and bordering several small parks in the Bedford Park neighborhood; the reservoir was built in the 1890s on the site of the former Jerome Park Racetrack. Further south is Crotona Park, home to a 3.3 - acre (1.3 ha) lake, 28 species of trees, and a large swimming pool. The land for these parks, and many others, was bought by New York City in 1888, while land was still open and inexpensive, in anticipation of future needs and future pressures for development.
Some of the acquired land was set aside for the Grand Concourse and Pelham Parkway, the first of a series of boulevards and parkways (thoroughfares lined with trees, vegetation and greenery). Later projects included the Bronx River Parkway, which developed a road while restoring the riverbank and reducing pollution, Mosholu Parkway and the Henry Hudson Parkway.
In 2006, a five - year, $220 - million program of capital improvements and natural restoration in 70 Bronx parks was begun (financed by water and sewer revenues) as part of an agreement that allowed a water filtration plant under Mosholu Golf Course in Van Cortlandt Park. One major focus is on opening more of the Bronx River 's banks and restoring them to a natural state.
The number, locations, and boundaries of the Bronx 's neighborhoods (many of them sitting on the sites of 19th - century villages) have become unclear with time and successive waves of newcomers. In 2006, Manny Fernandez of The New York Times wrote,
According to a Department of City Planning map of the city 's neighborhoods, the Bronx has 49. The map publisher Hagstrom identifies 69. The borough president, Adolfo Carrión Jr., says 61. The Mayor 's Community Assistance Unit, in a listing of the borough 's community boards, names 68. Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia, lists 44.
Notable Bronx neighborhoods include the South Bronx; Little Italy on Arthur Avenue in the Belmont section; and Riverdale.
(Bronx Community Boards 9 (south central), 10 (east), 11 (east central) and 12 (north central))
East of the Bronx River, the borough is relatively flat and includes four large low peninsulas, or ' necks, ' of low - lying land which jut into the waters of the East River and were once saltmarsh: Hunts Point, Clason 's Point, Screvin 's Neck (Castle Hill Point) and Throgs Neck. The East Bronx has older tenement buildings, low income public housing complexes, and multifamily homes, as well as single family homes. It includes New York City 's largest park: Pelham Bay Park along the Westchester - Bronx border.
Neighborhoods include: Clason 's Point, Harding Park, Soundview, Castle Hill, Parkchester (Board 9); Throggs Neck, Country Club, City Island, Pelham Bay, Edgewater Park, Co-op City (Board 10); Westchester Square, Van Nest, Pelham Parkway, Morris Park (Board 11); Williamsbridge, Eastchester, Baychester, Edenwald and Wakefield (Board 12).
(Bronx Community Board 10)
City Island is located east of Pelham Bay Park in Long Island Sound and is known for its seafood restaurants and private waterfront homes. City Island 's single shopping street, City Island Avenue, is reminiscent of a small New England town. It is connected to Rodman 's Neck on the mainland by the City Island Bridge.
East of City Island is Hart Island, which is uninhabited and not open to the public. It once served as a prison and now houses New York City 's potter 's field for unclaimed bodies.
(Bronx Community Boards 1 to 8, progressing roughly from south to northwest)
The western parts of the Bronx are hillier and are dominated by a series of parallel ridges, running south to north. The West Bronx has older apartment buildings, low income public housing complexes, multifamily homes in its lower income areas as well as larger single family homes in more affluent areas such as Riverdale and Fieldston. It includes New York City 's third - largest park: Van Cortlandt Park along the Westchester - Bronx border. The Grand Concourse, a wide boulevard, runs through it, north to south.
(Bronx Community Boards 7 (between the Bronx and Harlem Rivers) and 8 (facing the Hudson River) -- plus part of Board 12)
Neighborhoods include: Fordham - Bedford, Bedford Park, Norwood, Kingsbridge Heights (Board 7), Kingsbridge, Riverdale (Board 8), and Woodlawn (Board 12). (Marble Hill, Manhattan is now connected by land to the Bronx rather than Manhattan and is served by Bronx Community Board 8.)
(Bronx Community Boards 1 to 6 plus part of Board 7 -- progressing northwards, Boards 2, 3 and 6 border the Bronx River from its mouth to Bronx Park, while 1, 4, 5 and 7 face Manhattan across the Harlem River)
Like other neighborhoods in New York City, the South Bronx has no official boundaries. The name has been used to represent poverty in the Bronx and is applied to progressively more northern places so that by the 2000s, Fordham Road was often used as a northern limit. The Bronx River more consistently forms an eastern boundary. The South Bronx has many high - density apartment buildings, low income public housing complexes, and multi-unit homes. The South Bronx is home to the Bronx County Courthouse, Borough Hall, and other government buildings, as well as Yankee Stadium. The Cross Bronx Expressway bisects it, east to west. The South Bronx has some of the poorest neighborhoods in the country, as well as very high crime areas.
Neighborhoods include: The Hub (a retail district at Third Avenue and East 149th Street), Port Morris, Mott Haven (Board 1), Melrose (Board 1 & Board 3), Morrisania, East Morrisania (also known as Crotona Park East) (Board 3), Hunts Point, Longwood (Board 2), Highbridge, Concourse (Board 4), West Farms, Belmont, East Tremont (Board 6), Tremont, Morris Heights (Board 5), University Heights. (Board 5 & Board 7).
The Bronx adjoins:
The Bronx street grid is irregular. Like the northernmost part of upper Manhattan, the West Bronx 's hilly terrain leaves a relatively free - style street grid. Much of the West Bronx 's street numbering carries over from upper Manhattan, but does not match it exactly; East 132nd Street is the lowest numbered street in the Bronx. This dates from the mid-19th century when the southwestern area of Westchester County west of the Bronx River, was incorporated into New York City and known as the Northside.
The East Bronx is considerably flatter, and the street layout tends to be more regular. Only the Wakefield neighborhood picks up the street numbering, albeit at a misalignment due to Tremont Avenue 's layout. At the same diagonal latitude, West 262nd Street in Riverdale matches East 237th Street in Wakefield.
Three major north - south thoroughfares run between Manhattan and the Bronx: Third Avenue, Park Avenue, and Broadway. Other major north - south roads include the Grand Concourse, Jerome Avenue, Sedgwick Avenue, Webster Avenue, and White Plains Road. Major east - west thoroughfares include Mosholu Parkway, Gun Hill Road, Fordham Road, Pelham Parkway, and Tremont Avenue.
Most east - west streets are prefixed with either East or West, to indicate on which side of Jerome Avenue they lie (continuing the similar system in Manhattan, which uses Fifth Avenue as the dividing line).
The historic Boston Post Road, part of the long pre-revolutionary road connecting Boston with other northeastern cities, runs east - west in some places, and sometimes northeast - southwest.
Mosholu and Pelham Parkways, with Bronx Park between them, Van Cortlandt Park to the west and Pelham Bay Park to the east, are also linked by bridle paths.
As of the 2000 Census, approximately 61.6 % of all Bronx households do not have access to a car. Citywide, the percentage of autoless households is 55 %.
Several major limited access highways traverse the Bronx. These include:
Thirteen bridges and three tunnels connect the Bronx to Manhattan, and three bridges connect the Bronx to Queens. These are, from west to east:
To Manhattan: the Spuyten Duyvil Bridge, the Henry Hudson Bridge, the Broadway Bridge, the University Heights Bridge, the Washington Bridge, the Alexander Hamilton Bridge, the High Bridge, the Concourse Tunnel, the Macombs Dam Bridge, the 145th Street Bridge, the 149th Street Tunnel, the Madison Avenue Bridge, the Park Avenue Bridge, the Lexington Avenue Tunnel, the Third Avenue Bridge (southbound traffic only), and the Willis Avenue Bridge (northbound traffic only).
To both Manhattan and Queens: the Robert F. Kennedy Bridge, formerly known as the Triborough Bridge.
To Queens: the Bronx -- Whitestone Bridge and the Throgs Neck Bridge.
The Bronx is served by seven New York City subway services along six physical lines, with 70 stations in the Bronx:
There are also many MTA Regional Bus Operations bus routes in the Bronx. This includes local and express routes as well as Bee - Line Bus System routes.
Two Metro - North Railroad commuter rail lines (the Harlem Line and the Hudson Line) serve 11 stations in the Bronx. (Marble Hill, between the Spuyten Duyvil and University Heights stations, is actually in the only part of Manhattan connected to the mainland.) In addition, trains serving the New Haven Line stop at Fordham Road.
According to a 2013 Census Bureau estimate, 45.8 % of the Bronx 's population was white, 43.3 % was black or African American, 4.2 % Asian, 3.0 % American Indian, 0.4 % Pacific Islander, and 3.3 % of two or more races. In addition, 54.6 % of the population was of Hispanic or Latino origin, of any race.
The Census Bureau considers the Bronx to be the most diverse area in the country. There is an 89.7 percent chance that any two residents, chosen at random, would be of different race or ethnicity. The borough 's most populous racial group, white, declined from 98.3 % in 1940 to 45.8 % in 2013.
31.7 % of the population were foreign born and another 8.9 % were born in Puerto Rico, U.S. Island areas, or born abroad to American parents. 55.6 % spoke a language other than English at home and 16.4 % had a bachelor 's degree or higher.
Approximately 44.3 % of the population over the age of five spoke only English at home, which is roughly 570,000 people. The majority (55.7 %) of the population spoke a language other than English at home. Over 580,600 people (45.2 % of the population) spoke Spanish at home.
According to the 2010 Census, 53.5 % of Bronx 's population was of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin (they may be of any race); 30.1 % non-Hispanic Black or African American, 10.9 % of the population was non-Hispanic White, 3.4 % non-Hispanic Asian, 0.6 % from some other race (non-Hispanic) and 1.2 % of two or more races (non-Hispanic). The U.S. Census considers the Bronx to be the most diverse area in the country. There is an 89.7 percent chance that any two residents, chosen at random, would be of different race or ethnicity.
As of 2010, 46.29 % (584,463) of Bronx residents aged five and older spoke Spanish at home, while 44.02 % (555,767) spoke English, 2.48 % (31,361) African languages, 0.91 % (11,455) French, 0.90 % (11,355) Italian, 0.87 % (10,946) various Indic languages, 0.70 % (8,836) other Indo - European languages, and Chinese was spoken at home by 0.50 % (6,610) of the population over the age of five. In total, 55.98 % (706,783) of the Bronx 's population age five and older spoke a language at home other than English. A Garifuna - speaking community from Honduras and Guatemala also makes the Bronx its home.
According to the 2009 American Community Survey, White Americans of both Hispanic and non-Hispanic origin represented over one - fifth (22.9 %) of the Bronx 's population. However, non-Hispanic whites formed under one - eighth (12.1 %) of the population, down from 34.4 % in 1980. Out of all five boroughs, the Bronx has the lowest number and percentage of white residents. 320,640 whites called the Bronx home, of which 168,570 were non-Hispanic whites. The majority of the non-Hispanic European American population is of Italian and Irish descent. People of Italian descent numbered over 55,000 individuals and made up 3.9 % of the population. People of Irish descent numbered over 43,500 individuals and made up 3.1 % of the population. German Americans and Polish Americans made up 1.4 % and 0.8 % of the population respectively.
The Bronx is the only New York City borough with a Hispanic majority, many of whom are Puerto Ricans and Dominicans.
At the 2009 American Community Survey, Black Americans made the second largest group in the Bronx after Hispanics and Latinos. Blacks of both Hispanic and non-Hispanic origin represented over one - third (35.4 %) of the Bronx 's population. Blacks of non-Hispanic origin made up 30.8 % of the population. Over 495,200 blacks resided in the borough, of which 430,600 were non-Hispanic blacks. Over 61,000 people identified themselves as "Sub-Saharan African '' in the survey, making up 4.4 % of the population.
Native Americans are a very small minority in the borough. Only some 5,560 individuals (out of the borough 's 1.4 million people) are Native American, which is equal to just 0.4 % of the population. In addition, roughly 2,500 people are Native Americans of non-Hispanic origin.
In 2009, Hispanic and Latino Americans represented 52.0 % of the Bronx 's population. Puerto Ricans represented 23.2 % of the borough 's population. Over 72,500 Mexicans lived in the Bronx, and they formed 5.2 % of the population. Cubans numbered over 9,640 members and formed 0.7 % of the population. In addition, over 319,000 people were of various Hispanic and Latino groups, such as Dominican, Salvadoran, and so on. These groups collectively represented 22.9 % of the population. At the 2010 Census, 53.5 % of Bronx 's population was of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin (they may be of any race). Asian Americans are a small but sizable minority in the borough. Roughly 49,600 Asians make up 3.6 % of the population. Roughly 13,600 Indians call the Bronx home, along with 9,800 Chinese, 6,540 Filipinos, 2,260 Vietnamese, 2,010 Koreans, and 1,100 Japanese.
Multiracial Americans are also a sizable minority in the Bronx. People of multiracial heritage number over 41,800 individuals and represent 3.0 % of the population. People of mixed Caucasian and African American heritage number over 6,850 members and form 0.5 % of the population. People of mixed Caucasian and Native American heritage number over 2,450 members and form 0.2 % of the population. People of mixed Caucasian and Asian heritage number over 880 members and form 0.1 % of the population. People of mixed African American and Native American heritage number over 1,220 members and form 0.1 % of the population.
The Census of 1930 counted only 1.0 % (12,930) of the Bronx 's population as Negro (while making no distinct counts of Hispanic or Spanish - surname residents).
At the 2010 Census, there were, 1,385,108 people living in Bronx, a 3.9 % increase since 2000. As of the United States Census of 2000, there were 1,332,650 people, 463,212 households, and 314,984 families residing in the borough. The population density was 31,709.3 inhabitants per square mile (12,242.2 / km2). There were 490,659 housing units at an average density of 11,674.8 per square mile (4,507.4 / km2). Recent Census estimates place total population of Bronx county at 1,392,002 as of 2012.
There were 463,212 households out of which 38.1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.4 % were married couples living together, 30.4 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.0 % were non-families. 27.4 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9.4 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.78 and the average family size was 3.37.
The age distribution of the population in the Bronx was as follows: 29.8 % under the age of 18, 10.6 % from 18 to 24, 30.7 % from 25 to 44, 18.8 % from 45 to 64, and 10.1 % 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 87.0 males.
The 1999 median income for a household in the borough was $27,611, and the median income for a family was $30,682. Males had a median income of $31,178 versus $29,429 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $13,959. About 28.0 % of families and 30.7 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 41.5 % of those under age 18 and 21.3 % of those age 65 or over.
From 2015 Census data, the median income for a household was (in 2015 dollars) $34,299. Per capita income in past 12 months (in 2015 dollars): $18,456 with persons in poverty at 30.3 %.
Since New York City 's consolidation in 1898, the Bronx has been governed by the New York City Charter that provides for a "strong '' mayor - council system. The centralized New York City government is responsible for public education, correctional institutions, libraries, public safety, recreational facilities, sanitation, water supply, and welfare services in the Bronx.
The office of Borough President was created in the consolidation of 1898 to balance centralization with local authority. Each borough president had a powerful administrative role derived from having a vote on the New York City Board of Estimate, which was responsible for creating and approving the city 's budget and proposals for land use. In 1989 the Supreme Court of the United States declared the Board of Estimate unconstitutional on the grounds that Brooklyn, the most populous borough, had no greater effective representation on the Board than Staten Island, the least populous borough, a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause pursuant to the high court 's 1964 "one man, one vote '' decision.
Since 1990 the Borough President has acted as an advocate for the borough at the mayoral agencies, the City Council, the New York state government, and corporations.
Until March 1, 2009, the Borough President of the Bronx was Adolfo Carrión Jr., elected as a Democrat in 2001 and 2005 before retiring early to direct the White House Office of Urban Affairs Policy. His successor, Democratic New York State Assembly member Rubén Díaz, Jr., who won a special election on April 21, 2009 by a vote of 86.3 % (29,420) on the "Bronx Unity '' line to 13.3 % (4,646) for the Republican district leader Anthony Ribustello on the "People First '' line, became Borough President on May 1.
All of the Bronx 's currently elected public officials have first won the nomination of the Democratic Party (in addition to any other endorsements). Local party platforms center on affordable housing, education and economic development. Controversial political issues in the Bronx include environmental issues, the cost of housing, and annexation of parkland for new Yankee Stadium.
Since its separation from New York County on January 1, 1914, the Bronx, has had, like each of the other 61 counties of New York State, its own criminal court system and District Attorney, the chief public prosecutor who is directly elected by popular vote. Darcel D. Clark has been the Bronx County District Attorney since 2016. Her predecessor was Robert T. Johnson, was the District Attorney from 1989 to 2015. He was the first African - American District Attorney in New York State.
Eight members of the New York City Council represent districts wholly within the Bronx (11 -- 18), while a ninth represents a Manhattan district (8) that also includes a small area of the Bronx. One of those members, Joel Rivera (District 15), has been the Council 's Majority Leader since 2002. In 2008, all of them were Democrats.
The Bronx also has twelve Community Boards, appointed bodies that field complaints and advise on land use and municipal facilities and services for local residents, businesses and institutions. (They are listed at Bronx Community Boards).
In 2008, three Democrats represented almost all of the Bronx in the United States House of Representatives.
All of these Representatives won over 75 % of their districts ' respective votes in both 2004 and 2006. National Journal 's neutral rating system placed all of their voting records in 2005 and 2006 somewhere between very liberal and extremely liberal.
11 out of 150 members of the New York State Assembly (the lower house of the state legislature) represent districts wholly within the Bronx. Six State Senators out of 62 represent Bronx districts, half of them wholly within the County, and half straddling other counties. All these legislators are Democrats who won between 65 % and 100 % of their districts ' vote in 2006.
In the 2004 presidential election, Senator John F. Kerry received 81.8 % of the vote in the Bronx (79.8 % on the Democratic line plus 2 % on the Working Families Party 's line) while President George W. Bush received 16.3 % (15.5 % Republican plus 0.85 % Conservative).
In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama improved on Kerry 's showing, and took 88.7 % of the vote in the Bronx to Republican John McCain 's 10.9 %.
In 2005, the Democratic former Bronx Borough President Fernando Ferrer won 59.8 % of the borough 's vote against 38.8 % (35.3 % Republican, 3.5 % Independence Party) for Mayor Michael Bloomberg, who carried every other borough in his winning campaign for re-election.
In 2006, successfully reelected Senator Hillary Clinton won 89.5 % of the Bronx 's vote (82.8 % Dem. + 4.1 % Working Families + 2.6 % Independence) against Yonkers ex-Mayor John Spencer 's 9.6 % (8.2 % Republican + 1.4 % Cons.), while Eliot Spitzer won 88.8 % of the Borough 's vote (82.1 % Dem. + 4.1 % Working Families + 2.5 % Independence Party) in winning the Governorship against John Faso, who received 9.7 % of the Bronx 's vote (8.2 % Republican + 1.5 % Cons.)
In the Presidential primary elections of February 5, 2008, Sen. Clinton won 61.2 % of the Bronx 's 148,636 Democratic votes against 37.8 % for Barack Obama and 1.0 % for the other four candidates combined (John Edwards, Dennis Kucinich, Bill Richardson and Joe Biden). On the same day, John McCain won 54.4 % of the borough 's 5,643 Republican votes, Mitt Romney 20.8 %, Mike Huckabee 8.2 %, Ron Paul 7.4 %, Rudy Giuliani 5.6 %, and the other candidates (Fred Thompson, Duncan Hunter and Alan Keyes) 3.6 % between them.
After becoming a separate county in 1914, the Bronx has supported only two Republican Presidential candidates. It voted heavily for the winning Republican Warren G. Harding in 1920, but much more narrowly on a split vote for his victorious Republican successor Calvin Coolidge in 1924 (Coolidge 79,562; John W. Davis, Dem., 72,834; Robert La Follette, 62,202 equally divided between the Progressive and Socialist lines).
Since then, the Bronx has always supported the Democratic Party 's nominee for President, starting with a vote of 2 -- 1 for the unsuccessful Al Smith in 1928, followed by four 2 -- 1 votes for the successful Franklin D. Roosevelt. (Both had been Governors of New York, but Republican former Gov. Thomas E. Dewey won only 28 % of the Bronx 's vote in 1948 against 55 % for Pres. Harry Truman, the winning Democrat, and 17 % for Henry A. Wallace of the Progressives. It was only 32 years earlier, by contrast, that another Republican former Governor who narrowly lost the Presidency, Charles Evans Hughes, had won 42.6 % of the Bronx 's 1916 vote against Democratic President Woodrow Wilson 's 49.8 % and Socialist candidate Allan Benson 's 7.3 %.)
The Bronx has often shown striking differences from other boroughs in elections for Mayor. The only Republican to carry the Bronx since 1914 was Fiorello La Guardia in 1933, 1937 and 1941 (and in the latter two elections, only because his 30 % to 32 % vote on the American Labor Party line was added to 22 % to 23 % as a Republican). The Bronx was thus the only borough not carried by the successful Republican re-election campaigns of Mayors Rudolph Giuliani in 1997 and Michael Bloomberg in 2005. The anti-war Socialist campaign of Morris Hillquit in the 1917 mayoral election won over 31 % of the Bronx 's vote, putting him second and well ahead of the 20 % won by the incumbent pro-war Fusion Mayor John P. Mitchel, who came in second (ahead of Hillquit) everywhere else and outpolled Hillquit citywide by 23.2 % to 21.7 %.
Shopping malls and markets in the Bronx include:
Prominent shopping areas in the Bronx include Fordham Road, Bay Plaza in Co-op City, The Hub, the Riverdale / Kingsbridge shopping center, and Bruckner Boulevard. Shops are also concentrated on streets aligned underneath elevated railroad lines, including Westchester Avenue, White Plains Road, Jerome Avenue, Southern Boulevard, and Broadway. The Gateway Center at Bronx Terminal Market contains several big - box stores, which opened in 2009 south of Yankee Stadium.
There are three primary shopping centers in the Bronx: The Hub, Gateway Center and Southern Boulevard. The Hub -- Third Avenue Business Improvement District (B.I.D.), in The Hub, is the retail heart of the South Bronx, located where four roads converge: East 149th Street, Willis, Melrose and Third Avenues. It is primarily located inside the neighborhood of Melrose but also lines the northern border of Mott Haven. The Hub has been called "the Broadway of the Bronx '', being likened to the real Broadway in Manhattan and the northwestern Bronx. It is the site of both maximum traffic and architectural density. In configuration, it resembles a miniature Times Square, a spatial "bow - tie '' created by the geometry of the street. The Hub is part of Bronx Community Board 1.
The Gateway Center at Bronx Terminal Market, in the West Bronx, is a shopping center that encompasses less than one million square feet of retail space, built on a 17 acres (7 ha) site that formerly held the Bronx Terminal Market, a wholesale fruit and vegetable market as well as the former Bronx House of Detention, south of Yankee Stadium. The $500 million shopping center, which was completed in 2009, saw the construction of new buildings and two smaller buildings, one new and the other a renovation of an existing building that was part of the original market. The two main buildings are linked by a six - level garage for 2,600 cars. The center has earned itself a LEED "Silver '' designation in its design.
Education in the Bronx is provided by a large number of public and private institutions, many of which draw students who live beyond the Bronx. The New York City Department of Education manages public noncharter schools in the borough. In 2000, public schools enrolled nearly 280,000 of the Bronx 's residents over 3 years old (out of 333,100 enrolled in all pre-college schools). There are also several public charter schools. Private schools range from élite independent schools to religiously affiliated schools run by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York and Jewish organizations.
A small portion of land that is between Pelham and Pelham Bay Park, with a total of 35 houses, is a part of the Bronx, but is cut off from the rest of the borough due to the way the county boundaries were established; the New York City government pays for the residents ' children to go to Pelham Union Free School District schools, including Pelham Memorial High School, since that is more cost effective than sending school buses to take the students to New York City schools. This arrangement has been in place since 1948.
In 2000, according to the U.S. Census, out of the nearly 800,000 people in the Bronx who were then at least 25 years old, 62.3 % had graduated from high school and 14.6 % held a bachelor 's or higher college degree. These percentages were lower than those for New York 's other boroughs, which ranged from 68.8 % (Brooklyn) to 82.6 % (Staten Island) for high school graduates over 24, and from 21.8 % (Brooklyn) to 49.4 % (Manhattan) for college graduates. (The respective state and national percentages were (NY) 79.1 % & 27.4 % and (US) 80.4 % & 24.4 %.)
In the 2000 Census, 79,240 of the nearly 95,000 Bronx residents enrolled in high school attended public schools.
Many public high schools are located in the borough including the elite Bronx High School of Science, Celia Cruz Bronx High School of Music, DeWitt Clinton High School, High School for Violin and Dance, Bronx Leadership Academy 2, Bronx International High School, the School for Excellence, the Morris Academy for Collaborative Study, Wings Academy for young adults, The Bronx School for Law, Government and Justice, Validus Preparatory Academy, The Eagle Academy For Young Men, Bronx Expeditionary Learning High School, Bronx Academy of Letters, Herbert H. Lehman High School and High School of American Studies. The Bronx is also home to three of New York City 's most prestigious private, secular schools: Fieldston, Horace Mann, and Riverdale Country School.
High schools linked to the Roman Catholic Church include: Saint Raymond 's Academy for Girls, All Hallows High School, Fordham Preparatory School, Monsignor Scanlan High School, St. Raymond High School for Boys, Cardinal Hayes High School, Cardinal Spellman High School, The Academy of Mount Saint Ursula, Aquinas High School, Preston High School, St. Catharine Academy, Mount Saint Michael Academy, and St. Barnabas High School.
The SAR Academy and SAR High School are Modern Orthodox Jewish Yeshiva coeducational day schools in Riverdale, with roots in Manhattan 's Lower East Side.
In the 1990s, New York City began closing the large, public high schools in the Bronx and replacing them with small high schools. Among the reasons cited for the changes were poor graduation rates and concerns about safety. Schools that have been closed or reduced in size include John F. Kennedy, James Monroe, Taft, Theodore Roosevelt, Adlai Stevenson, Evander Childs, Christopher Columbus, Morris, Walton, and South Bronx High Schools. More recently the City has started phasing out large middle schools, also replacing them with smaller schools.
In 2000, 49,442 (57.5 %) of the 86,014 Bronx residents seeking college, graduate or professional degrees attended public institutions.
Several colleges and universities are located in the Bronx.
Fordham University was founded as St. John 's College in 1841 by the Diocese of New York as the first Catholic institution of higher education in the northeast. It is now officially an independent institution, but strongly embraces its Jesuit heritage. The 85 - acre (340,000 m) Bronx campus, known as Rose Hill, is the main campus of the university, and is among the largest within the city (other Fordham campuses are located in Manhattan and Westchester County).
Three campuses of the City University of New York are in the Bronx: Hostos Community College, Bronx Community College (occupying the former University Heights Campus of New York University) and Herbert H. Lehman College (formerly the uptown campus of Hunter College), which offers both undergraduate and graduate degrees.
The College of Mount Saint Vincent is a Catholic liberal arts college in Riverdale under the direction of the Sisters of Charity of New York. Founded in 1847 as a school for girls, the academy became a degree - granting college in 1911 and began admitting men in 1974. The school serves 1,600 students. Its campus is also home to the Academy for Jewish Religion, a transdenominational rabbinical and cantorial school.
Manhattan College is a Catholic college in Riverdale which offers undergraduate programs in the arts, business, education, engineering, and science. It also offers graduate programs in education and engineering.
Albert Einstein College of Medicine, part of the Montefiore Medical Center, is in Morris Park.
Two colleges based in Westchester County have Bronx campuses. The Catholic and nearly all - female College of New Rochelle maintains satellite campuses at Co-op City and in The Hub. The coeducational and non-sectarian Mercy College in Dobbs Ferry, founded by the Catholic Sisters of Mercy in 1950, has a campus near Westchester Square.
By contrast, the private, proprietary Monroe College, focused on preparation for business and the professions, started in the Bronx in 1933 but now has a campus in New Rochelle (Westchester County) as well the Bronx 's Fordham neighborhood.
The State University of New York Maritime College in Fort Schuyler (Throggs Neck) -- at the far southeastern tip of the Bronx -- is the national leader in maritime education and houses the Maritime Industry Museum. (Directly across Long Island Sound is Kings Point, Long Island, home of the United States Merchant Marine Academy and the American Merchant Marine Museum.) As of 2017, graduates from the university earned an average annual salary of $144,000, the highest of any university graduates in the United States.
Author Edgar Allan Poe spent the last years of his life (1846 to 1849) in the Bronx at Poe Cottage, now located at Kingsbridge Road and the Grand Concourse. A small wooden farmhouse built around 1812, the cottage once commanded unobstructed vistas over the rolling Bronx hills to the shores of Long Island. Poe moved there to get away from the Manhattan city air and crowding in hope that the then rural area would be beneficial for his wife 's tuberculosis. It was in the Bronx that Poe wrote one of his most famous works, Annabel Lee.
More than a century later, the Bronx would evolve from a hot bed of Latin jazz to an incubator of hip hop as documented in the award - winning documentary, produced by City Lore and broadcast on PBS in 2006, "From Mambo to Hip Hop: A South Bronx Tale. '' Hip Hop first emerged in the South Bronx in the early 1970s. The New York Times has identified 1520 Sedgwick Avenue "an otherwise unremarkable high - rise just north of the Cross Bronx Expressway and hard along the Major Deegan Expressway '' as a starting point, where DJ Kool Herc presided over parties in the community room. The 2016 Netflix series The Get Down is based on the development of hip hop in 1977 in the South Bronx. Ten years earlier, the Bronx Opera had been founded.
On August 11, 1973, DJ Kool Herc was a D.J. and M.C. at a party in the recreation room of 1520 Sedgwick Avenue in the Bronx adjacent to the Cross Bronx Expressway. While it was not the actual "Birthplace of Hip Hop '' -- the genre developed slowly in several places in the 1970s -- it was verified to be the place where one of the pivotal and formative events occurred. Specifically:
(Cool Herc) extended an instrumental beat (mixing or scratching) to let people dance longer (B - boying) and began MC'ing (rapping) during the extended breakdancing... (This) helped lay the foundation for a cultural revolution.
Beginning with the advent of beat match DJing, in which Bronx disc jockeys) including Grandmaster Flash, Afrika Bambaataa and DJ Kool Herc extended the breaks of funk records, a major new musical genre emerged that sought to isolate the percussion breaks of hit funk, disco and soul songs. As hip hop 's popularity grew, performers began speaking ("rapping '') in sync with the beats, and became known as MCs or emcees. The Herculoids, made up of Herc, Coke La Rock, and Clark Kent, were the earliest to gain major fame. The Bronx is referred to in hip - hop slang as "The Boogie Down Bronx '', or just "The Boogie Down ''. This was hip - hop pioneer KRS - One 's inspiration for his group BDP, or Boogie Down Productions, which included DJ Scott La Rock. Newer hip hop artists from the Bronx include Big Pun, Lord Tariq and Peter Gunz, Camp Lo, Swizz Beatz, Drag - On, Fat Joe, Terror Squad and Cory Gunz.
Hush Hip Hop Tours, a tour company founded in 2002 by local licensed sightseeing tour guide Debra Harris, has established a sightseeing tour of the Bronx showcasing the locations that helped shape hip hop culture, and features some of the pioneers of hip hop as tour guides. The Bronx 's recognition as an important center of African - American culture has led Fordham University to establish the Bronx African - American History Project (BAAHP).
The Bronx is the home of the New York Yankees, nicknamed "the Bronx Bombers '', of Major League Baseball. The original Yankee Stadium opened in 1923 on 161st Street and River Avenue, a year that saw the Yankees bring home their first of 27 World Series Championships. With the famous facade, the short right field porch and Monument Park, Yankee Stadium has been home to many of baseball 's greatest players including Babe Ruth, Lou Gehrig, Joe DiMaggio, Whitey Ford, Yogi Berra, Mickey Mantle, Reggie Jackson, Thurman Munson, Don Mattingly, Derek Jeter and Mariano Rivera.
The original stadium was the scene of Lou Gehrig 's Farewell Speech in 1939, Don Larsen 's perfect game in the 1956 World Series, Roger Maris ' record breaking 61st home run in 1961, and Reggie Jackson 's 3 home runs to clinch Game 6 of the 1977 World Series. The Stadium was the former home of the New York Giants of the National Football League from 1956 to 1973.
The original Yankee Stadium closed in 2008 to make way for a new Yankee Stadium in which the team started play in 2009. It is located north - northeast of the 1923 Yankee Stadium, on the former site of Macombs Dam Park. The current Yankee Stadium is also the home of New York City FC of Major League Soccer, who began play in 2015.
The Bronx is home to several Off - Off - Broadway theaters, many staging new works by immigrant playwrights from Latin America and Africa. The Pregones Theater, which produces Latin American work, opened a new 130 - seat theater in 2005 on Walton Avenue in the South Bronx. Some artists from elsewhere in New York City have begun to converge on the area, and housing prices have nearly quadrupled in the area since 2002. However rising prices directly correlate to a housing shortage across the city and the entire metro area.
The Bronx Academy of Arts and Dance, founded in 1998 by Arthur Aviles and Charles Rice - Gonzalez, provides dance, theatre and art workshops, festivals and performances focusing on contemporary and modern art in relation to race, gender, and sexuality. It is home to the Arthur Aviles Typical Theatre, a contemporary dance company, and the Bronx Dance Coalition. The Academy was formerly in the American Bank Note Company Building before relocating to a venue on the grounds of St. Peter 's Episcopal Church.
The Bronx Museum of the Arts, founded in 1971, exhibits 20th century and contemporary art through its central museum space and 11,000 square feet (1,000 m) of galleries. Many of its exhibitions are on themes of special interest to the Bronx. Its permanent collection features more than 800 works of art, primarily by artists from Africa, Asia and Latin America, including paintings, photographs, prints, drawings, and mixed media. The museum was temporarily closed in 2006 while it underwent a major expansion designed by the architectural firm Arquitectonica.
The Bronx has also become home to a peculiar poetic tribute in the form of the "Heinrich Heine Memorial '', better known as the Lorelei Fountain. After Heine 's German birthplace of Düsseldorf had rejected, allegedly for anti-Semitic motives, a centennial monument to the radical German - Jewish poet (1797 -- 1856), his incensed German - American admirers, including Carl Schurz, started a movement to place one instead in Midtown Manhattan, at Fifth Avenue and 59th Street. However, this intention was thwarted by a combination of ethnic antagonism, aesthetic controversy and political struggles over the institutional control of public art. In 1899, the memorial by Ernst Gustav Herter was placed in Joyce Kilmer Park, near the Yankee Stadium. In 1999, it was moved to 161st Street and the Concourse.
The peninsular borough 's maritime heritage is acknowledged in several ways. The City Island Historical Society and Nautical Museum occupies a former public school designed by the New York City school system 's turn - of - the - last - century master architect C.B.J. Snyder. The state 's Maritime College in Fort Schuyler (on the southeastern shore) houses the Maritime Industry Museum. In addition, the Harlem River is reemerging as "Scullers ' Row '' due in large part to the efforts of the Bronx River Restoration Project, a joint public - private endeavor of the city 's parks department. Canoeing and kayaking on the borough 's namesake river have been promoted by the Bronx River Alliance. The river is also straddled by the New York Botanical Gardens, its neighbor, the Bronx Zoo, and a little further south, on the west shore, Bronx River Art Center.
The Bronx has several local newspapers, including The Bronx News, Parkchester News, City News, The Norwood News, The Riverdale Press, Riverdale Review, The Bronx Times Reporter, Inner City Press (which now has more of a focus on national issues) and Co-op City Times. Four non-profit news outlets, Norwood News, Mount Hope Monitor, Mott Haven Herald and The Hunts Point Express serve the borough 's poorer communities. The editor and co-publisher of The Riverdale Press, Bernard Stein, won the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Writing for his editorials about Bronx and New York City issues in 1998. (Stein graduated from the Bronx High School of Science in 1959.)
The Bronx once had its own daily newspaper, The Bronx Home News, which started publishing on January 20, 1907, and merged into the New York Post in 1948. It became a special section of the Post, sold only in the Bronx, and eventually disappeared from view.
One of New York City 's major non-commercial radio broadcasters is WFUV, a National Public Radio - affiliated 50,000 - watt station broadcasting from Fordham University 's Rose Hill campus in the Bronx. The radio station 's antenna is atop an apartment building owned by Montefiore Medical Center.
The City of New York has an official television station run by the NYC Media Group and broadcasting from Bronx Community College, and Cablevision operates News 12 The Bronx, both of which feature programming based in the Bronx. Co-op City was the first area in the Bronx, and the first in New York beyond Manhattan, to have its own cable television provider. The local public - access television station BronxNet originates from Herbert H. Lehman College, the borough 's only four year CUNY school, and provides government - access television (GATV) public affairs programming in addition to programming produced by Bronx residents.
Mid-20th century movies set in the Bronx portrayed densely settled, working - class, urban culture. Hollywood films such as From This Day Forward (1946), set in Highbridge, occasionally delved into Bronx life. Paddy Chayefsky 's Academy Award - winning Marty was the most notable examination of working class Bronx life was also explored by Chayefsky in his 1956 film The Catered Affair, and in the 1993 Robert De Niro / Chazz Palminteri film, A Bronx Tale, Spike Lee 's 1999 movie Summer of Sam, centered in an Italian - American Bronx community, 1994 's I Like It Like That that takes place in the predominantly Puerto Rican neighborhood of the South Bronx, and Doughboys, the story of two Italian - American brothers in danger of losing their bakery thanks to one brother 's gambling debts.
The Bronx 's gritty urban life had worked its way into the movies even earlier, with depictions of the "Bronx cheer '', a loud flatulent - like sound of disapproval, allegedly first made by New York Yankees fans. The sound can be heard, for example, on the Spike Jones and His City Slickers recording of "Der Fuehrer 's Face '' (from the 1942 Disney animated film of the same name), repeatedly lambasting Adolf Hitler with: "We 'll Heil! (Bronx cheer) Heil! (Bronx cheer) Right in Der Fuehrer 's Face! ''
Some movies have also used the term Bronx for comic effect, such as "Bronx '', the character on the Disney animated series Gargoyles.
Starting in the 1970s, the Bronx often symbolized violence, decay, and urban ruin. The wave of arson in the South Bronx in the 1960s and 1970s inspired the observation that "The Bronx is burning '': in 1974 it was the title of both a New York Times editorial and a BBC documentary film. The line entered the pop - consciousness with Game Two of the 1977 World Series, when a fire broke out near Yankee Stadium as the team was playing the Los Angeles Dodgers. Numerous fires had previously broken out in the Bronx prior to this fire. As the fire was captured on live television, announcer Howard Cosell is wrongly remembered to have said something like, "There it is, ladies and gentlemen: the Bronx is burning ''. Historians of New York City frequently point to Cosell 's remark as an acknowledgement of both the city and the borough 's decline. A new feature - length documentary film by Edwin Pagan called Bronx Burning is in production in 2006, chronicling what led up to the numerous arson - for - insurance fraud fires of the 1970s in the borough.
Bronx gang life was depicted in the 1974 novel The Wanderers by Bronx native Richard Price and the 1979 movie of the same name. They are set in the heart of the Bronx, showing apartment life and the then - landmark Krums ice cream parlor. In the 1979 film The Warriors, the eponymous gang go to a meeting in Van Cortlandt Park in the Bronx, and have to fight their way out of the borough and get back to Coney Island in Brooklyn. A Bronx Tale (1993) depicts gang activities in the Belmont "Little Italy '' section of the Bronx. The 2005 video game adaptation features levels called Pelham, Tremont, and "Gunhill '' (a play off the name Gun Hill Road). This theme lends itself to the title of The Bronx Is Burning, an eight - part ESPN TV mini-series (2007) about the New York Yankees ' drive to winning baseball 's 1977 World Series. The TV series emphasizes the boisterous nature of the team, led by manager Billy Martin, catcher Thurman Munson and outfielder Reggie Jackson, as well as the malaise of the Bronx and New York City in general during that time, such as the blackout, the city 's serious financial woes and near bankruptcy, the arson for insurance payments, and the election of Ed Koch as mayor.
The 1981 film Fort Apache, The Bronx is another film that used the Bronx 's gritty image for its storyline. The movie 's title is from the nickname for the 41st Police Precinct in the South Bronx which was nicknamed "Fort Apache ''. Also from 1981 is the horror film Wolfen making use of the rubble of the Bronx as a home for werewolf type creatures. Knights of the South Bronx, a true story of a teacher who worked with disadvantaged children, is another film also set in the Bronx released in 2005. The Bronx was the setting for the 1983 film Fuga dal Bronx, also known as Bronx Warriors 2 and Escape 2000, an Italian B - movie best known for its appearance on the television series Mystery Science Theater 3000. The plot revolves around a sinister construction corporation 's plans to depopulate, destroy and redevelop the Bronx, and a band of rebels who are out to expose the corporation 's murderous ways and save their homes. The film is memorable for its almost incessant use of the phrase, "Leave the Bronx! '' Many of the movie 's scenes were filmed in Queens, substituting as the Bronx. Rumble in the Bronx, filmed in Vancouver, was a 1995 Jackie Chan kung - fu film, another which popularized the Bronx to international audiences. Last Bronx, a 1996 Sega game played on the bad reputation of the Bronx to lend its name to an alternate version of post-Japanese bubble Tokyo, where crime and gang warfare is rampant.
Bronx native Nancy Savoca 's 1989 comedy, True Love, explores two Italian - American Bronx sweethearts in the days before their wedding. The film, which debuted Annabella Sciorra and Ron Eldard as the betrothed couple, won the Grand Jury Prize at that year 's Sundance Film Festival. The CBS television sitcom Becker, 1998 -- 2004, was more ambiguous. The show starred Ted Danson as Dr. John Becker, a doctor who operated a small practice and was constantly annoyed by his patients, co-workers, friends, and practically everything and everybody else in his world. It showed his everyday life as a doctor working in a small clinic in the Bronx.
Penny Marshall 's 1990 film Awakenings, which was nominated for several Oscars, is based on neurologist Oliver Sacks ' 1973 account of his psychiatric patients at Beth Abraham Hospital in the Bronx who were paralyzed by a form of encephalitis but briefly responded to the drug L - dopa. Robin Williams played the physician; Robert De Niro was one of the patients who emerged from a catatonic (frozen) state. The home of Williams ' character was shot not far from Sacks ' actual City Island residence. A 1973 Yorkshire Television documentary and "A Kind of Alaska '', a 1985 play by Harold Pinter, were also based on Sacks ' book.
Gus Van Sant 's 2000 Finding Forrester was quickly billed "Good Will Hunting in the Hood. '' Sean Connery is in the title role of a reclusive old man who 50 years earlier wrote a single novel that garnered the Pulitzer Prize. He meets 16 - year - old Jamal, portrayed by Rob Brown, a gifted basketball player and aspiring writer from the Bronx, and becomes his mentor. The movie includes stock footage of Bronx housing projects from 1990, as well as some other scenes shot in Manhattan and Brooklyn.
The 2012 documentary "South Bronx United '' features the Mott Haven neighborhood and its conflict over the online grocery delivery service Fresh Direct 's move of their trucking facility from Long Island City to the South Bronx.
The Bronx has been featured significantly in fiction literature. All of the characters in Herman Wouk 's City Boy: The Adventures of Herbie Bookbinder (1948) live in the Bronx, and about half of the action is set there. Kate Simon 's Bronx Primitive: Portraits of a Childhood is directly autobiographical, a warm account of a Polish - Jewish girl in an immigrant family growing up before World War II, and living near Arthur Avenue and Tremont Avenue. In Jacob M. Appel 's short story, "The Grand Concourse '' (2007), a woman who grew up in the iconic Lewis Morris Building returns to the Morrisania neighborhood with her adult daughter. Similarly, in Avery Corman 's book The Old Neighborhood (1980), an upper - middle class white protagonist returns to his birth neighborhood (Fordham Road and the Grand Concourse), and learns that even though the folks are poor, Hispanic and African - American, they are good people.
By contrast, Tom Wolfe 's Bonfire of the Vanities (1987) portrays a wealthy, white protagonist, Sherman McCoy, getting lost off the Major Deegan Expressway in the South Bronx and having an altercation with locals. A substantial piece of the last part of the book is set in the resulting riotous trial at the Bronx County Courthouse. However, times change, and in 2007, The New York Times reported that "the Bronx neighborhoods near the site of Sherman 's accident are now dotted with townhouses and apartments. '' In the same article, the Reverend Al Sharpton (whose fictional analogue in the novel is "Reverend Bacon '') asserts that "twenty years later, the cynicism of The Bonfire of the Vanities is as out of style as Tom Wolfe 's wardrobe. ''
Don DeLillo 's Underworld (1997) is also set in the Bronx and offers a perspective on the decline of the area from the 1950s onwards. John Patrick Shanley 's "Savage in Limbo '' is set in a 1980s Bronx bar called ' Scales ' where the frustrated characters feel they are unable to move.
In poetry, the Bronx has been immortalized by one of the world 's shortest couplets:
The Bronx No Thonx Ogden Nash, The New Yorker, 1931
Nash repented 33 years after his calumny, penning in 1964 the following prose poem to the Dean of Bronx Community College:
I ca n't seem to escape the sins of my smart - alec youth; Here are my amends. I wrote those lines, "The Bronx? No thonx "; I shudder to confess them. Now I 'm an older, wiser man I cry, "The Bronx? God bless them! ''
In 2016, W.R. Rodriguez published Bronx Trilogy -- consisting of the shoe shine parlor poems et al, concrete pastures of the beautiful bronx, and from the banks of brook avenue. The trilogy celebrates Bronx people, places, and events. DeWitt Clinton High School, St. Mary 's Park, and Brook Avenue are a few of the schools, parks, and streets Rodriguez uses as subjects for his poems.
Nash 's couplet "The Bronx No Thonx '' and his subsequent blessing are mentioned in Bronx Accent: A Literary and Pictorial History of the Borough, edited by Llyod Ultan and Barbara Unger and published in 2000. The book, which includes the work of Yiddish poets, offers a selection from Allen Ginsberg 's Kaddish, as his Aunt Elanor and his mother, Naomi, lived near Woodlawn Cemetery. Also featured is Ruth Lisa Schecther 's poem, "Bronx '', which is described as a celebration of the borough 's landmarks. There is a selection of works from poets such as Sandra María Esteves, Milton Kessler, Joan Murray, W.R. Rodriguez, Myra Shapiro, Gayl Teller, and Terence Wynch.
"Bronx Migrations '' by Michelle M. Tokarczyk is a collection that spans five decades of Tokarczyk 's life in the Bronx, from her exodus in 1962 to her return in search of her childhood tenement.
Bronx Memoir Project: Vol. 1 is a published anthology by the Bronx Council on the Arts and brought forth through a series of workshops meant to empower Bronx residents and shed the stigma on the Bronx 's burning past. The Bronx Memoir Project was created as an ongoing collaboration between the Bronx Council on the Arts and other cultural institutions, including The Bronx Documentary Center, The Bronx Library Center, the (Edgar Allan) Poe Park Visitor Center, Mindbuilders, and other institutions and funded through a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts. The goal was to develop and refine memoir fragments written by people of all walks of life that share a common bond residing within the Bronx.
The following songs also mention the Bronx (see also list of songs about New York City):
General:
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Bronx history:
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where does the money for fafsa come from | FAFSA - wikipedia
The Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) is a form that can be prepared annually by current and prospective college students (undergraduate and graduate) in the United States to determine their eligibility for student financial aid.
The FAFSA should not be confused with the CSS Profile, which is also required by some colleges. The CSS is a fee - based product of the College Board and usually used by colleges to distribute their own institutional funding rather than federal or state.
Nearly every student is eligible for some form of financial aid. Students who may not be eligible for need - based aid may still be eligible for an unsubsidized Stafford Loan regardless of income or circumstances.
A student who can meet all of the following criteria may be eligible for aid:
Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act (SAFRA) of 2010 changed the criteria for suspension of eligibility for drug - related offenses. Previously, students could lose eligibility for either the possession or sale of a controlled substance during the period of enrollment. SAFRA dropped the penalties for possession of a controlled substance but retained the penalties for sale of a controlled substance. SAFRA increases the suspension to two years for a first offense and indefinite for a second offense.
Students who are military veterans and active duty service members may apply for financial aid by filing a FAFSA even if they also apply for education and housing benefits offered by the Post-9 / 11 G.I. Bill and its accompanying Yellow Ribbon program. The amount of military aid a student receives for a college education does not defer eligibility or reduce the amount of student aid that student could receive from the four federal grant programs -- Pell, SMART, FSEOG, and TEACH -- and many of the state student aid programs.
Beginning with the 2017 - 2018 academic year, the FAFSA is made available to the public on October 1. The 2016 - 2017 academic year was the final time the FAFSA was made available on January 1. The US Department of Education made the FAFSA available earlier to more closely align the timing of the financial aid application process with the typical college application process. Additionally, 2 - year old US tax information is used to complete the financial sections of the FAFSA beginning with the 2017 - 2018 academic year. This change in using "prior - prior tax year '' information enables families to use the IRS Data Retrieval Tool in the FAFSA to verify their tax information without a delay from the IRS processing tax information. Some financial aid is provided on a first - come, first - served basis, and students are encouraged to submit a FAFSA as soon as possible.
According to the U.S. Department of Education 's website, students have three preparation options:
The Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008 authorized fee - based FAFSA preparation. By law, fee - based FAFSA preparation services must on initial contact with students inform them of the free option and be transparent about their non-affiliation with the U.S. Department of Education and their fees. Students should not engage with FAFSA preparation firms that are not transparent about FAFSA options and their fees upfront, or that promise to obtain scholarships.
In addition to demographic and financial information, applicants can list up to ten schools to receive the results of the application once it is processed. Historically, there was some concern that colleges could deny admission, waitlist applicants, or offer less financial aid as a result of the order in which applicants list schools on the application, or FAFSA position. However, the US Department of Education changed the FAFSA for the 2016 - 2017 academic year to prevent schools from having access to view other schools that may be listed on the application.
After completing the FAFSA, students are presented with a Student Aid Report (SAR). The SAR provides a student with their potential eligibility for different types of financial aid, their Expected Family Contribution (EFC), and a summary of the data a student provided in the application. Students should carefully review the SAR for errors and make any corrections as necessary. An electronic version of the SAR (called an ISIR) is made available to the colleges / universities the student includes on the FAFSA. The ISIR is also sent to state agencies that award need - based aid.
Federal Student Aid offers several different types of financial aid. The four most common types of aid students are offered from the federal government as a result of completing a FAFSA are:
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when did us allow professional athletes in olympics | Amateur sports - wikipedia
Amateur sports are sports in which participants engage largely or entirely without remuneration. The distinction is made between amateur sporting participants and professional sporting participants, who are paid for the time they spend competing and training. In the majority of sports which feature professional players, the professionals will participate at a higher standard of play than amateur competitors, as they can train full - time without the stress of having another job. The majority of worldwide sporting participants are amateurs. Sporting amateurism was a zealously guarded ideal in the 19th century, especially among the upper classes, but faced steady erosion throughout the 20th century with the continuing growth of pro sports and monetisation of amateur and collegiate sports, and is now strictly held as an ideal by fewer and fewer organisations governing sports, even as they maintain the word "amateur '' in their titles.
Modern organized sports developed in the 19th century, with the United Kingdom and the United States taking the lead. Sporting culture was especially strong in private schools and universities, and the upper and middle class men who attended these institutions played as amateurs. Opportunities for working classes to participate in sport were restricted by their long six - day work weeks and Sunday Sabbatarianism. In the UK, the Factory Act of 1844 gave working men half a day off, making the opportunity to take part in sport more widely available. Working class sportsmen found it hard to play top level sport due to the need to turn up to work. On occasion, cash prizes, particularly in individual competitions, could make up the difference; some competitors also wagered on the outcomes of their matches. As professional teams developed, some clubs were willing to make "broken time '' payments to players, i.e., to pay top sportsmen to take time off work, and as attendances increased, paying men to concentrate on their sport full - time became feasible. Proponents of the amateur ideal deplored the influence of money and the effect it has on sports. It was claimed that it is in the interest of the professional to receive the highest amount of pay possible per unit of performance, not to perform to the highest standard possible where this does not bring additional benefit.
The middle and upper class men who dominated the sporting establishment not only had a theoretical preference for amateurism, they also had a self - interest in blocking the professionalization of sport, which threatened to make it feasible for the working classes to compete against themselves with success. Working class sportsmen did n't see why they should n't be paid to play. Hence there were competing interests between those who wished sport to be open to all and those who feared that professionalism would destroy the ' Corinthian spirit '. This conflict played out over the course of more than one hundred years. Some sports dealt with it relatively easily, such as golf, which decided in the late 19th century to tolerate competition between amateurs and professionals, while others were traumatized by the dilemma, and took generations to fully come to terms with professionalism even to a result of causing a breakdown in the sport (as in the case of rugby union and rugby league in 1895).
Corinthian has come to describe one of the most virtuous of amateur athletes -- those for whom fairness and honor in competition is valued above victory or gain. The Corinthian Yacht Club (now the Royal Corinthian Yacht Club, RCYC) was established in Essex in 1872 with "encouragement of Amateur Yacht sailing '' as its "primary object. '' To that end, club rules ensured that crews consisted of amateurs, while "no professional or paid hand is allowed to touch the tiller or in any way assist in steering. '' Although the RCYC website derives the name Corinthian from the Isthmian Games of ancient Corinth, the Oxford English Dictionary derives the noun Corinthian from "the proverbial wealth, luxury, and licentiousness of ancient Corinth '', with senses developing from "a wealthy man '' (attested in 1577) through "a licentious man '' (1697) and "a man of fashion about town '' (1819) to "a wealthy amateur of sport who rides his own horses, steers his own yacht, etc '' (1823). Dixon Kemp wrote in A Manual of Yacht and Boat Sailing published in 1900, "The term Corinthian half a century ago was commonly applied to the aristocratic patrons of sports, some of which, such as pugilism, are not now the fashion. ''
The "Corinthian ideal '' of the gentleman amateur developed alongside muscular Christianity in late Victorian Britain, and has been analysed as a historical social phenomenon since the later 20th century. The Corinthian Football Club founded in 1882 was the paragon of this. In the United States, "Corinthian '' came to be applied in particular to amateur yachtsman, and remains current as such and in the name of many yacht clubs; including Seawanhaka Corinthian Yacht Club (founded 1874, added "Corinthian '' to name in 1881) and Yale Corinthian Yacht Club (likewise 1881 and 1893).
By the early 21st century the Olympic Games and all the major team sports accepted professional competitors. However, there are still some sports which maintain a distinction between amateur and professional status with separate competitive leagues. The most prominent of these are golf and boxing. In particular, only amateur boxers could compete at the Olympics up to 2016.
Problems can arise for amateur sportsmen when sponsors offer to help with an amateur 's playing expenses in the hope of striking lucrative endorsement deals with them in case they become professionals at a later date. This practice, dubbed "shamateurism '', was present as early as in the 19th century. As financial and political stakes in high - level were becoming higher, shamateurism became all the more widespread, reaching its peak in the 1970s and 1980s, when the International Olympic Committee started moving towards acceptance of professional athletes. The advent of the state - sponsored "full - time amateur athlete '' of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self - financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full - time basis.
All North American university sports are conducted by amateurs. Even the very most commercialized college sports, such as NCAA football and basketball, do not financially compensate competitors, although coaches and trainers generally are paid. College football coaches in Texas and other states are often the highest paid state employees, with some drawing salaries of over five million US dollars annually. Athletic scholarship programs, unlike academic scholarship programs, can not cover more than the cost of food, housing, tuition, and other university - related expenses. In short, a school can pay an athlete to attend classes but can not pay an athlete to play.
In order to ensure that the rules are not circumvented, stringent rules restrict gift - giving during the recruitment process as well as during and even after a collegiate athlete 's career; college athletes also can not endorse products, which some may consider a violation of free speech rights.
Some have criticised this system as exploitative; prominent university athletics programs are major commercial endeavors, and can easily rake in millions of dollars in profit during a successful season. College athletes spend a great deal of time "working '' for the university, and earn nothing from it at the time aside from scholarships sometimes worth tens of thousands of dollars; basketball and football coaches, meanwhile, earn salaries that can compare with those of professional teams ' coaches.
Supporters of the system say that college athletes can always make use of the education they earn as students if their athletic career does n't pan out, and that allowing universities to pay college athletes would rapidly lead to deterioration of the already - marginal academic focus of college athletics programs. They also point out that athletic scholarships allow many young men and women who would otherwise be unable to afford to go to college, or would not be accepted, to get a quality education. Also, most sports other than football and men 's basketball do not generate significant revenue for any school (and such teams are often essentially funded by football, basketball, and donations), so it may not be possible to pay athletes in all sports. Allowing pay in some sports but not others could result in the violation of U.S. laws such as Title IX.
Through most of the 20th century the Olympics allowed only amateur athletes to participate and this amateur code was strictly enforced - Jim Thorpe was stripped of track and field medals for having taken expense money for playing baseball in 1912.
Later on, the nations of the Communist bloc entered teams of Olympians who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full - time basis.
Near the end of the 1960s, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive against the Soviet team 's full - time athletes and the other constantly improving European teams. They pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues but met opposition from the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) and the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Avery Brundage, president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972, was opposed to the idea of amateur and professional players competing together. At the IIHF Congress in 1969, the IIHF decided to allow Canada to use nine non-NHL professional hockey players at the 1970 World Championships in Montreal and Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The decision was reversed in January 1970 after Brundage said that ice hockey 's status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made. In response, Canada withdrew from all international ice hockey competitions and officials stated that they would not return until "open competition '' was instituted. Günther Sabetzki became president of the IIHF in 1975 and helped to resolve the dispute with the CAHA. In 1976, the IIHF agreed to allow "open competition '' between all players in the World Championships. However, NHL players were still not allowed to play in the Olympics, because of the unwillingness of the NHL to take a break mid-season and the IOC 's amateur - only policy.
Before the 1984 Winter Olympics, a dispute formed over what made a player a professional. The IOC had adopted a rule that made any player who had signed an NHL contract but played less than ten games in the league eligible. However, the United States Olympic Committee maintained that any player contracted with an NHL team was a professional and therefore not eligible to play. The IOC held an emergency meeting that ruled NHL - contracted players were eligible, as long as they had not played in any NHL games. This made five players on Olympic rosters -- one Austrian, two Italians and two Canadians -- ineligible. Players who had played in other professional leagues -- such as the World Hockey Association -- were allowed to play. Canadian hockey official Alan Eagleson stated that the rule was only applied to the NHL and that professionally contracted players in European leagues were still considered amateurs. Murray Costello of the CAHA suggested that a Canadian withdrawal was possible. In 1986, the IOC voted to allow all athletes to compete in Olympic Games starting in 1988, but let the individual sport federations decide if they wanted to allow professionals.
After the 1972 retirement of IOC President Avery Brundage, the Olympic amateurism rules were steadily relaxed, amounting only to technicalities and lip service, until being completely abandoned in the 1990s (In the United States, the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 prohibits national governing bodies from having more stringent standards of amateur status than required by international governing bodies of respective sports. The act caused the breakup of the Amateur Athletic Union as a wholesale sports governing body at the Olympic level).
Olympic regulations regarding amateur status of athletes were eventually abandoned in the 1990s with the exception of wrestling, where the amateur fight rules are used due to the fact that professional wrestling is largely staged with pre-determined outcomes. Starting from the 2016 Summer Olympics, professionals were allowed to compete in boxing, though amateur fight rules are still used for the tournament.
English first - class cricket distinguished between amateur and professional cricketers until 1963. Teams below Test cricket level in England were normally, except in emergencies such as injuries, captained by amateurs. Notwithstanding this, sometimes there were ways found to give high performing "amateurs '', for example W.G. Grace, financial and other compensation such as employment.
On English overseas tours, some of which in the 19th century were arranged and led by professional cricketer - promoters such as James Lillywhite, Alfred Shaw and Arthur Shrewsbury, a more pragmatic approach generally prevailed.
In England the division was reflected in, and for a long time reinforced by, the series of Gentlemen v Players matches between amateurs and professionals. Few cricketers changed their status, but there were some notable exceptions such as Wally Hammond who became (or was allowed to become) an amateur in 1938 so that he could captain England.
Professionals were often expected to address amateurs, at least to their faces, as "Mister '' or "Sir '' whereas the amateurs often referred to professionals by their surnames. Newspaper reports often prefaced amateurs ' names with "Mr '' while professionals were referred to by surname, or sometimes surname and initials. At some grounds amateurs and professionals had separate dressing rooms and entered the playing arena through separate gates.
After the Second World War the division was increasingly questioned. When Len Hutton was appointed as English national cricket captain in 1952 he remained a professional. In 1962 the division was removed, and all cricket players became known as "cricketers ''.
In Australia the amateur - professional division was rarely noticed in the years before World Series Cricket, as many top level players expected to receive something for their efforts on the field: before World War 1 profit - sharing of tour proceeds was common. Australian cricketers touring England were considered amateurs and given the title "Mr '' in newspaper reports.
Before the Partition of India some professionalism developed, but talented cricketers were often employed by wealthy princely or corporate patrons and thus retained a notional amateur status.
Women 's cricket is, and always has been, almost entirely amateur.
Boot money has been a phenomenon in amateur sport for centuries. The term "boot money '' became popularised in the 1880s when it was not unusual for players to find half a crown (corresponding to 121⁄2 pence after decimalisation) in their boots after a game.
The Football Association prohibited paying players until 1885, and this is referred to as the "legalisation '' of professionalism because it was an amendment of the "Laws of the Game ''. However, a maximum salary cap of twelve pounds a week for a player with outside employment and fifteen pounds a week for a player with no outside employment lingered until the 1960s even as transfer fees reached over a hundred thousand pounds; again, "boot money '' was seen as a way of topping up pay. Today the most prominent English football clubs that are not professional are semi-professional (paying part - time players more than the old maximum for top professionals; this includes all the major existing women 's clubs, in which full professionalism has not taken root yet) and the most prominent true amateur men 's club is probably Queen 's Park, the oldest football club in Scotland, founded in 1867 and with a home ground (Hampden Park) which is one of UEFA 's five - star stadia. They have also won the Scottish Cup more times than any club outside the Old Firm. Amateur football in both genders is now found mainly in small village and Sunday clubs and the Amateur Football Alliance.
Sailing has taken the opposite course. Around the turn of the 20th century, much of sailing was professionals paid by interested idle rich. Today, sailing, especially dinghy sailing, is an example of a sport which is still largely populated by amateurs. For example, in the recent Team Racing Worlds, and certainly the American Team Racing Nationals, most of the sailors competing in the event were amateurs. While many competitive sailors are employed in businesses related to sailing (primarily sailmaking, naval architecture, boatbuilding and coaching), most are not compensated for their own competitions. In large keelboat racing, such as the Volvo Around the World Race and the America 's Cup, this amateur spirit has given way in recent years to large corporate sponsorships and paid crews.
Like other Olympic sports, figure skating used to have very strict amateur status rules. Over the years, these rules were relaxed to allow competitive skaters to receive token payments for performances in exhibitions (amid persistent rumors that they were receiving more money "under the table ''), then to accept money for professional activities such as endorsements provided that the payments were made to trust funds rather than to the skaters themselves.
In 1992, trust funds were abolished, and the International Skating Union voted both to remove most restrictions on amateurism, and to allow skaters who had previously lost their amateur status to apply for reinstatement of their eligibility. A number of skaters, including Brian Boitano, Katarina Witt, Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean, and Ekaterina Gordeeva and Sergei Grinkov, took advantage of the reinstatement rule to compete at the 1994 Winter Olympics. However, when all of these skaters promptly returned to the pro circuit again, the ISU decided the reinstatement policy was a failure and it was discontinued in 1995.
Prize money at ISU competitions was introduced in 1995, paid by the sale of the television rights to those events. In addition to prize money, Olympic - eligible skaters may also earn money through appearance fees at shows and competitions, endorsements, movie and television contracts, coaching, and other "professional '' activities, provided that their activities are approved by their national federations. The only activity that is strictly forbidden by the ISU is participating in unsanctioned "pro '' competitions, which the ISU uses to maintain their monopoly status as the governing body in the sport.
Many people in the skating world still use "turning pro '' as jargon to mean retiring from competitive skating, even though most top competitive skaters are already full - time professionals, and many skaters who retire from competition to concentrate on show skating or coaching do not actually lose their competition eligibility in the process.
Rugby has provided one of the most visible and lasting examples of the tension between amateurism and professionalism during the development of nationally organised sports in Britain in the late - 19th century. The split in rugby in 1895 between what became rugby league and rugby union arose as a direct result of a dispute over the pretence of a strict enforcement of its amateur status - clubs in Leeds and Bradford were fined after compensating players for missing work, whilst at the same time the Rugby Football Union (RFU) was allowing other players to be paid.
Rugby football, despite its origins in the privileged English public schools, was a popular game throughout England by around 1880, including in the large working - class areas of the industrial north. However, as the then - amateur sport became increasingly popular and competitive, attracting large paying crowds, teams in such areas found it difficult to attract and retain good players. This was because physically fit local men needed to both work to earn a wage - limiting the time that they could devote to unpaid sport - and to avoid injuries that might prevent them working in the future. Certain teams faced with these circumstances wanted to pay so - called ' broken time ' money to their players to compensate them for missing paid work due to their playing commitments, but this contravened the amateur policy of the Rugby Football Union (RFU).
Following a lengthy dispute on this point during the early 1890s, representatives of more than 20 prominent northern rugby clubs met in Huddersfield in August 1895 to form the Northern Rugby Football Union (NRFU), a breakaway administrative body which would permit payments to be made to players. The NRFU initially adopted established RFU rules for the game itself, but soon introduced a number of changes, most obviously a switch from 15 to 13 players per side. It became the Rugby Football League in 1922, by which time the key differences in the two codes were well established, with the 13 - a-side variant becoming known as rugby league.
The RFU took strong action against the clubs involved in the formation of the NRFU, all of whom were deemed to have forfeited their amateur status and therefore to have left the RFU. A similar interpretation was applied to all players who played either for or against such clubs, whether or not they themselves received any compensation. Such players were effectively barred sine die from any involvement in organised rugby union. These comprehensive and enduring sanctions, combined with the very localised nature of most rugby competition, meant that most northern clubs had little practical alternative but to affiliate with the NRFU in the first few years of its existence.
Rugby football in Britain therefore became subject to a de facto schism along regional - and to some extent class - lines, reflecting the historical origins of the split. Rugby league - in which professionalism was permitted - was predominant in northern England, particularly in industrial areas, and was viewed as a working class game. Rugby union - which remained amateur - was predominant in the rest of England, as well as in Wales and Scotland. Rugby union also had a more affluent reputation, although there are areas - notably in South Wales and in certain English cities such as Gloucester - with a strong working - class rugby union tradition.
Discrimination against rugby league players could verge on the petty - former Welsh international Fred Perrett was once excluded in lists of players who died in the First World War due to his ' defection ' to the league code. One Member of Parliament, David Hinchliffe, described it as "one of the longest (and daftest) grievances in history '' with anyone over the age of 18 associated with rugby league being banned forever from rugby union.
The Scottish Rugby Union was a particular bastion of amateurism and extreme care was taken to avoid the ' taint ' of professionalism: a player rejoining the national team after the end of the Second World War applied to be issued with a new shirt and was reminded that he had been supplied with a shirt prior to the outbreak of hostilities.
In Wales the position was more equivocal with clubs attempting to stem the tide of players going north with boot money, a reference to the practice of putting cash payments into player 's footwear whilst they were cleaning up after a game. Sometimes payments were substantial. Barry John was once asked why he had n't turned professional and responded, "I could n't afford to. ''
Rugby union was declared "open '' in August 1995 - almost exactly 100 years after the original split occurred - meaning that professionalism has been permitted in both rugby codes since that date. However, while the professional - amateur divide remained in force, there was originally very limited crossover between the two codes, the most obvious occasions being when top - class rugby union players ' switched codes ' to rugby league in order to play professionally. Welsh international Jonathan Davies was a high - profile example of this switch. Since professionalism has been allowed in rugby union the switches have started to come the opposite way. Union has swiftly grown to embrace the professional game with many league players joining union to take a slice of the larger amounts of money available in the sport.
Nowadays, while rugby union no longer makes the professional - amateur distinction, the professional - amateur split still exists within rugby league with the British Amateur Rugby League Association (BARLA) strictly amateur, though it allows some ex-professionals to play provided they are no longer under contract. The most recent club to get a ban for fielding a contracted professional was Brighouse Rangers who were expelled from the National Conference League during 2007 - 2008 season, and the player handed a sine die ban (though in part for gouging), although the club itself has since been admitted to the Pennine League.
Also, some rugby unions have amateur rules, most notably the Argentine Rugby Union, where all member clubs are amateur. The Campeonato Argentino, the national championship for provincial teams, does not include players contracted to the country 's Super Rugby side, the Jaguares.
Alternative sports, using the flying disc, began in the mid-sixties. As numbers of young people became alienated from social norms, they resisted and looked for alternative recreational activities, including that of throwing a Frisbee. What started with a few players, in the sixties, like Victor Malafronte, Z Weyand and Ken Westerfield experimenting with new ways of throwing and catching a Frisbee, later would become known as playing freestyle. Organized disc sports, in the 1970s, began with promotional efforts from Wham - O and Irwin Toy (Canada), a few tournaments and professionals using Frisbee show tours to perform at universities, fairs and sporting events. Disc sports such as freestyle, double disc court, guts, disc ultimate and disc golf became this sports first events. Two sports, the team sport of disc ultimate and disc golf are very popular worldwide and are now being played semi professionally. The World Flying Disc Federation, Professional Disc Golf Association, and the Freestyle Players Association, are the official rules and sanctioning organizations for flying disc sports worldwide.
Disc ultimate is a team sport played with a flying disc. The object of the game is to score points by passing the disc to members of your own team, on a rectangular field, 120 yards (110m) by 40 yards (37m), until you have successfully completed a pass to a team member in the opposing teams end zone. There are currently over five million people that play some form of organized ultimate in the US. Ultimate has started to be played semi-professionally with two newly formed leagues, the American Ultimate Disc League (AUDL) and Major League Ultimate (MLU).
The game of guts was invented by the Healy Brothers in the 1950s and developed at the International Frisbee Tournament (IFT) in Marquette, Michigan. The game of ultimate, the most widely played disc game, began in the late 1960s with Joel Silver and Jared Kass. In the 1970s it developed as an organized sport with the creation of the Ultimate Players Association with Dan Roddick, Tom Kennedy and Irv Kalb. Double disc court was invented and introduced in the early 1970s by Jim Palmeri. In 1974, freestyle competition was created and introduced by Ken Westerfield and Discrafts Jim Kenner. In 1976, the game of disc golf was standardized with targets called "pole holes '' invented and developed by Wham - O 's Ed Headrick.
Sports teams commonly exist at the high school level; students who participate, commonly referred to as student athletes, do so during their course of study. Occasionally, sports success in high school sports may lead to a professional career in the field.
The benefit of sports in high school is debated; some believe that they promote discipline and teamwork, while others find that they can cause injury. One study on the relationship between high school athletic and academic successes finds that, for the most part, higher participation and success rates in sports is positively related school - wide student successes on academic outcomes such as standardized test scores and educational attainment. The National Center for Educational Statistics reports that student athletes have a 20 % higher chance of completing a college degree, and are more likely to be employed and in better health than non-athletes. However, a survey of high school athletes in 2006 showed that high school athletes are more likely to cheat inside of the classroom than non-athletes, especially boys participating in football, baseball, and basketball and girls participating in softball and basketball. The survey does not indicate to what extent cheating contributes to the greater academic outcomes of high school athletes.
In the world of middle school and high school sports, several fees have risen over the last few years making sports more expensive. The term "Pay - to - Play '' means that students and their parents must pay a flat fee to participate, and that fee often leaves out the costs of uniforms, transportation, and other team fees. This affects low - income families (those who earn less than $60,000 per year) and their ability to participate in the sports. The average cost is $381 per child per sport (Pay - to - Play Sports). Physical and mental health can improve with the right amount of physical fitness incorporated into everyday life. It allows for the child to have a healthy developing body, and a BMI within the normal range. Physical activity has been proven to improve mood and decrease both stress and anxiety. Studies have shown that the more physical activity one participates in as a child, the happier and more stable that person will be as an adult. Thus, the more students who participate in school sports, the more students who will find themselves balanced and successful adults later in life.
Golf still has amateur championships, most notably the U.S. Amateur Championship, British Amateur Championship, U.S. Women 's Amateur, British Ladies Amateur, Walker Cup, Eisenhower Trophy, Curtis Cup and Espirito Santo Trophy. However, amateur golfers are far less known than players of professional golf tours such as the PGA Tour and European Tour. Still, a few amateurs are invited to compete in open events, such as the U.S. Open and British Open or non-open event, such as the Masters Tournament.
In motorsports, there are various forms of amateur drivers. When they compete at professional events, they are often referred to as "pay drivers ''. They have been a presence in Formula One for many years - drivers such as Felipe Nasr, Esteban Gutiérrez and Rio Haryanto bring sponsorship to the tune of $30 million for a seat, even in backmarker teams. In sports car racing, drivers are often seeded into certain categories, including Amateur and Pro-Am classes. The vast majority of these "gentlemen drivers '' however tend to participate at club level, often racing historic or classic cars, which are aimed primarily at amateurs.
In Ireland, the Gaelic Athletic Association, or GAA, protects the amateur status of the country 's national sports, including Gaelic football, Hurling and Camogie. Major tennis championships prohibited professionals until 1968 but the subsequent admission of professionals virtually eliminated amateurs from public visibility. Paying players was considered disreputable in baseball until 1869.
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who has played an important part in building the canadian pacific railway | Canadian Pacific Railway - wikipedia
The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), also known formerly as CP Rail (reporting mark CP) between 1968 and 1996, is a historic Canadian Class I railroad incorporated in 1881. The railroad is owned by Canadian Pacific Railway Limited, which began operations as legal owner in a corporate restructuring in 2001.
Headquartered in Calgary, Alberta, it owns approximately 20,000 kilometres (12,500 mi) of track all across Canada and into the United States, stretching from Montreal to Vancouver, and as far north as Edmonton. Its rail network also serves Minneapolis - St. Paul, Milwaukee, Detroit, Chicago, and New York City in the United States.
The railway was originally built between Eastern Canada and British Columbia between 1881 and 1885 (connecting with Ottawa Valley and Georgian Bay area lines built earlier), fulfilling a promise extended to British Columbia when it entered Confederation in 1871. It was Canada 's first transcontinental railway, but no longer reaches the Atlantic coast. Primarily a freight railway, the CPR was for decades the only practical means of long - distance passenger transport in most regions of Canada, and was instrumental in the settlement and development of Western Canada. The CPR became one of the largest and most powerful companies in Canada, a position it held as late as 1975. Its primary passenger services were eliminated in 1986, after being assumed by Via Rail Canada in 1978. A beaver was chosen as the railway 's logo because it is the national symbol of Canada and was seen as representing the hardworking character of the company.
The company acquired two American lines in 2009: the Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern Railroad and the Iowa, Chicago and Eastern Railroad. The trackage of the IC&E was at one time part of CP subsidiary Soo Line and predecessor line The Milwaukee Road. The combined DME / ICE system spanned North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Nebraska and Iowa, as well as two short stretches into two other states, which included a line to Kansas City, Missouri, and a line to Chicago, Illinois, and regulatory approval to build a line into the Powder River Basin of Wyoming. It is publicly traded on both the Toronto Stock Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker CP. Its U.S. headquarters are in Minneapolis.
Together with the Canadian Confederation, the creation of the Canadian Pacific Railway was a task originally undertaken as the National Dream by the Conservative government of Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald (1st Canadian Ministry). He was helped by Sir Alexander Tilloch Galt, who was the owner of the North Western Coal and Navigation Company. His company went through several name changes during the process of the construction of the railway. British Columbia, a four - month sea voyage away from the East Coast, had insisted upon a land transport link to the East as a condition for joining Confederation (initially requesting a wagon road). The government however proposed to build a railway linking the Pacific province to the Eastern provinces within 10 years of 20 July 1871. Macdonald saw it as essential to the creation of a unified Canadian nation that would stretch across the continent. Moreover, manufacturing interests in Quebec and Ontario wanted access to raw materials and markets in Western Canada.
The first obstacle to its construction was political. The logical route went through the American Midwest and the city of Chicago, Illinois. In addition to this was the difficulty of building a railroad through the Canadian Rockies; an entirely Canadian route would require crossing 1,600 km (990 mi) of rugged terrain across the barren Canadian Shield and muskeg of Northern Ontario. To ensure this routing, the government offered huge incentives including vast grants of land in the West.
In 1873, Sir John A. Macdonald and other high - ranking politicians, bribed in the Pacific Scandal, granted federal contracts to Hugh Allan 's Canada Pacific Railway Company (which was unrelated to the current company) rather than to David Lewis Macpherson 's Inter-Ocean Railway Company which was thought to have connections to the American Northern Pacific Railway Company. Because of this scandal, the Conservative Party was removed from office in 1873. The new Liberal prime minister, Alexander Mackenzie, ordered construction of segments of the railway as a public enterprise under the supervision of the Department of Public Works led by Sandford Fleming. Surveying was carried out during the first years of a number of alternative routes in this virgin territory followed by construction of a telegraph along the lines that had been agreed upon. The Thunder Bay section linking Lake Superior to Winnipeg was commenced in 1875. By 1880, around 1,000 kilometres (700 mi) was nearly complete, mainly across the troublesome Canadian Shield terrain, with trains running on only 500 kilometres (300 mi) of track.
With Macdonald 's return to power on 16 October 1878, a more aggressive construction policy was adopted. Macdonald confirmed that Port Moody would be the terminus of the transcontinental railway, and announced that the railway would follow the Fraser and Thompson rivers between Port Moody and Kamloops. In 1879, the federal government floated bonds in London and called for tenders to construct the 206 km (128 mi) section of the railway from Yale, British Columbia, to Savona 's Ferry, on Kamloops Lake. The contract was awarded to Andrew Onderdonk, whose men started work on 15 May 1880. After the completion of that section, Onderdonk received contracts to build between Yale and Port Moody, and between Savona 's Ferry and Eagle Pass.
On 21 October 1880, a new syndicate, unrelated to Hugh Allan 's, signed a contract with the Macdonald government and Fleming was dismissed. They agreed to build the railway in exchange for $ 25 million (approximately $625 million in modern Canadian dollars) in credit from the Canadian government and a grant of 25 million acres (100,000 km) of land. The government transferred to the new company those sections of the railway it had constructed under government ownership, on which it had already spent at least $25 million. But its estimates of the cost of the Rocky Mountain section alone was over $60 million. The government also defrayed surveying costs and exempted the railway from property taxes for 20 years. The Montreal - based syndicate officially comprised five men: George Stephen, James J. Hill, Duncan McIntyre, Richard B. Angus and John Stewart Kennedy. Donald A. Smith and Norman Kittson were unofficial silent partners with a significant financial interest. On 15 February 1881, legislation confirming the contract received royal assent, and the Canadian Pacific Railway Company was formally incorporated the next day. Critics claimed that the government gave too large a subsidy for the proposed project but this was to incorporate uncertainties of risk and irreversibility of insurance. The large subsidy also needed to compensate the CPR for not constructing the line in the future, but rather right away even though demand would not cover operational costs.
Building the railway took over four years. The Canadian Pacific Railway began its westward expansion from Bonfield, Ontario (previously called Callander Station), where the first spike was driven into a sunken railway tie. Bonfield was inducted into Canadian Railway Hall of Fame in 2002 as the CPR first spike location. That was the point where the Canada Central Railway extension ended. The CCR was owned by Duncan McIntyre, who amalgamated it with the CPR, and became one of the handful of officers of the newly formed CPR. The CCR started in Brockville and extended to Pembroke. It then followed a westward route along the Ottawa River passing through places like Cobden, Deux - Rivières and eventually to Mattawa at the confluence of the Mattawa and Ottawa rivers. It then proceeded cross-country towards its final destination of Bonfield. Duncan McIntyre and his contractor James Worthington piloted the CPR expansion. Worthington continued on as the construction superintendent for the CPR past Bonfield. He remained with the CPR for about a year after which he left the company. McIntyre was uncle to John Ferguson who staked out future North Bay and who became the town 's wealthiest inhabitant and mayor for four successive terms.
It was presumed that the railway would travel through the rich "Fertile Belt '' of the North Saskatchewan River Valley and cross the Rocky Mountains via the Yellowhead Pass, a route suggested by Sir Sandford Fleming based on a decade of work. However, the CPR quickly discarded this plan in favour of a more southerly route across the arid Palliser 's Triangle in Saskatchewan and via Kicking Horse Pass and down the Field Hill to the Rocky Mountain Trench. This route was more direct and closer to the Canada -- US border, making it easier for the CPR to keep American railways from encroaching on the Canadian market. However, this route also had several disadvantages.
One was that the CPR would need to find a route through the Selkirk Mountains in British Columbia while, at the time, it was not known whether a route even existed. The job of finding a pass was assigned to a surveyor named Major Albert Bowman Rogers. The CPR promised him a cheque for $5,000 and that the pass would be named in his honour. Rogers became obsessed with finding the pass that would immortalize his name. He discovered the pass in April 1881 and, true to its word, the CPR named it "Rogers Pass '' and gave him the cheque. However, he at first refused to cash it, preferring to frame it, saying he did not do it for the money. He later agreed to cash it with the promise of an engraved watch.
Another obstacle was that the proposed route crossed land in Alberta that was controlled by the Blackfoot First Nation. This difficulty was overcome when a missionary priest, Albert Lacombe, persuaded the Blackfoot chief Crowfoot that construction of the railway was inevitable. In return for his assent, Crowfoot was famously rewarded with a lifetime pass to ride the CPR.
A more lasting consequence of the choice of route was that, unlike the one proposed by Fleming, the land surrounding the railway often proved too arid for successful agriculture. The CPR may have placed too much reliance on a report from naturalist John Macoun, who had crossed the prairies at a time of very high rainfall and had reported that the area was fertile.
The greatest disadvantage of the route was in Kicking Horse Pass, at the Alberta - British Columbia border on the continental divide. In the first 6 km (3.7 mi) west of the 1,625 metres (5,331 feet) high summit, the Kicking Horse River drops 350 metres (1,150 feet). The steep drop would force the cash - strapped CPR to build a 7 km (4.3 mi) long stretch of track with a very steep 41⁄2 percent gradient once it reached the pass in 1884. This was over four times the maximum gradient recommended for railways of this era, and even modern railways rarely exceed a two - percent gradient. However, this route was far more direct than one through the Yellowhead Pass and saved hours for both passengers and freight. This section of track was the CPR 's Big Hill. Safety switches were installed at several points, the speed limit for descending trains was set at 10 km per hour (6 mph), and special locomotives were ordered. Despite these measures, several serious runaways still occurred including the first locomotive, which belonged to the contractors, to descend the line. CPR officials insisted that this was a temporary expediency, but this state of affairs would last for 25 years until the completion of the Spiral Tunnels in the early 20th century.
In 1881, construction progressed at a pace too slow for the railway 's officials who, in 1882, hired the renowned railway executive William Cornelius Van Horne to oversee construction with the inducement of a generous salary and the intriguing challenge of handling such a difficult railway project. Van Horne stated that he would have 800 km (500 mi) of main line built in 1882. Floods delayed the start of the construction season, but over 672 km (418 mi) of main line, as well as sidings and branch lines, were built that year. The Thunder Bay branch (west from Fort William) was completed in June 1882 by the Department of Railways and Canals and turned over to the company in May 1883, permitting all - Canadian lake and railway traffic from Eastern Canada to Winnipeg, for the first time in Canada 's history. By the end of 1883, the railway had reached the Rocky Mountains, just eight kilometres (five miles) east of Kicking Horse Pass. The construction seasons of 1884 and 1885 would be spent in the mountains of British Columbia and on the north shore of Lake Superior.
Many thousands of navvies worked on the railway. Many were European immigrants. In British Columbia, government contractors hired workers from China, known as "coolies ''. A navvy received between $1 and $2.50 per day, but had to pay for his own food, clothing, transport to the job site, mail and medical care. After 21⁄2 months of hard labour, they could net as little as $16. Chinese labourers in British Columbia made only between 75 cents and $1.25 a day, paid in rice mats, and not including expenses, leaving barely anything to send home. They did the most dangerous construction jobs, such as working with explosives to clear tunnels through rock. The families of the Chinese who were killed received no compensation, or even notification of loss of life. Many of the men who survived did not have enough money to return to their families in China, although Chinese labour contractors had promised that as part of their responsibilities. Many spent years in isolated and often poor conditions. Yet the Chinese were hard working and played a key role in building the Western stretch of the railway; even some boys as young as twelve years old served as tea - boys. In 2006 the Canadian government issued a formal apology to the Chinese population in Canada for their treatment both during and following the construction of the CPR.
By 1883, railway construction was progressing rapidly, but the CPR was in danger of running out of funds. In response, on 31 January 1884, the government passed the Railway Relief Bill, providing a further $22.5 million in loans to the CPR. The bill received royal assent on 6 March 1884.
In March 1885, the North - West Rebellion broke out in the District of Saskatchewan. Van Horne, in Ottawa at the time, suggested to the government that the CPR could transport troops to Qu'Appelle, Saskatchewan (Assiniboia) in 10 days. Some sections of track were incomplete or had not been used before, but the trip to Winnipeg was made in nine days and the rebellion quickly suppressed. Perhaps because the government was grateful for this service, they subsequently reorganized the CPR 's debt and provided a further $5 million loan. This money was desperately needed by the CPR. However, this government loan later became controversial. Even with Van Horne 's support with moving troops to Qu'Appelle, the government still delayed in giving its support to CPR. This was due to Sir John A. Macdonald putting pressure on George Stephen for additional benefits. Stephen himself later did admit to spending $1 million between 1881 and 1886 to ensure government support. This money went to buying a £ 40,000 necklace for Lady MacDonald and numerous other "bonifications '' to government members.
On 7 November 1885, the last spike was driven at Craigellachie, British Columbia, making good on the original promise. Four days earlier, the last spike of the Lake Superior section was driven in just west of Jackfish, Ontario. While the railway was completed four years after the original 1881 deadline, it was completed more than five years ahead of the new date of 1891 that Macdonald gave in 1881. The successful construction of such a massive project, although troubled by delays and scandal, was considered an impressive feat of engineering and political will for a country with such a small population, limited capital, and difficult terrain. It was by far the longest railway ever constructed at the time. It had taken 12,000 men and 5,000 horses to construct the Lake section alone.
Meanwhile, in Eastern Canada, the CPR had created a network of lines reaching from Quebec City to St. Thomas, Ontario by 1885 (mainly by buying the Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa & Occidental Railway from the Quebec government), and had launched a fleet of Great Lakes ships to link its terminals. The CPR had effected purchases and long - term leases of several railways through an associated railway company, the Ontario and Quebec Railway (O&Q). The O&Q built a line between Perth, Ontario, and Toronto (completed on 5 May 1884) to connect these acquisitions. The CPR obtained a 999 - year lease on the O&Q on 4 January 1884. In 1895 it acquired a minority interest in the Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo Railway, giving it a link to New York and the Northeast United States.
The last spike in the CPR was driven on 7 November 1885, by one of its directors, Donald Smith, but so many cost - cutting shortcuts were taken in constructing the railway that regular transcontinental service could not start for another seven months while work was done to improve the railway 's condition (part of this was because of snow in the mountains and lack of snowsheds to keep the line open). However, had these shortcuts not been taken, it is conceivable that the CPR might have had to default financially, leaving the railway unfinished.
The first transcontinental passenger train departed from Montreal 's Dalhousie Station, located at Berri Street and Notre Dame Street at 8 pm on 28 June 1886, and arrived at Port Moody at noon on 4 July 1886. This train consisted of two baggage cars, a mail car, one second - class coach, two immigrant sleepers, two first - class coaches, two sleeping cars and a diner (several dining cars were used throughout the journey, as they were removed from the train during the night, with another one added the next morning).
By that time, however, the CPR had decided to move its western terminus from Port Moody to Granville, which was renamed "Vancouver '' later that year. The first official train destined for Vancouver arrived on 23 May 1887, although the line had already been in use for three months. The CPR quickly became profitable, and all loans from the Federal government were repaid years ahead of time. In 1888, a branch line was opened between Sudbury and Sault Ste. Marie where the CPR connected with the American railway system and its own steamships. That same year, work was started on a line from London, Ontario, to the Canada -- US border at Windsor, Ontario. That line opened on 12 June 1890.
The CPR also leased the New Brunswick Railway in 1891 for 991 years, and built the International Railway of Maine, connecting Montreal with Saint John, New Brunswick, in 1889. The connection with Saint John on the Atlantic coast made the CPR the first truly transcontinental railway company in Canada and permitted trans - Atlantic cargo and passenger services to continue year - round when sea ice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence closed the port of Montreal during the winter months. By 1896, competition with the Great Northern Railway for traffic in southern British Columbia forced the CPR to construct a second line across the province, south of the original line. Van Horne, now president of the CPR, asked for government aid, and the government agreed to provide around $3.6 million to construct a railway from Lethbridge, Alberta, through Crowsnest Pass to the south shore of Kootenay Lake, in exchange for the CPR agreeing to reduce freight rates in perpetuity for key commodities shipped in Western Canada.
The controversial Crowsnest Pass Agreement effectively locked the eastbound rate on grain products and westbound rates on certain "settlers ' effects '' at the 1897 level. Although temporarily suspended during the First World War, it was not until 1983 that the "Crow Rate '' was permanently replaced by the Western Grain Transportation Act which allowed for the gradual increase of grain shipping prices. The Crowsnest Pass line opened on 18 June 1898, and followed a complicated route through the maze of valleys and passes in southern British Columbia, rejoining the original mainline at Hope after crossing the Cascade Mountains via Coquihalla Pass.
The Southern Mainline, generally known as the Kettle Valley Railway in British Columbia, was built in response to the booming mining and smelting economy in southern British Columbia, and the tendency of the local geography to encourage and enable easier access from neighbouring US states than from Vancouver or the rest of Canada, which was viewed to be as much of a threat to national security as it was to the province 's control of its own resources. The local passenger service was re-routed to this new southerly line, which connected numerous emergent small cities across the region. Independent railways and subsidiaries that were eventually merged into the CPR in connection with this route were the Shuswap and Okanagan Railway, the Kaslo and Slocan Railway, the Columbia and Kootenay Railway, the Columbia and Western Railway and various others.
Practically speaking, the CPR had built a railway that operated mostly in the wilderness. The usefulness of the prairies was questionable in the minds of many. The thinking prevailed that the prairies had great potential. Under the initial contract with the Canadian government to build the railway, the CPR was granted 25 million acres (100,000 km). Proving already to be a very resourceful organization, Canadian Pacific began an intense campaign to bring immigrants to Canada. Canadian Pacific agents operated in many overseas locations. Immigrants were often sold a package that included passage on a CP ship, travel on a CP train and land sold by the CP railway. Land was priced at $2.50 an acre and up but required cultivation. To transport immigrants, Canadian Pacific developed a fleet of over a thousand Colonist cars, low - budget sleeper cars designed to transport immigrant families from eastern Canadian seaports to the west.
During the first decade of the 20th century, the CPR continued to build more lines. In 1908 the CPR opened a line connecting Toronto with Sudbury. Previously, westbound traffic originating in southern Ontario took a circuitous route through eastern Ontario. Several operational improvements were also made to the railway in Western Canada. In 1909 the CPR completed two significant engineering accomplishments. The most significant was the replacement of the Big Hill, which had become a major bottleneck in the CPR 's main line, with the Spiral Tunnels, reducing the grade to 2.2 percent from 4.5 percent. The Spiral Tunnels opened in August. In April 1908, the CPR started work to replace the Old Calgary - Edmonton Rail Bridge across the Red Deer River with a new standard steel bridge that was completed by March 1909.
On 3 November 1909, the Lethbridge Viaduct over the Oldman River valley at Lethbridge, Alberta, was opened. It is 1,624 metres (5,328 feet) long and, at its maximum, 96 metres (315 feet) high, making it one of the longest railway bridges in Canada. In 1916 the CPR replaced its line through Rogers Pass, which was prone to avalanches (the most serious of which killed 62 men in 1910) with the Connaught Tunnel, an eight - kilometre - long (5 - mile) tunnel under Mount Macdonald that was, at the time of its opening, the longest railway tunnel in the Western Hemisphere.
On 21 January 1910, a passenger train derailed on the CPR line at the Spanish River bridge at Nairn, Ontario (near Sudbury), killing at least 43.
The CPR acquired several smaller railways via long - term leases in 1912. On 3 January 1912, the CPR acquired the Dominion Atlantic Railway, a railway that ran in western Nova Scotia. This acquisition gave the CPR a connection to Halifax, a significant port on the Atlantic Ocean. The Dominion Atlantic was isolated from the rest of the CPR network and used the CNR to facilitate interchange; the DAR also operated ferry services across the Bay of Fundy for passengers and cargo (but not rail cars) from the port of Digby, Nova Scotia, to the CPR at Saint John, New Brunswick. DAR steamships also provided connections for passengers and cargo between Yarmouth, Boston and New York. On 1 July 1912, the CPR acquired the Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway, a railway on Vancouver Island that connected to the CPR using a railcar ferry. The CPR acquired the Quebec Central Railway on 14 December 1912.
During the late 19th century, the railway undertook an ambitious programme of hotel construction, building Glacier House in Glacier National Park, Mount Stephen House at Field, British Columbia, the Château Frontenac in Quebec City and the Banff Springs Hotel. By then, the CPR had competition from three other transcontinental lines, all of them money - losers. In 1919, these lines were consolidated, along with the track of the old Intercolonial Railway and its spurs, into the government - owned Canadian National Railways. The CPR suffered its greatest loss of life when one of its steamships, the Empress of Ireland, sank after a collision with the Norwegian collier SS Storstad. On 29 May 1914, the Empress (operated by the CPR 's Canadian Pacific Steamship Company) went down in the St. Lawrence River with the loss of 1,024 lives, of which 840 were passengers.
During the First World War CPR put the entire resources of the "world 's greatest travel system '' at the disposal of the British Empire, not only trains and tracks, but also its ships, shops, hotels, telegraphs and, above all, its people. Aiding the war effort meant transporting and billeting troops; building and supplying arms and munitions; arming, lending and selling ships. Fifty - two CPR ships were pressed into service during World War I, carrying more than a million troops and passengers and four million tons of cargo. Twenty seven survived and returned to CPR. CPR also helped the war effort with money and jobs. CPR made loans and guarantees to the Allies of some $100 million. As a lasting tribute, CPR commissioned three statues and 23 memorial tablets to commemorate the efforts of those who fought and those who died in the war. After the war, the Federal government created Canadian National Railways (CNR, later CN) out of several bankrupt railways that fell into government hands during and after the war. CNR would become the main competitor to the CPR in Canada. In 1923 Henry Worth Thornton replaced David Blyth Hanna becoming the second president of the CNR, and his competition spurred Edward Wentworth Beatty, the first Canadian - born president of the CPR, to action. During this time the railway land grants were formalized.
The Great Depression, which lasted from 1929 until 1939, hit many companies heavily. While the CPR was affected, it was not affected to the extent of its rival CNR because it, unlike the CNR, was debt - free. The CPR scaled back on some of its passenger and freight services, and stopped issuing dividends to its shareholders after 1932. Hard times led to the creation of new political parties such as the Social Credit movement and the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation, as well as popular protest in the form of the On - to - Ottawa Trek.
One highlight of the late 1930s, both for the railway and for Canada, was the visit of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth during their 1939 royal tour of Canada, the first time that the reigning monarch had visited the country. The CPR and the CNR shared the honours of pulling the royal train across the country, with the CPR undertaking the westbound journey from Quebec City to Vancouver. Later that year, the Second World War began. As it had done in World War I, the CPR devoted much of its resources to the war effort. It retooled its Angus Shops in Montreal to produce Valentine tanks and other armoured vehicles, and transported troops and resources across the country. As well, 22 of the CPR 's ships went to war, 12 of which were sunk.
After World War II, the transport industry in Canada changed. Where railways had previously provided almost universal freight and passenger services, cars, trucks and airplanes started to take traffic away from railways. This naturally helped the CPR 's air and trucking operations, and the railway 's freight operations continued to thrive hauling resource traffic and bulk commodities. However, passenger trains quickly became unprofitable. During the 1950s, the railway introduced new innovations in passenger service. In 1955 it introduced The Canadian, a new luxury transcontinental train. However, in the 1960s the company started to pull out of passenger services, ending services on many of its branch lines. It also discontinued its secondary transcontinental train The Dominion in 1966, and in 1970 unsuccessfully applied to discontinue The Canadian. For the next eight years, it continued to apply to discontinue the service, and service on The Canadian declined markedly. On 29 October 1978, CP Rail transferred its passenger services to Via Rail, a new federal Crown corporation that is responsible for managing all intercity passenger service formerly handled by both CP Rail and CN. Via eventually took almost all of its passenger trains, including The Canadian, off CP 's lines.
In 1968, as part of a corporate reorganization, each of the CPR 's major operations, including its rail operations, were organized as separate subsidiaries. The name of the railway was changed to CP Rail, and the parent company changed its name to Canadian Pacific Limited in 1971. Its air, express, telecommunications, hotel and real estate holdings were spun off, and ownership of all of the companies transferred to Canadian Pacific Investments. The slogan was: "TO THE FOUR CORNERS OF THE WORLD '' The company discarded its beaver logo, adopting the new Multimark (which, when mirrored by an adjacent "multi-mark '' creates a diamond appearance on a globe) that was used -- with a different colour background -- for each of its operations.
On 10 November 1979 a derailment of a hazardous materials train in Mississauga, Ontario, led to the evacuation of 200,000 people; there were no fatalities.
In 1984 CP Rail commenced construction of the Mount Macdonald Tunnel to augment the Connaught Tunnel under the Selkirk Mountains. The first revenue train passed through the tunnel in 1988. At 14.7 km (nine miles), it is the longest tunnel in the Americas. During the 1980s, the Soo Line Railroad, in which CP Rail still owned a controlling interest, underwent several changes. It acquired the Minneapolis, Northfield and Southern Railway in 1982. Then on 21 February 1985, the Soo Line obtained a controlling interest in the Milwaukee Road, merging it into its system on 1 January 1986. Also in 1980 Canadian Pacific bought out the controlling interests of the Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo Railway (TH&B) from Conrail and molded it into the Canadian Pacific System, dissolving the TH&B 's name from the books in 1985. In 1987 most of CPR 's trackage in the Great Lakes region, including much of the original Soo Line, were spun off into a new railway, the Wisconsin Central, which was subsequently purchased by CN. Influenced by the Canada - U.S. Free Trade Agreement of 1989 which liberalized trade between the two nations, the CPR 's expansion continued during the early 1990s: CP Rail gained full control of the Soo Line in 1990, and bought the Delaware and Hudson Railway in 1991. These two acquisitions gave CP Rail routes to the major American cities of Chicago (via the Soo Line) and New York City (via the D&H).
During the next few years CP Rail downsized its route, and several Canadian branch lines and even some secondary mainlines were either sold to short lines or abandoned. This rationalization, however, came at a price, as many grain elevators in the region known as Canada 's Breadbasket shut down due to not being able to distribute their thousands of bushels of grain through a large enough region. This included all of its lines east of Montreal, with the routes operating across Maine and New Brunswick to the port of Saint John (operating as the Canadian Atlantic Railway) being sold or abandoned, severing CPR 's transcontinental status (in Canada); the opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway in the late 1950s, coupled with subsidized icebreaking services, made Saint John surplus to CPR 's requirements.
During the 1990s, both CP Rail and CN attempted unsuccessfully to buy out the eastern assets of the other, so as to permit further rationalization. In 1996, CP Rail moved its head office from Windsor Station in Montreal to Gulf Canada Square in Calgary, Alberta. CP consolidated most of its Canadian train control into the new office, creating the Network Management Centre (NMC). The NMC controlled all CP train movement from the Port of Vancouver to Northern Ontario (Mactier, Ontario). A smaller office was left at Windsor Station, which controlled train traffic from Mactier to the Port of Montreal.
In 1996, CP Rail moved its head office to Calgary from Montreal and changed its name back to Canadian Pacific Railway. A new subsidiary company, the St. Lawrence and Hudson Railway, was created to operate its money - losing lines in eastern North America, covering Quebec, Southern and Eastern Ontario, trackage rights to Chicago, Illinois, as well as the Delaware and Hudson Railway in the northeastern United States. However, the new subsidiary, threatened with being sold off and free to innovate, quickly spun off losing track to short lines, instituted scheduled freight service, and produced an unexpected turn - around in profitability. On 1 January 2001 the StL&H was formally amalgamated with the CP Rail system.
In 2001, the CPR 's parent company, Canadian Pacific Limited, spun off its five subsidiaries, including the CPR, into independent companies. Most of the company 's non-railway businesses at the time of the split were operated by a separate subsidiary called Canadian Pacific Limited. Canadian Pacific Railway formally (but, not legally) shortened its name to Canadian Pacific in early 2007, dropping the word "railway '' in order to reflect more operational flexibility. Shortly after the name revision, Canadian Pacific announced that it had committed to becoming a major sponsor and logistics provider to the 2010 Olympic Winter Games in Vancouver.
On 4 September 2007, CPR announced it was acquiring the Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern Railroad from London - based Electra Private Equity. The transaction was an "end - to - end '' consolidation and gave CPR access to United States shippers of agricultural products, ethanol and coal. CPR stated its intention to use this purchase to gain access to the rich coalfields of Wyoming 's Powder River Basin. The purchase price was US $ 1.48 billion with future payments of over US $1 billion contingent on commencement of construction on the smaller railway 's Powder River extension and specified volumes of coal shipments from the Powder River basin. The transaction was subject to approval of the U.S. Surface Transportation Board (STB), which was expected to take about a year. On 4 October 2007, CPR announced that it had completed financial transactions required for the acquisition, placing the DM&E and IC&E in a voting trust with Richard Hamlin appointed as trustee. The merger was completed as of 31 October 2008.
On 28 October 2011, in a 13D regulatory filing, the U.S. hedge fund Pershing Square Capital Management (PSCM) indicated it owned 12.2 percent of Canadian Pacific. PSCM began acquiring Canadian Pacific shares in 2011. The stake eventually increased to 14.2 percent, making PSCM the railway 's largest shareholder. At a meeting with the company that month, Pershing 's head Bill Ackman proposed replacing Fred Green as CP 's chief executive. Just hours before the railway 's annual shareholder meeting on Thursday, 17 May 2012, Green and five other board members, including chairman John Cleghorn, resigned. The seven nominees, including Ackman and his partner, Paul Hilal, were then elected. The reconstituted board, having named Stephen Tobias (former vice president and chief operating officer of Norfolk Southern Railroad) as interim CEO, initiated a search for a new CEO, eventually settling on E. Hunter Harrison, former President of CN Rail, on 29 June 2012.
Canadian Pacific Railway Ltd. trains resumed regular operations on 1 June 2012 after a nine - day strike by some 4,800 locomotive engineers, conductors and traffic controllers who walked off the job on 23 May, stalling Canadian freight traffic and costing the economy an estimated C $80 million (USD $77 million). The strike ended with a government back - to - work bill forcing both sides to come to a binding agreement.
On 6 July 2013, a unit train of crude oil which CP had subcontracted to short - line operator Montreal, Maine and Atlantic Railway derailed in Lac - Mégantic, killing 47. On 14 August 2013, the Quebec government added the CPR, along with lessor World Fuel Services (WFS), to the list of corporate entities from which it seeks reimbursement for the environmental cleanup of the Lac - Megantic derailment. On 15 July, the press reported that CP would appeal the legal order. Railway spokesman Ed Greenberg stated "Canadian Pacific has reviewed the notice. As a matter of fact, in law, CP is not responsible for this cleanup. '' In February 2014, Harrison called for immediate action to phase - out DOT - 111 tank cars, known to be more dangerous in cases of derailment.
On 12 October 2014 it was reported that Canadian Pacific had tried to enter into a merger with American Railway CSX, but was unsuccessful.
In 2015 - 16 Canadian Pacific sought to merge with American railway Norfolk Southern. and wanted to have a vote on it. Canadian Pacific created a website to persuade people that the Canadian Pacific / Norfolk Southern merger would benefit the rail industry. Canadian Pacific both filed a complaint against the Department of Justice and dropped their proposed proxy fight in the proposed merger with Norfolk Southern. On April 11, 2016, Canadian Pacific abandoned the proposed merger with Norfolk Southern after three offers were rejected by the NS ' board.
United Parcel Service (UPS) spoke out about the rail merger and said they are against the Canadian Pacific / Norfolk Southern merger. CP terminated its efforts to merge on April 11, 2016. On January 18, 2017 it was announced that Hunter Harrison was retiring from CP and that Keith Creel would become President and Chief Executive Officer of the company effective January 31, 2017.
Canadian Pacific Railway 's North Line, which runs from Edmonton to Winnipeg, a high capacity line, is connected to "all the key refining markets in North America. '' Chief Executive Hunter Harrison told the Wall Street Journal that Canadian Pacific planned to improve track along its North Line as part of a plan to ship Alberta oil east.
CPR COO Keith Creel said CPR was in a growth position in 2014 thanks to the increased Alberta crude oil, Western Canadian Select WCS, transport that will account for one - third of CPR 's new revenue gains through 2018 "aided by improvements at oil - loading terminals and track in western Canada. ''
By 2014 Creel said the transport of Alberta 's heavy crude oil would account for about 60 % of the CP 's oil revenues, and light crude from the Bakken Shale region in Saskatchewan and the U.S. state of North Dakota would account for 40 %, the opposite of the ratios prior to the implementation of tougher regulations in both Canada and the United States that negatively affect the volatile, sensitive light sweet Bakken crude. Creel said that "It (WCS is) safer, less volatile and more profitable to move and we 're uniquely positioned to connect to the West Coast as well as the East Coast. ''
Over half of CP 's freight traffic is in grain (24 % of 2016 freight revenue), intermodal freight (22 %), and coal (10 %) and the vast majority of its profits are made in western Canada. A major shift in trade from the Atlantic to the Pacific has caused serious drops in CPR 's wheat shipments through Thunder Bay. It also ships chemicals and plastics (12 % of 2016 revenue), automotive parts and assembled automobiles (6 %), potash (6 %), sulphur and other fertilizers (5 %), forest products (5 %), and various other products (11 %). The busiest part of its railway network is along its main line between Calgary and Vancouver. Since 1970, coal has become a major commodity hauled by CPR. Coal is shipped in unit trains from coal mines in the mountains, most notably Sparwood, British Columbia to terminals at Roberts Bank and North Vancouver, from where it is then shipped to Japan. CP hauls millions of tonnes of coal to the west coast each year.
Grain is hauled by the CPR from the prairies to ports at Thunder Bay (the former cities of Fort William and Port Arthur), Quebec City and Vancouver, where it is then shipped overseas. The traditional winter export port was West Saint John, New Brunswick, when ice closed the St. Lawrence River. Grain has always been a significant commodity hauled by the CPR; between 1905 and 1909, the CPR double - tracked its section of track between Fort William, Ontario (part of present - day Thunder Bay) and Winnipeg to facilitate grain shipments. For several decades this was the only long stretch of double - track mainline outside of urban areas on the CPR. Today, though the Thunder Bay - Winnipeg section is now single tracked, the CPR still has two long distance double track lines serving rural areas, including a 121 - kilometre (75 mi) stretch between Kent, British Columbia and Vancouver which follows the Fraser River into the Coast Mountains, as well as the Canadian Pacific Winchester Sub, a 160 - kilometre (100 mi) stretch of double track mainline which runs from Smiths Falls, Ontario through downtown Montreal which runs through many rural farming communities. There are also various long stretches of double track between Golden and Kamloops, British Columbia, and portions of the original Winnipeg - Thunder Bay double track (such as 30 kilometres (20 mi) through Kenora and Keewatin, Ontario) are still double track.
In 1952, the CPR became the first North American railway to introduce intermodal or "piggyback '' freight service, where truck trailers are carried on flat cars. Containers later replaced most piggyback service. In 1996, the CPR introduced a scheduled reservation - only short - haul intermodal service between Montreal and West Toronto called the Iron Highway; it utilized unique equipment that was later replaced (1999) by conventional piggyback flatcars and renamed Expressway. This service was extended to Detroit with plans to reach Chicago however CP was unable to locate a suitable terminal.
The train was the primary mode of long - distance transport in Canada until the 1960s. Among the many types of people who rode CPR trains were new immigrants heading for the prairies, military troops (especially during the two world wars) and upper class tourists. It also custom - built many of its passenger cars at its CPR Angus Shops to be able to meet the demands of the upper class.
The CPR also had a line of Great Lakes ships integrated into its transcontinental service. From 1885 until 1912, these ships linked Owen Sound on Georgian Bay to Fort William. Following a major fire in December 1911 that destroyed the grain elevator, operations were relocated to a new, larger port created by the CPR at Port McNicoll opening in May 1912. Five ships allowed daily service, and included the S.S. Assiniboia and S.S. Keewatin built in 1908 which remained in use until the end of service. Travellers went by train from Toronto that Georgian Bay port, then travelled by ship to link with another train at the Lakehead. After World War II, the trains and ships carried automobiles as well as passengers. This service featured what was to become the last boat train in North America. The Steam Boat was a fast, direct connecting train between Toronto and Port McNicoll. The passenger service was discontinued at the end of season in 1965 with one ship, the Keewatin, carrying on in freight service for two more years. It later became a marine museum at Douglas, Michigan in the United States, before returning to its original homeport of Port McNicoll, Canada in 2013.
After the Second World War, passenger traffic declined as automobiles and aeroplanes became more common, but the CPR continued to innovate in an attempt to keep passenger numbers up. Beginning 9 November 1953, the CPR introduced Budd Rail Diesel Cars (RDCs) on many of its lines. Officially called "Dayliners '' by the CPR, they were always referred to as Budd Cars by employees. Greatly reduced travel times and reduced costs resulted, which saved service on many lines for a number of years. The CPR went on to acquire the second largest fleet of RDCs totalling 52 cars. Only the Boston and Maine Railroad had more. This CPR fleet also included the rare model RDC - 4 (which consisted of a mail section at one end and a baggage section at the other end with no formal passenger section). On 24 April 1955, the CPR introduced a new luxury transcontinental passenger train, The Canadian. The train provided service between Vancouver and Toronto or Montreal (east of Sudbury; the train was in two sections). The train, which operated on an expedited schedule, was pulled by diesel locomotives, and used new, streamlined, stainless steel rolling stock.
Starting in the 1960s, however, the railway started to discontinue much of its passenger service, particularly on its branch lines. For example, passenger service ended on its line through southern British Columbia and Crowsnest Pass in January 1964, and on its Quebec Central in April 1967, and the transcontinental train The Dominion was dropped in January 1966. On 29 October 1978, CP Rail transferred its passenger services to Via Rail, a new federal Crown corporation that was now responsible for intercity passenger services in Canada. Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney presided over major cuts in Via Rail service on 15 January 1990. This ended service by The Canadian over CPR rails, and the train was rerouted on the former Super Continentalroute via Canadian National without a change of name. Where both trains had been daily prior to the 15 January 1990 cuts, the surviving Canadian was only a three - times - weekly operation. In October 2012, The Canadian was reduced to twice - weekly for the six - month off - season period, and currently operates three - times - weekly for only six months a year. In addition to inter-city passenger services, the CPR also provided commuter rail services in Montreal. CP Rail introduced Canada 's first bi-level passenger cars here in 1970. On 1 October 1982, the Montreal Urban Community Transit Commission (STCUM) assumed responsibility for the commuter services previously provided by CP Rail. It continues under the Metropolitan Transportation Agency (AMT).
Canadian Pacific Railway currently operates two commuter services under contract. GO Transit contracts CPR to operate six return trips between Milton and central Toronto in Ontario. In Montreal, 59 daily commuter trains run on CPR lines from Lucien - L'Allier Station to Candiac, Hudson and Blainville -- Saint - Jerome on behalf of the AMT. CP no longer operates Vancouver 's West Coast Express on behalf of TransLink, a regional transit authority. Bombardier Transportation assumed control of train operations on 5 May 2014. CP Rail also owns the track for, handles dispatching of, and otherwise participates in the running of two commuter rail lines, the Milwaukee District / North (which uses CP 's C&M Subdivision) and Milwaukee District / West Lines (which uses CP 's Elgin Subdivision), as part of Greater Chicago 's Metra system.
Sleeping cars were operated by a separate department of the railway that included the dining and parlour cars and aptly named as the Sleeping, Dining and Parlour Car Department. The CPR decided from the very beginning that it would operate its own sleeping cars, unlike railways in the United States that depended upon independent companies that specialized in providing cars and porters, including building the cars themselves. Pullman was long a famous name in this regard; its Pullman porters were legendary. Other early companies included the Wagner Palace Car Company. Bigger - sized berths and more comfortable surroundings were built by order of the CPR 's General Manager, William Van Horne, who was a large man himself. Providing and operating their own cars allowed better control of the service provided as well as keeping all of the revenue received, although dining - car services were never profitable. But railroad managers realized that those who could afford to travel great distances expected such facilities, and their favourable opinion would bode well to attracting others to Canada and the CPR 's trains.
W.C. Van Horne decided from the very beginning that the CPR would retain as much revenue from its various operations as it could. This translated into keeping express, telegraph, sleeping car and other lines of business for themselves, creating separate departments or companies as necessary. This was necessary as the fledgling railway would need all the income it could get, and in addition, he saw some of these ancillary operations such as express and telegraph as being quite profitable. Others such as sleeping and dining cars were kept in order to provide better control over the quality of service being provided to passengers. Hotels were likewise crucial to the CPR 's growth by attracting travellers.
Dominion Express Company was formed independently in 1873 before the CPR itself, although train service did not begin until the summer of 1882 at which time it operated over some 500 kilometres (300 mi) of track from Rat Portage (Kenora) Ontario west to Winnipeg, Manitoba. It was soon absorbed into the CPR and expanded everywhere the CPR went. It was renamed Canadian Express Company on 1 September 1926, and the headquarters moved from Winnipeg, to Toronto. It was operated as a separate company with the railway charging them to haul express cars on trains. Express was handled in separate cars, some with employees on board, on the headend of passenger trains to provide a fast scheduled service for which higher rates could be charged than for LCL (Less than Carload Lot), small shipments of freight which were subject to delay. Aside from all sorts of small shipments for all kinds of businesses such products as cream, butter, poultry and eggs were handled along with fresh flowers, fish and other sea foods some handled in separate refrigerated cars. Horses and livestock along with birds and small animals including prize cattle for exhibition were carried often in special horse cars that had facilities for grooms to ride with their animals.
Automobiles for individuals were also handled by express in closed boxcars. Gold and silver bullion as well as cash were carried in large amounts between the mint and banks and Express messengers were armed for security. Small business money shipments and valuables such as jewellery were routinely handled in small packets. Money orders and travellers ' cheques were an important part of the express company 's business and were used worldwide in the years before credit cards. Canadian Express Cartage Department was formed in March 1937 to handle pickup and delivery of most express shipments including less - than - carload freight. Their trucks were painted Killarney (dark) green while regular express company vehicles were painted bright red. Express routes using highway trucks beginning in November 1945 in southern Ontario and Alberta co-ordinated railway and highway service expanded service to better serve smaller locations especially on branchlines. Trucking operations would go on to expand across Canada making it an important transport provider for small shipments. Deregulation in the 1980s, however, changed everything and trucking services were ended after many attempts to change with the times.
Between the 1890s and 1933, the CPR transported raw silk from Vancouver, where they had been shipped from the Orient, to silk mills in New York and New Jersey. A silk train could carry several million dollars worth of silk, so they had their own armed guards. To avoid train robberies and so minimize insurance costs, they travelled quickly and stopped only to change locomotives and crews, which was often done in under five minutes. The silk trains had superior rights over all other trains; even passenger trains (including the Royal Train of 1939) would be put in sidings to make the silk trains ' trip faster. At the end of World War II, the invention of nylon made silk less valuable so the silk trains died out.
Funeral trains would carry the remains of important people, such as prime ministers. As the train would pass, mourners would be at certain spots to show respect. Two of the CPR 's funeral trains are particularly well - known. On 10 June 1891, the funeral train of Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald ran from Ottawa to Kingston, Ontario. The train consisted of five heavily draped passenger cars and was pulled by 4 - 4 - 0 No. 283. On 14 September 1915, the funeral train of former CPR president Sir William Cornelius Van Horne ran from Montreal to Joliet, Illinois, pulled by 4 - 6 - 2 No. 2213.
The CPR ran a number of trains that transported members of the Canadian Royal Family when they have toured the country. These trains transported royalty through Canada 's scenery, forests, small towns and enabled people to see and greet them. Their trains were elegantly decorated; some had amenities such as a post office and barber shop. The CPR 's most notable royal train was in 1939. In 1939 the CPR and the CNR had the honour of giving King George VI and Queen Elizabeth a rail tour of Canada, from Quebec City to Vancouver. This was the first visit to Canada by a reigning Monarch. The steam locomotives used to pull the train included CPR 2850, a Hudson (4 - 6 - 4) built by Montreal Locomotive Works in 1938, CNR 6400, a U-4 - a Northern (4 - 8 - 4) and CNR 6028 a U-1 - b Mountain (4 - 8 - 2) type. They were specially painted royal blue, with the exception of CNR 6028 which was not painted, with silver trim as was the entire train. The locomotives ran 5,189 km (3,224 mi) across Canada, through 25 changes of crew, without engine failure. The King, somewhat of a railbuff, rode in the cab when possible. After the tour, King George gave the CPR permission to use the term "Royal Hudson '' for the CPR locomotives and to display Royal Crowns on their running boards. This applied only to the semi-streamlined locomotives (2820 -- 2864), not the "standard '' Hudsons (2800 -- 2819).
CPR provided the rollingstock for the Better Farming Train which toured rural Saskatchewan between 1914 and 1922 to promote the latest information on agricultural research. It was staffed by the University of Saskatchewan and operating expenses were covered by the Department of Agriculture.
Between 1927 and the early 1950s the CPR ran a school car to reach people who lived in Northern Ontario, far from schools. A teacher would travel in a specially designed car to remote areas and would stay to teach in one area for two to three days, then leave for another area. Each car had a blackboard and a few sets of chairs and desks. They also contained miniature libraries and accommodation for the teacher.
Major shooting for the 1976 film Silver Streak, a fictional comedy tale of a murder - infested train trip from Los Angeles to Chicago, was done on the CPR, mainly in the Alberta area with station footage at Toronto 's Union Station. The train set was so lightly disguised as the fictional "AMRoad '' that the locomotives and cars still carried their original names and numbers, along with the easily identifiable CP Rail red - striped paint scheme. Most of the cars are still in revenue service on Via Rail Canada; the lead locomotive (CP 4070) and the second unit (CP 4067) were sold to Via Rail and CTCUM respectively.
Starting in 1999, CP runs a Holiday Train along its main line during the months of November and December. The Holiday Train celebrates the holiday season and collects donations for community food banks and hunger issues. The Holiday Train also provides publicity for Canadian Pacific and a few of its customers. Each train has a box car stage for entertainers who are travelling along with the train.
The train is a freight train, but also pulls vintage passenger cars which are used as lodging / transportation for the crew and entertainers. Only entertainers and CP employees are allowed to board the train aside from a coach car that takes employees and their families from one stop to the next. Since its launch in 1999, the Holiday Train program has raised CA $13 million and 4 million pounds (1,800 t) of food for North American food banks. All donations collected in a community remain in that community for distribution.
There are two Holiday Trains that cover 150 stops in Canada and the United States Northeast and Midwest. Each train is roughly 1,000 feet (300 m) in length with brightly decorated railway cars, including a modified box car that has been turned into a travelling stage for performers. They are each decorated with hundred of thousands of LED Christmas lights. In 2013 to celebrate the program 's 15th year, three signature events were held in Hamilton, Ontario, Calgary, Alberta, and Cottage Grove, Minnesota, to further raise awareness for hunger issues.
The trains feature different entertainers each year; in 2016 one train featured Dallas Smith and the Odds, while the other featured Colin James and Kelly Prescott. After its 2017 tour, which hosted Colin James, Terri Clark, Alan Doyle, Dallas Smith and Kelly Prescott, CP now reports to have raised CA $ $14.5 million and 4.3 million pounds (2,000 t) of food for local food banks.
On 7 June 2000, the CPR inaugurated the Royal Canadian Pacific, a luxury excursion service that operates between the months of June and September. It operates along a 1,050 km (650 mi) route from Calgary, through the Columbia Valley in British Columbia, and returning to Calgary via Crowsnest Pass. The trip takes six days and five nights. The train consists of up to eight luxury passenger cars built between 1916 and 1931 and is powered by first - generation diesel locomotives.
In 1998, the CPR repatriated one of its former passenger steam locomotives that had been on static display in the United States following its sale in January 1964, long after the close of the steam era. CPR Hudson 2816 was re-designated Empress 2816 following a 30 - month restoration that cost in excess of $1 million. It was subsequently returned to service to promote public relations. It has operated across much of the CPR system, including lines in the U.S. and been used for various charitable purposes; 100 % of the money raised goes to the nationwide charity Breakfast for Learning -- the CPR bears all of the expenses associated with the operation of the train. 2816 is the subject of Rocky Mountain Express, a 2011 IMAX film which follows the locomotive on an eastbound journey beginning in Vancouver, and which tells the story of the building of the CPR.
In 2008, Canadian Pacific partnered with the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games to present a "Spirit Train '' tour that featured Olympic - themed events at various stops. Colin James was a headline entertainer. Several stops were met by protesters who argued that the games were slated to take place on stolen indigenous land.
In 2017, CP ran the CP Canada 150 Train from Port Moody to Ottawa to celebrate Canada 's 150th year since Confederation. The train stopped in 13 cities along its 3 week summer tour, offering a free block party and concert from Dean Brody, Kelly Prescott and Dallas Arcand. The heritage train drew out thousands to sign the special "Spirit of Tomorrow '' car, where children were invited to write their wishes for the future of Canada and send them to Ottawa. Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and daughter Ella - Grace Trudeau also visited the train and rode it from Revelstoke to Calgary.
Historically, Canadian Pacific operated several non-railway businesses. In 1971, these businesses were split off into the separate company Canadian Pacific Limited, and in 2001, that company was further split into five companies. CP no longer provides any of these services.
The original charter of the CPR granted in 1881 provided for the right to create an electric telegraph and telephone service including charging for it. The telephone had barely been invented but telegraph was well established as a means of communicating quickly across great distances. Being allowed to sell this service meant the railway could offset the costs of constructing and maintaining a pole line along its tracks across vast distances for its own purposes which were largely for dispatching trains. It began doing so in 1882 as the separate Telegraph Department. It would go on to provide a link between the cables under the Atlantic and Pacific oceans when they were completed. Prior to the CPR line messages to the west could be sent only via the United States.
Paid for by the word, the telegram was an expensive way to send messages, but they were vital to businesses. An individual receiving a personal telegram was seen as being someone important except for those that transmitted sorrow in the form of death notices. Messengers on bicycles delivered telegrams and picked up a reply in cities. In smaller locations the local railway station agent would handle this on a commission basis. To speed things, at the local end messages would first be telephoned. In 1931 it became the Communications Department in recognition of the expanding services provided which included telephones lines, news wire, ticker quotations for the stock market and eventually teleprinters. All were faster than mail and very important to business and the public alike for many decades before mobile phones and computers came along. It was the coming of these newer technologies especially cellular telephones that eventually resulted in the demise of these services even after formation in 1967 of CN - CP Telecommunications in an effort to effect efficiencies through consolidation rather than competition. Deregulation in the 1980s brought about mergers and the sale of remaining services and facilities.
On 17 January 1930, the CPR applied for licences to operate radio stations in 11 cities from coast to coast for the purpose of organising its own radio network in order to compete with the CNR Radio service. The CNR had built a radio network with the aim of promoting itself as well as entertaining its passengers during their travels. The onset of the Great Depression hurt the CPR 's financial plan for a rival project and in April they withdrew their applications for stations in all but Toronto, Montreal and Winnipeg. CPR did not end up pursuing these applications but instead operated a phantom station in Toronto known as "CPRY, '' with initials standing for "Canadian Pacific Royal York '' which operated out of studios at CP 's Royal York Hotel and leased time on CFRB and CKGW. A network of affiliates carried the CPR radio network 's broadcasts in the first half of the 1930s, but the takeover of CNR 's Radio service by the new Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission removed CPR 's need to have a network for competitive reasons and CPR 's radio service was discontinued in 1935.
Steamships played an important part in the history of CP from the very earliest days. During construction of the line in British Columbia even before the private CPR took over from the government contractor, ships were used to bring supplies to the construction sites. Similarly, to reach the isolated area of Superior in northern Ontario ships were used to bring in supplies to the construction work. While this work was going on there was already regular passenger service to the West. Trains operated from Toronto Owen Sound where CPR steamships connected to Fort William where trains once again operated to reach Winnipeg. Before the CPR was completed the only way to reach the West was through the United States via St. Paul and Winnipeg. This Great Lakes steam ship service continued as an alternative route for many years and was always operated by the railway. Canadian Pacific passenger service on the lakes ended in 1965.
In 1884, CPR began purchasing sailing ships as part of a railway supply service on the Great Lakes. Over time, CPR became a railroad company with widely organized water transportation auxiliaries including the Great Lakes service, the trans - Pacific service, the Pacific coastal service, the British Columbia lake and river service, the trans - Atlantic service and the Bay of Fundy Ferry service. In the 20th century, the company evolved into an intercontinental railway which operated two transoceanic services which connected Canada with Europe and with Asia. The range of CPR services were aspects of an integrated plan.
Once the railway was completed to British Columbia, the CPR chartered and soon bought their own passenger steamships as a link to the Orient. These sleek steamships were of the latest design and christened with "Empress '' names (e.g., RMS Empress of Britain, Empress of Canada, Empress of Australia, and so forth). Travel to and from the Orient and cargo, especially imported tea and silk, were an important source of revenue, aided by Royal Mail contracts. This was an important part of the All - Red Route linking the various parts of the British Empire.
The other ocean part was the Atlantic service to and from Britain, which began with acquisition of two existing lines, Beaver Line, owned by Elder Dempster and Allan Lines. These two segments became Canadian Pacific Ocean Services (later, Canadian Pacific Steamships) and operated separately from the various lake services operated in Canada, which were considered to be a direct part of the railway 's operations. These trans - ocean routes made it possible to travel from Britain to Hong Kong using only the CPR 's ships, trains and hotels. CP 's ' Empress ' ships became world - famous for their luxury and speed. They had a practical role, too, in transporting immigrants from much of Europe to Canada, especially to populate the vast prairies. They also played an important role in both world wars with many of them being lost to enemy action, including the Empress of Britain.
There were also a number of rail ferries operated over the years as well including, between Windsor, Ontario and Detroit from 1890 until 1915. This began with two paddle - wheelers capable of carrying 16 cars. Passenger cars were carried as well as freight. This service ended in 1915 when the CPR made an agreement with the Michigan Central to use their Detroit River tunnel opened in 1910. Pennsylvania - Ontario Transportation Company was formed jointly with the PRR in 1906 to operate a ferry across Lake Erie between Ashtabula, Ohio and Port Burwell, Ontario to carry freight cars, mostly of coal, much of it to be burned in CPR steam locomotives. Only one ferry boat was ever operated, Ashtabula, a large vessel which eventually sank in a harbour collision in Ashtabula on 18 September 1958, thus ending the service.
Canadian Pacific Car and Passenger Transfer Company was formed by other interest in 1888 linking the CPR in Prescott, Ontario, and the NYC in Ogdensburg, New York. Service on this route had actually begun very early, in 1854 along with service from Brockville. A bridge built in 1958 ended passenger service however, freight continued until Ogdensburg 's dock was destroyed by fire 25 September 1970, thus ending all service. CPC&PTC was never owned by the CPR. Bay of Fundy ferry service was operated for passengers and freight for many years linking Digby, Nova Scotia, and Saint John, New Brunswick. Eventually, after 78 years, with the changing times the scheduled passenger services would all be ended as well as ocean cruises. Cargo would continue on both oceans with a change over to containers. CP was an intermodal pioneer especially on land with road and railway mixing to provide the best service. CP Ships was the final operation, and in the end it too left CP ownership when it was spun off in 2001. CP Ships was merged with Hapag - Lloyd in 2005.
The Canadian Pacific Railway Coast Service (British Columbia Coast Steamships or BCCS) was established when the CPR acquired in 1901 Canadian Pacific Navigation Company (no relation) and its large fleet of ships that served 72 ports along the coast of British Columbia including on Vancouver Island. Service included the Vancouver - Victoria - Seattle Triangle Route, Gulf Islands, Powell River, as well as Vancouver - Alaska service. BCCS operated a fleet of 14 passenger ships made up of a number of Princess ships, pocket versions of the famous oceangoing Empress ships along with a freighter, three tugs and five railway car barges. Popular with tourists, the Princess ships were famous in their own right especially Princess Marguerite (II) which operated from 1949 until 1985 and was the last coastal liner in operation. The best known of the princess ships, however, is Princess Sophia, which sank with no survivors in October 1918 after striking the Vanderbilt Reef in Alaska 's Lynn Canal, constituting the largest maritime disaster in the history of the Pacific Northwest. These services continued for many years until changing conditions in the late 1950s brought about their decline and eventual demise at the end of season in 1974. Princess Marguerite was acquired by the province 's British Columbia Steamship (1975) Ltd. and continued to operate for a number of years. In 1977 although BCCSS was the legal name, it was rebranded as Coastal Marine Operations (CMO). By 1998 the company was bought by the Washington Marine Group which after purchase was renamed Seaspan Coastal Intermodal Company and then subsequently rebranded in 2011 as Seaspan Ferries Corporation. Passenger service ended in 1981.
The Canadian Pacific Railway Lake and River Service (British Columbia Lake and River Service) developed slowly and in spurts of growth. CP began a long history of service in the Kootenays region of southern British Columbia beginning with the purchase in 1897 of the Columbia and Kootenay Steam Navigation Company which operated a fleet of steamers and barges on the Arrow Lakes and was merged into the CPR as the CPR Lake and River Service which also served the Arrow Lakes and Columbia River, Kootenay Lake and Kootenai River, Lake Okanagan and Skaha Lake, Slocan Lake, Trout Lake, and Shuswap Lake and the Thompson River / Kamloops Lake.
All of these lake operations had one thing in common, the need for shallow draft therefore sternwheelers were the choice of ship. Tugs and barges handled railway equipment including one operation that saw the entire train including the locomotive and caboose go along. These services gradually declined and ended in 1975 except for a freight barge on Slocan Lake. This was the one where the entire train went along since the barge was a link to an isolated section of track. The Iris G tug boat and a barge were operated under contract to CP Rail until the last train ran late in December 1988. The sternwheel steamship Moyie on Kootenay Lake was the last CPR passenger boat in BC lake service, having operated from 1898 until 1957. She became a beached historical exhibit, as are also the Sicamous and Naramata at Penticton on Lake Okanagan.
To promote tourism and passenger ridership the Canadian Pacific established a series of first class hotels. These hotels became landmarks famous in their own right. They include the Algonquin in St. Andrews, Château Frontenac in Quebec, Royal York in Toronto, Minaki Lodge in Minaki Ontario, Hotel Vancouver, Empress Hotel in Victoria and the Banff Springs Hotel and Chateau Lake Louise in the Canadian Rockies. Several signature hotels were acquired from its competitor Canadian National during the 1980s, including the Jasper Park Lodge. The hotels retain their Canadian Pacific heritage but are no longer operated by the railroad. In 1998 Canadian Pacific Hotels acquired Fairmont Hotels, an American company, becoming Fairmont Hotels and Resorts, Inc.; the combined corporation operated the historic Canadian properties as well as the Fairmont 's U.S. properties until merged with Raffles Hotels and Resorts and Swissôtel in 2006.
Canadian Pacific Airlines, also called CP Air, operated from 1942 to 1987 and was the main competitor of Canadian government - owned Air Canada. Based at Vancouver International Airport, it served Canadian and international routes until it was purchased by Pacific Western Airlines which merged PWA and CP Air to create Canadian Airlines.
In the CPR 's early years, it made extensive use of American Standard 4 - 4 - 0 steam locomotives and an example of this is the Countess of Dufferin. Later, considerable use was also made of the 4 - 6 - 0 type for passenger and 2 - 8 - 0 type for freight. Starting in the 20th century, the CPR bought and built hundreds of Ten - Wheeler type 4 - 6 - 0s for passenger and freight service and similar quantities of 2 - 8 - 0s and 2 - 10 - 2s for freight. 2 - 10 - 2s were also used in passenger service on mountain routes. The CPR bought hundreds of 4 - 6 - 2 Pacifics between 1906 and 1948 with later versions being true dual purpose passenger and fast freight locomotives.
The CPR built hundreds of its own locomotives at its shops in Montreal, first at the New Shops as the DeLorimer shops were commonly referred to and at the massive Angus Shops that replaced them in 1904. Some of the CPR 's best - known locomotives were the 4 - 6 - 4 Hudsons. First built in 1929, they began a new era of modern locomotives with capabilities that changed how transcontinental passenger trains ran, eliminating frequent changes en route. What once took 24 changes of engines in 1886, all of them 4 - 4 - 0s except for two of 2 - 8 - 0s in the mountains, for 4,640 kilometres (2,883 mi) between Montreal and Vancouver became 8 changes. The 2800s (Twenty Eight Hundreds), as the Hudson type was known, ran from Toronto to Fort William, a distance of 1,305 kilometres (811 mi), while another lengthy engine district was from Winnipeg to Calgary 1,339 kilometres (832 mi). Especially notable were the semi-streamlined H1 class Royal Hudson, locomotives that were given their name because one of their class hauled the Royal Train carrying King George VI and Queen Elizabeth on the 1939 Royal Tour across Canada without change or failure. That locomotive, No. 2850, is preserved in the Exporail exhibit hall of the Canadian Railway Museum in St. Constant (Delson) Quebec. One of the class, No. 2860, was restored by the British Columbia government and used in excursion service on the British Columbia Railway between 1974 and 1999.
The CPR also made many of their older 2 - 8 - 0s, built in the turn of the century, into 2 - 8 - 2s.
In 1929, the CPR received its first 2 - 10 - 4 Selkirk locomotives, the largest steam locomotives to run in Canada and the British Empire. Named after the Selkirk Mountains where they served, these locomotives were well suited for steep grades. They were regularly used in passenger and freight service. The CPR would own 37 of these locomotives, including number 8000, an experimental high pressure engine. The last steam locomotives that the CPR received, in 1949, were Selkirks, numbered 5930 -- 5935.
In 1937, the CPR acquired its first diesel - electric locomotive, a custom - built one - of - a-kind switcher numbered 7000. This locomotive was not successful and was not repeated. Production - model diesels were imported from American Locomotive Company (Alco) starting with five model S - 2 yard switchers in 1943 and followed by further orders. In 1949, operations on lines in Vermont were dieselized with Alco FA1 road locomotives (8 A and 4 B units), 5 Alco RS - 2 road switchers, 3 Alco S - 2 switchers and 3 EMD E8 passenger locomotives. In 1948 Montreal Locomotive Works began production of ALCO designs.
In 1949, the CPR acquired 13 Baldwin - designed locomotives from the Canadian Locomotive Company for its isolated Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway and Vancouver Island was quickly dieselized. Following that successful experiment, the CPR started to dieselize its main network. Dieselization was completed 11 years later, with its last steam locomotive running on 6 November 1960. The CPR 's first - generation locomotives were mostly made by General Motors Diesel and Montreal Locomotive Works (American Locomotive Company designs), with some made by the Canadian Locomotive Company to Baldwin and Fairbanks Morse designs.
CP was the first railway in North America to pioneer AC traction diesel - electric locomotives, in 1984. In 1995 CP turned to GE Transportation Systems for the first production AC traction locomotives in Canada, and now has the highest percentage of AC locomotives in service of all North American Class I railways.
The fleet includes these types:
Canadian Pacific Railway Limited (TSX: CP NYSE: CP) is a Canadian railway transportation company that operates the Canadian Pacific Railway. It was created in 2001 when the CPR 's former parent company, Canadian Pacific Limited, spun off its railway operations. On 3 October 2001, the company 's shares began to trade on the New York Stock Exchange and the Toronto Stock Exchange under the "CP '' symbol. During 2003, the company earned $ C3. 5 billion in freight revenue. In October 2008, Canadian Pacific Railway Ltd was named one of "Canada 's Top 100 Employers '' by Mediacorp Canada Inc., and was featured in Maclean 's. Later that month, CPR was named one of Alberta 's Top Employers, which was reported in both the Calgary Herald and the Edmonton Journal.
CP owns a large number of large yards and repair shops across their system, which are used for many operations ranging from intermodal terminals to classification yards. Below are some examples of these.
Hump yards work by using a small hill over which cars are pushed, before being released down a slope and switched automatically into cuts of cars, ready to be made into outbound trains. Many of these yards were closed in 2012 and 2013 under Hunter Harrison 's company - wide restructuring, only the St. Paul Yard hump remains open.
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where does an addendum go in a report | Addendum - wikipedia
An addendum, in general, is an addition required to be made to a document by its author subsequent to its printing or publication. It comes from the Latin verbal phrase addendum est, being the gerundive form of the verb addo, addere, addidi, additum, "to give to, add to '', meaning "(that which) must be added ''. Addenda is from the plural form addenda sunt, "(those things) which must be added ''. (See also memorandum, agenda, corrigenda.)
An addendum may explain inconsistencies or expand the existing work or otherwise explain or update the information found in the main work, especially if any such problems were detected too late to correct the main work. For example, the main work could have had already been printed and the cost of destroying the batch and reprinting it deemed too high. As such, addenda may come in many forms -- a separate letter included with the work, text files on a digital medium, or any similar carrier. It may serve to notify the reader of errors present, as an errata.
In other documents, most importantly in legal contracts, an addendum is an additional document not included in the main part of the contract. It is an ad hoc item, usually compiled and executed after the main document, which contains additional terms, obligations or information. An Additional Agreement to a contract is often an addendum to a contract.
It is to be distinguished from other appendices to a contract which may contain additional terms, specifications, provisions, standard forms or other information which have been separated out from the main body of the contract. These are called: an appendix (general term), an annex (which includes information, usually large texts or tables, which are independent stand - alone works which have been included in the contract, such as a tax table, or a large excerpt from a book), or an exhibit (often used in court cases),
Similarly an attachment is used usually for e-mails, while an enclosure is used with a paper letter.
Addenda are often used in standard form contracts to make changes or add specific detail. For example, an addendum might be added to a contract to change a date or add details as to delivery of goods or pricing. The addendum should be referenced in the contract, or the contract should be referenced in the addendum, so that it is clear which contract the addendum is modifying.
A rider is often used to add specific detail and especially specific conditions to a standard contract such as an insurance contract. A rider may also be added to a piece of legislation.
Schedules and exhibits are sub-categories of addenda, with schedules being related to numerical and time information, such as pricing and time - schedules, and exhibits used for examples of standard forms or additional information necessary for the parties to understand and / or comply with their contractual obligations. Outside of contract law, exhibits are often used in legal documents filed with a court as part of judicial proceedings such as motions, briefs and the submission of different types of evidence for inclusion in the record of trial of a particular case.
Juries in inquests or trials may amplify or explain their decisions by issuing a commentary known as a rider, as in the prosecution of Harold Greenwood and the inquest of Jean Charles de Menezes.
Addendum is also used if the medical care staff is inserting additional information about the patient.
The radial distance from the pitch circle of a cogwheel, worm wheel, etc., to the crests of the teeth or ridges. it is the radial height of a tooth above the pitch circle.
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why does rust form on some metallic materials | Rust - wikipedia
Rust is an iron oxide, a usually red oxide formed by the redox reaction of iron and oxygen in the presence of water or air moisture. Several forms of rust are distinguishable both visually and by spectroscopy, and form under different circumstances. Rust consists of hydrated iron (III) oxides Fe O nH O and iron (III) oxide - hydroxide (FeO (OH), Fe (OH)).
Given sufficient time, oxygen, and water, any iron mass will eventually convert entirely to rust and disintegrate. Surface rust is flaky and friable, and it provides no protection to the underlying iron, unlike the formation of patina on copper surfaces. Rusting is the common term for corrosion of iron and its alloys, such as steel. Many other metals undergo similar corrosion, but the resulting oxides are not commonly called rust.
Other forms of rust exist, like the result of reactions between iron and chloride in an environment deprived of oxygen. Rebar used in underwater concrete pillars, which generates green rust, is an example. Although rusting is generally a negative aspect of iron, a particular form of rusting, known as "stable rust, '' causes the object to have a thin coating of rust over the top, and if kept in low relative humidity, makes the "stable '' layer protective to the iron below, but not to the extent of other oxides, such as aluminum.
Rust is another name for iron oxide, which occurs when iron or an alloy that contains iron, like steel, is exposed to oxygen and moisture for a long period of time. Over time, the oxygen combines with the metal at an atomic level, forming a new compound called an oxide and weakening the bonds of the metal itself. Although some people refer to rust generally as "oxidation '', that term is much more general; although rust forms when iron undergoes oxidation, not all oxidation forms rust. Only iron or alloys that contain iron can rust, but other metals can corrode in similar ways.
The main catalyst for the rusting process is water. Iron or steel structures might appear to be solid, but water molecules can penetrate the microscopic pits and cracks in any exposed metal. The hydrogen atoms present in water molecules can combine with other elements to form acids, which will eventually cause more metal to be exposed. If chloride ions are present, as is the case with saltwater, the corrosion is likely to occur more quickly. Meanwhile, the oxygen atoms combine with metallic atoms to form the destructive oxide compound. As the atoms combine, they weaken the metal, making the structure brittle and crumbly.
When impure (cast) iron is in contact with water, oxygen, other strong oxidants, or acids, it rusts. If salt is present, for example in seawater or salt spray, the iron tends to rust more quickly, as a result of electrochemical reactions. Iron metal is relatively unaffected by pure water or by dry oxygen. As with other metals, like aluminium, a tightly adhering oxide coating, a passivation layer, protects the bulk iron from further oxidation. The conversion of the passivating ferrous oxide layer to rust results from the combined action of two agents, usually oxygen and water.
Other degrading solutions are sulfur dioxide in water and carbon dioxide in water. Under these corrosive conditions, iron hydroxide species are formed. Unlike ferrous oxides, the hydroxides do not adhere to the bulk metal. As they form and flake off from the surface, fresh iron is exposed, and the corrosion process continues until either all of the iron is consumed or all of the oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, or sulfur dioxide in the system are removed or consumed.
When iron rusts, the oxides take up more volume than the original metal; this expansion can generate enormous forces, damaging structures made with iron. See economic effect for more details.
The rusting of iron is an electrochemical process that begins with the transfer of electrons from iron to oxygen. The iron is the reducing agent (gives up electrons) while the oxygen is the oxidising agent (gains electrons). The rate of corrosion is affected by water and accelerated by electrolytes, as illustrated by the effects of road salt on the corrosion of automobiles. The key reaction is the reduction of oxygen:
Because it forms hydroxide ions, this process is strongly affected by the presence of acid. Indeed, the corrosion of most metals by oxygen is accelerated at low pH. Providing the electrons for the above reaction is the oxidation of iron that may be described as follows:
The following redox reaction also occurs in the presence of water and is crucial to the formation of rust:
In addition, the following multistep acid -- base reactions affect the course of rust formation:
as do the following dehydration equilibria:
From the above equations, it is also seen that the corrosion products are dictated by the availability of water and oxygen. With limited dissolved oxygen, iron (II) - containing materials are favoured, including FeO and black lodestone or magnetite (Fe O). High oxygen concentrations favour ferric materials with the nominal formulae Fe (OH) O. The nature of rust changes with time, reflecting the slow rates of the reactions of solids.
Furthermore, these complex processes are affected by the presence of other ions, such as Ca, which serve as electrolytes which accelerate rust formation, or combine with the hydroxides and oxides of iron to precipitate a variety of Ca, Fe, O, OH species.
Onset of rusting can also be detected in laboratory with the use of ferroxyl indicator solution. The solution detects both Fe ions and hydroxyl ions. Formation of Fe ions and hydroxyl ions are indicated by blue and pink patches respectively.
Because of the widespread use and importance of iron and steel products, the prevention or slowing of rust is the basis of major economic activities in a number of specialized technologies. A brief overview of methods is presented here; for detailed coverage, see the cross-referenced articles.
Rust is permeable to air and water, therefore the interior metallic iron beneath a rust layer continues to corrode. Rust prevention thus requires coatings that preclude rust formation.
Stainless steel forms a passivation layer of chromium (III) oxide. Similar passivation behavior occurs with magnesium, titanium, zinc, zinc oxides, aluminium, polyaniline, and other electroactive conductive polymers.
Special "weathering steel '' alloys such as Cor - Ten rust at a much slower rate than normal, because the rust adheres to the surface of the metal in a protective layer. Designs using this material must include measures that avoid worst - case exposures, since the material still continues to rust slowly even under near - ideal conditions.
Galvanization consists of an application on the object to be protected of a layer of metallic zinc by either hot - dip galvanizing or electroplating. Zinc is traditionally used because it is cheap, adheres well to steel, and provides cathodic protection to the steel surface in case of damage of the zinc layer. In more corrosive environments (such as salt water), cadmium plating is preferred. Galvanization often fails at seams, holes, and joints where there are gaps in the coating. In these cases, the coating still provides some partial cathodic protection to iron, by acting as a galvanic anode and corroding itself instead of the underlying protected metal. The protective zinc layer is consumed by this action, and thus galvanization provides protection only for a limited period of time.
More modern coatings add aluminium to the coating as zinc - alume; aluminium will migrate to cover scratches and thus provide protection for a longer period. These approaches rely on the aluminium and zinc oxides reprotecting a once - scratched surface, rather than oxidizing as a sacrificial anode as in traditional galvanized coatings. In some cases, such as very aggressive environments or long design life, both zinc and a coating are applied to provide enhanced corrosion protection.
Typical galvanization of steel products which are to subject to normal day to day weathering in an outside environment consists of a hot dipped 85 μm zinc coating. Under normal weather conditions, this will deteriorate at a rate of 1 μm per year, giving approximately 85 years of protection.
Cathodic protection is a technique used to inhibit corrosion on buried or immersed structures by supplying an electrical charge that suppresses the electrochemical reaction. If correctly applied, corrosion can be stopped completely. In its simplest form, it is achieved by attaching a sacrificial anode, thereby making the iron or steel the cathode in the cell formed. The sacrificial anode must be made from something with a more negative electrode potential than the iron or steel, commonly zinc, aluminium, or magnesium. The sacrificial anode will eventually corrode away, ceasing its protective action unless it is replaced in a timely manner.
Cathodic protection can also be provided by using a special - purpose electrical device to appropriately induce an electric charge.
Rust formation can be controlled with coatings, such as paint, lacquer, varnish, or wax tapes that isolate the iron from the environment. Large structures with enclosed box sections, such as ships and modern automobiles, often have a wax - based product (technically a "slushing oil '') injected into these sections. Such treatments usually also contain rust inhibitors. Covering steel with concrete can provide some protection to steel because of the alkaline pH environment at the steel -- concrete interface. However rusting of steel in concrete can still be a problem, as expanding rust can fracture or slowly "explode '' concrete from within.
As a closely related example, iron bars were used to reinforce stonework of the Parthenon in Athens, Greece, but caused extensive damage by rusting, swelling, and shattering the marble components of the building.
When only temporary protection is needed for storage or transport, a thin layer of oil, grease, or a special mixture such as Cosmoline can be applied to an iron surface. Such treatments are extensively used when "mothballing '' a steel ship, automobile, or other equipment for long - term storage.
Special antiseize lubricant mixtures are available, and are applied to metallic threads and other precision machined surfaces to protect them from rust. These compounds usually contain grease mixed with copper, zinc, or aluminium powder, and other proprietary ingredients.
Bluing is a technique that can provide limited resistance to rusting for small steel items, such as firearms; for it to be successful, a water - displacing oil is rubbed onto the blued steel and other steel.
Corrosion inhibitors, such as gas - phase or volatile inhibitors, can be used to prevent corrosion inside sealed systems. They are not effective when air circulation disperses them, and brings in fresh oxygen and moisture.
Rust can be avoided by controlling the moisture in the atmosphere. An example of this is the use of silica gel packets to control humidity in equipment shipped by sea.
Rust removal from small iron or steel objects by electrolysis can be done in a home workshop using simple materials such as a plastic bucket, tap water, lengths of rebar, washing soda, baling wire, and a battery charger.
Rust may be treated with commercial products known as rust converter which contain tannic acid or phosphoric acid which combines with rust; removed with organic acids like citric acid and vinegar or the stronger hydrochloric acid; or removed with chelating agents as in some commercial formulations or even a solution of molasses.
Rust is associated with degradation of iron - based tools and structures. As rust has a much higher volume than the originating mass of iron, its buildup can also cause failure by forcing apart adjacent parts -- a phenomenon sometimes known as "rust packing ''. It was the cause of the collapse of the Mianus river bridge in 1983, when the bearings rusted internally and pushed one corner of the road slab off its support.
Rust was an important factor in the Silver Bridge disaster of 1967 in West Virginia, when a steel suspension bridge collapsed in less than a minute, killing 46 drivers and passengers on the bridge at the time. The Kinzua Bridge in Pennsylvania was blown down by a tornado in 2003, largely because the central base bolts holding the structure to the ground had rusted away, leaving the bridge anchored by gravity alone.
Reinforced concrete is also vulnerable to rust damage. Internal pressure caused by expanding corrosion of concrete - covered steel and iron can cause the concrete to spall, creating severe structural problems. It is one of the most common failure modes of reinforced concrete bridges and buildings.
The collapsed Silver Bridge, as seen from the Ohio side
The Kinzua Bridge after it collapsed
Rust is a commonly used metaphor for slow decay due to neglect, since it gradually converts robust iron and steel metal into a soft crumbling powder. A wide section of the industrialized American Midwest and American Northeast, once dominated by steel foundries, the automotive industry, and other manufacturers, has experienced harsh economic cutbacks that have caused the region to be dubbed the "Rust Belt ''.
In music, literature, and art, rust is associated with images of faded glory, neglect, decay, and ruin.
Rusted and pitted struts of the 70 - year - old Nandu River Iron Bridge
Concentric rust patterns breaking through a painted surface
A leaking water pump caused severe corrosion of this engine block
A rusted but otherwise intact Pineapple grenade that was previously buried in the ground near Opheusden, Netherlands
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who was the best selling author of all time | List of best - selling fiction authors - wikipedia
This is a list of best - selling fiction authors to date, in any language. While finding precise sales numbers for any given author is near - impossible, the list is based on approximate numbers provided or repeated by reliable sources. "Best - selling '' refers to the estimated number of copies sold of all fiction books written or co-written by an author. To keep the list manageable, only authors with estimated sales of at least 100 million are included. Authors of comic books are not included unless they have been published in book format (for example: comic albums or Tankōbon).
Authors such as Miguel de Cervantes, Alexandre Dumas, Charles Dickens, Jane Austen, Arthur Conan Doyle, Victor Hugo, Jules Verne, Rick Riordan, Jack Higgins and Leon Uris have not been included in the table because no exact figures could be found -- although there are indications that they too have more than 100 million copies of their work in print.
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when was the us bill of rights written | United States Bill of Rights - wikipedia
The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. Proposed following the often bitter 1787 -- 88 battle over ratification of the U.S. Constitution, and crafted to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government 's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those found in several earlier documents, including the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the English Bill of Rights, along with earlier documents such as Magna Carta (1215). In practice, the amendments had little impact on judgments by the courts for the first 150 years after ratification.
On June 8, 1789, Representative James Madison introduced nine amendments to the Constitution in the House of Representatives. Madison proposed inserting specific rights limiting the power of Congress in Article One, Section 9. Seven of these limitations would become part of the ten ratified Bill of Rights amendments. Ultimately, on September 25, 1789, Congress approved twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution, each consisting of one one - sentence paragraph, and submitted them to the states for ratification. Contrary to Madison 's original proposal that the articles be incorporated into the main body of the Constitution, they were proposed as supplemental additions (codicils) to it. Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15, 1791, and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution. Article Two became part of the Constitution on May 5, 1992, as the Twenty - seventh Amendment. Article One is still pending before the states.
Although Madison 's proposed amendments included a provision to extend the protection of some of the Bill of Rights to the states, the amendments that were finally submitted for ratification applied only to the federal government. The door for their application upon state governments was opened in the 1860s, following ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. Since the early 20th century both federal and state courts have used the Fourteenth Amendment to apply portions of the Bill of Rights to state and local governments. The process is known as incorporation.
There are several original engrossed copies of the Bill of Rights still in existence. One of these is on permanent public display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.
Prior to the ratification and implementation of the United States Constitution, the thirteen sovereign states followed the Articles of Confederation, created by the Second Continental Congress and ratified in 1781. However, the national government that operated under the Articles of Confederation was too weak to adequately regulate the various conflicts that arose between the states. The Philadelphia Convention set out to correct weaknesses of the Articles that had been apparent even before the American Revolutionary War had been successfully concluded.
The convention took place from May 14 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles, the intention of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The convention convened in the Pennsylvania State House, and George Washington of Virginia was unanimously elected as president of the convention. The 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution are among the men known as the Founding Fathers of the new nation. Thomas Jefferson, who was Minister to France during the convention, characterized the delegates as an assembly of "demi - gods. '' Rhode Island refused to send delegates to the convention.
On September 12, George Mason of Virginia suggested the addition of a Bill of Rights to the Constitution modeled on previous state declarations, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts made it a formal motion. However, the motion was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations after only a brief discussion. Madison, then an opponent of a Bill of Rights, later explained the vote by calling the state bills of rights "parchment barriers '' that offered only an illusion of protection against tyranny. Another delegate, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, later argued that the act of enumerating the rights of the people would have been dangerous, because it would imply that rights not explicitly mentioned did not exist; Hamilton echoed this point in Federalist No. 84. Because Mason and Gerry had emerged as opponents of the proposed new Constitution, their motion -- introduced five days before the end of the convention -- may also have been seen by other delegates as a delaying tactic. The quick rejection of this motion, however, later endangered the entire ratification process. Author David O. Stewart characterizes the omission of a Bill of Rights in the original Constitution as "a political blunder of the first magnitude '' while historian Jack N. Rakove calls it "the one serious miscalculation the framers made as they looked ahead to the struggle over ratification ''.
Thirty - nine delegates signed the finalized Constitution. Thirteen delegates left before it was completed, and three who remained at the convention until the end refused to sign it: Mason, Gerry, and Edmund Randolph of Virginia. Afterward, the Constitution was presented to the Articles of Confederation Congress with the request that it afterwards be submitted to a convention of delegates, chosen in each State by the people, for their assent and ratification.
Following the Philadelphia Convention, some leading revolutionary figures such as Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and Richard Henry Lee publicly opposed the new frame of government, a position known as "Anti-Federalism ''. Elbridge Gerry wrote the most popular Anti-Federalist tract, "Hon. Mr. Gerry 's Objections '', which went through 46 printings; the essay particularly focused on the lack of a bill of rights in the proposed constitution. Many were concerned that a strong national government was a threat to individual rights and that the president would become a king. Jefferson wrote to Madison advocating a Bill of Rights: "Half a loaf is better than no bread. If we can not secure all our rights, let us secure what we can. '' The pseudonymous Anti-Federalist "Brutus '' wrote,
We find they have, in the ninth section of the first article declared, that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless in cases of rebellion -- that no bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed -- that no title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, etc. If every thing which is not given is reserved, what propriety is there in these exceptions? Does this Constitution any where grant the power of suspending the habeas corpus, to make ex post facto laws, pass bills of attainder, or grant titles of nobility? It certainly does not in express terms. The only answer that can be given is, that these are implied in the general powers granted. With equal truth it may be said, that all the powers which the bills of rights guard against the abuse of, are contained or implied in the general ones granted by this Constitution.
He continued with this observation:
Ought not a government, vested with such extensive and indefinite authority, to have been restricted by a declaration of rights? It certainly ought. So clear a point is this, that I can not help suspecting that persons who attempt to persuade people that such reservations were less necessary under this Constitution than under those of the States, are wilfully endeavoring to deceive, and to lead you into an absolute state of vassalage.
Supporters of the Constitution, known as Federalists, opposed a bill of rights for much of the ratification period, in part due to the procedural uncertainties it would create. Madison argued against such an inclusion, suggesting that state governments were sufficient guarantors of personal liberty, in No. 46 of The Federalist Papers, a series of essays promoting the Federalist position. Hamilton opposed a bill of rights in The Federalist No. 84, stating that "the constitution is itself in every rational sense, and to every useful purpose, a bill of rights. '' He stated that ratification did not mean the American people were surrendering their rights, making protections unnecessary: "Here, in strictness, the people surrender nothing, and as they retain everything, they have no need of particular reservations. '' Patrick Henry criticized the Federalist point of view, writing that the legislature must be firmly informed "of the extent of the rights retained by the people... being in a state of uncertainty, they will assume rather than give up powers by implication. '' Other anti-Federalists pointed out that earlier political documents, in particular the Magna Carta, had protected specific rights. In response, Hamilton argued that the Constitution was inherently different:
Bills of rights are in their origin, stipulations between kings and their subjects, abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege, reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince. Such was the Magna Charta, obtained by the Barons, swords in hand, from King John.
In December 1787 and January 1788, five states -- Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut -- ratified the Constitution with relative ease, though the bitter minority report of the Pennsylvania opposition was widely circulated. In contrast to its predecessors, the Massachusetts convention was angry and contentious, at one point erupting into a fistfight between Federalist delegate Francis Dana and Anti-Federalist Elbridge Gerry when the latter was not allowed to speak. The impasse was resolved only when revolutionary heroes and leading Anti-Federalists Samuel Adams and John Hancock agreed to ratification on the condition that the convention also propose amendments. The convention 's proposed amendments included a requirement for grand jury indictment in capital cases, which would form part of the Fifth Amendment, and an amendment reserving powers to the states not expressly given to the federal government, which would later form the basis for the Tenth Amendment.
Following Massachusetts ' lead, the Federalist minorities in both Virginia and New York were able to obtain ratification in convention by linking ratification to recommended amendments. A committee of the Virginia convention headed by law professor George Wythe forwarded forty recommended amendments to Congress, twenty of which enumerated individual rights and another twenty of which enumerated states ' rights. The latter amendments included limitations on federal powers to levy taxes and regulate trade.
A minority of the Constitution 's critics, such as Maryland 's Luther Martin, continued to oppose ratification. However, Martin 's allies, such as New York 's John Lansing, Jr., dropped moves to obstruct the Convention 's process. They began to take exception to the Constitution "as it was, '' seeking amendments. Several conventions saw supporters for "amendments before '' shift to a position of "amendments after '' for the sake of staying in the Union. The New York Anti-Federalist "circular letter '' was sent to each state legislature proposing a second constitutional convention for "amendments before '', but it failed in the state legislatures. Ultimately, only North Carolina and Rhode Island waited for amendments from Congress before ratifying.
Article Seven of the proposed Constitution set the terms by which the new frame of government would be established. The new Constitution would become operational when ratified by at least nine states. Only then would it replace the existing government under the Articles of Confederation and would apply only to those states that ratified it.
Following contentious battles in several states, the proposed Constitution reached that nine - state ratification plateau in June 1788. On September 13, 1788, the Articles of Confederation Congress certified that the new Constitution had been ratified by more than enough states for the new system to be implemented and directed the new government to meet in New York City on the first Wednesday in March the following year. On March 4, 1789, the new frame of government came into force with eleven of the thirteen states participating.
The 1st United States Congress, which met in New York City 's Federal Hall, was a triumph for the Federalists. The Senate of eleven states contained 20 Federalists with only two Anti-Federalists, both from Virginia. The House included 48 Federalists to 11 Anti-Federalists, the latter of whom were from only four states: Massachusetts, New York, Virginia and South Carolina. Among the Virginia delegation to the House was James Madison, Patrick Henry 's chief opponent in the Virginia ratification battle. In retaliation for Madison 's victory in that battle at Virginia 's ratification convention, Henry and other Anti-Federalists, who controlled the Virginia House of Delegates, had gerrymandered a hostile district for Madison 's planned congressional run and recruited Madison 's future presidential successor, James Monroe, to oppose him. Madison defeated Monroe after offering a campaign pledge that he would introduce constitutional amendments forming a bill of rights at the First Congress.
Originally opposed to the inclusion of a bill of rights in the Constitution, Madison had gradually come to understand the importance of doing so during the often contentious ratification debates. By taking the initiative to propose amendments himself through the Congress, he hoped to preempt a second constitutional convention that might, it was feared, undo the difficult compromises of 1787, and open the entire Constitution to reconsideration, thus risking the dissolution of the new federal government. Writing to Jefferson, he stated, "The friends of the Constitution, some from an approbation of particular amendments, others from a spirit of conciliation, are generally agreed that the System should be revised. But they wish the revisal to be carried no farther than to supply additional guards for liberty. '' He also felt that amendments guaranteeing personal liberties would "give to the Government its due popularity and stability ''. Finally, he hoped that the amendments "would acquire by degrees the character of fundamental maxims of free government, and as they become incorporated with the national sentiment, counteract the impulses of interest and passion ''. Historians continue to debate the degree to which Madison considered the amendments of the Bill of Rights necessary, and to what degree he considered them politically expedient; in the outline of his address, he wrote, "Bill of Rights -- useful -- not essential -- ''.
On the occasion of his April 30, 1789 inauguration as the nation 's first president, George Washington addressed the subject of amending the Constitution. He urged the legislators,
whilst you carefully avoid every alteration which might endanger the benefits of an united and effective government, or which ought to await the future lessons of experience; a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen, and a regard for public harmony, will sufficiently influence your deliberations on the question, how far the former can be impregnably fortified or the latter be safely and advantageously promoted.
James Madison introduced a series of Constitutional amendments in the House of Representatives for consideration. Among his proposals was one that would have added introductory language stressing natural rights to the preamble. Another would apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government. Several sought to protect individual personal rights by limiting various Constitutional powers of Congress. Like Washington, Madison urged Congress to keep the revision to the Constitution "a moderate one '', limited to protecting individual rights.
Madison was deeply read in the history of government and used a range of sources in composing the amendments. The English Magna Carta of 1215 inspired the right to petition and to trial by jury, for example, while the English Bill of Rights of 1689 provided an early precedent for the right to keep and bear arms (although this applied only to Protestants) and prohibited cruel and unusual punishment.
The greatest influence on Madison 's text, however, was existing state constitutions. Many of his amendments, including his proposed new preamble, were based on the Virginia Declaration of Rights drafted by Anti-Federalist George Mason in 1776. To reduce future opposition to ratification, Madison also looked for recommendations shared by many states. He did provide one, however, that no state had requested: "No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases. '' He did not include an amendment that every state had asked for, one that would have made tax assessments voluntary instead of contributions. Madison 's proposed the following constitutional amendments:
First. That there be prefixed to the Constitution a declaration, that all power is originally vested in, and consequently derived from, the people. That Government is instituted and ought to be exercised for the benefit of the people; which consists in the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the right of acquiring and using property, and generally of pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety. That the people have an indubitable, unalienable, and indefeasible right to reform or change their Government, whenever it be found adverse or inadequate to the purposes of its institution.
Secondly. That in article 1st, section 2, clause 3, these words be struck out, to wit: "The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative, and until such enumeration shall be made; '' and in place thereof be inserted these words, to wit: "After the first actual enumeration, there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number amounts to --, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that the number shall never be less than --, nor more than --, but each State shall, after the first enumeration, have at least two Representatives; and prior thereto. ''
Thirdly. That in article 1st, section 6, clause 1, there be added to the end of the first sentence, these words, to wit: "But no law varying the compensation last ascertained shall operate before the next ensuing election of Representatives. ''
Fourthly. That in article 1st, section 9, between clauses 3 and 4, be inserted these clauses, to wit: The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship, nor shall any national religion be established, nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience be in any manner, or on any pretext, infringed. The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak, to write, or to publish their sentiments; and the freedom of the press, as one of the great bulwarks of liberty, shall be inviolable. The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their common good; nor from applying to the legislature by petitions, or remonstrances for redress of their grievances. The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; a well armed and well regulated militia being the best security of a free country: but no person religiously scrupulous of bearing arms shall be compelled to render military service in person. No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor at any time, but in a manner warranted by law. No person shall be subject, except in cases of impeachment, to more than one punishment, or one trial for the same offence; nor shall be compelled to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor be obliged to relinquish his property, where it may be necessary for public use, without a just compensation. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. The rights of the people to be secured in their persons, their houses, their papers, and their other property, from all unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated by warrants issued without probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, or not particularly describing the places to be searched, or the persons or things to be seized. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, to be informed of the cause and nature of the accusation, to be confronted with his accusers, and the witnesses against him; to have a compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. The exceptions here or elsewhere in the Constitution, made in favor of particular rights, shall not be so construed as to diminish the just importance of other rights retained by the people, or as to enlarge the powers delegated by the Constitution; but either as actual limitations of such powers, or as inserted merely for greater caution.
Fifthly. That in article 1st, section 10, between clauses 1 and 2, be inserted this clause, to wit: No State shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases.
Sixthly. That, in article 3d, section 2, be annexed to the end of clause 2d, these words, to wit: But no appeal to such court shall be allowed where the value in controversy shall not amount to -- dollars: nor shall any fact triable by jury, according to the course of common law, be otherwise re-examinable than may consist with the principles of common law.
Seventhly. That in article 3d, section 2, the third clause be struck out, and in its place be inserted the clauses following, to wit: The trial of all crimes (except in cases of impeachments, and cases arising in the land or naval forces, or the militia when on actual service, in time of war or public danger) shall be by an impartial jury of freeholders of the vicinage, with the requisite of unanimity for conviction, of the right with the requisite of unanimity for conviction, of the right of challenge, and other accustomed requisites; and in all crimes punishable with loss of life or member, presentment or indictment by a grand jury shall be an essential preliminary, provided that in cases of crimes committed within any county which may be in possession of an enemy, or in which a general insurrection may prevail, the trial may by law be authorized in some other county of the same State, as near as may be to the seat of the offence. In cases of crimes committed not within any county, the trial may by law be in such county as the laws shall have prescribed. In suits at common law, between man and man, the trial by jury, as one of the best securities to the rights of the people, ought to remain inviolate.
Eighthly. That immediately after article 6th, be inserted, as article 7th, the clauses following, to wit: The powers delegated by this Constitution are appropriated to the departments to which they are respectively distributed: so that the Legislative Department shall never exercise the powers vested in the Executive or Judicial, nor the Executive exercise the powers vested in the Legislative or Judicial, nor the Judicial exercise the powers vested in the Legislative or Executive Departments. The powers not delegated by this Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the States respectively.
Ninthly. That article 7th, be numbered as article 8th.
Federalist representatives were quick to attack Madison 's proposal, fearing that any move to amend the new Constitution so soon after its implementation would create an appearance of instability in the government. The House, unlike the Senate, was open to the public, and members such as Fisher Ames warned that a prolonged "dissection of the constitution '' before the galleries could shake public confidence. A procedural battle followed, and after initially forwarding the amendments to a select committee for revision, the House agreed to take Madison 's proposal up as a full body beginning on July 21, 1789.
The eleven - member committee made some significant changes to Madison 's nine proposed amendments, including eliminating most of his preamble and adding the phrase "freedom of speech, and of the press ''. The House debated the amendments for eleven days. Roger Sherman of Connecticut persuaded the House to place the amendments at the Constitution 's end so that the document would "remain inviolate '', rather than adding them throughout, as Madison had proposed. The amendments, revised and condensed from twenty to seventeen, were approved and forwarded to the Senate on August 24, 1789.
The Senate edited these amendments still further, making 26 changes of its own. Madison 's proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government was eliminated, and the seventeen amendments were condensed to twelve, which were approved on September 9, 1789. The Senate also eliminated the last of Madison 's proposed changes to the preamble.
On September 21, 1789, a House -- Senate Conference Committee convened to resolve the numerous differences between the two Bill of Rights proposals. On September 24, 1789, the committee issued this report, which finalized 12 Constitutional Amendments for House and Senate to consider. This final version was approved by joint resolution of Congress on September 25, 1789, to be forwarded to the states on September 28.
By the time the debates and legislative maneuvering that went into crafting the Bill of Rights amendments was done, many personal opinions had shifted. A number of Federalists came out in support, thus silencing the Anti-Federalists ' most effective critique. Many Anti-Federalists, in contrast, were now opposed, realizing that Congressional approval of these amendments would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention. Anti-Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution, such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation, intact.
Madison remained active in the progress of the amendments throughout the legislative process. Historian Gordon S. Wood writes that "there is no question that it was Madison 's personal prestige and his dogged persistence that saw the amendments through the Congress. There might have been a federal Constitution without Madison but certainly no Bill of Rights. ''
The twelve articles of amendment approved by congress were officially submitted to the Legislatures of the several States for consideration on September 28, 1789. The following states ratified some or all of the amendments:
Having been approved by the requisite three - fourths of the several states, there being 14 States in the Union at the time (as Vermont had been admitted into the Union on March 4, 1791), the ratification of Articles Three through Twelve was completed and they became Amendments 1 through 10 of the Constitution. President Washington informed Congress of this on January 18, 1792.
As they had not yet been approved by 11 of the 14 states, the ratification of Article One (ratified by 10) and Article Two (ratified by 6) remained incomplete. The ratification plateau they needed to reach soon rose to 12 of 15 states when Kentucky joined the Union (June 1, 1792). On June 27, 1792, the Kentucky General Assembly ratified all 12 amendments, however this action did not come to light until 1996.
Article One came within one state of the number needed to become adopted into the Constitution on two occasions between 1789 and 1803. Despite coming close to ratification early on, it has never received the approval of enough states to become part of the Constitution. As Congress did not attach a ratification time limit to the article, it is still technically pending before the states. Since no state has approved it since 1792, ratification by an additional 27 states would now be necessary for the article to be adopted.
Article Two, initially ratified by seven states through 1792 (including Kentucky), was not ratified by another state for eighty years. The Ohio General Assembly ratified it on May 6, 1873 in protest of an unpopular Congressional pay raise. A century later, on March 6, 1978, the Wyoming Legislature also ratified the article. Gregory Watson, a University of Texas at Austin undergraduate student, started a new push for the article 's ratification with a letter - writing campaign to state legislatures. As a result, by May 1992, enough states had approved Article Two (38 of the 50 states in the Union) for it to become the Twenty - seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution. The amendment 's adoption was certified by Archivist of the United States Don W. Wilson and subsequently affirmed by a vote of Congress on May 20, 1992.
Three states did not complete action on the twelve articles of amendment when they were initially put before the states. Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify. Both chambers of the Massachusetts General Court ratified a number of the amendments (the Senate adopted 10 of 12 and the House 9 of 12), but failed to reconcile their two lists or to send official notice to the Secretary of State of the ones they did agree upon. Both houses of the Connecticut General Assembly voted to ratify Articles Three through Twelve but failed to reconcile their bills after disagreeing over whether to ratify Articles One and Two. All three later ratified the Constitutional amendments originally known as Articles Three through Twelve as part of the 1939 commemoration of the Bill of Rights ' sesquicentennial: Massachusetts on March 2, Georgia on March 18, and Connecticut on April 19. Connecticut and Georgia would also later ratify Article Two, on May 13, 1987 and February 2, 1988 respectively.
The Bill of Rights had little judicial impact for the first 150 years of its existence; in the words of Gordon S. Wood, "After ratification, most Americans promptly forgot about the first ten amendments to the Constitution. '' The Court made no important decisions protecting free speech rights, for example, until 1931. Historian Richard Labunski attributes the Bill 's long legal dormancy to three factors: first, it took time for a "culture of tolerance '' to develop that would support the Bill 's provisions with judicial and popular will; second, the Supreme Court spent much of the 19th century focused on issues relating to intergovernmental balances of power; and third, the Bill initially only applied to the federal government, a restriction affirmed by Barron v. Baltimore (1833). In the twentieth century, however, most of the Bill 's provisions were applied to the states via the Fourteenth Amendment -- a process known as incorporation -- beginning with the freedom of speech clause, in Gitlow v. New York (1925). In Talton v. Mayes (1896), the Court ruled that Constitutional protections, including the provisions of the Bill of Rights, do not apply to the actions of American Indian tribal governments. Through the incorporation process the United States Supreme Court succeeded in extending to the States almost all of the protections in the Bill of Rights, as well as other, unenumerated rights. The Bill of Rights thus imposes legal limits on the powers of governments and acts as an anti-majoritarian / minoritarian safeguard by providing deeply entrenched legal protection for various civil liberties and fundamental rights. The Supreme Court for example concluded in the West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (1943) case that the founders intended the Bill of Rights to put some rights out of reach from majorities, ensuring that some liberties would endure beyond political majorities. As the Court noted, the idea of the Bill of Rights "was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts. '' This is why "fundamental rights may not be submitted to a vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections. ''
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
The First Amendment prohibits the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion, impeding the free exercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press, interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances. Initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today.
In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson 's correspondence to call for "a wall of separation between church and State '', though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute. Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th - and 21st - century court decisions that protected various forms of political speech, anonymous speech, campaign financing, pornography, and school speech; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections. The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for libel suits, most notably in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964). Commercial speech is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation.
The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, and applies to a wide variety of media. In Near v. Minnesota (1931) and New York Times v. United States (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint -- pre-publication censorship -- in almost all cases. The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects freedom of association.
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.
The Second Amendment protects the individual right to keep and bear arms. The concept of such a right existed within English common law long before the enactment of the Bill of Rights. First codified in the English Bill of Rights of 1689 (but there only applying to Protestants), this right was enshrined in fundamental laws of several American states during the Revolutionary era, including the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights and the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776. Long a controversial issue in American political, legal, and social discourse, the Second Amendment has been at the heart of several Supreme Court decisions.
No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
The Third Amendment re stricts the quartering of soldiers in private homes, in response to Quartering Acts passed by the British parliament during the Revolutionary War. The amendment is one of the least controversial of the Constitution, and, as of 2018, has never been the primary basis of a Supreme Court decision.
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
The Fourth Amendment guards against unreasonable searches and seizures, along with requiring any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause. It was adopted as a response to the abuse of the writ of assistance, which is a type of general search warrant, in the American Revolution. Search and seizure (including arrest) must be limited in scope according to specific information supplied to the issuing court, usually by a law enforcement officer who has sworn by it. The amendment is the basis for the exclusionary rule, which mandates that evidence obtained illegally can not be introduced into a criminal trial. The amendment 's interpretation has varied over time; its protections expanded under left - leaning courts such as that headed by Earl Warren and contracted under right - leaning courts such as that of William Rehnquist.
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
The Fifth Amendment protects against double jeopardy and self - incrimination and guarantees the rights to due process, grand jury screening of criminal indictments, and compensation for the seizure of private property under eminent domain. The amendment was the basis for the court 's decision in Miranda v. Arizona (1966), which established that defendants must be informed of their rights to an attorney and against self - incrimination prior to interrogation by police.
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.
The Sixth Amendment establishes a number of rights of the defendant in a criminal trial:
In Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), the Court ruled that the amendment guaranteed the right to legal representation in all felony prosecutions in both state and federal courts.
In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
The Seventh Amendment guarantees jury trials in federal civil cases that deal with claims of more than twenty dollars. It also prohibits judges from overruling findings of fact by juries in federal civil trials. In Colgrove v. Battin (1973), the Court ruled that the amendment 's requirements could be fulfilled by a jury with a minimum of six members. The Seventh is one of the few parts of the Bill of Rights not to be incorporated (applied to the states).
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
The Eighth Amendment forbids the imposition of excessive bails or fines, though it leaves the term "excessive '' open to interpretation. The most frequently litigated clause of the amendment is the last, which forbids cruel and unusual punishment. This clause was only occasionally applied by the Supreme Court prior to the 1970s, generally in cases dealing with means of execution. In Furman v. Georgia (1972), some members of the Court found capital punishment itself in violation of the amendment, arguing that the clause could reflect "evolving standards of decency '' as public opinion changed; others found certain practices in capital trials to be unacceptably arbitrary, resulting in a majority decision that effectively halted executions in the United States for several years. Executions resumed following Gregg v. Georgia (1976), which found capital punishment to be constitutional if the jury was directed by concrete sentencing guidelines. The Court has also found that some poor prison conditions constitute cruel and unusual punishment, as in Estelle v. Gamble (1976) and Brown v. Plata (2011).
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
The Ninth Amendment declares that there are additional fundamental rights that exist outside the Constitution. The rights enumerated in the Constitution are not an explicit and exhaustive list of individual rights. It was rarely mentioned in Supreme Court decisions before the second half of the 20th century, when it was cited by several of the justices in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965). The Court in that case voided a statute prohibiting use of contraceptives as an infringement of the right of marital privacy. This right was, in turn, the foundation upon which the Supreme Court built decisions in several landmark cases, including, Roe v. Wade (1973), which overturned a Texas law making it a crime to assist a woman to get an abortion, and Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), which invalidated a Pennsylvania law that required spousal awareness prior to obtaining an abortion.
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
The Tenth Amendment reinforces the principles of separation of powers and federalism by providing that powers not granted to the federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the states, are reserved to the states or the people. The amendment provides no new powers or rights to the states, but rather preserves their authority in all matters not specifically granted to the federal government.
Congress has sometimes gotten around the Tenth Amendment by invoking the Commerce Clause in Article One or by threatening to withhold funding for a federal program from noncooperative States, as in South Dakota v. Dole (1987).
George Washington had fourteen handwritten copies of the Bill of Rights made, one for Congress and one for each of the original thirteen states. The copies for Georgia, Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania went missing. The New York copy is thought to have been destroyed in a fire. Two unidentified copies of the missing four (thought to be the Georgia and Maryland copies) survive; one is in the National Archives, and the other is in the New York Public Library. North Carolina 's copy was stolen from the State Capitol by a Union soldier following the Civil War. In an FBI sting operation, it was recovered in 2003. The copy retained by the First Congress has been on display (along with the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence) in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom room at the National Archives Building in Washington, D.C. since December 13, 1952.
After fifty years on display, signs of deterioration in the casing were noted, while the documents themselves appeared to be well preserved. Accordingly, the casing was updated and the Rotunda rededicated on September 17, 2003. In his dedicatory remarks, President George W. Bush stated, "The true (American) revolution was not to defy one earthly power, but to declare principles that stand above every earthly power -- the equality of each person before God, and the responsibility of government to secure the rights of all. ''
In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared December 15 to be Bill of Rights Day, commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Bill of Rights. In 1991, the Virginia copy of the Bill of Rights toured the country in honor of its bicentennial, visiting the capitals of all fifty states.
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when does joey start on days of our lives | Joey Tribbiani - wikipedia
Joseph Francis Tribbiani, Jr. is a fictional character from the NBC sitcoms Friends and its spin - off Joey, and is portrayed by Matt LeBlanc. He is an Italian - American struggling actor who used to live in New York City with his roommate and best friend, Chandler Bing, and used to hang out in a tight - knit group of his best friends - Chandler Bing, Ross Geller, Monica Geller - Bing, Rachel Green and Phoebe Buffay. He lived with a few other roommates when Chandler Bing moved out to move in with Monica Geller - Bing. Joey finally moved to LA to focus on his career after his best friends moved on with their own lives.
Joey was presumably born in 1967 or 1968 as he talks about being 13 in 1981. He comes from an Italian American family of eight children. His father Joseph Tribbiani, Sr. (Robert Costanzo), is a pipefitter and his mother 's name is Gloria (Brenda Vaccaro). Joey has seven sisters: Mary Therese (Mimi Lieber) aka Mary Teresa (Christina Ricci), Mary Angela (Holly Gagnier), Dina (Marla Sokoloff), Gina (Drea de Matteo), Tina (Lisa Maris), Veronica (Dena Miceli), and Cookie (Alex Meneses). Joey is from Queens, New York and is Catholic. As a child, he was extremely accident prone.
Joey is portrayed as promiscuous, and dim - witted, but good - natured, as well as very loyal, caring, and protective of his friends. He 's a food - loving womanizer who has had more luck with dates than any of the other group members. In contrast to his "ladies man '' personality, he has also a marked childish side. He enjoys playing video games and foosball. He loves sandwiches and pizza. He is a big fan of Baywatch. As a struggling actor, he is constantly looking for work. He was ordained as a minister in "The One with the Truth About London '', and officiated at both Monica and Chandler and Phoebe and Mike 's weddings. He does not like sharing food and has difficulty with simple mathematics. In sports, Joey likes the Los Angeles Dodgers and the New York Yankees in baseball, Los Angeles Clippers and New York Knicks in basketball, New York Giants and New York Jets in football, and the Detroit Red Wings and New York Rangers in ice hockey.
Joey is a member of the Screen Actors Guild, having refused to follow in his father 's footsteps and become a pipe fitter. He started his acting profession doing stage work, introduced in the show 's pilot episode by Monica and Chandler having seen Joey in a production of Pinocchio. Sometime prior to the start of the series, Joey also had appeared in a porn film, as a fully clothed extra. Joey also mentioned appearing in a play with trolls before getting the leading role of Sigmund Freud in the musical play Freud! where he was first spotted by his talent agent Estelle Leonard. She immediately got him a film role in the same episode as Al Pacino 's "butt double '' -- a speechless role he later lost due to taking the part too seriously. Monica and Chandler also once discussed having seen Joey in a version of Macbeth, in which he was unable to pronounce most of the words.
Joey becomes an "actor - slash - model '' when he appears on print ads for the NYC Free Clinic, as a man named "Mario '' who has a Venereal disease. He also did an infomercial for a device that lets you pour milk out of milk cartons; he played "Kevin '', a man who had extreme difficulty opening the cartons without the use of the device. ("Kevin '' also inadvertently choked on a cookie during the show.). This haunted him again when he appeared in the play ' The King ', where he was made fun of due to choking on a cookie.
In Season Two, Joey continued his stage work, appearing as "The King '' in a poorly reviewed (and never - named) play. Published reviews of his performance claimed he was "disturbingly unskilled '' and that he achieved "brilliant new levels of sucking '' in a "mediocre play '' with "mindless, adolescent direction ''. Only days after these reviews came out, Joey gets his big break when he lands his first major role as Dr. Drake Ramoray on the soap opera Days of Our Lives. He had initially gone in to read for a one - shot role as a cab driver; it is implied that he got the recurring role of Ramoray by sleeping with the casting director. While still playing Ramoray, he also appears in a bit role as a dead man in the film Outbreak 2: The Virus Takes Manhattan, starring Jean - Claude Van Damme.
Several episodes later, Joey costs himself the Days of our Lives gig when during an interview with Soap Opera Digest, he radically overstates and claims he writes most of his own lines. This angers the show 's writers, who out of spite, "kill off '' his character by having Dr. Ramoray fall down an elevator shaft. Joey takes this very hard and admits that his role on Days was the best thing that ever happened to him.
He goes back to stage acting in Season Three appearing in a play called Boxing Day opposite love interest Kate Miller. The play seems to start out as a conventional drama but ends with Joey 's character "Victor '' is taken from his apartment by aliens. In Season Four, he lands a small one - scene movie role as a cop, playing his scene opposite Charlton Heston.
Joey had some bad luck in terms of his acting career. In Season Five, he is cast in the independent film Shutter Speed, but it is shut down before filming began in Las Vegas. He is also fired from a Burger King commercial. He filmed a role in a Law & Order episode that was cut from the completed episode -- Joey was only "seen '' as a corpse in a body bag.
In seasons 6 and 7, he lands a starring role as Detective ' Mac ' Machiavelli in a very short - lived, and very bad cop show called Mac and C.H.E.E.S.E, which Chandler described as "one of the worst things ever... and not just on TV. '' Joey had high hopes for the series, however Mac and C.H.E.E.S.E was canceled halfway through its first season.
In Season 7, Joey auditions for the role of Dr. Striker Ramoray, a new character on "Days of Our Lives '' and Drake Ramoray 's brother but he does n't get that role. Eventually, Joey 's luck turns when he gets back his role as Dr. Drake Ramoray and even nominated for an award for Best Returning Character, first as a character in coma, then revived through a brain transplant with another character Jessica Lockhart, (played by Susan Sarandon).
In Season 7 he later replaces Susan Sarandon as Dr. Drake Jessica Ramoray. Later in the spin - off Joey, it turns out he loses his Role as Dr. Drake Ramoray and has to again hunt for a new job.
Later in season 7, Joey landed a supporting role as "Tony '', a soldier, in a major film opposite an Oscar - nominated actor named Richard Crosby (Gary Oldman). The film was a World War I period film entitled Over There.
Joey is also briefly employed at Central Perk as a waiter. Facing a dry spell in his career as an actor, Joey is persuaded by Gunther, the manager, to take a job serving coffee. At first Joey tries to hide his new job from his friends, but they eventually figure it out. He does not like the work but, true to his nature, soon finds a way to use his position to meet and ingratiate himself to attractive women by giving them free food, a practice to which Gunther quickly puts a stop. Joey does n't take his job very seriously and spends a lot of his working hours sitting and talking to his friends. Eventually he is fired for closing the coffeehouse in the middle of the day to go to an audition while Gunther was running a personal errand. Rachel later persuaded Gunther to give Joey back his job, but once Joey found more steady acting jobs he eventually just stopped showing up. His absence was barely noticed. In a later episode, Joey realizes he forgot to tell Gunther he quit, to which Gunther replied that he would have eventually fired him anyway.
Joey is also briefly a sperm donor for a medical experiment; at the end, the hospital would pay any donor $700. This was later mentioned when Monica goes to a sperm bank. Joey finds to his dismay that his sperm is not very popular.
Some of Joey 's other jobs have included selling Christmas trees, dressing as Santa Claus and as a Christmas elf, working as a tour guide at the Museum of Natural History where Ross worked, offering perfume samples to customers at a department store, and as a Roman warrior at Caesar 's Palace in Las Vegas.
He also worked at the restaurant "Alessandro 's '' where Monica was head chef, nicknaming himself "Dragon '' while on the job. Monica hired him just so she could fire him to intimidate the other employees who paid Monica no respect, but he made a lot of tips and backed out of the deal, only to realize how important his getting fired was to Monica. He then set himself up to be fired the next day.
He spends one episode working with Chandler as an entry - level data processor. He treats the job like another acting role, in which he is "Joseph the Processing Guy '' and creates a complex back - story for the character. Chandler begins to dislike the Joseph character when he starts showing up Chandler at work. Joey eventually leaves after Chandler pretends to sleep with Joey 's "pretend wife ''.
Prior to Monica and Chandler 's wedding, when the two admitted that they were having trouble finding someone to perform the ceremony, Joey volunteered for the role, subsequently getting himself ordained over the Internet to entitle him to perform the marriage. He has apparently retained this role until Season Ten, when he performed the ceremony for Phoebe and Mike 's wedding, claiming that priests are allowed to ride the subway for free (Although he states that the Bible must be read very carefully to identify the passage that permits this).
Joey is characterized as a simple - minded but good - natured womanizer who loves food. He particularly loves meatball sub sandwiches. When asked if he would give up sex or food he had trouble deciding and kept blurting out sex or food, eventually yelling "I want girls on bread! ''. In "The One with the Ride Along '', he appears to be saving Ross from a putative gunshot, when it was actually his meatball sandwich that he was trying to save; it just happened to be next to Ross. He also loves the "Joey Special '' -- two pizzas. His greed when it comes to food is also shown in the episode "The One With the Birth Mother '' where he refuses to call Sarah the next day. When Phoebe asks why, Joey explains how Sarah broke his golden commandment on their date - not to share food. Phoebe 's shocked to say the least, but Rachel admits to her how this is who Joey is. Nonetheless, Phoebe makes Joey go out with Sarah again, making him order extra fries should the need arise. Joey does so, but Sarah really wants to dig in his seafood platter, making him drop his plate to the floor in the process. This makes him explain how "Joey does n't share food '', which she seems to understand. However, things change course when Joey wants to nibble at her chocolate torte. As he would n't share his food with her, she reciprocates and warns him not to touch any of her desserts while she wanders off to take a call. When she arrives, her dessert is pretty much gone; Joey, with chocolate torte all over his face, is at peace with himself, and admits that he 's "not even sorry! ''. He is something of an idiot savant in general, but capable of good ideas when the situation arises; this is alluded to in the episode "The One Where Ross Dates a Student '', when Chandler, referring to Joey, says "A hot girl 's at stake and suddenly he 's Rain Man '' when Joey suggested Ross work out who among his students called him the ' hottie of the paleontology department ' by comparing the handwriting of the note to the handwriting in the class essays. In another example, Joey made up an anecdote referred to as the "Europe story '' or the "magic story ''; apparently, anyone who hears it will immediately want to have sex with the teller. This is proven to be effective when Rachel successfully uses the story on Ross.
Being a glutton when it comes to food, Joey is shown throughout the series to have the uncanny ability to eat enormous quantities of food. As he prides the Tribbiani family for their eating prowess ("We might not be (...) world leaders, but damn it, we can eat! ''), he takes on Monica 's challenge to eat a whole roast turkey virtually all by himself. In season 8, episode 9, Monica is unwilling to cook a whole roast turkey for Thanksgiving dinner as Rachel is pregnant, Chandler refuses to eat Thanksgiving food due to childhood traumas, Phoebe is a vegetarian, and dinner guest Will (played by Brad Pitt) is on a diet. Joey 's love for Thanksgiving traditions, however, convinces Monica to roast the turkey only under the condition that Joey can eat the entire 19 - pound bird in one sitting. When Monica sees him struggle, she says she is only kidding, but Joey perseveres and with a little help of Phoebe 's maternity pants, he eventually not only consumes the entire turkey, but has room for dessert afterwards. A similar eating stunt happens in season 9, episode 5, when Joey is left alone at the dinner table in a restaurant after Phoebe 's failed birthday dinner, and he is forced to eat six meals by himself. He finishes them, only to tuck into the birthday cake afterwards.
Joey is extremely promiscuous, often relying on his catchphrase pickup line "How you doin '? ''. He regularly sleeps with attractive women, but can never seem to get into a committed relationship - judging from a conversation he had with Chandler at the latter 's bachelor party he seems to regard marriage as depressing and restrictive. He sleeps with many of the interns and extras on shows on which he works. He has apparently been sexually active for a very long time; he undid a 16 - year - old girl 's bra when he was nine, slept with his teacher in the seventh grade, and had a "wild spring break '' when he was 13. In the episode "The One With Joey 's Interview '', he slept with the interviewer (played by Sasha Alexander) so what he said about having a life and not watching soaps was n't published in Soap Opera Digest.
Despite his promiscuous nature towards many women throughout the series, he is highly protective and old - fashioned when it comes to the relationships of his own sisters. While he does not seem to have a problem with his own lifestyle, he repeatedly makes sure his sisters do n't go down the same path. When he finds out in season 3, episode 11 that Chandler drunkenly made out with his sister Mary Angela, he attempts to force the two into a relationship. Later, in season 8, episode 10, Joey initially attempts to force his younger sister Dina into marriage with her hapless boyfriend upon hearing she 's pregnant, but they play into his emotional nature by saying they want to raise the baby independently. They hug it out while Joey says the baby will "of course have its uncle Joey ''.
While he is not very bright, Joey is a caring and kindhearted person. He let Rachel live with him when she was fighting with Ross, financially supported Monica and Chandler, and helped Phoebe find work when she was unemployed. He was willing to marry Phoebe and Rachel on the separate occasions he found out that each was pregnant. Joey is also the most physically powerful of the group, being able to easily push Ross over a couch with only one hand, and offering to go to the coffee house to intimidate two bullies into leaving Ross and Chandler alone.
He is a Stephen King fan, having read The Shining several times, as well as being a fan of the film adaptation of one of King 's novels, Cujo. He also becomes a fan of the classic novel, Little Women after Rachel asks him to read it to see if it was better than The Shining. Joey briefly mentions to the gang that Al Pacino is his idol. Joey has the poster for the 1983 Al Pacino film Scarface in his bedroom and the same poster is seen in his house in Joey. Joey, Ross and Chandler are huge fans of Die Hard.
He moved apartment (s) four times in the series. The first time, he moved to his own lavish apartment away from Chandler (with whom the psychotic Eddie moved in) after he got the role as Dr. Drake Ramoray on Days of Our Lives, though he moved back soon afterward due to his loss of the role. The other times were when he and Chandler moved into what is usually Monica 's apartment, after winning it from her in a game in "The One with the Embryos ''. They were later forced back to their own apartment by the girls.
Although Joey dated several women in the series, very few of these relationships were ever particularly serious, his romantic partners rarely appearing for more than one episode. However, despite his great interest in women, Joey has made it clear more than once that his friends were more important to him; when his latest relationship, Janine, stated that she strongly disliked Monica and Chandler, Joey soon broke it off with her despite the fact that he had been trying to win her over for the previous four episodes, telling Janine that Monica and Chandler were like his family and he could n't be with Janine if she did n't like them.
Joey was originally shunned by Chandler when he came in for a roommate interview, and Joey thought Chandler was gay. However, Mr. Heckles, another building resident, lied to Chandler 's originally selected roommate, causing Chandler to have to go with his second choice roommate Joey (In "The One with the Flashback '' set in 1993, Joey moved in 3 years before although in "The One with All the Thanksgivings '' it shows that the gang knew Joey was Chandler 's roommate in 1992 and he would have been his roommate for quite some time). Joey 's first couple of days involved a brief, mutual attraction to Monica. This subsided and Chandler and Joey quickly became best friends as Joey 's carefree lifestyle grew on Chandler.
Later in the series, they bought a chick and a duck together, whom Chandler had named Yasmine and Dick, respectively. A long - running gag depicted Joey and Chandler occasionally fighting with each other like an old married couple. Joey moved out temporarily when he found success playing Dr. Drake Ramoray on a soap opera, but soon moved back in after his character was dropped down an elevator shaft. At the end of the series, Chandler and Monica made it clear to Joey that their new house outside the city would have a room for him.
While Joey is best friends with Chandler, Ross is a close second (although Ross has been referred to as his best friend several times). At a time when Joey and Chandler had problems, when Chandler had kissed Joey 's girlfriend, Joey stopped acting as Chandler 's best friend and replaced him with Ross, although this only lasted until Chandler spent Thanksgiving in a box in order to show his remorse and apologize to him. Joey and Chandler have remained best friends ever since.
Furthermore, Joey and Ross share a moment in an episode after watching Die Hard all night. They fall asleep on Ross ' couch, which is evidently enjoyed by Joey, as he tries to coerce Ross into more nap sessions with him. Also, earlier in the series, after much persuading by Joey, Ross gives in and kisses him to help him practice kissing men. In response, Joey replies that the audition was already over, he had n't gotten the part, but the kiss was very well received.
The major development of their relationship outside the realm of normal male interaction was when Joey fell in love with Rachel, Ross 's ex-girlfriend and the object of Ross 's affections since ninth grade. When Joey goes on to tell Ross about it, he ca n't say it in his face and instead says that he loves his "friend 's '' ex-girlfriend. When asked if that "friend '' (Ross) is a good guy, Joey honestly answers "Yeah... He 's the best ''. Initially it causes a major rift, with Joey being apologetic, but when Ross sees Joey truly in love with Rachel he gives him the go ahead. Ross basically says that he 's not okay with it but he wants to be, and the two 's friendship deepens due to Joey 's refusal to date Rachel unless Ross okays the deal. However, Joey and Rachel do not date long and later Joey encourages Ross to pursue Rachel in the season finale.
Joey and Monica are close friends often joking around with each other. Joey allowed Monica to hire and fire him to prove to her employees that she was not a pushover. When he discovered that Monica and Chandler had developed a romantic relationship, he agreed to keep it secret until the two were ready to reveal it to the rest of their group. In an episode where he sees how close Chandler and Monica are, he dreams of himself and Monica in the same way. This later causes him to act weird around Monica. Finally he reveals this to Chandler and Monica, its that he wants a relationship like that, but Monica finds it nice thinking Joey thought of them two together. He also called Chandler moments after suspecting Monica of having an affair with a mystery male he had heard in her apartment. When Monica and Chandler needed their Engagement Picture taken, Chandler could not smile. In the newspaper announcement, it showed the photo was of Monica and Joey.
Joey always enjoyed a close relationship with Monica, Rachel, and Phoebe; LeBlanc once speculated that Joey saw the girls as sisters more than potential romantic interests. However, the tension between Monica and Joey is at times fairly obvious and it is made clear that the two have a very close, almost intimate, relationship, though it is never consummated on the show.
According to DVD commentary of the pilot episode, Joey and Monica were initially meant to be the principal love connection of the show but was overshadowed by the Ross - Rachel relationship. In Episode 1.07 "The One with the Blackout '', Phoebe blurted to Joey that Monica has a crush on him when he was moving in with Chandler. This idea was revisited in Season 7 when it is revealed that Monica initially meant to hit on Joey in London, and not Chandler. She states that it was because she was looking for something meaningless, never expecting to have found Chandler and fall in love with him. The concept of what their marriage would have been like was then envisioned by Phoebe and it consisted of Monica cooking all the time for a very fat Joey.
Phoebe is Joey 's female best friend. They appear to understand each other. They are the only members of the group who lack a college education. Joey is Phoebe 's best male friend; they have dinner together once a month to talk about the rest of the group and Joey like to be called ' Big daddy ' by phoebe. Both characters show a softness for each other, even when joking or when they are upset with the others. In "The One with the Race Car Bed '', it is implied that Phoebe can hear Joey 's thoughts. In "The One With the Ride Along '', she explains that "when the revolution comes, I will have to destroy you all... not you, Joey ''. In the episode "The One in Vegas '', after Joey has said that no one will live in his hand shaped mansion, he adds "Except you Pheebs... You can live in the thumb. ''
When she was a surrogate mother for her brother 's triplets and suddenly craved meat, Joey offered to eat no meat until the babies were born, to compensate for her consumption and, in a way, preserve her vegetarianism (no extra animals would have to be killed). In The One With All the Cheesecakes, it is shown that the two tried to meet once a month for dinner in order to discuss the other Friends. When Phoebe was upset because she 'd turned thirty - one without having had the perfect kiss, Joey kissed her so that she could cross that off her list (also adding that he was one - sixteenth Portuguese when she mentioned that she had n't met any Portuguese people).
Joey did not have romantic feelings for Phoebe. Joey dates briefly Phoebe 's twin sister Ursula, which upsets Phoebe; he breaks it off to preserve his friendship with Phoebe, however.
When Monica finds out that Joey "sees a friend in a different way '', she assumes it to be Phoebe. Phoebe, overwhelmed by the news, approaches Joey, only to find that it is Rachel. Phoebe also has Joey locked in as a backup for her marriage.
When the Friends believe that the group may have to split up, Phoebe and Rachel conspire to form a separate group by themselves, but Phoebe insists that Joey be invited to their new group as well. Phoebe 's loyalty is proved again when she states that she could live in Las Vegas, since it has everything she needs, "Including Joey! ''. He, in turn, invites her to live with him in the mansion he expected to own when he becomes rich from having a hand twin.
When Joey learned from a customer at Central Perk that Phoebe was apparently a porn star, he refused to watch the movies even when the other four decided to do so. However, he shows a new interest in them when he learned that the film actually stars Ursula.
When Joey believes Phoebe to be pregnant, he proposes, claiming the world is too scary for a single mother. This proposal is apparently made entirely without romantic intentions. Phoebe says yes and accepts his ring, but Monica tells Joey that it is Rachel who is pregnant, so Joey proposes to Rachel and must retrieve the ring from a reluctant Phoebe.
Phoebe also sets up Joey with many of her friends. On a double date, Joey sets her up with a stranger, Mike (Paul Rudd), whom she eventually marries.
In one episode, after persuasion from Rachel, he reads Little Women and she reads The Shining. She finds out that whenever he gets scared whilst reading he puts the book in the freezer. At the end of the episode, Joey is afraid that one of the characters is going to die and Rachel says ' Do you want to put it in the freezer? ' Their close friendship continues and when a fire destroys Rachel and Phoebe 's apartment, Rachel moves in with Joey and stays there, even after her apartment has been repaired.
Halfway through season 8, Joey and Rachel go out on a date, so that Rachel can have one night of fun before it becomes too obvious that she 's pregnant. They have a great time, and afterwards, Joey starts developing feelings for Rachel unbeknown to her. He does not act on his feelings because he is too loyal to Ross and feels like it would betray him to have a possible relationship with Rachel. However, upon discovering that Joey 's not just having a crush on Rachel, but is in fact in love with her, Ross encourages his friend to talk to her. Joey tells Rachel about his feelings, but she does not return them, and things are awkward between them for a while.
In late season 9, Rachel starts developing feelings for Joey, but fears he does not feel the same way anymore and has already moved on, especially when he starts dating Charlie. When the gang goes to Barbados for a convention from Ross ' work, Joey finds out about Rachel 's feelings, and even though he first says nothing can happen, he changes his mind when he sees Charlie and Ross kiss, and he goes back to Rachel 's room to be with her. They continue their relationship for several episodes and gain Ross ' approval after he realizes it 's been six years since his relationship with Rachel ended, and he should move on from that. When Rachel and Joey prepare for their first night together, however, they realize they 're too close as friends to make their relationship work, with Rachel instinctively slapping Joey away when he tries to touch her as she suddenly finds herself unable to get past the fact that it 's Joey touching her. After Chandler mentions how natural it was for him and Monica to make the transition from friends to lovers, Joey and Rachel realize they are n't on the same path and go back to being friends. At the end, when Chandler and Monica announce that they are moving into a house, Joey presents them with a housewarming gift of a chick and a duck, who are named Chick Jr. and Duck Jr. The pets remain in Joey 's apartment but were presumably given away to a shelter when Joey moved to LA. Soon after Chandler and Monica moved out, Joey moved to LA to focus on his acting career. That was the last time the 6 best friends hung out together.
After the 2003 / 2004 final season of Friends, Joey Tribbiani became the main character of Joey, a spin - off TV series, where he moved to L.A. to polish his acting career. His sister Gina Tribbiani and her son Michael (Paulo Costanzo) were two other central characters of the show.
Joey turned down a role in a sitcom called Nurses to star in a different series pilot. His pilot did not get picked up, while Nurses became a huge hit. However, his acting career has had some better moments. In Joey, it is revealed that Joey 's character of Dr. Drake Ramoray died again on Days of our Lives where he is stabbed by a nurse ("Joey and the Wrong Name ''). He won a Daytime Soap Award for "Best Death Scene ''. In later Joey episodes, Joey landed a starring role on the prime time soap Deep Powder. When he got fired from that job, he almost immediately bounced back by snagging a leading role in the big - budget action picture Captured.
The series ' penultimate episode sees Joey in an established and committed relationship with Alex Garrett, his next - door neighbor.
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who won the figure skating olympics in 1988 | 1988 Winter Olympics - wikipedia
Governor General Jeanne Sauvé,
The 1988 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XV Olympic Winter Games (French: Les XVes Jeux olympiques d'hiver), was a Winter Olympics multi-sport event celebrated in and around Calgary, Alberta, Canada, between February 13 and 28, 1988 and were the first Winter Olympics to be held over a whole two week period. The host city was selected in 1981 over Falun, Sweden, and Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy. Most events took place in Calgary while several skiing events were held in the mountain resorts of Nakiska and Canmore, west of the city.
A then - record 57 nations competed and 1,423 athletes participated. As it had in Montreal in 1976, Canada again failed to win a gold medal in an official medal event as the host nation. Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen and Dutch speed skater Yvonne van Gennip were individual medal leaders with each winning three gold medals. The games are also remembered for the "heroic failure '' of British ski jumper Eddie "The Eagle '' Edwards, and the Winter Olympic début of the Jamaica national bobsled team, both of which would be subjects of major feature films about their participation in the games.
The Calgary games were at the time one of the most expensive Olympics ever held, but the organizing committee turned record television and sponsorship revenue into a net surplus that was used to maintain the facilities built for the Olympics and develop the Calgary region into the heart of Canada 's elite winter sports program. The five purpose - built venues continue to be used in their original functions, and have helped the country develop into one of the top nations in Winter Olympic competition; Canada more than quintupled the five medals it won in Calgary at the 2010 games, the next Winter Olympics hosted on Canadian soil in Vancouver. Calgary is the largest city to host the Winter Olympics; however, the census metropolitan area of Greater Vancouver could also be considered the largest metropolitan area to host the Winter Olympics. Nonetheless, this title will soon to be turned over to Beijing in 2022.
The bid for the 1988 Winter Olympics was Canada 's seventh attempt at hosting a winter games and Calgary 's fourth. Previous bids representing Montreal (1956) and Vancouver (1976 and 1980) bookended failed attempts by the Calgary Olympic Development Association (CODA) to host the 1964, 1968 and 1972 games. The CODA became dormant in 1966 after losing its bid for the 1972 Olympics, but was revived in 1979 under the leadership of Frank King to bid for the 1988 games. Calgary earned the right to bid on behalf of Canada by the Canadian Olympic Association (COA), defeating a rival challenge from a group representing Vancouver. The defeated organizing group lamented that they lost to Calgary 's "big - ticket games ''; the Calgary bid proposed to spend nearly three times what the Vancouver group expected to pay to host the Olympics.
The CODA then spent two years building local support for the project, selling memberships to 80,000 of the city 's 600,000 residents. It secured C $270 million in funding from the federal and provincial governments while civic leaders, including Mayor Ralph Klein, crisscrossed the world attempting to woo International Olympic Committee (IOC) delegates. Driven by the arrival of the National Hockey League 's Calgary Flames, the city had already begun constructing an Olympic coliseum (later named the Olympic Saddledome) prior to the IOC vote, an action that demonstrated Calgary 's determination to host the games and positively influenced delegates. The city was one of three finalists, opposed by the Swedish community of Falun and Cortina d'Ampezzo, the Italian town that hosted the 1956 Winter Olympics.
The vote was held September 30, 1981, at Baden - Baden, West Germany, during the 84th IOC Session and 11th Olympic Congress. After Cortina d'Ampezzo was eliminated in the first round of balloting, Calgary won the right to host the games over Falun by a 48 -- 31 vote. The announcement of the CODA 's victory sent delegates in Baden - Baden and residents of Calgary into celebration. It was the first Winter Olympics awarded to Canada, and the second games overall, following the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal.
McMahon Stadium, Calgary 's primary outdoor facility, was the site of both the opening and closing ceremonies, the first time in 28 years that the same venue hosted both events. Three other existing venues served as secondary facilities: The Max Bell Centre hosted the demonstration events of curling and short track speed skating. The Father David Bauer Olympic Arena hosted some ice hockey matches, as did the Stampede Corral, which also played host to some figure skating events. Though the Corral did not support the size of the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) 's standard ice surface, the Calgary Organizing Committee (Olympiques Calgary Olympics ' 88 or OCO'88) was able to convince the IIHF to sanction the arena in exchange for a $1.2 million payment.
The Games ' five primary venues were all purpose - built however, at significant cost. The Olympic Saddledome was the primary venue for ice hockey and figure skating. Located at Stampede Park, the facility was expected to cost $83 million but cost overruns pushed the facility to nearly $100 million. The Olympic Oval was built on the campus of the University of Calgary. It was the first fully enclosed 400 - metre speed skating venue in the world as it was necessary to protect against the possibility of either bitter cold temperatures or ice - melting chinook winds. Seven world and three Olympic records were broken during the Games, resulting in the facility earning praise as "the fastest ice on Earth ''. Canada Olympic Park was built on the western outskirts of Calgary and hosted bobsled, luge, ski jumping and freestyle skiing. It was the most expensive facility built for the games, costing $200 million.
Two facilities were built west of Calgary, in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. The Canmore Nordic Centre was 90 - percent funded by the Province of Alberta at a cost of $17.3 million. Located near the community of Canmore it was built with the intention that it would become a year - round recreation destination for Albertans. The facility hosted cross-country skiing, biathlon and Nordic combined events. Nakiska (Cree for "to meet '') was the most controversial facility built. The province paid the $25 million construction cost for the alpine skiing facility on Mount Allan, about an hour west of Calgary. It was initially criticized for the location 's relative lack of snow, requiring artificial snow making machines to be installed, and for an initial lack of technical difficulty. International Ski Federation officials proposed modifications to the courses that ultimately met with praise from competitors.
The Calgary Winter Olympics were the first winter games to earn a significant television revenue base; where the 1980 Lake Placid Games generated only US $ 20.7 million worldwide, OCO'88 generated $324.9 million in broadcast rights. The overwhelming majority of television revenues came from the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), which agreed in 1984 to pay $309 million for American television rights, over three times the $91.5 million it paid for the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo. The deal, at the time the highest amount ever paid for a sporting event, allowed organizers to announce the Games would be debt - free. The CTV Television Network paid C $4.5 million for Canadian rights and to act as the host broadcaster. The games were also televised on CBC. While western European nations paid US $5.7 million combined.
OCO'88 made several alterations to the Olympic program as part of efforts to ensure value for its broadcast partners. Premier events, including ice hockey and figure skating, were scheduled for prime time and the Games were lengthened to 16 days from the previous 12 to ensure three weekends of coverage. However, a significant downturn in advertising revenue for sporting events resulted in ABC forecasting significant financial losses on the Games. Calgary organizers appreciated their fortunate timing in signing the deal. King described the timing of the contract with ABC as "the passing of the sun and the moon at the right time for Calgary. '' ABC lost an estimated $60 million, and broadcast rights to the 1992 Winter Olympics were later sold to the CBS network for $243 million, a 20 % reduction compared to Calgary.
A series of ticket - related scandals plagued the organizing committee as the Games approached, resulting in widespread public anger. Demand for tickets was high, particularly for the premier events which had sold out a year in advance. Residents had been promised that only 10 percent of tickets would go to "Olympic insiders '', IOC officials and sponsors, but OCO'88 was later forced to admit that up to 50 percent of seats to top events had gone to insiders. The organizing committee, which was subsequently chastised by mayor Klein for running a "closed shop '', admitted that it had failed to properly communicate the obligations it had to supply IOC officials and sponsors with priority tickets. These events were preceded by OCO'88's ticketing manager being charged with theft and fraud after he sent modified ticket request forms to Americans that asked them to pay in United States funds rather than Canadian and to return them to his company 's post office box rather than that of the organizing committee.
Organizers attempted to respond to public concern by asking sponsors to consider reducing their orders and by paying $1.5 million to add 2,600 seats to the Saddledome. King also noted that the Calgary Games offered a then - record 1.7 million tickets for sale, three times the amount available at Sarajevo or Lake Placid, and that 82 percent of them were going to Calgarians. By their start, a Winter Games ' record of over 1.4 million tickets had been sold, a figure that eclipsed the previous three Winter Games combined.
The city, which already had a strong volunteering tradition with the annual Calgary Stampede, also relied heavily on volunteers to run the Olympics. Over 22,000 people signed up to fill 9,400 positions, no matter how inglorious: doctors, lawyers and executives offered to clean manure dropped by horses at the opening ceremonies. Many residents participated in a "Homestay '' program, opening their homes to visitors from around the world and renting rooms to those who could not stay in a hotel.
Klein was among those who felt it necessary that the event be community driven, a decision which allowed the city 's welcoming spirit to manifest. The Games ' mascots, Hidy and Howdy, were designed to evoke images of "western hospitality ''. The smiling, cowboy - themed polar bears were popular across Canada. Played by a team of students from Bishop Carroll High School, the sister - brother pair made up to 300 appearances per month in the lead up to the Games. From their introduction at the closing ceremonies of the Sarajevo Games in 1984 until their retirement at the conclusion of the Calgary Games, the pair made about 50,000 appearances. The iconic mascots graced signs welcoming travelers to Calgary for nearly two decades until they were replaced in 2007.
Held at a price of C $829 million, the Calgary Olympics cost more to stage than any previous Games, summer or winter. The high cost was anticipated, as organizers were aware at the outset of their bid that most facilities would have to be constructed. The venues, constructed primarily with public money, were designed to have lasting use beyond the Games and were planned to become the home of several of Canada 's national winter sports teams.
The Games were a major economic boon for the city which had fallen into its worst recession in 40 years following the collapse of both oil and grain prices in the mid-1980s. A report prepared for the city in January 1985 estimated the games would create 11,100 man - years of employment and generate C $450 - million in salaries and wages. In its post-Games report, OCO'88 estimated the Olympics created C $1.4 billion in economic benefits across Canada during the 1980s, 70 percent within Alberta, as a result of capital spending, increased tourism and new sporting opportunities created by the facilities.
The 1988 Olympic torch relay began on November 15, 1987, when the torch was lit at Olympia and Greek runner Stellos Bisbas began what was called "the longest torch run in history ''. The flame arrived in St. John 's, Newfoundland on the Atlantic Ocean two days later and over 88 days, traveled west across Canada. It passed through most major cities, north to the Arctic Ocean at Inuvik, Northwest Territories, then west to the Pacific Ocean at Victoria, British Columbia before returning east to Alberta, and finally Calgary. The torch covered a distance of 18,000 kilometres (11,000 mi), the greatest distance for a torch relay in Olympic history until the 2000 Sydney Games, and a sharp contrast to the 1976 Montreal Games when the relay covered only 775 kilometres (482 mi).
Relay sponsor Petro Canada issued entry forms allowing citizens the chance to become one of 6,214 people to carry the torch for 1 kilometre (0.62 mi). Organizers, who initially expected to receive 250,000 entries, were inundated with over 6.6 million forms and called the response a sign that the Olympics had "fired the imagination of Canada ''. The relay, called "Share the Flame '', also saw the torch travel by boat, snowmobile and dogsled.
The relay was subject to peaceful protests by members and supporters of the Lubicon Cree First Nation at several stops in Ontario and Alberta in protest of ongoing land claim disputes between the band and the Crown, as well as discontent over an exhibit at Calgary 's Glenbow Museum called "The Spirit Sings '' that featured numerous artifacts stolen from native land.
The identity of the final torchbearer who would light the Olympic cauldron was one of OCO'88's most closely guarded secrets. The relay began at St. John 's with Barbara Ann Scott and Ferd Hayward representing Canada 's past Olympians, and ended with Ken Read and Cathy Priestner carrying the torch into McMahon Stadium representing the nation 's current Olympians. They then stopped to acknowledge the contribution of para-athlete Rick Hansen and his "Man in Motion '' tour before handing the torch to 12 - year - old Robyn Perry, an aspiring figure skater who was selected to represent future Olympians, to light the cauldron. The choice of Perry was an unusual departure from most Games as the cauldron has typically been lit by a famous individual or group from the host nation.
Constructed of maple and aluminum, the torch was designed to remain lit despite the sometimes adverse conditions of Canadian winters. It was modeled after the Calgary Tower, constructed entirely of Canadian materials and designed to be light enough for the relay runners to carry comfortably. The Calgary Tower itself was retrofitted to install a cauldron at its peak and was lit for the duration of the Games, one of several "replica cauldrons '' constructed at Olympic venues throughout Calgary and Canmore.
There were 46 events contested in 6 sports (10 disciplines).
The 1988 Winter Games began on February 13 with a $10 million opening ceremony that featured 5,500 performers, an aerial flyover by the Royal Canadian Air Force 's Snowbirds, the parade of nations and the release of 1,000 homing pigeons. Canadian composer David Foster performed the instrumental theme song ("Winter Games '') and its vocal counterpart ("Ca n't You Feel It? ''), while internationally recognized Canadian folk / country musicians Gordon Lightfoot and Ian Tyson were among the featured performers. Governor General Jeanne Sauvé opened the Games on behalf of Queen Elizabeth II as an estimated 1.5 billion people watched the ceremony.
The weather was a dominant story throughout much of the Games, as strong chinook winds that brought daily temperatures as high as 17 ° C (63 ° F) wreaked havoc on the schedules for outdoor events. Events were delayed when winds were deemed unsafe for competitors and organizers used artificial snow making equipment to ensure skiing venues were properly prepared. It was the first time in Olympic history that alpine events were held on artificial snow. The Games were also marred by the death of the Austrian ski team 's doctor, Joerg Oberhammer, on February 25 after a collision with another skier sent him crashing into a snow grooming machine at Nakiska, crushing and killing him instantly. The incident was ruled an accident.
The top individual competitors at the Olympics were Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen and Dutch speed skater Yvonne van Gennip as they each won three gold medals. Italy 's Alberto Tomba won gold in two skiing events, his first of five career Olympic medals en route to becoming the first alpine skier to win medals at three Winter Games. East Germany 's Katarina Witt defended her 1984 gold medal in women 's figure skating, capturing a second gold in Calgary. Her compatriot Christa Rothenburger won the gold medal in the 1000 metre race in speed skating, then went on to win a silver medal in the team sprint cycling event at the 1988 Summer Games to become the only person in Olympic history to win medals at both Olympic Games in the same year. The Soviet Union won gold in hockey as Scandinavian neighbours Finland and Sweden took silver and bronze, respectively.
As it had in 1976, Canada again failed to win an official gold medal as the host of an Olympic Games. Canadians won two gold medals in demonstration events, including by Sylvie Daigle as one of her five medals in short - track speed skating. Canada 's top official performances came in figure skating where Brian Orser and Elizabeth Manley each won silver medals. Promoted by the media as the "Battle of the Brians '', the competition between Orser and American rival Brian Boitano was the marquee event of the Games. Boitano won the gold medal over Orser by only one - tenth of a point. Manley was not viewed as a medal contender, but skated the greatest performance of her career to come within a fraction of Witt 's gold medal winning score.
American speed skater Dan Jansen 's personal tragedy was one of the more poignant events of the Games as he skated the 500 metre race mere hours after his sister Jane died of leukemia. A gold medal favourite, Jansen chose to compete as he felt it is what his sister would have wanted. Viewers around the world witnessed his heartbreak as he fell and crashed into the outer wall in the first quarter of his heat. In the 1000 metre race four days later, Jansen was on a world record pace when he again fell. After failing again in Albertville, Jansen finally won a gold medal at the 1994 Lillehamer Games.
One of the most popular athletes from the games was British ski jumper Eddie "The Eagle '' Edwards, who gained infamy by placing last in both the 70 and 90 metre events finishing 70 and 53 points behind his next closest competitor, respectively. Edwards ' "heroic failure '' made him an instant celebrity; he went from earning £ 6,000 per year as a plasterer before the Games to making £ 10,000 per hour per appearance afterward. Left embarrassed by the spectacle he created, the International Ski Federation altered the rules following Calgary to eliminate each nation 's right to send at least one athlete and set minimum competition standards for future events. Regardless, the President of the Organizing Committee, Frank King, playfully saluted Edwards ' unorthodox sporting legacy, which would also be commemorated with a 2016 feature film, Eddie the Eagle.
The Jamaican bobsleigh team, making their nation 's Winter Olympic debut, was also popular in Calgary. The team was the brainchild of a pair of Americans who recruited individuals with strong sprinting ability from the Jamaican military to form the team. Dudley Stokes and Michael White finished the two - man event in 30th place out of 41 competitors and launched the Jamaican team into worldwide fame. The pair, along with Devon Harris and Chris Stokes crashed in the four - man event, but were met with cheers from the crowd as they pushed their sled across the finish line. Their odyssey was made into the 1993 movie Cool Runnings, a largely fictionalized comedy by Walt Disney Pictures.
A record 57 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) entered athletes at the 1988 Calgary Olympics, 8 more than appeared at any previous Olympic Winter Games. 1,423 athletes participated in 46 events: 1,122 men and 301 women. Fiji, Guam, Guatemala, Jamaica, the Netherlands Antilles and the Virgin Islands had their Winter Olympics debut.LA
Prior to Calgary, the Winter Olympics were viewed as a second - rate event compared to their summer counterpart, so much so that the IOC had at one point considered eliminating them entirely. Few cities bid on the Winter Games due to challenges faced in generating revenue. In its bid for the Games, CODA convinced the IOC that it could not only generate enough revenue to turn a profit, but enough of one to ensure a lasting legacy of winter sport development. Organizers followed the lead of their counterparts in Los Angeles for the 1984 Summer Olympics, attracting a large television contract in the United States and was the first host city to benefit from a change in the IOC 's strategy on corporate sponsorship. The Calgary Games attracted support from over two dozen major Canadian and multinational corporations, generating millions of dollars in revenues.
Many program changes were made in Calgary to grow the appeal of the Winter Games for sponsors: the extension to 16 days from 12 added an extra weekend of coverage, while the additional programming time was filled by television friendly demonstration events popular in Canada. The exposure curling, freestyle skiing and short - track speed skating gained in Calgary influenced the growth in their popularity and led to all three becoming full medal sports by 1998.
Hosting the Games helped fuel a significant increase in Calgary 's reputation on the world stage. Crosbie Cotton, a reporter for the Calgary Herald who covered the city 's Olympic odyssey from its bid to the closing ceremonies, noted a change in the attitude of the city 's population over time. He believed that the populace began to outgrow its "giant inferiority complex '' that is "typically Canadian '', replacing it with a new level of confidence as the Games approached. They helped the city grow from a regional oil and gas centre best known for the Calgary Stampede to a destination for international political, economic and sporting events. A study prepared for the organizing committee of the 2010 Vancouver Olympics claimed that Calgary hosted over 200 national and international sporting competitions between 1987 and 2007 due to the facilities it had constructed for the Olympics.
The Games ' enduring popularity within Calgary has been attributed to efforts to make them "everybody 's Games ''. Aside from the sense of community fostered by the level of volunteer support, organizers included the public in other ways. People were given opportunity to purchase a brick with their names engraved on it and used to build Olympic Plaza, where medal ceremonies were held in 1988. It remains a popular public park and event site in the city 's downtown. Members of the community have attempted to bring a second Winter Games to the city. Calgary offered to take over the 2002 Winter Olympics after a bribery scandal resulted in speculation that Salt Lake City would be unable to remain the host. The city also made an effort to bid for the 2010 Games on Canada 's behalf, losing to Vancouver. A 2013 Calgary Sun online poll found that 81 % of respondents would support the city hosting a second Olympics.
Mindful of the financial disaster the Montreal Olympics became, OCO'88 parlayed its ability to generate television and sponsorship revenues and government support into what was ultimately a C $170 million surplus. (The claim of a surplus has frequently been challenged as OCO'88 counted only its own revenues and expenses and did not include government funded facilities in its accounting.) The surplus was turned into endowment funds split between Canada Olympic Park ($110 million) and CODA, which was reformed following the Games to manage the Olympic facilities with a trust fund that had subsequently grown to be worth over $200 million by 2013. Consequently, all five of the primary facilities built for the 1988 Olympics remained operational in their original intended purpose 25 years after the Games concluded.
Calgary and Canmore became the heart of winter sport in Canada as CODA (now known as Winsport Canada) established itself as the nation 's leader in developing elite athletes; in 2006, one - quarter of Canada 's Olympic athletes were from the Calgary region and three - quarters of its medalists were from or trained in Alberta. Canada was not a winter sport power in 1988; the nation 's five medals in Calgary was its second best total at a Winter Olympics behind the seven it won at the 1932 Lake Placid Games. After 1988, Canada won an increasing number of medals at each successive Olympics, culminating in a 26 - medal performance in 2010 that included a Winter Olympic record of 14 gold medals, one more than the previous record holders Soviet Union (1976) and Norway (2002). In 2018 in Pyeongchang, South Korea, Team Canada earned its highest count of medals in the Winter Olympics with a total of 29 medals.
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cast list of alice in wonderland tim burton | Alice in Wonderland (2010 film) - Wikipedia
Alice in Wonderland is a 2010 American fantasy adventure film directed by Tim Burton from a screenplay written by Linda Woolverton. The film stars Johnny Depp, Anne Hathaway, Helena Bonham Carter, Crispin Glover, Matt Lucas and Mia Wasikowska, and features the voices of Alan Rickman, Stephen Fry, Michael Sheen, and Timothy Spall. Based on Lewis Carroll 's fantasy novels, Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking - Glass, the film tells the story of a nineteen - year - old Alice Kingsleigh (stated in the film to be a daughter of Charles Kingsley), who is told that she can restore the White Queen to her throne, with the help of the Mad Hatter. She is the only one who can slay the Jabberwock, a dragon - like creature that is controlled by the Red Queen and terrorizes Underland 's inhabitants.
The film was produced by Walt Disney Pictures and shot in the United Kingdom and the United States. The film premiered in London at the Odeon Leicester Square on February 25, 2010, and was released in Australia on March 4, 2010, and the following day in the United Kingdom and the United States through the Disney Digital 3D, RealD 3D, and IMAX 3D formats as well as in conventional theaters. It is also the second - highest - grossing film of 2010.
Alice in Wonderland received mixed reviews upon release; although praised for its visual style and special effects, the film was criticized for its lack of narrative coherence and overuse of computer - generated imagery (CGI). At the 83rd Academy Awards, Alice in Wonderland won Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design, and was also nominated for Best Visual Effects. The film generated over $1 billion in ticket sales and became the fifth - highest - grossing film of all time during its theatrical run.
The film started a trend of live - action fairy tale and fantasy films being green - lit, particularly from Walt Disney Studios.
A sequel, titled Alice Through the Looking Glass, was released on May 27, 2016.
Troubled by a strange recurring dream and mourning the loss of her father, 19 - year - old Alice Kingsleigh attends a garden party at Lord Ascot 's estate. There, she is confronted by an unwanted marriage proposal to Lord Ascot 's son, Hamish and the stifling expectations of the society in which she lives. Unsure of how to proceed, she pursues a rabbit wearing a blue waistcoat and accidentally falls into a large rabbit hole under a tree. She emerges in a forest where she is greeted by Nivens McTwisp the White Rabbit, Mallymkun the Dormouse, the Dodo, the Talking Flowers, and Tweedledee and Tweedledum. They argue over whether Alice is "the right Alice '' who must slay Iracebeth of Grims the Red Queen 's Jabberwocky and restore Mirana of Marmoral the White Queen to power, as foretold by Absolem the Caterpillar and his prophetic scroll. The group is then ambushed by the Bandersnatch and a group of playing - card soldiers led by Ilosovic Stayne the Knave of Hearts. Alice, Tweedledum and Tweedledee escape into the woods. The Knave steals the Caterpillar 's scroll. Mallymkun leaves the others behind with one of the Bandersnatch 's eyes in her possession. Tweedle Dum and Tweedle Dee are then captured by the Red Queen 's Jubjub bird.
The Knave informs the Red Queen that Alice threatens her reign, and the soldiers and Bayard the Bloodhound are ordered to find Alice immediately. Meanwhile, the Cheshire Cat guides Alice to Thackery Earwicket the March Hare and Tarrant Hightopp the Mad Hatter. The Hatter helps Alice avoid capture by allowing himself to be seized instead. Later, Alice is found by Bayard the Bloodhound; but Alice insists upon helping the Hatter. At the Red Queen 's citadel and palace (which is named Salazan Grum), the Red Queen is unaware of Alice 's true identity and therefore welcomes her as a guest, named Um from Umbridge. Alice learns that the Vorpal sword, the only weapon capable of killing the Jabberwock, is locked inside the den of the Bandersnatch. The Knave attempts to seduce Alice, but she rebuffs him, causing a jealous Red Queen to order that Alice be beheaded. Alice obtains the sword and befriends the Bandersnatch by returning its eye. She then escapes on the back of the grateful Bandersnatch and delivers the sword to the White Queen. The Cheshire Cat saves the Hatter from the executioner, and the Hatter calls for rebellion against the Red Queen. The rebellion is quickly put down by the Jubjub bird, but the resistance flees to the White Queen 's castle, and both armies prepare for battle. Former caterpillar Absolem advises Alice to fight the Jabberwocky just before completing his transformation into a pupa.
On the appointed day, the White Queen and the Red Queen gather their armies on a chessboard - like battlefield and send Alice and the Jabberwocky to decide the battle in single combat. Encouraged by the advice of her late father, Alice fights the Jabberwocky among the ruins surrounding the battlefield and finally jumps from the remains of a spiral staircase onto the Jabberwocky 's neck and beheads it. During this fight, a falling masonry stone kills the Jubjub bird. The White Queen banishes the Red Queen and the Knave into exile. After the Hatter performs a celebration dance called Futterwacken, the White Queen gives Alice a vial of the Jabberwocky 's purple blood whose power will bring her whatever she wishes. She decides to rejoin the everyday world, after saying farewell to his friends (especially the Hatter). Back in England, Lord Ascot takes Alice as his apprentice with the idea of establishing oceanic trade routes to Hong Kong. As the story closes, Alice prepares to set off on a trading ship. A light - blue butterfly with dark vein markings lands on her shoulder, and Alice recognizes him as Absolem.
Marton Csokas makes a cameo appearance as Alice 's deceased father in the film 's opening scene and Alice 's mother is played by Lindsay Duncan. Lord and Lady Ascot are played by Tim Pigott - Smith and Geraldine James, respectively. Eleanor Tomlinson and Eleanor Gecks play the Cathaway sisters, who bear a strong resemblance to Tweedledum and Tweedledee. Jemma Powell appears briefly as Alice 's sister, Margaret, while Margaret 's unfaithful husband Lowell is played by John Hopkins.
Frank Welker provided additional voices and vocal effects; including roars of the Jabberwocky and Bandersnatch, squawks for the Jubjub bird, and Bayard barking. Rickman, Windsor, Fry, Gough, Lee, Staunton and Carter each took only a day to record their dialogue.
Burton and Bonham Carter 's children Billy and Nell made cameo appearances as a boy and baby at the dock in the end of the film.
Tim Burton signed with Walt Disney Pictures to direct two films in Disney Digital 3D, which included Alice in Wonderland and his remake of Frankenweenie. Burton developed the story because he never felt an emotional tie to the original book.
He explained "the goal is to try to make it an engaging movie where you get some of the psychology and kind of bring a freshness but also keep the classic nature of Alice. '' On prior versions, Burton said "It was always a girl wandering around from one crazy character to another, and I never really felt any real emotional connection. '' His goal with the new film is to give the story "some framework of emotional grounding '' and "to try and make Alice feel more like a story as opposed to a series of events. '' Burton focused on the poem "Jabberwocky '' as part of his structure, and refers to the described creature by the name of the poem rather than by the name "Jabberwock '' used in the poem. Burton also stated that he does not see his version as either a sequel to any existing Alice film nor as a "re-imagining ''. However, the idea of the climax of the story being Alice 's battle with the Queen 's champion, the Jabberwocky, was first added in the video game American McGee 's Alice, and the landscape, tower, weapons and appearance of Alice in those scenes of the film are very reminiscent of the same scenes in the game.
This film was originally set to be released in 2009 but was pushed back to March 5, 2010. Principal photography was scheduled for May 2008, but did not begin until September and concluded in three months. Scenes set in the Victorian era were shot at Torpoint and Plymouth from September 1 to October 14 (Mia Wasikowska 's birthday). Two hundred and fifty local extras were chosen in early August. Locations included Antony House in Torpoint, Charlestown, Cornwall and the Barbican, however, no footage from the Barbican was used. Motion capture filming began in early October at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City, California, though the footage was later discarded. Filming also took place at Culver Studios. Burton said that he used a combination of live action and animation, without motion capture. He also noted that this was the first time he had filmed on a green screen. Filming of the green screen portions, comprising 90 % of the film, was completed after only 40 days. Many of the cast and crew felt nauseated as a result of the long hours surrounded by green, and Burton had lavender lenses fitted into his glasses to counteract the effect. Due to the constant need for digital effects to distort the actors ' physical appearances, such as the size of the Red Queen 's head or Alice 's height, visual effects supervisor Ken Ralston cited the film as being exhausting, saying it was "The biggest show I 've ever done, (and) the most creatively involved I 've ever been. ''
Sony Pictures Imageworks designed the visual effects sequences. Burton felt 3D was appropriate to the story 's environment. Burton and Zanuck chose to film with conventional cameras, and convert the footage into 3D during post-production; Zanuck explained 3D cameras were too expensive and "clumsy '' to use, and they felt that there was no difference between converted footage and those shot in the format. James Cameron, who released his 3D film Avatar in December 2009, criticized the choice, stating, "It does n't make any sense to shoot in 2 - D and convert to 3 - D ''.
Longtime Burton collaborator Danny Elfman 's score was released March 2, 2010. It debuted at # 89 on the Billboard Top 200 albums chart.
Almost Alice is a collection of various artists ' music inspired by the film. The lead single, "Alice '' by Avril Lavigne, premiered on January 27, 2010 on Ryan Seacrest 's radio program. Other singles include "Follow Me Down '' by 3OH! 3, "Her Name Is Alice '' by Shinedown, and "Tea Party '' by Kerli. The album was released on March 2, 2010.
On February 12, 2010, major UK cinema chains, Odeon, Vue, and Cineworld, had planned to boycott the film because of a reduction of the interval between cinema and DVD release from the usual 17 weeks to 12 (possibly to avoid the release of the DVD clashing with the 2010 FIFA World Cup, which was Disney 's pretext for cutting short Alice 's theatrical run but UK exhibitors protested that Alice would be less threatened by the World Cup than other titles). A week after the announcement, Cineworld, who has a 24 % share of UK box office, chose to play the film on more than 150 screens. Cineworld 's chief executive Steve Wiener stated, "As leaders in 3D, we did not want the public to miss out on such a visual spectacle. As the success of Avatar has shown, there is currently a huge appetite for the 3D experience ''. Shortly after, the Vue cinema chain also reached an agreement with Disney, but Odeon had still chosen to boycott in Britain, Ireland, and Italy. On February 25, 2010 Odeon had reached an agreement and decided to show the film on March 5, 2010. The Royal premiere took place at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on February 25, 2010 for the fundraiser The Prince 's Foundation for Children and The Arts where the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall attended. It also did not affect their plans to show the film in Spain, Germany, Portugal, and Austria. The film was released in the U.S. and UK, in both Disney Digital 3D and IMAX 3D, as well as regular theaters on March 5, 2010.
On June 22, 2009, the first pictures of the film were released, showing Depp as the Mad Hatter, Hathaway as the White Queen, Bonham Carter as the Red Queen and Lucas as Tweedledee and Tweedledum. A new image of Alice was also released. In July, new photos emerged of Alice holding a white rabbit, the Mad Hatter with a hare, the Red Queen holding a pig, and the White Queen with a mouse.
On July 22, 2009, a teaser trailer from the Mad Hatter 's point of view was released on IGN but was shortly taken down because Disney claimed that the trailer was not supposed to be out yet. The teaser was also planned to premiere along with a trailer of Robert Zemeckis ' film adaptation of A Christmas Carol on July 24, 2009 for G - Force. The following day, the teaser trailer premiered at Comic - Con but the trailer shown was different from the one that leaked. The ComicCon version did n't have the Mad Hatter 's dialogue. Instead, it featured "Time to Pretend '' by MGMT, and the clips shown were in different order than in the leaked version. The leaked version was originally to be shown to one of the three Facebook groups used to promote the film that had the most members. The groups used to promote the film are "The Loyal Subjects of the Red Queen '', "The Loyal Subjects of the White Queen '' and "The Disloyal Subjects of the Mad Hatter ''.
Also at ComicCon, props from the film were displayed in an "Alice in Wonderland '' exhibit. Costumes featured in the exhibit included the Red Queen 's dress, chair, wig, spectacles, and scepter; the White Queen 's dress, wig and a small model of her castle; the Mad Hatter 's suit, hat, wig, chair and table; Alice 's dress and battle armor (to slay the Jabberwocky). Other props included the "DRINK ME '' bottles, the keys, an "EAT ME '' pastry and stand - in models of the White Rabbit and March Hare.
A nighttime party area at the Disney California Adventure theme park was created, called "Mad T Party ''.
On July 23, 2009, Disney Interactive Studios announced that an Alice in Wonderland video game, developed by French game studio Étranges Libellules, would be released in the same week as the film for the Wii, Nintendo DS, and Microsoft Windows. The soundtrack was composed by video games music composer Richard Jacques. The Wii, DS, and PC versions were released on March 2, 2010.
Disney Interactive released in 2013 the game Alice in Wonderland: A New Champion for iOS.
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released a three - disc Blu - ray combo pack (which includes the Blu - ray, DVD and a digital copy), single - disc Blu - ray and single - disc DVD on June 1, 2010 in the US and July 1, 2010 in Australia. The DVD release includes three short features about the making of the film, focusing on Burton 's vision for Wonderland and the characters of Alice and the Mad Hatter. The Blu - ray version has nine additional featurettes centered on additional characters, special effects and other aspects of the film 's production. In some confusion, a small number of copies were put on shelves a week before schedule in smaller stores, but were quickly removed, although a handful of copies were confirmed purchased ahead of schedule.
In its first week of release (June 1 -- 6, 2010), it sold 2,095,878 DVD units (equivalent to $35,441,297) and topped the DVD sales chart for two continuous weeks. By May 22, 2011, it had sold 4,313,680 units ($76,413,043). It failed to crack the 2010 top ten DVDs list in terms of units sold, but reached 10th place on that chart in terms of sales revenue.
Alice in Wonderland has grossed $334,191,110 in North America and $691,276,000 in other territories for a worldwide total of $1,025,467,110 against a budget of $200 million. Worldwide, it is currently the twenty - eighth - highest - grossing film and the second - highest - grossing 2010 film. It is the third - highest - grossing film starring Johnny Depp, the highest - grossing film directed by Tim Burton. The second - highest - grossing film of Anne Hathaway and the second - highest - grossing children 's book adaptation (worldwide, as well as in North America and outside North America separately).
On its first weekend, the film made $220.1 million worldwide, marking the second - largest opening ever for a movie not released during the summer or the holiday period (behind The Hunger Games), the fourth - largest for a Disney - distributed film and the fourth - largest among 2010 films. It dominated for three consecutive weekends at the worldwide box office. On May 26, 2010, its 85th day of release, it became the sixth film ever to surpass the $1 billion mark and the second film that had been released by Walt Disney Studios that did so.
In the United States and Canada Alice in Wonderland is the forty - fourth - highest - grossing film but out of the top 100 when adjusted for inflation. It is also the second - highest - grossing 2010 film, behind Toy Story 3, the second - highest - grossing film starring Johnny Depp and the highest - grossing film directed by Tim Burton. The film opened on March 5, 2010, on approximately 7,400 screens at 3,728 theaters with $40,804,962 during its first day, $3.9 million of which came from midnight showings, ranking number one and setting a new March opening - day record. Alice earned $116.1 million on its opening weekend, breaking the record for the largest opening weekend in March (previously held by 300), the record for the largest opening weekend during springtime (previously held by Fast and Furious), the largest opening weekend for a non-sequel (previously held by Spider - Man) and the highest one for the non-holiday, non-summer period. However, all of these records were broken by The Hunger Games ($152.5 million) in March 2012. Alice made the seventeenth - highest - grossing opening weekend ever and the fifth - largest among 3D films. Opening - weekend grosses originating from 3D showings were $81.3 million (70 % of total weekend gross). This broke the record for the largest opening - weekend 3D grosses but it was later topped by Marvel 's The Avengers ($108 million). It had the largest weekend per - theater average of 2010 ($31,143 per theater) and the largest for a PG - rated film. It broke the IMAX opening - weekend record by earning $12.2 million on 188 IMAX screens, with an average of $64,197 per site. The record was first overtaken by Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 ($15.2 million). Alice remained in first place for three consecutive weekends at the North American box office. Alice closed in theaters on July 8, 2010 with $334.2 million.
Outside North America, Alice is the thirteenth - highest - grossing film, the highest - grossing 2010 film, the fourth - highest - grossing Disney film, the second - highest - grossing film starring Johnny Depp and the highest - grossing film directed by Tim Burton. It began with an estimated $94 million, on top of the weekend box office, and remained at the summit for four consecutive weekends and five in total. Japan was the film 's highest - grossing country after North America, with $133.7 million, followed by the UK, Ireland and Malta ($64.4 million), and France and the Maghreb region ($45.9 million).
Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 52 % of critics have given the film a positive review based on 265 reviews; the average score is 5.7 / 10. The consensus is: "Tim Burton 's Alice sacrifices the book 's minimal narrative coherence -- and much of its heart -- but it 's an undeniable visual treat ''. Metacritic rated it 53 / 100 based on 38 reviews.
Todd McCarthy of Variety praised it for its "moments of delight, humor and bedazzlement '', but went on to say, "But it also becomes more ordinary as it goes along, building to a generic battle climax similar to any number of others in CGI - heavy movies of the past few years ''. Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter said "Burton has delivered a subversively witty, brilliantly cast, whimsically appointed dazzler that also manages to hit all the emotionally satisfying marks '', while as well praising its computer - generated imagery (CGI), saying "Ultimately, it 's the visual landscape that makes Alice 's newest adventure so wondrous, as technology has finally been able to catch up with Burton 's endlessly fertile imagination. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly said, "But Burton 's Disneyfied 3 - D Alice in Wonderland, written by the girl - power specialist Linda Woolverton, is a strange brew indeed: murky, diffuse, and meandering, set not in a Wonderland that pops with demented life but in a world called Underland that 's like a joyless, bombed - out version of Wonderland. It looks like a CGI head trip gone post apocalyptic. In the film 's rather humdrum 3 - D, the place does n't dazzle -- it droops. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times awarded the film three out of four stars and wrote in his review that, "Alice plays better as an adult hallucination, which is how Burton rather brilliantly interprets it until a pointless third act flies off the rails. '' The market research firm CinemaScore found that audiences gave the film an average rating of "A - ''.
Several reviews criticized the decision to turn Alice into a "colonialist entrepreneur '' at the end of the film setting sail for China. Given Britain 's role in the First and Second Opium Wars during the Victorian era and the foreign domination of China through "unequal treaties '', China expert Kevin Slaten writes, "Not only is it troubling imagery, for a female role model in a Disney movie, but it 's also a celebration of the exploitation that China suffered for a century. ''
Game developer American McGee, best known for creating Alice and Alice: Madness Returns, was asked in a 2011 interview about Tim Burton 's interpretation of the title character since both versions share almost similar dark and twisted tone of Wonderland. McGee praised the film 's visuals and audio but criticized the lack of screen time Alice had compared to the other characters. He felt Alice did not have any purpose in the story and that she was merely used as a "tool ''.
After the release and success of the movie, Walt Disney Pictures has announced the development of several live - action adaptations of their Animated Classics series. Maleficent, Cinderella, The Jungle Book, and Beauty and the Beast have followed to similar box - office results with the latter three also earning critical praise. Disney has also announced the development of live - action adaptations of Christopher Robin, Dumbo, Aladdin, The Lion King, Mulan, Pinocchio, Fantasia, The Sword in the Stone, The Black Cauldron, Peter Pan, The Little Mermaid, and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. The company also has plans for live - action spin - offs of One Hundred and One Dalmatians and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.
Stage adaptation Walt Disney Theatrical is in early talks with Burton and screenwriter Linda Woolverton to develop the property as a Broadway musical. Woolverton authored the screenplay for Disney 's The Lion King and is also the Tony Award - nominated book writer of Beauty and the Beast, Aida, and Lestat. Burton will also render the overall designs for the stage musical. Woolverton will adapt her screenplay for the stage production. Neither a composer nor songwriting team has been chosen yet. Direction and choreography will be done by Rob Ashford. The musical is aiming to make its world - premiere in London.
On December 7, 2012, Variety announced the development of a sequel to Alice in Wonderland. Linda Woolverton returned to write a screenplay. On May 31, 2013, James Bobin began talks to direct the sequel under the working title Alice in Wonderland: Into the Looking Glass. Johnny Depp returned as The Hatter, Mia Wasikowska reprised the role of Alice, and Helena Bonham Carter returned as the Red Queen. Several other cast members from the 2010 film also reprised their roles in the sequel. On November 22, 2013, it was announced that the sequel will be released on May 27, 2016 and that Bobin would direct the film. Rhys Ifans and Sacha Baron Cohen are featured in the film. On January 21, 2014, the film was again retitled to Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass. The title was later reworked once again to Alice Through the Looking Glass.
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allegory of the 2 trees in the garden of eden | Tree of the knowledge of good and evil - wikipedia
The tree of the knowledge of good and evil (עֵץ הַדַּעַת טוֹב וָרָע ; Hebrew pronunciation: (Etz ha - daʿat tov wa - raʿ)) is one of two specific trees in the story of the Garden of Eden in Genesis 2 -- 3, along with the tree of life.
Genesis 2 narrates that God places the first man and woman in a garden with trees of whose fruits they may eat, but forbids them to eat from "the tree of the knowledge of good and evil ''. When, in Genesis 3, a serpent seduces the woman to eat from its forbidden fruit and she also lets the man taste it, God expels them from the garden and thereby from eternal life.
The phrase in Hebrew: טוֹב וָרָע, tov wa - raʿ, literally translates as good and evil. This may be an example of the type of figure of speech known as merism, a literary device that pairs opposite terms together in order to create a general meaning, so that the phrase "good and evil '' would simply imply "everything ''. This is seen in the Egyptian expression evil - good, which is normally employed to mean "everything ''. In Greek literature, Homer also uses the device when he lets Telemachus say, "I know all things, the good and the evil '' (Od. 20: 309 - 10).
If tree of the knowledge of good and evil is to be understood to mean a tree whose fruit imparts knowledge of everything, this phrase does not necessarily denote a moral concept. This view is held by several scholars.
However, given the context of disobedience to God, other interpretations of the implications of this phrase also demand consideration. Robert Alter emphasizes the point that when God forbids the man to eat from that particular tree, he says that if he does so, he is "doomed to die ''. The Hebrew behind this is in a form regularly used in the Hebrew Bible for issuing death sentences.
In Jewish tradition, the Tree of Knowledge and the eating of its fruit represents the beginning of the mixture of good and evil together. Before that time, the two were separate, and evil had only a nebulous existence in potential. While free choice did exist before eating the fruit, evil existed as an entity separate from the human psyche, and it was not in human nature to desire it. Eating and internalizing the forbidden fruit changed this and thus was born the yeitzer hara, the Evil Inclination. In Rashi 's notes on Genesis 3: 3, the first sin came about because Eve added an additional clause to the Divine command: Neither shall you touch it. By saying this, Eve added to YHWH 's command and thereby came to detract from it, as it is written: Do not add to His Words (Proverbs 30: 6). However, In Legends of the Jews, it was Adam who had devoutly forbidden Eve to touch the tree even though God had only mentioned the eating of the fruit.
In Kabbalah, the sin of the Tree of Knowledge (called Cheit Eitz HaDa'at) brought about the great task of beirurim, sifting through the mixture of good and evil in the world to extract and liberate the sparks of holiness trapped therein. Since evil has no independent existence, it depends on holiness to draw down the Divine life - force, on whose "leftovers '' it then feeds and derives existence. Once evil is separated from holiness through beirurim, its source of life is cut off, causing the evil to disappear. This is accomplished through observance of the 613 commandments in the Torah, which deal primarily with physical objects wherein good and evil are mixed together. Thus, the task of beirurim rectifies the sin of the Tree and draws the Shechinah back down to earth, where the sin of the Tree had caused Her to depart.
In Christian theology, consuming the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil was the sin committed by Adam and Eve that led to the Fall of man in Genesis 2 - 3.
In Catholicism, Augustine of Hippo taught that the tree should be understood both symbolically and as a real tree - similarly to Jerusalem being both a real city and a figure of Heavenly Jerusalem. Augustine underlined that the fruits of that tree were not evil by themselves, because everything that God created was good (Gen 1: 12). It was disobedience of Adam and Eve, who had been told by God not to eat of the tree (Gen 2: 17), that caused disorder in the creation, thus humanity inherited sin and guilt from Adam and Eve 's sin.
In Western Christian art, the fruit of the tree is commonly depicted as the apple, which originated in central Asia. This depiction may have originated as a Latin pun: by eating the mālum (apple), Eve contracted malum (evil). It is also possible that this depiction originated simply because of the religious painters ' artistic licence.
The Quran never refers to the tree as the "Tree of the knowledge of good and evil '' but rather typically refers to it as "the tree '' or (in the words of Iblis) as the "tree of immortality ''. Muslims believe that when God created Adam and Eve, He told them that they could enjoy everything in the Garden but this tree, and so, Satan appeared to them and told them that the only reason God forbade them to eat from that tree is that they would become Angels or become immortals.
When they ate from this tree their nakedness appeared to them and they began to sew together, for their covering, leaves from the Garden. The Quran mentions the sin as being a ' slip ', and after this ' slip ' they were sent to the destination they were intended to be on - Earth. Consequently, they repented to God and asked for his forgiveness and were forgiven. It was decided that those who obey God and follow his path shall be rewarded with everlasting life in Jannah, and those who disobey God and stray away from his path shall be punished in Jahannam.
God in Quran (Al - A'raf 27) states: "(O) Children of Adam! Let not Satan tempt you as he brought your parents out of the Garden, stripping them of their garments to show them their shameful parts. Surely he (Satan) sees you, he and his tribe, from where you see them not. We have made the Satans the friends of those who do not believe. ''
A cylinder seal, known as the Adam and Eve cylinder seal, from post-Akkadian periods in Mesopotamia (c. 23rd - 22nd century BCE), has been linked to the Adam and Eve story. Assyriologist George Smith (1840 - 1876) describes the seal as having two facing figures (male and female) seated on each side of a tree, holding out their hands to the fruit, while between their backs is a serpent, giving evidence that the fall of man account was known in early times of Babylonia. The British Museum disputes this interpretation and holds that it is a common image from the period depicting a male deity being worshipped by a woman, with no reason to connect the scene with the Book of Genesis.
The Tamil poem "Tala Vilasam '' recounts a legend of the tree that parallels the Biblical account. In it, the Creator Brahma finally allows the people access to the tree - which, in this case, is the palmyra palmtree Borassus flabellifer.
American ethnomycologist, ethnobotanist, and philosopher Terence McKenna proposed that the Forbidden Fruit was entheogenic, identifying it as the Psilocybe cubensis mushroom, consistent with his "Stoned Ape '' model of human evolution.
Media related to Tree of the knowledge of good and evil at Wikimedia Commons
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the taj mahal was built with influences from which two cultures | Origins and architecture of the Taj Mahal - wikipedia
The ' Taj Mahal ' represents the finest and most sophisticated example of Mughal architecture. Its origins lie in the moving circumstances of its commission and the culture and history of an Islamic Mughal empire 's rule of large parts of India. The distraught Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan commissioned the mausoleum upon the death of his favorite wife Mumtaz Mahal.
Today it is one of the most famous and recognizable buildings in the world and while the large, domed marble mausoleum is the most familiar part of the monument, the Taj Mahal is an extensive complex of buildings and gardens that extends over 22.44 hectares (55.5 acres) and includes subsidiary tombs, waterworks infrastructure, the small town of ' Taj Ganji ' to the south and a ' moonlight garden ' to the north of the river. Construction of Taj Mahal began in 1632 AD, (1041 AH), on the south bank of the River Yamuna in Agra, and was substantially complete by 1648 AD (1058 AH). The design was conceived as both an earthly replica of the house of Mumtaz Mahal in paradise and an instrument of propaganda for the emperor.
In 1607 (AH 1025) the Mughal Prince Khurrum (later to become Shah Jahan) was betrothed to Arjumand Banu Begum, the grand daughter of a Persian noble. She would become the unquestioned love of his life. They were married five years later in 1612. After their wedding celebrations, Khurram "finding her in appearance and character elect among all the women of the time, '' gave her the title Mumtaz Mahal (Jewel of the Palace).
The intervening years had seen Khurrum take two other wives known as Akbarabadi Mahal and Kandahari Mahal, but according to the official court chronicler Qazwini, the relationship with his other wives "had little more than the status of marriage. The intimacy, deep affection, attention and favour which His Majesty had for the Cradle of Excellence (Mumtaz) lacked by a thousand times what he felt for any other. ''
Mumtaz died in Burhanpur on 17 June 1631, after complications with the birth of their fourteenth child, a daughter named Gauhara Begum. She had been accompanying her husband whilst he was fighting a campaign in the Deccan Plateau. Her body was temporarily buried in a garden called Zainabad on the banks of the Tapti River in Burhanpur. The contemporary court chroniclers paid an unusual amount of attention to this event and Shah Jahan 's grief at her demise. Immediately after hearing the news the emperor was reportedly inconsolable. He was not seen for a week at court and considered abdicating and living his life as a religious recluse. The court historian Muhammad Amin Qazwini, wrote that before his wife 's death the emperor 's beard had "not more than ten or twelve grey hairs, which he used to pluck out ', turned grey and eventually white '' and that he soon needed spectacles because his eyes deteriorated from constant weeping. Since Mumtaz had died on Wednesday, all entertainments were banned on that day. Jahan gave up listening to music, wearing jewelry, sumptuous clothes or perfumes for two years. So concerned were the imperial family that an honorary uncle wrote to say that "if he continued to abandon himself to his mourning, Mumtaz might think of giving up the joys of Paradise to come back to earth, this place of misery -- and he should also consider the children she had left to his care. '' The Austrian scholar Ebba Koch compares Shah Jahan to "Majnun, the ultimate lover of Muslim lore, who flees into the desert to pine for his unattainable Layla. ''
Jahan 's eldest daughter, the devoted Jahanara Begum Sahib, gradually brought him out of grief and fulfilled the functions of Mumtaz at court. Immediately after the burial in Burhanpur, Jahan and the imperial court turned their attentions to the planning and design of the mausoleum and funerary garden in Agra.
The first Mughal garden was created in 1526 in Agra by Babur, the founder of the dynasty. Thereafter, gardens became important Mughal symbols of power, supplanting the emphasis of pre-Mughal power symbols such as forts. The shift represented the introduction of a new ordered aesthetic -- an artistic expression with religious and funerary aspects and as a metaphor for Babur 's ability to control the arid Indian plains and hence the country at large. Babur rejected much of the indigenous and Lodhi architecture on the opposite bank and attempted to create new works inspired by Persian gardens and royal encampments. The first of these gardens, Aram Bagh, was followed by an extensive, regular and integrated complex of gardens and palaces stretching for more than a kilometre along the river. A high continuous stone plinth bounded the transition between gardens and river and established the framework for future development in the city.
In the following century, a thriving riverfront garden city developed on both banks of the Yamuna. This included the rebuilding of Agra Fort by Akbar, which was completed in 1573. By the time Jahan ascended to the throne, Agra 's population had grown to approximately 700,000 and was, as Abdul Aziz wrote, "a wonder of the age -- as much a centre of the arteries of trade both by land and water as a meeting - place of saints, sages and scholars from all Asia... a veritable lodestar for artistic workmanship, literary talent and spiritual worth ''.
Agra became a city centered on its waterfront and developed partly eastwards but mostly westwards from the rich estates that lined the banks. The prime sites remained those that had access to the river and the Taj Mahal was built in this context, but uniquely; as a related complex on both banks of the river.
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The Taj Mahal complex can be conveniently divided into 5 sections: 1. The ' moonlight garden ' to the north of the river Yamuna. 2. The riverfront terrace, containing the Mausoleum, Mosque and Jawab. 3. The Charbagh garden containing pavilions. 4. The jilaukhana containing accommodation for the tomb attendants and two subsidiary tombs. 5. The Taj Ganji, originally a bazaar and caravanserai only traces of which are still preserved. The great gate lies between the jilaukhana and the garden. Levels gradually descend in steps from the Taj Ganji towards the river. Contemporary descriptions of the complex list the elements in order from the river terrace towards the Taj Ganji.
The erection of Mughal tombs to honour the dead was the subject of a theological debate conducted in part, through built architecture over several centuries. For the majority of Muslims, the spiritual power (barakat) of visiting the resting places (ziyarat) of those venerated in Islam, was a force by which greater personal sanctity could be achieved. However, orthodox Islam found tombs problematic because a number of Hadith forbade their construction. As a culture also attempting to accommodate, assimilate and subjugate the majority Hindu populace, opposition also came from local traditions which believed dead bodies and the structures over them were impure. For many Muslims at the time of the Taj 's construction, tombs could be considered legitimate providing they did not strive for pomp and were seen as a means to provide a reflection of paradise (Jannah) here on earth.
The ebb and flow of this debate can be seen in the Mughul 's dynastic mausoleums stretching back to that of their ancestor Timur. Built in 1403 AD (810 AH) Timur is buried in the Gur - e Amir in Samarkand, under a fluted dome. The tomb employs a traditional Persian iwan as an entrance. The 1528 AD (935 AH) Tomb of Babur in Kabul is much more modest in comparison, with a simple cenotaph exposed to the sky, laid out in the centre of a walled garden.
Humayun 's tomb commissioned in 1562 AD, was one of the most direct influences on the Taj Mahal 's design and was a response to the Gur - e Amir, borrowing a central dome, geometric symmetrical planning and iwan entrances, but incorporating the more specifically Indian Mughal devices of chhatris, red sandstone face work, and a ' Paradise garden ' (Charbagh). Akbar 's tomb c. 1600 at Sikandra, Agra, retains many of the elements of Humayan 's tomb but possesses no dome and reverts to a cenotaph open to the sky. A theme which was carried forward in the Itmad - Ud - Daulah 's Tomb also at Agra, built between 1622 and 1628, commissioned by his daughter Nur Jahan. The Tomb of Jahangir at Shahdara (Lahore), begun in 1628 AD (1037 AH), only 4 years before the construction of the Taj and again without a dome, takes the form of a simple plinth with a minaret at each corner.
The concept of the paradise garden (charbagh) was brought from Persia by the Mughals as a form of Timurid garden. They were the first architectural expression the new empire made in the Indian sub-continent, and fulfilled diverse functions with strong symbolic meanings. The symbolism of these gardens is derived from mystic Islamic texts describing paradise as a garden filled with abundant trees, flowers and plants, with water playing a key role: In Paradise four rivers source at a central spring or mountain. In their ideal form they were laid out as a square subdivided into four equal parts. These rivers are often represented in the charbagh as shallow canals which separate the garden by flowing towards the cardinal points. The canals represent the promise of water, milk, wine and honey. The centre of the garden, at the intersection of the divisions is highly symbolically charged and is where, in the ideal form, a pavilion, pool or tomb would be situated. The tombs of Humayun, Akbar and Jahangir, the previous Mughal emperors, follow this pattern. The cross axial garden also finds independent precedents within South Asia dating from the 5th century where the royal gardens of Sigiriya in Sri Lanka were laid out in a similar way.
For the tomb of Jahan 's late wife though, where the mausoleum is sited at the edge of the garden, there is a debate amongst scholars regarding why the traditional charbagh form has not been used. Ebba Koch suggests a variant of the charbagh was employed; that of the more secular waterfront garden found in Agra, adapted for a religious purpose. Such gardens were developed by the Mughuls for the specific conditions of the Indian plains where slow flowing rivers provide the water source, the water is raised from the river by animal driven devices known as purs and stored in cisterns. A linear terrace is set close to the riverbank with low - level rooms set below the main building opening on to the river. Both ends of the terrace were emphasised with towers. This form was brought to Agra by Babur and by the time of Shah Jahan, gardens of this type, as well as the more traditional charbagh, lined both sides of the Jumna river. The riverside terrace was designed to enhance the views of Agra for the imperial elite who would travel in and around the city by river. Other scholars suggest another explanation for the eccentric siting of the mausoleum. If the Midnight Garden to the north of the river Jumna is considered an integral part of the complex, then the mausoleum can be interpreted as being in the centre of a garden divided by a real river and thus can be considered more in the tradition of the pure charbagh.
The favoured form of both Mughal garden pavilions and mausolea (seen as a funerary form of pavilion) was the hasht bihisht which translates from Persian as ' eight paradises '. These were a square or rectangular planned buildings with a central domed chamber surrounded by eight elements. Later developments of the hasht bihisht divided the square at 45 degree angles to create a more radial plan which often also includes chamfered corners; examples of which can be found in Todar Mal 's Baradari at Fatehpur Sikri and Humayun 's Tomb. Each element of the plan is reflected in the elevations with iwans and with the corner rooms expressed through smaller arched niches. Often such structures are topped with chhatris (small pillared pavilions) at each corner. The eight divisions and frequent octagonal forms of such structures represent the eight levels of paradise for Muslims. The paradigm however was not confined solely to Islamic antecedents. The Chinese magic square was employed for numerous purposes including crop rotation and also finds a Muslim expression in the wafq of their mathematicians. Ninefold schemes find particular resonance in the Indian mandalas, the cosmic maps of Hinduism and Buddhism.
In addition to Humayun 's tomb, the more closely contemporary Tomb of Itmad - Ud - Daulah marked a new era of Mughal architecture. It was built by the empress Nur Jehan for her father from 1622 -- 1625 AD (1031 -- 1034 AH) and is small in comparison to many other Mughal - era tombs. So exquisite is the execution of its surface treatments, it is often described as a jewel box. The garden layout, hierarchical use of white marble and sandstone, Parchin kari inlay designs and latticework presage many elements of the Taj Mahal. The cenotaph of Nur Jehan 's father is laid, off centre, to the west of her mother. This break in symmetry was repeated in the Taj where Mumtaz was interred in the geometric centre of the complex and Jahan is laid to her side. These close similarities with the tomb of Mumtaz have earned it the sobriquet - The Baby Taj.
Minarets did not become a common feature of Mughal architecture until the 17th century, particularly under the patronage of Shah Jahan. A few precedents exist in the 20 years before the construction of the Taj in the Tomb of Akbar and the Tomb of Jahangir. Their increasing use was influenced by developments elsewhere in the Islamic world, particularly in Ottoman and Timurid architecture and is seen as suggestive of an increasing religious orthodoxy of the Mughal dynasty.
Under the reign of Shah Jahan, the symbolic content of Mughal architecture reached a peak. The Taj Mahal complex was conceived as a replica on earth of the house of the departed in paradise (inspired by a verse by the imperial goldsmith and poet Bibadal Khan. This theme, common in most Mughal funerary architecture, permeates the entire complex and informs the detailed design of all the elements. A number of secondary principles also inform the design, of which hierarchy is the most dominant. A deliberate interplay is established between the building 's elements, its surface decoration, materials, geometric planning and its acoustics. This interplay extends from what can be experienced directly with the senses, into religious, intellectual, mathematical and poetic ideas. The constantly changing sunlight reflected from the Taj 's translucent marble is not a happy accident, it had a deliberate metaphoric role associated with the presence of god as light.
Symmetry and geometric planning played an important role in ordering the complex and reflected a trend towards formal systematisation that was apparent in all of the arts emanating from Jahan 's imperial patronage. Bilateral symmetry expressed simultaneous ideas of pairing, counterparts and integration, reflecting intellectual and spiritual notions of universal harmony. A complex set of implied grids based on the Mughul Gaz unit of measurement provided a flexible means of bringing proportional order to all the elements of the Taj Mahal.
Hierarchical ordering of architecture is commonly used to emphasise particular elements of a design and to create drama. In the Taj Mahal, the hierarchical use of red sandstone and white marble contributes manifold symbolic significance. The Mughals were elaborating on a concept which traced its roots to earlier Hindu practices, set out in the Vishnudharmottara Purana, which recommended white stone for buildings for the Brahmins (priestly caste) and red stone for members of the Kshatriyas (warrior caste). By building structures that employed such colour - coding, the Mughals identified themselves with the two leading classes of Indian social structure and thus defined themselves as rulers in Indian terms. Red sandstone also had significance in the Persian origins of the Mughal empire where red was the exclusive colour of imperial tents. In the Taj Mahal the relative importance of each building in the complex is denoted by the amount of white marble (or sometimes white polished plaster) that is used.
The use of naturalist ornament demonstrates a similar hierarchy. Wholly absent from the more lowly jilaukhana and caravanserai areas, it can be found with increasing frequency as the processional route approaches the climactic Mausoleum. Its symbolism is multifaceted, on the one hand evoking a more perfect, stylised and permanent garden of paradise than could be found growing in the earthly garden; on the other, an instrument of propaganda for Jahan 's chroniclers who portrayed him as an ' erect cypress of the garden of the caliphate ' and frequently used plant metaphors to praise his good governance, person, family and court. Plant metaphors also find common cause with Hindu traditions where such symbols as the ' vase of plenty ' (Kalasha) can be found.
Sound was also used to express ideas of paradise. The interior of the mausoleum has a reverberation time (the time taken from when a noise is made until all of its echoes have died away) of 28 seconds. This provided an atmosphere where the words of those employed to continually recite the Qu'ran (the Hafiz), in tribute and prayer for the soul of Mumtaz, would linger in the air.
Wayne E. Begley put forward an interpretation in 1979 that exploits the Islamic idea that the ' Garden of paradise ' is also the location of the Throne of God on the Day of Judgement. In his reading the Taj Mahal is seen as a monument where Shah Jahan has appropriated the authority of the ' throne of god ' symbolism for the glorification of his own reign. Koch disagrees, finding this an overly elaborate explanation and pointing out that the ' Throne ' verse from the Qu'ran (sura 2, verse 255) is missing from the calligraphic inscriptions.
In 1996 Begley stated that it is likely that the diagram of "Plain of Assembly '' (Ard al - Hashr) on the Day of Judgment by Sufi mystic and philosopher Ibn Arabi (ca. 1238) was a source of inspiration for the layout of the Taj Mahal garden. Ibn Arabi was held in high regard at the time and many copies of the Futuhat al - Makkiyya, that contains the diagram, were available in India. The diagram shows the ' Arsh (Throne of God; the circle with the eight pointed star), pulpits for the righteous (al - Aminun), seven rows of angels, Gabriel (al - Ruh), A'raf (the Barrier), the Hauzu'l - Kausar (Fountain of Abundance; the semi-circle in the center), al - Maqam al - Mahmud (the Praiseworthy Station; where the prophet Muhammad will stand to intercede for the faithful), Mizan (the Scale), As - Sirāt (the Bridge), Jahannam (Hell) and Marj al - Jannat (Meadow of Paradise). The general proportions and the placement of the Throne, the pulpits and the Kausar Fountain show striking similarities with the Taj Mahal and its garden.
The popular view of the Taj Mahal as one of the world 's monuments to a great "love story '' is borne out by the contemporary accounts and most scholars accept this has a strong basis in fact. The building was also used to assert Jahani propaganda concerning the ' perfection ' of the Mughal leadership. The extent to which the Taj uses propaganda is the subject of some debate amongst contemporary scholars. This period of Mughal architecture best exemplifies the maturity of a style that had synthesised Islamic architecture with its indigenous counterparts. By the time the Mughals built the Taj, though proud of their Persian and Timurid roots, they had come to see themselves as Indian. Copplestone writes "Although it is certainly a native Indian production, its architectural success rests on its fundamentally Persian sense of intelligible and undisturbed proportions, applied to clean uncomplicated surfaces. ''
A site was chosen on the banks of the Yamuna River on the southern edge of Agra and purchased from Raja Jai Singh in exchange for four mansions in the city. The site, "from the point of view of loftiness and pleasantness appeared to be worthy of the burial of that one who dwells in paradise ''. In January 1632 AD (1041 AH), Mumtaz 's body was moved with great ceremony from Burhanpur to Agra while food, drink and coins were distributed amongst the poor and deserving along the way. Work had already begun on the foundations of the river terrace when the body arrived. A small domed building was erected over her body, thought to have been sited, and now marked, by an enclosure in the western garden near the riverfront terrace.
The foundations represented the biggest technical challenge to be overcome by the Mughal builders. In order to support the considerable load resulting from the mausoleum, the sands of the riverbank needed to be stabilised. To this end, wells were sunk and then cased in timber and finally filled with rubble, iron and mortar -- essentially acting as augured piles. After construction of the terrace was completed, work began simultaneously on the rest of the complex. Trees were planted almost immediately to allow them to mature as work progressed.
The initial stages of the build were noted by Shah Jahan 's chroniclers in their description of the first two anniversary celebrations in honour of Mumtaz -- known as the ' Urs. The first, held on the 22 June 1632 AD (1041 AH), was a tented affair open to all ranks of society and held in the location of what is now the entrance courtyard (jilaukhana). Alms were distributed and prayers recited. By the second Urs, held on 26 May 1633 AD (1042 AH), Mumtaz Mahal had been interred in her final resting place, the riverside terrace was finished; as was the plinth of the mausoleum and the tahkhana, a galleried suite of rooms opening to the river and under the terrace. It was used by the imperial retinue for the celebrations. Peter Mundy, an employee of the British East India company and a western eye witness, noted the ongoing construction of the caravanserais and bazaars and that "There is alreadye (sic) about Her Tombe a raile (sic) of gold ''. To deter theft it was replaced in 1643 AD (1053 AH) with an inlaid marble jali.
After the second Urs further dating of the progress can be made from several signatures left by the calligrapher Amanat Khan. The signed frame of the south arch of the domed hall of the mausoleum indicates it was reaching completion in 1638 / 39 AD (1048 / 1049 AH). In 1643 AD (1053 AH) the official sources documenting the twelfth Urs give a detailed description of a substantially completed complex. Decorative work apparently continued until 1648 AD (1058 AH) when Amanat Khan dated the north arch of the great gate with the inscription "Finished with His help, the Most High ''.
The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia. The buildings are constructed with walls of brick and rubble inner cores faced with either marble or sandstone locked together with iron dowels and clamps. Some of the walls of the mausoleum are several metres thick. Over 1,000 elephants were used to transport the building materials during the construction. The bricks were fired locally and the sandstone was quarried 28 miles (45 km) away near Fatehpur Sikri. The white marble was brought 250 miles (400 km) from quarries belonging to Raja Jai Singh in Makrana, Rajasthan. The Jasper was sourced from the Punjab and the Jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, 28 types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble. Jean - Baptiste Tavernier records that the scaffolding and centering for the arches was constructed entirely in brick. Legend says that the emperor offered these scaffolding bricks to anyone who would remove them and that at the end of the construction they were removed within a week. Modern scholars dispute this and consider it much more likely that the scaffolding was made of bamboo and materials were elevated by means of timber ramps.
Initial estimates for the cost of the works of 4,000,000 rupees had risen to 5,000,000 by completion. A waqf (trust) was established for the perpetual upkeep of the mausoleum with an income of 300,000 Rupees. One third of this income came from 30 villages in the district of Agra while the remainder came from taxes generated as a result of trade from the bazaars and caravanserais which had been built at an early stage to the south of the complex. Any surplus would be distributed by the emperor as he saw fit. As well as paying for routine maintenance, the waqf financed the expenses for the tomb attendants and the Hafiz, the Quran reciters who would sit day and night in the mausoleum and perform funerary services praying for the eternal soul of Mumtaz Mahal.
We do not know precisely who designed the Taj Mahal today. In the Islamic world at the time, the credit for a building 's design was usually given to its patron rather than its architects. From the evidence of contemporary sources, it is clear that a team of architects were responsible for the design and supervision of the works, but they are mentioned infrequently. Shah Jahan 's court histories emphasise his personal involvement in the construction and it is true that, more than any other Mughal emperor, he showed the greatest interest in building, holding daily meetings with his architects and supervisors. The court chronicler Lahouri, writes that Jahan would make "appropriate alterations to whatever the skilful architects designed after many thoughts, and asked competent questions. '' Two architects are mentioned by name, Ustad Ahmad Lahauri and Mir Abd - ul Karim in writings by Lahauri 's son Lutfullah Muhandis. Ustad Ahmad Lahauri had laid the foundations of the Red Fort at Delhi. Mir Abd - ul Karim had been the favourite architect of the previous emperor Jahangir and is mentioned as a supervisor, together with Makramat Khan, of the construction of the Taj Mahal.
In the complex, passages from the Qur'an are used as decorative elements. Recent scholarship suggests that the passages were chosen by a Persian calligrapher Abd ul - Haq, who came to India from Shiraz, Iran, in 1609. As a reward for his "dazzling virtuosity '', Shah Jahan gave him the title of "Amanat Khan ''. This is supported by an inscription near the lines from the Qur'an at the base of the interior dome that reads "Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi. ''
The calligraphy on the Great Gate reads "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you. ''
Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script, made of jasper or black marble, inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written in slightly larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate.
Abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, jawab and to a lesser extent, on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. Herringbone inlays define the space between many of the adjoining elements. White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the white marbles. Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted in a contrasting colour, creating geometric patterns of considerable complexity. Floors and walkways use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns.
On the lower walls of the tomb there are white marble dados that have been sculpted with realistic bas relief depictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvings and the dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits. The inlay stones are of yellow marble, jasper and jade, polished and leveled to the surface of the walls.
The Taj complex is ordered by grids. The complex was originally surveyed by J.A. Hodgson in 1825, however the first detailed scholastic examination of how the various elements of the Taj might fit into a coordinating grid was not carried out until 1989 by Begley and Desai. Numerous 17th - century accounts detail the precise measurements of the complex in terms of the gaz or zira, the Mughal linear yard, equivalent to approximately 80 -- 92 cm. Begley and Desai concluded a 400 - gaz grid was used and then subdivided and that the various discrepancies they discovered were due to errors in the contemporary descriptions.
Research and measurement by Koch and Richard André Barraud in 2006 suggested a more complex method of ordering that relates better to the 17th century records. Whereas Begley and Desai had used a simple fixed grid on which the buildings are superimposed, Koch and Barraud found the layout 's proportions were better explained by the use of a generated grid system in which specific lengths may be divided in a number of ways such as halving, dividing by three or using decimal systems. They suggest the 374 - gaz width of the complex given by the contemporary historians was correct and the Taj is planned as a tripartite rectangle of three 374 - gaz squares. Different modular divisions are then used to proportion the rest of the complex. A 17 - gaz module is used in the jilaukhana, bazaar and caravanserais areas whereas a more detailed 23 - gaz module is used in the garden and terrace areas (since their width is 368 gaz, a multiple of 23). The buildings were in turn proportioned using yet smaller grids superimposed on the larger organisational ones. The smaller grids were also used to establish elevational proportion throughout the complex.
Koch and Barraud explain such apparently peculiar numbers as making more sense when seen as part of Mughal geometric understanding. Octagons and triangles, which feature extensively in the Taj, have particular properties in terms of the relationships of their sides. A right - angled triangle with two sides of 12 will have a hypotenuse of approximately 17 (16.97 +); similarly if it has two sides of 17 its hypotenuse will be approximately 24 (24.04 +). An octagon with a width of 17 will have sides of approximately 7 (7.04 +), which is the basic grid upon which the mausoleum, mosque and Mihman Khana are planned.
Discrepancies remain in Koch and Barraud 's work which they attribute to numbers being rounded fractions, inaccuracies of reporting from third persons and errors in workmanship (most notable in the caravanserais areas further from the tomb itself).
A 2009 paper by Prof R. Balasubramaniam of the Indian Institute of Technology found Barraud 's explanation of the dimensional errors and the transition between the 23 and 17 gaz grid at the great gate unconvincing. Balasubramaniam conducted dimensional analysis of the complex based on Barraud 's surveys. He concluded that the Taj was constructed using the ancient Aṅgula as the basic unit rather than the Mughal ' gaz ', noted in the contemporary accounts. The Aṅgula, which equates to 1.763 cm and the Vistasti (12 Angulams) were first mentioned in the Arthashastra in c. 300 BC and may have been derived from the earlier Indus Valley Civilisation. In this analysis the forecourt and caravanserai areas were set out with a 60 Vistasti grid, and the riverfront and garden sections with a 90 - vistari grid. The transition between the grids is more easily accommodated, 90 being easily divisible by 60. The research suggests that older, pre-Mughal methods of proportion were employed as ordering principles in the Taj.
The focus and climax of the Taj Mahal complex is the symmetrical white marble tomb; a cubic building with chamfered corners, with arched recesses known as pishtaqs. It is topped by a large dome and several pillared, roofed chhatris. In plan, it has a near perfect symmetry about 4 axes. It comprises 4 floors; the lower basement storey containing the tombs of Jahan and Mumtaz, the entrance storey containing identical cenotaphs of the tombs below in a much more elaborate chamber, an ambulatory storey and a roof terrace.
The mausoleum is cubic with chamfered edges. On the long sides, a massive pishtaq, or vaulted archway frames an arch - shaped doorway, with a similar arch - shaped balcony above. These main arches extend above the roof the building by use of an integrated facade. To either side of the main arch, additional pishtaqs are stacked above and below. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas. The design is completely uniform and consistent on all sides of the building.
The marble dome that surmounts the tomb is its most spectacular feature. Its height is about the same size as the base building, about 35 m. Its height is accentuated because it sits on a cylindrical "drum '' about 7 metres high. Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome (also called an amrud or apple dome). The dome is topped by a gilded finial, which mixes traditional Islamic and Hindu decorative elements. The dome shape is emphasised by four smaller domed chhatris placed at its corners. The chhatri domes replicate the onion shape of main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb, and provide light to the interior. The chhatris also are topped by gilded finials. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from the edges of the base walls, and provide visual emphasis of the dome height.
Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves, so the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan are laid in a relatively plain, marble faced chamber, beneath the main chamber of the Taj. They are buried in graves on a north - south axis, with faces turned right (west) toward Mecca. Two cenotaphs above mark the graves. Mumtaz 's cenotaph is placed at the precise center of the inner chamber. On a rectangular marble base about 1.5 by 2.5 metres is a smaller marble casket. Both base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on top of the casket recite verses from the Koran and on the sides express the Ninety - Nine beautiful names of Allah.
The inner chamber of the Taj Mahal contains the cenotaphs of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan. It is a masterpiece of artistic craftsmanship, virtually without precedent or equal. The inner chamber is an octagon. While the design allows for entry from each face, only the south (garden facing) door is used. The interior walls are about 25 metres high, topped by a "false '' interior dome decorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level. As is typical with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas; each balcony 's exterior window has an intricate screen or jali cut from marble. In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings covered by the chhatris at the corners of the exterior dome. Each of the chamber walls has been highly decorated with dado bas relief, intricate lapidary inlay, and refined calligraphy panels.
The hierarchical ordering of the entire complex reaches its crescendo in the chamber. Mumtaz 's cenotaph sits at the geometric centre of the building; Jahan was buried at a later date by her side to the west -- an arrangement seen in other Mughal tombs of the period such as Itmad - Ud - Daulah. Marble is used exclusively as the base material for increasingly dense, expensive and complex parchin kari floral decoration as one approaches the screen and cenotaphs which are inlaid with semi-precious stones. The use of such inlay work is often reserved in Shah Jahani architecture for spaces associated with the emperor or his immediate family. The ordering of this decoration simultaneously emphasises the cardinal points and the centre of the chamber with dissipating concentric octagons. Such hierarchies appear in both Muslim and Indian culture as important spiritual and atrological themes. The chamber is an abundant evocation of the garden of paradise with representations of flowers, plants and arabesques and the calligraphic inscriptions in both the thuluth and the less formal naskh script,
Shah Jahan 's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz 's to the western side. It is the only asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his wife 's, but reflects the same elements: A larger casket on slightly taller base, again decorated with astonishing precision with lapidary and calligraphy which identifies Shah Jahan. On the lid of this casket is a sculpture of a small pen box. (The pen box and writing tablet were traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating men 's and women 's caskets respectively.)
An octagonal marble screen or jali borders the cenotaphs and is made from eight marble panels. Each panel has been carved through with intricate piercework. The remaining surfaces have been inlaid with semiprecious stones in extremely delicate detail, forming twining vines, fruits and flowers.
At the corners of the plinth stand minarets: four large towers each more than 40 metres tall. The towers are designed as working minarets, a traditional element of mosques, a place for a muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chhatri that echoes the design of those on the tomb. The minaret chhatris share the same finishing touches: a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. Each of the minarets was constructed slightly out of plumb to the outside of the plinth, so that in the event of collapse (a typical occurrence with many such tall constructions of the period) the structure would fall away from the tomb.
The mausoleum is flanked by two almost identical buildings on either side of the platform. To the west is the Mosque, to the east is Jawab. The Jawab, meaning ' answer ' balances the bilateral symmetry of the composition and was originally used as a place for entertaining and accommodation for important visitors. It differs from the mosque in that it lacks a mihrab, a niche in a mosque 's wall facing Mecca, and the floors have a geometric design, while the mosque floor was laid out with the outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble.
The mosque 's basic tripartite design is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly the Masjid - i - Jahan Numa in Delhi -- a long hall surmounted by three domes. Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas: a main sanctuary with slightly smaller sanctuaries to either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto an enormous vaulting dome.
The large charbagh (a form of Persian garden divided into four parts) provides the foreground for the classic view of the Taj Mahal. The garden 's strict and formal planning employs raised pathways which divide each quarter of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. A raised marble water tank at the center of the garden, halfway between the tomb and the gateway, and a linear reflecting pool on the North - South axis reflect the Taj Mahal. Elsewhere the garden is laid out with avenues of trees and fountains. The charbagh garden is meant to symbolise the four flowing Rivers of Paradise. The raised marble water tank (hauz) is called al Hawd al - Kawthar, literally meaning and named after the "Tank of Abundance '' promised to Muhammad in paradise where the faithful may quench their thirst upon arrival.
Two pavilions occupy the east and west ends of the cross axis, one the mirror of the other. In the classic charbargh design, gates would have been located in this location. In the Taj they provide punctuation and access to the long enclosing wall with its decorative crenellations. Built of sandstone, they are given a tripartite form and over two storeys and are capped with a white marble chhatris supported from 8 columns.
The original planting of the garden is one of the Taj Mahal 's remaining mysteries. The contemporary accounts mostly deal just with the architecture and only mention ' various kinds of fruit - bearing trees and rare aromatic herbs ' in relation to the garden. Cypress trees are almost certainly to have been planted being popular similes in Persian poetry for the slender elegant stature of the beloved. By the end of the 18th century, Thomas Twining noted orange trees and a large plan of the complex suggests beds of various other fruits such as pineapples, pomegranates, bananas, limes and apples. The British, at the end of the 19th century thinned out a lot of the increasingly forested trees, replanted the cypresses and laid the gardens to lawns in their own taste.
The layout of the garden, and its architectural features such as its fountains, brick and marble walkways, and geometric brick - lined flowerbeds are similar to Shalimar 's, and suggest that the garden may have been designed by the same engineer, Ali Mardan.
Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including roses, daffodils, and fruit trees in abundance. As the Mughal Empire declined, the tending of the garden declined as well. When the British took over management of the Taj Mahal, they changed the landscaping to resemble the formal lawns of London.
The great gate stands to the north of the entrance forecourt (jilaukhana) and provides a symbolic transition between the worldly realm of bazaars and caravanserai and the spiritual realm of the paradise garden, mosque and the mausoleum. Its rectangular plan is a variation of the 9 - part hasht bihisht plan found in the mausoleum. The corners are articulated with octagonal towers giving the structure a defensive appearance. External domes were reserved for tombs and mosques and so the large central space does not receive any outward expression of its internal dome. From within the great gate, the Mausoleum is framed by the pointed arch of the portal. Inscriptions from the Qu'ran are inlaid around the two northern and southern pishtaqs, the southern one ' Daybreak ' invites believers to enter the garden of paradise.
Running the length of the northern side of the southern garden wall to the east and west of the great gate are galleried arcades. The galleries were used during the rainy season to admit the poor and distribute alms. A raised platform with geometric paving provides a seating for the column bases and between them are cusped arches typical of the Mughul architecture of the period. The galleries terminate at each end with a transversely placed room with tripartite divisions.
The jilaukhana (literally meaning ' in front of house ') was a courtyard feature introduced to mughal architecture by Shah Jahan. It provided an area where visitors would dismount from their horses or elephants and assemble in style before entering the main tomb complex. The rectangular area divides north - south and east - west with an entry to the tomb complex through the main gate to the north and entrance gates leading to the outside provided in the eastern, western and southern walls. The southern gate leads to the Taj Ganji quarter.
Two identical streets lead from the east and west gates to the centre of the courtyard. They are lined by verandahed colonnades articulated with cusped arches behind which cellular rooms were used to sell goods from when the Taj was built until 1996. The tax revenue from this trade was used for the upkeep of the Taj complex. The eastern bazaar streets were essentially ruined by the end of the 19th century and were restored by Lord Curzon restored 1900 and 1908.
Two mirror image tombs are located at the southern corners of the jilaukhana. They are conceived as miniature replicas of the main complex and stand on raised platforms accessed by steps. Each octagonal tomb is constructed on a rectangular platform flanked by smaller rectangular buildings in front of which is laid a charbargh garden. Some uncertainty exists as to whom the tombs might memorialise. Their descriptions are absent from the contemporary accounts either because they were unbuilt or because they were ignored, being the tombs of women. On the first written document to mention them, the plan drawn up by Thomas and William Daniel in 1789, the eastern tomb is marked as that belonging to Akbarabadi Mahal and the western as Fatehpuri Mahal (two of Jahan 's other wives).
A pair of courtyards is found in the northern corners of the jilaukhana which provided quarters (Khawasspuras) for the tombs attendants and the Hafiz. This residential element provided a transition between the outside world and the other - worldy delights of the tomb complex. The Khawasspurs had fallen into a state of disrepair by the late 18th century but the institution of the Khadim continued into the 20th century. The Khawasspuras were restored by Lord Curzon as part of his repairs between 1900 and 1908, after which the western courtyard was used as a nursery for the garden and the western courtyard was used as a cattle stable until 2003.
The Bazaar and caravanserai were constructed as an integral part of the complex, initially to provide the construction workers with accommodation and facilities for their wellbeing, and later as a place for trade, the revenue of which supplemented the expenses of the complex. The area became a small town in its own right during and after the building of the Taj. Originally known as ' Mumtazabad ', today it is called Taj Ganji or ' Taj Market '. Its plan took the characteristic form of a square divided by two cross axial streets with gates to the four cardinal points. Bazaars lined each street and the resultant squares to each corner housed the caravanserais in open courtyards accessed from internal gates from where the streets intersected (Chauk). Contemporary sources pay more attention to the north eastern and western parts of the Taj Ganji (Taj Market) and it is likely that only this half received imperial funding. Thus, the quality of the architecture was finer than the southern half.
The distinction between how the sacred part of the complex and the secular was regarded is most acute in this part of the complex. Whilst the rest of the complex only received maintenance after its construction, the Taj Ganji became a bustling town and the centre of Agra 's economic activity where "different kinds of merchandise from every land, varieties of goods from every country, all sorts of luxuries of the time, and various kinds of necessities of civilisation and comfortable living brought from all parts of the world '' were sold. An idea of what sort of goods might have been traded is found in the names for the caravanserais; the north western one was known as Katra Omar Khan (Market of Omar Khan), the north eastern as Katra Fulel (Perfume Market), the south western as Katra Resham (Silk Market) and the south - eastern as Katra Jogidas. It has been constantly redeveloped ever since its construction, to the extent that by the 19th century it had become unrecognisable as part of the Taj Mahal and no longer featured on contemporary plans and its architecture was largely obliterated. Today, the contrast is stark between the Taj Mahal 's elegant, formal geometric layout and the narrow streets with organic, random and un-unified constructions found in the Taj Ganji. Only fragments of the original constructions remain, most notably the gates.
The Taj Mahal complex is bounded on three sides by crenellated red sandstone walls, with the river - facing side left open. The garden - facing inner sides of the wall are fronted by columned arcades, a feature typical of Hindu temples which was later incorporated into Mughal mosques. The wall is interspersed with domed chhatris, and small buildings that may have been viewing areas or watch towers.
Outside the walls are several additional mausolea. These structures, composed primarily of red sandstone, are typical of the smaller Mughal tombs of the era. The outer eastern tomb has an associated mosque called the Black Mosque (Kali Masjid) or the Sandalwood Mosque (Sandli Masjid). The design is closely related to the inner subsidiary tombs found in the Jilhaukhana -- small, landlocked versions of the riverfront terrace with a garden separating the mosque from the tomb. The person interred here is unknown, but was likely a female member of Jahan 's household.
Water for the Taj complex was provided through a complex infrastructure. It was first drawn from the river by a series of purs - an animal - powered rope and bucket mechanism. The water then flowed along an arched aqueduct into a large storage tank, where, by thirteen additional purs, it was raised to large distribution cistern above the Taj ground level located to the west of the complex 's wall. From here water passed into three subsidiary tanks and was then piped to the complex. The head of pressure generated by the height of the tanks (9.5 m) was sufficient to supply the fountains and irrigate the gardens. A 0.25 metre diameter earthenware pipe lies 1.8 metres below the surface, in line with the main walkway which fills the main pools of the complex. Some of the earthenware pipes were replaced in 1903 with cast iron. The fountain pipes were not connected directly to the fountain heads, instead a copper pot was provided under each fountain head: water filled the pots ensuring an equal pressure to each fountain. The purs no longer remain, but the other parts of the infrastructure have survived with the arches of the aqueduct now used to accommodate offices for the Archaeological Survey of India 's Horticultural Department.
To the north of the Taj Mahal complex, across the river is another Charbagh garden, Mahtab Bagh. It was designed as an integral part of the complex in the riverfront terrace pattern seen elsewhere in Agra. Its width is identical to that of the rest of the Taj. The garden historian Elizabeth Moynihan suggests the large octagonal pool in the centre of the terrace would reflect the image of the Mausoleum and thus the garden would provide a setting to view the Taj Mahal. The garden has been beset by flooding from the river since Mughal times. As a result, the condition of the remaining structures is quite ruinous. Four sandstone towers marked the corners of the garden, only the south - eastward one remains. The foundations of two structures remain immediately north and south of the large pool which were probably garden pavilions. From the northern structure a stepped waterfall would have fed the pool. The garden to the north has the typical square, cross-axial plan with a square pool in its centre. To the west an aqueduct fed the garden.
Coordinates: 27 ° 10 ′ 30 '' N 78 ° 02 ′ 32 '' E / 27.175 ° N 78.0422 ° E / 27.175; 78.0422
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new riders of the purple sage best albums | The Best of New Riders of the Purple Sage - wikipedia
The Best of New Riders of the Purple Sage is an album by the country rock band the New Riders of the Purple Sage. It contains a selection of songs that had previously appeared on the band 's first seven albums, which were recorded between 1971 and 1975. It was released by Columbia Records in 1976.
According to the biography of the band on their official web site, "Just about this time, the music business was entering another era and the New Riders ended their relationship with Columbia Records. The subsequent release of The Best of New Riders of the Purple Sage, with its infamous cover, fulfilled their obligation to Columbia and the band then signed with MCA Records in 1976. ''
Five of the ten songs on The Best of New Riders of the Purple Sage were taken from the band 's self - titled first album. Jerry Garcia of the Grateful Dead plays pedal steel guitar on those tracks.
In 2006, The Best of New Riders of the Purple Sage was re-released with five additional songs. Four of the "bonus tracks '' had been previously released on the Columbia albums. The fifth is an alternate version of "Linda '', from the Gypsy Cowboy recording sessions.
Re-release bonus tracks:
The New Riders ' first seven albums and the songs that were selected from them for The Best of New Riders of the Purple Sage are:
* expanded edition bonus track
* expanded edition bonus track
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who did marion bartoli beat in the wimbledon final | Marion Bartoli - wikipedia
Marion Bartoli (French: (maʁjɔ̃ baʁtɔli); born 2 October 1984) is a French former professional tennis player. She won the 2013 Wimbledon Championships singles title after previously being runner - up in 2007, and was a semifinalist at the 2011 French Open. She also won eight Women 's Tennis Association singles and three doubles titles. She announced her immediate retirement from professional tennis on 14 August 2013.
Bartoli defeated three reigning world No. 1 players in her career: Justine Henin in the semifinal of the 2007 Wimbledon Championships, Jelena Janković in the fourth round of the 2009 Australian Open, and Victoria Azarenka in the quarterfinals of the 2012 Sony Ericsson Open. She also recorded wins over other top players such as Venus and Serena Williams, Ana Ivanovic, Lindsay Davenport, Arantxa Sánchez Vicario, Dinara Safina, Caroline Wozniacki, Petra Kvitová, Samantha Stosur, and Kim Clijsters.
She is known for her unorthodox style of play using two hands on both her forehand and backhand. On 30 January 2012 she reached a career - high ranking of No. 7 in the world; she returned to this ranking on 8 July 2013 after triumphing at Wimbledon. Bartoli reached at least the quarterfinal stage at each of the four Grand Slams. Her win at Wimbledon made her only the sixth player in the open era to win the Championships without dropping a single set. She is also the only player ever to have played at both the WTA Tour Championships and the WTA Tournament of Champions in the same year, in 2011.
Marion Bartoli was born on 2 October 1984 in Le Puy - en - Velay, Haute - Loire. She is of Corsican descent; her family is from Palneca, Corse - du - Sud.
Bartoli was introduced to tennis by her medical doctor father, Walter, when she was six years old. She would practice tennis with him late at night after school on small, icy, unevenly surfaced courts which restricted free movement and influenced her playing style. When weather was sufficiently bad, they would train in an old indoor facility where there was very limited room between baseline and the wall, meaning Bartoli became adept at playing inside the baseline. He devised original training methods, such as improving hand - eye coordination by using balls of different size and color, or encouraging Marion to stay on her toes by taping tennis balls to the heels of her shoes. He drove hundreds of kilometres to tournaments while she would do her homework in the back of the car.
Bartoli was known for her unorthodox and intense style of play on the court. She used two hands on both the forehand and the backhand, and was generally classed as an aggressive and hard - hitting player who played primarily from the baseline. She developed her two - handed style on the advice of her father and longtime coach, Walter Bartoli. He had seen the classic 1992 French Open final in which Monica Seles defeated Steffi Graf, and immediately was inspired to teach Seles ' technique to his daughter. Bartoli had previously had trouble with her forehand, but it improved significantly when she made the switch to two hands. Her game was based on power and she used her double - fisted strokes to create sharp angles to open up the court and preferred to take the ball very early on groundstrokes. Her serve was considered a weakness but her return of serve was considered to be her biggest weapon and she often stood well inside the baseline to receive serve, even on first serves, and managed to take advantage of break point opportunities. Bartoli was not a "natural athlete '' so she was not a strong mover around the court and instead relied on her excellent hand - eye coordination and anticipation skills.
Her style of play could be most closely compared to that of Seles, who had a strong influence on Bartoli as a young player. In a TV interview during the 2012 US Open tournament, Bartoli explained that both Seles and she are left - handed, and that she had a very weak forehand before changing to two hands.
Bartoli was not a very good mover on court, a state exacerbated by her two - fisted strokes, which made her vulnerable to fast all - court players such as Agnieszka Radwańska (whom she never beat). Bartoli did however work on her fitness and mobility throughout her career to varying success.
Bartoli was also known for her unusual serve, in which she used her wrist to generate speed. She also changed her service motion many times over the years. During the 2013 Wimbledon Championships, she had an unusual setup for serves -- no ball - bouncing, arms crossed, right wrist resting on her left thumb before the toss.
Bartoli manifested unusual on - court mannerisms, such as energetically bouncing on the spot and practising racquet swings between points, and being noticeably restless during changeovers. She claimed that this was to maintain the focus needed for her intense style of play.
Bartoli 's father, who had no background in tennis, had years earlier retired from his career as a medical doctor to learn how to become a tennis coach and coach her to become a professional tennis player. Bartoli has denied allegations that her close relationship with her father is a public show to hide a dominating parent. She has resisted pressure to play without him, including giving up the chance to play at the Olympics in London in 2012 because she would not play in the Fed Cup without his private coaching. In February 2013 Bartoli announced that the coaching setup with her father, who had been her coach throughout her tennis career, had come to an end by mutual agreement, and stated that she would be working with physical trainer Nicolas Perrotte and former player Gabriel Urpi until she found a new coach who could take her to the next level and help her win her first Grand Slam singles title. The following month it was announced on the WTA website that Bartoli was being coached by Jana Novotná, but they cancelled the coaching arrangement after a week with the conclusion of the Indian Wells Masters tournament. Bartoli was subsequently coached by the former World No. 1 Amélie Mauresmo, under whom she won the 2013 Wimbledon Championships.
Bartoli retired whilst using the Prince EXO 3 Warrior racquet. She had previously used the Prince EXO3 Black and the Prince O3 Red. All her Prince racquets were specially modified in New York to make them longer by 2.0 inches (to 29 inches) than standard racquets to give her better reach with her two - handed strokes. She started using the 29 inch frames in 2006 and soon won her first tournament in Auckland. For many years she had no clothing sponsor, but wore Nike. In October 2011, she signed a three - year clothing deal with Lotto. Before her breakthrough into the top 100, Bartoli was playing with a standard length Babolat racquet and she was wearing Le Coq Sportif apparel. Due to her small hands, her racquets had a very small grip size of 0.
Bartoli started entering tournaments regularly at the age of 16. After a few aborted starts in 1999 and 2000, she played in the $10,000 clay events in the spring of 2001. Winning two tournaments back to back in May (in Hatfield and Torino) ensured that she would be given a wildcard into her first Grand Slam, the French Open, where she lost to Catalina Castaño in the first round. Bartoli also won another tournament in Koksijde, Belgium.
In 2002, she received a wildcard into the Australian Open. She lost to Tina Pisnik in three sets. She then won her fourth ITF title in Columbus, Ohio. She followed that with a first - round exit at the French Open, losing in three sets to Ai Sugiyama. In the US Open where she qualified, she defeated Arantxa Sánchez Vicario, which was Bartoli 's first win over a player in the top 100. She followed that with a win over Rossana de los Ríos, before losing to fourth seed Lindsay Davenport.
Bartoli began 2003 by coming through the qualifying draw in the Canberra Women 's Classic to reach her first WTA semifinal, where she lost to Francesca Schiavone. At the Australian Open, where she earned her place in a Grand Slam through her ranking for the first time, she lost to 11th seed Magdalena Maleeva in the first round. She qualified for Key Biscayne and made it to the quarterfinals, after Lindsay Davenport retired in their fourth - round match due to injury. In the quarterfinal she lost to Serena Williams.
In the Internationaux de Strasbourg Bartoli reached the quarterfinals, where she lost to Vera Zvonareva. At the French Open, she earned another victory over Rossana de los Ríos, but lost to Jennifer Capriati in the second round. At her first Wimbledon, she drew the ninth seed Daniela Hantuchová in the first round, and lost.
At the Acura Classic, Bartoli defeated her first top - 20 player, Meghann Shaughnessy, before losing to Kim Clijsters in the third round. At the US Open she lost to Hantuchová in the first round. But in doubles, she reached her first and only semifinal of doubles at Grand Slams. At the end of the year, she reached the quarterfinals of Bell Challenge, losing to Milagros Sequera.
Bartoli began the season by getting to her first WTA semifinal in the season - opener in Auckland. She then got to the second round of the Australian Open for the first time, losing to 22nd - seeded Patty Schnyder.
In February Bartoli played at the Hyderabad Open, where she defeated Ankita Bhambri, Galina Fokina, and Mervana Jugić - Salkić to reach the semifinals, before losing to eventual champion Nicole Pratt. This performance briefly made her a top - 50 player.
Bartoli refound her doubles form of late 2003. Partnering compatriot Émilie Loit, she reached the semifinals of Acapulco, the quarterfinals of Indian Wells, and then Bartoli won her first WTA doubles title in Casablanca.
After a forgettable singles clay - court season (culminating in her second loss to Sugiyama at her native Grand Slam event), she climbed back up the rankings by reaching the third round of Wimbledon (losing to Sugiyama for the second successive Grand Slam). She also got to the quarterfinals of Wimbledon in doubles, partnering Loit for the second successive Grand Slam (they had failed to get beyond the second round of the French Open). Bartoli got to her third singles semifinal of the year in Cincinnati, before pulling out of her match with Lindsay Davenport with a blister on her right hand. She reached the second round of the US Open, despite being drawn against 32nd - seeded Meghann Shaughnessy in the first round. She lost to Russian Vera Dushevina in the second round.
In the absence of Amélie Mauresmo and Mary Pierce due to injuries, Bartoli received her debut Fed Cup call - up for France 's semifinals against Spain. She was teamed with Loit again and helped complete a 5 -- 0 whitewash of the Spanish team. In the final against Russia, Bartoli 's and Loit 's doubles match against Myskina and Vera Zvonareva was the decisive rubber. The Russian pair won, earning the Fed Cup for Russia for the first time. As a result, Bartoli 's team leader Guy Forget resigned, and she was not chosen by the new team leader Georges Goven to play in 2005.
She ended 2004 ranked world No. 41, having gone 30 -- 24 over the year. Her hard - court record was 23 -- 13, with clay going 4 -- 7, grass 3 -- 3, and carpet 0 -- 1.
After a promising start (semifinals in Auckland and quarterfinals in Canberra), which took her to world No. 32 and winning the second doubles tournament of her career in Pattaya City, injury disrupted the second quarter of 2005. The only match Bartoli played in the clay - court season was her straight - sets first - round loss to Shahar Pe'er at the French Open (where she was seeded for the first time, 28th). Her quarterfinal run at Eastbourne (where she had to retire hurt) led her to a career - high ranking of No. 27 at the start of Wimbledon, where she lost to Jill Craybas in the second round.
Highlights of the year were reaching the third round of the US Open for the second time (losing to Sania Mirza) and making her second WTA semifinal of the year (and fifth of her career) in Québec.
Her end - of - season statistics were 35 -- 26, albeit padded by a victory in a satellite tournament in Doha at the end of the year. She went 30 -- 21 on hard courts, 0 -- 1 on clay, 3 -- 3 on grass, and 2 -- 1 on carpet. She was now ranked world No. 40.
In January 2006, Bartoli at 21 years of age won her first senior title at the ASB Classic in Auckland, New Zealand, beating Vera Zvonareva in the final. She then lost in the second round of the first three Grand Slam events of the year (losing to Roberta Vinci in Australia, Jelena Janković at the French Open, and Karolina Šprem at Wimbledon, all in three sets), but she won her third career doubles title by capturing the ECM Prague Open with Shahar Pe'er in May.
The North American summer hard - court season was very productive for Bartoli, as she reached the third round (and in some cases that meant the quarterfinals) of five of the seven tournaments she entered, including the US Open, where she again lost in the third round, this time to seventh - seeded Patty Schnyder. The following week she beat Schnyder en route to her second final of the year in Bali, where she lost to world No. 5 Svetlana Kuznetsova.
In October Bartoli won her second WTA singles title at the AIG Japan Open Tennis Championships, beating Aiko Nakamura in the final. This was the first ever WTA final contested by two players using two - handed strokes on both the forehand and backhand. As a result of winning the title, Bartoli broke into the top 20 for the first time. In her last event of the year, she captured the Bell Challenge in Québec, defeating Olga Puchkova without losing a game in the final.
Bartoli finished the year ranked world no. 17. Her record was 45 -- 28, her best on tour so far. That consisted of 37 -- 17 on hard courts, 4 -- 6 on clay, 3 -- 3 on grass, and 1 -- 2 on carpet. She was 3 -- 6 against top - 10 players.
Bartoli began 2007 with another second - round exit at the Australian Open, this time falling to Victoria Azarenka. In the clay - court season, she reached the final of the ECM Prague Open in May, losing to Akiko Morigami. After reaching the semifinals in Strasbourg, she lost to Amélie Mauresmo. Bartoli reached her first career Grand Slam fourth round at the French Open by defeating Aravane Rezaï, Andrea Petkovic, and 13th seed Elena Dementieva. In the fourth round, she was knocked out by fourth seed Jelena Janković, though Bartoli injured her back during this match. In the grass - court season, she reached the semifinals at Birmingham, where she lost to Maria Sharapova. She also reached the semifinals at Eastbourne, but lost to world No. 1 Justine Henin.
At Wimbledon, Bartoli made her Grand Slam breakthrough by advancing to her first grand slam final, after defeating top - seeded Justine Henin in the semifinal, in one of the biggest upsets in Wimbledon history. Bartoli lost the first set, and claimed afterwards that the reason for her turnaround in the match was seeing Pierce Brosnan in the royal box and being determined to play well in front of one of her favourite actors. In the final, Bartoli lost to three - time former champion Venus Williams. As a result of her Wimbledon performance, she rose to a career high of No. 11 in the WTA rankings. At the US Open, Bartoli reached the fourth round for the first time by defeating world No. 25 Lucie Šafářová. In the fourth round, she lost to Grand Slam champion Serena Williams. At the Fortis Championships in Luxembourg, she reached her first semifinal since her Wimbledon run, but then lost to Daniela Hantuchová.
At the Tier I event in Zurich Bartoli reached the quarterfinals, where she retired due to injury in her match against Tatiana Golovin. Despite her injury, Bartoli played at the Generali Ladies Linz in Austria, and reached the semifinals, where she was defeated by Patty Schnyder. This ended her hopes of reaching the WTA Tour Championships. However, after Serena Williams withdrew from the tournament due to injury, Bartoli entered the event and played in the yellow group, where she lost to Justine Henin without winning a game, but defeated Jelena Janković after the Serbian retired. Her final record for the year was 47 -- 31, with 19 -- 16 on hard courts, 14 -- 7 on clay, 12 -- 3 on grass, and 2 -- 5 on carpet. Her record against top - 10 players was 4 -- 8. Despite not having earned a single title all year, she ended the year as a top - 10 player at No. 10.
At the Australian Open, Bartoli was upset by Sofia Arvidsson after Bartoli was up a break in both the second and third sets. At the Open Gaz de France, Bartoli made it to the semifinals following easy wins over Virginie Razzano and Dominika Cibulková. In her semifinal she lost to Anna Chakvetadze
At the French Open, she played through injury and was defeated by Casey Dellacqua in the first round. At Eastbourne, she defeated Sybille Bammer and Alisa Kleybanova and reached the semifinals, where she lost to eventual champion Agnieszka Radwańska. At Wimbledon, she was seeded 11th and defeated Sabine Lisicki and Tathiana Perebiynis. She was then upset by Bethanie Mattek, suffering calf and shoulder injuries.
Seeded sixth at the Stanford Classic, Bartoli defeated Akgul Amanmuradova, Anne Keothavong, defending champion Anna Chakvetadze, and Ai Sugiyama, to move into her first final since Wimbledon in 2007. In the final, Bartoli lost to the Canadian qualifier Aleksandra Wozniak. In Montreal, she beat Melanie South, Anna Chakvetadze and Ai Sugiyama to reach the semifinals, where she was defeated by Dominika Cibulková. At the US Open, Bartoli was seeded 12th and beat Galina Voskoboeva, Virginia Ruano Pascual and former champion and 23rd seed Lindsay Davenport to reach the fourth round, where she lost to 29th - seeded Sybille Bammer.
Bartoli 's first event during the new WTA calendar was the inaugural Brisbane International. She was seeded third and defeated Monika Wejnert, Melinda Czink, and Tathiana Garbin. During the semifinal against Amélie Mauresmo, the latter had to retire due to injury; securing Bartoli a place in the final, which she lost to Victoria Azarenka.
Seeded 16th at the Australian Open, Bartoli defeated Melanie South, Tsvetana Pironkova, Lucie Šafářová and top seed Jelena Janković to reach the quarterfinals, where she lost to seventh seed Vera Zvonareva. Bartoli won her fourth career title at the Monterrey Open. Seeded second, she beat Michaëlla Krajicek, Magdaléna Rybáriková, Vania King, and Zheng Jie to reach the final, where she defeated unseeded Li Na.
In Charleston, Bartoli was seeded sixth and defeated Anastasija Sevastova, Melanie Oudin, and Melinda Czink to reach the semifinals, where she lost to eventual champion Sabine Lisicki. At the French Open, Bartoli won her opening match against fellow Frenchwoman Pauline Parmentier, but was then defeated by Tathiana Garbin in the second round. Seeded 12th at Wimbledon, Bartoli defeated Chan Yung - jan without losing a game in the first round. She then defeated Timea Bacsinszky in the second round, but fell to Francesca Schiavone in the third.
Bartoli played her first tournament of the US Open Series in Stanford as eighth seed. She won the title by defeating Ayumi Morita, Melanie Oudin, Jelena Janković, Samantha Stosur in the semifinals, and second seed Venus Williams in the final, to win her second title of the year and fifth overall. Seeded 14th at the US Open, Bartoli beat Rossana de los Ríos, but lost to eventual champion Kim Clijsters. At the Toray Pan Pacific Open in Tokyo, Bartoli was seeded 14th and reached the quarterfinals, where she lost to seventh seed Jelena Janković.
Seeded 14, Bartoli reached the semifinals of the China Open in Beijing. She defeated Magdaléna Rybáriková, Alisa Kleybanova, Zhang Shuai, and Vera Zvonareva. In the semifinals, she lost to 12th seed Agnieszka Radwańska. At the Commonwealth Bank Tournament of Champions in Bali, Bartoli defeated Rybáriková, and qualified for the semifinals when she beat Shahar Pe'er. She then defeated Kimiko Date - Krumm. In the final against Aravane Rezaï Bartoli retired due to injury.
Bartoli started her year as the 11th seed at the Australian Open. She defeated Rossana de los Ríos in the first round and Sandra Záhlavová in the second. In the third round she lost to unseeded and eventual semifinalist Zheng Jie. At the Sony Ericsson Open in Miami, Bartoli defeated Magdaléna Rybáriková, Gisela Dulko, top seed and world No. 4 Svetlana Kuznetsova, and Yanina Wickmayer to reach the semifinals, where she lost to world No. 5 Venus Williams.
In the French Open Bartoli was the 12th seed and French No. 1. She beat Maria Elena Camerin in the first round and compatriot and wildcard Olivia Sanchez in the second, but was defeated by Shahar Pe'er in the third round. Bartoli was seeded eighth at the Aegon International at Eastbourne. She defeated Vera Dushevina, Ágnes Szávay and María José Martínez Sánchez to reach the semifinals for the fourth consecutive year. In the semifinal she lost to Victoria Azarenka. Bartoli was seeded 11th at the Wimbledon Championships. She defeated Julia Görges in the first round, then moved straight into the third round after Petra Martić withdrew from the tournament with suspected injury. In the third round she defeated qualifier Gréta Arn, before falling in the fourth round to eventual semifinalist Tsvetana Pironkova.
At the Bank of the West Classic in Stanford, California, where she was defending her title, she defeated Ashley Harkleroad and Ana Ivanovic to reach the quarterfinals, where she lost to Victoria Azarenka. Bartoli also reached the quarterfinals at the Western & Southern Financial Group Women 's Open in Cincinnati, after defeating Anabel Medina Garrigues, Alona Bondarenko and world No. 3 Caroline Wozniacki. In the quarterfinals, she was defeated by 10th seed Maria Sharapova. Bartoli managed a further quarterfinal appearance at the Rogers Cup in Montreal, where she was seeded 17th. In the quarterfinals, she was defeated for the third time this year by 10th seed Victoria Azarenka. At her final tournament before the US Open, the Pilot Pen Tennis tournament in New Haven, Bartoli was seeded sixth and defeated Alona Bondarenko and Anastasia Rodionova to reach the quarterfinals, where she lost to fourth seed Elena Dementieva.
At the US Open, Bartoli was seeded 13th and defeated Edina Gallovits in the first round. In the second round, she was upset by world No. 157 Virginie Razzano. At the HP Open in Osaka, Japan, Bartoli was seeded second behind Samantha Stosur. She reached the semifinals by defeating Julie Coin, Stefanie Vögele and Jill Craybas, then lost in the semifinal to Tamarine Tanasugarn. Bartoli ended the year at world No. 16 with a total record of 34 -- 21 and a record of 2 -- 4 against top - 10 players.
Bartoli kicked off her 2011 season at the Brisbane International. She was seeded fourth and reached the semifinals, where she was defeated by Andrea Petkovic. Bartoli was top seeded at the Hobart International in her first appearance at the tournament. She lost to fifth seed Klára Zakopalová in the quarterfinals.
Bartoli was seeded 15th at the Australian Open, where she defeated Tathiana Garbin in the first round without losing a game. She lost against Vesna Manasieva is the second round, though Bartoli suffered an injury in the first set. At the Qatar Ladies Open in Doha, Bartoli was unseeded but reached the semifinals, where she lost to world No. 1 Caroline Wozniacki. Bartoli was seeded 2nd at the BMW Malaysian Open in Kuala Lumpur, where she reached the quarterfinals and lost to fifth seed Lucie Šafářová. Bartoli was seeded 15th at the BNP Paribas Open at Indian Wells. She defeated Monica Niculescu, Andrea Petkovic, Kim Clijsters (who retired with an injury), Ana Ivanovic and Yanina Wickmayer to reach the final, where she lost to world No. 1 Caroline Wozniacki. It was Bartoli 's first and only final of Premier Mandatory / 5 category. As a result of her run to the final, Bartoli returned to the top 10.
Bartoli was the top seed at the Internationaux de Strasbourg, and reached the final where she faced 2nd seed Andrea Petkovic. However, she had to retire early in the second set. Seeded 11th at the French Open, Bartoli won her opening round against Anna Tatishvili. In the second round she beat Olga Govortsova, then defeated 17th seed Julia Görges in the third. She moved into the quarterfinals after Gisela Dulko retired during their fourth round match. She beat 13th seed Svetlana Kuznetsova in the quarterfinals. In the semifinals she lost to defending champion Francesca Schiavone.
Moving onto the grass, Bartoli won the Aegon International at Eastbourne by defeating Lucie Šafářová and María José Martínez Sánchez. She then moved past third seed Victoria Azarenka when Azarenka retired during their match due to a thigh injury. Bartoli reached the semifinals for the fifth straight year and beat seventh seed Samantha Stosur. She then beat eighth seed Petra Kvitová to win the title. Bartoli was seeded ninth at Wimbledon. She defeated Czech qualifier Kristýna Plíšková in the first round, Lourdes Domínguez Lino in the second, and 21st seed Flavia Pennetta in the third. She then defeated defending champion and grass - court veteran Serena Williams in the fourth round. Bartoli described beating Williams as the greatest win of her life. In the quarterfinals Bartoli was defeated by Sabine Lisicki in a match notable for taking place under the centre - court roof in the middle of a thunderstorm.
At Stanford, where Bartoli was seeded third, she reached the final after Ayumi Morita, her opponent in the quarterfinals, retired, and Dominika Cibulková, her opponent in the semifinals, withdrew. In the final Bartoli was defeated by Serena Williams. Due to her lack of match play before the US Open, Bartoli accepted a wildcard into the New Haven Open at Yale. She won her opening two rounds, defeating Anastasia Rodionova and Klára Zakopalová, before losing to Petra Cetkovská in the quarterfinals. At the US Open, Bartoli suffered a second - round exit. After defeating Alexandra Panova in the first round, she lost to American teenager Christina McHale. Following her poor run in the United States, Bartoli 's ranking dropped to No. 10, and her "Race '' ranking dropped to No. 8.
Seeded seventh at the Toray Pan Pacific Open in Tokyo, Bartoli reached the quarterfinals, where she was defeated by third seed Victoria Azarenka. At the HP Open in Osaka, Bartoli defeated Melinda Czink, Vania King, sixth seed Ayumi Morita, and third seed Angelique Kerber to reach the final. She took the title by defeating top seed and US Open champion Samantha Stosur. Bartoli finished the year ninth in the race to the Year End Championships in Istanbul, thus earning a place as the first alternate player. Following the withdrawal of second seed Maria Sharapova after her second of three matches, Bartoli took her place in the final match against Victoria Azarenka, which she won. Bartoli finished the year ranked No. 9 in the world with the best win - loss record of her career at 58 -- 24. She reached 15 quarterfinals, 8 semifinals, and 5 finals, and won 2 titles (Eastbourne and Osaka), resulting in her best year financially, earning $1,722,863 in tournament prize money.
Bartoli competed for France alongside Richard Gasquet in the Hopman Cup. They defeated China, Australia, and Spain to book a place against the Czech Republic in the final, which they lost. Bartoli reached the quarterfinals of her first WTA tournament of the year in Sydney and was seeded eighth. In the quarterfinal she was defeated by third seed Victoria Azarenka. At the Australian Open, Bartoli defeated compatriot Virginie Razzano in the first round and Jelena Dokić in the second round. In the third round, she was upset by Zheng Jie. After the tournament Bartoli broke into the top eight in the rankings for the first time. Ranked No. seven, Bartoli was seeded second for the Open GDF Suez in Paris. She received a bye into the second round, then defeated Petra Martić, Roberta Vinci and Klára Zakopalová to reach the final, which she lost to Angelique Kerber.
In Doha, Bartoli was seeded fifth and advanced to the semifinals by defeating Anabel Medina Garrigues, Tsvetana Pironkova, and Lucie Šafářová. She retired due to an injury against third seed Samantha Stosur in the semifinals. At Indian Wells, Bartoli reached the quarterfinals by defeating Varvara Lepchenko, Chanelle Scheepers, and Lucie Šafářová. She fell to Ana Ivanovic. Seeded seventh in Miami, Bartoli defeated Polona Hercog, Simona Halep, Maria Kirilenko and world No. 1 Victoria Azarenka to reach the semifinals, where she was defeated by fifth seed and eventual champion Agnieszka Radwańska.
Bartoli was seeded eighth at the French Open, where she was defending semifinal points from the previous year. Bartoli defeated qualifier Karolína Plíšková in the first round, but in the second round was upset by Petra Martić. At Eastbourne, Bartoli defeated Sorana Cîrstea, Aleksandra Wozniak, and Lucie Šafářová to reach the semifinals, where she was defeated by eventual champion Tamira Paszek. In the first round of Wimbledon, Bartoli defeated Casey Dellacqua. Her run ended with a loss to Mirjana Lučić in the second round.
Seeded second at the Bank of the West Classic in Stanford, Bartoli reached the quarterfinals, where she lost to Yanina Wickmayer. At the Mercury Insurance Open in Carlsbad, California, Bartoli was the top - seed. She received a bye into the second round, then defeated Vania King, Christina McHale and Chan Yung - jan to reach the final, which she lost to second seed and close friend Dominika Cibulkova.
Bartoli did not compete in the London Summer Olympics, refusing to play in the Fed Cup without the coaching of her father. At the New Haven Open at Yale, Bartoli reached the quarterfinals, where she lost to Sara Errani. Bartoli reached her first US Open quarterfinals in 2012, where she upset fifth seed Petra Kvitová in the fourth round (she was ultimately defeated in the quarterfinals by Maria Sharapova); that performance marked a quarterfinals - or - better finish in all four Grand Slams for Bartoli. Next she reached the semifinals in Beijing, losing to Victoria Azarenka.
Bartoli started the 2013 season by participating in a new tournament, the Shenzhen Open. She was seeded second and reached the quarterfinals, where she was defeated by fifth seed Klára Zakopalová.
Bartoli was seeded 11th at the Australian Open. She reached the third round, where she was defeated by the 19th seed Ekaterina Makarova. At the Open GDF Suez in Paris, Bartoli reached the quarterfinals, where she was defeated by German and eventual champion Mona Barthel. Bartoli entered her first tournament without her father acting as her coach at the Qatar Total Open, where she was seeded ninth. She lost to Svetlana Kuznetsova in the second round.
At the French Open Bartoli was seeded 13th. She defeated Olga Govortsova in the first round, qualifier Mariana Duque Marino in the second, but lost to Francesca Schiavone in the third.
At Wimbledon Bartoli was seeded 15th. She defeated Elina Svitolina in the first round, Christina McHale in the second, Camila Giorgi in the third, and Karin Knapp in the fourth. In the quarterfinals she defeated 17th seed Sloane Stephens, which was her first quarterfinal victory of any WTA Tour or Grand Slam event in 2013. In the semifinals she beat 20th seed Kirsten Flipkens to reach her second Wimbledon final. In the final she faced 23rd seed Sabine Lisicki, who had beaten pre-tournament favorite Serena Williams and 2012 finalist Agnieszka Radwańska en route to the final. Bartoli won the match in straight sets for her first and only Grand Slam title. She did not drop a set in the entire tournament. She also became the female player who participated in the most Grand Slam tournaments before winning one, as this was her 47th such tournament (breaking the previous perseverance record held by Jana Novotná, at 45). Bartoli also competed in the mixed doubles alongside Nicholas Monroe. They lost in the first round to Santiago González and Natalie Grandin.
Bartoli announced her immediate retirement from tennis during the Western & Southern Open, citing continuous and increasingly unbearable pain from injuries sustained throughout her career. At an emotional press conference, just 40 days after her Wimbledon victory, she said "I made my dream a reality and it will stay forever with me, but now my body just ca n't cope with everything. "I have pain everywhere after 45 minutes or an hour of play. ''
In December 2013, Bartoli was chosen as the 2013 RTL Champion of Champions, ahead of Teddy Tamgho and Tony Parker, by RTL (a French commercial radio network). This annual sports award was inaugurated in 2008. The previous winners were Alain Bernard (2008), Sébastien Loeb (2009), Christophe Lemaitre (2010), Teddy Riner (2011) and Yannick Agnel (2012).
Bartoli was chosen as the L'Équipe Champion of Champions (France female category) in December 2013.
In 2014, Bartoli played for the Austin Aces ' inaugural season in the World TeamTennis.
In March 2015, she posted a tweet hinting that she was considering a return to professional tennis, and asked her followers for their opinion. Rumours of a possible comeback circulated again in October 2017 after Bartoli was spotted training at the French Tennis Federation but were later denied by the Frenchwoman.
In July 2016 she revealed that she "feared for her life '' due to an unknown virus. However later in the month she tweeted a photo after a blood transfusion that indicated recovery was in sight.
In December 2017, Bartoli announced her return to the professional tour, and she stated she hoped to be back for the Miami Open in March 2018. She also played Tie Break Tens in New York City in March 2018, but, lost in the first round to Serena Williams.
In June 2018, after numerous delays and setbacks, Bartoli announced she would be unable to continue her comeback plans, as a result of ongoing and continual injuries.
Bartoli and Victoria Azarenka met 12 times since 2007. Azarenka has a head - to - head 9 -- 3 overall and 1 -- 0 in the Grand Slams.
Bartoli struggled in the early rivalry, losing the first six meetings between the pair, including in the second round of the 2007 Australian Open, the final of the 2009 Brisbane International and all four matches that eventuated in 2010. Bartoli got her first win over Azarenka in Eastbourne in 2011, winning after Azarenka retired at 2 -- 6, 0 -- 2 down with injury. At the 2011 WTA Tour Championships, Bartoli qualified as a reserve for Maria Sharapova and in the only match she played, she upset Azarenka in three sets. The match had no meaning because Bartoli could not qualify for the semifinals as Sharapova had lost her two matches and Azarenka had already qualified for the semifinals.
The pair met three times in 2012, with Bartoli losing two of the matches. Her victory in the Miami quarterfinals was significant though, as it snapped Azarenka 's 26 - match winning streak to start the season. Bartoli won to record what was at the time her third victory over a reigning world No. 1. Their most recent meeting was in the semifinals of the China Open with Bartoli losing in straight sets to the eventual champion Azarenka.
Bartoli and Jelena Janković have met nine times since 2005. Bartoli leads the head - to - head 5 -- 4 and they are tied 2 -- 2 at Grand Slams.
Bartoli won their first meeting in 2005 at Auckland in three sets. Janković then won their next three meetings which included two wins at the French Open in 2006 and 2007. Bartoli won the next four, including a victory in 2007 at Wimbledon where she went on to reach the final, and a win at the 2009 Australian Open against Janković who was ranked world No. 1 at the time.
Their last meeting was in 2009 in Tokyo, where Janković won comfortably in two sets.
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who scored the most points in the nba last year | List of National Basketball Association annual scoring Leaders - wikipedia
In basketball, points are accumulated through free throws or field goals. The National Basketball Association 's (NBA) scoring title is awarded to the player with the highest points per game average in a given season. The scoring title was originally determined by total points scored through the 1968 -- 69 season, after which points per game was used to determine the leader instead. Players who earned scoring titles before the 1979 -- 80 season did not record any three point field goals because the three - point line had just been implemented in the NBA at the start of that season. To qualify for the scoring title, the player must appear in at least 70 games (out of 82) or have at least 1,400 points. These have been the entry criteria since the 1974 -- 75 season.
Wilt Chamberlain holds the all - time records for total points scored (4,029) and points per game (50.4) in a season; both records were achieved in the 1961 -- 62 season. He also holds the rookie records for points per game when he averaged 37.6 points in the 1959 -- 60 season. Among active players, Kevin Durant has the highest point total (2,593) and the highest scoring average (32.0) in a season; both were achieved in the 2013 -- 14 season.
Michael Jordan has won the most scoring titles, with ten. Jordan and Chamberlain are the only players to have won seven consecutive scoring titles (this was also Chamberlain 's career total). George Gervin, Allen Iverson and Durant have won four scoring titles in their career, and George Mikan, Neil Johnston and Bob McAdoo have achieved it three times. Paul Arizin, Bob Pettit, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Shaquille O'Neal, Tracy McGrady, Kobe Bryant, and Russell Westbrook have each won the scoring title twice. Since the 1946 -- 47 season, five players have won both the scoring title and the NBA championship in the same season: Fulks in 1947 with the Philadelphia Warriors, Mikan from 1949 to 1950 with the Minneapolis Lakers, Abdul - Jabbar (then Lew Alcindor) in 1971 with the Milwaukee Bucks, Jordan from 1991 to 1993 and from 1996 to 1998 with the Chicago Bulls, and O'Neal in 2000 with the Los Angeles Lakers. Since the introduction of the three - point field goal, O'Neal is the only scoring leader to have made no three - pointers in his winning season.
At 21 years and 197 days, Durant is the youngest scoring leader in NBA history, averaging 30.1 points in the 2009 -- 10 season. Russell Westbrook led the league with an average of 31.6 points in the 2016 -- 17 season, when he also became the second NBA player to average a triple - double in a season. The most recent champion is Lebron James.
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canadian forces maritime experimental test range nanoose bay | CFMETR, Nanoose Bay - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 49 ° 18 ′ 08 '' N 123 ° 59 ′ 03 '' W / 49.30235 ° N 123.98423 ° W / 49.30235; - 123.98423
The Canadian Forces Maritime Experimental and Test Ranges (CFMETR) is a maritime test facility located on the EAST side of Vancouver Island, at Nanoose Bay.
The ranges operated by CFMETR are located over an area of the Strait of Georgia -- known as Area "Whiskey Golf '' -- that is several hundred metres deep, several dozen kilometres long and several kilometres wide over a seabed composed of soft mud and free of underwater obstacles. The facility employs a 3 - dimensional sonar tracking system for monitoring the performance and position of objects in these waters for real - time tracking. During periods of activity, the range area is closed off from all civilian maritime traffic as a safety measure.
Equipment tested at the facility consists of a variety of devices, including sonobuoys, sonar systems (ship and aircraft), torpedoes and the repair and overhaul of the dipping sonar used on Canada 's Sea King helicopter fleet. No explosives are used.
This facility is unique in the Canadian Forces as it staffed by active military personnel from the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) and DND civilian employees, as well as a small number of U.S. Navy civilian employees from Naval Base Kitsap. The facility is operationally controlled as a field unit of NDHQ. There is a joint funding agreement between the Canadian and United States Governments.
During the so - called Salmon War of 1997, then - BC Premier Glen Clark threatened to close the base by terminating the lease for use of the seabed, which is owned by the province and leased to the Canadian military. This brought quick rebuttal from Ottawa, saying that it would expropriate the area if needed.
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where is archangel michael mentioned in the bible | Michael (Archangel) - wikipedia
Michael (Hebrew pronunciation: (mixaˈʔel); Hebrew: מִיכָאֵל , translit. Mîkhā'ēl, lit. ' Who is like God? '; Greek: Μιχαήλ, translit. Mikhaḗl; Latin: Michahel; Coptic: ⲙⲓⲭⲁⲏⲗ, Arabic: ميخائيل , translit. Mīkhā'īl) is an archangel in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheran traditions, he is called "Saint Michael the Archangel '' and "Saint Michael ''. In the Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox traditions, he is called "Taxiarch Archangel Michael '' or simply "Archangel Michael ''.
Michael is mentioned three times in the Book of Daniel. The idea that Michael was the advocate of the Jews became so prevalent that, in spite of the rabbinical prohibition against appealing to angels as intermediaries between God and his people, Michael came to occupy a certain place in the Jewish liturgy.
In the New Testament Michael leads God 's armies against Satan 's forces in the Book of Revelation, where during the war in heaven he defeats Satan. In the Epistle of Jude Michael is specifically referred to as "the archangel Michael ''. Christian sanctuaries to Michael appeared in the 4th century, when he was first seen as a healing angel, and then over time as a protector and the leader of the army of God against the forces of evil. By the 6th century, devotions to Archangel Michael were widespread both in the Eastern and Western Churches. Over time, teachings on Michael began to vary among Christian denominations.
Michael is mentioned three times in the Hebrew Bible (the Old Testament), all in the Book of Daniel. The prophet Daniel experiences a vision after having undergone a period of fasting. Daniel 10: 13 - 21 describes Daniel 's vision of an angel who identifies Michael as the protector of Israel. At Daniel 12: 1, Daniel is informed that Michael will arise during the "time of the end ''.
The Book of Revelation (12: 7 - 9) describes a war in heaven in which Michael, being stronger, defeats Satan. After the conflict, Satan is thrown to earth along with the fallen angels, where he ("that ancient serpent called the devil '') still tries to "lead the whole world astray ''.
In the Epistle of Jude 1: 9, Michael is referred to as an "archangel '' when he again confronts Satan.
A reference to an "archangel '' also appears in the First Epistle to the Thessalonians 4: 16. This archangel who heralds the second coming of Christ is not named, but is often associated with Michael (among others).
Michael (Arabic: ميخائيل, Mikhail مكايل, Mikail), is one of the two archangels mentioned in the Quran, alongside Jibrail (Gabriel). In the Quran, Michael is mentioned once only, in Sura 2: 98: "Whoever is an enemy to God, and His angels and His messengers, and Jibrail and Mikhail! Then, God (Himself) is an enemy to the disbelievers. '' Some Muslims believe that the reference in Sura 11: 69 is Michael, one of the three angels who visited Abraham.
According to rabbinic Jewish tradition, Michael acted as the advocate of Israel, and sometimes had to fight with the princes of the other nations (cf. 10: 13) and particularly with the angel Samael, Israel 's accuser. Michael 's enmity with Samael dates from the time when the latter was thrown down from heaven. Samael took hold of the wings of Michael, whom he wished to bring down with him in his fall; but Michael was saved by God. Michael said "May The Lord rebuke you '' to Satan for attempting to claim the body of Moses.
The idea that Michael was the advocate of the Jews became so prevalent that in spite of the rabbinical prohibition against appealing to angels as intermediaries between God and his people, Michael came to occupy a certain place in the Jewish liturgy: "When a man is in need he must pray directly to God, and neither to Michael nor to Gabriel. '' There were two prayers written beseeching him as the prince of mercy to intercede in favor of Israel: one composed by Eliezer ha - Kalir, and the other by Judah ben Samuel he - Hasid. But appeal to Michael seems to have been more common in ancient times. Thus Jeremiah is said to have addressed a prayer to him.
The rabbis declare that Michael entered upon his role of defender at the time of the biblical patriarchs. Thus, according to Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob, it was Michael who rescued Abraham from the furnace into which he had been thrown by Nimrod (Midrash Genesis Rabbah xliv. 16). It was Michael, the "one that had escaped '' (Genesis 14: 13), who told Abraham that Lot had been taken captive (Midrash Pirke R. El.), and who protected Sarah from being defiled by Abimelech. He announced to Sarah that she would bear a son and he rescued Lot at the destruction of Sodom.
It is said that Michael prevented Isaac from being sacrificed by his father by substituting a ram in his place, and saved Jacob, while yet in his mother 's womb, from being killed by Samael. Later Michael prevented Laban from harming Jacob. (Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer, xxxvi). It was Michael who wrestled with Jacob and who afterward blessed him.
The midrash Exodus Rabbah holds that Michael exercised his function of advocate of Israel at the time of the Exodus also, when Satan (as an adversary) accused the Israelites of idolatry and declared that they were consequently deserving of death by drowning in the Red Sea. Michael is also said to have destroyed the army of Sennacherib.
The early Christians regarded some of the martyrs, such as Saint George and Saint Theodore, as military patrons; but to Michael they gave the care of their sick, and he was first venerated as a healer in Phrygia (modern - day Turkey).
The earliest and most famous sanctuary to Michael in the ancient Near East was also associated with healing waters. It was the Michaelion built in the early 4th century by Emperor Constantine at Chalcedon, on the site of an earlier Temple called Sosthenion.
A painting of the Archangel slaying a serpent became a major art piece at the Michaelion after Constantine defeated Licinius near there in 324, eventually leading to the standard iconography of Archangel Michael as a warrior saint slaying a dragon. The Michaelion was a magnificent church and in time became a model for hundreds of other churches in Eastern Christianity which spread devotions to the Archangel.
In the 4th century, Saint Basil the Great 's homily (De Angelis) placed Saint Michael over all the angels. He was called "Archangel '' because he heralds other angels, the title Αρχαγγέλος (archangelos) being used of him in Jude 1: 9. Into the 6th century, the view of Michael as a healer continued in Rome; where after a plague, the sick slept at night in the church of Castel Sant'Angelo (dedicated to him for saving Rome), waiting for his manifestation.
In the 6th century the growth of devotions to Michael in the Western Church was manifested by the feasts dedicated to him, as recorded in the Leonine Sacramentary. The 7th century Gelasian Sacramentary included the feast "S. Michaelis Archangeli '', as did the 8th century Gregorian Sacramentary. Some of these documents refer to a no longer extant Basilica Archangeli on via Salaria in Rome.
The angelology of Pseudo-Dionysius which was widely read as of the 6th century gave Michael a rank in the celestial hierarchy. Later, in the 13th century, others such as Bonaventure believed that he is the prince of the Seraphim, the first of the nine angelic orders. According to Thomas Aquinas (Summa Ia. 113.3), he is the Prince of the last and lowest choir, the Angels.
Catholics often refer to Michael as "Holy Michael, the Archangel '' or "Saint Michael '', a title that does not indicate canonisation. He is generally referred to in Christian litanies as "Saint Michael '', as in the Litany of the Saints. In the shortened version of this litany used in the Easter Vigil, he alone of the angels and archangels is mentioned by name, omitting Saint Gabriel and Saint Raphael.
In the Roman Catholic teachings Saint Michael has four main roles or offices. His first role is the leader of the Army of God and the leader of heaven 's forces in their triumph over the powers of hell. He is viewed as the angelic model for the virtues of the spiritual warrior, with the conflict against evil at times viewed as the battle within.
The second and third roles of Michael in Catholic teachings deal with death. In his second role, Michael is the angel of death, carrying the souls of all the deceased to heaven. In this role Michael descends at the hour of death, and gives each soul the chance to redeem itself before passing; thus consternating the devil and his minions. Catholic prayers often refer to this role of Michael. In his third role, he weighs souls in his perfectly balanced scales. For this reason, Michael is often depicted holding scales.
In his fourth role, Saint Michael, the special patron of the Chosen People in the Old Testament, is also the guardian of the Church; it was thus not unusual for the angel to be revered by the military orders of knights during the Middle Ages. Thus, the nomenclature of villages around the Bay of Biscay reflects that history. This role also extends to his being the patron saint of a number of cities and countries.
Roman Catholicism includes traditions such as the Prayer to Saint Michael which specifically asks for the faithful to be "defended '' by the saint. The Chaplet of Saint Michael consists of nine salutations, one for each choir of angels.
The Eastern Orthodox accord Michael the title "Archistrategos '', or "Supreme Commander of the Heavenly Hosts ''. The Eastern Orthodox pray to their guardian angels and above all to Michael and Gabriel.
The Eastern Orthodox have always had strong devotions to angels, and the trend continues to date with the term "Bodiless Powers '' applied to them. A number of feasts dedicated to Archangel Michael are celebrated by the Eastern Orthodox throughout the year.
Archangel Michael is mentioned in a number of Eastern Orthodox hymns and prayer, and his icons are widely used within Eastern Orthodox churches. In many Eastern Orthodox icons, Christ is accompanied by a number of angels, Michael being a predominant figure among them.
In Russia many monasteries, cathedrals, court and merchant churches are dedicated to the Chief Commander Michael, and most Russian cities have a church or chapel dedicated to the Archangel Michael.
The place of Michael in the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria is as a saintly intercessor, where he is seen as the one: who presents to God the prayers of the just, who accompanies the souls of the dead to heaven, who defeats the devil. He is celebrated liturgically on the 12th of each Coptic month. In Alexandria, a church was dedicated to him in the early fourth century on the 12th of the month of Paoni and on the 12th of the month of Hathor is the celebration of Michael 's appointment in heaven, where Michael became the chief of the angels.
Many Protestant Christians do not call upon the intercession of saints. However, an unofficial Anglican prayer of preparation before Mass includes a confession to "Michael the Archangel '' as well as other saints such as John the Baptist.
Protestant denominations generally recognize only two archangels, Michael and Gabriel, usually emphasizing Michael, unlike Judaism, Roman Catholicism, and Eastern Orthodoxy which may at times recognize seven (and in rare cases eight) archangels, with Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael generally regarded with an elevated status, e.g. being the only archangels honored by name in Catholicism.
Citing Hengstenberg, John A. Lees, in International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, states: "The earlier Protestant scholars usually identified Michael with the pre-incarnate Christ, finding support for their view, not only in the juxtaposition of the ' child ' and the archangel in Rev 12: 1 - 17, but also in the attributes ascribed to him in Daniel. '' Charles Haddon Spurgeon stated that Jesus is Michael "the only Archangel '', and that he is God the Son, and co-equal to the Father. In Spurgeon 's view, "archangel '' means "head of the angels '' rather than "head angel, '' and is a title similar to "Leader of the host. '' (Daniel 8: 11)
Within Anglicanism, the controversial bishop Robert Clayton (died 1758) proposed that Michael was the Logos and Gabriel the Holy Spirit. Controversy over Clayton 's views led the government to order his prosecution, but he died before his scheduled examination.
Michael continues to be recognized among Protestants by key churches dedicated to him, e.g., St. Michaelis Church, Hamburg and St. Michael 's Church, Hildesheim, each of which is of the Lutheran Church and has appeared in the Bundesländer series of € 2 commemorative coins for 2008 and 2014 respectively.
In Bach 's time, the annual feast of Michael and All the Angels on 29 September was regularly celebrated with a festive service, for which Bach composed several cantatas, for example the chorale cantata Herr Gott, dich loben alle wir, BWV 130 in 1724, Es erhub sich ein Streit, BWV 19, in 1726 and Man singet mit Freuden vom Sieg, BWV 149, in 1728 or 1729.
Seventh - day Adventists, being of the Protestant heritage, lineage and faith, believe that Michael is another name for the eternal Son of the Father, the Heavenly Christ, and another name for the Word - of - God (as in John 1) before he became incarnate as Jesus. "Archangel '' (meaning "Chief of the Angels '', "highest messenger '') was the leadership position as held by the Word - of - God as Michael while among the angels. According to Adventist theology, Michael was considered the "eternal Word '', and not a created being or created angel, and the one by whom all things were created. The Word was then born incarnate as Jesus.
Seventh - day Adventists believe the name "Michael '' is significant in showing who he is, just as "Immanuel '' (which means "God with us '') is about who Jesus is. They believe that name "Michael '' signifies "one who is God '' and that as the "Archangel '' or "chief or head of the angels '' he led the angels and thus the statement in Revelation 12: 7 - 9 identifies Jesus as Michael.
Seventh - day Adventists believe that "Michael '' is but one of the many titles applied to the Son of God, the second person of the Godhead. According to Adventists, such a view does not in any way conflict with the belief in his full deity and eternal preexistence, nor does it in the least disparage his person and work. In support of the Seventh - day Adventist belief, Michael is also identified by them as being the very commander of Heavenly legions of the hosts of the LORD, God 's invincible army, which helped Joshua son of Nun to lead Israel in to conquering Jericho (Joshua 5: 14 - "And he said, Nay; but as captain of the host of the LORD am I now come. And Joshua fell on his face to the earth, and did worship, and said unto him, What saith my Lord unto his servant? '')
In the Seventh - day Adventist view, the statement in some translations of 1 Thessalonians 4: 13 - 18: "For the Lord himself shall descend from heaven, with a shout, with the voice of the archangel, and with the trump of God '' identifies Jesus as Archangel, which is Michael. (Other translations have "For the Lord himself will descend from heaven with a cry of command, with the voice of an archangel, and with the sound of the trumpet of God. '') And the Seventh - day Adventists believe that John 5: 25 - 29 also confirms that Jesus and Michael are the same.
Jehovah 's Witnesses believe Michael to be another name for Jesus Christ in heaven, in his pre-human and post-resurrection existence. They say the definite article at Jude 9 -- referring to "Michael the archangel '' -- identifies Michael as the only archangel. They consider Michael to be synonymous with Christ, described at 1 Thessalonians 4: 16 as descending "with a cry of command, with the voice of an archangel, and with the sound of the trumpet ''.
They believe the prominent roles assigned to Michael at Daniel 12: 1 and Revelation 12: 7, 19: 14, 16, are identical to Jesus ' roles, being the one chosen to lead God 's people and as the only one who "stands up '', identifying the two as the same spirit being. Because they identify Michael with Jesus, he is therefore considered the first and greatest of all God 's heavenly sons, God 's chief messenger, who takes the lead in vindicating God 's sovereignty, sanctifying his name, fighting the wicked forces of Satan and protecting God 's covenant people on earth. Jehovah 's Witnesses also identify Michael with the "Angel of the Lord '' who led and protected the Israelites in the wilderness.
Latter - day Saints (also known informally as Mormons) believe that Michael is Adam, the Ancient of Days (Dan. 7), a prince, and the patriarch of the human family. Also, they hold that Michael assisted Jehovah (the heavenly form of Jesus Christ) in the creation of the world under the direction of God the Father and cast Satan out of heaven.
In Islam, Michael, also spelled Mikail, is one of the archangels and said to be responsible for the forces of nature.
The Qur'an mentions Michael together with Gabriel in the sura Al - Baqara:
Whoever is an enemy to Allah and His angels and messengers, to Gabriel and Michael, -- Lo! Allah is an enemy to those who reject Faith.
In Sunni Islam, Michael will be sent to bring a handful of earth; but the Earth will not yield a piece of itself, some of which will burn. This is articulated by Al - Tha'labi whose narrative states that God will tell Earth that some will obey him and others not.
The Ahmadiyya movement believes in Michael along with other angels such as Gabriel. They are called ' Mala'ikah ' and are described as spiritual beings who obey Allah 's command.
The French occultist, Eliphas Levi, the German philosopher Franz von Baader, and the Theosophist Louis Claude de St. Martin spoke of 1879 as the year in which Michael overcame the dragon. In 1917, Rudolf Steiner, the founder of anthroposophy, similarly stated, "in 1879, in November, a momentous event took place, a battle of the Powers of Darkness against the Powers of Light, ending in the image of Michael overcoming the Dragon ''.
In the General Roman Calendar, the Anglican Calendar of Saints, and the Lutheran Calendar of Saints, the archangel 's feast is celebrated on Michaelmas Day, September 29. The day is also considered the feast of Saints Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael, in the General Roman Calendar and the Feast of Saint Michael and All Angels according to the Church of England.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Saint Michael 's principal feast day is November 8 (those that use the Julian calendar celebrate it on what in the Gregorian calendar is now November 21), honoring him along with the rest of the "Bodiless Powers of Heaven '' (i.e. angels) as their Supreme Commander, and the Miracle at Chonae is commemorated on September 6.
In the calendar of the Church of England diocese of Truro, May 8 is the feast of St. Michael, Protector of Cornwall. The archangel Michael is one of the three patron saints of Cornwall.
In the Coptic Orthodox Church, main feast day in 12 Hathor and 12 Paoni, and he is celebrated liturgically on the 12th of each Coptic month.
In late medieval Christianity, Michael, together with Saint George, became the patron saint of chivalry and is now also considered the patron saint of police officers, paramedics, firefighters and the military.
Since the victorious Battle of Lechfeld against the Hungarians in 955, Michael was the patron saint of the Holy Roman Empire and still is the patron saint of modern Germany and other German speaking regions formerly covered by the realm.
In mid to late 15th century, France was one of only four courts in Western Christendom without an order of knighthood. Later in the 15th century, Jean Molinet glorified the primordial feat of arms of the archangel as "the first deed of knighthood and chivalrous prowess that was ever achieved. '' Thus Michael was the natural patron of the first chivalric order of France, the Order of Saint Michael of 1469. In the British honours system, a chivalric order founded in 1818 is also named for these two saints, the Order of St Michael and St George. The Order of Michael the Brave is Romania 's highest military decoration.
Prior to 1878, the Scapular of St. Michael the Archangel could be worn as part of a Roman Catholic Archconfraternity. Presently, enrollment is authorized as this holy scapular remains as one of the 18 approved by the Church.
Apart from his being a patron of warriors, the sick and the suffering also consider Archangel Michael their patron saint. Based on the legend of his 8th century apparition at Mont - Saint - Michel, France, the Archangel is the patron of mariners in this famous sanctuary. After the evangelisation of Germany, where mountains were often dedicated to pagan gods, Christians placed many mountains under the patronage of the Archangel, and numerous mountain chapels of St. Michael appeared all over Germany.
Similarly, the Sanctuary of St. Michel (San Migel Aralarkoa), the oldest Christian building in Navarre (Spain), lies at the top of a hill on the Aralar Range, and harbours Carolingian remains. St. Michel is an ancient devotion of Navarre and eastern Gipuzkoa, revered by the Basques, shrouded in legend, and held as a champion against paganism and heresy. It came to symbolize the defense of Catholicism, as well as Basque tradition and values during the early 20th century.
He has been the patron saint of Brussels since the Middle Ages. The city of Arkhangelsk in Russia is named for the Archangel. Ukraine and its capital Kiev also consider Michael their patron saint and protector. Since the 14th century, Saint Michael has been the patron saint of Dumfries in Scotland, where a church dedicated to him was built at the southern end of the town, on a mound overlooking the River Nith.
An Anglican sisterhood dedicated to Saint Michael under the title of the Community of St Michael and All Angels was founded in 1851. The Congregation of Saint Michael the Archangel (CSMA), also known as the Michaelite Fathers, is a religious order of the Roman Catholic Church founded in 1897. The Canons Regular of the Order of St Michael the Archangel (OSM) are an Order of professed religious within the Anglican Church in North America, the North American component of the Anglican realignment movement.
There is a legend which seems to be of Jewish origin, and which was adopted by the Copts, to the effect that Michael was first sent by God to bring Nebuchadnezzar (c. 600 BC) against Jerusalem, and that Michael was afterward very active in freeing his nation from Babylonian captivity. According to midrash Genesis Rabbah, Michael saved Hananiah and his companions from the Fiery furnace. Michael was active in the time of Esther: "The more Haman accused Israel on earth, the more Michael defended Israel in heaven ''. It was Michael who reminded Ahasuerus that he was Mordecai 's debtor; and there is a legend that Michael appeared to the high priest Hyrcanus, promising him assistance. According to Legends of the Jews, archangel Michael was the chief of a band of angels who questioned God 's decision to create man on earth. The entire band of angels, except for Michael, was then consumed by fire.
The Orthodox Church celebrates the Miracle at Chonae on September 6. The pious legend surrounding the event states that John the Apostle, when preaching nearby, foretold the appearance of Michael at Cheretopa near Lake Salda, where a healing spring appeared soon after the Apostle left; in gratitude for the healing of his daughter, one pilgrim built a church on the site. Local pagans, who are described as jealous of the healing power of the spring and the church, attempt to drown the church by redirecting the river, but the Archangel, "in the likeness of a column of fire '', split the bedrock to open up a new bed for the stream, directing the flow away from the church. The legend is supposed to have predated the actual events, but the 5th -- 7th century texts that refer to the miracle at Chonae formed the basis of specific paradigms for "properly approaching '' angelic intermediaries for more effective prayers within the Christian culture.
There is a late 5th century legend in Cornwall, UK that the Archangel appeared to fishermen on St Michael 's Mount. According to author Richard Freeman Johnson this legend is likely a nationalistic twist to a myth. Cornish legends also hold that the mount itself was constructed by giants and that King Arthur battled a giant there.
The legend of the apparition of the Archangel at around 490 AD at a secluded hilltop cave on Monte Gargano in Italy gained a following among the Lombards in the immediate period thereafter, and by the 8th century pilgrims arrived from as far away as England. The Tridentine Calendar included a feast of the apparition on 8 May, the date of the 663 victory over the Greek Neapolitans that the Lombards of Manfredonia attributed to Saint Michael. The feast remained in the Roman liturgical calendar until removed in the revision of Pope John XXIII. The Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo at Gargano is a major Catholic pilgrimage site.
According to Roman legends, Archangel Michael appeared with a sword over the mausoleum of Hadrian while a devastating plague persisted in Rome, in apparent answer to the prayers of Pope St Gregory I the Great (c. 590 -- 604) that the plague should cease. After the plague ended, in honor of the occasion, the pope called the mausoleum "Castel Sant'Angelo '' (Castle of the Holy Angel), the name by which it is still known.
According to Norman legend, Michael is said to have appeared to St Aubert, Bishop of Avranches, in 708, giving instruction to build a church on the rocky islet now known as Mont Saint - Michel. In 966 the Duke of Normandy commissioned a Benedictine abbey on the mount, and it remains a major pilgrimage site.
A Portuguese Carmelite nun, Antónia d'Astónaco, reported an apparition and private revelation of the Archangel Michael who had told to this devoted Servant of God, in 1751, that he would like to be honored, and God glorified, by the praying of nine special invocations. These nine invocations correspond to invocations to the nine choirs of angels and origins the famous Chaplet of Saint Michael. This private revelation and prayers were approved by Pope Pius IX in 1851.
From 1961 to 1965, four young schoolgirls had reported several apparitions of Archangel Michael in the small village of Garabandal, Spain. At Garabandal, the apparitions of the Archangel Michael were mainly reported as announcing the arrivals of the Virgin Mary. The Catholic Church has neither approved nor condemned the Garabandal apparitions.
In Islam, Mikail (Michael) is one of the four archangels along with Jibrail, Israfil and Azrail. The Quran mentions him in 2: 98. He provides nourishments for bodies and souls and is also responsible for nature events. Mikail is often depicted as the archangel of mercy. Therefore, he is said to be friendly, asking God for mercy for humans and is said to be one of the first who bowed down before Adam. Furthermore, he is responsible for the rewards doled out to good persons in this life.
In the English epic poem Paradise Lost by John Milton, Michael commands the army of angels loyal to God against the rebel forces of Satan. Armed with a sword from God 's armory, he bests Satan in personal combat, wounding his side.
Most Jewish teachings interpret the Second Commandment as against the use of "graven images '' as visual art. Islamic art 's focus on calligraphy, rather than painting and sculpture, similarly derives from the association of idolatry with the depiction of human or angelic forms.
In Christian art, Archangel Michael may be depicted alone or with other angels such as Gabriel. Some depictions with Gabriel date back to the 8th century, e.g. the stone casket at Notre Dame de Mortain church in France.
The widely reproduced image of Our Mother of Perpetual Help, an icon of the Cretan school, depicts Michael on the left carrying the lance and sponge of the crucifixion of Jesus, with Gabriel on the right side of Mary and Jesus.
In many depictions Michael is represented as an angelic warrior, fully armed with helmet, sword, and shield. The shield may bear the Latin inscription Quis ut Deus. He may be standing over a serpent, a dragon, or the defeated figure of Satan, whom he sometimes pierces with a lance. The iconography of Michael slaying a serpent goes back to the early 4th century, when Emperor Constantine defeated Licinius at the Battle of Adrianople in 324 AD, not far from the Michaelion a church dedicated to Archangel Michael.
Constantine felt that Licinius was an agent of Satan, and associated him with the serpent described in the Book of Revelation (12: 9). After the victory, Constantine commissioned a depiction of himself and his sons slaying Licinius represented as a serpent - a symbolism borrowed from the Christian teachings on the Archangel to whom he attributed the victory. A similar painting, this time with the Archangel Michael himself slaying a serpent then became a major art piece at the Michaelion and eventually lead to the standard iconography of Archangel Michael as a warrior saint.
In other depictions Michael may be holding a pair of scales in which he weighs the souls of the departed and may hold the book of life (as in the Book of Revelation), to show that he takes part in the judgment. However this form of depiction is less common than the slaying of the dragon. Michelangelo depicted this scene on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel.
In Byzantine art Michael was often shown as a princely court dignitary, rather than a warrior who battled Satan or with scales for weighing souls on the Day of Judgement.
Andrei Rublev 's standalone depiction c. 1408
Michael (left) with archangels Raphael and Gabriel, by Botticini, 1470
Weighing souls on Judgement Day by Hans Memling, 15th century
Michael defeating the fallen angels, by Luca Giordano c. 1660 -- 65
Bronze statue of Archangel Michael, standing on top of the Castel Sant'Angelo, modelled in 1753 by Peter Anton von Verschaffelt (1710 -- 1793).
Michael 's icon on the northern deacons ' door on the iconostasis of Hajdúdorog. The archangel is often depicted on iconostases ' doors as a defender of the sanctuary.
Archangel Michael by Emily Young in the grounds of St Pancras New Church. Plaque inscription: "In memory of the victims of the 7th July 2005 bombings and all victims of violence. ' I will lift up my eyes unto the hills ' Psalm 121 ''
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when does rick and morty air in canada | Adult Swim (Canada) - Wikipedia
July 4, 2012,
Adult Swim is an adult - oriented Canadian English - language programming block that airs on Cartoon Network. It is based on the U.S programming block of the same name and features animated and live - action shows targeting a 12 - 34 audience.
As of September 2016, the block airs for three hours from 9: 00 p.m. - 12: 00 a.m. EST / PST.
Adult Swim primarily airs original shows from the U.S. block, as well as shows acquired from other sources. Several shows from its American counterpart are noticeably absent; G4 's now - defunct ADd block and Much, following its shift towards comedy programming, are known to have broadcast a selection of them. Until September 1, 2015, Teletoon 's late night block, Teletoon at Night, also aired several of Adult Swim 's original series; Adult Swim programming would return to Teletoon at Night in Fall 2017. There 's currently no word yet on whether or not the block goes back to its original 9pm - 5am slot.
Adult Swim On Demand is a video - on - demand service featuring series from Adult Swim. The service also features episodes of the block 's acquired series.
In March 2016, a subscription video - on - demand (SVOD) app was launched for Android and iOS phones, allowing viewers to watch original programming from Adult Swim in the U.S, including several series that are n't currently airing on Adult Swim Canada, with new episodes being added to the app as soon as they premiere in the U.S. The app is owned by Adult Swim Games.
Due to program rights and licensing, several series, such as Mike Tyson Mysteries, Childrens Hospital, and shows airing on Toonami, are n't available for streaming. Originally, Rick and Morty and Robot Chicken premieres were only added after they air in Canada. Beginning with its third season, new episodes of Rick and Morty are streamed to the app on Mondays.
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who made more movies john wayne or clint eastwood | Clint Eastwood - Wikipedia
Clinton Eastwood Jr. (born May 31, 1930) is an American actor, filmmaker, musician, and political figure. After achieving success in the Western TV series Rawhide, he rose to international fame with his role as the Man with No Name in Sergio Leone 's Dollars Trilogy of spaghetti Westerns during the 1960s, and as antihero cop Harry Callahan in the five Dirty Harry films throughout the 1970s and 1980s. These roles, among others, have made Eastwood an enduring cultural icon of masculinity.
For his work in the Western film Unforgiven (1992) and the sports drama Million Dollar Baby (2004), Eastwood won Academy Awards for Best Director and Best Picture, as well as receiving nominations for Best Actor. Eastwood 's greatest commercial successes have been the adventure comedy Every Which Way But Loose (1978) and its sequel, the action comedy Any Which Way You Can (1980), after adjustment for inflation. Other popular films include the Western Hang ' Em High (1968), the psychological thriller Play Misty for Me (1971), the crime film Thunderbolt and Lightfoot (1974), the Western The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976), the prison film Escape from Alcatraz (1979), the action film Firefox (1982), the suspense thriller Tightrope (1984), the Western Pale Rider (1985), the war films Where Eagles Dare (1968), Kelly 's Heroes (1970), and Heartbreak Ridge (1986), the action thriller In the Line of Fire (1993), the romantic drama The Bridges of Madison County (1995), and the drama Gran Torino (2008).
In addition to directing many of his own star vehicles, Eastwood has also directed films in which he did not appear, such as the mystery drama Mystic River (2003) and the war film Letters from Iwo Jima (2006), for which he received Academy Award nominations, the drama Changeling (2008), and the South African biographical political sports drama Invictus (2009). The war drama biopic American Sniper (2014) set box office records for the largest January release ever and was also the largest opening ever for an Eastwood film.
Eastwood received considerable critical praise in France for several films, including some that were not well received in the United States. Eastwood has been awarded two of France 's highest honors: in 1994 he became a recipient of the Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, and in 2007 he was awarded the Legion of Honour medal. In 2000, Eastwood was awarded the Italian Venice Film Festival Golden Lion for lifetime achievement.
Since 1967, Eastwood has run his own production company, Malpaso Productions, which has produced all but four of his American films. Starting in 1986, Eastwood served for two years as mayor of Carmel - by - the - Sea, California, a non-partisan office.
Eastwood was born on May 31, 1930, in San Francisco, California, the son of Clinton Eastwood Sr. (1906 -- 1970) and Ruth Wood (née Runner; 1909 -- 2006). Ruth later took the surname of her second husband, John Belden Wood (1913 -- 2004), whom she married after the death of Clinton Sr. Eastwood was nicknamed "Samson '' by the hospital nurses because he weighed 11 pounds 6 ounces (5.2 kg) at birth. He has one younger sister, Jeanne Bernhardt (born 1934). Eastwood is of English, Irish, Scottish, and Dutch ancestry. He is descended from Mayflower passenger William Bradford, and through this line is the 12th generation of his family born in North America.
His family moved often as his father worked at jobs along the West Coast, although they did not move at all between 1940 and 1949. Settled in Piedmont, California, the Eastwoods lived in a very wealthy part of town, had a swimming pool, belonged to the country club, and each parent drove his or her own car. Clint attended Piedmont Junior High School. Shortly before he was to enter Piedmont High School, he rode his bike on the school 's sports field and tore up the wet turf; this resulted in his being asked not to enroll. Instead, he attended Oakland Technical High School, where he was held back due to poor academic scores and scheduled to graduate in January 1949 as a midyear graduate, although it is not clear if he ever did. "Clint graduated from the airplane shop. I think that was his major, '' joked classmate Don Kincade. Another high school friend, Don Loomis, echoed, "I do n't think he was spending that much time at school because he was having a pretty good time elsewhere. '' "I think what happened is he just went off and started having a good time. I just do n't think he finished high school, '' explained Fritz Manes, a boyhood friend two years younger than Eastwood, who remained associated with him until their falling out in the mid-1980s. Biographer Patrick McGilligan notes that high school graduation records are a matter of strict legal confidentiality.
Eastwood held a number of jobs, including as a lifeguard, paper carrier, grocery clerk, forest firefighter, and golf caddy. Eastwood has said that he tried to enroll at Seattle University (in 1951) but was then drafted into the United States Army during the Korean War. "He always dropped the Korean War reference, hoping everyone would conclude that he was in combat and might be some sort of hero. Actually, he 'd been a lifeguard at Fort Ord in northern California for his entire stint in the military, '' commented Eastwood 's former longtime companion, Sondra Locke. Don Loomis recalled hearing that Eastwood was romancing one of the daughters of a Fort Ord officer, who might have been entreated to watch out for him when names came up for postings. While returning from a prearranged tryst in Seattle, Washington, he was a passenger on a Douglas AD bomber that ran out of fuel and crashed into the ocean near Point Reyes. Using a life raft, he and the pilot swam 2 miles (3.2 km) to safety.
According to the CBS press release for Rawhide, the Universal (known then as Universal - International) film company was shooting in Fort Ord when an enterprising assistant spotted Eastwood and invited him to meet the director. According to Eastwood 's official biography, the key figure was a man named Chuck Hill, who was stationed in Fort Ord and had contacts in Hollywood. While in Los Angeles, Hill became reacquainted with Eastwood and managed to sneak Eastwood into a Universal studio, where he showed him to cameraman Irving Glassberg. Glassberg arranged for an audition under Arthur Lubin, who, although very impressed with Clint 's appearance and stature at 6'4 '' (193 cm), disapproved initially of his acting skills, remarking, "He was quite amateurish. He did n't know which way to turn or which way to go or do anything ''. Lubin suggested that he attend drama classes and arranged for Eastwood 's initial contract in April 1954, at $100 per week. After signing, Eastwood was initially criticized for his stiff manner and delivering his lines through his teeth, a lifelong trademark.
In May 1954, Eastwood made his first real audition for Six Bridges to Cross but was rejected by Joseph Pevney. After many unsuccessful auditions, he was eventually given a minor role by director Jack Arnold in Revenge of the Creature (1955), a sequel to the recently released The Creature from the Black Lagoon. In September 1954, Eastwood worked for three weeks on Arthur Lubin 's Lady Godiva of Coventry, won a role in February 1955, playing "Jonesy '', a sailor in Francis in the Navy and appeared uncredited in another Jack Arnold film, Tarantula, where he played a squadron pilot. In May 1955, Eastwood put four hours ' work into the film Never Say Goodbye and had a minor uncredited role as a ranch hand (his first western film) in August 1955 with Law Man, also known as Star in the Dust. Universal presented him with his first television role on July 2, 1955, on NBC 's Allen in Movieland, which starred comedian Steve Allen, actor Tony Curtis and swing musician Benny Goodman. Although he continued to develop as an actor, Universal terminated his contract on October 23, 1955.
Eastwood joined the Marsh Agency, and although Lubin landed him his biggest role to date in The First Traveling Saleslady (1956) and later hired him for Escapade in Japan, without a formal contract Eastwood was struggling. Upon the advice of Irving Leonard, his financial advisor, he changed talent agencies to the Kumin - Olenick Agency in 1956 and Mitchell Gertz in 1957. He landed several small roles in 1956 as a temperamental army officer for a segment of ABC 's Reader 's Digest series, and as a motorcycle gang member on a Highway Patrol episode. In 1957, Eastwood played a cadet in West Point series and a suicidal gold prospector on Death Valley Days. In 1958, he played a Navy lieutenant in a segment of Navy Log and in early 1959 made a notable guest appearance on Maverick opposite James Garner as a cowardly villain intent on marrying a rich girl for money. Eastwood had a small part as an aviator in the French picture Lafayette Escadrille and played a major role as an ex-renegade of the Confederacy in Ambush at Cimarron Pass, a film which Eastwood viewed disastrously and professes to be the lowest point of his career.
In 1958, Eastwood was cast as Rowdy Yates for the CBS hour - long western series Rawhide, the breakthrough in his career he had long been searching for. However, Eastwood was not especially happy with his character; Eastwood was almost 30, and Rowdy was too young and too cloddish for Clint to feel comfortable with the part. Filming began in Arizona in the summer of 1958. It took just three weeks for Rawhide to reach the top 20 in TV ratings and although it never won an Emmy, it was a major success for several years, and reached its peak at number six in the ratings between October 1960 and April 1961. The Rawhide years (1959 -- 65) were some of the most grueling of Eastwood 's career, often filming six days a week for an average of twelve hours a day, yet he still received criticism by some directors for not working hard enough. By late 1963 Rawhide was beginning to decline in popularity and lacked freshness in the script; it was canceled in the middle of the 1965 -- 66 television season. Eastwood made his first attempt at directing when he filmed several trailers for the show, although he was unable to convince producers to let him direct an episode. In the show 's first season Eastwood earned $750 an episode. At the time of Rawhide 's cancellation, he received $119,000 an episode as severance pay.
In late 1963, Eastwood 's co-star on Rawhide, Eric Fleming, rejected an offer to star in an Italian - made western called A Fistful of Dollars, to be directed in a remote region of Spain by the then relatively unknown Sergio Leone. Richard Harrison suggested Eastwood to Leone because Harrison knew Eastwood could play a cowboy convincingly. Eastwood thought the film would be an opportunity to escape from his Rawhide image. Eastwood signed a contract for $15,000 in wages for eleven weeks ' work, with a bonus of a Mercedes automobile upon completion. Eastwood later spoke of the transition from a television western to A Fistful of Dollars: "In Rawhide I did get awfully tired of playing the conventional white hat. The hero who kisses old ladies and dogs and was kind to everybody. I decided it was time to be an anti-hero. '' Eastwood was instrumental in creating the Man with No Name character 's distinctive visual style and, although a non-smoker, Leone insisted Eastwood smoke cigars as an essential ingredient of the "mask '' he was attempting to create for the loner character.
A Fistful of Dollars proved a landmark in the development of spaghetti Westerns, with Leone depicting a more lawless and desolate world than traditional westerns, and challenging American stereotypes of a western hero with a morally ambiguous antihero. The film 's success made Eastwood a major star in Italy and he was re-hired to star in For a Few Dollars More (1965), the second of the trilogy. Through the efforts of screenwriter Luciano Vincenzoni, the rights to For a Few Dollars More and the final film of the trilogy (The Good, the Bad and the Ugly) were sold to United Artists for about $900,000.
In January 1966, Eastwood met producer Dino De Laurentiis in New York City and agreed to star in a non-Western five - part anthology production named Le Streghe ("The Witches '') opposite De Laurentiis ' wife, actress Silvana Mangano. Eastwood 's nineteen - minute installment took only a few days to shoot, but his performance did not please the critics, one writing that "no other performance of his is quite so ' un-Clintlike '. '' Two months later Eastwood began work on the third Dollars film, The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, again playing the mysterious Man with No Name. Lee Van Cleef returned as a ruthless fortune seeker, with Eli Wallach portraying the cunning Mexican bandit Tuco Ramirez. The storyline involved the search for a cache of Confederate gold buried in a cemetery. During the filming of a scene in which a bridge was blown up, Eastwood urged Wallach to retreat to a hilltop. "I know about these things, '' he said. "Stay as far away from special effects and explosives as you can. '' Minutes later confusion among the crew over the word "Vaya! '' resulted in a premature explosion that could have killed Wallach.
I wanted to play it with an economy of words and create this whole feeling through attitude and movement. It was just the kind of character I had envisioned for a long time, keep to the mystery and allude to what happened in the past. It came about after the frustration of doing Rawhide for so long. I felt the less he said, the stronger he became and the more he grew in the imagination of the audience.
The Dollars trilogy was not released in the United States until 1967, when A Fistful of Dollars opened in January, followed by For a Few Dollars More in May, and The Good, the Bad and the Ugly on December 29, 1967. All the films were commercially successful, particularly The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, which eventually earned $8 million in rental earnings and turned Eastwood into a major film star. All three films received bad reviews, and marked the beginning of a battle for Eastwood to win American film critics ' respect. Judith Crist described A Fistful of Dollars as "cheapjack, '' while Newsweek considered For a Few Dollars More as "excruciatingly dopey. '' Renata Adler of The New York Times said The Good, the Bad and the Ugly was "... the most expensive, pious and repellent movie in the history of its peculiar genre. '' Time magazine drew attention to the film 's wooden acting, especially on the part of Eastwood, though a few critics such as Vincent Canby and Bosley Crowther of The New York Times praised Eastwood 's coolness in playing the tall, lone stranger. Leone 's cinematography was widely acclaimed, even by critics who disparaged the acting in the film.
Stardom brought more roles for Eastwood. He signed to star in the American revisionist western Hang ' Em High (1968), featured alongside Inger Stevens, Pat Hingle, Dennis Hopper, Ed Begley, Alan Hale, Ben Johnson, Bruce Dern, and James MacArthur, playing a man who takes up a Marshal 's badge and seeks revenge as a lawman after being lynched by vigilantes and left for dead. The film earned Eastwood a fee of $400,000 and 25 percent of its net box - office takings. Using money earned from the Dollars trilogy, accountant and Eastwood advisor Irving Leonard helped establish Eastwood 's own production company, Malpaso Productions, named after Malpaso Creek on Eastwood 's property in Monterey County, California. Leonard arranged for Hang ' Em High to be a joint production with United Artists; when it opened in July 1968, it had the largest opening weekend in United Artists ' history. Hang ' Em High was widely praised by critics, including Archer Winsten of the New York Post, who described it as, "a western of quality, courage, danger and excitement. ''
Before the release of Hang ' Em High, Eastwood had already begun working on Coogan 's Bluff, about an Arizona deputy sheriff tracking a wanted psychopathic criminal (Don Stroud) through the streets of New York City. He was reunited with Universal Studios for it after receiving an offer of $1 million -- more than double his previous salary. Jennings Lang arranged for Eastwood to meet Don Siegel, a Universal contract director who later became Eastwood 's close friend, forming a partnership that would last more than ten years and produce five films. Shooting began in November 1967, before the script had been finalized. The film was controversial for its portrayal of violence. Coogan 's Bluff also became the first collaboration with Argentine composer Lalo Schifrin, who would later compose the jazzy score to several Eastwood films in the 1970s and 1980s, including the Dirty Harry films.
Eastwood was paid $750,000 in 1968 for the war epic Where Eagles Dare, about a World War II squad parachuting into a Gestapo stronghold in the alpine mountains. Richard Burton played the squad 's commander, with Eastwood as his right - hand man. Eastwood was also cast as Two - Face in the Batman television show, but the series was canceled before filming began.
Eastwood then branched out to star in the only musical of his career, Paint Your Wagon (1969). Eastwood and Lee Marvin play gold miners who buy a Mormon settler 's less favored wife (Jean Seberg) at an auction. Bad weather and delays plagued the production, and the film 's budget eventually exceeded $20 million, which was extremely expensive for the time. The film was not a critical or commercial success, although it was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy.
In 1970, Eastwood starred with Shirley MacLaine in the western Two Mules for Sister Sara, directed by Don Siegel. The film follows an American mercenary, who gets mixed up with a prostitute disguised as a nun, and ends up helping a group of Juarista rebels during the reign of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico. Eastwood once again played a mysterious stranger -- unshaven, wearing a serape - like vest, and smoking a cigar. Although it received moderate reviews, the film is listed in The New York Times Guide to the Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made. Later the same year, Eastwood starred as one of a group of Americans who steal a fortune in gold from the Nazis, in the World War II film Kelly 's Heroes, with Donald Sutherland and Telly Savalas. Kelly 's Heroes was the last film Eastwood appeared in that was not produced by his own Malpaso Productions. Filming commenced in July 1969 on location in Yugoslavia and in London. The film received mostly a positive reception and its anti-war sentiments were recognized. In the winter of 1969 -- 70, Eastwood and Siegel began planning his next film, The Beguiled, a tale of a wounded Union soldier, held captive by the sexually repressed matron (played by Geraldine Page) of a Southern girls ' school. Upon release the film received major recognition in France and is considered one of Eastwood 's finest works by the French. However, it grossed less than $1 million and, according to Eastwood and Lang, flopped due to poor publicity and the "emasculated '' role of Eastwood.
Eastwood 's career reached a turning point in 1971. Before Irving Leonard died, he and Eastwood had discussed the idea of Malpaso producing Play Misty for Me, a film that was to give Eastwood the artistic control he desired, and his debut as a director. The script was about a jazz disc jockey named Dave (Eastwood), who has a casual affair with Evelyn (Jessica Walter), a listener who had been calling the radio station repeatedly at night, asking him to play her favorite song -- Erroll Garner 's Misty. When Dave ends their relationship, the unhinged Evelyn becomes a murderous stalker. Filming commenced in Monterey in September 1970 and included footage of that year 's Monterey Jazz Festival. The film was highly acclaimed with critics, such as Jay Cocks in Time magazine, Andrew Sarris in the Village Voice, and Archer Winsten in the New York Post all praising the film, as well as Eastwood 's directorial skills and performance. Walter was nominated for a Golden Globe Best Actress Award (Drama), for her performance in the film.
I know what you 're thinking -- "Did he fire six shots or only five? '' Well, to tell you the truth, in all this excitement, I 've kinda lost track myself. But, being as this is a. 44 Magnum, the most powerful handgun in the world and would blow your head clean off, you 've got to ask yourself one question: "Do I feel lucky? '' Well, do you, punk?
Dirty Harry (1971), written by Harry and Rita Fink, centers on a hard - edged New York City (later changed to San Francisco) police inspector named Harry Callahan who is determined to stop a psychotic killer by any means. Dirty Harry has been described as being arguably Eastwood 's most memorable character, and the film has been credited with inventing the "loose - cannon cop '' genre. Author Eric Lichtenfeld argues that Eastwood 's role as Dirty Harry established the "first true archetype '' of the action film genre. His lines (quoted above) are regarded by firearms historians, such as Garry James and Richard Venola, as the force that catapulted the ownership of. 44 Magnum revolvers to new heights in the United States; specifically the Smith & Wesson Model 29 carried by Harry Callahan. Dirty Harry achieved huge success after its release in December 1971, earning $22 million in the United States and Canada alone. It was Siegel 's highest - grossing film and the start of a series of films featuring the character Harry Callahan. Although a number of critics praised Eastwood 's performance as Dirty Harry, such as Jay Cocks of Time magazine who described him as "... giving his best performance so far, tense, tough, full of implicit identification with his character, '' the film was also widely criticized as being fascistic.
Following Sean Connery 's announcement that he would not play James Bond again, Eastwood was offered the role but turned it down because he believed the character should be played by an English actor. He next starred in the loner Western Joe Kidd (1972), based on a character inspired by Reies Lopez Tijerina, who stormed a courthouse in Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico in June 1967. During filming, Eastwood suffered symptoms of a bronchial infection and several panic attacks. Joe Kidd received a mixed reception, with Roger Greenspun of The New York Times writing that it was unremarkable, with foolish symbolism and sloppy editing, although he praised Eastwood 's performance.
In 1973, Eastwood directed his first western, High Plains Drifter, in which he also starred. The film had a moral and supernatural theme, later emulated in Pale Rider. The plot follows a mysterious stranger (Eastwood) who arrives in a brooding Western town where the people hire him to protect them against three soon - to - be-released felons. There remains confusion during the film as to whether the stranger is the brother of the deputy, whom the felons lynched and murdered, or his ghost. Holes in the plot were filled with black humor and allegory, influenced by Leone. The revisionist film received a mixed reception, but was a major box office success. A number of critics thought Eastwood 's directing was "as derivative as it was expressive, '' with Arthur Knight of the Saturday Review remarking that Eastwood had "... absorbed the approaches of Siegel and Leone and fused them with his own paranoid vision of society. '' John Wayne, who had declined a role in the film, sent a letter to Eastwood soon after the film 's release in which he complained that, "The townspeople did not represent the true spirit of the American pioneer, the spirit that made America great. ''
Eastwood next turned his attention towards Breezy (1973), a film about love blossoming between a middle - aged man and a teenage girl. During casting for the film Eastwood met Sondra Locke for the first time, an actress who would play major roles in six of his films over the next ten years and would become an important figure in his life. Kay Lenz got the part of Breezy because Locke, at age 29, was considered too old. The film, shot very quickly and efficiently by Eastwood and Frank Stanley, came in $1 million under budget and was finished three days ahead of schedule. Breezy was not a major critical or commercial success and it was only made available on video in 1998.
Once filming of Breezy had finished, Warners announced that Eastwood had agreed to reprise his role as Callahan in Magnum Force (1973), a sequel to Dirty Harry, about a group of rogue young officers (among them David Soul, Robert Urich and Tim Matheson) in the San Francisco Police Department who systematically exterminate the city 's worst criminals. Although the film was a major success after release, grossing $58.1 million in the United States (a record for Eastwood), it was not a critical success. The New York Times critic Nora Sayre panned the often contradictory moral themes of the film, while the paper 's Frank Rich called it "the same old stuff ''.
In 1974, Eastwood teamed up with Jeff Bridges and George Kennedy in the buddy action caper Thunderbolt and Lightfoot, a road movie about a veteran bank robber Thunderbolt (Eastwood) and a young con man drifter, Lightfoot (Bridges). On its release, in spring 1974, the film was praised for its offbeat comedy mixed with high suspense and tragedy but was only a modest success at the box office, earning $32.4 million. Eastwood 's acting was noted by critics, but was overshadowed by Bridges who was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Eastwood reportedly fumed at the lack of Academy Award recognition for him and swore that he would never work for United Artists again.
Eastwood 's next film The Eiger Sanction (1975) was based on Trevanian 's critically acclaimed spy novel of the same name. Eastwood plays Jonathan Hemlock in a role originally intended for Paul Newman, an assassin turned college art professor who decides to return to his former profession for one last "sanction '' in return for a rare Pissarro painting. In the process he must climb the north face of the Eiger in Switzerland under perilous conditions. Mike Hoover taught Eastwood how to climb during several weeks of preparation at Yosemite in the summer of 1974 before filming commenced in Grindelwald, Switzerland on August 12, 1974. Despite prior warnings about the perils of the Eiger the film crew suffered a number of accidents, including one fatality. Despite the danger, Eastwood insisted on doing all his own climbing and stunts. Upon release in May 1975 The Eiger Sanction was marginally successful commercially, receiving $14.2 million at the box office, and was received with mixed reviews. Joy Gould Boyum of the Wall Street Journal dismissed the film as "brutal fantasy ''. Eastwood blamed Universal Studios for the film 's poor promotion and turned his back on them to make an agreement with Warner Brothers, through Frank Wells, that has lasted to the present day.
The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976), a western inspired by Asa Carter 's 1972 novel of the same name, has lead character Josey Wales (Eastwood) as a pro-Confederate guerilla who refuses to surrender his arms after the American Civil War and is chased across the old southwest by a group of enforcers. The supporting cast included Locke as his love interest and Chief Dan George as an elderly Cherokee who strikes up a friendship with Wales. Director Philip Kaufman was fired by producer Bob Daley under Eastwood 's command, resulting in a fine reported to be around $60,000 from the Directors Guild of America -- who subsequently passed new legislation reserving the right to impose a major fine on a producer for discharging and replacing a director. The film was pre-screened at the Sun Valley Center for the Arts and Humanities in Idaho during a six - day conference entitled Western Movies: Myths and Images. Invited to the screening were a number of esteemed film critics, including Jay Cocks and Arthur Knight; directors such as King Vidor, William Wyler, and Howard Hawks; and a number of academics. Upon release in the summer of 1976 The Outlaw Josey Wales was widely acclaimed, with many critics and viewers seeing Eastwood 's role as an iconic one that related to America 's ancestral past and the destiny of the nation after the American Civil War. Roger Ebert compared the nature and vulnerability of Eastwood 's portrayal of Josey Wales with his Man with No Name character in the Dollars westerns and praised the film 's atmosphere. The film would later appear in Time 's "Top 10 Films of the Year ''.
Eastwood was then offered the role of Benjamin L. Willard in Francis Coppola 's Apocalypse Now, but declined as he did not want to spend weeks on location in the Philippines. He also refused the part of a platoon leader in Ted Post 's Vietnam War film, Go Tell the Spartans and instead decided to make a third Dirty Harry film, The Enforcer. The film had Callahan partnered with a new female officer (Tyne Daly) to face a San Francisco Bay area group resembling the Symbionese Liberation Army. The film, culminating in a shootout on Alcatraz island, was considerably shorter than the previous Dirty Harry films at 95 minutes, but was a major commercial success grossing $100 million worldwide to become Eastwood 's highest - grossing film to date.
In 1977, he directed and starred in The Gauntlet opposite Locke, Pat Hingle, William Prince, Bill McKinney, and Mara Corday. Eastwood portrays a down - and - out cop assigned to escort a prostitute from Las Vegas to Phoenix to testify against the mob. Although a moderate hit with the viewing public, critics had mixed feelings about the film, with many believing it was overly violent. Ebert, in contrast, gave the film three stars and called it "... classic Clint Eastwood: fast, furious, and funny. '' The following year, he starred in Every Which Way But Loose in an uncharacteristic offbeat comedy role. He played Philo Beddoe, a trucker and brawler who roams the American West searching for a lost love (Locke) accompanied by his brother (played by Geoffrey Lewis) and an orangutan called Clyde. The film proved surprisingly successful upon its release and became Eastwood 's most commercially successful film up to that time. Panned by critics, it ranked high among the box office successes of his career and was the second - highest - grossing film of 1978.
Eastwood starred in Escape from Alcatraz in 1979, the last of his films directed by Siegel. It was based on the true story of Frank Lee Morris who, along with John and Clarence Anglin, escaped from the notorious Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary in 1962. The film was a major success; Stanley Kauffmann of The New Republic praised it as "crystalline cinema '' and Frank Rich of Time described it as "cool, cinematic grace ''.
In 1980, Eastwood directed and played the title role in Bronco Billy alongside Locke, Scatman Crothers, and Sam Bottoms. Eastwood has cited Bronco Billy as being one of the most relaxed shoots of his career and biographer Richard Schickel has argued that Bronco Billy is Eastwood 's most self - referential character. The film was a rare commercial disappointment in Eastwood 's career, but was liked by critics. Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that film was "... the best and funniest Clint Eastwood movie in quite a while '', and praised Eastwood 's directing, intricately juxtaposing the old West and the new West. Later that year, Eastwood starred in Any Which Way You Can, the sequel to Every Which Way But Loose. The film received a number of bad reviews from critics, although Maslin described it as "funnier and even better than its predecessor ''. Released over the Christmas season of 1980, Any Which Way You Can was a major box office success and ranked among the top five highest - grossing films of the year.
In 1982, Eastwood directed and starred in Honkytonk Man, based on the eponymous Clancy Carlile 's depression - era novel. Eastwood portrays a struggling western singer Red Stovall who suffers from tuberculosis, but has finally been given an opportunity to make it big at the Grand Ole Opry. He is accompanied by his young nephew (played by real - life son Kyle) to Nashville, Tennessee, where he is supposed to record a song. Only Time gave the film a good review in the United States, with most reviewers criticizing its blend of muted humor and tragedy. Nevertheless, the film received critical acclaim in France, where it was compared to John Ford 's The Grapes of Wrath, and it has since acquired the very high rating of 93 percent on Rotten Tomatoes. In the same year Eastwood directed, produced, and starred in the Cold War - themed Firefox. Based on a 1977 novel with the same name written by Craig Thomas, the film was shot before but released after Honkeytonk Man. Russian filming locations were not possible due to the Cold War, and the film had to be shot in Vienna and other locations in Austria to simulate many of the Eurasian story locations. With a production cost of $20 million, it was Eastwood 's highest budget film to date. People magazine likened Eastwood 's performance to "Luke Skywalker trapped in Dirty Harry 's Soul ''.
Eastwood directed and starred in the fourth Dirty Harry film, Sudden Impact, which was shot in the spring and summer of 1983 and is considered the darkest and most violent of the series. By this time Eastwood received 60 percent of all profits from films he starred in and directed, with the rest going to the studio. Sudden Impact was his final on - screen collaboration with Locke. She plays an artist who, along with her sister, was gang - raped a decade before the story takes place and seeks revenge for her sister 's now - vegetative state by systematically murdering the rapists. The line "Go ahead, make my day '' (uttered by Eastwood during an early scene in a coffee shop) has been cited as one of cinema 's immortal lines. It was quoted by President Ronald Reagan in a speech to Congress, and used during the 1984 presidential elections. The film was the second most commercially successful of the Dirty Harry films, after The Enforcer, earning $70 million. It received very positive reviews, with many critics praising the feminist aspects of the film through its explorations of the physical and psychological consequences of rape.
Tightrope (1984) had Eastwood starring opposite Geneviève Bujold in a provocative thriller, inspired by newspaper articles about an elusive Bay Area rapist. Set in New Orleans to avoid confusion with the Dirty Harry films, Eastwood played a divorced cop drawn into his target 's tortured psychology and fascination for sadomasochism. Tightrope was a critical and commercial hit and became the fourth highest - grossing R - rated film of 1984. Eastwood next starred in the crime comedy City Heat (1984) alongside Burt Reynolds, a film about a private eye and his partner who get mixed up with gangsters in the prohibition era of the 1930s. The film grossed around $50 million domestically, but was overshadowed by Eddie Murphy 's Beverly Hills Cop.
Westerns. A period gone by, the pioneer, the loner operating by himself, without benefit of society. It usually has something to do with some sort of vengeance; he takes care of the vengeance himself, does n't call the police. Like Robin Hood. It 's the last masculine frontier. Romantic myth, I guess, though it 's hard to think about anything romantic today. In a Western you can think, Jesus, there was a time when man was alone, on horseback, out there where man has n't spoiled the land yet.
Eastwood made his only foray into TV direction with the 1985 Amazing Stories episode Vanessa in the Garden, which starred Harvey Keitel and Locke. This was his first collaboration with Steven Spielberg, who later co-produced Flags of Our Fathers and Letters from Iwo Jima. He would revisit the Western genre when he directed and starred in Pale Rider (1985), a film based on the classic 1953 western Shane and follows a preacher descending from the mists of the Sierras to side with the miners during the California Gold Rush of 1850. The title is a reference to the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, as the rider of the pale horse is Death, and shows similarities to Eastwood 's 1973 western High Plains Drifter in its themes of morality and justice as well as its exploration of the supernatural. Pale Rider became one of Eastwood 's most successful films to date. It was hailed as one of the best films of 1985 and the best western to appear for a considerable period, with Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune remarking, "This year (1985) will go down in film history as the moment Clint Eastwood finally earned respect as an artist ''.
In 1986, Eastwood co-starred with Marsha Mason in the military drama Heartbreak Ridge, about the 1983 United States invasion of Grenada. He portrays a United States Marine Gunnery Sergeant veteran of the Korean War and Vietnam War who realizes he is nearing the end of his military service. Production and filming were marred by internal disagreements between Eastwood and long - time friend and producer Fritz Manes, as well as between Eastwood and the United States Department of Defense who expressed contempt for the film. At the time, the film was a commercial rather than a critical success, and has only come to be viewed more favorably in recent times. The film grossed $70 million domestically.
Eastwood starred in The Dead Pool (1988), the fifth and final film in the Dirty Harry series. It co-starred Patricia Clarkson, Liam Neeson, and a young Jim Carrey who plays Johnny Squares, a drug - addled rock star and the first of the victims on a list of celebrities drawn up by horror film director Peter Swan (Neeson) who are deemed most likely to die, the so - called "Dead Pool ''. The list is stolen by an obsessed fan who, in mimicking his favorite director, makes his way through the list killing off celebrities, of which Dirty Harry is also included. The Dead Pool grossed nearly $38 million, relatively low receipts for a Dirty Harry film. It is generally viewed as the weakest film of the series, though Roger Ebert thought it was as good as the original.
Eastwood began working on smaller, more personal projects and experienced a lull in his career between 1988 and 1992. Always interested in jazz, he directed Bird (1988), a biopic starring Forest Whitaker as jazz musician Charlie "Bird '' Parker. Alto saxophonist Jackie McLean and Spike Lee, son of jazz bassist Bill Lee and a long time critic of Eastwood, criticized the characterization of Charlie Parker remarking that it did not capture his true essence and sense of humor. Eastwood received two Golden Globes for the film, the Cecil B. DeMille Award for his lifelong contribution, and the Best Director award. However, Bird was a commercial failure, earning just $11 million, which Eastwood attributed to the declining interest in jazz among black people. Carrey would appear with Eastwood again in the poorly - received comedy Pink Cadillac (1989). The film is about a bounty hunter and a group of white supremacists chasing an innocent woman (Bernadette Peters) who tries to outrun everyone in her husband 's prized pink Cadillac. The film failed both critically and commercially, earning barely more than Bird and marking a low point in Eastwood 's career.
Eastwood directed and starred in White Hunter Black Heart (1990), an adaptation of Peter Viertel 's roman à clef, about John Huston and the making of the classic film The African Queen. Shot on location in Zimbabwe in the summer of 1989, the film received some critical attention but with only a limited release earned just $8.4 million. Later in 1990, Eastwood directed and co-starred with Charlie Sheen in The Rookie, a buddy cop action film. Critics found the film 's plot and characterization unconvincing, but praised its action sequences. An ongoing lawsuit, in response to Eastwood allegedly ramming a woman 's car, resulted in no Eastwood films being shown in cinemas in 1991. Eastwood won the suit and agreed to pay the complainant 's legal fees if she did not appeal.
... if possible, he looks even taller, leaner and more mysteriously possessed than he did in Sergio Leone 's seminal Fistful of Dollars a quarter of a century ago. The years have n't softened him. They have given him the presence of some fierce force of nature, which may be why the landscapes of the mythic, late 19th - century West become him, never more so than in his new Unforgiven... This is his richest, most satisfying performance since the underrated, politically lunatic Heartbreak Ridge. There 's no one like him.
In 1992, Eastwood revisited the western genre in his film Unforgiven, a film in which he directed and starred as an aging ex-gunfighter long past his prime. Scripts existed for the film as early as 1976 under titles such as The Cut - Whore Killings and The William Munny Killings but Eastwood delayed the project because he wanted to wait until he was old enough to play his character and to savor it as the last of his western films. Unforgiven was a major commercial and critical success; Jack Methews of the Los Angeles Times described it as "the finest classical western to come along since perhaps John Ford 's 1956 The Searchers. The film was nominated for nine Academy Awards, (including Best Actor for Eastwood and Best Original Screenplay for David Webb Peoples) and won four, including Best Picture and Best Director for Eastwood. In June 2008 Unforgiven was ranked as the fourth - best American western, behind Shane, High Noon, and The Searchers, in the American Film Institute 's "AFI 's 10 Top 10 '' list.
Eastwood played Frank Horrigan in the Secret Service thriller In the Line of Fire (1993), directed by Wolfgang Petersen and co-starring John Malkovich and Rene Russo. Horrigan is a guilt - ridden Secret Service agent haunted by his failure to save John F. Kennedy 's life. The film was among the top 10 box office performers in that year, earning $102 million in the United States alone. Later in 1993, he directed and co-starred alongside Kevin Costner in A Perfect World. Set in the 1960s, Eastwood plays a Texas Ranger in pursuit of an escaped convict (Costner) who hits the road with a young boy (T.J. Lowther). Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that the film marked the highest point of Eastwood 's directing career, and the film has since been cited as one of his most underrated directorial achievements.
At the May 1994 Cannes Film Festival Eastwood received France 's Ordre des Arts et des Lettres medal, and on March 27, 1995, he was awarded the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award at the 67th Academy Awards. His next film appearance was in a cameo role as himself in the 1995 children 's film Casper. Later that same year he expanded his repertoire by playing opposite Meryl Streep in The Bridges of Madison County. Based on the novel by Robert James Waller, the film relates the story of Robert Kincaid (Eastwood), a photographer working for National Geographic, who has an affair with a middle - aged Italian farm wife, Francesca (Streep). Despite the novel receiving unfavorable reviews and a subject deemed potentially unsuitable for film, The Bridges of Madison County was a commercial and critical success. Roger Ebert wrote, "Streep and Eastwood weave a spell, and it is based on that particular knowledge of love and self that comes with middle age. '' The film was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Picture and won a César Award in France for Best Foreign Film. Streep was also nominated for an Academy Award and a Golden Globe.
In 1997, Eastwood directed and starred in the political thriller Absolute Power, alongside Gene Hackman (with whom he had appeared in Unforgiven). Eastwood played the role of a veteran thief who witnesses the Secret Service cover - up of a murder. The film received a mixed reception from critics. Later in 1997, Eastwood directed Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil, based on the novel by John Berendt and starring John Cusack, Kevin Spacey, and Jude Law. The film met with a mixed critical response.
The roles that Eastwood has played, and the films that he has directed, can not be disentangled from the nature of the American culture of the last quarter century, its fantasies and its realities.
Eastwood directed and starred in True Crime (1999). He plays Steve Everett, a journalist and recovering alcoholic, who has to cover the execution of murderer Frank Beechum (played by Isaiah Washington). True Crime received a mixed reception, with Janet Maslin of The New York Times writing, "his direction is galvanized by a sense of second chances and tragic misunderstandings, and by contrasting a larger sense of justice with the peculiar minutiae of crime. Perhaps he goes a shade too far in the latter direction, though. '' The film was a box office failure, earning less than half its $55 million budget and was Eastwood 's worst - performing film of the 1990s aside from White Hunter Black Heart, which had a limited release.
In 2000, Eastwood directed and starred in Space Cowboys alongside Tommy Lee Jones, Donald Sutherland and James Garner. Eastwood played one of a group of veteran ex-test pilots sent into space to repair an old Soviet satellite. The original music score was composed by Eastwood and Lennie Niehaus. Space Cowboys was critically well - received and holds a 79 percent rating at Rotten Tomatoes, although Roger Ebert wrote that the film was, "too secure within its traditional story structure to make much seem at risk. '' The film grossed more than $90 million in its United States release, more than Eastwood 's two previous films combined. In 2002, Eastwood played an ex-FBI agent chasing a sadistic killer (Jeff Daniels) in the thriller Blood Work, loosely based on the 1998 novel of the same name by Michael Connelly. The film was a commercial failure, grossing just $26.2 million on an estimated budget of $50 million and received mixed reviews, with Rotten Tomatoes describing it as, "well - made but marred by lethargic pacing ''. Eastwood did, however, win the Future Film Festival Digital Award at the Venice Film Festival for the film.
Clint is a true artist in every respect. Despite his years of being at the top of his game and the legendary movies he has made, he always made us feel comfortable and valued on the set, treating us as equals.
Eastwood directed and scored the crime drama Mystic River (2003), a film dealing with themes of murder, vigilantism and sexual abuse and starring Sean Penn, Kevin Bacon and Tim Robbins. The film was praised by critics and won two Academy Awards -- Best Actor for Penn and Best Supporting Actor for Robbins -- with Eastwood garnering nominations for Best Director and Best Picture. The film grossed $90 million domestically on a budget of $30 million. In 2003 Eastwood was named Best Director of the Year by the National Society of Film Critics.
The following year Eastwood found further critical acclaim with Million Dollar Baby. The boxing drama won four Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actress (Hilary Swank) and Best Supporting Actor (Morgan Freeman). At age 74 Eastwood became the oldest of eighteen directors to have directed two or more Best Picture winners. He also received a nomination for Best Actor, as well as a Grammy nomination for his score, and won a Golden Globe for Best Director, which was presented to him by daughter Kathryn, who was Miss Golden Globe at the 2005 ceremony. A.O. Scott of The New York Times lauded the film as a "masterpiece '' and the best film of the year.
In 2006, Eastwood directed two films about World War II 's Battle of Iwo Jima. The first, Flags of Our Fathers, focused on the men who raised the American flag on top of Mount Suribachi and featured the film debut of Eastwood 's son Scott. This was followed by Letters from Iwo Jima, which dealt with the tactics of the Japanese soldiers on the island and the letters they wrote home to family members. Letters from Iwo Jima was the first American film to depict a war issue completely from the view of an American enemy. Both films received praise from critics and garnered several nominations at the 79th Academy Awards, including Best Director, Best Picture, and Best Original Screenplay for Letters from Iwo Jima. At the 64th Golden Globe Awards Eastwood received nominations for Best Director in both films. Letters from Iwo Jima won the award for Best Foreign Language Film.
Eastwood next directed Changeling (2008), based on a true story set in the late 1920s. Angelina Jolie stars as a woman reunited with her missing son only to realize he is an impostor. After its release at several film festivals the film grossed over $110 million, the majority of which came from foreign markets. The film was highly acclaimed, with Damon Wise of Empire describing Changeling as "flawless ''. Todd McCarthy of Variety magazine described it as "emotionally powerful and stylistically sure - handed '' and that the film 's characters and social commentary were brought into the story with an "almost breathtaking deliberation ''. For the film Eastwood received nominations for Best Original Score at the 66th Golden Globe Awards, Best Direction at the 62nd British Academy Film Awards and director of the year from the London Film Critics ' Circle.
Eastwood ended a four - year "self - imposed acting hiatus '' by appearing in Gran Torino, which he also directed, produced and partly scored with his son Kyle and Jamie Cullum. Biographer Marc Eliot called Eastwood 's role "an amalgam of the Man with No Name, Dirty Harry, and William Munny, here aged and cynical but willing and able to fight on whenever the need arose ''. Gran Torino grossed almost $30 million during its opening weekend release in January 2009, the highest of his career as an actor or director. Gran Torino eventually grossed over $268 million in theaters worldwide, becoming the highest - grossing film of Eastwood 's career so far (without adjustment for inflation).
Eastwood 's 30th directorial outing came with Invictus, a film based on the story of the South African team at the 1995 Rugby World Cup, with Morgan Freeman as Nelson Mandela, Matt Damon as rugby team captain François Pienaar and Grant L. Roberts as Ruben Kruger. The film met with generally positive reviews; Roger Ebert gave it three and a half stars and described it as a "... very good film... with moments evoking great emotion, '' while Variety 's Todd McCarthy wrote, "Inspirational on the face of it, Clint Eastwood 's film has a predictable trajectory, but every scene brims with surprising details that accumulate into a rich fabric of history, cultural impressions and emotion. '' For the film Eastwood was nominated for Best Director at the 67th Golden Globe Awards.
In 2010, Eastwood directed Hereafter, again working with Matt Damon, who portrayed a psychic. The film had its world premiere on September 12, 2010 at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival and had a limited release later in October. Hereafter received mixed reviews from critics, with the consensus at Rotten Tomatoes being, "Despite a thought - provoking premise and Clint Eastwood 's typical flair as director, Hereafter fails to generate much compelling drama, straddling the line between poignant sentimentality and hokey tedium. '' In the same year, Eastwood served as executive producer for a Turner Classic Movies (TCM) documentary about jazz pianist Dave Brubeck, Dave Brubeck: In His Own Sweet Way, to commemorate Brubeck 's 90th birthday.
In 2011, Eastwood directed J. Edgar, a biopic of FBI director J. Edgar Hoover, with Leonardo DiCaprio in the title role. The film received mixed reviews, although DiCaprio 's performance as Hoover was widely praised. Roger Ebert wrote that the film is "fascinating, '' "masterful, '' and praised DiCaprio 's performance. David Edelstein of New York Magazine, while also praising DiCaprio, wrote, "It 's too bad J. Edgar is so shapeless and turgid and ham - handed, so rich in bad lines and worse readings ''. In January 2011, it was announced that Eastwood was in talks to direct Beyoncé Knowles in a third remake of the 1937 film A Star Is Born; however, the project was delayed due to Beyoncé 's pregnancy. Eastwood then starred in the baseball drama Trouble with the Curve (2012), as a veteran baseball scout who travels with his daughter for a final scouting trip. Robert Lorenz, who worked with Eastwood as an assistant director on several films, directed the film.
Everybody wonders why I continue working at this stage. I keep working because there 's always new stories... And as long as people want me to tell them, I 'll be there doing them.
During Super Bowl XLVI, Eastwood narrated a halftime advertisement for Chrysler titled "It 's Halftime in America ''. The advertisement was criticized by several U.S. Republicans, who claimed it implied that President Barack Obama deserved a second term. In response to the criticism, Eastwood stated, "I am certainly not politically affiliated with Mr. Obama. It was meant to be a message about job growth and the spirit of America. ''
Eastwood next directed Jersey Boys, a musical biography based on the Tony Award - winning musical Jersey Boys. The film told the story of the musical group The Four Seasons, and was released on June 20, 2014. Eastwood directed American Sniper, a film adaptation of Chris Kyle 's eponymous memoir, following Steven Spielberg 's departure from the project. The film was released on December 25, 2014. American Sniper grossed more than $350 million domestically and over $547 million globally, making it one of Eastwood 's biggest movies commercially. His next film, Sully, starred Tom Hanks as Chesley Sullenberger, who successfully landed the US Airways Flight 1549 on the Hudson River in an emergency landing, keeping all passengers on board alive. Released in the United States in September 2016, it became another commercial success for Eastwood, grossing over $238 million worldwide. In 2018, he directed the biographical thriller The 15: 17 to Paris, which saw previously non-professional actors Spencer Stone, Anthony Sadler and Alek Skarlatos playing themselves as they stop the 2015 Thalys train attack. The film received a generally negative reception from critics, who were largely critical of the acting by the three leads.
Beginning with the thriller Play Misty for Me, Eastwood has directed over 30 films, including Westerns, action films, and dramas. He is one of few top Hollywood actors to have also become a critically and commercially successful director. The New Yorker 's David Denby wrote that, unlike Eastwood,
John Ford appeared in just a few silent films; Howard Hawks never acted in movies. Clark Gable, Gary Cooper, Spencer Tracy, James Stewart, Cary Grant, Humphrey Bogart, William Holden, Steve McQueen, and Sean Connery never directed a feature. John Wayne directed only twice, and badly; ditto Burt Lancaster. Paul Newman, Jack Nicholson, Warren Beatty, Robert Redford, Robert De Niro, and Sean Penn have directed a few movies each, with mixed commercial and artistic success.
From the very early days of his career Eastwood was frustrated by directors ' insistence that scenes be re-shot multiple times and perfected, and when he began directing in 1970, he made a conscious attempt to avoid any aspects of directing he had been indifferent to as an actor. As a result, Eastwood is renowned for his efficient film directing and ability to reduce filming time and control budgets. He usually avoids actors ' rehearsing and prefers to complete most scenes on the first take. Eastwood 's rapid filmmaking practices have been compared to those of Woody Allen, Ingmar Bergman, Jean - Luc Godard, and the Coen brothers. When acting in others ' films he sometimes takes over directing, such as for The Outlaw Josey Wales, if he believes production is too slow. In preparation for filming Eastwood rarely uses storyboards for developing the layout of a shooting schedule. He also attempts to reduce script background details on characters to allow the audience to become more involved in the film, considering their imagination a requirement for a film that connects with viewers. Eastwood has indicated that he lays out a film 's plot to provide the audience with necessary details, but not "so much that it insults their intelligence. ''
According to Life magazine, "Eastwood 's style is to shoot first and act afterward. He etches his characters virtually without words. He has developed the art of underplaying to the point that anyone around him who so much as flinches looks hammily histrionic. '' Interviewers Richard Thompson and Tim Hunter note that Eastwood 's films are "superbly paced: unhurried; cool; and (give) a strong sense of real time, regardless of the speed of the narrative '' while Ric Gentry considers Eastwood 's pacing "unrushed and relaxed. '' Eastwood is fond of low - key lighting and back - lighting to give his movies a "noir - ish '' feel.
Eastwood 's frequent exploration of ethical values has drawn the attention of scholars, who have explored Eastwood 's work from ethical and theological perspectives, including his portrayal of justice, mercy, suicide and the angel of death.
Eastwood married Margaret Neville "Maggie '' Johnson (born 1931; then working for an auto parts suppliers company) on December 19, 1953 in Pasadena. They had met six months earlier on a blind date in Los Angeles, although Eastwood subsequently had a serious relationship in Seattle that summer with a young woman who became pregnant with his child -- an alleged daughter who was given up for adoption, per biographer Patrick McGilligan -- before Johnson announced her engagement to him in October. The marriage would not prove altogether smooth. "He thought they were too young, not well enough established, '' remarked biographer Richard Schickel in the only authorized book ever written about Eastwood. A decade later, an ongoing affair Eastwood was involved in (said to have lasted 14 years) with dancer and Rawhide stuntwoman Roxanne Tunis (who was also married yet separated) produced his earliest verified child, daughter Kimber Eastwood (born Kimber Tunis; June 17, 1964), whose existence was kept secret from the public until July 1989, when the National Enquirer revealed her identity. Biographer Marc Eliot wrote of Johnson, "It is difficult to say for sure that she actually knew about the baby, although it would have been nearly impossible for her not to. Everyone on the set knew... and it is simply too difficult to keep a secret like that when the mother and the illegitimate child live in the same small town, especially when that small town is Hollywood. '' The source for the 1989 Enquirer article that originally broke the story claimed Johnson was aware of Kimber 's existence at all times and even met Roxanne Tunis in person when making an unannounced visit to the set of Breezy in 1972. Actress Barbara Eden, a onetime Rawhide guest star and witness to the affair with Tunis, said of Eastwood 's relationship with Johnson: "They conducted a somewhat open marriage. ''
Ria Brown, the biographer of competitive swimmer Anita Lhoest, claims Lhoest terminated a pregnancy by Eastwood without consulting him at one point during their late 1950s to early 1960s affair. Restaurant critic Gael Greene admitted to an affair with Eastwood that began when she was assigned to interview him on the set of 1970 's Two Mules for Sister Sara. A fling with French model Cathy Reghin around the same time was one of his few extramarital involvements to receive press coverage of any kind during the fact. According to McGilligan, Eastwood had many other affairs, including with co-stars Inger Stevens (Hang ' Em High), Jean Seberg (Paint Your Wagon) and Jo Ann Harris (The Beguiled), as well as actresses Jill Banner, Catherine Deneuve, and Susan St. James, columnist Bridget Byrne and singer Keely Smith while married to Johnson, who, after a trial separation and lingering bout of hepatitis during the mid-1960s, expressed desire to reconcile and start a family. They had two children together: Kyle Eastwood (born May 19, 1968) and Alison Eastwood (born May 22, 1972). In 1972, Eastwood met married actress (later director) Sondra Locke. The two began living together while filming The Outlaw Josey Wales in the autumn of 1975, by which time, according to Locke, "He had told me that there was no real relationship left between him and Maggie. '' Locke wrote in her autobiography, "Clint seemed astonished at his need for me, even admitting that he 'd never been faithful to one woman -- because he 'd "never been in love before, '' he confided. He even made up a song about it: "She made me monogamous. '' That flattered and delighted me. I would never doubt his faithfulness and his love for me. '' Locke moved into the Sherman Oaks house Eastwood had once shared with Johnson (who by then lived full - time in Pebble Beach), but felt uncomfortable there because "psychologically, it would always be Maggie 's. '' "Finally I told Clint that I could n't live there any longer, '' writes Locke. The couple moved to Bel - Air in a fixer - upper Locke spent three years renovating. She underwent two abortions and a tubal ligation in the late 1970s and was most reluctant about the second abortion, noting "I could n't help but think that that baby, with both Clint 's and my best qualities, would be extraordinary. '' Johnson made no secret of her dislike for Locke, even though the two women never met. "Maggie placed severe rules on my relationship with the kids. Apparently, she never forgave me... After she learned that Clint had taken me onto her property to show me a baby deer that had just been born there, she laid down a rule that I was never to be allowed there again. I was not even allowed to phone the Pebble Beach house. '' In 1978 Johnson filed for legal separation from Eastwood, but did not file for divorce until May 1984, a divorce which was finalized that November with Johnson receiving a straight cash payment reported to be between $25 and $30 million. Locke never divorced her legal husband, sculptor Gordon Anderson, who was gay and resided with his partner in a West Hollywood home purchased by Eastwood.
-- Sondra Locke on Eastwood in 2013
Eastwood and Locke went on to star in The Gauntlet, Every Which Way But Loose, Bronco Billy, Any Which Way You Can and Sudden Impact. According to former longtime associate Fritz Manes, as quoted by author McGilligan, Eastwood was devoted to her between 1976 and 1980 at the least, but discreetly kept up several "maintenance relationships '' (such as with Tunis) during that period. McGilligan claims Eastwood returned to his "habitual womanizing '' in the early 1980s, becoming involved with story analyst Megan Rose, actress Jamie Rose (who played a bit part in Tightrope), animal rights activist Jane Brolin (who had intermittent liaisons with Eastwood between the early 1960s and late 1980s) and Jacelyn Reeves, a stewardess he met at the Hog 's Breath Inn, among others. He was still living with Locke when he conceived two children with Reeves: a son Scott Eastwood (born Scott Reeves; March 21, 1986) and daughter Kathryn Eastwood (born Kathryn Reeves; February 2, 1988), whose birth certificates both said "Father declined. '' The affair with Reeves was not reported anywhere until an exposé article was published in the Star tabloid in 1990. It quoted Reeves as saying "Some family members tell me to file a paternity suit against Clint, but I do n't want to. '' The children continued to be unacknowledged by mainstream news sources for more than a decade thereafter. Eastwood 's relationship with Locke (at the time unaware of his infidelities) ended acrimoniously in April 1989, and the post-breakup litigation dragged on for years. Locke filed a palimony lawsuit against him after he changed the locks on their home and moved her possessions into storage when she was at work filming her second directorial feature, Impulse. In court, Eastwood downplayed the intensity of their relationship. He described Locke as a "roommate '' before quickly redescribing her as a "part - time roommate. '' Locke 's estranged brother told The Tennessean that Eastwood still truly loved her, but could no longer take her "addiction '' to husband Gordon Anderson. Anticipating that Eastwood was going to misrepresent the marriage, Locke asked Anderson to surrender all claims on any of her assets that as her legal spouse he was entitled to. "In an extraordinary gesture of love and faith in me, Gordon signed away everything without hesitation. '' During the trial, an investigative journalist contacted Locke and informed her of Eastwood 's other family. "I spoke with the nurse in the delivery room, and she confirmed that they are Clint 's children. I 'll send copies of the birth certificates to you and a photo of Jacelyn, if you want them, '' Locke quotes the informant. "My mind was still searching to get all his actions lined up. For at least the last four years of our relationship, Clint had been living this double life, going between me and this other woman, and having children with her. Two babies had been born during the last three years of our relationship, and they were n't mine. '' As the case went on, Locke developed breast cancer and said the treatments sapped her will to fight. She dropped her suit in November 1990 in exchange for a settlement package which included a lump sum plus monthly payments from Eastwood and a $1.5 million directing deal at Warner Bros., but sued him again for fraud in 1995 when she became convinced the deal with Warner was a sham, finally settling out of court in September 1996. Since then, Locke has made discrediting comments about Eastwood.
In 1990, actress Frances Fisher, whom Eastwood had met on the set of Pink Cadillac in late 1988, moved in with him. Fisher said of dating Eastwood, "I simply felt that this was it, the big one. I had no idea that every woman he meets probably feels as I did. '' They co-starred in Unforgiven, and had a daughter, Francesca Eastwood (born Francesca Fisher - Eastwood; August 7, 1993). The birth of Francesca marked the first time Eastwood was present for one of his children being born. Eastwood and Fisher ended their relationship in early 1995, after which Fisher said it took two years to complete what she called the grieving process for her shattered dreams. Before she had moved out of Eastwood 's home, he was said to already be dating Dina Ruiz, a television news anchor 35 years his junior whom he had first met when she interviewed him in April 1993. They married on March 31, 1996, when Eastwood surprised her with a private ceremony at a home on the Shadow Creek Golf Course in Las Vegas. The marriage was noted for the fact that it was only Eastwood 's second legal union in spite of his many long - term romances over the decades. Eastwood said of his bride, "I 'm proud to make this lady my wife. She 's the one I 've been waiting for. '' Ruiz commented, "The fact that I 'm only the second woman he has married really touches me. '' The couple has one daughter, Morgan Eastwood (born December 12, 1996). Ruiz made cameos in two of Eastwood 's films, Blood Work and True Crime (in which Fisher even appeared). In the summer of 2012, Dina, Morgan and Francesca starred with the band Overtone in the E! reality - television show Mrs. Eastwood & Company, on which Clint appeared infrequently.
In August 2013, Dina Eastwood announced that she and her husband had been living separately for an undisclosed length of time. On October 23, 2013, Dina filed for divorce after she withdrew her request for legal separation, citing irreconcilable differences. She asked for full custody of their 16 - year - old daughter, Morgan, as well as spousal support. The divorce was finalized on December 22, 2014. Eastwood has since been linked publicly with photographer Erica Tomlinson - Fisher (no relation to Frances), 41 years his junior, and restaurant hostess Christina Sandera, 33 years his junior. He and Sandera went public with their relationship at the 87th Academy Awards in February 2015.
Despite smoking in some of his films, Eastwood is a lifelong non-smoker, has been conscious of his health and fitness since he was a teenager, and practices healthful eating and daily Transcendental Meditation.
He opened an old English - inspired pub called the Hog 's Breath Inn in Carmel - by - the - Sea, California in 1971. Eastwood sold the pub and now owns the Mission Ranch Hotel and Restaurant in Carmel - by - the - Sea.
He is an avid golfer and owns the Tehàma Golf Club. He is an investor in the world - renowned Pebble Beach Golf Links west of Carmel and donates his time to charitable causes at major tournaments. Eastwood is a certified pilot and often flies his helicopter to the studios to avoid traffic.
Eastwood registered as a Republican to vote for Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952, as well as Eisenhower 's running - mate Richard Nixon in 1968 and 1972 presidential elections. However, during the subsequent Watergate scandal, Eastwood criticized Nixon 's morality and later his handling of the Vietnam War, calling it "immoral ''.
Eastwood has disapproved of America 's wars in Korea (1950 -- 1953), Vietnam (1964 -- 1975), Afghanistan (2001 -- present), and Iraq (2003 -- 2011), believing that the United States should not be overly militaristic or play the role of global policeman. He has referred to himself as "... too individualistic to be either right - wing or left - wing, '' describing himself in 1974 as "a political nothing '' and "a moderate '' and in 1997 as a "libertarian. '' "I do n't see myself as conservative, '' Eastwood has stated, while noting in the same breath that he is not an "ultra-leftist, '' either. At times, he has supported Democrats in California, including Senator Dianne Feinstein in 1994, liberal United States House of Representatives member Sam Farr in 2002, and Governor Gray Davis, whom he voted for in 1998 and 2002 and hosted pricey fundraisers for in 2002 and 2003.
A self - professed "liberal on civil rights, '' Eastwood has stated that he is pro-choice on abortion. He has endorsed same - sex marriage and contributed to groups supporting the Equal Rights Amendment for women, which failed to receive ratification in 1982.
In 1992, Eastwood acknowledged to writer David Breskin that his political views represented a fusion of Milton Friedman and Noam Chomsky and suggested that they would make for a worthwhile presidential ticket. In 1999, Eastwood stated, "I guess I was a social liberal and fiscal conservative before it became fashionable. '' Ten years later, in 2009, Eastwood said that he was now a registered Libertarian.
Despite being heavily associated with firearms in his Westerns and police movies, Eastwood has publicly endorsed gun control since at least 1973. In the April 24, 1973, edition of The Washington Post, the star said, "I 'm for gun legislation myself. I do n't hunt. '' Two years later, in 1975, Eastwood told People magazine that he favors "gun control to some degree. '' About a year later, Eastwood remarked that "All guns should be registered. I do n't think legitimate gun owners would mind that kind of legislation. Right now the furor against a gun law is by gun owners who are overreacting. They 're worried that all guns are going to be recalled. It 's impossible to take guns out of circulation, and that 's why firearms should be registered and mail - order delivery of guns halted. '' In 1993, he noted that he "... was always a backer '' of the Brady Bill, with its federally mandated waiting period. In 1995, Eastwood questioned the purpose of assault weapons. Larry King, the television host and newspaper columnist, wrote in the May 22, 1995, edition of USA Today that "my interview with Eastwood will air on ' Larry King Weekend '... I asked him his thoughts on the NRA and gun control and he said that while people think of him as pro-gun, he has always been in favor of controls. ' Why would anyone need or want an assault weapon? ' he said. ''
As a politician, Eastwood has made successful forays into both local and state government. In April 1986, he won election as mayor (a nonpartisan position) of his adopted hometown, Carmel - by - the - Sea, California -- a small, wealthy village and artists ' community on the Monterey Peninsula. During his two - year term, Eastwood supported small business interests while advocating environmental protection and constructing a library annex, along with public restrooms, beach walkways, and a tourists ' parking lot. In 2001 Eastwood was appointed to the California State Park and Recreation Commission by Governor Davis, then reappointed in 2004 by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger. As the vice chairman of the commission, in 2005 along with chairman Bobby Shriver, he led the movement opposed to a six - lane 16 - mile (26 km) extension of California State Route 241, a toll road that would cut through San Onofre State Beach. Eastwood and Shriver supported a 2006 lawsuit to block the toll road and urged the California Coastal Commission to reject the project, which it did in February 2008. In March 2008 Eastwood and Shriver 's non-reappointment to the commission on the expiry of their terms prompted the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) to request a legislative investigation into the decision. Governor Schwarzenegger appointed Eastwood to the California Film Commission in April 2004. He was a spokesman for Take Pride in America, an agency of the United States Department of the Interior which advocates taking responsibility for natural, cultural, and historic resources.
During the 2008 United States presidential election, Eastwood stated that he would be voting for John McCain, citing the fact that he had known McCain since he returned to the US in 1973 as a recently released POW. Eastwood said of McCain: "I met him years ago when he first came back from Vietnam. This was back when (Ronald) Reagan was the governor of California and he had a big function for all of the prisoners of war who were released. I thought he was a terrific guy, a real American hero. '' Nevertheless, Eastwood wished Barack Obama well upon his subsequent victory saying, "Obama is my president now and I am going to be wishing him the very best because it is what is best for all of us. '' Eastwood stated in 2010 of President Obama: "I think he 's a nice fella and I enjoyed watching him come along and I enjoyed watching him campaign and win the job. But I 'm not a fan of what he 's doing at the moment... I just do n't think he 's governing. I do n't think he 's surrounded himself with the people he could have surrounded himself with. ''
In August 2010, Eastwood wrote to the then British Chancellor of the Exchequer, George Osborne, to protest the decision to close the UK Film Council, warning the closure could result in fewer foreign production companies choosing to work in the UK.
In January 2011, Eastwood told the UK 's Daily Mail that "I loved the fact that Obama is multi-racial. I thought that was terrific, as my wife is the same racial make - up. But I felt he was a greenhorn, and it turned out he did n't have experience in decision - making. '' As for McCain, Eastwood reflected, "I voted for McCain, not because he was a Republican, but because he had been through war (in Vietnam) and I thought he might understand the war in Iraq better than somebody who had n't. I did n't agree with him on a lot of stuff. '' On August 3, 2012, he attended a fundraiser for Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney, suggesting that Romney would boost the country and "restore a decent tax system... so that there 's a fairness and people are not pitted against one another as (to) who 's paying taxes and who is n't. '' During a speech at the 2012 Republican National Convention, Eastwood talked to an empty chair as if President Barack Obama were sitting in it. The speech was met with a huge response by the media with both praise and criticism. Eastwood, who said he came up with the speech 5 seconds before he gave it, said that if he could do it again he would say something different. "My only message was (that) I wanted people to take the idolizing factor out of every contestant out there. Just look at the work, look at the background, and then make a judgment on that. I was just trying to say that, and did it in kind of a roundabout way which took a lot more time, I suppose, than they would have liked. I 'd probably say something else but I 'd try to get the same message across so that people do n't have to kiss up to politicians. No matter what party they 're in, you should evaluate their work and make your judgments accordingly. That 's the way to do it in life and every other subject, but sometimes in America we get gaga, we look at the wrong values. ''
Eastwood said he has always opposed war and is a pragmatic Libertarian rather than a red - meat Republican. Eastwood further explained his anti-war stance by saying "I was a child growing up during World War II. That was supposed to be the one to end all wars. And four years later, I was standing at the draft board being drafted during the Korean conflict, and then after that there was Vietnam, and it goes on and on forever... I just wonder... does this ever stop? And no, it does n't. So each time we get in these conflicts, it deserves a lot of thought before we go wading in or wading out. Going in or coming out. It needs a better thought process, I think. '' Furthermore, Eastwood 's 2014 movie American Sniper was met with strong critical praise, especially from many Republicans who called it a pro-War on Terror, pro-Republican, and patriotic film; Eastwood responded by saying that such notions represented a "stupid analysis '' and that the movie had nothing to do with political parties. Eastwood responded to critics of American Sniper by saying his film was "the biggest anti-war statement any film can make '', and that the film depicts "the fact of what (war) does to the family and the people who have to go back into civilian life like Chris Kyle did '' and "what it (war) does to the people left behind. ''
In an interview with Esquire that appeared in early August 2016, Eastwood discussed Donald Trump and how this generation, as he put it, is a "pussy generation. '' "All these people that say, ' Oh, you ca n't do that, and you ca n't do this, and you ca n't say that. ' I guess it 's just the times. '' Eastwood also said that while he was not endorsing Trump, he did see where he was coming from at times, even though the filmmaker stated that the candidate has said dumb things. "What Trump is onto is he 's just saying what 's on his mind. And sometimes it 's not so good. And sometimes it 's... I mean, I can understand where he 's coming from, but I do n't always agree with it. I have n't endorsed anybody. I have n't talked to Trump. I have n't talked to anybody. You know, he 's a racist now because he 's talked about this judge. And yeah, it 's a dumb thing to say. I mean, to predicate your opinion on the fact that the guy was born to Mexican parents or something. He 's said a lot of dumb things. So have all of them. Both sides. But everybody -- the press and everybody 's going, ' Oh, well, that 's racist, '' and they 're making a big hoodoo out of it. Just fucking get over it. It 's a sad time in history. ' '' Eastwood also said, when asked if he was still a Libertarian, that he was a little bit of everything and that he wants this generation to get to work and be more understanding instead of calling people names. "Kick ass and take names, '' Eastwood said. When asked which candidate he would prefer between Trump and Hillary Clinton, Eastwood replied, "That 's a tough one, is n't it? I 'd have to go for Trump... you know, ' cause she 's declared that she 's gon na follow in Obama 's footsteps. There 's been just too much funny business on both sides of the aisle. She 's made a lot of dough out of being a politician. I gave up dough to be a politician. I 'm sure that Ronald Reagan gave up dough to be a politician. ''
However, in a subsequent interview with the Los Angeles Times that appeared a month later, Eastwood suggested that he would not necessarily vote for Trump and instead appeared agnostic regarding the 2016 presidential election. The Times ' Rebecca Keegan asked, "So when you say you 're not on either side of the aisle, does that mean you 're not voting for Trump? '' Eastwood replied, "I 'm totally an enigma. I 'm just astounded. I hate to pick up the paper. I think both individuals and both parties backing the individuals have a certain degree of insanity. ''
Eastwood had declared in that interview, "I 'm not on either side of the aisle. I think most Americans are going, ' What the...? Is this all we can do? '... When there were 17 people on the stage (in the early GOP debates), I thought, well, there are three or four people up there I could see voting for. They seem pretty good. I had a few.... And then I thought, what the hell happened? ''
And in a red carpet interview with Extra on September 8, 2016, when asked about supposedly supporting Trump, Eastwood replied, "You know, I have n't supported anybody, really, '' and jokingly suggested that Trump and Clinton constituted a modern - day Abbott and Costello, referring to the bumbling comedians of the 1940s and early 1950s.
During a screening of his 1992 film Unforgiven at the Cannes Film Festival on May 21, 2017, as part of the film 's 25th anniversary, Eastwood decried what he saw as political correctness within society. Recalling back to the release of Dirty Harry, Eastwood commented, "A lot of people thought (Dirty Harry) was politically incorrect. That was at the beginning of the era that we 're in now with political correctness. We are killing ourselves, we 've lost our sense of humor. But I thought it was interesting and it was daring. ''
Eastwood favors jazz (especially bebop), blues, classic rhythm and blues, classical, and country - and - western music; his favorite musicians include saxophonists Charlie Parker and Lester Young, pianists Thelonious Monk, Oscar Peterson, Dave Brubeck, and Fats Waller, and Delta bluesman Robert Johnson. He is also a pianist and composer. Jazz has played an important role in Eastwood 's life from a young age and, although he never made it as a professional musician, he passed on the influence to his son Kyle Eastwood, a successful jazz bassist and composer. Eastwood developed as a boogie - woogie pianist early on and had originally intended to pursue a career in music by studying for a music theory degree after graduating from high school. In late 1959 he produced the album Cowboy Favorites, released on the Cameo label.
Eastwood has his own Warner Bros. Records - distributed imprint Malpaso Records, as part of his deal with Warner Brothers, which has released all of the scores of Eastwood 's films from The Bridges of Madison County onward. Eastwood co-wrote "Why Should I Care '' with Linda Thompson and Carole Bayer Sager, which was recorded by Diana Krall.
Eastwood composed the film scores of Mystic River, Million Dollar Baby, Flags of Our Fathers, Grace Is Gone, Changeling, Hereafter, J. Edgar, and the original piano compositions for In the Line of Fire. He wrote and performed the song heard over the credits of Gran Torino.
The music in Grace Is Gone received two Golden Globe nominations by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association for the 65th Golden Globe Awards. Eastwood was nominated for Best Original Score, while the song "Grace is Gone '' with music by Eastwood and lyrics by Carole Bayer Sager was nominated for Best Original Song. It won the Satellite Award for Best Song at the 12th Satellite Awards. Changeling was nominated for Best Score at the 14th Critics ' Choice Awards, Best Original Score at the 66th Golden Globe Awards, and Best Music at the 35th Saturn Awards. On September 22, 2007, Eastwood was awarded an honorary Doctor of Music degree from the Berklee College of Music at the Monterey Jazz Festival, on which he serves as an active board member. Upon receiving the award he gave a speech claiming, "It 's one of the great honors I 'll cherish in this lifetime. ''
Eastwood has been recognized with multiple awards and nominations for his work in film, television, and music. His widest reception has been in film work, for which he has received Academy Awards, Directors Guild of America Awards, Golden Globe Awards, and People 's Choice Awards, among others. Eastwood is one of only two people to have been twice nominated for Best Actor and Best Director for the same film (Unforgiven and Million Dollar Baby) the other being Warren Beatty (Heaven Can Wait and Reds). Along with Beatty, Robert Redford, Richard Attenborough, Kevin Costner, and Mel Gibson, he is one of the few directors best known as an actor to win an Academy Award for directing. On February 27, 2005, he became one of only three living directors (along with Miloš Forman and Francis Ford Coppola) to have directed two Best Picture winners. Aged 74, he was the oldest recipient of the Academy Award for Best Director to date. Eastwood has directed five actors in Academy Award -- winning performances: Gene Hackman in Unforgiven, Tim Robbins and Sean Penn in Mystic River, and Morgan Freeman and Hilary Swank in Million Dollar Baby.
On August 22, 1984, Eastwood was honored at a ceremony at Grauman 's Chinese theater to record his hand and footprints in cement. Eastwood received the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1996, and received an honorary degree from AFI in 2009. On December 6, 2006, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Eastwood into the California Hall of Fame located at The California Museum for History, Women, and the Arts.
In early 2007, Eastwood was presented with the highest civilian distinction in France, Légion d'honneur, at a ceremony in Paris. French President Jacques Chirac told Eastwood that he embodied "the best of Hollywood. '' In October 2009, he was honored by the Lumière Award (in honor of the Lumière Brothers, inventors of the Cinematograph) during the first edition of the Lumière Film Festival in Lyon, France. This award honors his entire career and his major contribution to the 7th Art. In February 2010, Eastwood was recognized by President Barack Obama with an arts and humanities award. Obama described Eastwood 's films as "essays in individuality, hard truths and the essence of what it means to be American. ''
Eastwood has also been awarded at least three honorary degrees from universities and colleges, including an honorary degree from the University of the Pacific in 2006, an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the University of Southern California on May 27, 2007, and an honorary Doctor of Music degree from the Berklee College of Music at the Monterey Jazz Festival on September 22, 2007.
On July 22, 2009, Eastwood was honored by Emperor Akihito of Japan with the Order of the Rising Sun, 3rd class, Gold Rays with Neck Ribbon for his contributions to the enhancement of Japan -- United States relations.
Eastwood won the Golden Pine lifetime achievement award at the 2013 International Samobor Film Music Festival, along with Ryuichi Sakamoto and Gerald Fried.
Eastwood has contributed to over 50 films over his career as actor, director, producer, and composer. He has acted in several television series, including his starring role in Rawhide. He started directing in 1971, and made his debut as a producer in 1982, with Firefox, though he had been functioning as uncredited producer on all of his Malpaso Company films since Hang ' Em High in 1968. Eastwood also has contributed music to his films, either through performing, writing, or composing. He has mainly starred in western, action, and drama films. According to the box office -- revenue tracking website Box Office Mojo, films featuring Eastwood have grossed a total of more than $1.68 billion domestically, with an average of $37 million per film.
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who completed and published the first assamese dictionary in 1867 | Hemkosh - wikipedia
Hemkosh (Assamese: হেমকোষ, IPA: (hɛmkʊx)) is the first etymological dictionary of the Assamese language based on Sanskrit spellings, compiled by Hemchandra Barua. It was first published in 1900 under the supervision of Capt. P.R. Gordon, ISC and Hemchandra Goswami, 33 years after the publication of Bronson 's dictionary. It contained about 22,346 words. This dictionary still published by Hemkosh Printers is considered to be the "standard '' reference of the Assamese language.
Hemkosh is the second dictionary of Assamese language. The first Assamese dictionary was compiled by Dr. Miles Bronson, an American Baptist Missionary. His dictionary, published in 1867 at the American Baptist Mission Press, Sibsagar, is out of print. Bronson 's work did not pretend to be an etymological dictionary but contained a very considerable collection of words from the people themselves without recording derivations.
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how old is gary with the t from dish nation | Dish Nation - wikipedia
Dish Nation is a nightly syndicated television program that features celebrity news and humorous commentary on pop culture presented by radio personalities from across the United States. It debuted in July 2011 on Fox Television Stations.
The radio teams include The Rickey Smiley Morning Show, from Atlanta, heard on 65 + radio stations. It features standup comic and theatrical star Rickey Smiley, who makes part - time appearances,; Headkrack; Porsha Williams (who replaced Ebony Steele); Gary with da Tea; Rock - T; and later Da Brat, who replaced him.
The Heidi & Frank Show from KLOS in Los Angeles featured Heidi Hamilton, Frank Kramer, Eric Smith and Sammy Marino. They were accompanied with Brooke Fox and Flagg (Brooke and Jubal in the Morning) from KQMV in Seattle, but these were dropped from the show in 2015.
The nationally syndicated The Kidd Kraddick Morning Show, from Dallas, joined Dish Nation for Season One in September 2012. The show starred J - Si Chavez, Kellie Rasberry, Jenna Owens, and Big Al Mack. They were dropped in December 2016.
During the 2011 Dish Nation summer test, recording artist DJ Felli Fel and Jessi Malay of Los Angeles ' KPWR were a part of the radio roundtable. Blaine Fowler & Allyson Martinek in the Morning on 96.3 WDVD in Detroit was also part of the original lineup, as was New York 's Scott & Todd, starring Scott Shannon and Todd Pettengill on WPLJ. The DJ Laz Morning Show was added to the show 's first season.
Current Hosts:
RICKEY SMILEY
Co-host of Dish Nation, comedian and personality of ' The Rickey Smiley Morning Show. '
PORSHA WILLIAMS
Co-host of Dish Nation & co-star of Bravo TV 's hit series ' The Real Housewives Of Atlanta '.
DA BRAT
Co-host of Dish Nation, multi-platinum - selling rap artist, celebrity contestant on ' VH1 's Hip Hop Squares ' and co-host of the nationally syndicated radio program ' The Rickey Smiley Morning Show '.
HEADKRACK
Co-host of Dish Nation, hip - hop artist and co-host of the nationally syndicated radio program ' The Rickey Smiley Morning Show. '
GARY HAYES
Co-host of Dish Nation and co-host of the nationally syndicated radio program ' The Rickey Smiley Morning Show. '
HEIDI HAMILTON
Co-host of Dish Nation and ' The Frosty, Heidi & Frank Show, ' KLOS - FM 's LA - based morning radio program.
FRANK KRAMER
Co-host of Dish Nation and ' The Frosty, Heidi & Frank Show, ' KLOS - FM 's LA - based morning radio program.
Dish Nation was conceived in 2008 by broadcast marketing veteran and former radio DJ and TV weatherman, Stu Weiss. Greg Meidel, who oversaw Entertainment Tonight in its heyday and launched The Insider while head of CBS Television Distribution, greenlit the limited market test of Dish Nation, opting to evolve to every genre he oversaw at CBS.
On July 25, 2011, Dish Nation premiered in a limited test run in seven markets. With the help of Madeleine Smithberg, co-creator of The Daily Show and Scott Rockett, co-creator of Hollywood Uncensored, the show kicked off as a fast - paced entertainment roundtable covering pop culture and celebrity news through four radio teams. The test show ran in the home markets where the radio shows were based (New York, Atlanta, Detroit and Los Angeles), as well as in Baltimore, Washington, D.C. and Phoenix. Hosts for the test run included WPLJ 's Scott Shannon and Todd Pettengill, WHTA 's nationally syndicated Rickey Smiley Morning Show, featuring Ebony Steele, Gary With Da Tea, and HeadKrack, as well as WDVD 's Fowler and Martinek. Recording artist DJ Felli Fel and Jessi Malay, with comedian Michael Bachmann, were the show 's Los Angeles hosts.
Dish Nation averaged a modest 0.9 rating / 2 share for the six - week test, but Fox saw promising growth. The show experienced an 11 % increase in household ratings from the premiere week to the end of the six - week test.
Dish Nation experienced other standout ratings successes, beating David Letterman in Atlanta and frequently coming in third in key demos and household ratings, although with the caveat that Atlanta 's CBS affiliate is one of that network 's weakest affiliate stations. The show 's median age of viewers was 43.1, the lowest among all entertainment magazine shows, according to Twentieth (TMZ 43.7, Access Hollywood 52.3, Extra 54.2, The Insider 55.2, Entertainment Tonight 56.6, Inside Edition 58).
Prior to the 2012 NATPE conference, 20th Century Fox announced that Dish Nation would return for a 52 - week,, full series run to premiere September 10, 2012. After the rating success of its first 100 episodes, Twentieth Television announced on January 25, 2013 that Dish Nation had been picked up for an unprecedented Season Two. Viewers "are constantly sharing with their friends that Dish Nation is the funniest show on television, resulting in new eyeballs watching the show and contributing to the continued upward trajectory of the ratings, '' said Stephen Brown, EVP of programming and development at 20th Television.
On July 27, 2013, Kidd Kraddick died in the New Orleans area while raising money for his charity Kidd 's Kids. Two days later, Dish Nation paid tribute to him with a special broadcast.
Season Two officially began on September 10, 2013 with the cast of The Rickey Smiley Morning Show from Atlanta, the remaining cast members of The Kidd Kraddick Morning Show (formerly named Kidd Kraddick in the Morning) from Dallas, and The Heidi and Frank Show from Los Angeles. Many segments were changed and dropped throughout the season. In November 2013, Dish Nation was renewed for a third season.
On May 12, 2014, Dish Nation introduced Josh Wolf and Trish Suhr as part of Dish HQ, along with Ebony Steele, who moved to Los Angeles. This led to rotating the Dallas crew with the LA crew each week, but this only lasted until June 2014, as the show returned to its original format with Atlanta, Dallas and LA. In June 2014, reality star Porsha Williams joined the show, teaming with The Rickey Smiley Morning Show for the summer.
Season Three began in September 8, 2014. In November 2014, the show began to rotate the Dallas and LA crew on a day - to - day basis. The Seattle crew came in at various times and rotations. The Atlanta crew was the only group that appeared all five days a week. On January 6, 2015 the show was renewed for two more years.
Season Four premiered on September 7, 2015. In November, rapper Da Brat was added as a main personality for the Atlanta team.
Vincent Rutherford replaces Michael Bachmann as Dish Nation 's Executive Producer.
Joining Dish Nation as special correspondents as of March 2016 were Ben and Matt from KNIX in Phoenix, Arizona, and Miguel and Holly from Hot 101.5 from Tampa, Florida. In April 2016, Tone Kapone from Chicago 's WGCI became the latest member in the rotation, initially for a short term, but later joined the show 's team full - time.
Season Five premiered on September 5, 2016.
The Dallas team, The Kidd Kraddick Morning Show, left the show in late December 201.
On January 4, 2016 it was announced that Dish Nation was Renewed Through 2019 On Fox Stations.
Season Six premiered on September 4, 2017.
Dish Nation continues with Atlanta and Los Angeles teams. Guest hosts often appear including, Kim Fields, Karrueche Tran, Monie Love, Ed Lover and Torrei Hart.
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what's the meaning of the name michael | Michael - wikipedia
Michael / ˈmaɪkəl / is a masculine given name that comes from Hebrew: מִיכָאֵל / מיכאל (Mīkhāʼēl, pronounced (miχaˈʔel)), derived from the question מי כאל mī kāʼēl, meaning "Who is like God? ''.
Patronymic surnames that come from Michael include Michaels, Carmichael, MacMichael, McMichael, Micallef, Michaelson, Mikkelsen, DiMichele, Mikhaylov, Mykhaylenko, Mikeladze, Michels, and Mitchell.
The name first appears in the Hebrew Bible in the Book of Numbers, 13: 13 where Sethur the son of Michael is one of 12 spies sent into the Land of Canaan.
The archangel Michael features in the Book of Daniel 12: 1, and in the Islamic Quran as Mikaeel. He is considered a saint (deified creature) by the Roman Catholic Church, the Ethiopian Tehawedo Church, and the Eastern Orthodox Church. For the Roman Catholic Church, 29 September is the feast day of the three archangels: Michael, Gabriel and Raphael. For the Orthodox Church, 8 November is the feast day commemorating the archangels Michael and Gabriel, as well as the whole host of angels, while the Monday of each liturgical week likewise corresponds to the "Bodiless Powers ''.
Michael (and its variants) is one of the most common given names for men in the world. In the United States, Michael was the most popular name of the 20th century, ranking No. 1 from 1954 to 1998 (with the exception of 1960, when it was second to David). It was among the top three most popular names for each year since 1953, only falling out of the top five in 2011 for the first time since 1949.
In 2014, Michael was the 20th most popular name in Northern Ireland, 27th in Canada and 42nd in Australia. In England and Wales, Michael ranked 53rd in 2011 and 2012. Mícheál ranked as the eighth most popular name for boys in Ireland in 2013.
Variants of Michael rank among the most popular masculine names in multiple countries. It was the third most popular in Finland from 2010 - March 2015 (as Mikael), seventh in Russia in 2009 (as Mikhail), 14th in Spain in 2012 (as Miguel), and 15th in Denmark (as Mikkel).
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what is a chromosomal disorder that can result from nondisjunction | Nondisjunction - wikipedia
Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division. There are three forms of nondisjunction: failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes to separate in meiosis I, failure of sister chromatids to separate during meiosis II, and failure of sister chromatids to separate during mitosis. Nondisjunction results in daughter cells with abnormal chromosome numbers (aneuploidy).
Calvin Bridges and Thomas Hunt Morgan are credited with discovering nondisjunction in Drosophila melanogaster sex chromosomes in the spring of 1910, while working in the Zoological Laboratory of Columbia University.
In general, nondisjunction can occur in any form of cell division that involves ordered distribution of chromosomal material. Higher animals have three distinct forms of such cell divisions: Meiosis I and meiosis II are specialized forms of cell division occurring during generation of gametes (eggs and sperm) for sexual reproduction, mitosis is the form of cell division used by all other cells of the body.
Ovulated eggs become arrested in metaphase II until fertilization triggers the second meiotic division. Similar to the segregation events of mitosis, the pairs of sister chromatids resulting from the separation of bivalents in meiosis I are further separated in anaphase of meiosis II. In oocytes, one sister chromatid is segregated into the second polar body, while the other stays inside the egg. During spermatogenesis, each meiotic division is symmetric such that each primary spermatocyte gives rise to 2 secondary spermatocytes after meiosis I, and eventually 4 spermatids after meiosis II. Meiosis II - nondisjunction may also result in aneuploidy syndromes, but only to a much smaller extent than do segregation failures in meiosis I.
Division of somatic cells through mitosis is preceded by replication of the genetic material in S phase. As a result, each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids held together at the centromere. In the anaphase of mitosis, sister chromatids separate and migrate to opposite cell poles before the cell divides. Nondisjunction during mitosis leads to one daughter receiving both sister chromatids of the affected chromosome while the other gets none. This is known as a chromatin bridge or an anaphase bridge. Mitotic nondisjunction results in somatic mosaicism, since only daughter cells originating from the cell where the nondisjunction event has occurred will have an abnormal number of chromosomes. Nondisjunction during mitosis can contribute to the development of some forms of cancer, e.g. retinoblastoma (see below). Chromosome nondisjunction in mitosis can be atrributed to the inactivation of topoisomerase II, condensin, or separase. Meiotic nondisjunction has been well studied in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This yeast undergoes mitosis similarly to other eukaryotes. Chromosome bridges occur when sister chromatids are held together post replication by DNA - DNA topological entanglement and the cohesion complex. During anaphase, cohesin is cleaved by separase. Topoisomerase II and condensin are responsible for removing catenations.
The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) is a molecular safe - guarding mechanism that governs proper chromosome segregation in eukaryotic cells. SAC inhibits progression into anaphase until all homologous chromosomes (bivalents, or tetrads) are properly aligned to the spindle apparatus. Only then, SAC releases its inhibition of the anaphase promoting complex (APC), which in turn irreversibly triggers progression through anaphase.
Surveys of cases of human aneuploidy syndromes have shown that most of them are maternally derived. This raises the question: Why is female meiosis more error prone? The most obvious difference between female oogenesis and male spermatogenesis is the prolonged arrest of oocytes in late stages of prophase I for many years up to several decades. Male gametes on the other hand quickly go through all stages of meiosis I and II. Another important difference between male and female meiosis concerns the frequency of recombination between homologous chromosomes: In the male, almost all chromosome pairs are joined by at least one crossover, while more than 10 % of human oocytes contain at least one bivalent without any crossover event. Failures of recombination or inappropriately located crossovers have been well documented as contributors to the occurrence of nondisjunction in humans.
Due to the prolonged arrest of human oocytes, weakening of cohesive ties holding together chromosomes and reduced activity of the SAC may contribute to maternal age - related errors in segregation control. The cohesin complex is responsible for keeping together sister chromatids and provides binding sites for spindle attachment. Cohesin is loaded onto newly replicated chromosomes in oogonia during fetal development. Mature oocytes have only limited capacity for reloading cohesin after completion of S phase. The prolonged arrest of human oocytes prior to completion of meiosis I may therefore result in considerable loss of cohesin over time. Loss of cohesin is assumed to contribute to incorrect microtubule - kinetochore attachment and chromosome segregation errors during meiotic divisions.
The result of this error is a cell with an imbalance of chromosomes. Such a cell is said to be aneuploid. Loss of a single chromosome (2n - 1), in which the daughter cell (s) with the defect will have one chromosome missing from one of its pairs, is referred to as a monosomy. Gaining a single chromosome, in which the daughter cell (s) with the defect will have one chromosome in addition to its pairs is referred to as a trisomy. In the event that an aneuploidic gamete is fertilized, a number of syndromes might result.
The only known survivable monosomy in humans is Turner syndrome, where the affected individual is monosomic for the X chromosome (see below). Other monosomies are usually lethal during early fetal development, and survival is only possible if not all the cells of the body are affected in case of a mosaicism (see below), or if the normal number of chromosomes is restored via duplication of the single monosomic chromosome ("chromosome rescue '').
Complete loss of an entire X chromosome accounts for about half the cases of Turner syndrome. The importance of both X chromosomes during embryonic development is underscored by the observation that the overwhelming majority (> 99 %) of fetuses with only one X chromosome (karyotype 45, X0) are spontaneously aborted.
The term autosomal trisomy means that a chromosome other than the sex chromosomes X and Y is present in 3 copies instead of the normal number of 2 in diploid cells.
Down syndrome, a trisomy of chromosome 21, is the most common anomaly of chromosome number in humans. The majority of cases results from nondisjunction during maternal meiosis I. Trisomy occurs in at least 0.3 % of newborns and in nearly 25 % of spontaneous abortions. It is the leading cause of pregnancy wastage and is the most common known cause of mental retardation. It is well documented that advanced maternal age is associated with greater risk of meiotic nondisjunction leading to Down syndrome. This may be associated with the prolonged meiotic arrest of human oocytes potentially lasting for more than four decades.
Human trisomies compatible with live birth, other than Down syndrome (trisomy 21), are Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18) and Patau syndrome (trisomy 13). Complete trisomies of other chromosomes are usually not viable and represent a relatively frequent cause of miscarriage. Only in rare cases of a mosaicism, the presence of a normal cell line, in addition to the trisomic cell line, may support the development of a viable trisomy of the other chromosomes.
The term sex chromosome aneuploidy summarizes conditions with an abnormal number of sex chromosomes, i.e. other than XX (female) or XY (male). Formally, X chromosome monosomy (Turner syndrome, see above) can also be classified as a form of sex chromosome aneuploidy.
Klinefelter syndrome is the most common sex chromosome aneuploidy in humans. It represents the most frequent cause of hypogonadism and infertility in men. Most cases are caused by nondisjunction errors in paternal meiosis I. About eighty percent of individuals with this syndrome have one extra X chromosome resulting in the karyotype XXY. The remaining cases have either multiple additional sex chromosomes (48, XXXY; 48, XXYY; 49, XXXXY), mosaicism (46, XY / 47, XXY), or structural chromosome abnormalities.
The incidence of XYY syndrome is approximately 1 in 800 - 1000 male births. Many cases remain undiagnosed because of their normal appearance and fertility, and the absence of severe symptoms. The extra Y chromosome is usually a result of nondisjunction during paternal meiosis II.
Trisomy X is a form of sex chromosome aneuploidy where females have three instead of two X chromosomes. Most patients are only mildly affected by neuropsychological and physical symptoms. Studies examining the origin of the extra X chromosome observed that about 58 - 63 % of cases were caused by nondisjunction in maternal meiosis I, 16 - 18 % by nondisjunction in maternal meiosis II, and the remaining cases by post-zygotic, i.e. mitotic, nondisjunction.
Uniparental disomy denotes the situation where both chromosomes of a chromosome pair are inherited from the same parent and are therefore identical. This phenomenon most likely is the result of a pregnancy that started as a trisomy due to nondisjunction. Since most trisomies are lethal, the fetus only survives because it loses one of the three chromosomes and becomes disomic. Uniparental disomy of chromosome 15 is, for example, seen in some cases of Prader - Willi syndrome and Angelman syndrome.
Mosaicism syndromes can be caused by mitotic nondisjunction in early fetal development. As a consequence, the organism evolves as a mixture of cell lines with differing ploidy (number of chromosomes). Mosaicism may be present in some tissues, but not in others. Affected individuals may have a patchy or assymmetric appearance. Examples of mosaicism syndromes include Pallister - Killian syndrome and Hypomelanosis of Ito.
Development of cancer often involves multiple alterations of the cellular genome (Knudson hypothesis). Human retinoblastoma is a well studied example of a cancer type where mitotic nondisjunction can contribute to malignant transformation: Mutations of the RB1 gene, which is located on chromosome 13 and encodes the tumor suppressor retinoblastoma protein, can be detected by cytogenetic analysis in many cases of retinoblastoma. Mutations of the RB1 locus in one copy of chromosome 13 are sometimes accompanied by loss of the other wild - type chromosome 13 through mitotic nondisjunction. By this combination of lesions, affected cells completely lose expression of functioning tumor suppressor protein.
Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD or PIGD) is a technique used to identify genetically normal embryos and is useful for couples who have a family history of genetic disorders. This is an option for people choosing to procreate through IVF. PGD is considered difficult due to it being both time consuming and having success rates only comparable to routine IVF.
Karyotyping involves performing an amniocentesis in order to study the cells of an unborn fetus during metophase 1. Light microscopy can be used to visually determine if aneuploidy is an issue.
Polar body diagnosis (PBD) can be use to detect maternally derived chromosomal aneuploidies as well as translocations in oocytes. The advantage of PBD over PGD is that it can be accomplished in a short amount of time. This is accomplished through zona drilling or laser drilling.
Blastomere biopsy is a technique in which blastomeres are removed from the zona pellucida. It is commonly used to detect aneuploidy. Genetic analysis is conducted once the procedure is complete. Additional studies are needed to assess the risk associated with the procedure.
Exposure of spermatozoa to lifestyle, environmental and / or occupational hazards may increase the risk of aneuploidy. Cigarette smoke is a known aneugen (aneuploidy inducing agent). It is associated with increases in aneuploidy ranging from 1.5 to 3.0-fold. Other studies indicate factors such as alcohol consumption, occupational exposure to benzene, and exposure to the insecticides fenvalerate and carbaryl also increase aneuploidy.
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when does the mama mia sequel come out | Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again - wikipedia
Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again is an upcoming American romantic musical comedy film directed and written by Ol Parker, from a story by Parker, Catherine Johnson, and Richard Curtis. It is the sequel to the 2008 film Mamma Mia!, which is based on the musical of the same name. The film stars Meryl Streep, Amanda Seyfried, Lily James, Christine Baranski, Julie Walters, Pierce Brosnan, Colin Firth, Stellan Skarsgård, Dominic Cooper, and Cher.
It is scheduled to be released in the United States and United Kingdom on July 20, 2018 by Universal Pictures, ten years to the month of the original film 's release.
Ten years later, in the greek island of Kalokairi, Sophie is pregnant with Sky 's child while running her mother 's villa. Self - conflicted because she ca n't do it by herself, but with Tanya and Rosie 's guidance, Sophie will find out more of Donna 's past and how she came to start up her villa, met each one of Sophie 's dads and raised a baby, bravely all on her own, without a mother to guide her -- with an unexpected visit from someone she had not invited or expected to see: her grandmother, Ruby Sheridan.
The following ABBA songs have been confirmed to appear in the film, either by Benny Andersson per his interview on BBC Radio 5 Live, or they appeared in the trailers:
The following songs have been mentioned:
Due to Mamma Mia! 's financial success, Hollywood studio chief David Linde, co-chairman of Universal Pictures told The Daily Mail that it would take a while, but there could be a sequel. He stated that he would be delighted if Judy Craymer, Catherine Johnson, Phyllida Lloyd, Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus agreed to the project, noting that there are still plenty of ABBA songs to use.
Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again was announced on May 19, 2017, with a planned release date of July 20, 2018. It will be written and directed by Ol Parker. On September 27, 2017, Benny Andersson confirmed 3 ABBA songs that would be featured in the film: "When I Kissed the Teacher, '' "I Wonder (Departure), '' and "Angel Eyes. ''
On June 1, 2017, it was announced that Seyfried would be returning as Sophie. Later that month, Dominic Cooper confirmed in an interview that he would be returning for the sequel along with Streep, Firth and Brosnan. In July 2017, Baranski was confirmed to return as Tanya in the film. On July 12, 2017, Lily James was cast in the film to play the role of "Young Donna. '' On August 3, 2017, Jeremy Irvine and Alexa Davies were cast in the film with Irvine set to play Brosnan 's character Sam in a past era, and Davies would play the role of a young Rosie, played by Julie Walters in the first film. On August 16, 2017, it was announced that Jessica Keenan Wynn (Heather Chandler in the original Off - Broadway cast of Heathers: The Musical) had been cast as a young Tanya, who was played by Baranski in the first film. Julie Walters and Stellan Skarsgård will also reprise their roles as Rosie and Bill, respectively. On October 16, 2017, it was revealed that American singer / actress Cher had joined the cast in her first on - screen film role since 2010.
Principal photography on the film began on August 12, 2017 in Croatia, including the island of Vis. The cast gathered in October 2017, at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, England, to film some song and dance numbers with Cher. Filming wrapped on December 2, 2017.
Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again is scheduled to be released on July 20, 2018 by Universal Pictures in the UK, USA and other selected countries.
The first trailer for the film was released on December 21, 2017 in front of Pitch Perfect 3, another film made by Universal Pictures. Cher performed Fernando at the Las Vegas CinemaCon on April 25, 2018 after footage of the film was shown.
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who played jack's son in will and grace | Michael Angarano - wikipedia
Michael Anthony Angarano (born December 3, 1987) is an American actor.
Angarano was born in Brooklyn, New York, to Michael and Doreen Angarano; he has two sisters and a younger brother. He is of Italian descent.
His family owns and operates the dance studio Reflections in Dance in Canoga Park, California. Angarano graduated from Crespi Carmelite High School.
In the late 1990s, Angarano was one of the finalists for the role of young Anakin Skywalker in Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace, but lost to Jake Lloyd.
Angarano played the 11 - year - old version of William Miller in Cameron Crowe 's semi-autobiographical film Almost Famous in 2000.
In 2000, 12 - year - old Angarano acted in Cover Me: Based on the True Life of an FBI Family. The following year, he landed his first major film role in Little Secrets, opposite Evan Rachel Wood and David Gallagher. Three years later, he starred in the Nickelodeon TV - movie Maniac Magee. He played the lead role in 2005 's Sky High. Other film roles include parts in The Bondage, Black Irish, Man in the Chair, Snow Angels, The Final Season, One Last Thing..., The Forbidden Kingdom, Ceremony, The Brass Teapot and Red State.
On television, from 2001 to 2006, he had a recurring role as Elliott, the son of Jack McFarland, on Will & Grace, a role he reprised in an episode of the show 's 2017 reboot. In 2007, he appeared in four episodes of the show 24 as Scott Wallace, a teenager taken hostage by a terrorist. From 2014 to 2015, he played Dr. Bertram "Bertie '' Chickering, Jr. on Cinemax 's period drama The Knick.
In 2008, Kristen Stewart said she and Angarano were in a relationship. During 2014, he was living in Los Feliz, Los Angeles, with his then - girlfriend, actress Juno Temple, whom he met in 2012 during production of their film The Brass Teapot. As of 2016, they are no longer together.
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avatar the last airbender season 2 ep 16 | Avatar: the Last Airbender (season 2) - wikipedia
Season Two (Book Two: Earth) of Avatar: The Last Airbender, an American animated television series on Nickelodeon, first aired its 20 episodes from March 17, 2006 to December 1, 2006. The season was created and produced by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko, and starred Zach Tyler Eisen, Mae Whitman, Jack DeSena, Jessie Flower, Dante Basco, Dee Bradley Baker, Mako Iwamatsu and Grey DeLisle as the main character voices.
In this season, Aang and his friends Katara and Sokka are on a quest to find an Earthbending teacher which finishes when they recruit Toph Beifong. After finding important information concerning the war with the Fire Nation, Appa ends up kidnapped. Their journey leads to Ba Sing Se, the capital of the Earth Kingdom, where they uncover great internal government corruption. Meanwhile, due to their actions at the North Pole, Zuko and Iroh are declared enemies of the Fire Nation and desert their country, becoming fugitives in the Earth Kingdom. Pursuing both Zuko and Aang is Princess Azula, Zuko 's younger sister.
Throughout the season 's airing, the show received much critical acclaim, with praises such as, "As a flat concept, Avatar: The Last Airbender is nothing special, but in execution, it is head and shoulders above other children 's entertainment '', and that "as a whole, the look of Avatar is consistently excellent. '' Season 2 has won multiple awards, including the "Best Character Animation in a Television Production '' award from the 34th Annie Awards and the "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation '' award from the 2007 Emmy Awards.
Between January 23, 2007 and September 11, 2007, Nickelodeon released five DVD sets for the season: four sets containing five episodes each, and a fifth DVD collection of all twenty episodes. All DVDs were encoded in Region 1. In the United Kingdom, only the season boxset was released without being released in four volumes first. The boxset was released on July 20, 2009.
The season was produced by and aired on Nickelodeon, which is owned by Viacom. The season 's executive producers and co-creators are Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko, who worked alongside episode director and co-producer Aaron Ehasz. Most of the individual episodes were directed by Ethan Spaulding, Lauren MacMullan and Giancarlo Volpe. Episodes were written by a team of writers, which consisted of Aaron Ehasz, Elizabeth Welch Ehasz, Tim Hedrick, John O'Bryan; along with creators DiMartino and Konietzko.
The season 's music was composed by "The Track Team '', which consists of Jeremy Zuckerman and Benjamin Wynn, who were known to the show 's creators because Zuckerman was Konietzko 's roommate.
Most of the main characters from the first season remained the same: Zach Tyler Eisen voices Aang, Mae Whitman voices Katara, Jack DeSena voices Sokka, Dee Bradley Baker voices both Appa and Momo, and Dante Basco voices Zuko.
However, several new characters appear: Jessie Flower voices Toph Beifong, Grey DeLisle voices Azula, Cricket Leigh voices Mai, Olivia Hack voices Ty Lee, and Clancy Brown voices Long Feng.
Mako Iwamatsu, who voiced Iroh, died from throat cancer after production was completed; he was replaced by Greg Baldwin for the following season and The Legend of Korra.
In a review of the Volume 2 DVD Release for Book 2, Gabriel Powers from DVDActive.com described the series as one of the best children 's series in recent times, making comparisons with Samurai Jack and Justice League, and complimented it for its depth and humour. Powers also comments:
For the video and audio quality, Powers says "Season two generally looks better than the bulk of season one, but still has some issues '' concerning image sharpness. Rotten Tomatoes gave it an 87 % fresh rating in 2008. Jamie S. Rich from DVD Talk says that "As a flat concept, Avatar the Last Airbender is nothing special, but in execution, it is head and shoulders above other children 's entertainment '', and that "as a whole, the look of Avatar is consistently excellent ''.
The show also received acclaim for its visual appeal. In the 34th Annie Awards, the show was nominated for and won the "Best Character Animation in a Television Production '' award, for Jae - Myung Yu 's animation in "The Blind Bandit '', and the "Best Directing in an Animated Television Production '' award, for the episode "The Drill ''. In 2007, the show was nominated for "Outstanding Animated Program '' in the 2007 Emmy Awards for the "City of Walls and Secrets '' episode, though it did not win. However, the show did win the "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation '' award for Sang - Jin Kim 's animation in the "Lake Laogai '' episode.
Sokka decides the group needs some intelligence to defeat the Fire Lord. At an oasis, the group encounters a professor who tells them about a hidden Spirit Library in the desert. Inside, Sokka discovers a crucial weakness to the Fire Nation that could end the war: the date of the upcoming solar eclipse which will cripple the firebenders ' firebending. The spirit of the library, Wan Shi Tong, refuses to allow them to leave with the knowledge and sinks the library into the sand. Meanwhile, Appa is kidnapped by Sandbenders. They all escape from the library but are devastated by the loss of Appa.
Aang and the rest of the group arrive in Ba Sing Se to find Appa and inform the Earth King about the solar eclipse, but they are constantly hindered by their tour guide, Joo Dee. They soon learn that any mention of war is forbidden and enforced by the Dai Li, secret police of Ba Sing Se, and their corrupt leader, Long Feng, who appears to know something about Appa. Elsewhere, Jet repeatedly tries and fails to gather evidence that Zuko and Iroh are firebenders. His last attempt, challenging Zuko to a sword fight, ends in his own arrest and being brainwashed by the Dai Li into believing there is no war in the city.
"The Tales of Ba Sing Se '' is a set of vignettes about each of the main characters ' adventures in Ba Sing Se, providing a glimpse of their personalities and private lives.
Note: Iroh 's tale was dedicated to his voice actor Mako Iwamatsu, who had just died 7 days after Chapters 10 and 11 initially aired.
After being abducted, Appa is traded to the Fire Nation Circus where the Circus Trainer mistreats him, though the Sky Bison soon escapes with the help of a small boy. He later unwillingly enters a fight with a Boarcupine, and wins but is badly wounded. By fortune, Suki and the Kyoshi warriors come across Appa and help him recover from his injuries, but are later attacked by Azula and her team and Appa is forced to flee. He returns to his childhood home at the Eastern Air Temple, where he encounters a mysterious guru. The guru aids Appa in his search for Aang, telling him to find Aang in Ba Sing Se, but before he is able to, he is captured by Long Feng.
Nickelodeon began releasing DVDs for Book 2 on January 23, 2007. The first four DVD releases contain one disc that consisted of five episodes each. The final DVD was the "Complete Book 2 Box Set '', which contains all of the episodes in the season on four discs, and packaged with a special features disc. All of the DVD sets for Book 2 were released with Region 1 encoding, meaning that they can only play on North American DVD players. Book 2 was released on Region 2 on July 20, 2009.
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secret life of the american teenager season 1 episode 6 | The Secret Life of the American Teenager (season 1) - wikipedia
The first season of The Secret Life of the American Teenager, an American television series created by Brenda Hampton, debuted on the ABC Family television network on July 1, 2008. The first season comprises 23 episodes, the first eleven of which ended on September 9, 2008. Despite marketing issues, the remaining twelve ended up as part of the first season, which concluded its initial airing on March 23, 2009. Season one regular cast members include Shailene Woodley, Molly Ringwald, Daren Kagasoff, Kenny Baumann, Francia Raisa, Megan Park, India Eisley, Greg Finley II, Jorge Pallo, Mark Derwin, and Luke Zimmerman.
Kyle XY was ABC Family 's highest rated original series from June 2006 - July 2008, but lost its reign when the series premiere of The Secret Life of the American Teenager brought in 2.8 million viewers. The season finale brought in 4.50 million viewers, 2.4 million of whom were females. The show was the number one scripted telecast on March 23, 2009 in viewers 12 - 34 and the number one telecast that night in viewers.
The season focuses on the relationships between families and friends dealing with the unexpected teen pregnancy of character Amy Juergens, portrayed by Shailene Woodley. Probably the last girl anyone would expect to suffer such a scandalous event, Amy 's world begins to expand as she discovers that virtually every student at her high school deals with some secret or unexpected problems, from the religious good - girl Grace to the tough - kid Ricky and to clingy loving Ben.
The series received a mixed reception when it began broadcasting. Many mainstream critics praised the messages presented in the series, although it was also criticized for its direction and writing. New York Post praised the series for having a set of characters that are "... real and come from families of all stripes -- from intact to single - parent households to one boy in foster care... '' The pilot episode broke the record for highest rated debut for ABC Family, beating Kyle XY, with 2.82 million viewers. The season one finale brought in 4.50 million viewers, beating the night 's 90210 which had almost half its usual number of viewers.
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who sang silver bells in coming home for christmas | Silver Bells - wikipedia
"Silver Bells '' is a popular Christmas song, composed by Jay Livingston and Ray Evans.
"Silver Bells '' was first performed by Bob Hope and Marilyn Maxwell in the motion picture The Lemon Drop Kid, filmed in July -- August 1950 and released in March 1951. The first recorded version was by Bing Crosby and Carol Richards on September 8, 1950 with John Scott Trotter and his Orchestra and the Lee Gordon Singers which was released by Decca Records in October 1950. After the Crosby and Richards recording became popular, Hope and Maxwell were called back in late 1950 to refilm a more elaborate production of the song.
"Silver Bells '' started out as the questionable "Tinkle Bells. '' Said Ray Evans, "We never thought that tinkle had a double meaning until Jay went home and his first wife said, ' Are you out of your mind? Do you know what the word tinkle is? ' '' The word is slang for urination.
This song 's inspiration has conflicting reports. Several periodicals and interviews cite the writer Jay Livingston stating that the song 's inspiration came from the bells used by sidewalk Santa Clauses and Salvation Army solicitors on New York City street corners. However, in an interview with NPR co-writer Ray Evans said that the song was inspired by a bell that sat on an office desk shared by Livingston and himself.
The song charted in the United Kingdom for the first time in 2009 when a duet by Terry Wogan and Aled Jones recorded for charity reached the Top 40, peaking at no. 27.
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the assassination of gianni versace american crime story ep 9 | The Assassination of Gianni Versace: American Crime Story - wikipedia
The Assassination of Gianni Versace: American Crime Story is the second season of the FX true crime anthology television series American Crime Story. The season premiered on January 17, 2018, and concluded on March 21, 2018. It consists of a total of 9 episodes, and explores the murder of designer Gianni Versace by spree killer Andrew Cunanan, based on Maureen Orth 's book Vulgar Favors: Andrew Cunanan, Gianni Versace, and the Largest Failed Manhunt in U.S. History.
The Assassination of Gianni Versace: American Crime Story was picked up on October 18, 2016, and was announced as the third season of the series, following the season about Katrina. The announcement also revealed that English author Tom Rob Smith would be the writer of multiple episodes of the season, including the first two, while executive producer Ryan Murphy would be directing the season premiere. Following the airing of the first season 's finale in April 2016, it was revealed that series creators Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski would not be returning for the second season.
In June 2017, it was announced that Katrina would not begin production until early 2018 and that Versace would air in early 2018, replacing Katrina as the show 's official second installment.
On October 2, 2017, American Horror Story veteran Matt Bomer was announced as the director of the eighth episode, making it his directorial debut. During its production, the working title of the season was American Crime Story: Versace / Cunanan.
In December 2017, after the first public screening, it was revealed that Versace would have nine episodes, despite being originally reported to consist of ten episodes.
In February 2017, Édgar Ramírez and Darren Criss joined the cast of The Assassination of Gianni Versace as Gianni Versace and Andrew Cunanan, respectively. Murphy confirmed the reports announcing Lady Gaga would portray Donatella Versace in The Assassination of Gianni Versace were false; Penélope Cruz was later cast in the role. In April 2017, it was announced that Ricky Martin was joining the cast of The Assassination of Gianni Versace as Antonio D'Amico, Versace 's longtime partner. On April 28, 2017, Annaleigh Ashford was seen filming on the set of The Assassination of Gianni Versace with Criss. On June 21, 2017, it was announced through Entertainment Weekly that Ashford 's role in the series would be as Elizabeth Cote, a friend of Cunanan 's since high school, while Nico Evers - Swindell would play her husband, Philip Merrill.
On May 5, 2017, Murphy announced via his Instagram account that Max Greenfield joined the casting, by publishing a photo of Greenfield and Criss on the set. On June 21, 2017, it was announced that Finn Wittrock will star in The Assassination of Gianni Versace, playing Jeffrey Trail, Cunanan 's first victim.
In November 2017, the official Twitter account for the series revealed that Judith Light and Dascha Polanco are part of the cast. In December 2017, the official webpage for the series released cast and character bios revealing that Max Greenfield would play Ronnie, whilst confirming the casting of Judith Light as Marilyn Miglin, Dascha Polanco as Detective Lori Wieder, Jon Jon Briones as Modesto Cunanan, Cody Fern as David Madson, and Mike Farrell as Lee Miglin.
According to multiple set reports and photos, principal photography of season 2 took place at the beginning of May 2017, in Miami. As revealed by Darren Criss via his Twitter account, shooting ended during the week of November 13.
In September 2017, FX released the first promotional teaser for The Assassination of Gianni Versace, showing doves sitting outside Versace 's former mansion and flying away when two gunshots ring out. A second teaser was released that same month, depicting Versace 's sister Donatella placing flowers on a casket. In October, a new teaser was released, depicting some police radio communications as a black clothes cover, with the name Versace on it, is being closed. The same month, a second teaser was released, showing Donatella kissing the stairs where Gianni was murdered, before entering in his mansion. On Halloween day, FX aired a new promotional video during a commercial break of the ninth episode of American Horror Story: Cult, which announced that the season would premiere on January 17, 2018.
In November 2017, four new teasers were released. The first one shows Versace relaxing next to his pool, as Cunanan comes out of it. The second one depicts D'Amico leaving Gianni 's house, as he hears two gunshots (the unseen murder) and runs to see what happened; while a voice - over by Ricky Martin as D'Amico says that he was Gianni 's partner and lover. The third one shows Donatella and Gianni hugging and watching themselves in front of a mirror, as the latter tells his sister that she would be Versace without him. The fourth one depicts a running sewing machine, which ends up having some issues and not being able to finish its work.
On November 15, 2017, the first full trailer for the season was released via the Twitter account of the series. It shows some moments of Cunanan 's unstable past and the first aftermaths of Versace 's assassination. The same day, it was announced that the first episode of the season would be available five days before the official premiere for FX+ subscribers. On November 28, 2017, FX released a new short trailer depicting the main cast of the season: Cruz, Ramírez, Martin and Criss; while a voice - over by Criss as Cunanan reveals how he feels the same as Versace.
In December 2017, more teasers were released. The first one opposes Versace and Cunanan as they speak about themselves and their past. The second one features a Versace fashion show where models start crying, as news reports about Versace 's death are being heard. The third one shows Cunanan trying to convince someone that he really has a date with Versace, while the scene is being cut by shots of the assassination and its aftermaths. The fourth one features Donatella Versace in a black dress for her brother 's funeral; the fifth one shows different rooms of Versace 's mansion, with multiple voice - overs by different characters; and the sixth one features a showering Cunanan, surrounding his face with duct tape, as Max Greenfield 's Ronnie asks him what he is doing. On December 28, a first look at the series was released, with multiple interviews from the crew and the cast. That same day, a new teaser was also revealed, depicting Cunanan as he is about to kill his sexual partner and then Versace.
At the start of January 2018, a new teaser was released. It features Cunanan changing the license plate of his car and greeting a young girl, while a voice - over is saying that the police are looking for him and that he is very dangerous. On January 16, 2018, the full red band trailer was released, and a short version premiered the next day.
The second season of American Crime Story received positive reviews from critics. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the season an approval rating of 86 % based on 81 reviews, with an average rating of 7.02 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The Assassination of Versace starts with a bang and unfurls slowly, moving backward through an intricate (and occasionally convoluted) murder mystery anchored by a career - defining performance from Darren Criss. '' On Metacritic, the season has a score of 74 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews. ''
In January 2018, the Versace family released a statement criticizing the series. They explained they have "neither authorized nor had any involvement whatsoever '' in the production of the season, before adding that it "should only be considered as a work of fiction. '' Executive producer Ryan Murphy answered that the series was "not a work of fiction '' as it is based on a non-fiction book, Maureen Orth 's Vulgar Favors, and that the production team and FX stand by the author and her work. Comparing it to The People v. O.J. Simpson, Murphy added that the season is "a work of non-fiction obviously with docudrama elements, '' and not a documentary. Following this answer, the Versace family released a second statement, still slamming the series as "a work of fiction '' because "the Orth book itself is full of gossip and speculation. '' They also heavily criticized Orth 's work, calling it an "effort to create a sensational story '' with "second - hand hearsay that is full of contradictions. '' They gave the example of Gianni Versace 's medical condition, as Orth claims that Versace was HIV positive at the time of his death.
Antonio D'Amico also criticized the series, deeming some scenes as "ridiculous '' and insisting that "so much has been fictionalised ''. He also revealed that he does not plan to watch it, but that he would have been happy if Ricky Martin, who plays his role, got in contact to get some insight into his relationship with Versace.
According to Ryan Murphy, Donatella Versace was very supportive that Penélope Cruz played her role. As Cruz and Versace are friends, Murphy explained that, when he offered her the role, Cruz asked the permission of Versace before agreeing to do it. He also revealed that, while Cruz was representing the series at the 75th Golden Globe Awards, Versace "very graciously sent (her) a lovely and huge flower arrangement saying ' good luck. ' ''
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where did cyprus come in the eurovision song contest | Cyprus in the Eurovision Song contest - wikipedia
Cyprus has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 35 times since making its debut in 1981. Cyprus ' first entry was the group Island, who finished sixth. The country 's best result in the contest is a second - place finish with Eleni Foureira in 2018.
Since 2004, Cyprus failed to qualify from the semi-final round for six out of eight years (2006 -- 2013), before withdrawing from the 2014 contest. On 14 July 2014, CyBC officially confirmed Cyprus ' return to the contest, with the country reaching the final four times in a row in 2015, 2016, 2017, and 2018.
Since its first entry, Cyprus has participated every year except 1988, 2001 and 2014. In 1988, Cyprus withdrew its entry after broadcaster CyBC determined that the intended entry was ineligible; the song had been entered (but not selected) in the 1984 national selection process, which was a violation of the Cypriot selection rules. In 2001, the country did not qualify for the contest due to insufficiently high average scores in previous contests, according to the qualification process at the time. In 2014, the broadcaster decided to withdraw from the contest and cited public indifference and the economic difficulties for not taking part. As of 2018, Cyprus now holds the record for the most times competing in the Eurovision Song Contest without a single win with 35 entries into the contest.
Most of the Cypriot entries have been sung in Greek or English; the exceptions are in 2000, in which the song "Nomiza '' included both Greek and Italian, and in the 2007 contest, in which Evridiki performed "Comme Ci, Comme Ça '' entirely in French.
On 3 October 2013, the Cypriot broadcaster Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation (CyBC) withdrew from the 2014 contest. Reasons that were cited are public opinion regarding the 2012 -- 13 Cypriot financial crisis and budget restrictions as factors that influenced this decision.
Cyprus is famous for always exchanging 12 points with Greece in the Semi Final and Final, though there have been exceptions. The last time Cyprus gave Greece less than 12 points was in 2015 (8 points). Since the advent of televoting in 1998, the two countries have consistently given each other the maximum 12 points until the 2015 Contest, where neither country gave their 12 to the other, but instead both gave them to Italy.
Cyprus and Turkey never exchanged votes until 2003, a taboo attributed to the ongoing Cyprus dispute.
Since its first entry in 1981, Cyprus has had a mixture of good and bad results. The best result achieved so far is a second place, reached by Eleni Foureira at the 2018 Contest.
In the 1980s and 1990s, Cyprus had managed to reach the top 10 a number of times, something which made the Contest become popular in the Cypriot public. Since 2004, Cyprus ' performance has dropped notably. From 2006 to 2009 and again in 2011 & 2013, the country did n't manage to reach the final.
At the same time when Cyprus ' performance in the contest dropped vertically, Greece 's performance improved very fast by one win and seven top ten results in one decade. This created a shift of interest, with the Cypriot public being more interested in the success of the Greek entry. This is probably because Greece, since 2004, seems to send very popular singers that have a well established fan - club in Cyprus, while Cyprus usually elects their contestants through an open contest, which often results in young and somewhat unknown artists representing the country.
On 14 July 2014, CyBC officially confirmed their return to the contest in 2015. Cyprus hosted the Eurovision Song Project, which included 2 semi-finals, 1 second chance round and a final. Since their return in 2015 the country has never failed to qualify, and even made their best result with Eleni Foureira coming second in 2018.
As of 2018, Cyprus ' voting history is as follows:
All conductors are Cypriot except those with a flag.
Alex Panayi at Dublin (1995)
Lisa Andreas at Istanbul (2004)
Evridiki at Helsinki (2007)
Evdokia Kadí at Belgrade (2008)
Christina Metaxa at Moscow (2009)
Jon Lilygreen & The Islanders at Oslo (2010)
Despina Olympiou at Malmö (2013)
Giannis Karagiannis at Vienna (2015)
Minus One at Stockholm (2016)
Hovig at Kiev (2017)
Eleni Foureira at Lisbon (2018)
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united states district court for the southern district of georgia | United States District court for the Southern District of Georgia - wikipedia
The United States District Court for the Southern District of Georgia (in case citations, S.D. Ga.) is a federal court in the Eleventh Circuit (except for patent claims and claims against the U.S. government under the Tucker Act, which are appealed to the Federal Circuit).
The current United States Attorney for the District is Bobby Christine since November 22, 2017.
The United States District Court for the District of Georgia was one of the original thirteen courts established by the Judiciary Act of 1789, 1 Stat. 73, on September 24, 1789. The District was further subdivided into Northern and Southern Districts on August 11, 1848, by 9 Stat. 280. The Middle District was formed from portions of both the Northern and Southern Districts on May 28, 1926, by 44 Stat. 670.
The Augusta Division comprises the following counties: Burke, Columbia, Glascock, Jefferson, Lincoln, McDuffie, Richmond, Taliaferro, Warren and Wilkes.
The Brunswick Division comprises the following counties: Appling, Camden, Glynn, Long, McIntosh, and Wayne.
The Dublin Division comprises the following counties: Dodge, Jeff Davis, Johnson, Laurens, Montgomery, Telfair, Treutlen, and Wheeler.
The Savannah Division comprises the following counties: Bryan, Chatham, Effingham, and Liberty.
The Statesboro Division comprises the following counties: Bulloch, Candler, Emanuel, Evans, Jenkins, Screven, Tattnall, and Toombs.
The Waycross Division comprises the following counties: Atkinson, Bacon, Brantley, Charlton, Coffee, Pierce, and Ware.
Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court, and preside over any panel on which they serve unless circuit judges are also on the panel. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.
When the office was created in 1948, the chief judge was the longest - serving judge who had not elected to retire on what has since 1958 been known as senior status or declined to serve as chief judge. After August 6, 1959, judges could not become or remain chief after turning 70 years old. The current rules have been in operation since October 1, 1982.
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kis desh mein hai meraa dil star cast | Kis Desh Mein Hai Meraa Dil - Wikipedia
Kis Desh Mein Hai Meraa Dil (Hindi: किस देश में है मेरा दिल) (English: In Which Country Does My Heart Live) is an Indian soap opera that aired on Star Plus. The story is of two lovers, Prem and Heer and their undying love for one another. Their story consist of many conspiracies, tragedies, heart - break, etc. but in the end their undying love for one another prevails through the roughest of times. In 2016 - 2017, it was being re-aired on Star Utsav.
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when does a brief inquiry into online relationships come out | A Brief Inquiry Into Online Relationships - wikipedia
A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships is the expected third studio album by the English rock band The 1975. It is the first of two albums to be released as part of the "Music for Cars '' era, which shares its name with the eponymous extended play (EP), and it is scheduled to be released on October 2018 through Dirty Hit and Polydor.
The lead single, "Give Yourself a Try '', was released on 31 May 2018.
Starting with the release of their self - titled debut album three years prior, The 1975 began to enjoy acclaim that continued on their second album, I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It. It was released on 26 February 2016 to mostly positive reviews from critics, as well as debuting atop the UK Albums Chart and the US Billboard 200.
However, in November that year, drummer George Daniel posted a video containing audio and frontman Matthew Healy playing keyboards; it was captioned "2018 ''. ln an interview for Dork for an end - of - the - year issue, Healy also stated that "I just know we 'll definitely put out a single next year or an EP which will lead up to the album which I reckon will come out early summer 2018... ''
On 3 April 2017, Healy, on Twitter, declared that the second album 's campaign was concluding before posting "Music For Cars ''. The name was previously confirmed as the album with Zane Lowe on Beats 1 later that same month, as well as confirming the connection to the EP of the same name, the third of four EPs released to promote the band 's eponymous debut album. Another video released in July showed the pink neon sign on the second album 's cover flickering off before stating "Music for Cars '' and the year, 2018.
The lead single of the album, "Give Yourself a Try '' was presented by Annie Mac on BBC Radio 1 on 31 May 2018, as her "Hottest Record in the World ''. It was subsequently released the same day, along with a music video, which was released on 1 June.
Within the end of April, posters titled "Music for Cars '' appeared, with the catalogue number DH00327 amongst a black background. A day later, a teaser poster was released by Dirty Hit, Obourne and the band, containing a poem headlined with "A Brief Inquiry Into Online Relationships '', although the catalogue number was DH00325. The band became active on May 2, when their website changed to show a countdown timer set to music.
On Annie Mac 's programme, Healy stated that the band would instead release two albums, A Brief Inquiry Into Online Relationships, for release in October 2018, and Notes on a Conditional Form, which will be released in May 2019.
At the Latitude Festival in July 2017, it was announced that the band would begin touring again in October 2018. In April 2018, Oborne commented that the band will deter from "surprise '' or "pop - up '' shows in order for the tour to be "the biggest live spectacle in the world ''. Upon the premiere of "Give Yourself A Try '', Healy stated the band would start touring in January 2019.
The tour will start in the United Kingdom.
The recording sessions for the album started in September 2017, according to Oborne. As of June 2018, the album is "not finished ''.
Healy talked to NME about the album 's style, saying that "If you look at third albums, ' OK Computer ' or ' The Queen Is Dead ', that 's what we need to do... I want people to look back and think our records were the most important pop records that a band put out in this decade. ''
The album is confirmed for release in October 2018. Healy released two tweets on 9 July 2017; Whilst repeating "Music for Cars '', he also tweeted "1st June -- The 1975 '', a phrase from the Jack Kerouac beat poetry book that inspired the band 's name. However, since the band repeated this during their final show at Latitude Festival for I Like It When You Sleep, it was speculated that the album was going to be on released then.
At the beginning of May, the band 's website updated to display a countdown timer, which ended on 1 June.
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where does the emporors new groove take place | The Emperor 's New Groove - wikipedia
The Emperor 's New Groove is a 2000 American animated buddy comedy film created by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. It is the 40th Disney animated feature film. It was directed by Mark Dindal, produced by Randy Fullmer, written by David Reynolds, and stars David Spade, John Goodman, Eartha Kitt, Patrick Warburton and Wendie Malick.
The film follows a teenage emperor named Kuzco who is transformed into a llama by his ex-advisor and henchwoman, Yzma. In order for the emperor to change back into a human, he trusts a village leader named Pacha who escorts him back to the palace. It was altered significantly over its six years of development and production.
The Emperor 's New Groove began as a musical epic titled Kingdom of the Sun, to have been directed by Dindal and Roger Allers (co-director of The Lion King), and was changed by Disney executives into a light - hearted buddy comedy. The documentary The Sweatbox details the production troubles that the film endured. It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song for "My Funny Friend and Me '' performed by Sting, but lost to "Things Have Changed '' by Bob Dylan from Wonder Boys. The film was followed by a direct - to - video sequel Kronk 's New Groove (2005), and an animated television series The Emperor 's New School (2006 -- 2008).
Kuzco, a young selfish Inca emperor, rejects the appearances of potential brides and throws an elderly man out the window for "throwing off his groove. '' After Kuzco fires his conniving advisor, Yzma, for abusing her power, she comes up with a scheme to take the throne with the help of Kronk, her dim - witted but jovial henchman. Later, Kuzco meets with Pacha, a kind peasant and village leader, and tells him that he plans to demolish his hilltop family home to build himself a lavish summer home called "Kuzcotopia ''. Pacha protests, but is dismissed.
Yzma and Kronk make a plan to get rid of Kuzco by tricking him into drinking poison at dinner, but end up giving him the wrong potion that instead transforms him into a llama. After knocking Kuzco unconscious, Yzma orders Kronk to dispose of him and hide the body, but Kronk has a stroke of conscience and saves him. He accidentally drops him on the back of Pacha 's cart as he 's leaving the city. Pacha returns home, but does not tell his family about Kuzco 's decision. After awakening from the bag on the cart, scaring Pacha, Kuzco blames Pacha for his transformation and orders him to take him back to the palace. Pacha uses this leverage to attempt to make Kuzco promise not to demolish the village. Kuzco haughtily sets off into the jungle alone, only to be chased by jaguars. After Pacha rescues Kuzco and they survive a waterfall, Kuzco agrees to spare the village, and Pacha agrees to help Kuzco return to the kingdom.
Meanwhile, Yzma takes the throne, eulogizing Kuzco, but Kronk reveals that he had lost Kuzco rather than killing him. The two set off to find him. Kuzco and Pacha fail to return to the palace, when they fall through a bridge into a chasm full of alligators. They manage to use teamwork to climb back up the chasm, avoiding the alligators, and Kuzco manages to save Pacha 's life once, proving Pacha 's point that Kuzco has a good conscience. Though Kuzco admits that he was n't going to respect their promise, Pacha continues to help Kuzco home as according to his promise. They stop at a jungle restaurant at the same time Kronk and Yzma do. Neither party realizes the other is there, until Pacha overhears Yzma and Kronk discussing their plot. Kuzco refuses to believe Pacha 's warning and leaves him, but overhears Kronk and Yzma shortly after proving Pacha right. Kuzco realizes that the kingdom does not even miss him and begins to repent his way of life. He searches for Pacha and eventually finds him and attempts to apologize. Pacha quickly forgives him. Meanwhile, Kronk remembers recognizing Pacha and realizes that Kuzco is likely with him.
The pair rush back to Pacha 's house for supplies, only to find that Kronk and Yzma are visiting Pacha 's family, posing as distant relatives. Pacha enlists the help of his family to stall Yzma and Kronk, as they get a head start. The race to the palace seems to end with Yzma and Kronk falling off a cliff, but they still inexplicably reach the palace first. Yzma orders Kronk to kill them both, but Kronk can not bring himself to commit murder, leading Yzma to insult and reprimand Kronk and resign to killing them herself. Yzma summons the guards (who do not recognize Kuzco), while Pacha and Kuzco escape with all the potions in hopes of turning Kuzco back to a human. After several guards are transformed into animals while testing potions and Yzma is transformed into a kitten, one vial remains as the trio fight over it on the outer face of the palace. Pacha and Kuzco utilize the same teamwork as they did in the chasm, and Kuzco even actively chooses to save Pacha 's life over retrieving the vial in one instance. Yzma manages to get the vial, but is then inadvertently defeated by Kronk, leaving the vial for Kuzco.
Now human again and a more selfless ruler, Kuzco decides to build his summer home elsewhere, and Pacha suggests a neighboring hilltop. In the end, Kuzco is shown living next door to Pacha 's in a modest cabin, sharing a swimming pool with Pacha and his family. Yzma, still a kitten, grudgingly joins Kronk 's Junior Chipmunk troop.
The idea of Kingdom of the Sun was conceived by Roger Allers and Matthew Jacobs, and development on the project began in 1994. Upon pitching the project to then - Disney CEO and chairman Michael Eisner, Allers recalled Eisner saying "it has all of the elements of a classic Disney film, '' and because of his directorial success on The Lion King that same year, Eisner allowed Allers to have free rein with both the casting and the storyline. By January 1995, Variety reported that Allers was working on "an Inca - themed original story ''.
In 1996, the production crew traveled to Machu Picchu in Peru, to study Inca artifacts and architecture and the landscape this empire was created in.
Kingdom of the Sun was to have been a tale of a greedy, selfish emperor (voiced by David Spade) who finds a peasant (voiced by Owen Wilson) who looks just like him; the emperor swaps places with the peasant to escape his boring life and have fun, much as in author Mark Twain 's archetypal novel The Prince and the Pauper. However, the evil witch Yzma has plans to summon the evil god Supai and destroy the sun so that she may retain her youth forever (the sun gives her wrinkles, so she surmises that living in a world of darkness would prevent her from wrinkling). Discovering the switch between the prince and the peasant, Yzma turns the real emperor into a llama and threatens to reveal the pauper 's identity unless he obeys her. The emperor - llama learns humility in his new form, and even comes to love a female llama - herder named Mata (voiced by Laura Prepon). Together, the girl and the llama set out to undo the witch 's plans. The book Reel Views 2 says the film would have been a "romantic comedy musical in the ' traditional ' Disney style ''.
Following the underwhelming box office performances of Pocahontas and The Hunchback of Notre Dame, studio executives felt the project was growing too ambitious and serious for audiences following test screenings, and needed more comedy. In early 1997, producer Randy Fullmer contacted Mark Dindal, who had just wrapped up work on Cats Do n't Dance, and offered him to be co-director on Kingdom of the Sun. Meanwhile, Allers personally called Sting, in the wake of Elton John 's success with The Lion King 's soundtrack, to compose several songs for the film. He agreed, but on the condition that his filmmaker wife Trudie Styler could "document the process of the production ''. This film, which was eventually entitled The Sweatbox, was made by Xingu Films (their own production company). Along with collaborator David Hartley, Sting composed eight songs inextricably linked with the original plot and characters.
In summer 1997, it was announced that Roger Allers and Mark Dindal would serve as the film 's directors and Randy Fullmer as producer. David Spade and Eartha Kitt had been confirmed to voice the emperor, Manco, and the villainess, while Carla Gugino was in talks for a role. Harvey Fierstein was also cast as Hucua, Yzma 's sidekick.
By the summer of 1998, it was apparent that Kingdom of the Sun was not far along enough in production to be released in the summer of 2000 as planned. At this time, one of the Disney executives reportedly walked into Randy Fullmer 's office and, placing his thumb and forefinger a quarter - inch apart, stated "your film is this close to being shut down. '' Fullmer approached Allers, and informed him of the need to finish the film on time for its summer 2000 release as crucial promotional deals with McDonald 's, Coca - Cola, and other companies were already established and depended upon meeting that release date. Allers acknowledged that the production was falling behind, but was confident that, with an extension of between six months to a year, he could complete the film. When Fullmer denied Allers 's request for an extension, the director decided to leave the project. On September 23, 1998, the project was dead with production costs amounting towards $25 -- 30 million and twenty - five percent of the film animated.
Upset that Allers left the project, Michael Eisner reportedly gave Fullmer two weeks to salvage the film or production would be shut down. Fullmer and Dindal halted production for six months to retool the project retitling it to Kingdom in the Sun, making it the first Disney animated feature to have an extensive overhaul since Pinocchio. Meanwhile, following Eric Goldberg 's pitch for the Rhapsody in Blue segment for Fantasia 2000, the animators were reassigned to work on the segment. In the interim, Chris Williams, who was a storyboard artist during Kingdom of the Sun, came up with the idea of making Pacha an older character as opposed to the teenager that he was in the original story. Following up on the new idea, former late - night comedy writer David Reynolds stated, "I pitched a simple comedy that 's basically a buddy road picture with two guys being chased in the style of a Chuck Jones ' toon, but faster paced. Disney said, ' Give it a shot. ' '' One of the new additions to the revised story was the scene - stealing character of Yzma 's sidekick Kronk. Meanwhile, the name Manco was changed to Kuzco following Fullmer 's discovery of the Japanese slang term omanco, which translates to vagina. Due in part of the production shutdown, Sting began to develop schedule conflicts with his songwriting duties interfering with his work on his next album he was planning to record in Italy. "I write the music, and then they 're supposed to animate it, but there are constantly changes being made. It 's constantly in turnaround, '' the singer / songwriter admitted, but "I 'm enjoying it. '' Because of the shutdown, the computer - animated film Dinosaur assumed the summer 2000 release date originally scheduled for Kingdom.
Andreas Deja declined to return to the film observing his more serious version of Yzma was incompatible with the wackier, comedic tone of the film, and moved to Orlando, Florida, to work on Lilo & Stitch. Animator Dale Baer would replace Deja as the supervising animator for Yzma. Fulmer would inform Sting by telephone that his songs, related to specific scenes and characters that were now gone, had to be dropped. Bitter about the removal of his songs, the pop musician commented that "At first, I was angry and perturbed. Then I wanted some vengeance. '' Disney eventually agreed to allow three of the six deleted songs as bonus tracks on the soundtrack album such as Yzma 's villain song titled "Snuff Out the Light '', the love song titled "One Day She 'll Love Me '', and a dance number called "Walk the Llama Llama ''. The plot elements such as the romance between the llama herder Pacha and Manco 's betrothed Nina, the sun - capturing villain scheme, similarities to The Prince and the Pauper stories, and Inca mythology were dropped. The character of Hucua was also dropped from the story, though he would make a cameo appearance as the candle holder during the dinner scene in the finished film. Kuzco -- who was a supporting character in the original story -- eventually became the protagonist.
By summer 1999, cast members Owen Wilson, Harvey Fierstein, and Trudie Styler were dropped from the film. Eartha Kitt and David Spade remained in the cast, Dindal commented, "(a) nd then John Goodman and Patrick Warburton (who played Elaine 's boyfriend Puddy on the Seinfeld series) came aboard. '' After Sting 's songs for Kingdom of the Sun were dropped from the new storyline, Sting remained on the project, though he was told by the studio that "All we want is a beginning and an end song. '' The song, "Perfect World '', was approached "to open the movie with a big, fun number that established the power of Kuzco and showed how he controlled the world '', according to Feature Animation president Thomas Schumacher. The filmmakers had asked Sting to perform the song for the film, though Sting declined telling them that he was too old to sing it and that they should find someone younger and hipper. They instead went with Tom Jones, who is eleven years older than Sting.
In February 2000, the new film was announced as The Emperor 's New Groove with its new story centering on a spoiled Inca Emperor -- voiced by David Spade -- who through various twists and falls ends up learning the meaning of true happiness from a poor peasant, played by John Goodman. The release date was scheduled for December 2000. Despite the phrasing of the title, the film bears no relation to Hans Christian Andersen 's classic Danish fairy tale "The Emperor 's New Clothes '' (although both stories involve an emperor being tricked). However, Eisner worried that the new story was too close in tone to Disney 's 1997 film Hercules, which had performed decently yet below expectations at the American box office. Dindal and Fullmer assured him that The Emperor 's New Groove, as the film was now called, would have a much smaller cast, making it easier to involve audiences. Towards the end of production, the film 's ending originally had Kuzco building his Kuzcotopia amusement park on another hill by destroying a rainforest near Pacha 's home, and inviting Pacha and his family to visit. Horrified at the ending, Sting commented that "I wrote them a letter and said, ' You do this, I 'm resigning because this is exactly the opposite of what I stand for. I 've spent 20 years trying to defend the rights of indigenous people and you 're just marching over them to build a theme park. I will not be party to this. '' The ending was rewritten so that Kuzco constructs a shack similar to Pacha 's and spends his vacation among the villagers.
During production on Kingdom of the Sun, Andreas Deja was the initial supervising animator of Yzma, and incorporated supermodeling poses published in magazines in order to capture Yzma 's sultry, seductive persona. Nik Ranieri was originally slated as the supervising animator for Yzma 's rocky sidekick, Hucua. During the research trip to Peru in 1996, Ranieri acknowledged that "I was researching for a character that looked like a rock so I was stuck drawing rocks for the whole trip. Then when we got back they piled it into this story about ancient Incas. '' Mark Pudleiner was to be the supervising animator of Kuzco 's proposed maiden, Nina. In early 1997, David Pruiksma came on board to animate the llama, Snowball. According to Pruiksma, Snowball was "a silly, vain and egotistical character, rather the dumb blond of the llama set. I really enjoyed developing the character and doing some early test animation on her as well. Before I left the film (and it was ultimately shelved), I created model sheets for not only Snowball, but for the rest of the herd of seven other llamas and for Kuzco as a Llama. '' When the film was placed on production shutdown, Pruiksma transferred to work on Atlantis: The Lost Empire being developed concurrently and ultimately the llama characters were dropped from the storyline.
Following the production overhaul and the studio 's attempts for more cost - efficient animated features, Mark Dindal urged for "a simpler approach that emphasized the characters rather than overwhelming special effects or cinematic techniques ''. Because of the subsequent departure of Deja, animator Dale Baer inherited the character of Yzma. Using Eartha Kitt 's gestures during recording sessions, Baer commented that "She has a natural voice for animation and really got into the role. She would gesture wildly and it was fun just to watch her. She would come into each session almost serious and very professional and suddenly she would go wild and break up laughing. '' Ranieri was later asked to serve as the supervising animator of Kuzco (as a human and a llama), though he would admit being reluctant at first until he discovered that Kuzco "had a side to him, there was a lot of comedy potential and as a character he went through an arc ''. Pudleiner was also reassigned to work as an animator of the human version of Kuzco. In addition to drawing inspiration from David Spade during recording sessions, the Kuzco animation team studied llamas at the zoo, visited a llama farm, watched nature documentaries, and even observed the animals up close when they came for a visit to the studio. For the rewritten version of Pacha, animator Bruce W. Smith observed that "Pacha is probably the most human of all the characters, '' and further added that he "has more human mannerisms and realistic traits, which serve as a contrast to the cartoony llama he hangs out with. He is the earthy guy who brings everything back into focus. Being a big fellow about six - foot - five and weighing about 250 pounds we had to work hard to give him a sense of weight and believability in his movement. ''
Actual animation began in 1999, involving 400 artists and 300 technicians and production personnel. Outside of the Walt Disney Feature Animation studio building in Burbank, California, animators located at Walt Disney Feature Animation Florida and Disney Animation France assisted in the production of The Emperor 's New Groove. During the last eighteen months of production, a 120 - crew of clean - up artists would take an animation cel drawing from the animation department, and place a new piece of paper over the existing image in order to draw a cleaner, more refined image. "We 're basically the final designers, '' said clean - up supervisor Vera Pacheco, whose crew worked on more than 200,000 drawings for "Groove ''.
After the release date had shifted to winter 2000, similarities were noted between the film and DreamWorks Animation 's The Road to El Dorado. Marc Lument, a visual development artist on El Dorado, claimed "It really was a race, and Katzenberg wanted ours out before theirs. '' Lument also added that, "We did n't know exactly what they were doing, but we had the impression it was going to be very similar. Whoever came out second would face the impression that they copied the other. '' Fullmer and Dindal denied the similarities with the latter commenting "This version (The Emperor 's New Groove) was well in the works when that movie came out, '' and further added "Early on, when our movie got to be very comic, all of us felt that you ca n't be making this farce about a specific group of people unless we are going to poke fun at ourselves. This did n't seem to be a proper choice about Incas or any group of people. It was more of a fable. ''
The marketing campaign for The Emperor 's New Groove was relatively restrained as Disney opted to heavily promote the release of 102 Dalmatians, which was released during Thanksgiving. Nevertheless, the film was accompanied with six launcher toys of Kuzco, Kuzco as a llama, Pacha, Yzma, Yzma as a cat, and Kronk accompanied with Happy Meals at McDonald 's in North America. The European, Asian and Australian toys from 2001 were different from the North American set. Stuffed animals were also made and sold in places like The Disney Store.
The standard VHS and DVD was released May 1, 2001, as well as a "2 - Disc Collector 's Edition '' that included bonus features such as Sting 's music video of "My Funny Friend and Me '', a Rascal Flatts music video of "Walk the Llama Llama '' from the soundtrack, audio commentary with the filmmakers, a multi-skill level Set Top Game with voice talent from the movie, and a deleted scene among other features. Unlike its theatrical box office performance, the film performed better on home video, becoming the top - selling home video release of 2001. In September 2001, it was reported that 6 million VHS units were sold amounting towards $89 million in revenue. On DVD, it was also reported it had sold twice as many sales. The overall revenue averaged toward $125 million according to Adams Media Research.
Disney re-released a single - disc special edition called "The New Groove Edition '' on October 18, 2005. Disney digitally remastered and released The Emperor 's New Groove on Blu - ray on June 11, 2013 bundled in a two - movie collection combo pack with its direct - to - video sequel Kronk 's New Groove. On its first weekend, it sold 14,000 Blu - ray units grossing $282,000.
On its opening weekend, The Emperor 's New Groove premiered at fourth place grossing about $10 million behind strong competitions such as What Women Want, Dude, Where 's My Car?, and How the Grinch Stole Christmas. Overall, the film grossed $89,302,687 at the U.S. box office, and an additional $80,025,000 worldwide; totals lower than those for most of the Disney Feature Animation productions released in the 1990s.
Because of its pre-Columbian setting and Latin American flavor, Disney spent $250,000 in its marketing campaign towards the Latino market releasing dual English and Spanish - language theatrical prints in sixteen multiplexes across heavily populated Latino areas in Los Angeles, California in contrast to releasing dubbed or subtitled theatrical prints of their previous animated features in foreign markets. By January 2001, following nineteen days into its theatrical general release, the Spanish - dubbed prints were pulled from multiplexes as Latino Americans opted to watch the English - language prints with its grossing averaging $571,000 in comparison to $96,000 for the former.
On Rotten Tomatoes, it receives an 85 % "Certified Fresh '' approval rating based on 128 reviews with an average of 7.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads: "The Emperor 's New Groove is n't the most ambitious animated film, but its brisk pace, fresh characters, and big laughs make for a great time for the whole family. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 70 out of 100 based on 28 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Many critics and audiences generally consider the film to be one of the better films of Disney 's post-Renaissance era and also one of the most comedic.
Writing for Variety, Robert Koehler commented the film "may not match the groovy business of many of the studio 's other kidpix, but it will be remembered as the film that established a new attitude in the halls of Disney 's animation unit ''. Roger Ebert, writing his review for Chicago Sun - Times, awarded the film 3 (out of 4) stars distinguishing the film as "a goofy slapstick cartoon, with the attention span of Donald Duck '' that is separate from what 's known as animated features. Ebert would later add that "it does n't have the technical polish of a film like Tarzan, but is a reminder that the classic cartoon look is a beloved style of its own. '' Entertainment Weekly critic Lisa Schwarzbaum graded the film a B+, describing it as a "hip, funny, mostly nonmusical, decidedly non-epic family picture, which turns out to be less of a hero 's journey than a meeting of sitcom minds ''.
Published in The Austin Chronicle, Marc Savlov gave the film 2 / 5 stars noting the film "suffers from a persistent case of narrative backsliding that only serves to make older members of the audience long for the days of the dwarves, beauties, and poisoned apples of Disney - yore, and younger ones squirm in their seats ''. Savlov continued to express his displeasure in the animation in comparison to the previous year 's Tarzan writing it "is also a minor letdown, with none of the ecstatic visual tour de force. '' Movie reviewer Bob Strauss acknowledged the film is "funny, frantic and colorful enough to keep the small fry diverted for its short but strained 78 minutes '', though except for "some nice voice work, a few impressive scale gags and interesting, Inca - inspired design elements, there is very little here for the rest of the family to latch onto ''. Strauss would target the massive story overhaul during production as the main problem.
The Sweatbox is a documentary that chronicled the tumultuous collaboration of Sting and David Hartley with the Disney studios to compose six songs for Kingdom of the Sun (the film 's working title). The documentary featured interviews from directors Roger Allers and Mark Dindal, producer Randy Fullmer, Sting (whose wife created the documentary), Disney story artists, and the voice cast being dismayed by the new direction. Disney was not believed to be opposing Trudie Styler 's documentary with Disney animation executive Thomas Schumacher, who had seen footage, commenting that "I think it 's going to be great! ''
The film premiered at the 2002 Toronto International Film Festival, but has gone virtually unseen by the public ever since. Disney owns the rights, but has never officially released it. In March 2012, a workprint of the documentary was leaked online and was uploaded on the video - sharing website YouTube, by a United Kingdom cartoonist, before it was ultimately pulled. As of April 2015, some scenes from the documentary could be seen from the home media release, including the behind the scenes and the making of My Funny Friend and Me.
In April 2005, it was announced that DisneyToon Studios was producing a direct - to - video sequel entitled Kronk 's New Groove, which was released on December 13, 2005, timed with the premiere of Disney Channel cartoon series, The film is based on the animated television series The Emperor 's New School. Patrick Warburton, Eartha Kitt and Wendie Malick reprised their roles for the sequel and series, while J.P. Manoux replaced David Spade for the series and Fred Tatasciore voiced Pacha in season 1. John Goodman subsequently reprised his role for the second and final season for the series.
Kuzco appears as a guest in Disney 's House of Mouse and Mickey 's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse served as television series finale direct - to - video animated film produced by Walt Disney Pictures, spin - off of the animated television series.
Two video games were developed and released concurrent with the film. The first, for the Sony PlayStation, was developed by Argonaut Games and published by Sony Computer Entertainment of America. The second, for the Nintendo Game Boy Color, was developed by Sandbox and published by Ubisoft. Both titles were released in PAL territories the following year. The PlayStation version was re-released for the North American PlayStation Network on July 27, 2010.
The Tokyo DisneySea rollercoaster attraction Raging Spirits took visual inspiration for its Inca ruins theme from the buildings in the film, with a structure based on Kuzco 's palace similarly crowning the ruins site.
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when was the last time kentucky won a national championship in football | Kentucky Wildcats football - wikipedia
The Kentucky Wildcats football program represents the University of Kentucky in the sport of American football. The Wildcats compete in the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the Eastern Division of the Southeastern Conference (SEC).
Until about 1913, the modern University of Kentucky was referred to as "Kentucky State College '' and nearby Transylvania University was known as "Kentucky University ''. In 1880, Kentucky University and Centre College played the first intercollegiate football game in Kentucky. Kentucky State first fielded a football team in 1881, playing three games against rival Kentucky University. The team was revived in 1891. Both the inaugural 1881 squad and the revived 1891 squad have unknown coaches according to university records in winning two games and losing three. The 1891 team 's colors were blue and light yellow, decided before the Centre -- Kentucky game on December 19. A student asked "What color blue? '' and varsity letterman Richard C. Stoll pulled off his necktie, and held it up. This is still held as the origin of Kentucky 's shade of blue. The next year light yellow was dropped and changed to white. The 1892 team was coached by A.M. Miller, and went 2 -- 4 -- 1.
The greatest UK team of this era was the 1898 squad, known simply to Kentuckians as "The Immortals. '' To this day, the Immortals remain the only undefeated, untied, and unscored upon team in UK football history. The Immortals were coached by W.R. Bass and ended the year a perfect 7 -- 0 -- 0, despite an average weight of 147 pounds per player. Victories came easily for this squad, as the Immortals raced by Kentucky University (18 - 0), Georgetown (28 -- 0), Company H of the 8th Massachusetts (59 -- 0), Louisville Athletic Club (16 -- 0), Centre (6 -- 0), 160th Indiana (17 -- 0) and Newcastle Athletic Club (36 -- 0).
Head coach Jack Wright led the team to a 7 -- 1 record in 1903, losing only to rival and southern champion Kentucky University.
Fred Schacht posted a 15 -- 4 -- 1 record in two seasons but died unexpectedly after his second season. J. White Guyn also had success leading the Wildcats, posting a 17 -- 7 -- 1 record in his three years.
Edwin Sweetland went 16 -- 3 in three seasons (1909 -- 1910 and 1912) but resigned due to poor health. Sweetland also served as Kentucky 's first athletics director. The 1909 team upset the Illinois Fighting Illini. Upon their welcome home, Philip Carbusier said that they had "fought like wildcats, '' a nickname that stuck.
John J. Tigert coached Kentucky for two seasons (1915 -- 1916) with each season having one loss. 1915 captain Charles C. Schrader was All - Southern. The 1916 team fought the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SIAA) co-champion Tennessee Volunteers to a scoreless tie. The year 's only a loss, 45 to 0 to the Irby Curry - led Vanderbilt Commodores, was the dedication of Stoll Field. Quarterbacks Curry and Kentucky 's Doc Rodes were both selected All - Southern at year 's end. Vanderbilt coach Dan McGugin stated "If you would give me Doc Rodes, I would say he was a greater player than Curry. ''
Coach Harry Gamage had a 32 -- 25 -- 5 record during his seven seasons from 1927 to 1933. A.D. Kirwan, who would go on to be the president of the university, coached the Wildcats from 1938 to 1944 and posted a 24 -- 28 -- 4 record in those six seasons.
Longtime athletics director Bernie Shively also served as Kentucky 's head football coach for the 1945 season.
Coach Paul "Bear '' Bryant was Kentucky 's head football coach for eight seasons.
Bear Bryant came to Kentucky from Maryland. Under Bryant 's tutelage, the Wildcats won the 1947 Great Lakes Bowl, lost the 1950 Orange Bowl, won the 1951 Sugar Bowl and the 1952 Cotton Bowl Classic. In final AP polls, the Wildcats were ranked No. 11 in 1949, No. 7 in 1950, No. 15 in 1951, No. 20 in 1952 and No. 16 in 1953. The final 1950 poll was taken prior to the bowl games; Kentucky then defeated undefeated and No. 1 ranked Oklahoma in the Sugar Bowl and finished with the number 1 ranking in 3 major polls, ending the Sooners 31 - game winning streak. Bryant won SEC Coach of the Year honors in 1950 and then left after eight seasons to accept the head football coach position at Texas A&M.
Assistant coaches at Kentucky under Bryant who went on to become head coaches include Paul Dietzel, Frank Moseley, Jim Owens and Phil Cutchin. Notable players who played for Bryant at Kentucky include Howard Schnellenberger, Jim Mackenzie, Jerry Claiborne, Steve Meilinger, George Blanda, Vito Parilli, and Bob Gain.
Cleveland Browns assistant Blanton Collier was hired to replace Bryant as head football coach at Kentucky in late 1953. After completing his first season at Kentucky, Collier was named SEC Coach of the Year after posting a 7 -- 2 record. Collier 's assistants during his tenure at Kentucky included the likes of Bill Arnsparger, Chuck Knox, Howard Schnellenberger, and Don Shula.
Despite having a winning record, 41 -- 36 -- 3 in eight seasons, Collier was fired. Collier struggled to recruit for much of his tenure, about which frustrated fans wrote letters of complaint to the university. Collier is the last Kentucky head football coach to leave the Wildcats with a winning record.
Charlie Bradshaw, an Alabama assistant under Bear Bryant, was hired to replace the fired Collier. Despite all the hype about being a Bear Bryant assistant, Bradshaw 's tenure turned out to be a disappointment, as he was unable to have much success with the Wildcats. He had a 25 -- 41 -- 5 record in seven seasons. Bradshaw is the last Kentucky coach to defeat Tennessee twice in Knoxville, and the last Kentucky coach to defeat Auburn twice. He was also the last to defeat a No. 1 ranked team in the country until Rich Brooks in 2007.
Bradshaw, a harsh, brutal coach, was the head coach of the infamous Thin Thirty Kentucky team. Kentucky had 88 players when Bradshaw arrived, but by season 's end, only 30 players were on the team. The story of that team is told in the 2007 book The Thin Thirty by Shannon Ragland. Bradshaw also recruited Nate Northington, the first African American to play in an SEC athletic contest (1967).
Notre Dame assistant John Ray took over as head football coach in late 1969. Ray 's teams consistently had solid defenses, but struggled to produce on the offensive end. Ray 's teams failed to win more than three games in a single season, going a dismal 10 -- 33 overall in Ray 's four seasons. Ray 's contract was not renewed after the 1972 season.
Kentucky hired Fran Curci away from Miami after Ray was let go. The 1976 Wildcats tallied their first winning season in 13 years and won the Peach Bowl, finishing No. 18 in the final AP poll. For all intents and purposes, however, Curci 's tenure ended soon afterward, when the NCAA slapped the Wildcats with two years ' probation for numerous recruiting and amateurism violations. They were banned from postseason play and live television in 1977. The most damaging sanction in the long term, however, was being limited to only 25 scholarships in 1977 and 1978.
The 1977 Kentucky team went 10 -- 1, went undefeated in SEC play, won a share of the SEC title and finished the season ranked No. 6 in the AP poll. Due to the sanctions, however, the Wildcats were not able to go to a bowl. Kentucky finished at No. 6 and Penn State at No. 5 despite the fact that Kentucky defeated Penn State at Penn State during the regular season. Curci was unable to put together another winning team as a result of the reduced scholarships, and was fired after the 1981 season.
Coach Jerry Claiborne returned to his alma mater from Maryland. He led the Wildcats to the 1983 Hall of Fame Bowl and the 1984 Hall of Fame Bowl, defeating a Wisconsin team ranked No. 20 in the polls to finish the season with a 9 -- 3 record and a No. 19 ranking in the final AP and UPI polls. Claiborne also won SEC Coach of the Year honors in 1983. The E.J. Nutter Training Facility was built in 1987. Coach Claiborne and Kentucky experienced an era of constant change at the quarterback position following the 1987 season through his departure that included Ransdell, Wright, and High School All - American and two way starter (Quarterback / Safety) Ricky Lewis, prior to landing Mr. Kentucky Football Awardee Pookie Jones of Calloway County. Claiborne retired following the 1989 season and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a coach in 1999. He is the last coach to defeat Florida and was the last coach to defeat Tennessee until Joker Phillips in 2011. His final record at Kentucky is 41 -- 46 -- 3.
Bill Curry surprised the college football world by leaving Alabama for Kentucky in late 1989. Despite the high hopes that the Kentucky football program would rise under his leadership, Curry 's Wildcats teams never achieved much success. The Wildcats ' best season under Curry was 1993, going on to play Clemson in the 1993 New Years Eve Peach Bowl. It would be his only winning season in seven years. On the other side of the spectrum, his 1994 team went 1 - 10, the worst record in modern program history. Curry was asked to resign after seven seasons and just a. 33 winning percentage. Curry 's record at Kentucky was 26 -- 52.
Coach Hal Mumme came to Kentucky from Valdosta State and brought an exciting, high - scoring, pass - oriented offense known as the "Air Raid ''. He led the Wildcats to the 1998 Outback Bowl and the 1999 Music City Bowl. Mumme achieved a 20 -- 26 record in his four seasons. Mumme coached star quarterback Tim Couch, the top overall pick in the 1999 NFL Draft. Mumme was popular among the Kentucky fans, but the program was hit with severe sanctions for NCAA violations involving cash payments from an assistant coach to prospective recruits. Although Mumme himself was not implicated in any violation, he resigned after the 2000 season. Assistant coaches under Mumme at Kentucky included Mike Leach and Sonny Dykes.
Guy Morriss was promoted from offensive line coach to head coach of the Wildcats after Mumme 's resignation. Under coach Morriss, the Wildcats went 2 -- 9 in 2001 but improved to a 7 -- 5 record in 2002. However, the Wildcats were not eligible for postseason play in 2002 due to NCAA sanctions from Mumme 's tenure. The most significant event of that season came in a loss to LSU (See: Bluegrass Miracle). Morriss accepted an offer to become the head football coach at Baylor after the 2002 season.
The team 's next head coach was former Oregon head coach Rich Brooks, who was hired in December 2002. He led the team out of the probationary years to an 8 -- 5 regular season record in 2006, including a memorable upset over the defending SEC champion Georgia, snapping a nine - game losing streak to the Bulldogs. Brooks also led the football team to its first bowl game since 1999 and its first bowl game victory since 1984, as Kentucky defeated the Clemson University Tigers 28 -- 20 in the Music City Bowl. In 2007, the Wildcats were ranked 8th in the nation before a loss to South Carolina on October 4. After the loss to South Carolina, Kentucky bounced back on October 13 to defeat No. 1 LSU in a historic triple overtime game.
Brooks took Kentucky to four consecutive bowl games, winning the first three. The 2007 Kentucky Wildcats football defeated the Florida State Seminoles 35 -- 28 in the 2007 Music City Bowl in Nashville, Tennessee, on December 31, 2007. Quarterback Andre ' Woodson was named the Music City Bowl MVP for the second year in a row. In 2008 the Wildcats opted to go to the Liberty Bowl instead of the Music City Bowl and defeated Conference USA champion East Carolina 25 -- 19. In 2009, Brooks and Kentucky returned to the Music City Bowl, losing in a rematch to Clemson 21 -- 13. Brooks retired after seven seasons with a 39 -- 47 overall record.
Former Wildcat wide receiver and longtime assistant coach Joker Phillips was formally named head coach January 6, 2010 after Brooks ' retirement; he had been Brooks ' designated successor since 2008. Kentucky started off strong under Phillips with a win on the road against archrival Louisville. The 2010 squad snapped a long - standing losing streak to South Carolina Coach Steve Spurrier by defeating the Gamecocks at Kroger Field. However, they dropped games to both Ole Miss and Mississippi State, lost to a Florida team on a down year and once again failed to beat its other archrival Tennessee, having lost 26 in a row to the Vols, the longest losing streak by one team to another in college football. The Wildcats capped the season with a 27 -- 10 loss to Pittsburgh in the BBVA Compass Bowl.
On November 26, 2011, Kentucky snapped the longest active FBS losing streak to any one team by defeating the Tennessee Vols 10 -- 7 at Kroger Field.
On November 4, 2012, the day after a 40 - 0 home shutout by Vanderbilt resulting with a 1 -- 9 record, UK athletics director Mitch Barnhart released a public letter to Big Blue Nation announcing that Phillips would not return for the 2013 season, but that he would finish out the 2012 season as head coach. With Joker 's 5 - year contract only being 3 years complete at the end of the season, the university has to pay $2.55 Million over the final 2 years of the contract.
Florida State defensive coordinator Mark Stoops, brother of legendary former Oklahoma head coach Bob Stoops, was hired as Kentucky 's head football coach in late 2012. One of Stoops ' first moves was hiring offensive coordinator Neal Brown, who brought back the "Air Raid '' offense. After nine months as the head coach of the Wildcats, Stoops and his staff signed the highest ranked recruiting class in program history.
Stoops 's first season at Kentucky was a struggle, as the Wildcats duplicated the 2 -- 10 record from 2012. Kentucky 's wins in 2013 were over a winless Miami (OH) and FCS opponent Alabama State. In Stoops 's second season, the Wildcats broke a 17 - game SEC losing streak when they beat Vanderbilt the fourth game into the season. The Wildcats finished the 2014 season with a 5 -- 7 record. After the season, offensive coordinator Neal Brown left to take the head coaching job at Troy. In 2015, Stoops 's third season, the Wildcats duplicated their 5 -- 7 record from 2014. They lost to Florida, Auburn, Mississippi State, Tennessee, Georgia, Vanderbilt, and Louisville, and they defeated Louisiana - Lafayette, South Carolina, Missouri, Eastern Kentucky and Charlotte.
On December 18, 2015, offensive coordinator Shannon Dawson, who was hired to replace Neal Brown, announced he would not return to the program for the 2016 season as the offensive coordinator, a result of the team 's struggles over the previous few years. In his place Kentucky hired Cincinnati offensive coordinator Eddie Gran as the assistant head coach of offense at Kentucky. Cincinnati quarterbacks coach Darin Hinshaw has also joined the UK staff as quarterbacks coach and co-offensive coordinator. Kentucky began the 2016 season with a loss to Southern Miss by a score of 44 -- 35, after blowing a 25 - point lead. Ironically, Shannon Dawson, who was fired by Kentucky as offensive coordinator just months earlier, had been hired to serve as Southern Miss ' offensive coordinator. Kentucky would finish 7 -- 6 (4 -- 4 SEC) on the season, which included snapping a five - game losing streak to archrival Louisville by a score of 41 -- 38, with a berth in the TaxSlayer Bowl, their first bowl berth since 2010, a game they lost to Georgia Tech by a score of 33 -- 18.
In the 2017 - 2018 season, the Wildcats opened the season with a victory over Southern Mississippi in Hattiesburg 24 - 17. The next week, the Wildcats defeated the Eastern Kentucky Colonels in their home opener at the newly renamed Kroger Field in Lexington. Following a road victory over the South Carolina Gamecocks, they failed to defeat the Florida Gators, who they have not defeated since 1986. This extended the longest losing streak in SEC history to 31 years. Responding to the criticized loss to Florida, the Wildcats defeated Eastern Michigan and Missouri at Kroger Field, improving their record to 5 - 1.
Following their bye week, the Kentucky Wildcats fell to ranked Mississippi State team in Starkville, Mississippi by a score of 45 - 7. However, the Wildcats improved to 6 - 2 by defeating the Tennessee Volunteers by a score of 29 - 26 at Kroger Field in Lexington, KY. The victory over Tennessee was Kentucky 's second victory since 1984 over the Volunteers, and secured Kentucky in postseason eligiblity. This was followed by a loss to Ole Miss at home 37 - 34 on November 4th and a dominating road win over unranked Vanderbilt on November 11th, 44 - 21. The Wildcats face the 9 - 1 Georgia Bulldogs in Athens, GA on November 18th.
UK has played in 16 bowl games, compiling a record of 8 -- 8. Note that in the table below, the year references the season, and not the actual date the game was played.
First played in 1912, Louisville - Kentucky football series was revived in 1994 after the success of the basketball series that restarted in 1983. They played the first four games of the renewed series at Commonwealth Stadium (now Kroger Field) until Papa John 's Cardinal Stadium (PJCS) was completed in 1997, at which time they began rotating the series between Louisville, Kentucky and Lexington, Kentucky. Kentucky leads the series at 15 -- 14 but trails the modern series 14 - 9. Kentucky played Louisville in the Cardinals ' first 4 seasons and twice in the 1920s, holding the Cardinals scoreless in all contests. Kentucky then left the SIAA in 1922 to become a charter member of the Southeastern Conference and limited its play of in - state schools. It would be 70 years before these two in - state rivals faced each other again.
In 2013, it was announced that the game would be moved to the final game of the season following Louisville 's 2014 move to the ACC. This scheduling change fits with other end - of - year SEC vs. ACC rivalry games, such as Georgia vs. Georgia Tech, Florida vs. Florida State and South Carolina vs. Clemson.
Kentucky upset the # 11 Louisville Cardinals 41 - 38 on November 26, 2016. The Wildcats were 27 point underdogs going into the game.
Tennessee and Kentucky have played each other 108 times over 114 years with Tennessee winning 75 games to 24 wins by Kentucky (. 736). Tennessee has won the most games in Lexington, Kentucky with 35 wins to 14 by Kentucky (. 702). Tennessee also has more wins than Kentucky in Knoxville, Tennessee with 45 wins to 10 (. 787). Tennessee has the most wins in the series at Stoll Field with 19 wins to 11 Kentucky wins (. 621). The Series is tied at 3 a piece at Baldwin Park. Tennessee leads the series at Neyland Stadium with 35 wins to 7 Kentucky wins (. 792). Tennessee leads the series at Kroger Field with 17 wins to 3 Kentucky wins (. 850). Like many college football rivalries, the Tennessee - Kentucky game had its own trophy for many years: a wooden beer barrel painted half blue and half orange. The trophy was awarded to the winner of the game every year from 1925 to 1997. The Barrel was introduced in 1925 by a group of former Kentucky students who wanted to create a material sign of supremacy for the rivalry. It was rolled onto the field that year with the words "Ice Water '' painted on it to avoid any outcries over a beer keg symbolizing a college rivalry.
The barrel exchange was retired in 1998 after two Kentucky football players died in an alcohol - related crash.
More known for its basketball rivalry, the Indiana - Kentucky series was played annually from 1987 until 2005 in what was known as the "Battle for the Bourbon Barrel '' game. The series rotated between Bloomington, Indiana and Lexington, Kentucky and the two teams played for a trophy called the "Bourbon Barrel '' from 1987 until both schools mutually agreed to retire the trophy in 1999 following the alcohol - related death of two Kentucky football players. Indiana leads the series (18 -- 17 -- 1). The two have n't played since 2005.
Having started in 1896, the Kentucky - Vanderbilt football series has been played annually since 1953. The two are divisional opponents in the SEC East. The series, which rotates between Nashville, Tennessee and Lexington, Kentucky, stands at 43 -- 42 -- 4 with Kentucky leading the series. The average score being Vanderbilt 17 - Kentucky 15.6.
The Mississippi State - Kentucky series became a rivalry when the SEC assigned cross-divisional opponents. The Bulldogs (of the SEC West) and Wildcats (of the SEC East) were assigned to each other. They play every year which rotates between Lexington, Kentucky and Starkville, Mississippi. Mississippi State has won 8 of their last 10 vs. Kentucky. Mississippi State leads the series 23 -- 22.
Prior to the advent of the BCS in 1998, national champions were primarily chosen by a combination of national ranking systems and nation media poll rankings. During the last 142 years, there have been more than 30 selectors of national champions using polls, historical research and mathematical rating systems. Beginning in 1936, The Associated Press began the best - known and most widely circulated poll of sportswriters and broadcasters. Before 1936, national champions were determined by historical research and retroactive ratings and polls. It is important to remember that from 1936 to 1964, the Associated Press chose a "national champion '' prior to bowl games.
The NCAA has never officially recognized a national champion from among the bowl coalition institutions, but in 2004 the NCAA commissioned Jeff Sagarin to use his computer model to retroactively determine the highest ranked teams for the years prior to the BCS. His champion for the 1950 season is Kentucky. The polls for the 1950 national champion, taken before the bowl games were played, list either Oklahoma (AP, Berryman, Helms, Litkenhous, UPI, Williamson), Princeton (Boand, Poling), or Tennessee (Billingsley, DeVold, Dunkel, Missouri, Don Faurot Football Research, National Championship Foundation, Sagarin (ELO - Chess)). Tennessee was the winner of the Cotton Bowl and the only team to beat Kentucky during the 1950 season. Oklahoma was named National Champion by AP and UPI Coaches ' Poll, both which awarded their titles before the bowl games. Kentucky would go on to beat Oklahoma in the Sugar Bowl. However, they are still not recognized as national champions for that year.
‡ Mississippi State forfeited their 1976 win over Kentucky, giving Kentucky an official 5 -- 1 conference record and a share of the SEC title with Georgia.
The following is a list of Kentucky players in the NFL.
Chosen in 1990 by Kentucky Newspapers
Kentucky plays Mississippi State as a permanent non-division opponent annually and rotates around the West division among the other six schools.
Announced schedules as of September 3, 2017
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where were the surgeons going on grey's anatomy | Flight (Grey 's Anatomy) - wikipedia
"Flight '' is the twenty - fourth and final episode of the eighth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, and the show 's 172nd episode overall. It was written by series creator Shonda Rhimes, and directed by Rob Corn. The episode was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States on May 17, 2012. In the episode, six doctors from Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital who are victims of an aviation accident fight to stay alive, but Dr. Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) ultimately dies. Other storylines occur in Seattle where Dr. Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.) plans his annual dinner for the departing residents, Dr. Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) fires Dr. Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), and Dr. Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) gets engaged.
The episode marked Leigh 's final appearance in the series and Raver 's last until late in the fourteenth season. Exterior filming of the accident took place at Big Bear Lake, California. Jason George reprised his role as a guest star, whereas James LeGros made his first appearance. The episode opened to mixed reviews from television critics, with some criticizing the death of Lexie, but praising Leigh 's performance, in addition to Ellen Pompeo (Dr. Meredith Grey) 's and Eric Dane (Dr. Mark Sloan) 's. "Flight '' earned Rhimes an NAACP Image Award nomination and it was also nominated under several categories of Entertainment Weekly 's finale awards. Upon its initial airing, the episode was viewed in the United States by 11.44 million people, garnered a 4.1 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic, ranking fourth for the night in terms of viewership, and registering as Thursday 's highest - rated drama.
After their plane crashes in the woods, Dr. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Dr. Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh), Dr. Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), Dr. Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw), Dr. Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), and Dr. Mark Sloan (Eric Dane) desperately fight to stay alive. Meredith is relatively unscathed, while the rest have serious injuries: the pilot, Jerry (James LeGros), has a major spine injury, and Yang dislocates her arm. Robbins ' femur is broken and sticking through the skin, Sloan has serious internal injuries; though initially adrenaline keeps him on his feet. Shepherd is sucked out the side of the plane and awakens alone in the wood; his mangled hand having been pushed through the door of the plane. However, none are in as bad shape as Lexie, who is crushed under a piece of the plane. While Meredith searches for Shepherd, Yang and Sloan try to move the debris off Lexie. Eventually, the two realize that they can not save her, so Sloan holds her hand while she dies, telling her that he loves her. As Sloan tells her of the life the two were meant to have together, Lexie dies with a smile on her face just as Meredith and Yang are approaching.
Lexie 's death devastates Meredith, who is still desperately trying to find her husband. Eventually, she and Shepherd reunite and they fix his hand as best as they can. Meanwhile, back at Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital, no one is aware of what has happened to the other doctors. Dr. Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.) prepares the annual dinner for the departing residents, which Dr. Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), Dr. Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams), and Dr. April Kepner (Sarah Drew) are dreading. Avery makes the choice to take a job offer at Tulane Medical Center, and he and Kepner share a moment. Dr. Ben Warren (Jason George) and Dr. Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) decide to get married, even though Warren is going to start his surgical internship in Los Angeles. After realizing Dr. Teddy Altman (Kim Raver) was offered a chief position at United States Army Medical Command (MEDCOM) and is refusing to leave Seattle out of loyalty, Dr. Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd), the chief of surgery, fires her to free her from the hospital where her husband died. As the episode ends, Hunt picks up his messages to discover the surgical team never made it to Boise. The residents, finally excited to celebrate at Webber 's dinner, are left waiting for their stranded friends. The remaining crash survivors are left struggling to stay awake as their last match goes out. In the closing monologue, Meredith repeats the opening to the speech that Webber gave in the pilot episode of the series.
-- Oh 's impressions on shooting in the mountains
The episode was written by Shonda Rhimes, and directed by Rob Corn. Featured music included The Paper Kites ' "Featherstone '' and Feist 's ' Graveyard ". Filming took place in Big Bear Lake, California, a location previously used in the seventh season for Yang and Shepherd 's fishing trip. Commenting on the filming conditions, Leigh said: "It would rain and be sunny and hot. I never died before (on camera). That sounds funny saying that. I think everyone has an emotional wellspring and that happened to be a moment where I was sprung. Everybody was very accommodating -- the crew, cast. And I opted to stay underneath (the wreckage) for the most part over two days rather than trying to get in and out. ''
In regard to the episode, Rhimes commented before it originally aired that it was difficult to write, largely because of the death of a main character. She compared it to writing the season six finale, by explaining that the former was "more painful '' to write. After the episode aired, Rhimes repeated in a tweet that it was hard for her to write the finale, adding: "I did not enjoy it. It made me sick and it made me sad. '' Rhimes also explained the departure of Leigh, whose character died after the plane crash, by saying that the two came to an agreement on the decision to kill Lexie, after extensive discussion. Speaking of Raver 's departure whose character left Seattle Grace for MEDCOM, Rhimes elaborated that Raver was offered a contract renewal, but declined.
The episode received mixed reviews among television critics, and it outperformed the previous episode in terms of both viewership and ratings. "Flight '' was originally broadcast on May 17, 2012 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). The episode was watched in the United States by a total of 11.44 million people, a 16.5 % (1.62 million) increase from the previous episode "Migration '', which garnered 9.82 million viewers. In terms of viewership, "Flight '' ranked fourth for the night, behind the season finales of Fox 's American Idol, and CBS 's Person of Interest and The Mentalist. In terms of Grey 's Anatomy 's other season finales, the episode was the show 's second least - viewed finale, just behind the seventh season 's, which garnered 9.89 million viewers. The episode did not rank in the top three for viewership, but its 4.1 / 11 Nielsen rating ranked first in its 9: 00 Eastern time - slot and second for the night, registering the show as Thursday 's No. 1 drama, for both the rating and share percentages of the key 18 -- 49 demographic. Its rating lost to American Idol, but beat out CBS 's The Big Bang Theory, Person of Interest, and The Mentalist. In addition to its rating being in the top rankings for the night, it was an increase from the previous episode, which netted a 3.5 / 10 rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic. The episode also showed an increase in ratings in comparison to the previous year 's finale, which attained a 3.6 / 9 rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic.
Poptimal 's Tanya Lane wrote, "Wow... just wow. Grey 's Anatomy has once again managed to shock with its season finale. '' While she appreciated the "realism and authenticity that Grey 's is known for '', she found the episode was "almost too much '' as it was "extremely gory and difficult to watch, initially because of the grisly wounds '' but later because of the "heavy and emotional things that transpired ''. She thought Pompeo gave one of her best performances when her character learned that her sister was dead. Digital Spy 's Ben Lee found Leigh 's and Dane 's performances "phenomenal '' and added that he had probably never seen a better performance from Dane. He described the moment the two actors shared as "truly poignant ''. To him, Lexie 's death felt like a finale, which was thus too early. As for what was happening in Seattle Grace, he thought it was "a bit pointless '' and "uninteresting '' except Altman 's departure, which he deemed "the most significant moment at the hospital ''. Entertainment Weekly 's Tanner Stransky commented of Lexie 's death: "It was an intense death. I mean, how awful was it to watch one of Grey 's longest - running characters pass away so quickly -- and rather unceremoniously? I get that Ms. Rhimes had to do what she had to do -- and every show needs to be shaken up once in a while -- but I do n't love that Lexie was the one to die. Could it have been someone less important somehow? I guess it would have been too obvious to do Kepner. And you probably just do n't kill off a hottie like Mark Sloan, right? '' Stransky also complained about Robbins ' screams at the beginning of the episode, but enjoyed Bailey 's story.
In an Entertainment Weekly poll that judged all the television season finales of the year, Lexie 's death was voted the "Top Tissue Moment '', while Robbins ' injured leg and Shepherd 's mangled hand were voted the "Most Disturbing Image ''. The ending of the episode was also considered as the "Best Ending to an Otherwise So - So Season ''. Lexie 's death was also nominated under the "Best (Presumed) Death '' category, while the plane crash 's aftermath was nominated as the "Best Non-romantic Cliffhanger '', and the episode in entirety was nominated for the special award for "Biggest Regret That I Did n't See It, I Just Heard or Read About It ''. Entertainment Weekly later named the scene where Meredith is crying one of the best crying scenes of 2012. In TVLine 's review of 2012, Lexie 's death was runner - up for "Biggest Tearjerker ''. The episode is nominated at the NAACP Image Awards under the Outstanding Writing in a Dramatic Series category for Rhimes.
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what is the function of the p53 protein | P53 - wikipedia
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NP_001120705 NP_035770
Tumor protein p53, also known as p53, cellular tumor antigen p53 (UniProt name), phosphoprotein p53, tumor suppressor p53, antigen NY - CO-13, or transformation - related protein 53 (TRP53), is any isoform of a protein encoded by homologous genes in various organisms, such as TP53 (humans) and Trp53 (mice). This homolog (originally thought to be, and often spoken of as, a single protein) is crucial in multicellular organisms, where it prevents cancer formation, thus, functions as a tumor suppressor. As such, p53 has been described as "the guardian of the genome '' because of its role in conserving stability by preventing genome mutation. Hence TP53 is classified as a tumor suppressor gene. (Italics are used to denote the TP53 gene name and distinguish it from the protein it encodes.)
The name p53 was given in 1979 describing the apparent molecular mass; SDS - PAGE analysis indicates that it is a 53 - kilodalton (kDa) protein. However, the actual mass of the full - length p53 protein (p53α) based on the sum of masses of the amino acid residues is only 43.7 kDa. This difference is due to the high number of proline residues in the protein, which slow its migration on SDS - PAGE, thus making it appear heavier than it actually is. In addition to the full - length protein, the human TP53 gene encodes at least 15 protein isoforms, ranging in size from 3.5 to 43.7 kDa. All these p53 proteins are called the p53 isoforms. The TP53 gene is the most frequently mutated gene (> 50 %) in human cancer, indicating that the TP53 gene plays a crucial role in preventing cancer formation. TP53 gene encodes proteins that bind to DNA and regulate gene expression to prevent mutations of the genome.
In humans, the TP53 gene is located on the short arm of chromosome 17 (17p13. 1). The gene spans 20 kb, with a non-coding exon 1 and a very long first intron of 10 kb. The coding sequence contains five regions showing a high degree of conservation in vertebrates, predominantly in exons 2, 5, 6, 7 and 8, but the sequences found in invertebrates show only distant resemblance to mammalian TP53. TP53 orthologs have been identified in most mammals for which complete genome data are available.
In humans, a common polymorphism involves the substitution of an arginine for a proline at codon position 72. Many studies have investigated a genetic link between this variation and cancer susceptibility; however, the results have been controversial. For instance, a meta - analysis from 2009 failed to show a link for cervical cancer. A 2011 study found that the TP53 proline mutation did have a profound effect on pancreatic cancer risk among males. A study of Arab women found that proline homozygosity at TP53 codon 72 is associated with a decreased risk for breast cancer. One study suggested that TP53 codon 72 polymorphisms, MDM2 SNP309, and A2164G may collectively be associated with non-oropharyngeal cancer susceptibility and that MDM2 SNP309 in combination with TP53 codon 72 may accelerate the development of non-oropharyngeal cancer in women. A 2011 study found that TP53 codon 72 polymorphism was associated with an increased risk of lung cancer.
Meta - analyses from 2011 found no significant associations between TP53 codon 72 polymorphisms and both colorectal cancer risk and endometrial cancer risk. A 2011 study of a Brazilian birth cohort found an association between the non mutant arginine TP53 and individuals without a family history of cancer. Another 2011 study found that the p53 homozygous (Pro / Pro) genotype was associated with a significantly increased risk for renal cell carcinoma.
A tandem of nine - amino - acid transactivation domains (9aaTAD) was identified in the AD1 and AD2 regions of transcription factor p53. KO mutations and position for p53 interaction with TFIID are listed below: The competence of the p53 transactivation domains 9aaTAD to activate transcription as small peptides was reported.
9aaTADs mediate p53 interaction with general coactivators -- TAF9, CBP / p300 (all four domains KIX, TAZ1, TAZ2 and IBiD), GCN5 and PC4, regulatory protein MDM2 and replication protein A (RPA).
Mutations that deactivate p53 in cancer usually occur in the DBD. Most of these mutations destroy the ability of the protein to bind to its target DNA sequences, and thus prevents transcriptional activation of these genes. As such, mutations in the DBD are recessive loss - of - function mutations. Molecules of p53 with mutations in the OD dimerise with wild - type p53, and prevent them from activating transcription. Therefore, OD mutations have a dominant negative effect on the function of p53.
Wild - type p53 is a labile protein, comprising folded and unstructured regions that function in a synergistic manner.
p53 has many mechanisms of anticancer function and plays a role in apoptosis, genomic stability, and inhibition of angiogenesis. In its anti-cancer role, p53 works through several mechanisms:
Activated p53 binds DNA and activates expression of several genes including microRNA miR - 34a, WAF1 / CIP1 encoding for p21 and hundreds of other down - stream genes. p21 (WAF1) binds to the G1 - S / CDK (CDK4 / CDK6, CDK2, and CDK1) complexes (molecules important for the G1 / S transition in the cell cycle) inhibiting their activity.
When p21 (WAF1) is complexed with CDK2, the cell can not continue to the next stage of cell division. A mutant p53 will no longer bind DNA in an effective way, and, as a consequence, the p21 protein will not be available to act as the "stop signal '' for cell division. Studies of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) commonly describe the nonfunctional p53 - p21 axis of the G1 / S checkpoint pathway with subsequent relevance for cell cycle regulation and the DNA damage response (DDR). Importantly, p21 mRNA is clearly present and upregulated after the DDR in hESCs, but p21 protein is not detectable. In this cell type, p53 activates numerous microRNAs (like miR - 302a, miR - 302b, miR - 302c, and miR - 302d) that directly inhibit the p21 expression in hESCs.
Research has also linked the p53 and RB1 pathways, via p14ARF, raising the possibility that the pathways may regulate each other.
p53 by regulating LIF has been shown to facilitate implantation in the mouse model and possibly in humans.
p53 expression can be stimulated by UV light, which also causes DNA damage. In this case, p53 can initiate events leading to tanning.
The p21 protein binds directly to cyclin - CDK complexes that drive forward the cell cycle and inhibits their kinase activity thereby causing cell cycle arrest to allow repair to take place. p21 can also mediate growth arrest associated with differentiation and a more permanent growth arrest associated with cellular senescence. The p21 gene contains several p53 response elements that mediate direct binding of the p53 protein, resulting in transcriptional activation of the gene encoding the p21 protein.
Levels of p53 play an important role in the maintenance of stem cells throughout development and the rest of human life.
p53 is maintained at low inactive levels in human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). This is because activation of p53 leads to rapid differentiation of hESCs. Studies have shown that knocking out p53 delays differentiation and that adding p53 causes spontaneous differentiation, showing how p53 promotes differentiation of hESCs and plays a key role in cell cycle as a differentiation regulator. When p53 becomes stabilized and activated in hESCs, it increases p21 to establish a longer G1. This typically leads to abolition of S - phase entry, which stops the cell cycle in G1, leading to differentiation. p53 also activates miR - 34a and miR - 145, which then repress the hESCs pluripotency factors, further instigating differentiation.
Studies of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) commonly describe the nonfunctional p53 - p21 axis of the G1 / S checkpoint pathway. This has subsequent relevance for cell cycle regulation and the DNA damage response (DDR). Importantly, p21 mRNA is clearly present and upregulated after the DDR in hESCs, but p21 protein is not detectable. In this cell type, p53 activates numerous microRNAs (like miR - 302a, miR - 302b, miR - 302c, and miR - 302d) that directly inhibit the p21 expression in hESCs.
In adult stem cells, p53 regulation is important for maintenance of stemness in adult stem cell niches. Mechanical signals such as hypoxia affect levels of p53 in these niche cells through the hypoxia inducible factors, HIF - 1α and HIF - 2α. While HIF - 1α stabilizes p53, HIF - 2α suppresses it. Suppression of p53 plays important roles in cancer stem cell phenotype, induced pluripotent stem cells and other stem cell roles and behaviors, such as blastema formation. Cells with decreased levels of p53 have been shown to reprogram into stem cells with a much greater efficiency than normal cells. Papers suggest that the lack of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis gives more cells the chance to be reprogrammed. Decreased levels of p53 were also shown to be a crucial aspect of blastema formation in the legs of salamanders. p53 regulation is very important in acting as a barrier between stem cells and a differentiated stem cell state, as well as a barrier between stem cells being functional and being cancerous.
p53 becomes activated in response to myriad stressors, including but not limited to DNA damage (induced by either UV, IR, or chemical agents such as hydrogen peroxide), oxidative stress, osmotic shock, ribonucleotide depletion, and deregulated oncogene expression. This activation is marked by two major events. First, the half - life of the p53 protein is increased drastically, leading to a quick accumulation of p53 in stressed cells. Second, a conformational change forces p53 to be activated as a transcription regulator in these cells. The critical event leading to the activation of p53 is the phosphorylation of its N - terminal domain. The N - terminal transcriptional activation domain contains a large number of phosphorylation sites and can be considered as the primary target for protein kinases transducing stress signals.
The protein kinases that are known to target this transcriptional activation domain of p53 can be roughly divided into two groups. A first group of protein kinases belongs to the MAPK family (JNK1 - 3, ERK1 - 2, p38 MAPK), which is known to respond to several types of stress, such as membrane damage, oxidative stress, osmotic shock, heat shock, etc. A second group of protein kinases (ATR, ATM, CHK1 and CHK2, DNA - PK, CAK, TP53RK) is implicated in the genome integrity checkpoint, a molecular cascade that detects and responds to several forms of DNA damage caused by genotoxic stress. Oncogenes also stimulate p53 activation, mediated by the protein p14ARF.
In unstressed cells, p53 levels are kept low through a continuous degradation of p53. A protein called Mdm2 (also called HDM2 in humans), binds to p53, preventing its action and transports it from the nucleus to the cytosol. Also Mdm2 acts as ubiquitin ligase and covalently attaches ubiquitin to p53 and thus marks p53 for degradation by the proteasome. However, ubiquitylation of p53 is reversible.
MI - 63 binds to MDM2 making the action of p53 again possible in situations were p53 's function has become inhibited.
A ubiquitin specific protease, USP7 (or HAUSP), can cleave ubiquitin off p53, thereby protecting it from proteasome - dependent degradation via the ubiquitin ligase pathway. This is one means by which p53 is stabilized in response to oncogenic insults. USP42 has also been shown to deubiquitinate p53 and may be required for the ability of p53 to respond to stress.
Recent research has shown that HAUSP is mainly localized in the nucleus, though a fraction of it can be found in the cytoplasm and mitochondria. Overexpression of HAUSP results in p53 stabilization. However, depletion of HAUSP does not result to a decrease in p53 levels but rather increases p53 levels due to the fact that HAUSP binds and deubiquitinates Mdm2. It has been shown that HAUSP is a better binding partner to Mdm2 than p53 in unstressed cells.
USP10 however has been shown to be located in the cytoplasm in unstressed cells and deubiquitinates cytoplasmic p53, reversing Mdm2 ubiquitination. Following DNA damage, USP10 translocates to the nucleus and contributes to p53 stability. Also USP10 does not interact with Mdm2.
Phosphorylation of the N - terminal end of p53 by the above - mentioned protein kinases disrupts Mdm2 - binding. Other proteins, such as Pin1, are then recruited to p53 and induce a conformational change in p53, which prevents Mdm2 - binding even more. Phosphorylation also allows for binding of transcriptional coactivators, like p300 and PCAF, which then acetylate the carboxy - terminal end of p53, exposing the DNA binding domain of p53, allowing it to activate or repress specific genes. Deacetylase enzymes, such as Sirt1 and Sirt7, can deacetylate p53, leading to an inhibition of apoptosis. Some oncogenes can also stimulate the transcription of proteins that bind to MDM2 and inhibit its activity.
If the TP53 gene is damaged, tumor suppression is severely compromised. People who inherit only one functional copy of the TP53 gene will most likely develop tumors in early adulthood, a disorder known as Li - Fraumeni syndrome.
The TP53 gene can also be modified by mutagens (chemicals, radiation, or viruses), increasing the likelihood for uncontrolled cell division. More than 50 percent of human tumors contain a mutation or deletion of the TP53 gene. Loss of p53 creates genomic instability that most often results in an aneuploidy phenotype.
Increasing the amount of p53 may seem a solution for treatment of tumors or prevention of their spreading. This, however, is not a usable method of treatment, since it can cause premature aging. Restoring endogenous normal p53 function holds some promise. Research has shown that this restoration can lead to regression of certain cancer cells without damaging other cells in the process. The ways by which tumor regression occurs depends mainly on the tumor type. For example, restoration of endogenous p53 function in lymphomas may induce apoptosis, while cell growth may be reduced to normal levels. Thus, pharmacological reactivation of p53 presents itself as a viable cancer treatment option. The first commercial gene therapy, Gendicine, was approved in China in 2003 for the treatment of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. It delivers a functional copy of the p53 gene using an engineered adenovirus.
Certain pathogens can also affect the p53 protein that the TP53 gene expresses. One such example, human papillomavirus (HPV), encodes a protein, E6, which binds to the p53 protein and inactivates it. This mechanism, in synergy with the inactivation of the cell cycle regulator pRb by the HPV protein E7, allows for repeated cell division manifested clinically as warts. Certain HPV types, in particular types 16 and 18, can also lead to progression from a benign wart to low or high - grade cervical dysplasia, which are reversible forms of precancerous lesions. Persistent infection of the cervix over the years can cause irreversible changes leading to carcinoma in situ and eventually invasive cervical cancer. This results from the effects of HPV genes, particularly those encoding E6 and E7, which are the two viral oncoproteins that are preferentially retained and expressed in cervical cancers by integration of the viral DNA into the host genome.
The p53 protein is continually produced and degraded in cells of healthy people, resulting in damped oscillation. The degradation of the p53 protein is associated with binding of MDM2. In a negative feedback loop, MDM2 itself is induced by the p53 protein. Mutant p53 proteins often fail to induce MDM2, causing p53 to accumulate at very high levels. Moreover, the mutant p53 protein itself can inhibit normal p53 protein levels. In some cases, single missense mutations in p53 have been shown to disrupt p53 stability and function.
Suppression of p53 in human breast cancer cells is shown to lead to increased CXCR5 chemokine receptor gene expression and activated cell migration in response to chemokine CXCL13.
One study found that p53 and Myc proteins were key to the survival of Chronic Myeloid Leukaemia (CML) cells. Targeting p53 and Myc proteins with drugs gave positive results on mice with CML.
Most p53 mutations are detected by DNA sequencing. However, it is known that single missense mutations can have a large spectrum from rather mild to very severe functional affects.
The large spectrum of cancer phenotypes due to mutations in the TP53 gene is also supported by the fact that different isoforms of p53 proteins have different cellular mechanisms for prevention against cancer. Mutations in TP53 can give rise to different isoforms, preventing their overall functionality in different cellular mechanisms and thereby extending the cancer phenotype from mild to severe. Recents studies show that p53 isoforms are differentially expressed in different human tissues, and the loss - of - function or gain - of - function mutations within the isoforms can cause tissue - specific cancer or provides cancer stem cell potential in different tissues. TP53 mutation also hits energy metabolism and increases glycolysis in breast cancer cells.
The dynamics of p53 proteins, along with its antagonist Mdm2, indicate that the levels of p53, in units of concentration, oscillate as a function of time. This "damped '' oscillation is both clinically documented and mathematically modelled. Mathematical models also indicate that the p53 concentration oscillates much faster once teratogens, such as double - stranded breaks (DSB) or UV radiation, are introduced to the system. This supports and models the current understanding of p53 dynamics, where DNA damage induces p53 activation (see p53 regulation for more information). Current models can also be useful for modelling the mutations in p53 isoforms and their effects on p53 oscillation, thereby promoting de novo tissue - specific pharmacological drug discovery.
p53 was identified in 1979 by Lionel Crawford, David P. Lane, Arnold Levine, and Lloyd Old, working at Imperial Cancer Research Fund (UK) Princeton University / UMDNJ (Cancer Institute of New Jersey), and Memorial Sloan - Kettering Cancer Center, respectively. It had been hypothesized to exist before as the target of the SV40 virus, a strain that induced development of tumors. The TP53 gene from the mouse was first cloned by Peter Chumakov of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1982, and independently in 1983 by Moshe Oren in collaboration with David Givol (Weizmann Institute of Science). The human TP53 gene was cloned in 1984 and the full length clone in 1985.
It was initially presumed to be an oncogene due to the use of mutated cDNA following purification of tumor cell mRNA. Its role as a tumor suppressor gene was revealed in 1989 by Bert Vogelstein at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and Arnold Levine at Princeton University.
Warren Maltzman, of the Waksman Institute of Rutgers University first demonstrated that TP53 was responsive to DNA damage in the form of ultraviolet radiation. In a series of publications in 1991 -- 92, Michael Kastan of Johns Hopkins University, reported that TP53 was a critical part of a signal transduction pathway that helped cells respond to DNA damage.
In 1993, p53 was voted molecule of the year by Science magazine.
As with 95 % of human genes, TP53 encodes more than one protein. In 2005 several isoforms were discovered and until now, 12 human p53 isoforms were identified (p53α, p53β, p53γ, ∆ 40p53α, ∆ 40p53β, ∆ 40p53γ, ∆ 133p53α, ∆ 133p53β, ∆ 133p53γ, ∆ 160p53α, ∆ 160p53β, ∆ 160p53γ). Furthermore, p53 isoforms are expressed in a tissue dependent manner and p53α is never expressed alone.
The full length p53 isoform proteins can be subdivided into different protein domains. Starting from the N - terminus, there are first the amino - terminal transactivation domains (TAD 1, TAD 2), which are needed to induce a subset of p53 target genes. This domain is followed by the Proline rich domain (PXXP), whereby the motif PXXP is repeated (P is a Proline and X can be any amino acid). It is required among others for p53 mediated apoptosis. Some isoforms lack the Proline rich domain, such as Δ133p53β, γ and Δ160p53α, β, γ; hence some isoforms of p53 are not mediating apoptosis, emphasizing the diversifying roles of the TP53 gene. Afterwards there is the DNA binding domain (DBD), which enables the proteins to sequence specific binding. The carboxyl terminal domain completes the protein. It includes the nuclear localization signal (NLS), the nuclear export signal (NES) and the oligomerisation domain (OD). The NLS and NES are responsible for the subcellular regulation of p53. Through the OD, p53 can form a tetramer and then bind to DNA. Among the isoforms, some domains can be missing, but all of them share most of the highly conserved DNA - binding domain.
The isoforms are formed by different mechanisms. The beta and the gamma isoforms are generated by multiple splicing of intron 9, which leads to a different C - terminus. Furthermore, the usage of an internal promoter in intron 4 causes the ∆ 133 and ∆ 160 isoforms, which lack the TAD domain and a part of the DBD. Moreover, alternative initiation of translation at codon 40 or 160 bear the ∆ 40p53 and ∆ 160p53 isoforms.
Due to the isoformic nature of p53 proteins, there have been several sources of evidence showing that mutations within the TP53 gene giving rise to mutated isoforms are causative agents of various cancer phenotypes, from mild to severe, due to single mutation in the TP53 gene (refer to section Experimental analysis of p53 mutations for more details).
p53 has been shown to interact with:
Peto 's paradox is the observation, due to Richard Peto, that at the species level, the incidence of cancer does not appear to correlate with the number of cells in an organism. For example, the incidence of cancer in humans is much higher than the incidence of cancer in whales. This is despite the fact that a whale has many more cells than a human. If the probability of carcinogenesis were constant across cells, one would expect whales to have a higher incidence of cancer than humans. The same is true of elephants. In October 2015, two independent studies showed that elephants have 20 copies of a tumor suppressor gene TP53 in their genome, where humans and other mammals have only one, thus providing a possible solution to the paradox.
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who has started reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation | Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation - wikipedia
Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries (REDD+) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2005, with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries. Most of the key REDD+ decisions were completed by 2013, with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015.
In the last two decades, various studies estimate that land use change, including deforestation and forest degradation, accounts for 12 - 29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions. For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC.
During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol, and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage (detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities). What remained on forestry was "Afforestation and Reforestation '', sectoral scope 14 of the CDM. Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species. In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the "Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM. The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake. Beyond the CDM, all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests. The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests.
In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions, the Coalition for Rainforest Nations (CfRN) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure.
REDD was first discussed in 2005 by the UNFCCC at its 11th session of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention (COP) at the request of Costa Rica and Papua New Guinea, on behalf of the Coalition for Rainforest Nations, when they submitted the document "Reducing Emissions from Deforestation in Developing Countries: Approaches to Stimulate Action '', with a request to create an agenda item to discuss consideration of reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in natural forests as a mitigation measure. COP 11 entered the request to consider the document as agenda item 6: Reducing emissions from deforestation in developing countries: approaches to stimulate action.
REDD received substantial attention from the UNFCCC -- and the attending community -- at COP 13, December 2007, where the first substantial decision on REDD+ was adopted, Decision 2 / CP. 13: "Reducing emissions from deforestation in developing countries: approaches to stimulate action '', calling for demonstration activities to be reported upon two years later and assessment of drivers of deforestation. Perhaps more interestingly, REDD+ was also referenced in decision 1 / CP. 13, the "Bali Action Plan '', with reference to all five eligible activities for REDD+ (with sustainable management of forests, conservation of forest carbon stocks and enhancement of forest carbon stocks constituting the "+ '' in REDD+).
The call for demonstration activities in decision 2 / CP. 13 led to a very large number of programmes and projects, including the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) of the World Bank, the UN-REDD Programme, and a flurry of smaller projects financed by the Norwegian International Climate and Forest Initiative (NICFI), the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany, among many others. All of these were based on substantive guidance from the UNFCCC.
In 2009 at COP 15, decision 4 / CP. 15: "Methodological guidance for activities relating to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries '' provided more substantive information on requirements for REDD+. Specifically, the national forest monitoring system was introduced, with elements of measurement, reporting and verification (MRV). Furthermore, countries were encouraged to develop national strategies, develop domestic capacity, establish reference levels, and establish a participatory approach with "full and effective engagement of indigenous peoples and local communities in (...) monitoring and reporting ''.
A year later at COP 16 decision 1 / CP. 16 was adopted. In section C: "Policy approaches and positive incentives on issues relating to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries; and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries '' environmental and social safeguards were introduced, with a reiteration of requirements for the national forest monitoring system. These safeguards were introduced to ensure that implementation of REDD+ at the national level would not lead to detrimental effects for the environment or the local population. Countries are required to provide summaries of information on how these safeguards are implemented throughout the three "phases '' of REDD+.
In 2011 decision 12 / CP. 17 was adopted at COP 17: "Guidance on systems for providing information on how safeguards are addressed and respected and modalities relating to forest reference emission levels and forest reference levels as referred to in decision 1 / CP. 16 ''. Details are provided on preparation and submission of reference levels and guidance on providing information on safeguards.
In December 2013, COP 19 produced no fewer than seven decisions on REDD+, which are jointly known as the "Warsaw Framework on REDD - plus ''. These decisions address a work programme on results - based finance; coordination of support for implementation; modalities for national forest monitoring systems; presenting information on safeguards; technical assessment of reference (emission) levels; modalities for measuring, reporting and verifying (MRV); and information on addressing the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation. Requirements to be eligible access to "results - based finance '' have been specified: through submission of reports for which the contents have been specified; technical assessment through International Consultation and Analysis (ICA) for which procedures have been specified;. With these decisions the overall framework for REDD+ implementation appears to be complete, although many details still need to be provided.
COP 20 in December 2014 did not produce any new decisions on REDD+. A reference was made to REDD+ in decision 8 / CP. 20 "Report of the Green Climate Fund to the Conference of the Parties and guidance to the Green Climate Fund '', where in paragraph 18 the COP "requests the Board of the Green Climate Fund (...) (b) to consider decisions relevant to REDD - plus '', referring back to earlier COP decisions on REDD+.
Finally, the remaining outstanding decisions on REDD+ were completed at COP21 in 2015. With the conclusion of decisions on reporting on the safeguards, non-market approaches, and non-carbon benefits, the UNFCCC rulebook on REDD+ was completed. All countries were also encouraged to implement and support REDD + in Article 5 of the Paris Agreement. This was part of a broader Article that specified that all countries should take action to protect and enhance their greenhouse gas sinks and reservoirs (stores of sequestered carbon).
The approach detailed under the UNFCCC is commonly referred to as "reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation '', abbreviated as REDD+. This title and the acronyms, however, are not used by the COP itself.
The original submission by Papua New Guinea and Costa Rica, on behalf of the Coalition for Rainforest Nations, dated 28 July 2005, was entitled "Reducing Emissions from Deforestation in Developing Countries: Approaches to Stimulate Action '', exactly as is written here. COP 11 entered the request to consider the document as agenda item 6: "Reducing emissions from deforestation in developing countries: approaches to stimulate action '', again written here exactly as in the official text. The name for the agenda item was also used at COP 13 in Bali, December 2007. By COP 15 in Copenhagen, December 2009, the scope of the agenda item was broadened to "Methodological guidance for activities relating to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries '', moving to "Policy approaches and positive incentives on issues relating to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries; and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries '' by COP 16. At COP 17 the title of the decision simply referred back to an earlier decision: "Guidance on systems for providing information on how safeguards are addressed and respected and modalities relating to forest reference emission levels and forest reference levels as referred to in decision 1 / CP. 16 ''. At COP 19 the titles of decisions 9 and 12 refer back to decision 1 / CP. 16, paragraph 70 and appendix I respectively, while the other decisions only mention the topic under consideration.
None of these decisions use an acronym for the title of the agenda item or otherwise; the ubiquitous acronym is thus not coined by the COP of the UNFCCC. Surprisingly therefore, the set of decisions on REDD+ that were adopted at COP 19 in Warsaw, December 2013, were jointly christened the Warsaw Framework on REDD - plus in a footnote to the title of each of the decisions.
All things considered, there should be no confusion on the formal name (s):
However, the commonly used name outside of the UNFCCC seems to have stuck, perhaps not surprisingly seeing that the second title is quite unwieldy.
As an approach under the multi-lateral climate change agreement, REDD+ is essentially a vehicle to encourage developing countries to reduce emissions and enhance removals of greenhouse gases through a variety of forest management options, and to provide technical and financial support for these efforts. As with other approaches under the UNFCCC, there are few prescriptions that specifically mandate how to implement the mechanism at national level; the principles of national sovereignty and subsidiarity imply that the UNFCCC can only provide guidelines for implementation, and require that reports are submitted in a certain format and open for review by the Convention. There are certain aspects that go beyond this basic philosophy -- such as the so - called safeguards, explained in more detail below -- but in essence REDD+ is no more than a set of guidelines on how to report on forest resources and forest management strategies and their results in terms of reducing emissions and enhancing removals of greenhouse gases. However, a set of requirements has been elaborated to ensure that REDD+ programs contain key elements and that reports from Parties are consistent and comparable and that their content are open to review and in function of the objectives of the Convention.
Decision 1 / CP 16 requests all developing countries aiming to undertake REDD+ to develop the following elements:
(a) A national strategy or action plan;
(b) A national forest reference emission level and / or forest reference level or, if appropriate, as an interim measure, subnational forest reference emission levels and / or forest reference levels (c) A robust and transparent national forest monitoring system for the monitoring and reporting on REDD+ activities (see below), with, if appropriate, subnational monitoring and reporting as an interim measure (d) A system for providing information on how the social and environmental safeguards (included in an appendix to the decision) are being addressed and respected throughout the implementation of REDD+
It further requests developing countries, when developing and implementing their national REDD+ strategies or action plans, to address, among other issues, the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation, land tenure issues, forest governance issues, gender considerations and the social and environmental safeguards, ensuring the full and effective participation of relevant stakeholders, inter alia indigenous peoples and local communities;
In the text of the Convention repeated reference is made to national "policies and measures '', the set of legal, regulatory and administrative instruments that Parties develop and implement to achieve the objective of the Convention. These policies can be specific to climate change mitigation or adaptation, or of a more generic nature but with an impact on greenhouse gas emissions. Many of the signatory parties to the UNFCCC have by now established climate change strategies and response measures.
The REDD+ approach has a similar, more focused set of policies and measures. Forest sector laws and procedures are typically in place in most countries. In addition, countries have to develop specific national strategies and / or action plans for REDD+.
Of specific interest to REDD+ are the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation. The UNFCCC decisions call on countries to make an assessment of these drivers and to base the policies and measures on this assessment, such that the policies and measures can be directed to where the impact is greatest. Some of the drivers will be generic -- in the sense that they are prevalent in many countries, such as increasing population pressure -- while others will be very specific to countries or regions within countries.
Countries are encouraged to identify "national circumstances '' that impact the drivers: specific conditions within the country that impact the forest resources. Hints for typical national circumstances can be found in preambles to various COP decisions, such as "Reaffirming that economic and social development and poverty eradication are global priorities '' in the Bali Action Plan, enabling developing countries to prioritize policies like poverty eradication through agricultural expansion or hydropower development over forest protection.
The decisions on REDD+ enumerate five "eligible activities '' that developing countries may implement to reduce emissions and enhance removals of greenhouse gases:
The first two activities reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and they are the two activities listed in the original submission on REDD+ in 2005 by the Coalition for Rainforest Nations. The three remaining activities constitute the "+ '' in REDD+. The last one enhances removals of greenhouse gases, while the effect of the other two on emissions or removals is indeterminate but expected to be minimal.
The UNFCCC provides no guidance on what specific actions constitute the eligible activities. Possibly an approach will be adopted as under the CDM: project proponents -- in this case Parties to the Convention -- can submit documentation on an approach which will be reviewed by a technical committee of the UNFCCC. Upon approval this "approved methodology '' will be publicly available to all for its application.
Reference levels are a key component for any national REDD+ program and critical in at least two aspects. Firstly, they serve as a baseline for measuring the success of REDD+ programs in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from forests. Second, they are available for examination by the international community to assess the reported emission reductions or enhanced removals. In that sense it establishes the confidence of the international community in the national REDD+ program. The results measured against these baselines may be eligible for results - based payments. Setting the reference levels too lax will erode the confidence in the national REDD+ program, while setting them too strict will erode the potential to earn the benefits with which to operate the national REDD+ program. Very careful consideration of all relevant information is therefore of crucial importance.
The requirements and characteristics of reference levels are under the purview of the UNFCCC. Given the wide variety in ecological conditions and country - specific circumstances, these requirements are rather global and every country will have a range of options in its definition of reference levels within its territory.
A reference level (RL) is expressed as an amount, derived by differencing a sequence of amounts over a period of time. For REDD+ purposes the amount is expressed in CO-equivalents (CO e) (see article on global warming potential) of emissions or removals per year. If the amounts are emissions, the reference level becomes a reference emission level (REL); however these RELs are seen by some as incomplete as they do not take into account removals. Reference levels are based on a scope ‒ what is included? ‒ a scale ‒ the geographical area from which it is derived or to which it is applied ‒ and a period over which the reference level is calculated. The scope, the scale and the period can be modified in reference to national circumstances: specific conditions in the country that would call for an adjustment of the basis from which the reference levels are constructed. A reference level can be based on observations or measurements of amounts in the past, in which case it is retrospective, or it can be an expectation or projection of amounts into the future, in which case it is prospective.
Reference levels have to eventually have national coverage, but they may be composed from a number of sub-national reference levels. As an example, forest degradation may have a reference emission level for commercial selective logging and one for extraction of minor timber and firewood for subsistence use by rural communities. Effectively, every identified driver of deforestation or forest degradation has to be represented in one or more reference emission level (s). Similarly for reference levels for enhancement of carbon stocks, there may be a reference level for plantation timber species and one for natural regeneration, possibly stratified by ecological region or forest type.
Details on the reporting and technical assessment of reference levels is given in Decision 13 / CP. 19.
In Decision 2 / CP. 15 of the UNFCCC countries are requested to develop national forest monitoring systems (NFMS) that support the functions of measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) of actions and achievements of the implementation of REDD+ activities. NFMS is the key component in the management of information for national REDD+ programs. A fully functional monitoring system can go beyond the requirements posted by the UNFCCC to include issues such as a registry of projects and participants, and evaluation of program achievements and policy effectiveness. It may be purpose - built, but it may also be integrated into existing forest monitoring tools.
Measurements are suggested to be made using a combination of remote sensing and ground - based observations. Remote sensing is particularly suited to the assessment of areas of forest and stratification of different forest types. Ground - based observations involve forest surveys to measure the carbon pools used by the IPCC, as well as other parameters of interest such as those related to safeguards and eligible activity implementation.
The reporting has to follow the guidance of the IPCC, in particular the "Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land - Use Change and Forestry '', which includes reporting templates to be included in National Communications of Parties to the UNFCCC. Included in the guidance are standard measurements protocols and analysis procedures which greatly impact the measurement systems that countries need to establish. The actual reporting of REDD+ results is not going through the National Communications, however, but through the Biennial Update Reports (BURs).
The technical assessment of these results is an independent, external process that is managed by the Secretariat to the UNFCCC; countries need to facilitate the requirements of this assessment. The technical assessment is included within the broader process of International Consultation and Analysis (ICA), which is effectively a peer - review by a team composed of an expert from an Annex I Party and an expert from a non-Annex I Party which "will be conducted in a manner that is nonintrusive, non-punitive and respectful of national sovereignty ''. This "technical team of experts shall analyse the extent to which:
However, unlike a true verification the technical assessment can not "approve '' or "reject '' the reference level, or the reported results measured against this reference level. It does provide clarity on potential areas for improvement.
Financing entities that seek to provide results - based payments (payments per tonne of mitigation achieved) typically seek a true verification of results by external experts, to provide assurance that the results for which they are paying are credible.
In response to concerns over the potential for negative consequences resulting from the implementation of REDD+ the UNFCCC established a list of safeguards that countries need to "address and respect '' and "promote and support '' in order to guarantee the correct and lasting generation of results from the REDD+ mechanism. These safeguards are:
Countries have to regularly provide a summary of information on how these safeguards are addressed and respected. This could come in the form, for instance, of explaining the legal and regulatory environment with regards to the recognition, inclusion and engagement of Indigenous Peoples, and information on how these requirements have been implemented.
Decision 12 / CP. 19 established that the "summary of information '' on the safeguards will be provided in the National Communications to the UNFCCC, which for developing country Parties will be once every four years. Additionally, and on a voluntary basis, the summary of information may be posted on the UNFCCC REDD+ web platform.
The REDD+ mechanism is currently still under discussion by the UNFCCC. All pertinent issues that comprise REDD+ are exclusively those that are included in the decisions of the COP, as indicated in the above sections. There is, however, a large variety of concepts and approaches that are labelled (as being part of) REDD+ by their proponents, either being a substitute for UNFCCC decisions or complementary to those decisions. Below follows a -- no doubt incomplete -- list of such concepts and approaches.
Deforestation and forest degradation account for 17 - 29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions, the reduction of which is estimated to be one of the most cost - efficient climate change mitigation strategies. Regeneration of forest on degraded or deforested lands can remove CO2 from the atmosphere through the build - up of biomass, making forest lands a sink of greenhouse gases. The REDD+ mechanism addresses both issues of emission reduction and enhanced removal of greenhouse gases.
Emissions of greenhouse gases from forest land can be reduced by slowing down the rates of deforestation and forest degradation, obviously covered by the first two of the REDD+ eligible activities. Another option would be some form of reduced impact logging in commercial logging, under the REDD+ eligible activity of sustainable management of forests.
Removals of greenhouse gases (specifically CO2) from the atmosphere can be achieved through various forest management options, such as replanting degraded or deforested areas or enrichment planting, but also by letting forest land regenerate naturally. Care must be taken to differentiate between what is a purely ecological process of regrowth and what is induced or enhanced through some management intervention.
In 2009, at COP - 15 in Copenhagen, the Copenhagen Accord was reached, noting in section 6 the recognition of the crucial role of REDD and REDD+ and the need to provide positive incentives for such actions by enabling the mobilization of financial resources from developed countries. The Accord goes on to note in section 8 that the collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources, including forestry and investments through international institutions, will approach USD 30 billion for the period 2010 - 2012.
The Green Climate Fund (GCF) was established at COP - 17 to function as the financial mechanism for the UNFCCC, so including for REDD+ finance. The Warsaw Framework on REDD - plus makes various references to the GCF, instructing developing country Parties to apply to the GCF for result - based finance. The GCF currently finances REDD+ programs in phase 1 (design of national strategies or action plans, capacity building) and phase 2 (implementation of national strategies or action plans, demonstration programs). It is currently finalizing an approach to REDD+ results - based payments.
REDD+ is also eligible for inclusion under CORSIA, the International Civil Aviation Organization 's market - based greenhouse gas offset mechanism < http://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Pages/market-based-measures.aspx >.
Decision 1 / CP. 16, paragraph 73, suggests that national capacity for implementing REDD+ is built up in phases, "beginning with the development of national strategies or action plans, policies and measures, and capacity - building, followed by the implementation of national policies and measures and national strategies or action plans that could involve further capacity - building, technology development and transfer and results - based demonstration activities, and evolving into results - based actions that should be fully measured, reported and verified ''. The initial phase of the development of national strategies and action plans and capacity building is typically referred to as the "Readiness phase '' (a term like Reddiness is also encountered).
There is a very substantial number of REDD+ projects globally and this section lists only a selection. One of the more comprehensive online tools with up - to - date information on REDD+ projects is the Voluntary REDD+ Database.
Most REDD+ activities or projects implemented since the call for demonstration activities in Decision 2 / CP. 13 December 2007 are focused on readiness, which is not surprising given that REDD+ and its requirements were completely new to all developing countries.
Some countries are already implementing aspects of a national forest monitoring system and activities aimed at reducing emissions and enhancing removals that go beyond REDD+ readiness. For example, the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility has 19 countries in the pipeline of the Carbon Fund, which will provide payments to these countries based on verified REDD+ emissions reductions achieved under national or subnational programs. The first countries will begin to negotiate contracts for these payments, and begin implementation of their programs, in 2017.
Following the Warsaw Framework on REDD - plus, the first country had submitted a Biennial Update Report with a Technical Annex containing the details on emission reductions from REDD+ eligible activities. Brazil submitted its first Biennial Update Report on 31 December 2014. The Technical Annex covers the Amazon biome within Brazil 's territory, a little under half of the national territory, reporting emission reductions against Brazil 's previously submitted reference emission level of 2,971.02 MtCO e from a reduction in deforestation. This Technical Annex was reviewed through the International Consultation and Analysis process and on 22 September 2015 a technical report was issued by the UNFCCC which states that "the LULUCF experts consider that the data and information provided in the technical annex are transparent, consistent, complete and accurate '' (paragraph 38). Considering that Brazil is only reporting on emission reductions from deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon, the technical review identified several areas of improvement (paragraph 34):
(a) Continuation in updating and improving the carbon density map, including through the use of improved ground data from Brazil 's first national forest inventory, possibly prioritizing geographic areas where deforestation is more likely to occur;
(b) Expansion of the coverage of carbon pools, including improving the understanding of soil carbon dynamics after the conversion of forests to non-forests;
(c) Consideration of the treatment of non-CO2 gases to maintain consistency with the GHG inventory;
(d) Continuation of the improvements related to monitoring of forest degradation;
Several additional countries have followed closely behind Brazil.
Since the first discussion on REDD+ in 2005 and particularly at COP - 13 in 2007 and COP - 15 in 2009, many concerns have been voiced on various aspects of REDD+. The COP has responded by establishing the safeguards for REDD+, although these are sometimes criticized for being too generic, non-enforceable and summary rather than a specific set of requirements for participation in the REDD+ mechanism.
Prior to full - scale implementation many challenges are still to be solved. How will the REDD+ approach link to existing national development strategies? How will forest communities and indigenous peoples participate in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of national REDD+ programmes? How will REDD+ be funded, and how will countries ensure that benefits are distributed equitably among all those who manage the forests? Finally, how will the amounts of reduced emissions and enhanced removals as a result of REDD+ activities be monitored?
Safeguard (e): That actions are consistent with the conservation of natural forests and biological diversity, ensuring that the (REDD+) actions (...) are not used for the conversion of natural forests, but are instead used to incentivize the protection and conservation of natural forests and their ecosystem services, and to enhance other social and environmental benefits. Footnote to this safeguard: Taking into account the need for sustainable livelihoods of indigenous peoples and local communities and their interdependence on forests in most countries, reflected in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, as well as the International Mother Earth Day.
The UNFCCC does not define what constitutes a forest; it only requires that Parties communicate to the UNFCCC on how they define a forest. The UNFCCC does suggest using a definition in terms of minimal area, minimal crown coverage and minimal height at maturity of perennial vegetation.
While there is a safeguard against the conversion of natural forest, developing country Parties are free to include plantations of commercial tree species (including exotics like Eucalyptus spp., Pinus spp., Acacia spp.), agricultural tree crops (e.g. rubber, mango, cocoa, citrus), or even non-tree species such as palms (oil palm, coconut, dates) and bamboo (a grass). Some opponents of REDD+ argue that this lack of a clear distinction is no accident. Defining a forest simply in terms of tree cover - rather than complex ecosystems and the livelihoods of peoples interacting with them -- has long been used as a cover for the expansion of industrial - scale plantations. The most plausible explanation, arguably, is that commercial interests take precedence over environmental and social objectives in the shaping of REDD+ policy.
Similarly, there is no consensus on a definition for forest degradation. The IPCC has come up with a number of suggestions, again leaving countries the option to select that definition which is most convenient.
A national REDD+ strategy need not refer solely to the establishment of national parks or protected areas; by the careful design of rules and guidelines, REDD+ could include land use practices such as shifting cultivation by indigenous communities and reduced - impact - logging, provided sustainable rotation and harvesting cycles can be demonstrated. Some argue that this is opening the door to logging operations in primary forests, displacement of local populations for "conservation '', increase of tree plantations.
Achieving multiple benefits, for example the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services (such as drainage basins), and social benefits (for example income and improved forest governance) is currently not addressed, beyond the inclusion in the safeguard.
According to some critics, REDD+ is another extension of green capitalism, subjecting the forests and its inhabitants to new ways of expropriation and enclosure at the hands of polluting companies and market speculators. So - called "carbon cowboys '' - unscrupulous entrepreneurs who attempt to acquire rights to carbon in rainforest for small - scale projects - have signed on indigenous communities to unfair contracts, often with a view to on - selling the rights to investors for a quick profit. In 2012 an Australian businessman operating in Peru was revealed to have signed 200 - year contracts with an Amazon tribe, the Yagua, many members of which are illiterate, giving him a 50 per cent share in their carbon resources. The contracts allow him to establish and control timber projects and palm oil plantations in Yagua rainforest. This risk is largely negated by the focus on national and subnational REDD+ programs, and by government ownership of these initiatives.
There are risks that the local inhabitants and the communities that live in the forests will be bypassed and that they wo n't be consulted and so they wo n't actually receive any revenues. Fair distribution of REDD+ benefits will not be achieved without a prior reform in forest governance and more secure tenure systems in many countries. So how can the benefits from REDD+ be distributed to forest communities in a just, equitable way that minimizes capture of the benefits by national governments or local elites?
The UNFCCC has repeatedly called for full and effective participation of Indigenous Peoples and local communities without becoming any more specific. The ability of local communities to effectively contribute to REDD+ field activities and the measurement of forest properties for estimating reduced emissions and enhanced emissions of greenhouse gases has been clearly demonstrated in various countries.
In project - based REDD+, some projects are unaccountable and dodgy companies have taken advantage of the low governance.
Safeguard (c): Respect for the knowledge and rights of indigenous peoples and members of local communities, by taking into account relevant international obligations, national circumstances and laws, and noting that the United Nations General Assembly has adopted the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples; Safeguard (d): The full and effective participation of relevant stakeholders, in particular indigenous peoples and local communities, in the (REDD+) actions (...) (and when developing and implementing national strategies or action plans);
Indigenous peoples are important stakeholders in REDD+ as they typically live inside forest areas or have their livelihoods (partially) based on exploitation of forest resources. The International Indigenous Peoples Forum on Climate Change (IIPFCC) was explicit at the Bali climate negotiations in 2007:
REDD / REDD+ will not benefit Indigenous Peoples, but in fact will result in more violations of Indigenous Peoples ' rights. It will increase the violation of our human rights, our rights to our lands, territories and resources, steal our land, cause forced evictions, prevent access and threaten indigenous agricultural practices, destroy biodiversity and cultural diversity and cause social conflicts. Under REDD / REDD+, states and carbon traders will take more control over our forests.
Some claim putting a commercial value on forests neglects the spiritual value they hold for Indigenous Peoples and local communities.
Indigenous Peoples protested in 2008 against the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues final report on climate change and a paragraph that endorsed REDD+; this was captured in a video entitled "the 2nd May Revolt ''. However, these protests have largely disappeared in recent years. Indigenous people sit as permanent representatives on many multinational and national REDD+ bodies, though there is always room for improvement.
Indigenous Peoples ' groups in Panama broke off their collaboration with the national UN-REDD Programme in 2012 over allegations of a failure of the government to properly respect the rights of the indigenous groups.
Some grassroots organizations are working to develop REDD+ activities with communities and developing benefit - sharing mechanisms to ensure REDD+ funds reach rural communities as well as governments. Examples of these include Plan Vivo projects in Mexico, Mozambique and Cameroon; and Carbonfund.org Foundation 's VCS abd CCBS projects in the state of Acre, Brazil.
When REDD+ was first discussed by the UNFCCC, no indication was given of the positive incentives that would support developing countries in their efforts to implement REDD+ to reduce emissions and enhance removals of greenhouse gases from forests. In the absence of guidance from the COP, two options were debated by the international community at large:
Under the market - based approach, REDD+ would act as an "offset scheme '' in which verified results - based actions translate into some form of carbon credits, more - or-less analogous to the market for Certified Emission Reductions (CER) under the CDM of the Kyoto Protocol. Such carbon credits could then offset emissions in the country or company of the buyer of the carbon credits. This would require Annex I countries to agree to deeper cuts in emissions of greenhouse gases in order to create a market for the carbon credits from REDD+, which is unlikely to happen soon given the current state of negotiations in the COP, but even then there is the fear that the market will be flooded with carbon credits, depressing the price to levels where REDD+ is no longer an economically viable option. Some developing countries, such as Brazil and China, maintain that developed countries must commit to real emissions reductions, independent of any offset mechanism.
Since COP - 17, however, it has become clear that the REDD+ may be financed by a variety of sources, market and non-market. The newly established Green Climate Fund already is supporting phase 1 and 2 REDD+ programs, and is finalizing rules to allow disbursement of result - based finance to developing countries that submit verified reports of emission reductions and enhanced removals of greenhouse gases.
While the COP decisions emphasize national ownership and stakeholder consultation, there are concerns that some of the larger institutional organizations are driving the process, in particular outside of the one Party, one vote realm of multi-lateral negotiations under the UNFCCC. For example, the World Bank and the UN-REDD Programme, the two largest sources of funding and technical assistance for readiness activities and therefore unavoidable for most developing countries, place requirements upon recipient countries that are arguably not mandated or required by the COP decisions. A body of research suggests that, at least as of 2016, REDD+ as a global architecture has only had a limited effect on local political realities, as pre-existing entrenched power dynamics and incentives that promote deforestation are not easily changed by the relatively small sums of money that REDD+ has delivered to date. In addition, issues like land tenure that fundamentally determine who makes decisions about land use and deforestation have not been adequately addressed by REDD+, and there is no clear consensus on how complex political issues like land tenure can be easily resolved to favor standing forests over cleared forests through a relatively top - down mechanism like REDD+.
While a single, harmonized, global system that accounts for and rewards emissions reductions from forests and land use has been elusive, diverse context - specific projects have emerged that support a variety of activities including community - based forest management, enforcement of protected areas, sustainable charcoal production, and agroforestry. Although it is not clear whether these diverse projects are genuinely different from older integrated conservation and development initiatives that pre-date REDD+, there is evidence that REDD+ has altered global policy conversations, possibly elevating issues like indigenous peoples ' land rights to higher levels, or conversely threatening to bypass safeguards for indigenous rights. Debate surrounding these issues is ongoing.
Although the World Bank declares its commitment to fight against climate change, many civil society organisations and grassroots movements around the world view with scepticism the processes being developed under the various carbon funds. Among some of the most worrying reasons are the weak (or inexistent) consultation processes with local communities; the lack of criteria to determine when a country is ready to implement REDD+ projects (readiness); the negative impacts such as deforestation and loss of biodiversity (due to fast agreements and lack of planning); the lack of safeguards to protect Indigenous Peoples ' rights; and the lack of regional policies to stop deforestation. A growing coalition of civil society organization, social movement, and other actors critical of REDD+ emerged between 2008 and 2011, criticizing the mechanism on climate justice grounds. During the UN climate negotiations in Copenhagen (2009) and Cancun (2010) strong civil society and social movements coalitions formed a strong front to fight the World Bank out of the climate. However, this concern has largely died down as the World Bank initiatives have been more full developed, and some of these same actors are now participating in implementation of REDD+.
ITTO has been criticized for appearing to support above all the inclusion of forest extraction inside REDD+ under the guise of "sustainable management '' in order to benefit from carbon markets while maintaining business - as - usual.
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who replaced ashton kutcher on that 70 show | That ' 70s show (season 8) - wikipedia
The eighth and final season of the American comedy television series That ' 70s Show premiered November 2, 2005 on Fox in the United States. The season ended on May 18, 2006 with an hour - long series finale. The eighth season was the first and only season without the show 's star Topher Grace who portrayed Eric Forman, the central character, since he left the series at the end of the previous season. Eric was often mentioned throughout the season, even being an important off - stage character central to an episode 's plot upon occasion. Topher Grace returned as Eric for the final episode, although his role was both brief and uncredited.
This season also marked a major change in the series, as a new character was introduced to take Eric 's place named Randy Pearson (portrayed by new cast member Josh Meyers) and the departure of Michael Kelso, who was portrayed by Ashton Kutcher. Kutcher actually quit the show at the end of season seven but remained on the series for five episodes during the eighth season. He appeared in the first four episodes to give closure to Kelso and he appeared again in the final episode titled "That ' 70s Finale ''. Also, Leo (Tommy Chong) returned as a main character since his return to the series in the seventh season (in a special guest role).
Many plots of the season involved Donna 's new relationship with Randy, Jackie falling in love with Fez, Hyde getting married to a stripper named Samantha, Kelso getting a new job and moving to Chicago, and the Formans adjusting to an empty nest which is too empty for Kitty and not empty enough for Red due to the kids ' presence despite Eric 's absence.
This season is set entirely in 1979, with the final seconds of the series being the final seconds of the decade. The very last seconds of the series show the license plate of Eric 's Vista Cruiser for the final time, now featuring a tag with the year "80 '' on it, signaling that the 1980s have begun.
All episodes of season 8, except the finale, are named after songs by Queen.
The region 1 DVD was released on April 1, 2008.
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when did taylor swifts first song come out | 1989 (Taylor Swift album) - wikipedia
1989 is the fifth studio album by American singer - songwriter Taylor Swift released on October 27, 2014, through Big Machine Records. Swift began composing the album following release of previous studio effort, Red (2012). Over the course of the two - year songwriting period, she collaborated with producers Max Martin and Shellback -- Martin served as the album 's executive producer alongside Swift. The album 's title was named after the singer 's birth year and inspired by the pop music of the 1980s.
The album represents a departure from the country music of Swift 's previous albums, and is described by the singer as her "first documented official pop album. '' Contrasting her previous endeavors, the production of 1989 consists of drum programming, synthesizers, pulsating bass, processed backing vocals, and guitars. 1989 received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics and it was ranked as one of the best albums of 2014 by several publications, including Billboard, Time, and Rolling Stone.
1989 sold 1.287 million copies in the US during its first week and debuted at number one on Billboard 200. It became the best - selling album of 2014 in the United States with total sales of 6.11 million as of December 2017, while selling 10.1 million worldwide. Seven singles have been released from the set: "Shake It Off '', "Blank Space '', and "Bad Blood '' all reached number one on the US Billboard Hot 100, with others reaching top - ten ("Style '' and "Wildest Dreams '') and top - 20 ("Out of the Woods ''). The first five singles all received a multi-platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). 1989 won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year, making Swift the first female artist to win the award twice, having previously won in 2010 for Fearless.
Swift released her fourth studio album, Red, on October 22, 2012. The album marked a change in Swift 's musical style with the experimentation of heartland rock, dubstep and dance - pop. Red was a commercial success and debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 with first - week sales of 1.21 million copies. This was the highest opening sales in a decade and ultimately made Swift the first woman to have two albums sell more than a million copies in their first week. To promote the album Swift, embarked on the North American leg of her Red Tour, which ran from March to September 2013. The tour visited arenas and stadiums in North America, New Zealand, Australia, England, Germany and Asia. In the Red era, Swift 's romantic life became the subject of intense media scrutiny. Gawker remarked that Swift had dated "every man in the universe. '' The New York Times asserted that her "dating history has begun to stir what feels like the beginning of a backlash '' and questioned whether Swift was in the midst of a "quarter - life crisis. '' During both the Red Tour and media scrutiny, Swift began work on 1989.
Following the release of her fourth studio album, Red, and its corresponding tour, Swift was "six months deep in the songwriting process. '' In November 2013, the singer told Billboard: "There are probably seven or eight (songs) that I know I want on the record. It 's already evolved into a new sound, and that 's all I wanted. '' During the promotion for the album, Swift said that she "woke up every single day not wanting, but needing to make a new style of music than I 'd ever made before ''. Swift explained in a January 2015 interview that she was "very proud '' that she made a pop album because she "wanted to '', and "there was no - one else influencing '' her. Recording sessions for the album took place at Conway Studios in Los Angeles, Jungle City Studios in New York, Lamby 's House Studios in Brooklyn, MXM Studios in Stockholm, Sweden; Pain in the Art Studio in Nashville, Studio Elevator Nobody in Göteborg, Sweden and The Hideaway Studio.
In February 2014, Swift confirmed she was again working with Martin and Shellback, with whom she had collaborated for the writing of three songs on Red. This time, they were writing "a lot more than three songs together. '' Swift 's friend Jack Antonoff, with whom Swift had previously collaborated, and Ryan Tedder also worked on the album. Antonoff co-wrote and co-produced the songs "Out of the Woods '', "I Wish You Would '' and "You Are in Love '', with the third track only appearing on the United States Target, Target Canada, and international deluxe version. The band Fine Young Cannibals was identified as an influence, by both Swift and Antonoff; the latter explained in September 2014:
The moment when we shifted from friendship into working together was when we were talking about the snare drum on Fine Young Cannibals ' "She Drives Me Crazy ''... Taylor (Swift) brought it up first, and I was like, "Holy shit, you 're not going to believe this: I just sampled that snare in a track. '' I played her one second of it on my iPhone, and she was like, "Send me that track. ''
The track that Antonoff recorded on his iPhone eventually became "I Wish You Would '', while Swift believes that the Fine Young Cannibals song is "timeless ''. Tedder co-wrote and co-produced two songs with Swift -- "I Know Places '' and "Welcome to New York '' -- after she contacted Tedder through a smartphone voice memo. The pair scheduled studio time on the day after Tedder received the memo and recorded "I Know Places ''.
In September 2014, Swift told Rolling Stone that one of the songs on the album was taken "straight from the pages of my journal ''; although the name of the song is unknown, Swift mentioned "Out of the Woods '' as part of her interview response. In regard to "Out of the Woods '', Antonoff said: "Part of it reads like a diary, and parts of it read like something 100,000 people should be screaming all together. It 's got these very big lines that everybody can relate to, which are given weight by her being really honest about personal things. '' "Out of the Woods '' marked the first time that Swift had written a song over an existing track -- Antonoff sent an early version of the song to Swift, who then added vocals and lyrics within a 30 - minute time frame.
-- Swift speaking about her inspiration for the album during an interview with Kiss FM.
Swift first announced the album on August 18, 2014. She described it as her "first documented, official pop album '', stating that she was inspired by late 1980s pop during the recording period. Musically, 1989 is a synthpop and dance - pop album that features more electronic production than her previous releases. The album contains drum programming and synthesizers provided by Martin, and the production is backed by a pulsating bass (Yamaha DX7), processed backing vocals, and guitars, the latter of which provide "texture '', as described by Jem Aswad of Billboard, who states that "an acoustic (guitar) is audible on just one song. ''
Swift described 1989 as the most "sonically cohesive '' studio album she has ever made. In an interview with Kiss FM (UK), Swift confirmed that the title was inspired by the music developed in her birth year, 1989, which she had re-discovered. In September, Swift told Rolling Stone magazine that Martin, New York City, her journal, Fine Young Cannibals and a sense of experimentation were the key influences underpinning the album. In relation to experimentation, Swift elaborated on the music of the 1980s:
It (the 1980s) was a very experimental time in pop music... People realized songs did n't have to be this standard drums - guitar - bass - whatever. We can make a song with synths and a drum pad. We can do group vocals the entire song. We can do so many different things. And I think what you saw happening with music was also happening in our culture, where people were just wearing whatever crazy colors they wanted to, because why not? There just seemed to be this energy about endless opportunities, endless possibilities, endless ways you could live your life. And so with this record, I thought, "There are no rules to this. I do n't need to use the same musicians I 've used, or the same band, or the same producers, or the same formula. I can make whatever record I want. ''
Musically, 1989 was influenced by some of Swift 's favorite 1980s pop acts, including Annie Lennox, Phil Collins and "' Like a Prayer ' - era Madonna ''. The songwriter explained in an October 2014 television interview that, in terms of lyrics, she was inspired by the process of self - discovery that occurred during the two years prior to the release of 1989. Her songwriting was described as "unmistakably Swift '', by Aswad, who noted Swift 's "polysyllabic melodies and playful / - provocative lyrics ''. However, Aswad noted that Martin and other key collaborators helped Swift 's lyrics become more "seasoned and subtle... than in the past. '' The album 's lyrical content, in accordance with Swift 's signature style, is concerned with love and relationships, with an emphasis placed upon the complexities of both. Swift said her lyrical inspiration behind 1989 was John Hughes films.
The opening synthpop track "Welcome to New York '' is Swift 's tribute to the city that she relocated to in 2014, prior to the album release date. Lyrically, the song sees Swift supporting equality for the LGBT community.
"Blank Space '' is a minimalist electropop song. Many critics compared the song, which parodies Swift 's recent exposure in the media -- she was portrayed as "an overly attached man - eater who dates for songwriting material '' -- to the music of fellow pop artist Lorde. "Style '' has been described as a pop rock, electropop, post-disco, and funk - pop song. NME wrote, "so ' 80s - indebted with its thick piano - house and uplifting ' Take me home ' coda, echoes the retro - modern atmosphere conjured by the slinky cool of Electric Youth and Blood Orange.
"Out of the Woods '' is a synthpop song, and the first song for which Swift wrote lyrics to a pre-existing track. Martin produced Swift 's vocals for the song. Featuring heavy synths and percussion, Antonoff described that the song is given an arrangement that combines both 1980s and modern elements. A Yamaha DX7 is used for the 1980s - tinged sounds apparent on most parts of the song, but they are countered with the Minimoog Voyager during the chorus sections. "All You Had to Do Was Stay '' was inspired by a dream of Swift 's rather than a real - life romance. Swift recalled: "I was trying to talk to someone important... And that 's all that would come out of my mouth. I woke up so weirded out! '' "Shake It Off '' is an uptempo pop song with a sound that is in stark contrast to Swift 's previous releases, and consists of a central saxophone line. Jason Lipshutz from Billboard compared the song 's melody to that of Macklemore & Ryan Lewis ' song "Thrift Shop '' (2013). Lyrically, the song is dedicated to Swift 's detractors. Swift explained that, "I 've learned a pretty tough lesson that people can say whatever they want about us at any time, and we can not control that. The only thing we can control is our reaction to that. ''
"I Wish You Would '' is another song that Swift wrote with Antonoff. Like "Out of the Woods '', the song was written to a track Antonoff sampled and lyrically describes a boy who "(drives) past an ex-girlfriend's house and he thinks she hates him but she 's still in love with him. '' The electropop song "Bad Blood '' was written about an unnamed female musical artist; Swift says the artist attempted to sabotage one of her concert tours by hiring people who worked for her. "Wildest Dreams '' is the ninth song in the album. The song features a recording of Swift 's own heartbeat which serves as the beat of the song. "How You Get the Girl '' was described by Swift as an "instruction manual for men ''. She told Us Weekly, "It 's written for a guy who has broken up with his girlfriend, then wants her back after six months, '' and added, "but it 's not going to be as simple as sending a text like, ' Sup? Miss you. ' '' "This Love '' was originally a poem Swift wrote in late 2013 which evolved into the song. "I Know Places '' features imagery of foxes representing Swift and her lover being pursued by "hunters '', the media. Swift has once said her spirit animal is a fox for the same reason. "Clean '' describes Swift ridding herself of a metaphorical addiction; it is interpreted as the singer casting off relationships in favor of self - enlightenment.
The deluxe version of the album, available in Target stores in the US and through iTunes distribution internationally, features the following three additional tracks: "Wonderland '', "You Are in Love '', and "New Romantics '', plus three voice memos describing the production of "Blank Space '', "I Wish You Would '', and "I Know Places ''. As with Swift 's previous albums, each song on the standard album is accompanied by a short "secret message '', encoded in capitalized or decapitalized letters within the album 's lyric book. In 1989, the secret messages, each corresponding to a track on the album, form a thirteen - sentence story:
We begin our story in New York. There once was a girl known by everyone and no one. Her heart belonged to someone who could n't stay. They loved each other recklessly. They paid the price. She danced to forget him. He drove past her street each night. She made friends and enemies. He only saw her in his dreams. Then one day he came back. Timing is a funny thing. And everyone was watching. She lost him but she found herself and somehow that was everything.
"Wonderland '' makes frequent allusions to the novel Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland, and is known for a "bass drop '' in the first chorus. It was released as a promotional single in the US on February 17, 2015; the other two bonus tracks are also planned to become singles. "You Are in Love '' describes a happy, if surreal, relationship. "New Romantics '' is the final song on the deluxe album; its name references the New Romanticism movement. Thematically, the song resembles "Shake It Off '', as it addresses popular criticism of Swift and her fans.
On August 18, 2014, Swift premiered the album 's lead single, "Shake It Off '', which was cowritten with Martin and Shellback, and produced by Martin and Shellback. The music video, directed by Mark Romanek, was also premiered during the live stream. It features professional dancers, Swift, and several fans picked from Instagram, Twitter, and fan letters she received. The song debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100, and remained for four weeks.
On October 21, 2014, Swift accidentally released the track "Track 3 '', under the album 's name, due to an iTunes glitch. The track, which consisted of 8 seconds of white noise, topped the Canadian iTunes chart. It was subsequently removed.
Swift 's second single from 1989, "Blank Space '', appeared on the Mainstream Top 40, Rhythmic Top 40, and Hot AC radio on November 10. The music video for the song was leaked on the same day by Yahoo!, after which time Swift released the video on Vevo -- Yahoo! pulled their version offline after Swift 's prompt response. "Blank Space '' went to number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and stayed for seven weeks, making Swift 's longest chart - leader to date.
"Style '' was released as the third single from 1989 on February 9, 2015 according to the Big Machine sister / affiliate label Republic Records, which used the term "impacts '' to signify the Hot AC release. The music video for the track was released on February 13, 2015, featuring Swift in the woods and having various flashbacks about her and her boyfriend, played by Dominic Sherwood. "Style '' peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot 100.
Both the fourth single "Bad Blood '' and its music video were released on May 17, 2015, with the latter premiering at the opening of the 2015 Billboard Music Awards. The music video features many of Swift 's friends including Karlie Kloss, Lena Dunham and Selena Gomez, while the single is actually a remix collaboration with hip hop artist Kendrick Lamar, who also appears in the video. The music video also includes Lily Aldridge, Zendaya, Hayley Williams, Gigi Hadid, Ellie Goulding, Hailee Steinfeld, Jessica Alba, Serayah, Martha Hunt, Ellen Pompeo, Mariska Hargitay, Cara Delevingne and Cindy Crawford, all of whom chose their individual character 's name and persona. "Bad Blood '' peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100.
"Wildest Dreams '' was released as the fifth single from 1989. A slight remix of the song officially impacted Adult Contemporary radio on August 31, 2015 and Mainstream radio on September 1, 2015. The music video for the song premiered at the 2015 MTV VMA 's on August 30, 2015, and was directed by Joseph Kahn. "Wildest Dreams '' peaked at number five on the Billboard Hot 100.
In December 2015, Billboard magazine reported that "Out of the Woods '' would serve as the sixth official single. The accompanying music video premiered on Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest on ABC on December 31, 2015. It was released to radio on February 5, 2016. "Out of the Woods '' peaked at number 18 on the Hot 100 after being released as a promotional single in 2014.
"New Romantics '' was released to contemporary hit radio on February 23, 2016 as the seventh and final single from the album. The music video was uploaded to Vevo and YouTube on April 13, 2016, and features various clips from The 1989 World Tour. "New Romantics '' is the lowest peaking single from 1989, peaking at number 46 on the Hot 100 in April 2016.
Swift began teasing an announcement in August 2014. On August 4, she posted a video on Instagram in which she pushes the number 18 in an elevator. On August 6, she tweeted an image of the time "5: 00 '', and the next day a screenshot from a Yahoo! homepage. She then unveiled the album cover, a Polaroid picture with "T.S. 1989 '' written underneath.
The first single from the album, "Shake It Off '', was revealed during a worldwide live video stream hosted by Swift in partnership with Yahoo! on August 18 -- Swift said during the stream that she was told it was the first - ever global stream of its kind. A live studio audience was also present, as Swift spoke about 1989 and the two - year writing and recording process. An audio stream of the album was made available in on the same date as the worldwide video stream, and consumers could pre-order 1989 after the stream was taken down. As part of the 1989 promotional campaign the next month, Swift invited fans to secret album - listening sessions, called the "1989 Secret Sessions '', at her houses in New York, Nashville, Los Angeles and Rhode Island, as well as in her hotel room in London. Swift conceived of the idea and the L.A. session was held on September 22.
The album was released on October 27, 2014 in the US, with a standard 13 - track edition released to retailers and digital download sites, while a deluxe edition, including three extra songs and three voice memos, was released exclusively by Target in the United States and Canada. In Germany and the United Kingdom, the album was also released to wide retail and digital download -- both were the standard 13 - track edition -- while the deluxe edition was released on the same day. However, the album leaked online a few days before its official release. In line with the album 's visual theme, and to boost CD sales, Big Machine decided to include 13 of 65 collectible printed "polaroids '' with every physical copy of 1989. Scott Borchetta, the record label 's founder, claims that the idea came from Swift and her team. The ploy reportedly boosted Polaroid Corporation 's ailing sales.
In order to promote the album, Swift released "Out of the Woods '' as a countdown single from the album on October 14, 2014. The following week, "Welcome to New York '' was released as the second countdown single on October 20, 2014. On October 28, Starbucks announced "This Love '' as their Pick of the Week, offering a free iTunes download to customers.
On February 17, 2015, Swift announced that the deluxe edition songs of 1989, which were released to Target and internationally last October, will be making its way to the Apple retailer, one song at a time. "Wonderland '' was released on the same day, via iTunes Stores, as a digital download single from the deluxe edition of the album. "You Are in Love '' and "New Romantics '' joined the track on the platform on February 24, 2015 and March 4, 2015, respectively.
The album 's supporting tour, The 1989 World Tour, began on May 5, 2015 in Tokyo, Japan. The first stage of the tour visited Europe and North America, before ending in Australia in December 2015. Australian artist Vance Joy supported Swift during the North American, European and Australian dates, while Shawn Mendes appeared at select North American shows. Singer - songwriter James Bay was announced as the opening act for the German and Dutch dates in mid-January 2015, while Californian band HAIM was announced as an opening act for select US shows on February 1, 2015. The tour was also famous for Swift 's surprise guests including Ed Sheeran, The Weeknd, Lorde, Lisa Kudrow, Matt LeBlanc, Ellen DeGeneres, Julia Roberts, Fetty Wap, Selena Gomez, Justin Timberlake, OMI, Wiz Khalifa, Steven Tyler, Keith Urban, Mick Jagger, Miranda Lambert and many more, on most dates of the North America shows.
At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, it received an average score of 76, based on 29 reviews indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Writing for Rolling Stone, Rob Sheffield wrote, "Deeply weird, feverishly emotional, wildly enthusiastic, 1989 sounds exactly like Taylor Swift, even when it sounds like nothing she 's ever tried before. '' In The Daily Telegraph, Neil McCormick said, "The immediate impression is slick; candyfloss cheerleading, full of American fizz. '' Alexis Petridis from The Guardian says the album "deals in undeniable melodies and huge, perfectly turned choruses and nagging hooks. Its sound is a lovingly done reboot of the kind of late 80s MTV pop - rock exemplified by Jane Wiedlin 's Rush Hour. '' Jon Caramanica from The New York Times remarked that Swift was "making pop with almost no contemporary references '' and "aiming somewhere even higher, a mode of timelessness that few true pop stars even bother aspiring to. ''
Mikael Wood was less enthusiastic in his review for the Los Angeles Times, calling 1989 "a deeply catchy, sleekly - produced pop record with the slightly juiceless quality of an authorized biography, a would - be tell - all bleached of the detailed insight (Swift) 's trained us to expect from her. '' Writing for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine accused Swift of being aloof in celebrating temporal pop subjects on what he felt was an attempt to record "a sparkling soundtrack to an aspirational lifestyle ''.
1989 was included in several year - end lists. Rolling Stone ranked the album at number ten on their Best of 2015 list, saying "America 's sweetheart has been writing perfect pop tunes since the day she hit Nashville. '' Jon Caramanica of The New York Times ranked 1989 at number seven on his top ten albums list. Caramanica praised her country to pop transition, saying "This album 's biggest accomplishment is that in shifting from making the sort of music no one had really made before to making the sort of music many have made, Ms. Swift retained her self. '' It was the best album of the year for Billboard, commenting "Many artists have attempted the sea change that Swift accomplished on 1989, but few have rendered that vision as successfully. '' Pitchfork Media placed the album 31 on its year - end list. Time staff ranked the album at number four on their "Top 10 Best Albums '' of 2014, concluding "Country 's premiere princess is now pop 's heir apparent. '' For Complex it was the eighth best album of 2014, stating "This is Swift the risk - taker, the new arrival who 's brought with her a suitcase, a willingness to experiment, and a bit of confidence to do it her way. ''
1989 received awards in the 2014 Billboard Music Awards and "Bad Blood '' won Video of the Year at the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards with "Blank Space '' also winning Best Female Video. An app, American Express Unstaged: Taylor Swift Experience, was released alongside the "Blank Space '' video as a 360 ° experience. The app won the Emmy for Original Interactive Program at the 2015 ceremony, giving Swift her first Emmy Award. 1989 won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year at the 58th Grammy Awards, making Swift the first female artist to win twice with her own works. The album also won Best Pop Vocal Album, while "Shake It Off '' and "Blank Space '' were both nominated for Record of the Year, Song of the Year, and Best Pop Solo Performance. 1989 also won Album of the Year at the 3rd iHeartRadio Music Awards.
In the United States, 1989 sold 1,287,000 copies during its first week of release, debuting atop the Billboard 200 chart. Additional copies were sold for US $0.99 through a Microsoft promotion but were not included in the total due to a Nielsen SoundScan policy of not including sales priced under $3.99 within the first four weeks of a release. The album 's performance broke Swift 's own personal sales record, and became the 19th album to sell over one million copies in a single week since SoundScan began tracking sales in 1991. It was the seventh - highest sales week in history, and the highest sales week since 2002, when Eminem 's The Eminem Show sold 1.3 million units. Swift also became the first artist to release three albums that sold one million or more copies within a single week.
The album remained at the top spot of the Billboard 200 during the second and third week of release, surpassing 2 million copies sold. In its fourth week, the album was replaced by One Direction 's Four, but returned to number one again for the fourth time in its fifth week. The album sold 200,000 or more copies in each of the 10 successive weeks after release, a feat last achieved by Usher 's Confessions in 2004. 1989 eventually sold over 3,660,000 copies in 2014 and was the best - selling album in the US that year, ahead of Coldplay 's Ghost Stories (745,000 copies).
During the week ending January 18, 2015, the album sales surpassed 4 million copies. 1989 is the first album to sell four million copies in the US since the week ending February 23, 2014, when Red crossed the four - million mark. By early February 2015, in its 15th week of release, 1989 had topped the US chart for eleven non-consecutive weeks, establishing Swift as the female artist with the second - highest number of total weeks, with 35 weeks, in the number - one Billboard position for all of her albums -- Whitney Houston 's record total of 46 weeks at number one remained intact. It spent a total of 24 consecutive weeks inside the top five of the Billboard 200, making it one of the nine albums to spend their first 24 weeks in the top five since 1963. On March 13, 2015, Billboard announced that 1989 had outsold both of her previous two albums in the US after 19 weeks of release. On October 27, 2015, the album became the fifth album to spend its first year of release in the top 10 of the Billboard 200. It remained in the top 10 of the Billboard 200 until its 54th week of release. As of January 2018, 1989 has sold 6.11 million copies in the US.
In Canada, the album debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling 107,000 copies. In its second week, the album remained at number one with sales of 37,000, bringing its two - week sales total to 144,000 copies. It went on to become Canada 's best - selling album of the year, having sold 314,000 copies. In the UK, 1989 sold 90,000 in its first week and debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart. It became her second number - one album in the UK, following Red (2012), and was the fastest - selling female solo album in 2014. To date, the album has sold 1.127 million copies in the UK. As of October 2017, 1989 has sold 10.25 million copies worldwide.
Notes
Credits are adapted from liner notes of 1989.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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he was president of iraq from 1979 to 2003 and during both persian gulf wars | Gulf War - wikipedia
Coalition victory
Kuwait United States United Kingdom France Saudi Arabia
Coalition: 292 killed (147 killed by enemy action, 145 non-hostile deaths) 467 wounded in action 776 wounded 31 tanks destroyed / disabled 28 Bradley IFVs destroyed / damaged 1 M113 APC destroyed 2 British Warrior APCs destroyed 1 Artillery Piece destroyed 75 Aircraft destroyed Kuwait: 4,200 killed 12,000 captured ≈ 200 tanks destroyed / captured 850 + other armored vehicles destroyed / captured 57 aircraft lost 8 aircraft captured (Mirage F1s)
Kuwaiti civilian losses: Over 1,000 killed 600 missing people Iraqi civilian losses: About 3,664 killed
Coalition intervention
Naval operations
Air campaign
Liberation of Kuwait
Post-ceasefire
The Gulf War (2 August 1990 -- 28 February 1991), codenamed Operation Desert Shield (2 August 1990 -- 17 January 1991) for operations leading to the buildup of troops and defense of Saudi Arabia and Operation Desert Storm (17 January 1991 -- 28 February 1991) in its combat phase, was a war waged by coalition forces from 35 nations led by the United States against Iraq in response to Iraq 's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.
The war is also known under other names, such as the Persian Gulf War, First Gulf War, Gulf War I, Kuwait War, First Iraq War or Iraq War, before the term "Iraq War '' became identified instead with the 2003 Iraq War. The Iraqi Army 's occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. Together with the UK 's prime minister Margaret Thatcher -- who had resisted the invasion by Argentina of the Falkland Islands a decade earlier -- George Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, and urged other countries to send their own forces to the scene. An array of nations joined the coalition, forming the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the coalition 's military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom and Egypt as leading contributors, in that order. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US $32 billion of the US $60 billion cost.
The war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm.
The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991, continuing for five weeks. This was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a decisive victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait and advanced into Iraqi territory. The coalition ceased its advance and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the ground campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas on Saudi Arabia 's border. Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel.
Throughout the Cold War, Iraq had been an ally of the Soviet Union, and there was a history of friction between it and the United States. The US was concerned with Iraq 's position on Israeli -- Palestinian politics. The US also disliked Iraqi support for many Arab and Palestinian militant groups such as Abu Nidal, which led to Iraq 's inclusion on the developing US list of State Sponsors of Terrorism on 29 December 1979. The US remained officially neutral after Iraq 's invasion of Iran in 1980, which became the Iran -- Iraq War, although it provided resources, political support, and some "non-military '' aircraft to Iraq. In March 1982, Iran began a successful counteroffensive (Operation Undeniable Victory), and the US increased its support for Iraq to prevent Iran from forcing a surrender. In a US bid to open full diplomatic relations with Iraq, the country was removed from the US list of State Sponsors of Terrorism. Ostensibly, this was because of improvement in the regime 's record, although former US Assistant Defense Secretary Noel Koch later stated: "No one had any doubts about (the Iraqis ') continued involvement in terrorism... The real reason was to help them succeed in the war against Iran. '' With Iraq 's newfound success in the war, and the Iranian rebuff of a peace offer in July, arms sales to Iraq reached a record spike in 1982. When Iraqi President Saddam Hussein expelled Abu Nidal to Syria at the US 's request in November 1983, the Reagan administration sent Donald Rumsfeld to meet Saddam as a special envoy and to cultivate ties. By the time the ceasefire with Iran was signed in August 1988, Iraq was heavily debt - ridden and tensions within society were rising. Most of its debt was owed to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Iraq pressured both nations to forgive the debts, but they refused.
The Iraq -- Kuwait dispute also involved Iraqi claims to Kuwait as Iraqi territory. Kuwait had been a part of the Ottoman Empire 's province of Basra, something that Iraq claimed made it rightful Iraqi territory. Its ruling dynasty, the al - Sabah family, had concluded a protectorate agreement in 1899 that assigned responsibility for its foreign affairs to the United Kingdom. The UK drew the border between the two countries in 1922, making Iraq virtually landlocked. Kuwait rejected Iraqi attempts to secure further provisions in the region.
Iraq also accused Kuwait of exceeding its OPEC quotas for oil production. In order for the cartel to maintain its desired price of $18 a barrel, discipline was required. The United Arab Emirates and Kuwait were consistently overproducing; the latter at least in part to repair losses caused by Iranian attacks in the Iran -- Iraq War and to pay for the losses of an economic scandal. The result was a slump in the oil price -- as low as $10 a barrel -- with a resulting loss of $7 billion a year to Iraq, equal to its 1989 balance of payments deficit. Resulting revenues struggled to support the government 's basic costs, let alone repair Iraq 's damaged infrastructure. Jordan and Iraq both looked for more discipline, with little success. The Iraqi government described it as a form of economic warfare, which it claimed was aggravated by Kuwait slant - drilling across the border into Iraq 's Rumaila oil field. At the same time, Saddam looked for closer ties with those Arab states that had supported Iraq in the war. This was supported by the US, who believed that Iraqi ties with pro-Western Gulf states would help bring and maintain Iraq inside the US ' sphere of influence.
In 1989, it appeared that Saudi -- Iraqi relations, strong during the war, would be maintained. A pact of non-interference and non-aggression was signed between the countries, followed by a Kuwaiti - Iraqi deal for Iraq to supply Kuwait with water for drinking and irrigation, although a request for Kuwait to lease Iraq Umm Qasr was rejected. Saudi - backed development projects were hampered by Iraq 's large debts, even with the demobilization of 200,000 soldiers. Iraq also looked to increase arms production so as to become an exporter, although the success of these projects was also restrained by Iraq 's obligations; in Iraq, resentment to OPEC 's controls mounted.
Iraq 's relations with its Arab neighbors -- in particular Egypt -- were degraded by mounting violence in Iraq against expatriate groups, well - employed during the war, by Iraqi unemployed, among them demobilized soldiers. These events drew little notice outside the Arab world because of fast - moving events directly related to the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe. However, the US did begin to condemn Iraq 's human rights record, including the well - known use of torture. The UK also condemned the execution of Farzad Bazoft, a journalist working for the British newspaper The Observer. Following Saddam 's declaration that "binary chemical weapons '' would be used on Israel if it used military force against Iraq, Washington halted part of its funding. A UN mission to the Israeli - occupied territories, where riots had resulted in Palestinian deaths, was vetoed by the US, making Iraq deeply skeptical of US foreign policy aims in the region, combined with the US ' reliance on Middle Eastern energy reserves.
In early July 1990, Iraq complained about Kuwait 's behavior, such as not respecting their quota, and openly threatened to take military action. On the 23rd, the CIA reported that Iraq had moved 30,000 troops to the Iraq - Kuwait border, and the US naval fleet in the Persian Gulf was placed on alert. Saddam believed an anti-Iraq conspiracy was developing -- Kuwait had begun talks with Iran, and Iraq 's rival Syria had arranged a visit to Egypt. Upon review by the Secretary of Defense, it was found that Syria indeed planned a strike against Iraq in the coming days. Saddam immediately used funding to incorporate central intelligence into Syria and ultimately prevented the impending air strike. On 15 July 1990, Saddam 's government laid out its combined objections to the Arab League, including that policy moves were costing Iraq $1 billion a year, that Kuwait was still using the Rumaila oil field, that loans made by the UAE and Kuwait could not be considered debts to its "Arab brothers ''. He threatened force against Kuwait and the UAE, saying: "The policies of some Arab rulers are American... They are inspired by America to undermine Arab interests and security. '' The US sent aerial refuelling planes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf in response to these threats. Discussions in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, mediated on the Arab League 's behalf by Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, were held on 31 July and led Mubarak to believe that a peaceful course could be established.
On the 25th, Saddam met with April Glaspie, the US Ambassador to Iraq, in Baghdad. The Iraqi leader attacked American policy with regards to Kuwait and the UAE:
So what can it mean when America says it will now protect its friends? It can only mean prejudice against Iraq. This stance plus maneuvers and statements which have been made has encouraged the UAE and Kuwait to disregard Iraqi rights... If you use pressure, we will deploy pressure and force. We know that you can harm us although we do not threaten you. But we too can harm you. Everyone can cause harm according to their ability and their size. We can not come all the way to you in the United States, but individual Arabs may reach you... We do not place America among the enemies. We place it where we want our friends to be and we try to be friends. But repeated American statements last year made it apparent that America did not regard us as friends.
Glaspie replied:
I know you need funds. We understand that and our opinion is that you should have the opportunity to rebuild your country. But we have no opinion on the Arab - Arab conflicts, like your border disagreement with Kuwait... Frankly, we can only see that you have deployed massive troops in the south. Normally that would not be any of our business. But when this happens in the context of what you said on your national day, then when we read the details in the two letters of the Foreign Minister, then when we see the Iraqi point of view that the measures taken by the UAE and Kuwait is, in the final analysis, parallel to military aggression against Iraq, then it would be reasonable for me to be concerned.
Saddam stated that he would attempt last - ditch negotiations with the Kuwaitis but Iraq "would not accept death. ''
According to Glaspie 's own account, she stated in reference to the precise border between Kuwait and Iraq, "... that she had served in Kuwait 20 years before; ' then, as now, we took no position on these Arab affairs '. '' Glaspie similarly believed that war was not imminent.
The result of the Jeddah talks was an Iraqi demand for $10 billion to cover the lost revenues from Rumaila; Kuwait offered $9 billion. The Iraqi response was to immediately order the invasion, which started on 2 August 1990 with the bombing of Kuwait 's capital, Kuwait City.
At the time of the invasion, the Kuwaiti military was believed to have numbered 16,000 men, arranged into three armored, one mechanised infantry and one under - strength artillery brigade. The pre-war strength of the Kuwait Air Force was around 2,200 Kuwaiti personnel, with 80 fixed - wing aircraft and 40 helicopters. In spite of Iraqi saber rattling, Kuwait did not mobilize its force; the army had been stood down on 19 July, and at the time of the Iraqi invasion many Kuwaiti military personnel were on leave.
By 1988, at the Iran -- Iraq war 's end, the Iraqi Army was the world 's fourth largest army; it consisted of 955,000 standing soldiers and 650,000 paramilitary forces in the Popular Army. According to John Childs and André Corvisier, a low estimate shows the Iraqi Army capable of fielding 4,500 tanks, 484 combat aircraft and 232 combat helicopters. According to Michael Knights, a high estimate shows the Iraqi Army capable of fielding one million men and 850,000 reservists, 5,500 tanks, 3,000 artillery pieces, 700 combat aircraft and helicopters; and held 53 divisions, 20 special - forces brigades, and several regional militias, and had a strong air defense.
Iraqi commandos infiltrated the Kuwaiti border first to prepare for the major units which began the attack at midnight. The Iraqi attack had two prongs, with the primary attack force driving south straight for Kuwait City down the main highway, and a supporting attack force entering Kuwait farther west, but then turning and driving east, cutting off Kuwait City from the country 's southern half. The commander of a Kuwaiti armored battalion, 35th Armoured Brigade, deployed them against the Iraqi attack and was able to conduct a robust defense at the Battle of the Bridges near Al Jahra, west of Kuwait City.
Kuwaiti aircraft scrambled to meet the invading force, but approximately 20 % were lost or captured. A few combat sorties were flown against Iraqi ground forces.
The main Iraqi thrust into Kuwait City was conducted by commandos deployed by helicopters and boats to attack the city from the sea, while other divisions seized the airports and two airbases. The Iraqis attacked the Dasman Palace, the Royal Residence of Kuwait 's Emir, Jaber Al - Ahmad Al - Jaber Al - Sabah, which was defended by the Emiri Guard supported with M - 84 tanks. In the process, the Iraqis killed Fahad Al - Ahmed Al - Jaber Al - Sabah, the Emir 's youngest brother.
Within 12 hours, most resistance had ended within Kuwait and the royal family had fled, leaving Iraq in control of most of Kuwait. After two days of intense combat, most of the Kuwaiti military were either overrun by the Iraqi Republican Guard, or had escaped to Saudi Arabia. The Emir and key ministers were able to get out and head south along the highway for refuge in Saudi Arabia. Iraqi ground forces consolidated their control of Kuwait City, then headed south and redeployed along the Saudi border. After the decisive Iraqi victory, Saddam initially installed a puppet regime known as the "Provisional Government of Free Kuwait '' before installing his cousin Ali Hassan al - Majid as Kuwait 's governor on 8 August.
After the invasion, the Iraqi military looted over $1,000,000,000 in banknotes from Kuwait 's Central Bank. At the same time, Saddam Hussein made the Kuwaiti dinar equal to the Iraqi dinar, thereby lowering the Kuwaiti currency to one - twelfth of its original value. In response, Sheikh Jaber al - Ahmad al - Sabah ruled the banknotes as invalid and refused to reimburse stolen notes, which became worthless because of a UN embargo. After the conflict ended, many of the stolen banknotes made their way back into circulation. Today, the stolen banknotes are a collectible for numismatists.
Kuwaitis founded a local armed resistance movement following the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait. The Kuwaiti resistance 's casualty rate far exceeded that of the coalition military forces and Western hostages. The resistance predominantly consisted of ordinary citizens who lacked any form of training and supervision.
A key element of US political - military and energy economic planning occurred in early 1984. The Iran -- Iraq war had been going on for five years by that time and there were significant casualties on both sides, reaching into the hundreds of thousands. Within President Ronald Reagan 's National Security Council concern was growing that the war could spread beyond the boundaries of the two belligerents. A National Security Planning Group meeting was formed, chaired by then Vice President George Bush to review US options. It was determined that there was a high likelihood that the conflict would spread into Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states, but that the United States had little capability to defend the region. Furthermore, it was determined that a prolonged war in the region would induce much higher oil prices and threaten the fragile recovery of the world economy which was just beginning to gain momentum. On 22 May 1984, President Reagan was briefed on the project conclusions in the Oval Office by William Flynn Martin who had served as the head of the NSC staff that organized the study. The full declassified presentation can be seen here. The conclusions were threefold: first oil stocks needed to be increased among members of the International Energy Agency and, if necessary, released early in the event of oil market disruption; second the United States needed to beef up the security of friendly Arab states in the region and thirdly an embargo should be placed on sales of military equipment to Iran and Iraq. The plan was approved by President Reagan and later affirmed by the G - 7 leaders headed by the United Kingdom 's Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, in the London Summit of 1984. The plan was implemented and became the basis for US preparedness to respond to the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait in 1991.
Within hours of the invasion, Kuwait and US delegations requested a meeting of the UN Security Council, which passed Resolution 660, condemning the invasion and demanding a withdrawal of Iraqi troops. On 3 August, the Arab League passed its own resolution, which called for a solution to the conflict from within the league, and warned against outside intervention; Iraq and Libya were the only two Arab League states which opposed a resolution for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait. The PLO opposed it as well. The Arab states of Yemen and Jordan -- a Western ally which bordered Iraq and relied on the country for economic support -- opposed military intervention from non-Arab states. The Arab state of Sudan aligned itself with Saddam.
On 6 August, Resolution 661 placed economic sanctions on Iraq. Resolution 665 followed soon after, which authorized a naval blockade to enforce the sanctions. It said the "use of measures commensurate to the specific circumstances as may be necessary... to halt all inward and outward maritime shipping in order to inspect and verify their cargoes and destinations and to ensure strict implementation of resolution 661. ''
The US administration had at first been indecisive with an "undertone... of resignation to the invasion and even adaptation to it as a fait accompli '' until the UK 's prime minister Margaret Thatcher played a powerful role, reminding the President that appeasement in the 1930s had led to war, that Saddam would have the whole Gulf at his mercy along with 65 per cent of the world 's oil supply, and famously urging President Bush "not to go wobbly ''.
Once persuaded, US officials insisted on a total Iraqi pullout from Kuwait, without any linkage to other Middle Eastern problems, accepting the British view that any concessions would strengthen Iraqi influence in the region for years to come.
On 12 August 1990, Saddam "propose (d) that all cases of occupation, and those cases that have been portrayed as occupation, in the region, be resolved simultaneously ''. Specifically, he called for Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon, Syria to withdraw from Lebanon, and "mutual withdrawals by Iraq and Iran and arrangement for the situation in Kuwait. '' He also called for a replacement of US troops that mobilized in Saudi Arabia in response to Kuwait 's invasion with "an Arab force '', as long as that force did not involve Egypt. Additionally, he requested an "immediate freeze of all boycott and siege decisions '' and a general normalization of relations with Iraq. From the beginning of the crisis, President Bush was strongly opposed to any "linkage '' between Iraq 's occupation of Kuwait and the Palestinian issue.
On 23 August, Saddam appeared on state television with Western hostages to whom he had refused exit visas. In the video, he asks a young British boy, Stuart Lockwood, whether he is getting his milk, and goes on to say, through his interpreter, "We hope your presence as guests here will not be for too long. Your presence here, and in other places, is meant to prevent the scourge of war. ''
Another Iraqi proposal communicated in August 1990 was delivered to US National Security Advisor Brent Scowcroft by an unidentified Iraqi official. The official communicated to the White House that Iraq would "withdraw from Kuwait and allow foreigners to leave '' provided that the UN lifted sanctions, allowed "guaranteed access to the Persian Gulf through the Kuwaiti islands of Bubiyan and Warbah '', and allowed Iraq to "gain full control of the Rumaila oil field that extends slightly into Kuwaiti territory ''. The proposal also "include (d) offers to negotiate an oil agreement with the United States ' satisfactory to both nations ' national security interests, ' develop a joint plan ' to alleviate Iraq 's economical and financial problems ' and ' jointly work on the stability of the gulf. ' ''
In December 1990, Iraq made a proposal to withdraw from Kuwait provided that foreign troops left the region and that an agreement was reached regarding the Palestinian problem and the dismantlement of both Israel 's and Iraq 's weapons of mass destruction. The White House rejected the proposal. The PLO 's Yasser Arafat expressed that neither he nor Saddam insisted that solving the Israel -- Palestine issues should be a precondition to solving the issues in Kuwait, though he did acknowledge a "strong link '' between these problems.
Ultimately, the US and UK stuck to their position that there would be no negotiations until Iraq withdrew from Kuwait and that they should not grant Iraq concessions, lest they give the impression that Iraq benefited from its military campaign. Also, when US Secretary of State James Baker met with Tariq Aziz in Geneva, Switzerland, for last minute peace talks in early 1991, Aziz reportedly made no concrete proposals and did not outline any hypothetical Iraqi moves.
On 29 November 1990, the Security Council passed Resolution 678 which gave Iraq until 15 January 1991 to withdraw from Kuwait and empowered states to use "all necessary means '' to force Iraq out of Kuwait after the deadline.
On 14 January 1991, France proposed that the UN Security Council call for "a rapid and massive withdrawal '' from Kuwait along with a statement to Iraq that Council members would bring their "active contribution '' to a settlement of the region 's other problems, "in particular, of the Arab -- Israeli conflict and in particular to the Palestinian problem by convening, at an appropriate moment, an international conference '' to assure "the security, stability and development of this region of the world. '' The French proposal was supported by Belgium (at the moment one of the rotating Council members), Germany, Spain, Italy, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and several non-aligned nations. The US, the UK, and the Soviet Union rejected it; US Ambassador to the UN Thomas Pickering stated that the French proposal was unacceptable, because it went beyond previous Council resolutions on the Iraqi invasion. France dropped this proposal when it found "no tangible sign of interest '' from Baghdad.
One of the West 's main concerns was the significant threat Iraq posed to Saudi Arabia. Following Kuwait 's conquest, the Iraqi Army was within easy striking distance of Saudi oil fields. Control of these fields, along with Kuwaiti and Iraqi reserves, would have given Saddam control over the majority of the world 's oil reserves. Iraq also had a number of grievances with Saudi Arabia. The Saudis had lent Iraq some 26 billion dollars during its war with Iran. The Saudis had backed Iraq in that war, as they feared the influence of Shia Iran 's Islamic revolution on its own Shia minority. After the war, Saddam felt he should not have to repay the loans due to the help he had given the Saudis by fighting Iran.
Soon after his conquest of Kuwait, Saddam began verbally attacking the Saudis. He argued that the US - supported Saudi state was an illegitimate and unworthy guardian of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. He combined the language of the Islamist groups that had recently fought in Afghanistan with the rhetoric Iran had long used to attack the Saudis.
Acting on the Carter Doctrine 's policy, and out of fear the Iraqi Army could launch an invasion of Saudi Arabia, US President George Bush quickly announced that the US would launch a "wholly defensive '' mission to prevent Iraq from invading Saudi Arabia under the codename Operation Desert Shield. Operation Desert Shield began on 7 August 1990, when US troops were sent to Saudi Arabia due also to the request of its monarch, King Fahd, who had earlier called for US military assistance. This "wholly defensive '' doctrine was quickly abandoned when, on 8 August, Iraq declared Kuwait to be Iraq 's 19th province and Saddam named his cousin, Ali Hassan Al - Majid, as its military - governor.
The US Navy dispatched two naval battle groups built around the aircraft carriers USS Dwight D. Eisenhower and USS Independence to the Persian Gulf, where they were ready by 8 August. The US also sent the battleships USS Missouri and USS Wisconsin to the region. A total of 48 US Air Force F - 15s from the 1st Fighter Wing at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, landed in Saudi Arabia and immediately commenced round - the - clock air patrols of the Saudi -- Kuwait -- Iraq border to discourage further Iraqi military advances. They were joined by 36 F - 15 A-Ds from the 36th Tactical Fighter Wing at Bitburg, Germany. The Bitburg contingent was based at Al Kharj Air Base, approximately an hour south east of Riyadh. The 36th TFW would be responsible for 11 confirmed Iraqi Air Force aircraft shot down during the war. There were also two Air National Guard units stationed at Al Kharj Air Base, the South Carolina Air National Guard 's 169th Fighter Wing flew bombing missions with 24 F - 16s flying 2,000 combat missions and dropping four million pounds (1,800,000 kilograms; 1,800 metric tons) of munitions, and the New York Air National Guard 's 174th Fighter Wing from Syracuse flew 24 F - 16s on bombing missions. Military buildup continued from there, eventually reaching 543,000 troops, twice the number used in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Much of the material was airlifted or carried to the staging areas via fast sealift ships, allowing a quick buildup.
A series of UN Security Council resolutions and Arab League resolutions were passed regarding Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait. One of the most important was Resolution 678, passed on 29 November 1990, which gave Iraq a withdrawal deadline until 15 January 1991, and authorized "all necessary means to uphold and implement Resolution 660 '', and a diplomatic formulation authorizing the use of force if Iraq failed to comply.
To ensure that economic backing, Baker went on an 11 - day journey to nine countries that the press dubbed "The Tin Cup Trip ''. The first stop was Saudi Arabia, which a month before had already granted permission to the United States to use its facilities. However, Baker believed that Saudi Arabia, an immensely wealthy nation, should assume some of the cost of the military efforts, since one of the most important military objectives was to defend Saudi Arabia. When Baker asked King Fahd for 15 billion dollars, the King readily agreed, with the promise that Baker ask Kuwait for the same amount.
The next day, 7 September, he did just that, and the Emir of Kuwait, displaced in a Sheraton hotel outside his invaded country, easily agreed. Baker then moved to enter talks with Egypt, whose leadership he considered to be "the moderate voice of the Middle East ''. President Mubarak of Egypt was furious with Saddam for his invasion of Kuwait, and for the fact that Saddam had assured Mubarak that an invasion was not his intention. Therefore, he was willing to commit troops to the coalition forces to quell Saddam, as well as relieved the United States was willing to forgive his country 's 7.1 billion dollar debt.
After stops in Helsinki and Moscow to smooth out Iraqi demands for a Middle - Eastern peace conference with the Soviet Union, Baker traveled to Syria to discuss its role in the crisis with its President Hafez Assad. Assad had a deep personal enmity towards Saddam, which was defined by the fact that "Saddam had been trying to kill him (Assad) for years ''. Harboring this animosity and being impressed with Baker 's diplomatic initiative to visit Damascus (relations had been severed since the 1983 bombing of US Marine barracks in Beirut), Assad agreed to pledge up to 100,000 Syrian troops to the coalition effort. This was a vital step in ensuring Arab states were represented in the coalition.
Baker flew to Rome for a brief visit with the Italians in which he was promised the use of some military equipment, before journeying to Germany to meet with American ally Chancellor Kohl. Although Germany 's constitution (which was brokered essentially by the United States) prohibited military involvement in outside nations, Kohl was willing to repay his gratitude for the United States with a two billion dollar contribution to the coalition 's war effort, as well as further economic and military support of coalition ally Turkey, and the execution of the transport of Egyptian soldiers and ships to the Persian Gulf.
A coalition of forces opposing Iraq 's aggression was formed, consisting of forces from 34 countries: Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Kuwait, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Spain, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the US itself. It was the largest coalition since World War II. US Army General Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. was designated to be the commander of the coalition forces in the Persian Gulf area. The Soviet Union also supported United States intervention.
Although they did not contribute any forces, Japan and Germany made financial contributions totaling $10 billion and $6.6 billion respectively. US troops represented 73 % of the coalition 's 956,600 troops in Iraq.
Many of the coalition countries were reluctant to commit military forces. Some felt that the war was an internal Arab affair or did not want to increase US influence in the Middle East. In the end, however, many nations were persuaded by Iraq 's belligerence towards other Arab states, offers of economic aid or debt forgiveness, and threats to withhold aid.
The US and the UN gave several public justifications for involvement in the conflict, the most prominent being the Iraqi violation of Kuwaiti territorial integrity. In addition, the US moved to support its ally Saudi Arabia, whose importance in the region, and as a key supplier of oil, made it of considerable geopolitical importance. Shortly after the Iraqi invasion, US Defense Secretary Dick Cheney made the first of several visits to Saudi Arabia where King Fahd requested US military assistance. During a speech in a special joint session of the US Congress given on 11 September 1990, US President George Bush summed up the reasons with the following remarks: "Within three days, 120,000 Iraqi troops with 850 tanks had poured into Kuwait and moved south to threaten Saudi Arabia. It was then that I decided to act to check that aggression. ''
The Pentagon stated that satellite photos showing a buildup of Iraqi forces along the border were this information 's source, but this was later alleged to be false. A reporter for the St. Petersburg Times acquired two commercial Soviet satellite images made at the time in question, which showed nothing but empty desert.
Other justifications for foreign involvement included Iraq 's history of human rights abuses under Saddam. Iraq was also known to possess biological weapons and chemical weapons, which Saddam had used against Iranian troops during the Iran -- Iraq War and against his own country 's Kurdish population in the Al - Anfal campaign. Iraq was also known to have a nuclear weapons program, but the report about it from January 1991 was partially declassified by the CIA on 26 May 2001.
Although there were human rights abuses committed in Kuwait by the invading Iraqi military, the alleged incidents which received most publicity in the US were inventions of the public relations firm hired by the government of Kuwait to influence US opinion in favor of military intervention. Shortly after Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait, the organization Citizens for a Free Kuwait was formed in the US. It hired the public relations firm Hill & Knowlton for about $11 million, paid by Kuwait 's government.
Among many other means of influencing US opinion, such as distributing books on Iraqi atrocities to US soldiers deployed in the region, "Free Kuwait '' T - shirts and speakers to college campuses, and dozens of video news releases to television stations, the firm arranged for an appearance before a group of members of the US Congress in which a woman identifying herself as a nurse working in the Kuwait City hospital described Iraqi soldiers pulling babies out of incubators and letting them die on the floor.
The story was an influence in tipping both the public and Congress towards a war with Iraq: six Congressmen said the testimony was enough for them to support military action against Iraq and seven Senators referenced the testimony in debate. The Senate supported the military actions in a 52 -- 47 vote. However, a year after the war, this allegation was revealed to be a fabrication. The woman who had testified was found to be a member of Kuwait 's Royal Family, in fact the daughter of Kuwait 's ambassador to the US. She had n't lived in Kuwait during the Iraqi invasion.
The details of the Hill & Knowlton public relations campaign, including the incubator testimony, were published in John R. MacArthur 's Second Front: Censorship and Propaganda in the Gulf War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992), and came to wide public attention when an Op - ed by MacArthur was published in The New York Times. This prompted a reexamination by Amnesty International, which had originally promoted an account alleging even greater numbers of babies torn from incubators than the original fake testimony. After finding no evidence to support it, the organization issued a retraction. President Bush then repeated the incubator allegations on television.
At the same time, the Iraqi Army committed several well - documented crimes during its occupation of Kuwait, such as the summary execution without trial of three brothers after which their bodies were stacked in a pile and left to decay in a public street. Iraqi troops also ransacked and looted private Kuwaiti homes; one residence was repeatedly defecated in. A resident later commented: "The whole thing was violence for the sake of violence, destruction for the sake of destruction... Imagine a surrealistic painting by Salvador Dalí ''.
The Gulf War began with an extensive aerial bombing campaign on 16 January 1991. For 42 consecutive days and nights, the coalition forces subjected Iraq to one of the most intensive air bombardments in military history. The coalition flew over 100,000 sorties, dropping 88,500 tons of bombs, and widely destroying military and civilian infrastructure. The air campaign was commanded by USAF Lieutenant General Chuck Horner, who briefly served as US Central Command 's Commander - in - Chief -- Forward while General Schwarzkopf was still in the US.
A day after the deadline set in Resolution 678, the coalition launched a massive air campaign, which began the general offensive codenamed Operation Desert Storm. The first priority was the destruction of Iraq 's Air Force and anti-aircraft facilities. The sorties were launched mostly from Saudi Arabia and the six carrier battle groups (CVBG) in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.
The next targets were command and communication facilities. Saddam Hussein had closely micromanaged Iraqi forces in the Iran -- Iraq War, and initiative at lower levels was discouraged. Coalition planners hoped that Iraqi resistance would quickly collapse if deprived of command and control.
The air campaign 's third and largest phase targeted military targets throughout Iraq and Kuwait: Scud missile launchers, weapons research facilities, and naval forces. About a third of the coalition 's air power was devoted to attacking Scuds, some of which were on trucks and therefore difficult to locate. US and British special operations forces had been covertly inserted into western Iraq to aid in the search for and destruction of Scuds.
Iraqi anti-aircraft defenses, including man - portable air - defense systems, were surprisingly ineffective against enemy aircraft and the coalition suffered only 75 aircraft losses in over 100,000 sorties, 44 due to Iraqi action. Two of these losses are the result of aircraft colliding with the ground while evading Iraqi ground - fired weapons. One of these losses is a confirmed air - air victory.
Iraq 's government made no secret that it would attack if invaded. Prior to the war 's start, in the aftermath of the failed US -- Iraq peace talks in Geneva, Switzerland, a reporter asked Iraq 's English - speaking Foreign Minister and Deputy Prime Minister Tariq Aziz: "Mr. Foreign Minister, if war starts... will you attack? '' His response was: "Yes, absolutely, yes. ''
Five hours after the first attacks, Iraq 's state radio broadcast declaring that "The dawn of victory nears as this great showdown begins. '' Iraq fired eight missiles the next day. These missile attacks were to continue throughout the war. A total of 88 Scud missiles were fired by Iraq during the war 's seven weeks.
Iraq hoped to provoke a military response from Israel. The Iraqi government hoped that many Arab states would withdraw from the Coalition, as they would be reluctant to fight alongside Israel. Following the first attacks, Israeli Air Force jets were deployed to patrol the northern airspace with Iraq. Israel prepared to militarily retaliate, as its policy for the previous 40 years had always been retaliation. However, President Bush pressured Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir not to retaliate and withdraw Israeli jets, fearing that if Israel attacked Iraq, the other Arab nations would either desert the coalition or join Iraq. It was also feared that if Israel used Syrian or Jordanian airspace to attack Iraq, they would intervene in the war on Iraq 's side or attack Israel. The coalition promised to deploy Patriot missiles to defend Israel if it refrained from responding to the Scud attacks.
The Scud missiles targeting Israel were relatively ineffective, as firing at extreme range resulted in a dramatic reduction in accuracy and payload. According to the Jewish Virtual Library, a total of 74 Israelis died as a result of the Iraqi attacks: two directly and the rest from suffocation and heart attacks. Approximately 230 Israelis were injured. Extensive property damage was also caused, and according to Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, "Damage to general property consisted of 1,302 houses, 6,142 apartments, 23 public buildings, 200 shops and 50 cars. '' It was feared that Iraq would fire missiles filled with nerve agents such as sarin. As a result, Israel 's government issued gas masks to its citizens. When the first Iraqi missiles hit Israel, some people injected themselves with an antidote for nerve gas. It has been suggested that the sturdy construction techniques used in Israeli cities, coupled with the fact that Scuds were only launched at night, played an important role in limiting the number of casualties from Scud attacks.
In response to the threat of Scuds on Israel, the US rapidly sent a Patriot missile air defense artillery battalion to Israel along with two batteries of MIM - 104 Patriot missiles for the protection of civilians. The Royal Netherlands Air Force also deployed a Patriot missile squadron to Israel and Turkey. The Dutch Defense Ministry later stated that the military use of the Patriot missile system was largely ineffective, but its psychological value for the affected populations was high.
Coalition air forces were also extensively exercised in "Scud hunts '' in the Iraqi desert, trying to locate the camouflaged trucks before they fired their missiles at Israel or Saudi Arabia. On the ground, special operations forces also infiltrated Iraq, tasked with locating and destroying Scuds. Once special operations were combined with air patrols, the number of attacks fell sharply, then increased slightly as Iraqi forces adjusted to coalition tactics.
As the Scud attacks continued, the Israelis grew increasingly impatient, and considered taking unilateral military action against Iraq. On 22 January 1991, a Scud missile hit the Israeli city of Ramat Gan, after two coalition Patriots failed to intercept it. Three elderly people suffered fatal heart attacks, another 96 people were injured, and 20 apartment buildings were damaged. After this attack, the Israelis warned that if the US failed to stop the attacks, they would. At one point, Israeli commandos boarded helicopters prepared to fly into Iraq, but the mission was called off after a phone call from US Defense Secretary Dick Cheney, reporting on the extent of coalition efforts to destroy Scuds and emphasizing that Israeli intervention could endanger US forces.
In addition to the attacks on Israel, 47 Scud missiles were fired into Saudi Arabia, and one missile was fired at Bahrain and another at Qatar. The missiles were fired at both military and civilian targets. One Saudi civilian was killed, and 78 others were injured. No casualties were reported in Bahrain or Qatar. The Saudi government issued all its citizens and expatriates with gas masks in the event of Iraq using missiles with chemical or biological warheads. The government broadcast alerts and ' all clear ' messages over television to warn citizens during Scud attacks.
On 25 February 1991, a Scud missile hit a US Army barracks of the 14th Quartermaster Detachment, out of Greensburg, Pennsylvania, stationed in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 28 soldiers and injuring over 100.
On 29 January, Iraqi forces attacked and occupied the lightly defended Saudi city of Khafji with tanks and infantry. The Battle of Khafji ended two days later when the Iraqis were driven back by the Saudi Arabian National Guard, supported by Qatari forces and US Marines. The allied forces used extensive artillery fire.
Both sides suffered casualties, although Iraqi forces sustained substantially more dead and captured than the allied forces. Eleven Americans were killed in two separate friendly fire incidents, an additional 14 US airmen were killed when their AC - 130 gunship was shot down by an Iraqi surface - to - air missile, and two US soldiers were captured during the battle. Saudi and Qatari forces had a total of 18 dead. Iraqi forces in Khafji had 60 -- 300 dead and 400 captured.
The Battle of Khafji was an example of how air power could single - handedly hinder the advance of enemy ground forces. Upon learning of Iraqi troop movements, 140 coalition aircraft were diverted to attack an advancing column consisting of two armored divisions in battalion - sized units. Precision stand - off attacks were conducted during the night and through to the next day. Iraqi vehicle losses included 357 tanks, 147 armored personnel carriers, and 89 mobile artillery pieces. Some crews simply abandoned their vehicles upon realizing that they could be destroyed by guided bombs without warning, stopping the divisions from massing for an organized attack on the town. One Iraqi soldier, who had fought in the Iran -- Iraq War, remarked that his brigade "had sustained more punishment from allied airpower in 30 minutes at Khafji than in eight years of fighting against Iran. ''
Task Force 1 - 41 Infantry was a U.S. Army heavy battalion task force from the 2nd Armored Division (Forward). It was the spearhead of VII Corps. It consisted primarily of the 1st Battalion, 41st Infantry Regiment, 3rd Battalion, 66th Armor Regiment, and the 4th Battalion, 3rd Field Artillery Regiment. Task Force 1 -- 41 was the first coalition force to breach the Saudi Arabian border on 15 February 1991 and conduct ground combat operations in Iraq engaging in direct and indirect fire fights with the enemy on 17 February 1991. Shortly after arrival in theatre Task Force 1 -- 41 Infantry received a counter-reconnaissance mission. 1 -- 41 Infantry was assisted by the 1st Squadron, 4th Armored Cavalry Regiment. This joint effort would become known as Task Force Iron. Counter-reconnaissance generally includes destroying or repelling the enemy 's reconnaissance elements and denying their commander any observation of friendly forces. On 15 February 1991 4th Battalion of the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment fired on a trailer and a few trucks in the Iraqi sector that were observing American forces. On 16 February 1991 several groups of Iraqi vehicles appeared to be performing reconnaissance on the Task Force and were driven away by fire from 4 -- 3 FA. Another enemy platoon, including six vehicles, was reported as being to the northeast of the Task Force. They were engaged with artillery fire from 4 -- 3 FA. Later that evening another group of Iraqi vehicles was spotted moving towards the center of the Task Force. They appeared to be Iraqi Soviet - made BTRs and tanks. For the next hour the Task Force fought several small battles with Iraqi reconnaissance units. TF 1 -- 41 IN fired TOW missiles at the Iraqi formation destroying one tank. The rest of the formation was destroyed or driven away by artillery fire from 4 -- 3 FA. On 17 February 1991 the Task Force took enemy mortar fire; however, the enemy forces managed to escape. Later that evening the Task Force received enemy artillery fire but suffered no casualties.
Task Force 1 - 41 Infantry was the first coalition force to breach the Saudi Arabian border on 15 February 1991 and conduct ground combat operations in Iraq engaging in direct and indirect fire fights with the enemy on 17 February 1991. Prior to this action the Task Force 's primary fire support battalion, 4th Battalion of the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment, participated in a massive artillery preparation. Around 300 guns from multiple nations participated in the artillery barrage. Over 14,000 rounds were fired during these missions. M270 Multiple Launch Rocket Systems contributed an additional 4,900 rockets fired at Iraqi targets. Iraq lost close to 22 artillery battalions during the initial stages of this barrage. This included the destruction of approximately 396 Iraqi artillery pieces. By the end of these raids Iraqi artillery assets had all but ceased to exist. One Iraqi unit that was totally destroyed during the preparation was the Iraqi 48th Infantry Division Artillery Group. The group 's commander stated his unit lost 83 of its 100 guns to the artillery preparation. This artillery prep was supplemented by air attacks by B - 52 bombers and Lockheed AC - 130 fixed wing gunships. 1st Infantry Division Apache helicopters and B - 52 bombers conducted raids against Iraq 's 110th Infantry Brigade. The 1st Engineer Battalion and 9th Engineer Battalion marked and proofed assault lanes under direct and indirect enemy fire to secure a foothold in enemy territory and pass the 1st Infantry Division and the British 1st Armored Division forward. On 24 February 1991 the 1st Cavalry Division conducted a couple artillery missions against Iraqi artillery units. One artillery mission struck a series of Iraqi bunkers, reinforced by Iraqi T - 55 tanks, in the sector of the Iraqi 25th Infantry Division. The same day the 2nd Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division with the 1st Battalion, 5th Cavalry, 1st Battalion, 32nd Armor, and the 1st Battalion, 8th Cavalry destroyed Iraqi bunkers and combat vehicles in the sector of the Iraqi 25th Infantry Division. On 24 February 1991 2nd Brigade, 1st Infantry Division rolled through the breach in the Iraqi defense west of Wadi Al - Batin and also cleared the northeastern sector of the breach site of enemy resistance. Task Force 3 - 37th Armor breached the Iraqi defense clearing four passage lanes and expanding the gap under direct enemy fire. Also, on 24 February the 1st Infantry Division along with the 1st Cavalry Division destroyed Iraqi outposts and patrols belonging to the Iraqi 26th Infantry Division. The two divisions also began capturing prisoners. The 1st Infantry Division also cleared a zone between Phase Line Vermont and Phase Line Kansas. Once the 1st Infantry Division 's 3rd Battalion, 37th Armor reached the Iraqi rear defensive positions it destroyed an Iraqi D - 30 artillery battery and many trucks and bunkers.
Task Force 1 - 41 Infantry was given the task of breaching Iraq 's initial defensive positions along the Iraq -- Saudi Arabia border. The 1st Squadron, 4th Armored Cavalry Regiment handled similar responsibilities in its sector of operations. The 1st Infantry Division 's 5th Battalion, 16th Infantry also played a significant role clearing the trenches and captured 160 Iraqi soldiers in the process. Once into Iraqi territory Task Force 1 - 41 Infantry encountered multiple Iraqi defensive positions and bunkers. These defensive positions were occupied by a brigade - sized element. Task Force 1 - 41 Infantry elements dismounted and prepared to engage the enemy soldiers which occupied these well - prepared and heavily fortified bunkers. The Task Force found itself engaged in six hours of combat in order to clear the extensive bunker complex. The Iraqis engaged the Task Force with small arms fire, RPGs, mortar fire, and what was left of Iraqi artillery assets. A series of battles unfolded which resulted in heavy Iraqi casualties and the Iraqis being removed from their defensive positions with many becoming prisoners of war. Some escaped to be killed or captured by other coalition forces. In the process of clearing the bunkers Task Force 1 - 41 captured two brigade command posts and the command post of the Iraqi 26th Infantry Division. The Task Force also captured a brigade commander, several battalion commanders, company commanders, and staff officers. As combat operations progressed Task Force 1 - 41 Infantry engaged at short range multiple dug in enemy tanks in ambush positions. For a few hours, bypassed Iraqi RPG - equipped anti-tank teams, T - 55 tanks, and dismounted Iraqi infantry fired at passing American vehicles, only to be destroyed by other US tanks and fighting vehicles following the initial forces.
The 1st Infantry Division 's Task Force 2 - 16 Infantry cleared four lanes simultaneously through an enemy fortified trench system while inflicting heavy casualties on Iraqi forces. Task Force 2 - 16 continued the attack clearing over 13 miles of entrenched enemy positions resulting in the capture and destruction of numerous enemy vehicles, equipment, personnel and command bunkers.
The ground campaign consisted of three or possibly four of the largest tank battles in American military history. The battles at 73 Easting, Norfolk, and Medina Ridge are well noted for their historic significance. Some consider the battle of Medina Ridge the largest tank battle of the war. The U.S. Marine Corps also fought the biggest tank battle in its history at Kuwait International Airport. The U.S. 3rd Armored Division also fought a significant battle at Objective Dorset not far from where the battle of Norfolk was taking place. The U.S. 3rd Armored Division destroyed approximately 300 enemy combat vehicles during this particular encounter with Iraqi forces. The Iraqis suffered the loss of over 3,000 tanks and over 2,000 other combat vehicles during these battles against the American - led coalition.
US decoy attacks by air attacks and naval gunfire the night before Kuwait 's liberation were designed to make the Iraqis believe the main coalition ground attack would focus on central Kuwait.
For months, American units in Saudi Arabia had been under almost constant Iraqi artillery fire, as well as threats from Scud missile or chemical attacks. On 24 February 1991, the 1st and 2nd Marine Divisions and the 1st Light Armored Infantry Battalion crossed into Kuwait and headed toward Kuwait City. They encountered trenches, barbed wire, and minefields. However, these positions were poorly defended, and were overrun in the first few hours. Several tank battles took place, but otherwise coalition troops encountered minimal resistance, as most Iraqi troops surrendered. The general pattern was that the Iraqis would put up a short fight before surrendering. However, Iraqi air defenses shot down nine US aircraft. Meanwhile, forces from Arab states advanced into Kuwait from the east, encountering little resistance and suffering few casualties.
Despite the successes of coalition forces, it was feared that the Iraqi Republican Guard would escape into Iraq before it could be destroyed. It was decided to send British armored forces into Kuwait 15 hours ahead of schedule, and to send US forces after the Republican Guard. The coalition advance was preceded by a heavy artillery and rocket barrage, after which 150,000 troops and 1,500 tanks began their advance. Iraqi forces in Kuwait counterattacked against US troops, acting on a direct order from Saddam Hussein himself. Despite the intense combat, the Americans repulsed the Iraqis and continued to advance towards Kuwait City.
Kuwaiti forces were tasked with liberating the city. Iraqi troops offered only light resistance. The Kuwaitis quickly liberated the city despite losing one soldier and having one plane was shot down. On 27 February, Saddam ordered a retreat from Kuwait, and President Bush declared it liberated. However, an Iraqi unit at Kuwait International Airport appeared not to have received the message and fiercely resisted. US Marines had to fight for hours before securing the airport, after which Kuwait was declared secure. After four days of fighting, Iraqi forces were expelled from Kuwait. As part of a scorched earth policy, they set fire to nearly 700 oil wells and placed land mines around the wells to make extinguishing the fires more difficult.
The war 's ground phase was officially designated Operation Desert Saber.
The first units to move into Iraq were three patrols of the British Special Air Service 's B squadron, call signs Bravo One Zero, Bravo Two Zero, and Bravo Three Zero, in late January. These eight - man patrols landed behind Iraqi lines to gather intelligence on the movements of Scud mobile missile launchers, which could not be detected from the air, as they were hidden under bridges and camouflage netting during the day. Other objectives included the destruction of the launchers and their fiber - optic communications arrays that lay in pipelines and relayed coordinates to the TEL operators that were launching attacks against Israel. The operations were designed to prevent any possible Israeli intervention. Due to lack of sufficient ground cover to carry out their assignment, One Zero and Three Zero abandoned their operations, while Two Zero remained, and was later compromised, with only Sergeant Chris Ryan escaping to Syria.
Elements of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Battalion 5th Cavalry of the 1st Cavalry Division of the US Army performed a direct attack into Iraq on 15 February 1991, followed by one in force on 20 February that led directly through seven Iraqi divisions which were caught off guard. On 17 January 1991 the 101st Airborne Division Aviation Regiment fired the first shots of the war when eight AH - 64 helicopters successfully destroyed two Iraqi early warning radar sites. From 15 -- 20 February, the Battle of Wadi Al - Batin took place inside Iraq; this was the first of two attacks by 1 Battalion 5th Cavalry of the 1st Cavalry Division. It was a feint attack, designed to make the Iraqis think that a coalition invasion would take place from the south. The Iraqis fiercely resisted, and the Americans eventually withdrew as planned back into the Wadi Al - Batin. Three US soldiers were killed and nine wounded, with one M2 Bradley IFV turret destroyed, but they had taken 40 prisoners and destroyed five tanks, and successfully deceived the Iraqis. This attack led the way for the XVIII Airborne Corps to sweep around behind the 1st Cav and attack Iraqi forces to the west. On 22 February 1991, Iraq agreed to a Soviet - proposed ceasefire agreement. The agreement called for Iraq to withdraw troops to pre-invasion positions within six weeks following a total ceasefire, and called for monitoring of the ceasefire and withdrawal to be overseen by the UN Security Council.
The coalition rejected the proposal, but said that retreating Iraqi forces would not be attacked, and gave 24 hours for Iraq to withdraw its forces. On 23 February, fighting resulted in the capture of 500 Iraqi soldiers. On 24 February, British and American armored forces crossed the Iraq -- Kuwait border and entered Iraq in large numbers, taking hundreds of prisoners. Iraqi resistance was light, and four Americans were killed.
Shortly afterwards, the US VII Corps, in full strength and spearheaded by the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment, launched an armored attack into Iraq early on 24 February, just to the west of Kuwait, taking Iraqi forces by surprise. Simultaneously, the US XVIII Airborne Corps launched a sweeping "left - hook '' attack across southern Iraq 's largely undefended desert, led by the US 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment and the 24th Infantry Division (Mechanized). This movement 's left flank was protected by the French Division Daguet. The 101st Airborne Division conducted a combat air assault into enemy territory. The 101st Airborne Division had struck 155 miles behind enemy lines. It was the deepest air assault operation in history. Approximately 400 helicopters transported 2,000 soldiers into Iraq where they destroyed Iraqi columns trying to flee westward and prevented the escape of Iraqi forces. The 101st Airborne Division travelled a further fifty to sixty miles into Iraq. By nightfall, the 101st cut off Highway 8 which was a vital supply line running between Basra and the Iraqi forces. The 101st had lost 16 soldiers in action during the 100 - hour war and captured thousands of enemy prisoners of war.
The French force quickly overcame Iraq 's 45th Infantry Division, suffering light casualties and taking a large number of prisoners, and took up blocking positions to prevent an Iraqi counterattack on the coalition 's flank. The movement 's right flank was protected by the United Kingdom 's 1st Armoured Division. Once the allies had penetrated deep into Iraqi territory, they turned eastward, launching a flank attack against the elite Republican Guard before it could escape. The Iraqis resisted fiercely from dug - in positions and stationary vehicles, and even mounted armored charges.
Unlike many previous engagements, the destruction of the first Iraqi tanks did not result in a mass surrender. The Iraqis suffered massive losses and lost dozens of tanks and vehicles, while US casualties were comparatively low, with a single Bradley knocked out. Coalition forces pressed another 10 km into Iraqi territory, and captured their objective within three hours. They took 500 prisoners and inflicted heavy losses, defeating Iraq 's 26th Infantry Division. A US soldier was killed by an Iraqi land mine, another five by friendly fire, and 30 wounded during the battle. Meanwhile, British forces attacked Iraq 's Medina Division and a major Republican Guard logistics base. In nearly two days of some of the war 's most intense fighting, the British destroyed 40 enemy tanks and captured a division commander.
Meanwhile, US forces attacked the village of Al Busayyah, meeting fierce resistance. The US force destroyed a considerable amount of military hardware and took prisoners, while suffering no casualties.
On 25 February 1991, Iraqi forces fired a Scud missile at an American barracks in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. The missile attack killed 28 US military personnel.
The coalition 's advance was much swifter than US generals had expected. On 26 February, Iraqi troops began retreating from Kuwait, after they had set 737 of its oil wells on fire. A long convoy of retreating Iraqi troops formed along the main Iraq - Kuwait highway. Although they were retreating, this convoy was bombed so extensively by coalition air forces that it came to be known as the Highway of Death. Thousands of Iraqi troops were killed. American, British, and French forces continued to pursue retreating Iraqi forces over the border and back into Iraq, eventually moving to within 150 miles (240 km) of Baghdad, before withdrawing back to Iraq 's border with Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.
One hundred hours after the ground campaign started, on 28 February, President Bush declared a ceasefire, and he also declared that Kuwait had been liberated.
In coalition - occupied Iraqi territory, a peace conference was held where a ceasefire agreement was negotiated and signed by both sides. At the conference, Iraq was authorized to fly armed helicopters on their side of the temporary border, ostensibly for government transit due to the damage done to civilian infrastructure. Soon after, these helicopters and much of Iraq 's military were used to fight an uprising in the south. The rebellions were encouraged by an airing of "The Voice of Free Iraq '' on 2 February 1991, which was broadcast from a CIA - run radio station out of Saudi Arabia. The Arabic service of the Voice of America supported the uprising by stating that the rebellion was well supported, and that they soon would be liberated from Saddam.
In the North, Kurdish leaders took American statements that they would support an uprising to heart, and began fighting, hoping to trigger a coup d'état. However, when no US support came, Iraqi generals remained loyal to Saddam and brutally crushed the Kurdish uprising. Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and Kurdish areas of Iran. These events later resulted in no - fly zones being established in northern and southern Iraq. In Kuwait, the Emir was restored, and suspected Iraqi collaborators were repressed. Eventually, over 400,000 people were expelled from the country, including a large number of Palestinians, because of PLO support of Saddam. Yasser Arafat did n't apologize for his support of Iraq, but after his death, the Fatah under Mahmoud Abbas ' authority formally apologized in 2004.
There was some criticism of the Bush administration, as they chose to allow Saddam to remain in power instead of pushing on to capture Baghdad and overthrowing his government. In their co-written 1998 book, A World Transformed, Bush and Brent Scowcroft argued that such a course would have fractured the alliance, and would have had many unnecessary political and human costs associated with it.
In 1992, the US Defense Secretary during the war, Dick Cheney, made the same point:
I would guess if we had gone in there, we would still have forces in Baghdad today. We 'd be running the country. We would not have been able to get everybody out and bring everybody home.
And the final point that I think needs to be made is this question of casualties. I do n't think you could have done all of that without significant additional US casualties, and while everybody was tremendously impressed with the low cost of the (1991) conflict, for the 146 Americans who were killed in action and for their families, it was n't a cheap war.
And the question in my mind is, how many additional American casualties is Saddam (Hussein) worth? And the answer is, not that damned many. So, I think we got it right, both when we decided to expel him from Kuwait, but also when the President made the decision that we 'd achieved our objectives and we were not going to go get bogged down in the problems of trying to take over and govern Iraq.
Instead of a greater involvement of its own military, the US hoped that Saddam would be overthrown in an internal coup d'état. The CIA used its assets in Iraq to organize a revolt, but the Iraqi government defeated the effort.
On 10 March 1991, 540,000 US troops began moving out of the Persian Gulf.
Coalition members included Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Honduras, Hungary, Italy, Kuwait, Malaysia, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America.
Germany and Japan provided financial assistance and donated military hardware, although they did not send direct military assistance. This later became known as checkbook diplomacy.
Australia contributed a Naval Task Group, which formed part of the multi-national fleet in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, under Operation Damask. In addition, medical teams were deployed aboard a US hospital ship, and a naval clearance diving team took part in de-mining Kuwait 's port facilities following the end of combat operations. Australian forces experienced a number of incidents in the first number of weeks of the Desert Storm Campaign including the detection of significant air threats from Iraq as a part of the outer perimeter of Battle Force Zulu; the detection of free sea floating mines and assistance to the aircraft carrier USS Midway. The Australian Task Force was also placed at great risk with regard to the sea mine threat, with HMAS Brisbane narrowly avoiding a mine by a small distance. The Australians played a significant role in enforcing the sanctions put in place against Iraq following Kuwait 's invasion. Following the war 's end, Australia deployed a medical unit on Operation Habitat to northern Iraq as part of Operation Provide Comfort.
Argentina was the only Latin American country to participate in the 1991 Gulf War sending a destroyer, ARA Almirante Brown (D - 10), a corvette, ARA Spiro (P - 43) (later replaced by another corvette, ARA Rosales (P - 42)) and a supply ship (ARA Bahía San Blas (B - 4)) to participate on the United Nations blockade and sea control effort of the Persian Gulf. The success of "Operación Alfil '' (English: "Operation Bishop '') as it was known, with more than 700 interceptions and 25,000 miles sailed in the theatre of operations helped to overcome the so - called "Malvinas syndrome ''. Argentina was later classified by the U.S. as major non-NATO ally due to her contributions during the war.
Canada was one of the first countries to condemn Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait, and it quickly agreed to join the US - led coalition. In August 1990, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney committed the Canadian Forces to deploy a Naval Task Group. The destroyers HMCS Terra Nova and HMCS Athabaskan joined the maritime interdiction force supported by the supply ship HMCS Protecteur in Operation Friction. The Canadian Task Group led the coalition 's maritime logistics forces in the Persian Gulf. A fourth ship, HMCS Huron, arrived in - theater after hostilities had ceased and was the first allied ship to visit Kuwait.
Following the UN-authorized use of force against Iraq, the Canadian Forces deployed a CF - 18 Hornet and CH - 124 Sea King squadron with support personnel, as well as a field hospital to deal with casualties from the ground war. When the air war began, the CF - 18s were integrated into the coalition force and were tasked with providing air cover and attacking ground targets. This was the first time since the Korean War that Canada 's military had participated in offensive combat operations. The only CF - 18 Hornet to record an official victory during the conflict was an aircraft involved in the beginning of the Battle of Bubiyan against the Iraqi Navy.
The Canadian Commander in the Middle East was Commodore Kenneth J. Summers.
The second largest European contingent was from France, which committed 18,000 troops. Operating on the left flank of the US XVIII Airborne Corps, the French Army force was the Division Daguet, including troops from the French Foreign Legion. Initially, the French operated independently under national command and control, but coordinated closely with the Americans (via CENTCOM) and Saudis. In January, the Division was placed under the tactical control of the XVIII Airborne Corps. France also deployed several combat aircraft and naval units. The French called their contribution Opération Daguet.
The United Kingdom committed the largest contingent of any European state that participated in the war 's combat operations. Operation Granby was the code name for the operations in the Persian Gulf. British Army regiments (mainly with the 1st Armoured Division), Royal Air Force squadrons and Royal Navy vessels were mobilized in the Persian Gulf. The Royal Air Force, using various aircraft, operated from airbases in Saudi Arabia. The United Kingdom played a major role in the Battle of Norfolk where its forces destroyed over 200 Iraqi tanks and a large quantity of other vehicles. After 48 hours of combat the British 1st Armoured Division destroyed or isolated four Iraqi infantry divisions (the 26th, 48th, 31st, and 25th) and overran the Iraqi 52nd Armored Division in several sharp engagements.
Chief Royal Navy vessels deployed to the Persian Gulf included Broadsword - class frigates, and Sheffield - class destroyers; other R.N. and RFA ships were also deployed. The light aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal was deployed to the Mediterranean Sea.
Special operations forces were deployed in the form of several SAS squadrons.
A British Challenger 1 achieved the longest range confirmed tank kill of the war, destroying an Iraqi tank with an armour - piercing fin - stabilized discarding - sabot (APFSDS) round fired over a distance of 4,700 metres (2.9 mi) -- the longest tank - on - tank kill shot recorded.
Over 1,000 Kuwaiti civilians were killed by Iraqis. More than 600 Kuwaitis went missing during Iraq 's occupation, and approximately 375 remains were found in mass graves in Iraq. The increased importance of air attacks from both coalition warplanes and cruise missiles led to controversy over the number of civilian deaths caused during Desert Storm 's initial stages. Within Desert Storm 's first 24 hours, more than 1,000 sorties were flown, many against targets in Baghdad. The city was the target of heavy bombing, as it was the seat of power for Saddam and the Iraqi forces ' command and control. This ultimately led to civilian casualties.
In one noted incident, two USAF stealth planes bombed a bunker in Amiriyah, causing the deaths of 408 Iraqi civilians who were in the shelter. Scenes of burned and mutilated bodies were subsequently broadcast, and controversy arose over the bunker 's status, with some stating that it was a civilian shelter, while others contended that it was a center of Iraqi military operations, and that the civilians had been deliberately moved there to act as human shields.
Saddam 's government gave high civilian casualty figures in order to draw support from Islamic countries. The Iraqi government claimed that 2,300 civilians died during the air campaign. According to the Project on Defense Alternatives study, 3,664 Iraqi civilians were killed in the conflict. An investigation by Beth Osborne Daponte estimated total civilian fatalities at about 3,500 from bombing, and some 100,000 from the war 's other effects.
The exact number of Iraqi combat casualties is unknown, but is believed to have been heavy. Some estimate that Iraq sustained between 20,000 and 35,000 fatalities. A report commissioned by the US Air Force estimated 10,000 -- 12,000 Iraqi combat deaths in the air campaign, and as many as 10,000 casualties in the ground war. This analysis is based on Iraqi prisoner of war reports.
According to the Project on Defense Alternatives study, between 20,000 and 26,000 Iraqi military personnel were killed in the conflict while 75,000 others were wounded.
The U.S. Department of Defense reports that US forces suffered 148 battle - related deaths (35 to friendly fire), with one pilot listed as MIA (his remains were found and identified in August 2009). A further 145 Americans died in non-combat accidents. The UK suffered 47 deaths (nine to friendly fire, all by US forces), France nine, and the other countries, not including Kuwait, suffered 37 deaths (18 Saudis, one Egyptian, six UAE and three Qataris). At least 605 Kuwaiti soldiers were still missing 10 years after their capture.
The largest single loss of life among coalition forces happened on 25 February 1991, when an Iraqi Al Hussein missile hit a US military barrack in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 28 US Army Reservists from Pennsylvania. In all, 190 coalition troops were killed by Iraqi fire during the war, 113 of whom were American, out of a total of 358 coalition deaths. Another 44 soldiers were killed and 57 wounded by friendly fire. 145 soldiers died of exploding munitions or non-combat accidents.
The largest accident among coalition forces happened on 21 March 1991, a Royal Saudi Air Force C - 130H crashed in heavy smoke on approach to Ras Al - Mishab Airport, Saudi Arabia. 92 Senegalese soldiers and six Saudi crew members were killed.
The number of coalition wounded in combat was 776, including 458 Americans.
190 coalition troops were killed by Iraqi combatants, the rest of the 379 coalition deaths being from friendly fire or accidents. This number was much lower than expected. Among the American dead were three female soldiers.
While the death toll among coalition forces engaging Iraqi combatants was very low, a substantial number of deaths were caused by accidental attacks from other Allied units. Of the 148 US troops who died in battle, 24 % were killed by friendly fire, a total of 35 service personnel. A further 11 died in detonations of coalition munitions. Nine British military personnel were killed in a friendly fire incident when a USAF A-10 Thunderbolt II destroyed a group of two Warrior IFVs.
Many returning coalition soldiers reported illnesses following their action in the war, a phenomenon known as Gulf War syndrome or Gulf War illness. Common symptoms that were reported are chronic fatigue, fibromyalgia, and gastrointestinal disorder. There has been widespread speculation and disagreement about the causes of the illness and the possibly related birth defects. Researchers found that infants born to male veterans of the 1991 war had higher rates of two types of heart valve defects. Some children born after the war to Gulf War veterans had a certain kidney defect that was not found in Gulf War veterans ' children born before the war. Researchers have said that they did not have enough information to link birth defects with exposure to toxic substances.
Depleted uranium was used in the war in tank kinetic energy penetrators and 20 -- 30 mm cannon ordnance. Significant controversy regarding the long term safety of depleted uranium exists, although detractors claim pyrophoric, genotoxic, and teratogenic heavy metal effects. Many have cited its use during the war as a contributing factor to a number of instances of health issues in the conflict 's veterans and surrounding civilian populations. However, scientific opinion on the risk is mixed.
Depleted uranium has 40 % less radioactivity than natural uranium, but the negative effects should not be overlooked. Some say that depleted uranium is not a significant health hazard unless it is taken into the body. External exposure to radiation from depleted uranium is generally not a major concern because the alpha particles emitted by its isotopes travel only a few centimeters in air or can be stopped by a sheet of paper. Also, the uranium - 235 that remains in depleted uranium emits only a small amount of low - energy gamma radiation. However, if allowed to enter the body, depleted uranium, like natural uranium, has the potential for both chemical and radiological toxicity with the two important target organs being the kidneys and the lungs.
On the night of 26 -- 27 February 1991, some Iraqi forces began leaving Kuwait on the main highway north of Al Jahra in a column of some 1,400 vehicles. A patrolling E-8 Joint STARS aircraft observed the retreating forces and relayed the information to the DDM - 8 air operations center in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. These vehicles and the retreating soldiers were subsequently attacked by two A-10 aircraft, resulting in a 60 km stretch of highway strewn with debris -- the Highway of Death. New York Times reporter Maureen Dowd wrote, "With the Iraqi leader facing military defeat, Mr. Bush decided that he would rather gamble on a violent and potentially unpopular ground war than risk the alternative: an imperfect settlement hammered out by the Soviets and Iraqis that world opinion might accept as tolerable. ''
Chuck Horner, Commander of US and allied air operations, has written:
(By February 26), the Iraqis totally lost heart and started to evacuate occupied Kuwait, but airpower halted the caravan of Iraqi Army and plunderers fleeing toward Basra. This event was later called by the media "The Highway of Death. '' There were certainly a lot of dead vehicles, but not so many dead Iraqis. They 'd already learned to scamper off into the desert when our aircraft started to attack. Nevertheless, some people back home wrongly chose to believe we were cruelly and unusually punishing our already whipped foes.
... By February 27, talk had turned toward terminating the hostilities. Kuwait was free. We were not interested in governing Iraq. So the question became "How do we stop the killing. ''
Another incident during the war highlighted the question of large - scale Iraqi combat deaths. This was the "bulldozer assault '', wherein two brigades from the US 1st Infantry Division (Mechanized) were faced with a large and complex trench network, as part of the heavily fortified "Saddam Hussein Line ''. After some deliberation, they opted to use anti-mine plows mounted on tanks and combat earthmovers to simply plow over and bury alive the defending Iraqi soldiers. Not a single American was killed during the attack. Reporters were banned from witnessing the attack, near the neutral zone that touches the border between Saudi Arabia and Iraq. Every American in the assault was inside an armored vehicle. One newspaper story reported that US commanders estimated thousands of Iraqi soldiers surrendered, escaping live burial during the two - day assault 24 -- 26 February 1991. Patrick Day Sloyan of Newsday reported, "Bradley Fighting Vehicles and Vulcan armored carriers straddled the trench lines and fired into the Iraqi soldiers as the tanks covered them with mounds of sand. ' I came through right after the lead company, ' (Col. Anthony) Moreno said. ' What you saw was a bunch of buried trenches with peoples ' arms and things sticking out of them... ' '' However, after the war, the Iraqi government said that only 44 bodies were found. In his book The Wars Against Saddam, John Simpson alleges that US forces attempted to cover up the incident. After the incident, the commander of the 1st Brigade said: "I know burying people like that sounds pretty nasty, but it would be even nastier if we had to put our troops in the trenches and clean them out with bayonets. '' Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney did not mention the First Division 's tactics in an interim report to Congress on Operation Desert Storm. In the report, Cheney acknowledged that 457 enemy soldiers were buried during the ground war.
A Palestinian exodus from Kuwait took place during and after the Gulf War. During the Gulf War, more than 200,000 Palestinians voluntarily fled Kuwait during the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait due to harassment and intimidation by Iraqi security forces, in addition to getting fired from work by Iraqi authority figures in Kuwait. After the Gulf War, the Kuwaiti authorities forcibly pressured nearly 200,000 Palestinians to leave Kuwait in 1991. Kuwait 's policy, which led to this exodus, was a response to alignment of Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat and the PLO with Saddam Hussein.
The Palestinians who fled Kuwait were Jordanian citizens. In 2013, there were 280,000 Jordanian citizens of Palestinian origin in Kuwait. In 2012, 80,000 Palestinians (without Jordanian citizenship) lived in Kuwait.
Saudi Arabia expelled Yemeni workers after Yemen supported Saddam during the Gulf War.
In the 23 June 1991 edition of The Washington Post, reporter Bart Gellman wrote: "Many of the targets were chosen only secondarily to contribute to the military defeat of Iraq... Military planners hoped the bombing would amplify the economic and psychological impact of international sanctions on Iraqi society... They deliberately did great harm to Iraq 's ability to support itself as an industrial society... '' In the Jan / Feb 1995 edition of Foreign Affairs, French diplomat Eric Rouleau wrote: "(T) he Iraqi people, who were not consulted about the invasion, have paid the price for their government 's madness... Iraqis understood the legitimacy of a military action to drive their army from Kuwait, but they have had difficulty comprehending the Allied rationale for using air power to systematically destroy or cripple Iraqi infrastructure and industry: electric power stations (92 percent of installed capacity destroyed), refineries (80 percent of production capacity), petrochemical complexes, telecommunications centers (including 135 telephone networks), bridges (more than 100), roads, highways, railroads, hundreds of locomotives and boxcars full of goods, radio and television broadcasting stations, cement plants, and factories producing aluminum, textiles, electric cables, and medical supplies. '' However, the UN subsequently spent billions rebuilding hospitals, schools, and water purification facilities throughout the country.
During the conflict, coalition aircrew shot down over Iraq were displayed as prisoners of war on TV, most with visible signs of abuse. Amongst several testimonies to poor treatment, USAF Captain Richard Storr was allegededly tortured by Iraqis during the Persian Gulf War. Iraqi secret police broke his nose, dislocated his shoulder and punctured his eardrum. Royal Air Force Tornado crew John Nichol and John Peters have both alleged that they were tortured during this time. Nichol and Peters were forced to make statements against the war in front of television cameras. Members of British Special Air Service Bravo Two Zero were captured while providing information about an Iraqi supply line of Scud missiles to coalition forces. Only one, Chris Ryan, evaded capture while the group 's other surviving members were violently tortured. Flight surgeon (later General) Rhonda Cornum was raped by one of her captors after the Black Hawk helicopter in which she was riding was shot down while searching for a downed F - 16 pilot.
Since the war, the US has had a continued presence of 5,000 troops stationed in Saudi Arabia -- a figure that rose to 10,000 during the 2003 conflict in Iraq. Operation Southern Watch enforced the no - fly zones over southern Iraq set up after 1991; oil exports through the Persian Gulf 's shipping lanes were protected by the Bahrain - based US Fifth Fleet.
Since Saudi Arabia houses Mecca and Medina, Islam 's holiest sites, many Muslims were upset at the permanent military presence. The continued presence of US troops in Saudi Arabia after the war was one of the stated motivations behind the 11 September terrorist attacks, the Khobar Towers bombing, and the date chosen for the 1998 US embassy bombings (7 August), which was eight years to the day that US troops were sent to Saudi Arabia. Osama bin Laden interpreted the Islamic prophet Muhammad as banning the "permanent presence of infidels in Arabia ''. In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwa, calling for US troops to leave Saudi Arabia. In a December 1999 interview with Rahimullah Yusufzai, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were "too near to Mecca '' and considered this a provocation to the entire Islamic world.
On 6 August 1990, after Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 661 which imposed economic sanctions on Iraq, providing for a full trade embargo, excluding medical supplies, food and other items of humanitarian necessity, these to be determined by the Council 's sanctions committee. From 1991 until 2003, the effects of government policy and sanctions regime led to hyperinflation, widespread poverty and malnutrition.
During the late 1990s, the UN considered relaxing the sanctions imposed because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. Studies dispute the number of people who died in south and central Iraq during the years of the sanctions.
The draining of the Qurna Marshes was an irrigation project in Iraq during and immediately after the war, to drain a large area of marshes in the Tigris -- Euphrates river system. Formerly covering an area of around 3,000 square kilometers, the large complex of wetlands were almost completely emptied of water, and the local Shi'ite population relocated, following the war and 1991 uprisings. By 2000, United Nations Environment Programme estimated that 90 % of the marshlands had disappeared, causing desertification of over 7,500 square miles (19,000 km).
The draining of the Qurna Marshes also called The Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes occurred in Iraq and to a smaller degree in Iran between the 1950s and 1990s to clear large areas of the marshes in the Tigris - Euphrates river system. Formerly covering an area of around 20,000 km (7,700 sq mi), the large complex of wetlands was 90 % drained prior to the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. The marshes are typically divided into three main sub-marshes, the Hawizeh, Central, and Hammar Marshes and all three were drained at different times for different reasons. Initial draining of the Central Marshes was intended to reclaim land for agriculture but later all three marshes would become a tool of war and revenge.
Many international organizations such as the UN Human Rights Commission, the Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq, the Wetlands International, and Middle East Watch have described the project as a political attempt to force the Marsh Arabs out of the area through water diversion tactics.
On 23 January, Iraq dumped 400 million US gallons (1,500,000 m) of crude oil into the Persian Gulf, causing the largest offshore oil spill in history at that time. It was reported as a deliberate natural resources attack to keep US Marines from coming ashore (Missouri and Wisconsin had shelled Failaka Island during the war to reinforce the idea that there would be an amphibious assault attempt). About 30 -- 40 % of this came from allied raids on Iraqi coastal targets.
The Kuwaiti oil fires were caused by the Iraqi military setting fire to 700 oil wells as part of a scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after conquering the country but being driven out by coalition forces. The fires started in January and February 1991, and the last one was extinguished by November.
The resulting fires burned out of control because of the dangers of sending in firefighting crews. Land mines had been placed in areas around the oil wells, and a military cleaning of the areas was necessary before the fires could be put out. Somewhere around 6 million barrels (950,000 m) of oil were lost each day. Eventually, privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost of US $1.5 billion to Kuwait. By that time, however, the fires had burned for approximately 10 months, causing widespread pollution.
The cost of the war to the United States was calculated by the US Congress in April 1992 to be $61.1 billion (equivalent to $96.5 billion in 2016). About $52 billion of that amount was paid by other countries: $36 billion by Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and other Arab states of the Persian Gulf; $16 billion by Germany and Japan (which sent no combat forces due to their constitutions). About 25 % of Saudi Arabia 's contribution was paid in the form of in - kind services to the troops, such as food and transportation. US troops represented about 74 % of the combined force, and the global cost was therefore higher.
Apart from the impact on Arab States of the Persian Gulf, the resulting economic disruptions after the crisis affected many states. The Overseas Development Institute (ODI) undertook a study in 1991 to assess the effects on developing states and the international community 's response. A briefing paper finalized on the day that the conflict ended draws on their findings which had two main conclusions: Many developing states were severely affected and while there has been a considerable response to the crisis, the distribution of assistance was highly selective.
The ODI factored in elements of "cost '' which included oil imports, remittance flows, re-settlement costs, loss of export earnings and tourism. For Egypt, the cost totaled $1 billion, 3 % of GDP. Yemen had a cost of $830 million, 10 % of GDP, while it cost Jordan $1.8 billion, 32 % of GDP.
International response to the crisis on developing states came with the channeling of aid through The Gulf Crisis Financial Co-ordination Group. They were 24 states, comprising most of the OECD countries plus some Gulf states: Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Kuwait. The members of this group agreed to disperse $14 billion in development assistance.
The World Bank responded by speeding up the disbursement of existing project and adjustment loans. The International Monetary Fund adopted two lending facilities -- the Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) and the Compensatory & Contingency Financing Facility (CCFF). The European Community offered $2 billion in assistance.
The war was heavily televised. For the first time, people all over the world were able to watch live pictures of missiles hitting their targets and fighters departing from aircraft carriers. Allied forces were keen to demonstrate their weapons ' accuracy.
In the United States, the "big three '' network anchors led the war 's network news coverage: ABC 's Peter Jennings, CBS 's Dan Rather, and NBC 's Tom Brokaw were anchoring their evening newscasts when air strikes began on 16 January 1991. ABC News correspondent Gary Shepard, reporting live from Baghdad, told Jennings of the city 's quietness. But, moments later, Shepard was back on the air as flashes of light were seen on the horizon and tracer fire was heard on the ground.
On CBS, viewers were watching a report from correspondent Allen Pizzey, who was also reporting from Baghdad, when the war began. Rather, after the report was finished, announced that there were unconfirmed reports of flashes in Baghdad and heavy air traffic at bases in Saudi Arabia. On the NBC Nightly News, correspondent Mike Boettcher reported unusual air activity in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Moments later, Brokaw announced to his viewers that the air attack had begun.
Still, it was CNN whose coverage gained the most popularity and indeed its wartime coverage is often cited as one of the landmark events in the network 's history, ultimately leading to the establishment of CNN International. CNN correspondents John Holliman and Peter Arnett and CNN anchor Bernard Shaw relayed audio reports from Baghdad 's Al - Rashid Hotel as the air strikes began. The network had previously convinced the Iraqi government to allow installation of a permanent audio circuit in their makeshift bureau. When the telephones of all of the other Western TV correspondents went dead during the bombing, CNN was the only service able to provide live reporting. After the initial bombing, Arnett remained behind and was, for a time, the only American TV correspondent reporting from Iraq.
In the United Kingdom, the BBC devoted the FM portion of its national speech radio station BBC Radio 4 to an 18 - hour rolling news format creating Radio 4 News FM. The station was short lived, ending shortly after President Bush declared the ceasefire and Kuwait 's liberation. However, it paved the way for the later introduction of Radio Five Live.
Two BBC journalists, John Simpson and Bob Simpson (no relation), defied their editors and remained in Baghdad to report on the war 's progress. They were responsible for a report which included an "infamous cruise missile that travelled down a street and turned left at a traffic light. ''
Newspapers all over the world also covered the war and Time magazine published a special issue dated 28 January 1991, the headline "War in the Gulf '' emblazoned on the cover over a picture of Baghdad taken as the war began.
US policy regarding media freedom was much more restrictive than in the Vietnam War. The policy had been spelled out in a Pentagon document entitled Annex Foxtrot. Most of the press information came from briefings organized by the military. Only selected journalists were allowed to visit the front lines or conduct interviews with soldiers. Those visits were always conducted in the presence of officers, and were subject to both prior approval by the military and censorship afterward. This was ostensibly to protect sensitive information from being revealed to Iraq. This policy was heavily influenced by the military 's experience with the Vietnam War, in which public opposition within the US grew throughout the war 's course. It was not only the limitation of information in the Middle East; media were also restricting what was shown about the war with more graphic depictions like Ken Jarecke 's image of a burnt Iraqi soldier being pulled from the American AP wire whereas in Europe it was given extensive coverage.
At the same time, the war 's coverage was new in its instantaneousness. About halfway through the war, Iraq 's government decided to allow live satellite transmissions from the country by Western news organizations, and US journalists returned en masse to Baghdad. NBC 's Tom Aspell, ABC 's Bill Blakemore, and CBS News ' Betsy Aaron filed reports, subject to acknowledged Iraqi censorship. Throughout the war, footage of incoming missiles was broadcast almost immediately.
A British crew from CBS News, David Green and Andy Thompson, equipped with satellite transmission equipment, traveled with the front line forces and, having transmitted live TV pictures of the fighting en route, arrived the day before the forces in Kuwait City, broadcasting live television from the city and covering the entrance of the Arab forces the next day.
Alternative media outlets provided views in opposition to the war. Deep Dish Television compiled segments from independent producers in the US and abroad, and produced a 10 - hour series that was distributed internationally, called The Gulf Crisis TV Project. The series ' first program War, Oil and Power was compiled and released in 1990, before the war broke out. News World Order was the title of another program in the series; it focused on the media 's complicity in promoting the war, as well as Americans ' reactions to the media coverage. In San Francisco, Paper Tiger Television West produced a weekly cable television show with highlights of mass demonstrations, artists ' actions, lectures, and protests against mainstream media coverage at newspaper offices and television stations. Local media outlets in cities across the USA screened similar oppositional media.
The organization Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) critically analyzed media coverage during the war in various articles and books, such as the 1991 Gulf War Coverage: The Worst Censorship was at Home.
The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself: Gulf War and Persian Gulf War are the most common terms for the conflict used within western countries, though it may also be called the First Gulf War (to distinguish it from the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the subsequent Iraq War). Some authors have called it the Second Gulf War to distinguish it from the Iran -- Iraq War. Liberation of Kuwait (Arabic: تحرير الكويت ) (taḥrīr al - kuwayt) is the term used by Kuwait and most of the coalition 's Arab states, including Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Egypt, and the United Arab Emirates. Terms in other languages include French: la Guerre du Golfe and German: Golfkrieg (Gulf War); German: Zweiter Golfkrieg (Second Gulf War); French: Guerre du Koweït (War of Kuwait).
Most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the war 's operational phases. These are sometimes incorrectly used as the conflict 's overall name, especially the US Desert Storm:
The US divided the conflict into three major campaigns:
Precision - guided munitions were heralded as key in allowing military strikes to be made with a minimum of civilian casualties compared to previous wars, although they were not used as often as more traditional, less accurate bombs. Specific buildings in downtown Baghdad could be bombed while journalists in their hotels watched cruise missiles fly by.
Precision - guided munitions amounted to approximately 7.4 % of all bombs dropped by the coalition. Other bombs included cluster bombs, which disperse numerous submunitions, and daisy cutters, 15,000 - pound bombs which can disintegrate everything within hundreds of yards.
Global Positioning System (GPS) units were relatively new at the time and were important in enabling coalition units to easily navigate across the desert. Since military GPS receivers were not available for most troops, many used commercially available units. To permit these to be used to best effect, the "selective availability '' feature of the GPS system was turned off for the duration of Desert Storm, allowing these commercial receivers to provide the same precision as the military equipment.
Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) and satellite communication systems were also important. Two examples of this are the US Navy 's Grumman E-2 Hawkeye and the US Air Force 's Boeing E-3 Sentry. Both were used in command and control area of operations. These systems provided essential communications links between air, ground, and naval forces. It is one of several reasons coalition forces dominated the air war.
American - made color photocopiers were used to produce some of Iraq 's battle plans. Some of the copiers contained concealed high - tech transmitters that revealed their positions to American electronic warfare aircraft, leading to more precise bombings.
The role of Iraq 's Scud missiles featured prominently in the war. Scud is a tactical ballistic missile that the Soviet Union developed and deployed among the forward deployed Soviet Army divisions in East Germany. The role of the Scuds which were armed with nuclear and chemical warheads was to destroy command, control, and communication facilities and delay full mobilization of Western German and Allied Forces in Germany. It could also be used to directly target ground forces.
Scud missiles utilize inertial guidance which operates for the duration that the engines operate. Iraq used Scud missiles, launching them into both Saudi Arabia and Israel. Some missiles caused extensive casualties, while others caused little damage. Concerns were raised of possible chemical or biological warheads on these rockets, but if they existed, they were not used.
The US Patriot missile was used in combat for the first time. The US military claimed a high effectiveness against Scuds at the time, but later analysis gives figures as low as 9 %, with 45 % of the 158 Patriot launches being against debris or false targets. The Dutch Ministry of Defense, which also sent Patriot missiles to protect civilians in Israel and Turkey, later disputed the higher claim. Further, there is at least one incident of a software error causing a Patriot missile 's failure to engage an incoming Scud, resulting in deaths. Both the US Army and the missile manufacturers maintained the Patriot delivered a "miracle performance '' in the Gulf War.
The Gulf War has been the subject of several video games including Conflict: Desert Storm, Conflict: Desert Storm II and Gulf War: Operation Desert Hammer. There have also been numerous depictions in film including Jarhead (2005), which is based on U.S. Marine Anthony Swofford 's 2003 memoir of the same name.
Works cited
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where did the carolina panthers get their name | Carolina Panthers - wikipedia
National Football League (1995 -- present)
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The Carolina Panthers are a professional American football team based in Charlotte, North Carolina. The Panthers compete in the National Football League (NFL), as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) South division. The team is headquartered in Bank of America Stadium in uptown Charlotte; also the team 's home field. They are one of the few NFL teams to own the stadium they play in, which is legally registered as Panthers Stadium, LLC. The Panthers are supported throughout the Carolinas; although the team has played its home games in Charlotte since 1996, it played home games at Memorial Stadium in Clemson, South Carolina during its first season. The team hosts its annual training camp at Wofford College in Spartanburg, South Carolina. The head coach is Ron Rivera.
The Panthers were announced as the league 's 29th franchise in 1993, and began play in 1995 under original owner and founder Jerry Richardson. The Panthers played well in their first two years, finishing 7 -- 9 in 1995 (an all - time best for an NFL expansion team 's first season) and 12 -- 4 the following year, winning the NFC West before ultimately losing to the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers in the NFC Championship Game. They did not have another winning season until 2003, when they won the NFC Championship Game and reached Super Bowl XXXVIII, losing 32 -- 29 to the New England Patriots. After recording playoff appearances in 2005 and 2008, the team failed to record another playoff appearance until 2013, the first of three consecutive NFC South titles. After losing in the divisional round to the San Francisco 49ers in 2013 and the Seattle Seahawks in 2014, the Panthers returned to the Super Bowl in 2015, but lost to the Denver Broncos. The Panthers have reached the playoffs seven times, advancing to four NFC Championship Games and two Super Bowls. They have won six division titles, one in the NFC West and five in the NFC South.
The Carolina Panthers are legally registered as Panther Football, LLC. and are controlled by David Tepper, whose purchase of the team from founder Jerry Richardson was unanimously approved by league owners on May 22, 2018. The club is worth approximately US $1.56 billion, according to Forbes.
On December 15, 1987, entrepreneur Jerry Richardson announced his bid for an NFL expansion franchise in the Carolinas. A North Carolina native, Richardson was a former wide receiver on the Baltimore Colts who had used his 1959 league championship bonus to co-found the Hardee 's restaurant chain, later becoming president and CEO of TW Services. Richardson drew his inspiration to pursue an NFL franchise from George Shinn, who had made a successful bid for an expansion National Basketball Association (NBA) team in Charlotte, the Charlotte Hornets. Richardson founded Richardson Sports, a partnership consisting of himself, his family, and a number of businessmen from North and South Carolina were also recruited to be limited partners. Richardson looked at four potential locations for a stadium, ultimately choosing uptown Charlotte. In choosing the team name, the Richardsons did not run focus groups with potential fans. Their intention had always been the ' Panthers '; Jerry Richardson began driving a car with the license plate ' PNTHRS ' near the end of 1989.
To highlight the demand for professional football in the Carolinas, Richardson Sports held preseason games around the area from 1989 to 1991. The first two games were held at Carter -- Finley Stadium in Raleigh, North Carolina, and Kenan Memorial Stadium in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, while the third and final game was held at Williams - Brice Stadium in Columbia, South Carolina. The matchups were between existing NFL teams. In 1991, the group formally filed an application for the open expansion spot, and on October 26, 1993, the 28 NFL owners unanimously named the Carolina Panthers as the 29th member of the NFL.
The Panthers first competed in the 1995 NFL season; they were one of two expansion teams to begin play that year, the other being the Jacksonville Jaguars. The Panthers were put in the NFC West to increase the size of that division to five teams; there were already two other southeastern teams in the division, the Atlanta Falcons and the New Orleans Saints. Former Pittsburgh Steelers defensive coordinator Dom Capers was named the first head coach. The team finished its inaugural season 7 -- 9, the best performance ever from a first - year expansion team. They performed even better in their second season, finishing with a 12 -- 4 record and winning the NFC West division, as well as securing a first - round bye. The Panthers beat the defending Super Bowl champions Dallas Cowboys in the divisional round before losing the NFC Championship Game to the eventual Super Bowl champions, the Green Bay Packers. The team managed only a 7 -- 9 finish in 1997 and slipped to 4 -- 12 in 1998, leading to Capers ' dismissal as head coach.
The Panthers hired former San Francisco 49ers head coach George Seifert to replace Capers, and he led the team to an 8 -- 8 record in 1999. The team finished 7 -- 9 in 2000 and fell to 1 -- 15 in 2001, winning their first game but losing their last 15. This performance tied the NFL record for most losses in a single season and it broke the record held by the winless 1976 Buccaneers for most consecutive losses in a single season (both records have since been broken by the 2008 Lions), leading the Panthers to fire Seifert.
After the NFL 's expansion to 32 teams in 2002, the Panthers were relocated from the NFC West to the newly created NFC South division; The Panthers ' rivalries with the Falcons and Saints were maintained, and they would be joined by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. New York Giants defensive coordinator John Fox was hired to replace Seifert and led the team to a 7 -- 9 finish in 2002. Although the team 's defense gave up very few yards, ranking the second - best in the NFL in yards conceded, they were hindered by an offense that ranked as the second - worst in the league in yards gained. The Panthers improved to 11 -- 5 in the 2003 regular season, winning the NFC South and making it to Super Bowl XXXVIII before losing to the New England Patriots, 32 -- 29, in what was immediately hailed by sportswriter Peter King as the "Greatest Super Bowl of all time ''. King felt the game "was a wonderful championship battle, full of everything that makes football dramatic, draining, enervating, maddening, fantastic, exciting '' and praised, among other things, the unpredictability, coaching, and conclusion. The game is still viewed as one of the best Super Bowls of all time, and in the opinion of Charlotte - based NPR reporter Scott Jagow, the Panthers ' Super Bowl appearance represented the arrival of Charlotte onto the national scene.
Following a 1 -- 7 start in 2004, the Panthers rebounded to win six of their last seven games despite losing 14 players for the season due to injury. They lost their last game to New Orleans, finishing the 2004 season at 7 -- 9. Had they won the game, the Panthers would have made the playoffs. The team improved to 11 -- 5 in 2005, finishing second in the division behind Tampa Bay and clinching a playoff berth as a wild - card. In the first round of the playoffs, the Panthers went on the road to face the New York Giants, beating them 23 -- 0 for the NFL 's first playoff shutout against a home team since 1980. The following week, they beat Chicago 29 -- 21 on the road, but lost key players Julius Peppers, a defensive end, and DeShaun Foster, a running back, who were both injured during the game. The Panthers were then defeated 34 -- 14 by the Seattle Seahawks in the NFC Championship Game, ending their season. Although the Panthers went into the 2006 season as favorites to win the NFC South, they finished with a disappointing 8 -- 8 record. The team finished the 2007 season with a 7 -- 9 record after losing quarterback Jake Delhomme early in the season due to an elbow injury. In 2008, the Panthers rebounded with a 12 -- 4 regular season record, winning the NFC South and securing a first - round bye. They were eliminated in the divisional round of the playoffs, losing 33 -- 13 to the eventual NFC Champion Arizona Cardinals after Delhomme turned the ball over six times. Delhomme 's struggles carried over into the 2009 season, where he threw 18 interceptions in the first 11 games before breaking a finger in his throwing hand. The Panthers were at a 4 -- 7 record before Delhomme 's season - ending injury, and his backup, Matt Moore, led the team to a 4 -- 1 finish to the season for an 8 -- 8 overall record.
In 2010, after releasing Delhomme in the offseason, the Panthers finished with a league - worst (2 -- 14) record; their offense was the worst in the league. John Fox 's contract expired after the season ended, and the team did not retain him or his staff.
The team hired Ron Rivera to replace Fox as head coach and drafted Auburn 's Heisman Trophy - winning quarterback Cam Newton with the first overall pick in the 2011 NFL Draft. The Panthers opened the 2011 season 2 -- 6, but finished with a 6 -- 10 record, and Newton was awarded the AP Offensive Rookie of the Year award after setting the NFL record for most rushing touchdowns from a quarterback (14) in a single season and becoming the first rookie NFL quarterback to throw for over 4,000 yards in a single season. He also was the first rookie quarterback to rush for over 500 yards in a single season. In 2012, the Panthers again opened the season poorly, losing five out of their first six games, leading longtime general manager Marty Hurney to be fired in response. The team slid to a 2 -- 8 record before winning five of their last six games, resulting in a 7 -- 9 record. This strong finish helped save Rivera 's job. The Panthers had a winning season the following year, finishing with a 12 -- 4 record and winning their third NFC South title and another playoff bye, but they were beaten by the 49ers in the Divisional Round. In 2014, the Panthers opened the season with two wins, but after 12 games sat at 3 -- 8 -- 1 due in part to a seven - game winless streak. A four - game winning streak to end the season secured the team their second consecutive NFC South championship and playoff berth, despite a losing record of 7 -- 8 -- 1. The Panthers defeated the Arizona Cardinals, 27 -- 16, in the wild card round to advance to the divisional playoffs, where they lost to eventual NFC champion Seattle, 31 -- 17. The 2015 season saw the Panthers start the season 14 -- 0 and finish the season 15 -- 1, which tied for the best regular - season record in NFC history. The Panthers also secured their third consecutive NFC South championship, as well as their first overall top - seeded playoff berth. In the 2015 -- 16 playoffs, the Panthers defeated the Seattle Seahawks in the NFC Divisional playoffs, 31 -- 24, after shutting them out in the first half, 31 -- 0, and the Arizona Cardinals, 49 -- 15 (highest score in NFC Championship history), in the NFC Championship Game to advance to Super Bowl 50, their first Super Bowl appearance since the 2003 season. The Panthers lost a defensive struggle to the AFC Champion Denver Broncos, 24 -- 10.
In the 2016 season, the Panthers regressed on their 15 -- 1 record from 2015, posting a 6 -- 10 record and a last - place finish in the NFC South, missing the playoffs for the first time since 2012, and losing the division title to the second - seeded Falcons, who went on to represent the NFC in Super Bowl LI.
In the 2017 season, the Panthers finished with a 11 -- 5 record and a # 5 seed and lost to the New Orleans Saints 31 - 26 in the Wild Card Round, their first loss in that round in franchise history.
On May 16, 2018, David Tepper, formerly a minority owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers finalized an agreement to purchase the Panthers. The sale price was more than $2.3 billion, a record at the time. The agreement was approved by the league owners on May 22, 2018.
The shape of the Panthers logo was designed to mimic the outline of both North Carolina and South Carolina. The Panthers changed their logo and logotype in 2012, the first such change in team history. According to the team, the changes were designed to give their logo an "aggressive, contemporary look '' as well to give it a more three - dimensional feel. The primary tweaks were made in the eye and mouth, where the features, particularly the muscular brow and fangs, are more pronounced, creating a more menacing look. The revised logo has a darker shade of blue over the black logo, compared to the old design, which had teal on top of black.
By the time they had been announced as the 29th NFL team in October 1993, the Panthers ' logo and helmet design had already been finalized, but the uniform design was still under creation. After discussion, the Panthers organization decided on jerseys colored white, black, and blue, and pants colored white and silver. The exact tone of blue, which they decided would be "process blue '' (a shade lighter than Duke 's and darker than North Carolina 's), was the most difficult color to choose.
The team 's uniform has remained largely the same since its creation, with only minor alterations such as changing the sock color of the team 's black uniforms from blue to black and changing the team 's shoes from white to black. Richardson, a self - described traditionalist, said that no major uniform changes would be made in his lifetime.
The Panthers have three main jersey colors: black, white, and blue. Their blue jerseys, designated their alternate uniforms, are the newest and were introduced in 2002. NFL regulations allow the team to use the blue jersey up to two times in any given season. In all other games, the team must wear either their white or black jerseys; in NFL games, the home team decides whether to wear a dark or white jersey, while the away team wears the opposite. Usually the Panthers opt for white or blue when the weather is expected to be hot and for black when the weather is expected to be cold.
The Panthers typically pair their white jerseys with white pants, while the black and blue jerseys are paired with silver pants; there have only been a few exceptions to these combinations. The first such instance was in 1998, when the team paired their white jerseys with silver pants in a game against the Indianapolis Colts. The second instance was in 2012 during a game against the Denver Broncos, when they paired their black jerseys with new black pants; this created an all - black uniform, with the exception of blue socks and silver helmets. The decision to wear blue socks was made by team captain Steve Smith, who felt the blue socks gave the uniforms a more distinct appearance compared with other teams that have all - black uniforms. The all - black uniforms won the "Greatest Uniform in NFL History '' contest, a fan - voted contest run by NFL.com in July 2013. In July 2013, the team 's equipment manager, Jackie Miles, said the Panthers intended to use the all - black uniform more in the future. The Panthers wore the all - black uniform three times the following season, once each in the preseason and regular season, and the third time during the home divisional round playoff game vs the 49ers. During the Panthers ' 2015 Thanksgiving Day game against the Dallas Cowboys, they debuted an all - blue uniform as part of Nike 's "Color Rush '' series.
The team 's uniform did not change significantly after Nike became the NFL 's jersey supplier in 2012, but the collar was altered to honor former Panthers player and coach Sam Mills by featuring the phrase "Keep Pounding ''. Nike had conceived the idea, and the team supported the concept as a way to expose newer fans to the legacy of Mills, who died of cancer in 2005. Mills had introduced the phrase, which has since become a team slogan, in a speech that he gave to the players and coaches prior to their 2003 playoff game against Dallas; in the speech, Mills compared his fight against cancer with the team 's on - field battle, saying "When I found out I had cancer, there were two things I could do -- quit or keep pounding. I 'm a fighter. I kept pounding. You 're fighters, too. Keep pounding! ''
The Panthers played their first season at Memorial Stadium in Clemson, South Carolina, as their facility in uptown Charlotte was still under construction. Ericsson Stadium, called Bank of America Stadium since 2004, opened in the summer of 1996. Bank of America Stadium is owned entirely by the Panthers, making them one of the few teams in the NFL to own the facility they play in. The stadium was specially designed by HOK Sports Facilities Group for football and also serves as the headquarters and administrative offices of the Panthers. On some days the stadium offers public tours for a fee. Private tours for groups are offered for a fee seven days a week, though there are some exceptions, and such tours must be arranged in advance. Two bronze panther statues flank each of the stadium 's three main entrances; they are the largest sculptures ever commissioned in the United States. The names of the team 's original PSL owners are engraved on the base of each statue. The two people in the Panthers Hall of Honor, team executive Mike McCormack and linebacker Sam Mills, are honored with life - sized bronze statues outside the stadium. Mills, in addition to being the only player in the Hall of Honor, is the only player to have had his jersey number (# 51) retired by the Panthers as of 2016.
The Panthers have three open - air fields next to Bank of America Stadium where they currently hold their practices; during the 1995 season, when the team played their home games in South Carolina, the team held their practices at Winthrop University in Rock Hill, South Carolina. Because the practice fields, along with the stadium, are located in uptown Charlotte, the fields are directly visible from skyscrapers as well as from a four - story condominium located across the street. According to Mike Cranston, a running joke said that the Panthers ' division rivals had pooled their resources to purchase a room on the building 's top floor, and that a fire at the condominium was caused by the Panthers organization. In order to prevent people from seeing inside the field while the team is practicing, the team has added "strategically planted trees and a tarp over the... fence surrounding the fields ''. Additionally, they employ a security team to watch for and chase away any people who stop alongside the fence surrounding the field. In the event of bad weather, the team moves their practices to an indoor sports facility about 10 miles from the stadium. The team does not own this facility. The Panthers have hosted their annual training camp at Wofford College in Spartanburg, South Carolina, since 1995.
The Panthers are supported in both North Carolina and South Carolina; South Carolina Governor Nikki Haley declared July 30, 2012, "Carolina Panthers Day '' in her state, saying that "when it comes to professional teams, the Carolina Panthers are the team that South Carolina calls their own ''. During the 2016 NFC Championship and Super Bowl, the hashtag # OneCarolina was used by college and professional sports teams from North Carolina and South Carolina to show unified support for the Panthers.
Pat Yasinskas of ESPN.com observed that while there is "a bit of a wine - and - cheese atmosphere at Panthers games... there is a strong core of die - hard fans who bring energy to Bank of America Stadium. Charlotte lives and dies with the Panthers because there are n't a lot of other options in the sports world ''. Sports Illustrated graded the Panthers as having the 10th highest "NFL Fan Value Experience '' in 2007, attributing much of the fan atmosphere to the team 's newness when compared to the established basketball fanbase. They also observed that the stadium has scattered parking lots, each of which has a different tailgating style. Some have fried chicken, pork, or Carolina - style barbecue, while others have live bands and televisions. Pickup football games in the parking lots are common, but fans tend to "behave themselves '', in part due to blue laws that prevent the sale of alcohol before noon on Sundays.
The Carolina Panthers have sold out all home games since December 2002, and their home attendance has ranked in the NFL 's top ten since 2006.
Sir Purr, an anthropomorphic black cat who wears a jersey numbered ' 00 ', has been the Panthers ' mascot since their first season. During games, Sir Purr provides sideline entertainment through skits and "silly antics ''. The mascot participates in a number of community events year - round, including a monthly visit to the patients at Levine Children 's Hospital. Sir Purr also hosts the annual Mascot Bowl, an event which pits pro and college mascots against each other during halftime at a selected Panthers home game.
The team 's cheerleaders are the Carolina Topcats, a group of 24 women who lead cheers and entertain fans at home games. The TopCats participate in both corporate and charity events. The team 's drumline is PurrCussion, an ensemble of snare, tenor, and bass drummers as well as cymbal players. PurrCussion performs for fans outside the stadium and introduces players prior to home games; it consists of drummers from across the Carolinas.
Starting with the 2012 season, the Panthers introduced the Keep Pounding Drum, inspired by the aforementioned motivational speech by Sam Mills before the team 's 2004 playoff game against the Cowboys. Prior to each home game, an honorary drummer hits the six - foot tall drum four times to signify the four quarters of an American football game. According to the team, the drummers "come from a variety of backgrounds and occupations, but all have overcome a great trial or adversity that has not only made them strong but also pushes them to make others around them stronger ''. Drummers have included current and former Panthers players, military veterans, Make - A-Wish children, and athletes from other sports, including NBA MVP and Charlotte native Stephen Curry, US women 's national soccer team players Whitney Engen and Heather O'Reilly, and 7 time NASCAR Cup Series champion Jimmie Johnson.
During the inaugural season of the Panthers, the team had an official fight song, which the team played before each home game. The song, "Stand and Cheer '', remains the team 's official fight song, but the team does not typically play it before home games. Due to negative fan reaction "Stand and Cheer '' was pulled in 1999. Since 2006, the song has returned. In recent seasons the team has played Neil Diamond 's "Sweet Caroline '' and Chairmen of the Board 's "I 'd Rather Be In Carolina '' immediately after home victories. A "keep pounding '' chant was introduced during the 2015 season which starts before the opening kickoff of each home game. As prompted by the video boards, one side of the stadium shouts "keep '' and the other side replies with "pounding ''. The chant is similar to ones that take place at college football games.
The Carolina Panthers support a variety of non-profits in North and South Carolina through the Carolina Panthers Charities. Four annual scholarships are awarded to student athletes through the Carolina Panthers Graduate Scholarship and the Carolina Panthers Players Sam Mills Memorial Scholarship programs. Carolina Panthers Charities also offers grants to non-profits that support education, athletics, and human services in the community. The Panthers and Fisher Athletic has provided six equipment grants to high school football teams in the Carolinas each year since 2010. Carolina Panthers Charities raises funds at three annual benefits: the Countdown to Kickoff Luncheon, the team 's first public event each season; Football 101, an educational workshop for fans; and the Weekend Warrior Flag Football Tournament, a two - day non-contact flag football tournament. Another annual benefit is Taste of the Panthers, a gourmet food tasting which raises funds for Second Harvest Food Bank of Metrolina.
In 2003 the Panthers and Carolinas HealthCare Foundation established the Keep Pounding Fund, a fundraising initiative to support cancer research and patient support programs. The Panthers community has raised more than $1.4 million for the fund through direct donations, charity auctions, blood drives, and an annual 5k stadium run. The Panthers and Levine Children 's Hospital coordinate monthly hospital visits and VIP game - day experiences for terminally ill or hospitalized children.
In addition to these team - specific efforts, the Panthers participate in a number of regular initiatives promoted by the NFL and USA Football, the league 's youth football development partner. These include USA Football Month, held throughout August to encourage and promote youth football; A Crucial Catch, the league 's Breast Cancer Awareness Month program; Salute to Service, held throughout November to support military families and personnel; and PLAY 60, which encourages young NFL fans to be active for at least 60 minutes each day.
Radio coverage is provided by flagship station WBT (1110 AM) and through the Carolina Panthers Radio Network, with affiliates throughout the Carolinas, Georgia, and Virginia. The Panthers ' radio broadcasting team is led by Mick Mixon, Eugene Robinson, and Jim Szoke. The radio network broadcasts pre-game coverage, games with commentary, and post-game wrap - ups. It also live - broadcasts Panther Talk, a weekly event at Bank of America Stadium which offers fans a chance to meet a player and ask questions of the staff.
National broadcasting and cable television networks cover regular season games, as well as some preseason games. Locally, Fox owned and operated station WJZY airs most regular - season games, while any home games against an AFC team air on CBS affiliate WBTV. Any appearances on Monday Night Football are simulcast on ABC affiliate WSOC - TV, while any late - season appearances on Thursday Night Football are simulcast on WBTV. Sunday night and some Thursday night games are aired on NBC affiliate WCNC - TV.
All preseason games and team specials are televised by the Carolina Panthers Television Network on flagship station WCCB in Charlotte and fourteen affiliate stations throughout the Carolinas, Georgia, Virginia, and Tennessee. The television broadcasting team consists of play - by - play commentator Mike Morgan, color analyst and former Panthers player Mike Rucker, and sideline reporter Pete Yanity. The network also hosts The Panthers Huddle, a weekly show focusing on the Panthers ' upcoming opponent. Panthers Gameday, the Panthers ' postgame show, is hosted by sports anchor Russ Owens and former Panthers lineman Kevin Donnalley on WCNC - TV.
The Panthers also offer game broadcasts in Spanish on an eight - station network fronted by WGSP - FM in Pageland, South Carolina, as well as additional radio affiliates in Mexico. Jaime Moreno provides the play - by - play while his nephew, Luis Moreno Jr., is the color commentator. They have become popular even among English - speaking Panther fans for their high - energy, colorful announcing style.
The Panthers have developed heated rivalries with the three fellow members of the NFC South (the Atlanta Falcons, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, and New Orleans Saints). The team 's fiercest rivals are the Falcons and Buccaneers.
The Falcons are a natural geographic rival for the Panthers, as Atlanta is only 230 miles (370 kilometers) south on I - 85. The two teams have played each other twice a year since the Panthers ' inception, and games between the two teams feature large contingents of Panthers fans at Atlanta 's Mercedes - Benz Stadium.
The Panthers ' rivalry with Tampa Bay has been described as the most intense in the NFC South. The rivalry originated in 2002 with the formation of the NFC South, but became particularly heated before the 2003 season with verbal bouts between players on the two teams. It escalated further when the Panthers went to Tampa Bay and beat them in what ESPN.com writer Pat Yasinskas described as "one of the most physical contests in recent memory ''. The rivalry has resulted in a number of severe injuries for players on both teams, some of which were caused by foul play. One of these plays, an illegal hit on Tampa Bay punt returner Clifton Smith, sparked a brief melee between the teams in 2009.
During their time in the NFC West, the Panthers began developing a rivalry with the San Francisco 49ers. This rivalry faded after the NFL moved the Panthers out of the NFC West.
A relatively new rivalry, this one dates to the 2005 NFC Championship Game, in which the Seahawks won the game 31 -- 14. The rivalry started up again in 2012, when the Panthers lost a close regular season home game to a Seattle Seahawks team led by rookie quarterback Russell Wilson, 16 -- 12. In the 2013 season, the Panthers opened the season at home versus Seattle. They again lost a close game, with the final score 12 -- 7. The Seahawks would go on to win Super Bowl XLVIII. In the 2014 season, once more at Bank of America Stadium, the Seahawks defeated the Panthers in week eight, 13 -- 9. In the divisional round of the playoffs, the Panthers faced Seattle in Seattle, notorious for being a tough opposing field to play in, and lost 31 -- 17. The Seahawks would go on to lose Super Bowl XLIX. In the 2015 season the next year, the teams faced off in Seattle, where the Panthers won another close game, 27 -- 23. In the divisional round of the playoffs, the Panthers faced Seattle at Bank of America stadium, where they had yet to beat a Russell Wilson - led Seahawks team. By halftime they led 31 -- 0, but the Seahawks rebounded and scored 24 unanswered points before the Panthers were able to seal the victory, 31 -- 24. The Panthers would go on to lose Super Bowl 50. In the 2016 season, the teams met in Seattle, where the Panthers were beaten, 40 -- 7. Since the 2012 season, Carolina is 2 -- 5 overall against Seattle and 1 -- 1 in the playoffs. The rivalry aspect stems from how close the majority of the matches have been and the fact that they have played each other seven times between 2012 and 2017 -- at least once a year. The teams did not face each other during the 2017 season.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Roster updated May 28, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 90 Active, 2 Inactive, 1 Unsigned
The Carolina Panthers Hall of Honor was established in 1997 to honor individuals for their contributions to the Carolina Panthers organization. Each inductee is honored with a life - sized bronze statue outside of Bank of America Stadium 's North Entrance, while the names of each original PSL owner are written on the black granite base at each of the six panther statues. A rule added in the mid-2000s by the Panthers organization requires all potential inductees to be retired for at least five years before they are eligible for induction.
Nominees for the Pro Football Hall of Fame, which "honor (s) individuals who have made outstanding contributions to professional football '', are determined by a 46 - member selection committee. At least 80 % of voters must approve the nominee for him to be inducted.
Jerry Richardson was the founder and original owner of the Carolina Panthers. Richardson and his family owned about 48 % of the team, with the remaining 52 % owned by a group of 14 limited partners. Richardson paid $206 million for the rights to start the team in 1993; according to Forbes, the Panthers are worth approximately $1 billion as of 2012. They ranked the Carolina Panthers as the 16th-most valuable NFL team and the 23rd most valuable sports team in the world.
Mike McCormack, a Hall of Fame lineman for the Cleveland Browns and former coach and executive for the Seattle Seahawks, was the Panthers ' first team president, presiding in that role from 1994 until his retirement in 1997; McCormack was inducted as the first person in the Carolina Panthers Hall of Honor later that year. Jerry Richardson 's son, Mark, was appointed as the team 's second president in 1997 and served in that role until he stepped down in 2009. His brother Jon, who had been president of Bank of America Stadium, stepped down at the same time. The resignations of Mark and Jon Richardson were unexpected, as it was thought that the two would eventually take over the team from their father. Mark Richardson was replaced by Danny Morrison, who had previously served as the athletic director of both Texas Christian University and Wofford College, Richardson 's alma mater.
On May 16, 2018, David Tepper, formerly a minority owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers finalized an agreement to purchase the Carolina Panthers, for more than $2.3 billion, a record at the time. The agreement was approved by the league owners on May 22, 2018.
The Carolina Panthers have had four head coaches. Dom Capers was the head coach from 1995 to 1998 and led the team to one playoff appearance. Counting playoff games, he finished with a record of 31 -- 35 (. 470). George Seifert coached the team from 1999 to 2001, recording 16 wins and 32 losses (. 333); he is the only head coach in team history not to have led the team to a playoff appearance. John Fox, the team 's longest - tenured head coach, led the team from 2002 to 2010 and coached the team to three playoff appearances including Super Bowl XXXVIII which the Panthers lost. Including playoff games, Fox ended his tenure with a 78 -- 74 (. 513) record, making him the only Panthers coach to finish his tenure with the team with a winning record. Ron Rivera, the team 's current head coach, has held the position since 2011 and has led the team to three playoff appearances including Super Bowl 50 which the Panthers also lost. Counting playoff games, he has a career record of 67 -- 51 -- 1 (. 567). Statistically, Rivera has the highest winning percentage of any Panthers head coach.
→ Coaching staff → Management → More NFL staffs
Since they began playing football in 1995, the Panthers have been to four NFC Championship Games; they lost two (1996 and 2005) and won two (2003 and 2015). The Panthers have won six division championships: the NFC West championship in 1996 and the NFC South championship in 2003, 2008, 2013, 2014, and 2015. They are the first and only team to win the NFC South back to back and have won the NFC South more times than any other team in the division. They have finished as runners - up in their division six times, finishing second - place in the NFC West in 1997 and 1999 and finishing second - place in the NFC South in 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2012. They have qualified for the playoffs 8 times, most recently in 2017.
Kicker John Kasay is the team 's career points leader. Kasay scored 1,482 points during his 16 seasons (1995 -- 2010) with the Panthers. Quarterback Cam Newton, who has played for the Panthers since 2011, is the career passing leader, having thrown for 20,257 yards over his six seasons with the team. Running back Jonathan Stewart is the career rushing leader for the Carolina Panthers. Stewart, during his tenure with the team (2008 -- 2018), rushed for 6,868 yards with the Panthers. Wide receiver Steve Smith, the team 's leading receiver, recorded 12,197 receiving yards during his 13 - year (2001 -- 2013) tenure with the team.
Notes
Footnotes
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lyrics should have known better than to fall in love with you | Should 've Known Better (Richard Marx song) - wikipedia
"Should 've Known Better '' is a hit song written, composed, and performed by American rock singer Richard Marx, who released in September 1987 as the second single from his self - titled debut album. The song peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 as well as # 7 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart in 1987 and # 4 on the Radio & Records CHR / Pop Airplay chart.
Marx became the first solo artist in recording history to reach the top three of the Billboard Hot 100 with four singles from a debut album.
In the lyrics, the speaker is still in love with an ex-lover and tortured by it, to the point of regretting falling in love with them.
The music video for the selection was directed by Dominic Sena.
Released in September 1987 as the second single from his debut solo album, "Should 've Known Better '' entered the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 on September 26, 1987 at number 64, the highest debut of the week. The single also peaked at number 20 on the U.S. Adult Contemporary chart. The song also reached # 4 on the Radio & Records CHR / Pop Airplay chart on November 20, 1987 for two weeks and remained on the chart for 13 weeks. Elsewhere, the single reached number 50 in the United Kingdom.
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what episode of chicago pd did nadia die | Chicago P.D. (Season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of Chicago P.D., an American police drama television series with executive producer Dick Wolf, and producers Derek Haas, Michael Brandt, and Matt Olmstead, began airing on September 24, 2014, at 10: 00 p.m. Eastern / 9: 00 p.m. Central, and concluded on May 20, 2015 on the NBC television network. The season contained 23 episodes.
The intelligence unit is joined by SVU detectives Benson, Rollins and Amaro to solve the case of a pedophile ring.
The Intelligence Unit investigates the arsonist that killed Shay. During the investigation he fools the police with the use of various aliases, including one that is the name of another firefighter who was killed in the same incident as Peter Mills ' father. They find that as a boy he was the only survivor of a fire that killed his entire family when he was 7 years old. Eventually they find that he is targeting Gabriela Dawson and has trapped her in an elevator. He pours gasoline into the elevator intending to burn up and take her with him; Gaby is able to stall him long enough for Antonio to shoot him. Elsewhere, Sergeant Pratt acts exceedingly nice to all the precinct officers prompting suspicions from Burgess and Roman. When confronted about it she says that she is being investigated by the city after a complaint said she lacked people skills. It 's later revealed that it was a front for a reporter doing a story on her, the lie angers Burgess and she walks away.
This episode concludes a crossover with Chicago Fire that begins on "Three Bells ''. It is included on the Chicago Fire Season 3 DVD set.
Benson has come to Chicago to help Voight and Intelligence with a rape / murder case that is frighteningly similar to a case from New York a decade ago. She calls in Fin and Amaro to assist.
Archie Kao 's character Detective Sheldon Jin was killed in the first season 's finale, thus his character will not be appearing in the second season of the show. However, showrunner Matt Olmstead revealed that "It (Jin 's death) shakes everybody up... definitely for the next three or four episodes until people can re-galvanize as a family, but people have some hard feelings about how it all goes down. ''
Officer Kim Burgess will be joined by a new partner, whom Olmstead describes as being an important voice to the team in the second season and particularly for Burgess. Brian Geraghty was later announced to be portraying Sean Roman, the new partner of Kim Burgess (Marina Squerciati).
Jesse Lee Soffer revealed that there will be a lot more crossovers this season between Chicago P.D. and parent show Chicago Fire; "I think every episode from now on, they 're going to have a couple characters from one show on the other '' he told media sources.
On September 29, 2014, it was announced that Wolf 's series: Chicago P.D., Chicago Fire and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, would be involved in a three part crossover event airing between November 11 and November 12, 2014 starting with Chicago Fire and ending with Law & Order: Special Victims Unit and Chicago P.D..
Another crossover event aired on February 3 and February 4, 2015 starting with Chicago Fire and concluding with Chicago P.D..
A further crossover event aired on April 28 and April 29, 2015 starting with Chicago Fire, continuing with Chicago P.D. and concluding with Law & Order: Special Victims Unit.
The DVD release of season two is set to be released in Region 1 on September 1, 2015
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avett brothers i and love and you album lyrics | I and Love and You - wikipedia
I and Love and You is the 2009 major label debut by The Avett Brothers and produced by Rick Rubin.
The first single, "I and Love and You '' was released on June 24, 2009, via free digital download. The album was released on vinyl on September 15, 2009, with the CD and digital formats becoming available on September 29, 2009. The album was available in streaming format on National Public Radio 's Web site prior to its release.
The song "I and Love and You '' was chosen as the Starbucks iTunes Pick of the Week for September 22, 2009. From September 8 to October 8, 2009, The Avett Brothers released a 13 chapter video series about I and Love and You, each chapter featuring one song from the album (one chapter at a time, posting each on various websites before collecting them for viewing on their own page).
In 2008, the band announced on Myspace that they signed with American Recordings to produce a new album. Previously, the band was signed to the independent label Ramseur Records. Rick Rubin was impressed by The Avett Brothers ' previous album, Emotionalism and decided to produce the album. I and Love and You was the band 's major label debut (American Recordings is a subsidiary of Sony Music Entertainment) and was recorded in Los Angeles.
I and Love and You was released on September 29, 2009. The album peaked at No. 16 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 72 on the UK Albums Chart.
I and Love and You has received generally positive reviews. On the review aggregate site Metacritic, the album has a score of 73 out of 100, indicating "Generally favorable reviews. ''
Bart Blasengame of Paste gave the album a very positive review, writing that the Avett Brothers "... constructed something beautiful '' while still making their sound more mainstream. The review continued: "The depth and beauty that spread all across I and Love and You will, with any luck, keep The Avett Brothers from becoming The Jonas Brothers. '' PopMatters ' Steve Leftridge called the album the band 's best record yet, writing "I and Love and You 's new elegant musical direction and very strong set of new songs indicate that they are band that is indeed just getting revved up. They might remain too folk - fringe - y to be pop 's Next Big Thing, but the Avetts ' latest fully delivers on this band 's considerable potential. '' Leftridge also praised Rick Rubin 's contributions.
In a more mixed review, Pitchfork 's Stephen Deusner was less receptive to the album 's mainstream sound, writing "Every instrument sounds perfectly placed, and that 's a shame because the Avetts got more mileage out of their rough edges than most bands this decade. '' Deusner also called the album "predictable '' and concluded: "It 's not that there 's no room for such studio nuance in the Avetts ' music, but it gives I and Love and You a quotidian sheen, making their signature sincerity seem sappy and much less special. '' Despite the mixed review, Deusner praised the track "Laundry Room. '' Alexis Petridis of The Guardian also praised the track "Laundry Room '' in his otherwise mixed review, writing "The finest moment may be when ' Laundry Room ' unexpectedly abandons the blueprint after three and half minutes and explodes into a thrilling bluegrass coda. At that moment, I and Love and You sounds like a band suddenly doing what they want to, rather than what they think they should. ''
Paste named I and Love and You the best album of 2009, writing "For their artistic breakthrough, these North Carolina howlers polished their scruffy Americana sound until it gleamed. The result: an overpowering acoustic album brimming with sadness and soul. '' In 2009, the album was ranked # 9 on Paste 's "The 50 Best Albums of the Decade '' list.
The following people contributed to I and Love and You:
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once upon a time there was a spirit sword mountain wiki | Congqian Youzuo Lingjianshan - Wikipedia
Congqian Youzuo Lingjianshan (从前 有 座 灵 剑 山, literally "There was once a Spirit Blade Mountain '') is a Chinese xianxia web novel series written by Guowang Bixia (国王 陛下, a pen name meaning "His Majesty the King ''), and a manhua version was hosted on the Tencent comics portal since 2014. An anime adaptation co-produced by Tencent and Studio Deen named Reikenzan: Hoshikuzu - tachi no Utage (霊 剣山 星屑 たち の 宴, literally "Spirit Blade Mountain: Feast of the Stardust '') premiered in January 2016, which was simulcast in Chinese and Japanese. A second season of the anime has been announced and aired from January 7, 2017 to March 26, 2017.
In order to find a child fated by a falling comet that will bring calamity, the "Lingjian '' (灵 剑) clan resumes its entrance examination process to find disciples. Wang Lu, who possesses a special soul that only appears once in a thousand years, decides to take the exam and goes down the path toward becoming an exceptional sage.
An anime television series based off the series premiered on January 8, 2016. The series is directed by Iku Suzuki and animated by Studio Deen, with character designs by Makoto Iino. Yumiko Ishii serves as the chief animation director. Hirofune Hane serves as art director, Kazuhisa Yamabu provides color key for the series, and Kazuya Tanaka is directing the sound, which is produced by Half HP Studio.
The opening theme is "Fast End '', performed by Soraru and Mafumafu, and the ending theme song is "Kizuna '' (Bonds), performed by Kakichoco. The series aired on AT - X, Tokyo MX, KBS Kyoto, Sun TV, and TV Aichi.
A second season aired from January 7, 2017 to March 26, 2017.
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in petry's the street why is it so important to lutie to find an apartment | The Street (novel) - wikipedia
The Street is a novel published in 1946 by African - American writer Ann Petry. Set in World War II era Harlem, it centers on the life of Lutie Johnson. Petry 's novel is a commentary on the social injustices that confronted her character, Lutie Johnson, as a single black mother in this time period. Lutie is confronted by racism, sexism, and classism on a daily basis in her pursuit of the American dream for herself and her son, Bub. Lutie fully subscribes to the belief that if she follows the adages of Benjamin Franklin by working hard and saving wisely, she will be able to achieve the dream of being financially independent and move from the tenement in which she lives on 116th Street. Franklin is embodied in the text through the character Junto, named after Franklin 's secret organization of the same name. It is Junto, through his secret manipulations to possess Lutie sexually, who ultimately leads Lutie to murder Junto 's henchman, Boots. Junto represents Petry 's deep disillusionment with the cultural myth of the American dream.
Shifting between multiple perspectives, The Street uses extensive flashbacks to reveal its plot. Lutie Johnson has an eight - year - old son, Bub, to support. Separated but not legally divorced from Bub 's father, Jim, Lutie feels that Jim 's inability to find employment, her decision to work as a domestic for a wealthy white family in Connecticut, and Jim 's subsequent infidelity ruined her marriage.
Lutie moves into a small apartment on 116th Street in Harlem. Taking an immediate dislike to the super, Jones, she decides to take the apartment, agreeing to pay about thirty dollars a month in rent.
Jones becomes sexually obsessed with Lutie; recalling his youth in the Navy, Jones remembers his feelings of loneliness and sexual frustration while aboard ship, a condition that worsened as he began working and living in basement apartments and boiler rooms. Jones resents his live - in girlfriend, Min, due to her lack of physical attractiveness, venting his aggressions on her. Jones befriends Bub in hopes of getting Lutie to pay attention to him. Sensing Jones ' intentions, Mrs. Hedges, the madame of a brothel, tells Jones not to bother as a wealthy white man has already taken an interest in her.
Mrs. Hedges, a heavy - set woman who is bald and badly disfigured from a fire, is referring to Junto, the proprietor of a local bar as well as the owner of several pieces of real estate. Junto has been friends with Mrs. Hedges for many years, striking up her acquaintance as she rummaged through the trash for food. Junto, who, at that time collected cans and scraps for a living, employs her then makes her a partner of sorts, putting her in charge of maintenance and rent collection once he buys his first building. After surviving the fire, Mrs. Hedges starts running a brothel out of her apartment. Acutely sensing the desperation and boredom of the young people who live in the neighborhood, Mrs. Hedges suggests that Junto open up dance halls, bars, and brothels, which Junto does. Junto, who has developed feelings for Mrs. Hedges by this point, makes an overture to her but is rejected.
Min, meanwhile, increasingly fearful of Jones, seeks out a practitioner of hoodoo. After getting a referral from Mrs. Hedges, Min finds David The Prophet. Surprised and comforted by how closely David listens to her, Min pays for a cross, some powder, some drops for Jones ' morning coffee, and some candles to burn at night. Feeling reassured, Min hangs the cross over the bed as David suggested. When Min defiantly refuses to tell Jones where she had been, he advances on her angrily until he sees the cross over the bed. Feeling a superstitious dread, Jones retreats.
One night, Lutie has drinks at Junto 's. After entertaining the crowd with a song, Lutie makes the acquaintance of Boots Smith, a bandleader and an employee of Junto 's. Insincerely promising to help her establish a singing career, Boots convinces Lutie to take a ride with him. Lutie, who has already decided not to sleep with Boots, agrees to sing with his band. After returning home, she discovers that Bub has let Jones into the apartment while she was out and that Jones had rifled through her things.
Sometime after Lutie begins singing, Jones attacks her in the hallway, attempting to drag her into the basement. Lutie screams for help and Mrs. Hedges comes to her rescue. After inviting her inside for tea, Mrs. Hedges tells her of Junto 's interest in her. Junto also tells Boots the same thing, making him promise not to pursue a romance with Lutie. Boots, indebted to Junto for helping him evade the draft, reluctantly agrees. He also agrees not to pay Lutie for her singing and to arrange a meeting between Lutie and Junto.
After Mrs. Hedges tells him yet again that he ca n't have Lutie, Jones angrily decides to get even with her. He convinces Bub to steal mail, paying Bub a few dollars. Bub, who initially refused Jones ' offer, is eager to work; after hearing Lutie (who has just realized that she wo n't be paid for her singing) loudly cursing their poverty, Bub decides to help out by getting a job. Jones also implicates Min in the scheme by tricking her into getting copies of the mailbox keys made for him.
Bub is caught stealing the mail and sent to the Children 's Shelter until he can be seen in Children 's Court. Desperate to get Bub out of custody, Lutie consults a lawyer. Not knowing that she does n't need a lawyer for the upcoming hearing, she agrees to pay two hundred dollars for the man 's services.
Despairing of coming up with the money on her own, Lutie decides to ask Boots for help. Boots promises to get the money for her the next night. The next day, Lutie visits Bub at the Children 's Shelter but is unable to ask him about the letters. That night, Mrs. Hedges once again reminds her that Junto is interested in her. Feeling apprehensive, Lutie makes her appointment with Boots. Junto is there. Realizing Boots, Mrs. Hedges, and Junto have been working in concert, she yells at Boots to get Junto out of the apartment. After conferring with Boots, Junto leaves, warning Boots once again not to make any romantic overtures to Lutie. It is then that Boots decides to take Lutie for himself whether Junto approves or not.
After a half - hearted attempt to convince Lutie to become Junto 's mistress, Boots makes a sexual advance on her, kissing her and grabbing her breast. He slaps her twice when she pulls away. Lutie grabs a heavy candlestick and beats Boots to death with it. Lutie steals Boots ' wallet, deciding to use the money inside to pay the lawyer 's fees. Realizing that she would be caught, however, Lutie puts half the money back and flees the apartment. Knowing that she will never be able to rescue her son, Lutie buys a one - way ticket to Chicago and boards a train.
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battle of little bighorn custer's last stand | Battle of the Little Bighorn - wikipedia
The Battle of the Little Bighorn, known to the Lakota and other Plains Indians as the Battle of the Greasy Grass and commonly referred to among white Americans as Custer 's Last Stand, was an armed engagement between combined forces of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes and the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States Army. The battle, which resulted in the defeat of US forces, was the most significant action of the Great Sioux War of 1876. It took place on June 25 -- 26, 1876, along the Little Bighorn River in the Crow Indian Reservation in southeastern Montana Territory.
The fight was an overwhelming victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho, who were led by several major war leaders, including Crazy Horse and Chief Gall, and had been inspired by the visions of Sitting Bull (Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake). The U.S. 7th Cavalry, including the Custer Battalion, a force of 700 men led by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, suffered a major defeat. Five of the 7th Cavalry 's twelve companies were annihilated and Custer was killed, as were two of his brothers, a nephew, and a brother - in - law. The total U.S. casualty count included 268 dead and 55 severely wounded (six died later from their injuries), including four Crow Indian scouts and two Pawnee Indian scouts.
Public response to the Great Sioux War varied in the immediate aftermath of the battle. Custer 's widow soon worked to burnish her husband 's memory and, during the following decades, Custer and his troops came to be considered iconic, even heroic figures in American history, a status that lasted into the 1960s. The battle, and Custer 's actions in particular, have been studied extensively by historians.
In 1805, fur trader Francois Antoine Larocque reported joining a Crow camp in the Yellowstone area. On the way, he noted that the Crow hunted buffalo on the "Small Horn River ''. The United States built Fort Raymond in 1807 for trade with the Crow. It was located near the confluence of the Yellowstone and the Bighorn, around 40 miles north of the future battlefield. The area is first noted in the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie.
In the latter half of the 19th century, tensions increased between the Native inhabitants of the Great Plains of the United States and encroaching white settlers. This resulted in a series of conflicts known as the Sioux Wars, which took place between 1854 and 1890. While some of the Indigenous peoples eventually agreed to relocate to ever - shrinking reservations, a number of them resisted, at times fiercely.
On May 7, 1868, the valley of the Little Bighorn became a tract in the eastern part of the new Crow Indian Reservation in the center of the old Crow country. The battlefield is known as "Greasy Grass '' to the Lakota, Dakota, Cheyenne, and most other Plains Indians; however, in contemporary accounts by participants, it was referred to as the "Valley of Chieftains ''.
Among the Plains Tribes, the long - standing ceremonial tradition known as the Sun Dance was the most important religious event of the year. It is a time for prayer and personal sacrifice on behalf of the community, as well as making personal vows. Towards the end of spring in 1876, the Lakota and the Cheyenne held a Sun Dance that was also attended by a number of "Agency Indians '' who had slipped away from their reservations. During a Sun Dance around June 5, 1876, on Rosebud Creek in Montana, Sitting Bull, the spiritual leader of the Hunkpapa Lakota, reportedly had a vision of "soldiers falling into his camp like grasshoppers from the sky. '' At the same time, U.S. military officials were conducting a summer campaign to force the Lakota and the Cheyenne back to their reservations, using infantry and cavalry in a so - called "three - pronged approach ''.
Col. John Gibbon 's column of six companies (A, B, E, H, I, and K) of the 7th Infantry and four companies (F, G, H, and L) of the 2nd Cavalry marched east from Fort Ellis in western Montana on March 30 to patrol the Yellowstone River. Brig. Gen. George Crook 's column of ten companies (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, I, L, and M) of the 3rd Cavalry, five companies (A, B, D, E, and I) of the 2nd Cavalry, two companies (D and F) of the 4th Infantry, and three companies (C, G, and H) of the 9th Infantry moved north from Fort Fetterman in the Wyoming Territory on May 29, marching toward the Powder River area. Brig. Gen. Alfred Terry 's column, including twelve companies (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, and M) of the 7th Cavalry under Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer 's immediate command, Companies C and G of the 17th U.S. Infantry, and the Gatling gun detachment of the 20th Infantry departed westward from Fort Abraham Lincoln in the Dakota Territory on May 17. They were accompanied by teamsters and packers with 150 wagons and a large contingent of pack mules that reinforced Custer. Companies C, D, and I of the 6th U.S. Infantry moved along the Yellowstone River from Fort Buford on the Missouri River to set up a supply depot and joined Terry on May 29 at the mouth of the Powder River. They were later joined there by the steamboat Far West, which was loaded with 200 tons of supplies from Fort Lincoln.
The 7th Cavalry had been created just after the American Civil War. Many men were veterans of the war, including most of the leading officers. A significant portion of the regiment had previously served four - and - a-half years at Fort Riley, Kansas, during which time it fought one major engagement and numerous skirmishes, experiencing casualties of 36 killed and 27 wounded. Six other troopers had died of drowning and 51 from cholera epidemics. In November 1868, while stationed in Kansas, the 7th Cavalry under Custer had successfully routed Black Kettle 's Southern Cheyenne camp on the Washita River in the Battle of Washita River, an attack which was at the time labeled a "massacre of innocent Indians '' by the Indian Bureau.
By the time of the Little Bighorn, half of the 7th Cavalry 's companies had just returned from 18 months of constabulary duty in the Deep South, having been recalled to Fort Abraham Lincoln to reassemble the regiment for the campaign. About 20 percent of the troopers had been enlisted in the prior seven months (139 of an enlisted roll of 718), were only marginally trained, and had no combat or frontier experience. A sizable number of these recruits were immigrants from Ireland, England and Germany, just as many of the veteran troopers had been before their enlistments. Archaeological evidence suggests that many of these troopers were malnourished and in poor physical condition, despite being the best - equipped and supplied regiment in the Army.
Of the 45 officers and 718 troopers then assigned to the 7th Cavalry (including a second lieutenant detached from the 20th Infantry and serving in Company L), 14 officers (including the regimental commander, Col. Samuel D. Sturgis) and 152 troopers did not accompany the 7th during the campaign. The ratio of troops detached for other duty (approximately 22 percent) was not unusual for an expedition of this size, and part of the officer shortage was chronic, due to the Army 's rigid seniority system: three of the regiment 's 12 captains were permanently detached, and two had never served a day with the 7th since their appointment in July 1866. Three second lieutenant vacancies (in E, H, and L Companies) were also unfilled.
The Army 's coordination and planning began to go awry on June 17, 1876, when Crook 's column retreated after the Battle of the Rosebud, just 30 miles to the southeast of the eventual Little Bighorn battlefield. Surprised and according to some accounts astonished by the unusually large numbers of Native Americans, Crook held the field at the end of the battle but felt compelled by his losses to pull back, regroup, and wait for reinforcements. Unaware of Crook 's battle, Gibbon and Terry proceeded, joining forces in early June near the mouth of Rosebud Creek. They reviewed Terry 's plan calling for Custer 's regiment to proceed south along the Rosebud while Terry and Gibbon 's united forces would move in a westerly direction toward the Bighorn and Little Bighorn rivers. As this was the likely location of native encampments, all army elements had been instructed to converge there around June 26 or 27 in an attempt to engulf the Native Americans. On June 22, Terry ordered the 7th Cavalry, composed of 31 officers and 566 enlisted men under Custer, to begin a reconnaissance in force and pursuit along the Rosebud, with the prerogative to "depart '' from orders if Custer saw "sufficient reason ''. Custer had been offered the use of Gatling guns but declined, believing they would slow his command.
While the Terry -- Gibbon column was marching toward the mouth of the Little Bighorn, on the evening of June 24, Custer 's Indian scouts arrived at an overlook known as the Crow 's Nest, 14 miles (23 km) east of the Little Bighorn River. At sunrise on June 25, Custer 's scouts reported they could see a massive pony herd and signs of the Native American village roughly 15 miles (24 km) in the distance. After a night 's march, the tired officer who was sent with the scouts could see neither, and when Custer joined them, he was also unable to make the sighting. Custer 's scouts also spotted the regimental cooking fires that could be seen from 10 miles (16 km) away, disclosing the regiment 's position.
Custer contemplated a surprise attack against the encampment the following morning of June 26, but he then received a report informing him several hostiles had discovered the trail left by his troops. Assuming his presence had been exposed, Custer decided to attack the village without further delay. On the morning of June 25, Custer divided his 12 companies into three battalions in anticipation of the forthcoming engagement. Three companies were placed under the command of Major Marcus Reno (A, G, and M) and three were placed under the command of Captain Frederick Benteen (H, D, and K). Five companies (C, E, F, I, and L) remained under Custer 's immediate command. The 12th, Company B under Captain Thomas McDougall, had been assigned to escort the slower pack train carrying provisions and additional ammunition.
Unknown to Custer, the group of Native Americans seen on his trail was actually leaving the encampment and did not alert the rest of the village. Custer 's scouts warned him about the size of the village, with Mitch Bouyer reportedly saying, "General, I have been with these Indians for 30 years, and this is the largest village I have ever heard of. '' Custer 's overriding concern was that the Native American group would break up and scatter. The command began its approach to the village at noon and prepared to attack in full daylight.
As the Army moved into the field on its expedition, it was operating with incorrect assumptions as to the number of Indians it would encounter. These assumptions were based on inaccurate information provided by the Indian Agents that no more than 800 hostiles were in the area. The Indian Agents based this estimate on the number of Lakota that Sitting Bull and other leaders had reportedly led off the reservation in protest of U.S. government policies. It was in fact a correct estimate until several weeks before the battle, when the "reservation Indians '' joined Sitting Bull 's ranks for the summer buffalo hunt. The agents did not take into account the many thousands of these "reservation Indians '' who had unofficially left the reservation to join their "uncooperative non-reservation cousins led by Sitting Bull ''. Thus, Custer unknowingly faced thousands of Indians, including the 800 non-reservation "hostiles ''. All Army plans were based on the incorrect numbers. Although Custer was severely criticized after the battle for not having accepted reinforcements and for dividing his forces, it must be understood that he had accepted the same official government estimates of hostiles in the area which Terry and Gibbon had also accepted. Historian James Donovan states that when Custer asked interpreter Fred Gerard for his opinion on the size of the opposition, he estimated the force at between 1,500 to 2,500 warriors.
Additionally, Custer was more concerned with preventing the escape of the Lakota and Cheyenne than with fighting them. From his own observation, as reported by his bugler John Martin (Martini), Custer assumed the warriors had been sleeping in on the morning of the battle, to which virtually every native account attested later, giving Custer a false estimate of what he was up against. When he and his scouts first looked down on the village from the Crow 's Nest across the Little Bighorn River, they could only see the herd of ponies. Looking from a hill 2.5 miles (4.0 km) away after parting with Reno 's command, Custer could observe only women preparing for the day, and young boys taking thousands of horses out to graze south of the village. Custer 's Crow scouts told him it was the largest native village they had ever seen. When the scouts began changing back into their native dress right before the battle, Custer released them from his command. While the village was enormous in size, Custer thought there were far fewer warriors to defend the village. He assumed most of the warriors were still asleep in their tipis.
Finally, Custer may have assumed that in the event of his encountering Native Americans, his subordinate Benteen with the pack train would quickly come to his aid. Rifle volleys were a standard way of telling supporting units to come to another unit 's aid. In a subsequent official 1879 Army investigation requested by Major Reno, the Reno Board of Inquiry (RCOI), Benteen and Reno 's men testified that they heard distinct rifle volleys as late as 4: 30 pm during the battle.
Custer had initially wanted to take a day and scout the village before attacking; however, when men went back after supplies dropped by the pack train, they discovered they were being back - trailed by Indians. Reports from his scouts also revealed fresh pony tracks from ridges overlooking his formation. It became apparent that the warriors in the village were either aware of or would soon be aware of his approach. Fearing that the village would break up into small bands that he would have to chase, Custer began to prepare for an immediate attack.
Custer 's field strategy was designed to engage noncombatants at the encampments on the Little Bighorn so as to capture women, children, and the elderly or disabled to serve as hostages to convince the warriors to surrender and comply with federal orders to relocate. Custer 's battalions were poised to "ride into the camp and secure noncombatant hostages '' and "forc (e) the warriors to surrender ''. Author Evan S. Connell observed that if Custer could occupy the village before widespread resistance developed, the Sioux and Cheyenne warriors "would be obliged to surrender, because if they started to fight, they would be shooting their own families. ''
In Custer 's book My Life on the Plains, published just two years before the Battle of the Little Bighorn, he asserted:
Indians contemplating a battle, either offensive or defensive, are always anxious to have their women and children removed from all danger... For this reason I decided to locate our (military) camp as close as convenient to (Chief Black Kettle 's Cheyenne) village, knowing that the close proximity of their women and children, and their necessary exposure in case of conflict, would operate as a powerful argument in favor of peace, when the question of peace or war came to be discussed.
On Custer 's decision to advance up the bluffs and descend on the village from the east, Lt. Edward Godfrey of Company K surmised:
(Custer) expected to find the squaws and children fleeing to the bluffs on the north, for in no other way do I account for his wide detour. He must have counted upon Reno 's success, and fully expected the "scatteration '' of the non-combatants with the pony herds. The probable attack upon the families and capture of the herds were in that event counted upon to strike consternation in the hearts of the warriors, and were elements for success upon which General Custer fully counted.
The Sioux and Cheyenne fighters were acutely aware of the danger posed by the military engagement of noncombatants and that "even a semblance of an attack on the women and children '' would draw the warriors back to the village, according to historian John S. Gray. Such was their concern that a "feint '' by Capt. Yates ' E and F Companies at the mouth of Medicine Tail Coulee (Minneconjou Ford) caused hundreds of warriors to disengage from the Reno valley fight and return to deal with the threat to the village.
Some authors and historians, based on archaeological evidence and reviews of native testimony, speculate that Custer attempted to cross the river at a point they refer to as Ford D. According to Richard A. Fox, James Donovan, and others, Custer proceeded with a wing of his battalion (Yates ' Troops E and F) north and opposite the Cheyenne circle at that crossing, which provided "access to the (women and children) fugitives. '' Yates 's force "posed an immediate threat to fugitive Indian families... '' gathering at the north end of the huge encampment; he then persisted in his efforts to "seize women and children '' even as hundreds of warriors were massing around Keogh 's wing on the bluffs. Yates ' wing, descending to the Little Bighorn River at Ford D, encountered "light resistance '', undetected by the Indian forces ascending the bluffs east of the village. Custer was almost within "striking distance of the refugees '' before being repulsed by Indian defenders and forced back to Custer Ridge.
The Lone Teepee (or Tipi) was a landmark along the 7th Cavalry 's march. It was where the Indian encampment had been a week earlier, during the Battle of the Rosebud on June 17. The Indians had left a single teepee standing (some reports mention a second that had been partially dismantled), and in it was the body of a Sans Arc warrior, Old She - Bear, who had been wounded in the battle. He had died a couple of days after the Rosebud battle, and it was the custom of the Indians to move camp when a warrior died and leave the body with its possessions. The Lone Teepee was an important location during the Battle of the Little Bighorn for several reasons, including:
The first group to attack was Major Reno 's second detachment (Companies A, G and M) after receiving orders from Custer written out by Lt. William W. Cooke, as Custer 's Crow scouts reported Sioux tribe members were alerting the village. Ordered to charge, Reno began that phase of the battle. The orders, made without accurate knowledge of the village 's size, location, or the warriors ' propensity to stand and fight, had been to pursue the Native Americans and "bring them to battle. '' Reno 's force crossed the Little Bighorn at the mouth of what is today Reno Creek around 3: 00 pm on June 25. They immediately realized that the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne were present "in force and not running away. ''
Reno advanced rapidly across the open field towards the northwest, his movements masked by the thick bramble of trees that ran along the southern banks of the Little Bighorn River. The same trees on his front right shielded his movements across the wide field over which his men rapidly rode, first with two approximately forty - man companies abreast and eventually with all three charging abreast. The trees also obscured Reno 's view of the Native American village until his force had passed that bend on his right front and was suddenly within arrow - shot of the village. The tepees in that area were occupied by the Hunkpapa Sioux. Neither Custer nor Reno had much idea of the length, depth and size of the encampment they were attacking, as the village was hidden by the trees. When Reno came into the open in front of the south end of the village, he sent his Arikara / Ree and Crow Indian scouts forward on his exposed left flank. Realizing the full extent of the village 's width, Reno quickly suspected what he would later call "a trap '' and stopped a few hundred yards short of the encampment.
He ordered his troopers to dismount and deploy in a skirmish line, according to standard army doctrine. In this formation, every fourth trooper held the horses for the troopers in firing position, with five to ten yards separating each trooper, officers to their rear and troopers with horses behind the officers. This formation reduced Reno 's firepower by 25 percent. As Reno 's men fired into the village and killed, by some accounts, several wives and children of the Sioux leader, Chief Gall (in Lakota, Phizí), mounted warriors began streaming out to meet the attack. With Reno 's men anchored on their right by the impassable tree line and bend in the river, the Indians rode hard against the exposed left end of Reno 's line. After about 20 minutes of long - distance firing, Reno had taken only one casualty, but the odds against him had risen (Reno estimated five to one) and Custer had not reinforced him. Trooper Billy Jackson reported that by then, the Indians had begun massing in the open area shielded by a small hill to the left of Reno 's line and to the right of the Indian village. From this position the Indians mounted an attack of more than 500 warriors against the left and rear of Reno 's line, turning Reno 's exposed left flank. They forced a hasty withdrawal into the timber along the bend in the river. Here the Indians pinned Reno and his men down and set fire to the brush to try to drive the soldiers out of their position.
After giving orders to mount, dismount and mount again, Reno told his men, "All those who wish to make their escape follow me, '' and led a disorderly rout across the river toward the bluffs on the other side. The retreat was immediately disrupted by Cheyenne attacks at close quarters. Later Reno reported that three officers and 29 troopers had been killed during the retreat and subsequent fording of the river. Another officer and 13 -- 18 men were missing. Most of these missing men were left behind in the timber, although many eventually rejoined the detachment. Reno 's hasty retreat may have been precipitated by the death of Reno 's Arikara scout Bloody Knife, who had been shot in the head as he sat on his horse next to Reno, his blood and brains splattering the side of Reno 's face.
Atop the bluffs, known today as Reno Hill, Reno 's shaken troops were joined by Captain Benteen 's column (Companies D, H and K), arriving from the south. This force had been on a lateral scouting mission when it had been summoned by Custer 's messenger, Italian bugler John Martin (Giovanni Martini) with the handwritten message "Benteen. Come on, Big Village, Be quick, Bring packs. P.S. Bring Packs. ''. Benteen 's coincidental arrival on the bluffs was just in time to save Reno 's men from possible annihilation. Their detachments were reinforced by McDougall 's Company B and the pack train. The 14 officers and 340 troopers on the bluffs organized an all - around defense and dug rifle pits using whatever implements they had among them, including knives. This practice had become standard during the last year of the American Civil War, with both Union and Confederate troops utilizing knives, eating utensils, mess plates and pans to dig effective battlefield fortifications.
Despite hearing heavy gunfire from the north, including distinct volleys at 4: 20 pm, Benteen concentrated on reinforcing Reno 's badly wounded and hard - pressed detachment rather than continuing on toward Custer 's position. Benteen 's apparent reluctance to reach Custer prompted later criticism that he had failed to follow orders. Around 5: 00 pm, Capt. Thomas Weir and Company D moved out to make contact with Custer. They advanced a mile, to what is today Weir Ridge or Weir Point, and could see in the distance native warriors on horseback shooting at objects on the ground. By this time, roughly 5: 25 pm, Custer 's battle may have concluded. The conventional historical understanding is that what Weir witnessed was most likely warriors killing the wounded soldiers and shooting at dead bodies on the "Last Stand Hill '' at the northern end of the Custer battlefield. Some contemporary historians have suggested that what Weir witnessed was a fight on what is now called Calhoun Hill. The destruction of Keogh 's battalion may have begun with the collapse of L, I and C Company (half of it) following the combined assaults led by Crazy Horse, White Bull, Hump, Chief Gall and others. Other native accounts contradict this understanding, however, and the time element remains a subject of debate. The other entrenched companies eventually followed Weir by assigned battalions, first Benteen, then Reno, and finally the pack train. Growing native attacks around Weir Ridge forced all seven companies to return to the bluff before the pack train, with the ammunition, had moved even a quarter mile. The companies remained pinned down on the bluff for another day, but the natives were unable to breach the tightly held position.
Benteen displayed calmness and courage by exposing himself to Indian fire and was hit in the heel of his boot by an Indian bullet. At one point, he personally led a counterattack to push back Indians who had continued to crawl through the grass closer to the soldier 's positions.
The precise details of Custer 's fight are largely conjectural since none of his men (the five companies under his immediate command) survived the battle. Later accounts from surviving Indians are conflicting and unclear.
While the gunfire heard on the bluffs by Reno and Benteen 's men was probably from Custer 's fight, the soldiers on Reno Hill were unaware of what had happened to Custer until General Terry 's arrival on June 27. They were reportedly stunned by the news. When the army examined the Custer battle site, soldiers could not determine fully what had transpired. Custer 's force of roughly 210 men had been engaged by the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne about 3.5 miles (5.6 km) to the north of Reno and Benteen 's defensive position. Evidence of organized resistance included apparent breastworks made of dead horses on Custer Hill. By the time troops came to recover the bodies, the Lakota and Cheyenne had already removed most of their dead from the field. The troops found most of Custer 's dead stripped of their clothing, ritually mutilated, and in an advanced state of decomposition, making identification of many impossible. The soldiers identified the 7th Cavalry 's dead as best as possible and hastily buried them where they fell.
Custer was found with shots to the left chest and left temple. Either wound would have been fatal, though he appeared to have bled from only the chest wound, meaning his head wound may have been delivered postmortem. He also suffered a wound to the arm. Some Lakota oral histories assert that Custer committed suicide to avoid capture and subsequent torture, though this is usually discounted since the wounds were inconsistent with his known right - handedness. (Other native accounts note several soldiers committing suicide near the end of the battle.) Custer 's body was found near the top of Custer Hill, which also came to be known as "Last Stand Hill ''. There the United States erected a tall memorial obelisk inscribed with the names of the 7th Cavalry 's casualties.
Several days after the battle, Curley, Custer 's Crow scout who had left Custer near Medicine Tail Coulee, recounted the battle, reporting that Custer had attacked the village after attempting to cross the river. He was driven back, retreating toward the hill where his body was found. As the scenario seemed compatible with Custer 's aggressive style of warfare and with evidence found on the ground, it became the basis of many popular accounts of the battle.
According to Pretty Shield, the wife of Goes - Ahead (another Crow scout for the 7th Cavalry), Custer was killed while crossing the river: "... and he died there, died in the water of the Little Bighorn, with Two - bodies, and the blue soldier carrying his flag ''. In this account, Custer was allegedly killed by a Lakota called Big - nose. However, in Chief Gall 's version of events, as recounted to Lt. Edward Settle Godfrey, Custer did not attempt to ford the river and the nearest that he came to the river or village was his final position on the ridge. Chief Gall 's statements were corroborated by other Indians, notably the wife of Spotted Horn Bull. Given that no bodies of men or horses were found anywhere near the ford, Godfrey himself concluded "that Custer did not go to the ford with any body of men ''.
Cheyenne oral tradition credits Buffalo Calf Road Woman with striking the blow that knocked Custer off his horse before he died.
Having isolated Reno 's force and driven them away from the encampment, the bulk of the native warriors were free to pursue Custer. The route taken by Custer to his "Last Stand '' remains a subject of debate. One possibility is that after ordering Reno to charge, Custer continued down Reno Creek to within about a half mile (800 m) of the Little Bighorn, but then turned north and climbed up the bluffs, reaching the same spot to which Reno would soon retreat. From this point on the other side of the river, he could see Reno charging the village. Riding north along the bluffs, Custer could have descended into a drainage called Medicine Tail Coulee, which led to the river. Some historians believe that part of Custer 's force descended the coulee, going west to the river and attempting unsuccessfully to cross into the village. According to some accounts, a small contingent of Indian sharpshooters opposed this crossing.
White Cow Bull claimed to have shot a leader wearing a buckskin jacket off his horse in the river. While no other Indian account supports this claim, if White Bull did shoot a buckskin - clad leader off his horse, some historians have argued that Custer may have been seriously wounded by him. Some Indian accounts claim that besides wounding one of the leaders of this advance, a soldier carrying a company guidon was also hit. Troopers had to dismount to help the wounded men back onto their horses. The fact that either of the non-mutilation wounds to Custer 's body (a bullet wound below the heart and a shot to the left temple) would have been instantly fatal casts doubt on his being wounded and remounted.
Reports of an attempted fording of the river at Medicine Tail Coulee might explain Custer 's purpose for Reno 's attack, that is, a coordinated "hammer - and - anvil '' maneuver, with Reno 's holding the Indians at bay at the southern end of the camp, while Custer drove them against Reno 's line from the north. Other historians have noted that if Custer did attempt to cross the river near Medicine Tail Coulee, he may have believed it was the north end of the Indian camp, although it was only the middle. Some Indian accounts, however, place the Northern Cheyenne encampment and the north end of the overall village to the left (and south) of the opposite side of the crossing. The precise location of the north end of the village remains in dispute, however.
Edward Curtis, the famed ethnologist and photographer of the Native American Indians, made a detailed personal study of the battle, interviewing many of those who had fought or taken part in it. First he went over the ground covered by the troops with the three Crow scouts White Man Runs Him, Goes Ahead, and Hairy Moccasin, and then again with Two Moons and a party of Cheyenne warriors. He also visited the Lakota country and interviewed Red Hawk, "whose recollection of the fight seemed to be particularly clear ''. Then, he went over the battlefield once more with the three Crow scouts, but also accompanied by General Charles Woodruff "as I particularly desired that the testimony of these men might be considered by an experienced army officer ''. Finally, Curtis visited the country of the Arikara and interviewed the scouts of that tribe who had been with Custer 's command. Based on all the information he gathered, Curtis concluded that Custer had indeed ridden down the Medicine Tail Coulee and then towards the river where he probably planned to ford it. However, "the Indians had now discovered him and were gathered closely on the opposite side ''. They were soon joined by a large force of Sioux who (no longer engaging Reno) rushed down the valley. This was the beginning of their attack on Custer who was forced to turn and head for the hill where he would make his famous "last stand ''. Thus, wrote Curtis, "Custer made no attack, the whole movement being a retreat ''.
Other historians claim that Custer never approached the river, but rather continued north across the coulee and up the other side, where he gradually came under attack. According to this theory, by the time Custer realized he was badly outnumbered, it was too late to break back to the south where Reno and Benteen could have provided assistance. Two men from the 7th Cavalry, the young Crow scout Ashishishe (known in English as Curley) and the trooper Peter Thompson, claimed to have seen Custer engage the Indians. The accuracy of their recollections remains controversial; accounts by battle participants and assessments by historians almost universally discredit Thompson 's claim.
Archaeological evidence and reassessment of Indian testimony has led to a new interpretation of the battle. In the 1920s, battlefield investigators discovered hundreds of. 45 -- 55 shell cases along the ridge line known today as Nye - Cartwright Ridge, between South Medicine Tail Coulee and the next drainage at North Medicine Tail (also known as Deep Coulee). Some historians believe Custer divided his detachment into two (and possibly three) battalions, retaining personal command of one while presumably delegating Captain George W. Yates to command the second.
Evidence from the 1920s supports the theory that at least one of the companies made a feint attack southeast from Nye - Cartwright Ridge straight down the center of the "V '' formed by the intersection at the crossing of Medicine Tail Coulee on the right and Calhoun Coulee on the left. The intent may have been to relieve pressure on Reno 's detachment (according to the Crow scout Curley, possibly viewed by both Mitch Bouyer and Custer) by withdrawing the skirmish line into the timber on the edge of the Little Bighorn River. Had the U.S. troops come straight down Medicine Tail Coulee, their approach to the Minneconjou Crossing and the northern area of the village would have been masked by the high ridges running on the northwest side of the Little Bighorn River.
That they might have come southeast, from the center of Nye - Cartwright Ridge, seems to be supported by Northern Cheyenne accounts of seeing the approach of the distinctly white - colored horses of Company E, known as the Grey Horse Company. Its approach was seen by Indians at that end of the village. Behind them, a second company, further up on the heights, would have provided long - range cover fire. Warriors could have been drawn to the feint attack, forcing the battalion back towards the heights, up the north fork drainage, away from the troops providing cover fire above. The covering company would have moved towards a reunion, delivering heavy volley fire and leaving the trail of expended cartridges discovered 50 years later.
In the end, the hilltop to which Custer had moved was probably too small to accommodate all of the survivors and wounded. Fire from the southeast made it impossible for Custer 's men to secure a defensive position all around Last Stand Hill where the soldiers put up their most dogged defense. According to Lakota accounts, far more of their casualties occurred in the attack on Last Stand Hill than anywhere else. The extent of the soldiers ' resistance indicated they had few doubts about their prospects for survival. According to Cheyenne and Sioux testimony, the command structure rapidly broke down, although smaller "last stands '' were apparently made by several groups. Custer 's remaining companies (E, F, and half of C) were soon killed.
By almost all accounts, the Lakota annihilated Custer 's force within an hour of engagement. David Humphreys Miller, who between 1935 and 1955 interviewed the last Lakota survivors of the battle, wrote that the Custer fight lasted less than one - half hour. Other native accounts said the fighting lasted only "as long as it takes a hungry man to eat a meal. '' The Lakota asserted that Crazy Horse personally led one of the large groups of warriors who overwhelmed the cavalrymen in a surprise charge from the northeast, causing a breakdown in the command structure and panic among the troops. Many of these men threw down their weapons while Cheyenne and Sioux warriors rode them down, "counting coup '' with lances, coup sticks, and quirts. Some Native accounts recalled this segment of the fight as a "buffalo run. ''
Captain Frederick Benteen, battalion leader of Companies D, H and K, recalled his observations on the Custer battlefield on June 27, 1876:
I went over the battlefield carefully with a view to determine how the battle was fought. I arrived at the conclusion I (hold) now -- that it was a rout, a panic, until the last man was killed...
There was no line formed on the battlefield. You can take a handful of corn and scatter (the kernels) over the floor, and make just such lines. There were none... The only approach to a line was where 5 or 6 (dead) horses found at equal distances, like skirmishers (part of Lt. Calhoun 's Company L). That was the only approach to a line on the field. There were more than 20 (troopers) killed (in one group); there were (more often) four or five at one place, all within a space of 20 to 30 yards (of each other)... I counted 70 dead (cavalry) horses and 2 Indian ponies.
I think, in all probability, that the men turned their horses loose without any orders to do so. Many orders might have been given, but few obeyed. I think that they were panic stricken; it was a rout, as I said before.
A Brulé Sioux warrior stated: "In fact, Hollow Horn Bear believed that the troops were in good order at the start of the fight, and kept their organization even while moving from point to point. '' Red Horse, an Oglala Sioux warrior, commented: "Here (Last Stand Hill) the soldiers made a desperate fight. '' One Hunkpapa Sioux warrior, Moving Robe, noted that "It was a hotly contested battle '', while another, Iron Hawk, stated: "The Indians pressed and crowded right in around Custer Hill. But the soldiers were n't ready to die. We stood there a long time. '' In a letter from February 21, 1910, Private William Taylor, Company M, 7th Cavalry, wrote: "Reno proved incompetent and Benteen showed his indifference -- I will not use the uglier words that have often been in my mind. Both failed Custer and he had to fight it out alone. ''
Recent archaeological work at the battlefield indicates that officers on Custer Hill restored some tactical control. E Company rushed off Custer Hill toward the Little Bighorn River but failed, which resulted in total destruction, leaving behind some 50 to 60 men. The remainder of the battle took on the nature of a running fight. Modern archaeology and historical Indian accounts indicate that Custer 's force may have been divided into three groups, with the Indians ' attempting to prevent them from effectively reuniting. Indian accounts describe warriors (including women) running up from the village to wave blankets in order to scare off the soldiers ' horses. One 7th Cavalry trooper claimed finding a number of stone mallets consisting of a round cobble weighing 8 -- 10 pounds (about 4 kg) with a rawhide handle, which he believed had been used by the Indian women to finish off the wounded. Fighting dismounted, the soldiers ' skirmish lines were overwhelmed. Army doctrine would have called for one man in four to be a horseholder behind the skirmish lines and, in extreme cases, one man in eight. Later, the troops would have bunched together in defensive positions and are alleged to have shot their remaining horses as cover. As individual troopers were wounded or killed, initial defensive positions would have been abandoned as untenable.
Under threat of attack, the first U.S. soldiers on the battlefield three days later hurriedly buried the troopers in shallow graves, more or less where they had fallen. A couple of years after the battle, markers were placed where men were believed to have fallen, so the placement of troops has been roughly construed. The troops evidently died in several groups, including on Custer Hill, around Captain Myles Keogh, and strung out towards the Little Bighorn River.
Modern documentaries suggest that there may not have been a "Last Stand '' as traditionally portrayed in popular culture. Instead, archaeologists suggest that, in the end, Custer 's troops were not surrounded but rather overwhelmed by a single charge. This scenario corresponds to several Indian accounts stating Crazy Horse 's charge swarmed the resistance, with the surviving soldiers fleeing in panic. Many of these troopers may have ended up in a deep ravine 300 -- 400 yards away from what is known today as Custer Hill. At least 28 bodies (the most common number associated with burial witness testimony), including that of scout Mitch Bouyer, were discovered in or near that gulch, their deaths possibly the battle 's final actions. Although the marker for Mitch Bouyer has been accounted for as being accurate through archaeological and forensic testing, it is some 65 yards away from Deep Ravine. Other archaeological explorations done in Deep Ravine have found no human remains associated with the battle. According to Indian accounts, about 40 men made a desperate stand around Custer on Custer Hill, delivering volley fire. The great majority of the Indian casualties were probably suffered during this closing segment of the battle, as the soldiers and Indians on Calhoun Ridge were more widely separated and traded fire at greater distances for most of their portion of the battle than did the soldiers and Indians on Custer Hill.
After the Custer force was annihilated, the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne regrouped to attack Reno and Benteen. The fight continued until dark (approximately 9: 00 pm) and for much of the next day, with the outcome in doubt. Reno credited Benteen 's leadership with repulsing a severe attack on the portion of the perimeter held by Companies H and M. On June 27, the column under General Terry approached from the north, and the Indians drew off in the opposite direction. The Crow scout White Man Runs Him was the first to tell General Terry 's officers that Custer 's force had "been wiped out. '' Reno and Benteen 's wounded troops were given what treatment was available at that time; five later died of their wounds. One of the regiment 's three surgeons had been with Custer 's column, while another, Dr. DeWolf, had been killed during Reno 's retreat. The only remaining doctor was Assistant Surgeon Henry R. Porter.
News of the defeat arrived in the East as the U.S. was observing its centennial. The Army began to investigate, although its effectiveness was hampered by a concern for survivors, and the reputation of the officers.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn had far - reaching consequences for the Indians. It was the beginning of the end of the Indian Wars and has even been referred to as "the Indians ' last stand '' in the area. Within 48 hours of the battle, the large encampment on the Little Bighorn broke up into smaller groups because there was not enough game and grass to sustain a large congregation of people and horses.
Oglala Sioux Black Elk recounted the exodus this way: "We fled all night, following the Greasy Grass. My two younger brothers and I rode in a pony - drag, and my mother put some young pups in with us. They were always trying to crawl out and I was always putting them back in, so I did n't sleep much. ''
The scattered Sioux and Cheyenne feasted and celebrated during July with no threat from soldiers. After their celebrations, many of the Indians slipped back to the reservation. Soon the number of warriors who still remained at large and hostile amounted to only about 600. Both Crook and Terry remained immobile for seven weeks after the battle, awaiting reinforcements and unwilling to venture out against the Indians until they had at least 2,000 men. Crook and Terry finally took the field against the Indians in August. General Nelson A. Miles took command of the effort in October 1876. In May 1877, Sitting Bull escaped to Canada. Within days, Crazy Horse surrendered at Fort Robinson, Nebraska. The Great Sioux War ended on May 7 with Miles ' defeat of a remaining band of Miniconjou Sioux.
Ownership of the Black Hills, which had been a focal point of the 1876 conflict, was determined by an ultimatum issued by the Manypenny Commission, according to which the Sioux were required to cede the land to the United States if they wanted the government to continue supplying rations to the reservations. Threatened with starvation, the Indians ceded Paha Sapa to the United States, but the Sioux never accepted the legitimacy of the transaction. They lobbied Congress to create a forum to decide their claim and subsequently litigated for 40 years; the United States Supreme Court in the 1980 decision United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians acknowledged that the United States had taken the Black Hills without just compensation. The Sioux refused the money subsequently offered and continue to insist on their right to occupy the land.
Modern - day accounts include Arapaho warriors in the battle, but the five Arapaho men who were at the encampments were there only by accident. While on a hunting trip they came close to the village by the river and were captured and almost killed by the Lakota who believed the hunters were scouts for the U.S. Army. Two Moon, a Northern Cheyenne leader, interceded to save their lives.
The 7th Cavalry was accompanied by a number of scouts and interpreters:
Native Americans
Native Americans
United States Army, Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer, 7th United States Cavalry Regiment, Commanding.
Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer †, commanding.
Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer †
Major Marcus Reno
Captain Frederick Benteen
First Lieutenant Edward Gustave Mathey
Second Lieutenant Charles Varnum (wounded), Chief of Scouts
Estimates of Native American casualties have differed widely, from as few as 36 dead (from Native American listings of the dead by name) to as many as 300. Lakota chief Red Horse told Col. W.H. Wood in 1877 that the Native Americans suffered 136 dead and 160 wounded during the battle. In 1881, Red Horse told Dr. C.E. McChesney the same numbers but in a series of drawings done by Red Horse to illustrate the battle, he drew only sixty figures representing Lakota and Cheyenne casualties. Of those sixty figures only thirty some are portrayed with a conventional Plains Indian method of indicating death. In the last 140 years, historians have been able to identify multiple Indian names pertaining to the same individual, which has greatly reduced previously inflated numbers. Today a list of positively known casualties exists that lists 99 names, attributed and consolidated to 31 identified warriors.
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties at Battle of Little Bighorn (Plate XLV)
Six unnamed Native American women and four unnamed children are known to have been killed at the beginning of the battle during Reno 's charge. Among them were two wives and three children of the Hunkpapa Leader Pizi (Gall).
The 7th Cavalry suffered 52 percent casualties: 16 officers and 242 troopers killed or died of wounds, 1 officer and 51 troopers wounded. Every soldier of the five companies with Custer was killed (except for some Crow scouts and several troopers that had left that column before the battle or as the battle was starting). Among the dead were Custer 's brothers Boston and Thomas, his brother - in - law James Calhoun, and his nephew Henry Reed.
In 1878, the army awarded 24 Medals of Honor to participants in the fight on the bluffs for bravery, most for risking their lives to carry water from the river up the hill to the wounded. Few on the non-Indian side questioned the conduct of the enlisted men, but many questioned the tactics, strategy and conduct of the officers. Indian accounts spoke of soldiers ' panic - driven flight and suicide by those unwilling to fall captive to the Indians. While such stories were gathered by Thomas Bailey Marquis in a book in the 1930s, it was not published until 1976 because of the unpopularity of such assertions. Although soldiers may have believed captives would be tortured, Indians usually killed men outright and took as captive for adoption only young women and children. Indian accounts also noted the bravery of soldiers who fought to the death.
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen+ 2 Indian Government scouts (?)
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen & dead cavalry horses
Beginning in July, the 7th Cavalry was assigned new officers and recruiting efforts began to fill the depleted ranks. The regiment, reorganized into eight companies, remained in the field as part of the Terry Expedition, now based on the Yellowstone River at the mouth of the Bighorn and reinforced by Gibbon 's column. On August 8, 1876, after Terry was further reinforced with the 5th Infantry, the expedition moved up Rosebud Creek in pursuit of the Lakota. It met with Crook 's command, similarly reinforced, and the combined force, almost 4,000 strong, followed the Lakota trail northeast toward the Little Missouri River. Persistent rain and lack of supplies forced the column to dissolve and return to its varying starting points. The 7th Cavalry returned to Fort Abraham Lincoln to reconstitute.
The U.S. Congress authorized appropriations to expand the Army by 2,500 men to meet the emergency after the defeat of the 7th Cavalry. For a session, the Democratic Party - controlled House of Representatives abandoned its campaign to reduce the size of the Army. Word of Custer 's fate reached the 44th United States Congress as a conference committee was attempting to reconcile opposing appropriations bills approved by the House and the Republican Senate. They approved a measure to increase the size of cavalry companies to 100 enlisted men on July 24. The committee temporarily lifted the ceiling on the size of the Army by 2,500 on August 15.
As a result of the defeat in June 1876, Congress responded by attaching what the Sioux call the "sell or starve '' rider (19 Stat. 192) to the Indian Appropriations Act of 1876 (enacted August 15, 1876), which cut off all rations for the Sioux until they terminated hostilities and ceded the Black Hills to the United States. The Agreement of 1877 (19 Stat. 254, enacted February 28, 1877) officially took away Sioux land and permanently established Indian reservations.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn was the subject of an 1879 U.S. Army Court of Inquiry in Chicago, held at Reno 's request, during which his conduct was scrutinized. Some testimony by non-Army officers suggested that he was drunk and a coward. The court found Reno 's conduct to be without fault. After the battle, Thomas Rosser, James O'Kelly, and others continued to question the conduct of Reno due to his hastily ordered retreat. Defenders of Reno at the trial noted that, while the retreat was disorganized, Reno did not withdraw from his position until it became apparent that he was outnumbered and outflanked by the Indians. Contemporary accounts also point to the fact that Reno 's scout, Bloody Knife, was shot in the head, spraying him with blood, possibly increasing his own panic and distress.
General Terry and others claimed that Custer made strategic errors from the start of the campaign. For instance, he refused to use a battery of Gatling guns, and turned down General Terry 's offer of an additional battalion of the 2nd Cavalry. Custer believed that the Gatling guns would impede his march up the Rosebud and hamper his mobility. His rapid march en route to the Little Bighorn averaged nearly 30 miles (48 km) a day, so his assessment appears to have been accurate. Custer planned "to live and travel like Indians; in this manner the command will be able to go wherever the Indians can '', he wrote in his Herald dispatch.
By contrast, each Gatling gun had to be hauled by four horses, and soldiers often had to drag the heavy guns by hand over obstacles. Each of the heavy, hand - cranked weapons could fire up to 350 rounds a minute, an impressive rate, but they were known to jam frequently. During the Black Hills Expedition two years earlier, a Gatling gun had turned over, rolled down a mountain, and shattered to pieces. Lieutenant William Low, commander of the artillery detachment, was said to have almost wept when he learned he had been excluded from the strike force.
Custer believed that the 7th Cavalry could handle any Indian force and that the addition of the four companies of the 2nd would not alter the outcome. When offered the 2nd Cavalry, he reportedly replied that the 7th "could handle anything. '' There is evidence that Custer suspected that he would be outnumbered by the Indians, although he did not know by how many. By dividing his forces, Custer could have caused the defeat of the entire column, had it not been for Benteen 's and Reno 's linking up to make a desperate yet successful stand on the bluff above the southern end of the camp.
The historian James Donovan believed that Custer 's dividing his force into four smaller detachments (including the pack train) can be attributed to his inadequate reconnaissance; he also ignored the warnings of his Crow scouts and Charley Reynolds. By the time the battle began, Custer had already divided his forces into three battalions of differing sizes, of which he kept the largest. His men were widely scattered and unable to support each other. Wanting to prevent any escape by the combined tribes to the south, where they could disperse into different groups, Custer believed that an immediate attack on the south end of the camp was the best course of action.
Criticism of Custer was not universal. While investigating the battlefield, Lieutenant General Nelson A. Miles wrote in 1877, "The more I study the moves here (on the Little Big Horn), the more I have admiration for Custer. '' Facing major budget cutbacks, the U.S. Army wanted to avoid bad press and found ways to exculpate Custer. They blamed the defeat on the Indians ' alleged possession of numerous repeating rifles and the overwhelming numerical superiority of the warriors.
The widowed Elizabeth Bacon Custer, who never remarried, wrote three popular books in which she fiercely protected her husband 's reputation. She lived until 1933, thus preventing much serious research until most of the evidence was long gone. In addition, Captain Frederick Whittaker 's 1876 book idealizing Custer was hugely successful. Custer as a heroic officer fighting valiantly against savage forces was an image popularized in Wild West extravaganzas hosted by showman "Buffalo Bill '' Cody, Pawnee Bill, and others. It was n't until over half a century later that historians took another look at the battle and Custer 's decisions that led to his death and loss of half his command and found much to criticize.
General Alfred Terry 's Dakota column included a single battery of artillery, comprising two Rodman guns (3 - inch Ordnance rifle) and two Gatling guns. (According to historian Evan S. Connell, the precise number of Gatlings has not been established, ranging from two to three.)
Custer 's decision to reject Terry 's offer of the rapid - fire Gatlings has raised questions among historians as to why he refused them and what advantage their availability might have conferred on his forces at the Battle of the Little Bighorn.
One factor concerned Major Marcus Reno 's recent 8 - day reconnaissance - in - force of the Powder - Tongue - Rosebud Rivers, June 10 to 18. This deployment had demonstrated that artillery pieces mounted on gun carriages and hauled by horses no longer fit for cavalry mounts (so - called condemned horses) were cumbersome over mixed terrain and vulnerable to breakdowns. Custer, valuing the mobility of the 7th Cavalry and recognizing Terry 's acknowledgement of the regiment as "the primary strike force '' preferred to remain unencumbered by the Gatling guns. Custer insisted that the artillery was superfluous to his success, in that the 7th Cavalry alone was sufficient to cope with any force they should encounter, informing Terry: "The 7th can handle anything it meets ''. In addition to these practical concerns, a strained relationship with Major James Brisbin induced Custer 's polite refusal to integrate Brisbin 's Second Cavalry unit -- and the Gatling guns -- into his strike force, as it would disrupt any hierarchical arrangements that Custer presided over.
Historians have acknowledged the firepower inherent in the Gatling gun: they were capable of firing 350. 45 - 70 caliber rounds per minute. Jamming caused by black powder residue could lower that rate, raising questions as to their reliability under combat conditions. Researchers have further questioned the effectiveness of the guns under the tactics that Custer was likely to face with the Lakota and Cheyenne warriors. The Gatlings, mounted high on carriages, required the battery crew to stand upright during its operation, making them easy targets for Lakota and Cheyenne sharpshooters.
Historian Robert M. Utley, in a section entitled "Would Gatling Guns Have Saved Custer? '' presents two judgments from Custer 's contemporaries: General Henry J. Hunt, expert in the tactical use of artillery in Civil War, stated that Gatlings "would probably have saved the command '', whereas General Nelson A. Miles, participant in the Great Sioux War declared "(Gatlings) were useless for Indian fighting. ''
The Lakota and Cheyenne warriors that opposed Custer 's forces possessed a wide array of weaponry, from Stone Age war clubs and lances to the most advanced firearms of the day. The typical firearms carried by the Lakota and Cheyenne combatants were muzzleloaders, more often a cap - lock smoothbore, the so - called Indian trade musket or Leman guns distributed to Indians by the US government at treaty conventions. Less common were surplus. 58 caliber rifled muskets of American Civil War vintage such as the Enfield and Springfield. Metal cartridge weapons were prized by native combatants, such as the Henry and the Spencer lever - action rifles, as well as Sharps breechloaders. Bows and arrows were utilized by younger braves in lieu of the more potent firearms; effective up to 30 yards (27 meters), the arrows could readily maim or disable an opponent.
Sitting Bull 's forces had no assured means to supply themselves with firearms and ammunition. Nonetheless, they could usually procure these through post-traders, licensed or unlicensed, and from gunrunners who operated in the Dakota Territory: "... a horse or a mule for a repeater... buffalo hides for ammunition. '' Custer 's highly regarded guide, "Lonesome '' Charley Reynolds, informed his superior in early 1876 that Sitting Bull 's forces were amassing weapons, including numerous Winchester repeating rifles and abundant ammunition.
Of the guns owned by Lakota and Cheyenne fighters at the Little Bighorn, approximately 200 were repeating rifles corresponding to about 1 of 10 of the encampment 's two thousand able - bodied fighters who participated in the battle
The troops under Custer 's command carried two regulation firearms authorized and issued by the U.S. Army in early 1876: the breech - loading, single - shot Springfield Model 1873 carbine, and the 1873 Colt single - action revolver. The regulation M1860 saber or "long knives '' were not carried by troopers upon Custer 's order.
With the exception of a number of officers and scouts who opted for personally owned and more expensive rifles and handguns, the 7th Cavalry was uniformly armed.
Ammunition allotments provided 100 carbine rounds per trooper, carried on a cartridge belt and in saddlebags on their mounts. An additional 50 carbine rounds per man were reserved on the pack train that accompanied the regiment to the battlefield. Each trooper had 24 rounds for his Colt handgun. The opposing forces, though not equally matched in the number and type of arms, were comparably outfitted, and neither side held a overwhelming advantage in weaponry.
Two hundred or more Lakota and Cheyenne combatants are known to have been armed with Henry, Winchester, or similar lever - action repeating rifles at the battle. Virtually every trooper in the 7th Cavalry fought with the single - shot, breech - loading Springfield carbine and the Colt revolver.
Historians have asked whether the repeating rifles conferred a distinct advantage on Sitting Bull 's villagers that contributed to their victory over Custer 's carbine - armed soldiers.
Historian Michael L. Lawson offers a scenario based on archaeological collections at the "Henryville '' site, which yielded plentiful Henry rifle cartridge casings from approximately 20 individual guns. Lawson speculates that, though less powerful than the Springfield carbines, the Henry repeaters provided a barrage of fire at a critical point, driving Lieutenant James Calhoun 's L Company from Calhoun Hill and Finley Ridge, forcing them to flee in disarray back to Captain Myles Keogh 's I Company, and leading to the disintegration of that wing of Custer 's Battalion.
After exhaustive testing -- including comparisons to domestic and foreign single - shot and repeating rifles -- the Army Ordnance Board (whose members included officers Marcus Reno and Alfred Terry) authorized the Springfield as the official firearm for the United State Army.
The Springfield, manufactured in a. 45 - 70 long rifle version for the infantry and a. 45 - 55 light carbine version for the cavalry, was judged a solid firearm that met the long - term and geostrategic requirements of the United States fighting forces.
British historian Mark Gallear maintains that US government experts rejected the lever - action repeater designs, deeming them ineffective in the event of a clash with fully equipped European armies, or in case of an outbreak of another American civil conflict. Gallear 's analysis minimizes the allegation that rapid depletion of ammunition in lever - action models influenced the decision in favor of the single - shot Springfield. The Indian War, in this context, appears as a minor theatre of conflict, whose contingencies were unlikely to govern the selection of standard weaponry for an emerging industrialized nation.
The Springfield carbine is praised for its "superior range and stopping power '' by historian James Donovan, and author Charles M. Robinson reports that the rifle could be "loaded and fired much more rapidly than its muzzle loading predecessors, and had twice the range of repeating rifles such as the Winchester, Henry and Spencer. ''
Gallear points out that lever - action rifles, after a burst of rapid discharge, still required a reloading interlude that lowered their overall rate of fire; Springfield breechloaders "in the long run, had a higher rate of fire, which was sustainable throughout a battle. ''
The breechloader design patent for the Springfield 's Erskine S. Allin trapdoor system was owned by the US government and the firearm could be easily adapted for production with existing machinery at the Springfield Armory in Massachusetts. At time when funding for the post-war Army had been slashed, the prospect for economical production influenced the Ordnance Board member selection of the Springfield option.
The question as to whether the reported malfunction of the Model 1873 Springfield carbine issued to the 7th Cavalry contributed to their defeat has been debated for years.
That the weapon experienced jamming of the extractor is not contested, but its contribution to Custer 's defeat is considered negligible. This conclusion is supported by evidence from archaeological studies performed at the battlefield, where the recovery of Springfield cartridge casing, bearing tell - tale scratch marks indicating manual extraction, were rare. The flaw in the ejector mechanism was known to the Army Ordnance Board at the time of the selection of the Model 1873 rifle and carbine, and was not considered a significant shortcoming in the overall worthiness of the shoulder arm. With the ejector failure in US Army tests as low as 1: 300, the Springfield carbine was vastly more reliable than the muzzle - loading Springfields used in the Civil War.
Gallear addresses the post-battle testimony concerning the copper. 45 - 55 cartridges supplied to the troops in which an officer is said to have cleared the chambers of spent cartridges for a number of Springfield carbines. This testimony of widespread fusing of the casings offered to the Chief of Ordnance at the Reno Court of Inquiry in 1879 conflicts with the archaeological evidence collected at the battlefield. Field data showed that possible extractor failures occurred at a rate of approximately 1: 30 firings at the Custer Battlefield and at a rate of 1: 37 at the Reno - Benteen Battlefield.
Historian Thom Hatch observes that the Model 1873 Springfield, despite the known ejector flaw, remained the standard issue shoulder arm for US troops until the early 1890s. when the copper - cased, inside - primed cartridges were replaced with brass.
Soldiers under Custer 's direct command were annihilated on the first day of the battle (except for three Crow scouts and several troopers (including John Martin (Giovanni Martino)) that had left that column before the battle; one Crow scout, Curly, was the only survivor to leave after the battle had begun), although for years rumors persisted of other survivors.
Over 120 men and women would come forward over the course of the next 70 years claiming they were "the lone survivor '' of Custer 's Last Stand. The phenomenon became so widespread that one historian remarked, "Had Custer had all of those who claimed to be ' the lone survivor ' of his two battalions he would have had at least a brigade behind him when he crossed the Wolf Mountains and rode to the attack. ''
The historian Earl Alonzo Brininstool suggested he had collected at least 70 "lone survivor '' stories. Michael Nunnally, an amateur Custer historian, wrote a booklet describing 30 such accounts. W.A. Graham claimed that even Libby Custer received dozens of letters from men, in shocking detail, about their sole survivor experience. At least 125 alleged "single survivor '' tales have been confirmed in the historical record as of July 2012.
Frank Finkel, from Dayton, Washington, had such a convincing story that historian Charles Kuhlman believed the alleged survivor, going so far as to write a lengthy defense of Finkel 's participation in the battle. Douglas Ellison -- mayor of Medora, North Dakota, and an amateur historian -- also wrote a book in support of the veracity of Finkel 's claim, but most scholars reject it.
Some of these survivors held a form of celebrity status in the United States, among them Raymond Hatfield "Arizona Bill '' Gardner and Frank Tarbeaux. A few even published their own autobiographies, including their deeds at the Little Bighorn.
Almost as soon as men came forward implying or directly pronouncing their unique role in the battle, there were others who were equally opposed to any such claims. Theodore Goldin, a battle participant who later became a controversial historian on the event, wrote (in regards to Charles Hayward 's claim to have been with Custer and taken prisoner):
The Indians always insisted that they took no prisoners. If they did -- a thing I firmly believe -- they were tortured and killed the night of the 25th. As an evidence of this I recall the three charred and burned heads we picked up in the village near the scene of the big war dance, when we visited the village with Capt. Benteen and Lieut. Wallace on the morning of the 27th... I 'm sorely afraid, Tony, that we will have to class Hayward 's story, like that of so many others, as pure, unadulterated B.S. As a clerk at headquarters I had occasion to look over the morning reports of at least the six troops at Lincoln almost daily, and never saw his name there, or among the list of scouts employed from time to time... I am hoping that some day all of these damned fakirs will die and it will be safe for actual participants in the battle to admit and insist that they were there, without being branded and looked upon as a lot of damned liars. Actually, there have been times when I have been tempted to deny that I ever heard of the 7th Cavalry, much less participated with it in that engagement... My Medal of Honor and its inscription have served me as proof positive that I was at least in the vicinity at the time in question, otherwise I should be tempted to deny all knowledge of the event.
The only documented and verified survivor of Custer 's command (having been actually involved in Custer 's part of the battle) was Captain Keogh 's horse, Comanche. The wounded horse was discovered on the battlefield by General Terry 's troops, and although other cavalry mounts survived they had been taken by the Indians. Comanche eventually was returned to the fort and became the regimental mascot. Several other badly wounded horses were found and destroyed at the scene. Writer Evan S. Connell noted in Son of the Morning Star:
Comanche was reputed to be the only survivor of the Little Bighorn, but quite a few Seventh Cavalry mounts survived, probably more than one hundred, and there was even a yellow bulldog. Comanche lived on another fifteen years, and when he died, he was stuffed and to this day remains in a glass case at the University of Kansas. So, protected from moths and souvenir hunters by his humidity - controlled glass case, Comanche stands patiently, enduring generation after generation of undergraduate jokes. The other horses are gone, and the mysterious yellow bulldog is gone, which means that in a sense the legend is true. Comanche alone survived.
For more on survivor claims, see Custer Survivors in Little Bighorn Folklore.
The site of the battle was first preserved as a United States national cemetery in 1879 to protect the graves of the 7th Cavalry troopers. In 1946, it was re-designated as the Custer Battlefield National Monument, reflecting its association with Custer. In 1967, Major Marcus Reno was re-interred in the cemetery with honors, including an eleven - gun salute. Beginning in the early 1970s, there was concern within the National Park Service over the name Custer Battlefield National Monument failing to adequately reflect the larger history of the battle between two cultures. Hearings on the name change were held in Billings on June 10, 1991, and during the following months Congress renamed the site the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument.
United States memorialization of the battlefield began in 1879 with a temporary monument to the U.S. dead. In 1881, the current marble obelisk was erected in their honor. In 1890, marble blocks were added to mark the places where the U.S. cavalry soldiers fell.
Nearly 100 years later, ideas about the meaning of the battle have become more inclusive. The United States government acknowledged that Native American sacrifices also deserved recognition at the site. The 1991 bill changing the name of the national monument also authorized an Indian Memorial to be built near Last Stand Hill in honor of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors. The commissioned work by native artist Colleen Cutschall is shown in the photograph at right. On Memorial Day 1999, in consultation with tribal representatives, the U.S. added two red granite markers to the battlefield to note where Native American warriors fell. As of December 2006, a total of ten warrior markers have been added (three at the Reno -- Benteen Defense Site and seven on the Little Bighorn Battlefield).
The Indian Memorial, themed "Peace Through Unity '' l is an open circular structure that stands 75 yards (69 metres) from the 7th Cavalry obelisk. Its walls have some of the names of Indians who died at the site, as well as native accounts of the battle. The open circle of the structure is symbolic, as for many tribes, the circle is sacred. The "spirit gate '' window facing the Cavalry monument is symbolic as well, welcoming the dead cavalrymen into the memorial.
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when does the school year start in the philippines | Education in the Philippines - wikipedia
Education in the Philippines is provided by public and private schools, colleges, universities, and technical and vocational institutions. Funding for public education comes from the national government.
At the basic education level, the Department of Education (DepEd) sets overall educational standards and mandates standardized tests for the K -- 12 basic education system, although private schools are generally free to determine their own curriculum in accordance with existing laws and Department regulations.
On the other hand, at the higher education level, the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) supervises and regulates colleges and universities, while the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) for technical and vocational institutions regulates and accredits technical and vocational education programs and institutions.
For the academic year 2017 -- 2018, about 83 % of K -- 12 students attended public schools and about 17 % either attended private schools or were home - schooled.
By law, education is compulsory for thirteen years (kindergarten and grades 1 -- 12). These are grouped into three levels: elementary school (kindergarten -- grade 6), junior high school (grades 7 -- 10), and senior high school (grades 11 -- 12); they may also be grouped into four key stages: 1st key stage (kindergarten -- grade 3), 2nd key stage (grades 4 -- 6), 3rd key stage (grades 7 -- 10) and 4th key stage (grades 11 -- 12). Children enter kindergarten at age 5.
Institutions of higher education may be classified as either public or private college or university, and public institutions of higher education may further be subdivided into two types: state universities and colleges and local colleges and universities.
During the pre-colonial period, most children were provided with solely vocational training, which was supervised by parents, tribal tutors or those assigned for specific, specialized roles within their communities (for example, the baybayin). In most communities, stories, songs, poetry, dances, medicinal practices and advice regarding all sorts of community life issues were passed from generation to generation mostly through oral tradition. Some communities utilised a writing system known as baybayin, whose use was wide and varied, though there are other syllabaries used throughout the archipelago.
Formal education was brought to the Philippines by the Spaniards, which was conducted mostly by religious orders. Upon learning the local languages and writing systems, they began teaching Christianity, the Spanish language, and Spanish culture. These religious orders opened the first schools and universities as early as the 16th century. Spanish missionaries established schools immediately after reaching the islands. The Augustinians opened a parochial school in Cebu in 1565. The Franciscans, took to the task of improving literacy in 1577, aside from the teaching of new industrial and agricultural techniques. The Jesuits followed in 1581, as well as the Dominicans in 1587, setting up a school in Bataan. The church and the school cooperated to ensure that Christian villages had schools for students to attend.
Schools for boys and for girls were then opened. Colegios were opened for boys, ostensibly the equivalent to present day senior high schools. The Universidad de San Ignacio, founded in Manila by the Jesuits in 1589 was the first colegio. Eventually, it was incorporated into the University of Santo Tomas, College of Medicine and Pharmacology following the suppression of the Jesuits. Girls had two types of schools - the beaterio, a school meant to prepare them for the convent, and another, meant to prepare them for secular womanhood.
The Spanish also introduced printing presses to produce books in Spanish and Tagalog, sometimes using baybayin. The first book printed in the Philippines dates back to 1590. It was a Chinese language version of Doctrina Christiana. Spanish and Tagalog versions, in both Latin script and the locally used baybayin script, were later printed in 1593. In 1610, Tomas Pinpin, a Filipino printer, writer and publisher, who is sometimes referred to as the "Patriarch of Filipino Printing '', wrote his famous "Librong Pagaaralan nang manga Tagalog nang Uicang Castilla '', which was meant to help Filipinos learn the Spanish language. The prologue read:
Other Tagalogs like us did not take a year to learn the Spanish language when using my book. This good result has given me satisfaction and encouraged me to print my work, so that all may derive some profit from it.
The Educational Decree of 1863 provided a free public education system in the Philippines, managed by the government. The decree mandated the establishment of at least one primary school for boys and one for girls in each town under the responsibility of the municipal government, and the establishment of a normal school for male teachers under the supervision of the Jesuits. Primary education was also declared free and available to every Filipino, regardless of race or social class. Contrary to what the propaganda of the Spanish -- American War tried to depict, they were not religious schools; rather, they are schools that were established, supported, and maintained by the Spanish government.
After the implementation of the decree, the number of schools and students increased steadily. In 1866, the total population of the Philippines was 4,411,261. The total number of public schools for boys was 841, and the number of public schools for girls was 833. The total number of children attending those schools was 135,098 for boys, and 95,260 for girls. In 1892, the number of schools had increased to 2,137, of which 1,087 were for boys, and 1,050 for girls. By 1898, enrollment in schools at all levels exceeded 200,000 students.
Among those who benefited from the free public education system were a burgeoning group of Filipino intellectuals: the Ilustrados (' enlightened ones '), some of whom included José Rizal, Graciano López Jaena, Marcelo H. del Pilar, Mariano Ponce, and Antonio Luna -- all of whom played vital roles in the Propaganda Movement that ultimately inspired the founding of the Katipunan.
The defeat of Spain following the Spanish -- American War led to the short - lived Philippine Independence movement, which established the insurgent First Philippine Republic. The schools maintained by Spain for more than three centuries were closed briefly, but were reopened on August 29, 1898 by the Secretary of Interior. The Burgos Institute (the country 's first law school), the Academia Militar (the country 's first military academy), and the Literary University of the Philippines were established. Article 23 of the Malolos Constitution mandated that public education would be free and obligatory in all schools of the nation under the First Philippine Republic. However, the Philippine -- American War hindered its progress.
About a year after having secured Manila, the Americans were keen to open up seven schools with army servicemen teaching with army command - selected books and supplies. In the same year, 1899, more schools were opened, this time, with 24 English - language teachers and 4500 students.In that system, basic education consisted of 6 years elementary and 4 years secondary schooling which, until recently, prepared students for tertiary level instruction for them to earn a degree that would secure them a job later on in life.
A highly centralised, experimental public school system was installed in 1901 by the Philippine Commission and legislated by Act No. 74. The law exposed a severe shortage of qualified teachers, brought about by large enrollment numbers in schools. As a result, the Philippine Commission authorized the Secretary of Public Instruction to bring more than 1,000 teachers from the United States, who were called the Thomasites, to the Philippines between 1901 and 1902. These teachers were scattered throughout the islands to establish barangay schools. The same law established the Philippine Normal School (now the Philippine Normal University) to train aspiring Filipino teachers.
The high school system was supported by provincial governments and included special educational institutions, schools of arts and trades, an agricultural school, and commerce and marine institutes, which were established in 1902 by the Philippine Commission.
Several other laws were passed throughout the period. In 1902, Act No. 372 authorised the opening of provincial high schools.
1908 marked the year when Act No. 1870 initiated the opening of the University of the Philippines, now the country 's national university.
The emergence of high school education in the Philippines, however, did not occur until 1910. It was borne out of rising numbers in enrollment, widespread economic depression, and a growing demand by big businesses and technological advances in factories and the emergence of electrification for skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created and the curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for professional white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved to be beneficial for both the employer and the employee; the investment in human capital caused employees to become more efficient, which lowered costs for the employer, and skilled employees received a higher wage than those employees with just primary educational attainment.
However, a steady increase in enrollment in schools appeared to have hindered any revisions to then - implemented experimental educational system. Act No. 1381, also known as Gabaldon Law, was passed in 1907, which provided a fund of a million pesos for construction of concrete school buildings and is one of many attempts by the government to meet this demand. In line as well with the Filipinization policy of the government, the Reorganization Act of 1916 provided that all department secretaries except the Secretary of Public Instruction must be a natural - born Filipino.
A series of revisions (in terms of content, length, and focus) to the curriculum began in 1924, the year the Monroe Survey Commission released its findings. After having convened in the period from 1906 to 1918, what was simply an advisory committee on textbooks was officiated in 1921 as the Board on Textbooks through Act No. 2957. The Board was faced with difficulties, however, even up to the 1940s, but because financial problems hindered the possibility of newer adaptations of books.
In 1947, after the United States relinquished all its authority over the Philippines, President Manuel Roxas issued Executive Order No. 94 which renamed Department of Instruction into Department of Education. During this period, the regulation and supervision of public and private schools belonged to the Bureau of Public and Private Schools.
In 1972, the Department of Education became the Department of Education and Culture (DECS) under Proclamation 1081, which was signed by President Ferdinand Marcos.
On September 24, 1972, by Presidential Decree No. 1, DECS was decentralized with decision - making shared among its thirteen regional offices.
Following a referendum of all barangays in the Philippines from January 10 -- 15, 1973, President Marcos ratified the 1973 Constitution by Proclamation 1102 on January 17, 1973. The 1973 Constitution set out the three fundamental aims of education in the Philippines:
In 1978, by the Presidential Decree No. 1397, DECS became the Ministry of Education and Culture.
The Education Act of 1982 provided for an integrated system of education covering both formal and non-formal education at all levels. Section 29 of the act sought to upgrade educational institutions ' standards to achieve "quality education '' through voluntary accreditation for schools, colleges, and universities. Section 16 and Section 17 upgraded the obligations and qualifications required for teachers and administrators. Section 41 provided for government financial assistance to private schools. This act also created the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports.
A new constitution was ratified on February 2, 1987, and entered into force of February 11. Section 3, Article XIV of the 1987 Constitution contains the ten fundamental aims of education in the Philippines. Section 2 (2), Article XIV of the 1987 Constitution made elementary school compulsory for all children.
In 1987, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports became again the DECS under Executive Order No. 117. The structure of DECS as embodied in the order remained practically unchanged until 1994.
On May 26, 1988, the Congress of the Philippines enacted the Republic Act 6655 or the Free Public Secondary Education Act of 1988, which mandated free public secondary education commencing in the school year 1988 -- 1989.
On February 3, 1992, the Congress enacted Republic Act 7323, which provided that students aged 15 to 25 may be employed during their Christmas vacation and summer vacation with a salary not lower than the minimum wage -- with 60 % of the wage paid by the employer and 40 % by the government.
The Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM) report of 1991 recommended the division of DECS into three parts. On May 18, 1994, the Congress passed Republic Act 7722 or the Higher Education Act of 1994, creating the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), which assumed the functions of the Bureau of Higher Education and supervised tertiary degree programs. On August 25, 1994, the Congress passed Republic Act 7796 or the Technical Education and Skills Development Act of 199, creating the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), which absorbed the Bureau of Technical - Vocational Education as well as the National Manpower and Youth Council, and began to supervise non-degree technical - vocational programs. DECS retained responsibility for all elementary and secondary education. This threefold division became known as the "trifocal system of education '' in the Philippines.
In August 2001, Republic Act 9155, otherwise called the Governance of Basic Education Act, was passed. This act changed the name of DECS to the current Department of Education (DepEd) and redefined the role of field offices (regional offices, division offices, district offices and schools). The act provided the overall framework for school empowerment by strengthening the leadership roles of headmasters and fostering transparency and local accountability for school administrations. The goal of basic education was to provide the school age population and young adults with skills, knowledge, and values to become caring, self - reliant, productive, and patriotic citizens.
In 2005, the Philippines spent about US $138 per pupil, compared to US $3,728 in Japan, US $1,582 in Singapore and US $852 in Thailand.
In 2006, the Education for All (EFA) 2015 National Action Plan was implemented. It states:
In terms of secondary level education, all children aged twelve to fifteen, are sought to be on track to completing the schooling cycle with satisfactory achievement levels at every year.
In January 2009, the Department of Education signed a memorandum of agreement with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) to seal $86 million assistance to Philippine education, particularly the access to quality education in the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM), and the Western and Central Mindanao regions.
In 2010, then - Senator Benigno Aquino III expressed his desire to implement the K -- 12 basic education cycle to increase the number of years of compulsory education to thirteen years. According to him, this will "give everyone an equal chance to succeed '' and "have quality education and profitable jobs ''. After further consultations and studies, the government under President Aquino formally adopted the K -- 6 -- 4 -- 2 basic education system -- one year of kindergarten, six years of elementary education, four years of junior high school education and two years of senior high school education. Kindergarten was formally made compulsory by virtue of the Kindergarten Education Act of 2012, while the further twelve years were officially put into law by virtue of the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013. Although DepEd has already implemented the K -- 12 Program since SY 2011 -- 2012, it was still enacted into law to guarantee its continuity in the succeeding years.
The former system of basic education in the Philippines consists of one - year preschool education, six - year elementary education and four - year high school education. Although public preschool, elementary and high school education are provided free, only primary education is stipulated as compulsory according to the 1987 Philippine Constitution. Pre-primary education caters to children aged five. A child aged six may enter elementary schools with, or without pre-primary education. Following on from primary education is four - years of secondary education, which can theoretically be further divided into three years of lower secondary and one year of upper secondary education. Ideally, a child enters secondary education at the age of 12. After completing their secondary education, students may progress to a technical education and skills development to earn a certificate or a diploma within one to three years, depending on the skill. Students also have the option to enrol in higher education programmes to earn a baccalaureate degree.
(used from 1945 until June 5, 2011)
The start of the twenty - first century 's second decade saw a major change in the Philippine education system. Whether this was positive or not remains to be seen.
In 2011, the Department of Education started to implement the new K - 12 educational system, which also included a new curriculum for all schools nationwide. The K - 12 program has a so - called "phased implementation '', which started in S.Y 2011 - 2012.
In 2017, a law was promulgated mandating the government through all state universities and colleges (SUCs) to provide free tertiary education for all Filipino citizens. The mandate does not include private schools.
Formal education is the hierarchically structured, chronologically graded ' education system ', running from primary school through the university and including, in addition to general academic studies, a variety of specialised programmes and institutions for full - time technical and professional training. K - 12 and tertiary education from colleges are characterized as formal education. This does not include the informal education in the Philippines learned from daily experience and the educative influences and resources in his or her environment. Nor does this include non-formal education like the alternative learning systems provided by DepEd and TESDA and other programs from educational institutions.
K - 12 is a program that covers kindergarten and 12 years of basic education to provide sufficient time for mastery of concepts and skills, develop lifelong learners, and prepare graduates for tertiary education, middle - level skills development, employment, and entrepreneurship.
Its general features include:
Senior High School, an important feature of the new K - 12 program, creates several opportunities. Standard requirements will be applied to make sure graduates know enough to be hirable. Senior High School students will now be able to apply for TESDA Certificates of Competency (COCs) and National Certificates (NCs) to provide them with better work opportunities. Partnerships with different companies will be offered for technical and vocational courses. Senior High School students can also get work experience while studying. Aside from these, entrepreneurship courses will now be included. Instead of being employed, one can choose to start his or her own business after graduating, or choose to further one 's education by going to college.
Senior High School, as part of the K to 12 Basic Curriculum, was developed in line with the curriculum of the Commission of Higher Education (CHED) -- the governing body for college and university education in the Philippines. This ensures that by the time one graduates from Senior High School, one will have the standard knowledge, skills, and competencies needed to go to college.
Because of the shift of the curriculum in K - 12, the College General Education curriculum will have fewer units. Subjects that have been taken up in Basic Education will be removed from the College General Education curriculum. Details of the new GE Curriculum may be found in CHED Memorandum Order No. 20, series of 2013.
Regarding teachers, there are common misconceptions that teachers will lose their jobs because of the shift to the K - 12. However, DepEd ensures that "no high school teachers will be displaced. ''
The Department of Education (DepEd) is in constant coordination with CHED and DOLE on the actual number of affected faculty from private higher education institutions (HEIs). The worst - case scenario is that 39,000 HEI faculty will lose their jobs over 5 years. This will only happen if none of the HEIs will put up their own Senior High Schools; however, DepEd is currently processing over 1,000 Senior High School applications from private institutions.
DepEd is also hiring more than 30,000 new teachers in 2016 alone. The Department will prioritize affected faculty who will apply as teachers or administrators in Senior High Schools.
K - 12 's implementation began in 2011 when kindergarten was rolled out nationwide. It continued by fully implementing the system for Grades 1 and 7 during the school year 2012 - 2013, for grade 11 during 2016, and for grade 12 during 2017.
There are four "phases '' during the implementation of the new system. These are:
In terms of preparing the resources, specifically classrooms, teacher items, textbooks, seats, and water and sanitation improvements, the following table shows the accomplished material from 2010 to 2014 and those planned for 2015.
30,000 of which are for Senior High School (Grades 11 and 12)
23,414 ongoing construction 43,536 ongoing procurement as of May 2014
The Department of Education 's justifications in this change, in implementing 13 years of basic education, is that the Philippines is the last country in Asia and one of only three countries worldwide with a 10 - year pre-university cycle (Angola and Djibouti are the other two), and that the 13 - year program is found to be the best period for learning under basic education. It is also the recognized standard for students and professionals globally.
Elementary school, sometimes called primary school or grade school (Filipino: paaralang elementarya, sometimes mababang paaralan), is the first part of the educational system, and it includes the first six years of compulsory education (Grades 1 -- 6) after cumpolsory pre-school education called Kindergarten.
In public schools, the core / major subjects that were introduced starting in Grade 1 include Mathematics, Filipino, and Araling Panlipunan (this subject is synonymous to Social Studies). English is only introduced after the second semester of Grade 1. Science is only introduced starting Grade 3. Other major subjects then include Music, Arts, Physical Education, and Health (abbreviated as MAPEH), TLE (Technology and Livelihood Education) for Grade 6, EPP (Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan) for Grades 4 and 5, Mother Tongue (Grades 1 - 3) and Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao (synonymous to Ethics, Values or Character Education). In private schools, subjects in public schools are also included with the additional subjects including: Computer Education as a separate subject, though it is included in EPP and TLE through its ICT component. In Christian and Catholic schools, Religious Education is also part of the curriculum like Christian Values and Ethics, Christian Living, or Bible Studies. Islamic schools like Madrasa schools have a separate subjects for Arabic Language and for Islamic Values or abbreviated as ALIVE. Chinese schools may also have subjects in Chinese Language and Culture. International schools also have their own subjects in their own language and culture.
From Kindergarten - Grade 3, students will be taught using their mother tongue, meaning the regional languages of the Philippines will be used in some subjects (except Filipino and English) as a medium of instruction. Aside from being incorporated as a language of instruction, it is also a separate subject for Grades 1 - 3. But from Grade 4, Filipino and English as a medium of instruction will then be used.
In December 2007, the Philippine president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo announced that Spanish is to make a return as a mandatory subject in all Filipino schools starting in 2008, but this did n't come into effect.
DepEd Bilingual Policy is for the medium of instruction to be Filipino for: Filipino, Araling Panlipunan, Edukasyong Pangkatawan, Kalusugan at Musika; and English for: English, Science and Technology, Home Economics and Livelihood Education. Article XIV, Section 7 of the 1987 Philippine constitution mandates that regional languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein. As a result, the language actually used in teaching is often a polyglot of Filipino and English with the regional language as the foundation, or rarely the local language. Filipino is based on Tagalog, so in Tagalog areas (including Manila), Filipino is the foundational language used. International English language schools use English as the foundational language. Chinese schools add two language subjects, such as Min Nan Chinese and Mandarin Chinese and may use English or Chinese as the foundational language. The constitution mandates that Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis. Following on this, a few private schools mainly catering to the elite include Spanish in their curriculum. Arabic is taught in Islamic schools.
In July 2009, the Department of Education moved to overcome the foreign language issue by ordering all elementary schools to move towards initial mother - tongue based instruction (grades 1 -- 3). The order allows two alternative three - year bridging plans. Depending on the bridging plan adopted, the Filipino and English languages are to be phased in as the language of instruction for other subjects beginning in the third and fourth grades.
Until 2004, primary students traditionally took the National Elementary Achievement Test (NEAT) administered by the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS). It was intended as a measure of a school 's competence, and not as a predictor of student aptitude or success in secondary school. Hence, the scores obtained by students in the NEAT were not used as a basis for their admission into secondary school. During 2004, when DECS was officially converted into the Department of Education, the NEAT was changed to the National Achievement Test (NAT) by the Department of Education. Both the public and private elementary schools take this exam to measure a school 's competency. As of 2006, only private schools have entrance examinations for secondary schools.
The Department of Education expects over 13.1 million elementary students to be enrolled in public elementary schools for school year 2009 -- 2010.
Though elementary schooling is compulsory, as of 2010 it was reported that 27.82 % of Filipino elementary - aged children either never attend or never complete elementary schooling, usually due to the absence of any school in their area, education being offered in a language that is foreign to them, or financial distress.
Secondary school in the Philippines, more commonly known as "high school '' (Filipino: paaralang sekundarya, sometimes mataas na paaralan), consists of 4 lower levels and 2 upper levels. It formerly consisted of only four levels with each level partially compartmentalized, focusing on a particular theme or content. Because of the K - 12 curriculum, the high school system now has six years divided into 2 parts. The lower exploratory high school system is now called "Junior High School '' (Grades 7 - 10) while the upper specialized high school system is now called "Senior High School '' (Grades 11 and 12).
Secondary students used to sit for the National Secondary Achievement Test (NSAT), which was based on the American SAT, and was administered by the Department of Education. Like its primary school counterpart, NSAT was phased out after major reorganizations in the education department. Its successors, the National Career Assessment Examination (NCAE) and National Achievement Test (NAT) were administered to third - and fourth - year students respectively, before the implementation of the K - 12 system. The National Career Assessment Examination (NCAE) is now being administered for Grade 9 and the National Achievement Test (NAT) is being administered at Grade 6, 10, and 12. Neither the NSAT nor NAT have been used as a basis for being offered admission to higher education institutions, partly because pupils sit them at almost the end of their secondary education. Instead, higher education institutions, both public and private, administer their own College Entrance Examinations (CEE) (subjects covered will depend on the institutions). Vocational colleges usually do not have entrance examinations, simply accepting the Form 138 record of studies from high school, and enrollment payment.
Students graduating from the elementary level automatically enroll in junior high, which covers four years from grades 7 to 10. This level is now compulsory and free to all students attending public schools.
There are two main types of high school: the general secondary school, which enroll more than 90 percent of all junior high school students, and the vocational secondary school. In addition, there are also science secondary schools for students who have demonstrated a particular gift in science at the primary level as well as special secondary schools and special curricular programs.
Admission to public school is automatic for those who have completed six years of elementary school. Some private secondary schools have competitive entrance requirements based on an entrance examination. Entrance to science schools, art schools, and schools with special curricular programs is also by competitive examination sometimes including interviews, and auditions.
The Department of Education specifies a compulsory curriculum for all junior high school students, public and private. There are five core subjects: Science, Mathematics, English, Filipino, and Araling Panlipunan (Social Studies).
Other subjects in all levels of junior high school include MAPEH (a collective subject comprising Music, Art, Physical Education and Health), Values Education and Technology and Livelihood Education.
In other public schools or private secondary schools offers specialized curricular programs for students with gifts and or talents as well as aptitude in fields of: sciences and mathematics, sports, the arts, journalism, foreign language, or technical - vocational education. These are under the DepEd with the latter in partnership with TESDA. These special programs for special schools are: Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Program (STEM, formerly called ESEP); Special Program in Sports (SPS); Special Program in the Arts (SPA); Special Program in Journalism (SPJ); Special Program in Foreign Language (SPFL); and Technical - Vocational - Livelihood Program (TVL). These programs offers comprehensive secondary education in a particular academic or career pathway field. Because of being career - pathway oriented, special and advanced subjects are offered in replace of TLE subject and sometimes includes even more time and subjects for specialized learning and training.
In selective schools, various languages may be offered as electives like in a SPFL program, as well as other subjects such as computer programming and literary writing like in STEM schools or Laboratory High Schools. Chinese schools have language and cultural electives. International Schools offers electives or subjects like writing, culture, history, language, art, or a special subject unique to the school. Preparatory schools like technical vocational schools or schools with TVL Program usually add some business, entrepreneurship, and accountancy courses. Special science high schools like those of PSHS System (administered by DOST) and RSHS System (administered by DepEd) have biology, chemistry, and physics at every level and or exclusive and advanced science and math subjects as well as subjects in technology, pre-engineering, and research. These science schools are more exclusive and with higher standards compared to general high school 's STEM Program. PSHS or RSHS students may transfer to a STEM program school but not the way around. PSHS students may also transfer to a RSHS and vice versa only for incoming sophomore year. Both PSHS and RSHS students must maintain an average grade especially in their advanced sciences and math subjects on a quarterly basis or else will lose the chance of continuing education in these schools, therefore, will make students transfer to a STEM Program school or a general high school. This systems makes sure the quality and exclusiveness of science high schools. In special government - run art school such as Philippine High School for the Arts, which is administered by the Cultural Center of the Philippines in coordination with Department of Education, and as well as the National Commission for Culture and the Arts offers a much specialized and exclusive curricular program than general high school 's SPA Program. Like the PSHS and RSHS to STEM schools system, students from PHSA should maintain grades in their art field of specialization or will transfer to an SPA school or a general high school. But SPA students can enroll in PHSA only for incoming sophomores passing exclusive test, auditions, and interviews, and not from general high schools but from SPA school only. Both schools of Philippine Science High School System and the Philippine High School for the Arts are administered by government agencies apart from DepEd but still is in coordination with it. These schools offers scholarship for students with high aptitude and talents in science fields or the art fields granting those who passes rigorous and exclusive tests with many special benefits like free board and lodging, free books, a monthly stipend, and classes taught by experts, masters, and active practitioners of their respective fields among others.
Formal technical and vocational education starts at secondary education, with a two - year curriculum, which grants access to vocational tertiary education. However, there is also non-formal technical and vocational education provided as alternative learning programs.
Vocational schools offer a higher concentration of technical and vocational subjects in addition to the core academic subjects studied by students at general high schools. These schools tend to offer technical and vocational instruction in one of five main fields: agriculture, fisheries, trade - technical, home industry, and ' non-traditional ' courses while offering a host of specializations. During the first two years, students study a general vocational area, from the five main fields mentioned. During the third and fourth years they specialize in a discipline or vocation within that area. Programs contain a mixture of theory and practice.
Upon completion of Grade 10 of Junior High School, students can obtain Certificates of Competency (COC) or the vocationally oriented National Certificate Level I (NC I). After finishing a Technical - Vocational - Livelihood track in Grade 12 of Senior High School, a student may obtain a National Certificate Level II (NC II), provided he / she passes the competency - based assessment administered by the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA).
The new high school curriculum includes core classes and specialization classes based on student choice of specialization. Students may choose a specialization based on aptitude, interests, and school capacity. Classes or courses are divided into two: Core Curriculum Subjects and Track Subjects.
There are eight learning areas under the core curriculum. These are Language, Humanities, Communication, Mathematics, Science, Social Science, Philosophy, and PE and Health. These will make up 15 core courses with the same contents and competencies but with allowed contextualization based on school 's location despite of specializations of tracks and strands.
Track subjects will be further divided into Applied or Contextualized Subjects and the Specialization Subjects. There would be 7 Applied Subjects with competencies common to tracks and strands or specializations but with different contents based on specialization, and there would be 9 Specialization Subjects with unique contents and competencies under a track or strand.
All the subjects (core, applied and specialized) are having 80 hours per semester each, except for Physical Education and Health, having 20 hours per semester.
And for the subjects under General Academics Strand (GAS), Humanities 1 and 2 will be chosen from the HUMSS track subjects 1 to 4, and for the Social Science 1 will be chosen from HUMSS track subjects 5 to 8.
For their specialization classes, students choose from four tracks: Academic; Technical - Vocational - Livelihood; Sports; and the Arts and Design.
The Academic track includes five strands of specializations:
The Technical - Vocational - Livelihood (TVL) track includes current five specializations from which TESDA - based courses can be chosen:
A mixture of specialization courses from these four fields can also be done, depending on the curricular program and offerings offered by schools who offers TVL track.
Sports track will prepare students with sports science, sports - related, physical education - related, health - related, and movement - related courses which will let them explore and specialize in fields like sports fundamental coaching, student - athlete development, sports officiating and activity management, recreational and fitness or sports leadership. This will be with courses in safety and first aid, fitness testing and basic exercise programming, psychosocial aspects of sports and exercise, and human movement. Students will have an immersion or practicum in a sports, fitness, exercise, or recreation specialization of one will be in - campus practicum and one will be off - campus apprenticeship. This track will prepare students with careers in sports athletics, fitness, exercise, recreational leadership, sports event management, coaching, and physical therapy.
Arts and Design Track will prepare student for the creative industries in various creative and artistic fields such as but not limited to: music, dance, creative writing and literature, visual arts, global media arts, broadcast arts, film and cinema, applied arts, architecture and design, theater, entertainment, etc. Students will be trained with lectures and immersions in arts appreciation and production and the performing arts. They will also learn and be prepared with physical and personal development which will help them with physical, personal, and health factors in the arts fields as an introduction to workplaces; integration of elements and principles of art which will deepen their understanding about art elements and principles and their applications; building cultural and national identity in arts which will help them appreciate cultural icons and traditional or indigenous materials, techniques, and practices in their art field. Students also will be immersed to an art field of their choice: music, theater, literary art, visual art, or media art under apprenticeship with practitioner / s of the field and will culminate showcasing their skills and talents in either a performing arts performance, a visual and media art exhibit, or a literary art production.
The government projects some 1.2 to 1.6 million students will enter senior high school in the 2016 - 17 academic year.
Senior High School "completes '' basic education by making sure that the high school graduate is equipped for work, entrepreneurship, or higher education. This is a step up from the 10 - year cycle where high school graduates still need further education (and expenses) to be ready for the world. There are 334 private schools with Senior High School permits beginning in SY 2014 or 2015. Last March 31, 2015, provisional permits have been issued to 1,122 private schools that will offer Senior High School in 2016.
Senior High School will be offered free in public schools and there will be a voucher program in place for public junior high school completers as well as ESC beneficiaries of private high schools should they choose to take Senior High School in private institutions. This means that the burden of expenses for the additional two years need not be completely shouldered by parents. All grade 10 completers from a public Junior High School who wish to enroll in a private or non-DepEd Senior High School automatically get a voucher.
All tertiary education matters are outside of the jurisdiction of DepEd, which is in charge of primary and secondary education, but is instead governed by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). As of 2013, there are over 2,229 higher education institutions (HEI 's) in the country which can be divided into public and private institutions. There are 656 public higher education institutions which account for 28.53 % of all HEI 's. While 1,643 private institutions account for 71.47 % of all HEI 's.
Public HEI 's are further divided into state universities and colleges (SUC 's), local colleges and universities (LUC 's), special HEI 's, and government schools. State universities and colleges are administered and financed by the government as determined by the Philippine Congress. LUC 's are established by the local government units that govern the area of the LUC. The local government establish these institutions through a process and number of ordinances and resolutions, and are also in charge of handling the financing of these schools. Special HEI 's are institutions that offer courses and programs that are related to public service. Examples of these include the Philippine Military Academy (PMA), Philippine National Police Academy (PNPA), Development Academy of the Philippines (DAP), etc. These institutions are controlled and administered through the use of specific laws that were created for them. Finally, government schools are public secondary and post-secondary technical - vocational education institutions that offer higher education programs.
Private HEI 's are established, and governed by special provisions by a Corporation Code, and can be divided into sectarian and non-sectarian. Non-sectarian are characterized by being owned and operated by private entities that have no affiliation with religious organizations; while sectarian HEI 's are non-profit institutions that are owned and operated by a religious organization. Of the 1,643 institutions, 79 % are non-sectarian, and 21 % are sectarian.
According to the last CHED published statistics on its website, there were 7,766 foreign nationals studying in various higher education institutions in the Philippines as of 2011 - 2012. Koreans were the top foreign nationals studying in the country with 1,572. The rest were Iranian, Chinese, American and Indian.
There are other types of schools, aside from the general public school, such as private schools, preparatory schools, international schools, laboratory high schools, and science high schools. Several foreign ethnic groups, including Chinese, British, Singaporeans, Americans, Koreans, and Japanese operate their own schools.
Science high schools are special schools for the more intellectually promising students, with the objective of fostering the problem - solving approach of critical thinking. They are separate high schools and not merely special classes in regular secondary schools. As such, they have certain characteristics not found in regular high schools, although any private or public high school can aspire to meet these special minimum standards and be considered as science high schools.
The Philippine Science High School System is a specialized public system that operates as an attached agency of the Philippine Department of Science and Technology. There are a total of nine regional campuses, with the main campus located in Quezon City. Students are admitted on a selective basis, based on the results of the PSHS System National Competitive Examination.
As well as following the general secondary curriculum, there are advanced classes in science and mathematics. The PSHSS system offers an integrated junior high and senior high six - year curriculum.
Students who successfully completed a minimum of four years of secondary education under the pre-2011 system were awarded a Diploma (Katibayan) and, in addition, the secondary school Certificate of Graduation (Katunayan) from the Department of Education. Students are also awarded a Permanent Record, or Form 137 - A, listing all classes taken and grades earned. Under the new K - 12 system, the permanent record will be issued after the completion of senior high school.
Chinese schools add two additional subjects to the core curriculum, Chinese communication arts and literature. Some also add Chinese history, philosophy and culture, and Chinese mathematics. Still, other Chinese schools called cultural schools, offer Confucian classics and Chinese art as part of their curriculum. Religion also plays an important part in the curriculum. American evangelists founded some Chinese schools. Some Chinese schools have Catholic roots.
In 2004, the Department of Education adopted DO 51, putting in place the teaching of Arabic Language and Islamic Values for (mainly) Muslim children in the public schools. The same order authorized the implementation of the Standard Madrasa Curriculum (SMC) in the private madaris (Arabic for schools, the singular form is Madrasa).
While there has been recognized Islamic schools -- i.e., Ibn Siena Integrated School (Marawi), Sarang Bangun LC (Zamboanga), and Southwestern Mindanao Islamic Institute (Jolo) -- their Islamic studies curriculum varies. With the Department of Education - authorized SMC, the subject offering is uniform across these private madaris.
Since 2005, the AusAID - funded Department of Education project Basic Education Assistance for Mindanao (BEAM) has assisted a group of private madaris seeking government permit to operate (PTO) and implement the SMC. To date, there are 30 of these private madaris scattered throughout Regions XI, XII and the ARMM.
The SMC is a combination of the RBEC subjects (English, Filipino, Science, Math, and Makabayan) and the teaching of Arabic and Islamic studies subjects.
For school year 2010 -- 2011, there are forty - seven (47) madaris in the ARMM alone.
The alternative learning systems in the Philippines caters to the needs of the following: elementary and secondary school dropouts, kids that are older than the normal age for a specific grade level (this may be a 12 year old in grade 4), unemployed adults that have n't finished their education degree, indigenous people, people with disabilities or are mentally challenged, and inmates. It is possible to have both informal and formal references for these alternative learning systems because these are apart from the formal teaching institutions. Although similarly to the formal teaching institutions, there will be a diagnostic test for everyone that will participate in order to gauge the level they are at in terms of the skills needed per grade level. If there are people that do not have the basic skills such as reading and writing there will be an additional program that will help them first learn the basics before taking the diagnostic test. There will be a specific number of hours that is required of the student in order for him / her to be able to finish the program. There will be a final assessment to test the comprehensive knowledge of the student. If the students passes he / she will be given a certificate that is signed by the secretary of the department of education allowing the student to apply for college degrees, work, formal training programs, and can re-enroll in elementary / secondary education in formal teaching institutions.
There are other avenues of alternative learning in the Philippines such as the Radio - Based Instruction (RBI) Program. This is designed to give the lectures through a radio transmission making it easier for people to access wherever they are. The goal is for the listeners to receive the same amount of education that people that sit in classroom lectures.
Non-formal technical and vocational education is assumed by institutions usually accredited and approved by TESDA: center - based programs, community - based programs and enterprise - based training, or the Alternative Learning System (ALS). The Institutions may be government operated, often by provincial government, or private. They may offer programs ranging in duration from a couple of weeks to two - year diploma courses. Programs can be technology courses like automotive technology, computer technology, and electronic technology; service courses such as caregiver, nursing aide, hotel and restaurant management; and trades courses such as electrician, plumber, welder, automotive mechanic, diesel mechanic, heavy vehicle operator & practical nursing. Upon graduating from most of these courses, students may take an examination from TESDA to obtain the relevant certificate or diploma.
In the country, there are a number of people particularly kids that do not receive proper education from formal education institutions because of various reasons. These reasons usually pertain to financial problems.
When it comes to influence, the educational system of the Philippines has been affected immensely by the country 's colonial history including the Spanish period, American period, and Japanese rule and occupation. Although having been significantly influenced by all its colonizers with regard to the educational system, the most influential and deep - rooted contributions arose during the American occupation (1898); it was during this aforementioned period that:
Similar to the United States, the Philippines has had an extensive and extremely inclusive system of education including features such as higher education.
The present Philippine educational system firstly covers six years of compulsory education (from grades 1 to 6), divided informally into two levels - both composed of three years. The first level is known as the Primary level and the second level is known as the Intermediate level.
However, although the Philippine educational system has extensively been a model for other Southeast Asian countries, in recent years such a matter has no longer stood true, and such a system has been deteriorated - such a fact is especially evident and true in the country 's more secluded poverty - stricken regions.
Most of the Philippines faces several issues when it comes to the educational system.
First of which, is the quality of education. In the year 2014, the National Achievement Test (NAT) and the National Career Assessment Examination (NCAE) results show that there had been a decline in the quality of Philippine education at the elementary and secondary levels. The students ' performance in both the 2014 NAT and NCAE were excessively below the target mean score. Having said this, the poor quality of the Philippine educational system is manifested in the comparison of completion rates between highly urbanized cities of Metro Manila, which is also happens to be not only the country 's capital region but the largest metropolitan area in the Philippines and other places in the country such as Mindanao and Eastern Visayas. Although Manila is able to boast a primary school completion rate of approximately 100 percent, other areas of the nation, such as Eastern Visayas and Mindanao, hold primary school completion rate of only 30 percent or even less. This kind of statistic is no surprise to the education system in the Philippine context, students who hail from Philippine urban areas have the financial capacity to complete at the very least their primary school education.
The second issue that the Philippine educational system faces is the budget for education. Although it has been mandated by the Philippine Constitution for the government to allocate the highest proportion of its government to education, the Philippines remains to have one of the lowest budget allocations to education among ASEAN countries.
The third prevalent issue the Philippine educational system continuously encounters is the affordability of education (or lack thereof). A big disparity in educational achievements is evident across various social groups. Socioeconomically disadvantaged students otherwise known as students who are members of high and low - income poverty - stricken families, have immensely higher drop - out rates in the elementary level. Additionally, most freshmen students at the tertiary level come from relatively well - off families. (Source needed)
France Castro, the secretary of Alliance of Concerned Teachers (ACT), stated that there is a grave need to address the alarming number of out - of - school youth in the country. The Philippines overall has 1.4 million children who are out - of - school, according to UNESCO 's data, and is additionally the only ASEAN country that is included in the top 5 countries with the highest number of out - of - school youth. In 2012, the Department of Education showed data of a 6.38 % drop - out rate in primary school and a 7.82 % drop - out rate in secondary school. Castro further stated that "the increasing number of out - of - school children is being caused by poverty. The increases in the price of oil, electricity, rice, water, and other basic commodities are further pushing the poor into dire poverty. '' Subsequently, as more families become poorer, the number of students enrolled in public schools increases, especially in the high school level. In 2013, the Department of Education estimated that there are 38, 503 elementary schools alongside 7,470 high schools.
There is a large mismatch between educational training and actual jobs. This stands to be a major issue at the tertiary level and it is furthermore the cause of the continuation of a substantial amount of educated yet unemployed or underemployed people. According to Dean Salvador Belaro Jr., the Cornell - educated Congressman representing 1 - Ang Edukasyon Party - list in the House of Representatives, the number of educated unemployed reaches around 600,000 per year. He refers to said condition as the "education gap ''.
Brain drain is a persistent problem evident in the educational system of the Philippines due to the modern phenomenon of globalization, with the number of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) who worked abroad at any time during the period April to September 2014 was estimated at 2.3 million. This ongoing mass immigration subsequently induces an unparalleled brain drain alongside grave economic implications. Additionally, Philippine society hitherto is footing the bill for the education of millions who successively spend their more productive years abroad. Thus, the already poor educational system of the Philippines indirectly subsidizes the opulent economies who host the OFWs.
There exists a problematic and distinct social cleavage with regard to educational opportunities in the country. Most modern societies have encountered an equalizing effect on the subject of education. This aforementioned divide in the social system has made education become part of the institutional mechanism that creates a division between the poor and the rich.
There are large - scale shortages of facilities across Philippine public schools - these include classrooms, teachers, desks and chairs, textbooks, and audio - video materials. According to 2003 Department of Education Undersecretary Juan Miguel Luz, reportedly over 17 million students are enrolled in Philippine public schools, and at an annual population growth rate of 2.3 per cent, about 1.7 million babies are born every year which means that in a few years time, more individuals will assert ownership over their share of the (limited) educational provisions. To sum it up, there are too many students and too little resources. Albeit the claims the government makes on increasing the allocated budget for education, there is a prevalent difficulty the public school system faces with regard to shortages. Furthermore, state universities and colleges gradually raise tuition so as to have a means of purchasing facilities, thus making tertiary education difficult to access or more often than not, inaccessible to the poor. However, it is worth taking note of what the Aquino administration has done in its five years of governance with regard to classroom - building - the number of classrooms built from 2005 to the first half of the year 2010 has tripled. Additionally, the number of classrooms that were put up from the year 2010 to February 2015 was recorded to be at 86,478, significantly exceeding the 17,305 classrooms that were built from 2005 to 2010 and adequate enough to counterbalance the 66,800 classroom deficit in the year 2010.
In President Aquino 's fourth state of the nation address (SONA), he spoke of the government 's achievement of zero backlog in facilities such as classrooms, desks and chairs, and textbooks which has addressed the gap in the shortages of teachers, what with 56,085 new teachers for the 61, 510 teaching items in the year 2013. However, the data gathered by the Department of Education shows that during the opening of classes (June 2013), the shortages in classrooms was pegged at 19, 579, 60 million shortages when it came to textbooks, 2.5 million shortages with regard to chairs, and 80, 937 shortages of water and sanitation facilities. Furthermore, 770 schools in Metro Manila, Cebu, and Davao were considered overcrowded. The Department of Education also released data stating that 91 % of the 61, 510 shortages in teachers was filled up alongside appointments (5, 425 to be specific) are being processed.
There is a dispute with regard to the quality of education provided by the system. In the year 2014, the National Achievement Test (NAT) and the National Career Assessment Examination (NCAE) results show that there had been a decline in the quality of Philippine education at the elementary and secondary levels. The students ' performance in both the 2014 NAT and NCAE were excessively below the target mean score. Having said this, the poor quality of the Philippine educational system is manifested in the comparison of completion rates between highly urbanized city of Metro Manila, which is also happens to be not only the country 's capital but the largest metropolitan area in the Philippines and other places in the country such as Mindanao and Eastern Visayas. Although Manila is able to boast a primary school completion rate of approximately 100 percent, other areas of the nation, such as Eastern Visayas and Mindanao, hold primary school completion rate of only 30 percent or even less. This kind of statistic is no surprise to the education system in the Philippine context, students who hail from Philippine urban areas have the financial capacity to complete at the very least their primary school education.
The second issue that the Philippine educational system faces is the budget for education. Although it has been mandated by the Philippine Constitution for the government to allocate the highest proportion of its government to education, the Philippines remains to have one of the lowest budget allocations to education among ASEAN countries. The third prevalent issue the Philippine educational system continuously encounters is the affordability of education (or lack thereof). A big disparity in educational achievements is evident across various social groups. Socioeconomically disadvantaged students otherwise known as students who are members of high and low - income poverty - stricken families have immensely higher drop - out rates in the elementary level. Additionally, most freshmen students at the tertiary level come from relatively well - off families. Lastly, there is a large proportion of mismatch, wherein there exists a massive proportion of mismatch between training and actual jobs. This stands to be a major issue at the tertiary level and it is furthermore the cause of the continuation of a substantial amount of educated yet unemployed or underemployed people.
The third issue involves the timing for requiring Grades 11 and 12. According to Sec. 4 of Republic Act No. 10533, "The enhanced basic education program encompasses at least one (1) year of kindergarten education, six (6) years of elementary education, and six (6) years of secondary education, in that sequence. Secondary education includes four (4) years of junior high school and two (2) years of senior high school education. '' However, according to Sec. 4 of Republic Act No. 10157, "Kindergarten education is hereby institutionalized as part of basic education and for school year 2011 - 2012 shall be implemented partially, and thereafter, it shall be made mandatory and compulsory for entrance to Grade 1. '' That means in order to follow the enhanced basic education program, students must take kindergarten before taking six years of elementary education, followed by six years of secondary education, which includes Grades 11 and 12. But since kindergarten became mandatory and implemented fully only in SY 2012 - 2013, then Grade 11 can only be required in SY 2023 - 2024.
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who does the voice for how it's made | How It 's Made - Wikipedia
How It 's Made (Comment c'est fait in Quebec) is a documentary television series that premiered on January 6, 2001, on the Discovery Channel in Canada, and Science in the United States. The program is produced in the Canadian province of Quebec by Productions MAJ, Inc. and Productions MAJ 2.
The show is a documentary showing how common, everyday items (including clothing and accessories like alligator handbags, foodstuffs like bubble gum, industrial products such as engines, musical instruments such as guitars, and sporting goods such as snowboards) are manufactured.
How It 's Made is filmed without explanatory text to simplify overdubbing in different languages. For example, the show currently avoids showing a narrator or onscreen host, does not often have employees of featured companies speak on camera, and keeps human interaction with the manufacturing process to a bare minimum.
An off - screen narrator explains each process, often with humorous puns. Each half - hour show usually has three or four main segments, with each product getting a demonstration of approximately five minutes; exceptions are allowed in the allotted time for more complex products. Usually, every show has at least one product with a historic background note preceding it, showing how and where the product originated, and what people used before it.
In April 2007, all episodes run in the United States (on the Discovery Channel and Science) had the individual season openings replaced with a new opening used for every episode. Similar to most other Discovery Channel shows, the credits now run during the last segment, with only a blue screen and the request for feedback (and the website) at the end.
In September 2007, the ninth season began airing on Science, along with new openings, graphics, and soundtracks, and Zac Fine replaced Brooks T. Moore as the narrator. However, the eleventh season, which started airing in September 2008, reinstated Moore as the narrator and reverted to a previous title sequence and soundtrack.
In June 2008, the Science Channel added How It 's Made: Remix, which consists of previous segments arranged into theme installments like "Food '', "Sporting Goods '', and such. In 2013, the Science Channel added How It 's Made: Dream Cars, which focused exclusively on high - performance and exotic cars. These were later shown on the Velocity channel.
Canadian hosts have included Mark Tewksbury (season 1, 2001), Lynn Herzeg (seasons 2 -- 4, 2002 -- 2004), June Wallack (season 5, 2005) and Lynne Adams (season 6 onwards, 2006 -- present).
A different voice - over track is recorded for US audiences by Brooks Moore (seasons 1 -- 8, 2001 -- 2007, 2008 -- present) and Zac Fine (2007 -- 2008). The scripts are almost identical but the main difference in the US versions are that the units of measurement are given in United States customary units instead of metric units. At one point in the US run, a subtitled conversion was shown on - screen over the original narration.
In the United Kingdom, the rest of Europe, and in some cases in Southeast Asia, the series is narrated by Tony Hirst.
Common Sense Media gave the TV show a rating of 4 / 5 stars, writing "Curious kids and adults will learn from the show, and some segments can really broaden your perspective ''. On the show 's success despite its formulaic nature, Rita Mullin, the general manager of the Science Channel, said "I think what is one of the great appeals of the show as a viewer myself is how little has changed over the years ''. The Wall Street Journal deemed it "TV 's quietest hit ''.
The series was spoofed in an episode of Rick and Morty in a segment where a "Plumbus '' was being made, and again in a Captain Disillusion video showing how hoax UFO videos are made.
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who is the white guy in compton most wanted | Compton 's Most Wanted - wikipedia
Compton 's Most Wanted (C.M.W.) is an American gangsta rap group and one of the original pioneers of the West Coast hip hop scene. The leaders of the group are MC Eiht and Tha Chill.
C.M.W. included rappers MC Eiht, Boom Bam, Tha Chill, DJ Ant Capone, who was later replaced by designated scratcher DJ Mike T, and producers DJ Slip and The Unknown DJ.
In the mid-1980s, founding members Tha Chill and MC Eiht were writing raps and recording demo tapes (also called "hood tapes '') in their spare time while gang bangin ' in their hood in Compton CA. Tha Chill and MC Eiht choose to leave that street corner hustle scene in Compton and start making money in a legit but fun way when they saw their long time friend MC Ren of the multi platinum West Coast hip hop group N.W.A. started to create a huge street buzz in the Los Angeles County area by releasing records along with rapper Eazy E, Dr. Dre, Ice Cube and Arabian Prince. In 1987, while in Compton, The Unknown DJ was given one of these "hood tapes '' by a friend and became very interested in the diverse style and rhyme schemes of the "Compton 's Most Wanted '' rap group. The Unknown DJ then took the "hood tape '' to DJ Slip in Gardena, a city just south of Compton, who at the time was the owner of Los Angeles County 's largest DJ Rental business called "Music People - DJ4HIRE ''.
In 1988, Compton 's Most Wanted under the production leadership of "Terry DJ Slip Allen '' recorded their 1st ever professional songs called Rhymes To Funky. It was one of the many featured songs on the "Sound Control Mob - Under Investigation '' Compton compilation album on "Kru Cut / City Fresh Records '', along with artist like: "Vanilla C '', "PG 13 '' and "MC Looney Tunes A.K.A. MC Loon E Toons ''. This label was owned by Compton, CA. Executive producers Alonzo Williams A.K.A. "Grandmaster Lonz ' of the World Class Wreckin ' Crew and Charles Turner
In 1989, C.M.W. released their first single "This Is Compton '' b / w "Give It Up '' and "I Give Up Nothin ' '' (pt. 1) on The Unknown DJ Los Angeles, CA. based record label Techno Hop Records. Techno Hop Records label was primarily an Electro genre label, but thru the futuristic mind of The Unknown DJ, he single handedly launched the legendary west coast gangsta rap genre with songs by Ice T "6 In The Mornin ' '' and King Tee "Ya Better Bring A Gun '' featuring Mixmaster Spade. In the middle of recording this maxi single "This Is Compton '' b / w "Give It Up '' and "I Give Up Nothin ' '' managing misunderstanding started to occur between DJ Ant Capone who, along with his father "Old Man Conway '', were acting managers for C.M.W. on the "Sound Control Mob - Under Investigation '' (Compton Compilation album) and The Unknown DJ. Soon after DJ Ant Capone choose to leave the group.
In 1990, C.M.W. released their first album, It 's a Compton Thang on Orpheus Records which featured the hit single and video "One Time Gaffled Em Up ''. It 's a Compton Thang was entirely produced by DJ Slip and The Unknown DJ and all song lyrics were written by MC Eiht. During the recording of this album Tha Chill was arrested for "joy riding, '' but was released a few weeks later on time served and finished recording his remaining verses on the songs of the album. The album peaked at # 132 in the U.S. charts.
A year later in 1991, the group C.M.W. released their 2nd album, Straight Checkn ' Em, which featured popular hits songs like "Growin ' Up In tha Hood '', "Driveby Miss Daisy '', "Compton 's Lynchin ' '', and the first version of the "Def Wish '' series... "Growin ' Up In The Hood '' was also released on Warner Bros for the John Singleton block buster movie Boyz n the Hood starring Ice Cube, Cuba Gooding Jr., Laurence Fishburne, Nia Long and Morris Chestnut. During the recording of this album Tha Chill once again was arrested and this time sent to prison. This altercation had happen some months before the album was released and Tha Chill did not have the chance to participate on any of the other songs recordings, except for the original album version of "Growin ' Up In The Hood ''. However, the album Straight Check'n Em was a bigger success than their previous album, peaking at # 92 in the U.S. charts.
Again in 1992, the group released their third and most successful studio album, Music to Driveby. It featured the single "Hood Took Me Under '' which the original song was produced by DJ Mike T and the remix single and video version by DJ Slip. This song charted at # 5 in U.S. The "Hood Took Me Under '' album version was also featured years later in 2004 on the popular PlayStation 2 video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas radio station, Radio Los Santos and in 2005 for Microsoft Windows and Xbox. MC Eiht also has a voice roll one of the game characters "Ryder ''. The album charted at # 66 in the U.S. U.S. charts and is considered a classic by many people. C.M.W. are known especially for their slow, often melancholic raps, using samples from 1970s soul and funk records such as "Joy '' and "Walk On By '' by Isaac Hayes and "Love T.K.O. '' by Teddy Pendergrass. They are also known for using movie samples such as "Scareface '' and "Deep Cover ''. Freestyle keyboardist, saxophone and harmonica player Willie Zimmerman, though not officially a member, is used extensively on songs Drive By Miss Daisy, Def Wish, Niggaz Strugglin, U 's A Bitch, and Hood Rat.
On the Music To Driveby album song "Who 's * * * * ing Who, '' produced by DJ Mike T and DJ Slip which took aimed at Bronx, NY old school rapper Timothy "Tim Dog '' Blair. This whole altercation had begun while C.M.W. was on there album promotional tour for Straight Checkn ' Em in 1990. While at a Sony music release party for all the labels under the Sony Corporation. Epic Records Compton 's Most Wanted and Columbia Records Tim Dog were at the party. C.M.W. met Tim Dog and he explained his reasons for recording the "Fuck Compton '' song saying it was a personal beef against N.W.A 's Dr. Dre for an altercation with female rapper / television personality Dee Barnes from the rap video show Pump It Up. Tim Dog felt that since Dee Barnes was born in New York City he had to address the issue represent all New Yorkers in some type of way. He also stated that he did n't like jeri curls and he also hated R&B singer Michel'le 's voice. But all that changed while taking pictures when Tim Dog asked members DJ Mike T and MC Eiht to spread a message to all Compton and West Coast hip hop rappers that "he was accepting all diss records and he wanted to start a U.T.F.O. style of dissing like the "Roxanne Roxanne '' era. DJ Mike T got infuriated by the gimmick approach, knowing that the New York / Los Angeles feud was about to boil over and Tim Dog rhyme style was getting outdated in New York by their next generation of rap. Once back on the West Coast DJ Mike T had to convince MC Eiht to write a song because MC Eiht already knowing that Tim Dog was already irrelevant with his one hit wonder. C.M.W. released their 2nd single / video "Def Wish 2 '' was focused at well - known Compton rapper name DJ Quik after, MC Eiht fellow gang members convinced him that DJ Quik made a low key diss in a controversial statement on his "underground tape '', prior to his signing with Profile Records. "Def Wish 2 '' along with "Another Victim, Dead Men Tell No Lies, U 's A Bitch, Hood Rat '', were the last 5 songs ever produced again by The Unknown DJ for Compton 's Most Wanted, before being relieved of his production contract from Epic Records for sub selling MC Eiht writers publishing, misdirecting funds and covering it up in a fraudulent business tax write - off. It was the last album C.M.W. released before their long hiatus.
Finally, after a break of eight years, C.M.W. released Represent in 2000 on the independent record label Half Ounce Records Inc. owned by MC Eiht, Boom Bam and deceased rapper Bird from Lil Hawk and Bird. The album featured the single "This Is Compton 2000 '' and "Some May Know '', but did not achieve the success of their previous albums.
In 2006, C.M.W. released Music to Gang Bang on B Dub Records, which contained four singles, most notably the single titled "Music to Gang Bang '', with original member MC Eiht and newest members "Big 2Da Boy and Diamond Rich ''. However the album was not as commercially successful as previous releases.
By serving over 2 years in prison Tha Chill had missed recording on two of C.M.W. biggest albums "Straight Checkn ' Em and Music to Driveby ''. So MC Eiht had a better plan to revamp Tha Chill rapping career and choose to connect him with Compton rapper and fellow gang brother Boom Bam to form the group Niggas On The Run. Tha Chill agreed with MC Eiht plan and began to tour with C.M.W. opening up for all their shows with songs from N.O.T.R.. In 1994, the N.O.T.R. rap album was shelved after the short release and members Tha Chill and Boom Bam became current members of the Compton 's Most Wanted team. Tha Chill had never let making a few mistakes in life shorten his goals on becoming a respected artist. Knowing how to play the drums at an early age he ventured in producing and started recording songs for MC Eiht, MC Ren, Compton rapper C.P.O., Kokane, Jayo Felony, Killafornia Organization, Wanted Gang, Chillafornia, 1st Generation rap group King Tee, Kurupt, MC Eiht, Jayo Felony, producers Battle Catt and Sir Jinxs, Diirty OG'z with Kurupt, Tray Dee and Weasel Loc and the list goes on. Tha Chill is due any day in 2017 to release his solo album "4 Wit 80 '' written and produced by himself with some features of many popular artist and of all the original Compton 's Most Wanted members: MC Eiht, Boom Bam and DJ Mike T.
After "Music To Driveby '', MC Eiht had 3 albums left under contract with Epic Records and decided to purse a solo career since he had already written the lyrics for all three C.M.W. previous albums. In 1994, MC Eiht debut solo album "We Come Strapped '' featuring C.M.W. which was certified "Gold '' after selling over 500,000 copies. In 1995, he released his 2nd solo album "Death Threatz '' featuring C.M.W. In 1996,) MC Eiht released his 3rd and last album on Epic Records "Last Man Standing '' to finish out the 5 - album deal with them. In 1997 and 1998, MC Eiht signed to Mack 10 "Ho Bangin Records '' and release "Thicker Than Water '' title song for the block buster movie "Thicker Than Water '' and recorded 2 album as well "Section 8 and N ' My Neighborhood ''. In the publics eye MC Eiht is a very underrated artist for the fact he has released a solo album, song features with popular artist such as: 2004 Snoop Dogg "Wet Like Candy '' on the album Blue Carpet Treatment, 2004 and 2006 MC Eiht released collaboration album with Spice 1 "The Pioneers '' and "Keep It Gangsta '' and Brotha Lynch Hung "The New Season '', 2010 1st Generation rap group with west coast artist King Tee, Kurupt, Tha Chill, Jayo Felony, producers Sir Jinxs and Battle Catt. "Sharks In The Water '', "Killin ' Me Softly '' and "Whole World Spends '' and 2013 Kendrick Lamar "M.A.A.D City '' and various mixtapes every year since 1994 except for 2008, 2011 and 2016 where he stayed either working on tour or recording studio songs with himself and other artist. In 2016 MC Eiht recorded a feature on a young Compton rapper album known as "Problem '' produced by DJ Quik which is soon to be released. In 2017 MC Eiht has joined forces with DJ Premier of Gangstarr and recorded his solo album "Which Way Is West '' with features by Tha Chill, "Young Maylay '', "Dub C '' of the Westside Connection and many more
Since the formation of Compton 's Most Wanted in 1989, DJ Mike T was also known as one of the most top rated DJ 's in the Los Angeles, CA. club scene. He worked in all the most popular dance spots in the Hollywood and Downtown areas for a promotional company known as "Diamond Productions In 1991 Diamond Productions had teamed up with R&B and hip hop singing group Bell, Biv, DeVoe and created an epic club era in the Los Angeles area called "Mental Mondays '' with music provided by DJ Mike T. DJ Mike T has also produced songs for artist that were featured on DJ Slip "Sound Control Mob - Under Investigation (Compton compilation) '' album. Such as: 1990, Vanilla C A.K.A. Ms. Vee and The Flava System song "Pump It '' on Thump Records. 1990, PG 13 song "Childs Play '' on the Rollin ' Wit Da PG executive produced by The Unknown DJ on Quality Records. MC Eiht also had a feature on "Young Riders '' and written a few songs on this album as well. 1991, DJ Mike T produced 3 songs on the "Compton Cartel - Back In The Hood '' for "MC Looney Tunes A.K.A. Loon E Toons '' song Lets Get Hype, "MC Shaheed '' song Addressing The Blackman and "MC T Bear song Non Believers on Par Records. 1993, MC Loon E Toons and DJ Mike Tee "Inglewoodz Finast '' (EP) on Power Move Records. 1996, "Flamin ' Compilation '' album with the songs by the Crenshaw Mafias with their song titled "Crenshaw Mafia '' and Lil Hawk song "Crabs Keep On Slippin '' on Triple X Records in the U.S.A. and Dolphin Entertainment in Japan. Currently DJ Mike T A.K.A. "DJ Mike TzLee '' is working from his home studio producing and DJ'ing on mixtapes "Startin ' Frum Skratch Studio '' under the W.C. Skratch Gang production team http://wcskratchgang.com.
DJ Slip sub leased part of Cherokee Studios in the Fairfax, Los Angeles area and opened up "X Factor Studios '' where he recorded popular Los Angeles rappers such as 1995, I Smooth 7 debut album Ghetto Life with songs produced by himself and others like DJ Battle Catt and DJ Fat Jack and scratching by DJ Mike T. Also in 1995, DJ Slip also recorded and mixed MC Eiht 's 2nd solo album Death Threatz. In 2001 DJ Slip started working for an Independent studio / label West Coast hip hop IV Life Records.
In 2008, Compton rapper The Game revealed in an interview that he was in talks with MC Eiht to revive the group; however, this has yet to materialize.
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who makes the battery for the chevy bolt | Chevrolet Bolt - Wikipedia
The Chevrolet Bolt or Chevrolet Bolt EV is a front - motor, five - door all - electric subcompact hatchback marketed by Chevrolet; developed and manufactured in partnership with LG Corporation. A rebadged European variant is sold as the Opel Ampera - e.
The Bolt has an EPA all - electric range of 238 mi (383 km), and EPA fuel economy rating of 119 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg - e) (2.0 L / 100 km) for combined city / highway driving, The European Ampera - e, has a certified range of 320 mi (520 km) under the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) and 240 mi (380 km) under the more strict Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedures (WLTP).
Production for the model year 2017 began in November 2016. The European version began production in February 2017. U.S. sales began in California in December 2016, with nationwide US and Canadian release in 2017.
At its introduction, the Bolt was named the 2017 Motor Trend Car of the Year, the 2017 North American Car of the Year, and an Automobile Magazine 2017 All Star -- and was listed in Time Magazine Best 25 Inventions of 2016.
GM Korea began developing the Bolt in 2012 with a team of 180 people, and with its initial concept debuting at the 2015 North American International Auto Show.
As of June 2015, General Motors had tested more than 50 Bolt prototypes hand - built at the General Motors Proving Grounds in Milford, Michigan. The cars were tested at the proving grounds and overseas locations for ride and handling dynamics, cabin comfort, quietness, charging capability, and energy efficiency.
Alan Batey, head of General Motors North America, announced in February 2015 that the Bolt EV was headed for production, and would be available in all 50 states. GM also has plans to sell the Bolt in select global markets.
In January 2016, at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, the production version of the Chevrolet Bolt was unveiled. At the show, during GM CEO Mary Barra 's keynote, Chevrolet confirmed an estimated range of 200 mi (320 km) or more, around US $30,000 price after government incentives, and stated it would be available in late 2016. Barra projected in February 2016 that the European version, marketed as the Opel Ampera - e, would enter production in 2017.
In March 2016, GM released photos and a short pre-production video of the Bolt at the company 's Orion Assembly plant outside Detroit, testing manufacturing and tooling.
An unnamed source cited by Bloomberg News estimates that General Motors is expected to take a loss of between US $8,000 and US $9,000 per Bolt sold. A GM spokesman first declined to comment on the expected profitability. Opel refuted that in December 2016 and states that GM has battery cell costs of $130 / kWh, and industry is not yet optimized for mass production.
Final assembly takes place at GM 's Orion Assembly plant in Orion Township, Michigan, which received a US $160 million upgrade for Bolt production. Manufacture of the battery, motor, and drive unit started in August 2016 at LG, Incheon, South Korea.
The car is designed for flexible production by having some of the battery in the same position as the fuel tank in internal combustion engine - powered cars, and is made on the same assembly line as the Chevrolet Sonic at a combined rate of 90,000 per year.
Analysts expected Bolt production at 22,000 per year, and Ampera - e at a few thousand. Production may increase to 30,000 to 50,000 per year according to demand. Initial regular production had begun by early November 2016 at a rate of 9 per hour, gradually increasing to 30 / hour. Retail deliveries began in California in December 2016.
Regular production was expected to begin in October 2016 at 25,000 - 30,000 the first year.
The Bolt was designed from 2012 by a team of 180 people in GM 's Korea studio (formerly Daewoo Korea), as B - segment size on its own platform, and does not share elements with the GM Gamma platform cars Chevrolet Sonic / Spark / Opel Corsa.
The EPA classifies the Bolt as "small station wagon '', with less than 130 cu ft of interior volume. GM refers to the Bolt as a crossover. The passenger volume is 94 cu ft (2,700 L), and cargo space is 17 cu ft (480 L) (381 liter).
The Bolt 's doors, tailgate, and hood are aluminum. The driver can adjust the level of regenerative braking as the accelerator pedal is lifted. GM plans for "Over-the - air software updates '' during 2017. The front seats are asymmetrical to maximize cabin volume while accommodating airbags.
The Bolt 's battery uses "nickel - rich lithium - ion '' chemistry, allowing the cells to run at higher temperatures than those in GM 's previous electric vehicles, allowing a simpler and cheaper liquid cooling system for the 60 kWh (220 MJ) battery pack. The battery pack is a stressed member and weighs 960 lb (440 kg). It accounts for 23 % of the car 's value, and is composed of 288 flat "landscape '' format cells (similar in shape to cells used in other GM products, but contrasting the cylindrical 18650 and 21 - 70 cells used by Tesla). Cells are bundled into groups of three connected in parallel, and 96 groups connected in series compose the pack. The battery is rated at 160 kW power to avoid limiting the 150 kW / 340 Nm motor. GM offers a battery warranty of 8 years / 100,000 miles (160,000 km), and has no plans for other battery sizes.
In October 2015, General Motors said they will purchase the Bolt 's battery cells at a price of $145 per kilowatt hour from LG Chem, representing a minimum of $8,700 in revenue per car. The cost is reportedly about $100 cheaper per kWh than the price LG was giving other customers at the time. GM estimated a cell price of $130 / kWh in December 2016.
While initially expected to share its lithium - ion battery technology with the second generation Chevrolet Volt, the production version of the Bolt uses batteries with a different chemistry more suited to the different charge cycles of a long - range electric vehicle, compared to the more frequent charging / discharging of hybrids and short - range EVs.
Other specifications include a 200 hp (150 kW) and 266 lb ⋅ ft (361 N ⋅ m) Interior Permanent Magnet electric motor, acceleration from 0 -- 30 mph (0 -- 48 km / h) in 2.9 seconds and 0 -- 60 mph (0 -- 97 km / h) in less than 7 seconds, and a top speed of 91 mph (146 km / h). The electric motor is integrated with a single - speed transmission and differential, to form a single modular drive unit that connects directly to the front axles. The single - speed transmission has a final drive ratio of 7.05: 1.
The Bolt EV is tall hatchback design, with a curb weight of 3,580 pounds (1,625 kg). Despite its overall height of nearly 63 inches (1.6 meters), the center of gravity is under 21 inches (53 cm) above the ground, yielding surprisingly stable handling during cornering. The low center of gravity is due to under - floor mounting of the battery pack, following the lead of Tesla 's Model S.
Bolt uses the now - common kammback / hatchback low - drag body design, with sweeping curves leading to an abrupt back end. It was initially reported to have a drag coefficient of Cd = 0.32 but GM says the final production vehicle has Cd = 0.308.
Under the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) five - cycle test methodology, the Bolt fuel economy is rated at 119 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg - e) (2.0 L / 100 km) for combined driving, 128 mpg - e (1.8 L / 100 km) in city and 110 mpg - e (2.1 L / 100 km) in highway. Charging time is rated at 9.3 hours on a Level 2 fast charger.
The Bolt EV has a combined EPA - rated range of 238 mi (383 km). For city driving, the EPA rated the Bolt range at 255 mi (410 km), and due to its relative high drag coefficient, its range for highway driving is 217 mi (349 km). One Bolt owner was able to drive from McHenry, Maryland in the western part of the state to Ocean City, Maryland, a distance of 313 mi (504 km), on a single charge.
The Ampera - e has a certified range of 320 mi (520 km) under the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) test cycle with a full battery, and achieved a range of 240 mi (380 km) under the more strict Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedures (WLTP). Opel expected the Ampera - e to achieve a NEDC range of about 500 km (310 mi).
Until July 2017, the Bolt is the only plug - in electric car with a manufacturer 's suggested retail price (MSRP) of less than US $50,000 capable of delivering an EPA - rated range of over 200 mi (320 km). All other electric cars below that price threshold and available for retail sales, except the Tesla Model 3, can only go 60 to 125 mi (97 to 201 km) on a single charge. The Bolt also surpasses the range of Tesla 's entry - level Model S 60 sedan, which has an EPA - rated range of 210 mi (340 km). Among all - electric series production cars sold in the U.S., in addition to the Model 3, only the Tesla Model S sedan and Model X crossover can go more than 200 mi (320 km).
The Renault Zoe with the optional 41 kWh battery has a range of up 400 km (250 mi) under the NEDC cycle, but Renault clarified the upgraded battery delivers a real - world range of 300 km (190 mi) in urban or suburban areas.
All models of Bolt support standard SAE EV charging plugs, at Level 1 or Level 2 (AC). A factory option supports Level 3 (rapid DC) charging with the SAE Combo DC system. A portable Level 1 charging adapter is supplied with each Bolt, stowed in a special compartment under the hatchback floor.
Level 1 (110VAC) charging supplies roughly 1 kW and adds 3 -- 5 miles (5 -- 8 km) of range per hour of charging. Level 2 (240VAC) charging supplies up to 7.2 kW and adds 20 -- 30 miles (30 -- 50 km) of range per hour of charging. Level 3 charging with the factory - option 80 kW SAE Combo DC fast charging system can add 90 mi (140 km) of range in 30 minutes, or fill the battery to 80 % capacity in an hour. The Bolt user manual suggests fast - charging to only 80 % charge to ensure consistent 50 kW charging.
The Bolt EV is delivered with self - sealing tires whose interior surfaces are coated with a sticky compound to automatically seal small leaks and punctures in the tread area. There is no spare tire, nor is there (officially) a place to store one. The car is equipped with a digital Tire Pressure Monitoring System to warn the driver if a tire is leaking, and a portable inflator kit is available as a standard part. Under the rear hatchback cargo deck, there is a space that can be used to store an undersized spare, and some owners carry a compatible Chevy Cruze spare tire there.
The EPA - rated range of 238 mi (383 km) was confirmed by automotive reporters driving a preproduction Bolt with a 60 - kWh battery. Driven under different driving modes with the air conditioning on, the trip between Monterey and Santa Barbara was completed with an energy consumption of 50.1 kWh, representing an average efficiency of 4.8 miles per kWh (12.9 kWh / 100 km). A total of 237.8 mi (382.7 km) were driven, with the Bolt 's display showing 34 mi (55 km) of range remaining. Several other journalists conducted a preproduction Bolt test drive on the same route, and all reported similar results regarding the Bolt EPA - estimated range.
As part of its debut at the 2016 Paris Motor Show, Opel reported driving an Ampera - e without recharging from Piccadilly Circus in London to Porte de Versailles in Paris, the venue of the exhibition. The rebadged Bolt traveled 417 km (259 mi) with 80 km (50 mi) of range remaining.
Ordering began in California and Oregon in mid-October 2016. The first three Bolts were delivered in the San Francisco Bay Area on December 13, 2016, and a total of 579 units were delivered in 2016. Availability was rolled out gradually across the United States, and by August 2017 the car was available nationwide.
Demand profile did not exactly match predictions, leading GM to slow production in July 2017. However, in the last months of 2017 Bolt demand rose rapidly, by October, it outsold any other model of electric car, including those from Tesla. Sales totaled 23,297 units in 2017, making the Bolt the U.S. second best selling plug - in car in 2017 after the Tesla Model S (~ 26,500). In California, the Bolt listed as the top selling plug - in car with 13,487 units delivered, ahead of the Tesla Model S, listed second with 11,813. The Bolt also led the state 's subcompact segment in 2017, with a market share of 14.7 % of all new cars sold in this category. As of February 2018, cumulative sales in the American market totaled 26,477 units.
The Bolt has been available in Canada since the beginning of 2017. A total of 2,122 Bolt EVs were sold in Canada in 2017.
The Ampera - e launch in the Norwegian market was scheduled for April 2017, when 13 were registered. Deliveries to retail customers began on May 17, 2017. Over 4,000 cars were ordered in Norway, with some to be delivered in 2018. Registrations totaled 1,121 units in 2017.
In South Korea, General Motors opened the order books on March 18, 2017, and all 400 units of the first allotment were sold out in 2 hours.
The Bolt won the 2017 Motor Trend Car of the Year award, the 2017 North American Car of the Year, the 2017 AutoGuide.com Reader 's Choice Green Car of the Year, and the Green Car Reports Best Car To Buy 2017. The Bolt also ended up Car & Driver 's ' 10 Best Cars ' list for 2017 The Chevy Bolt also won the 2017 Green Car of the Year awarded by the Green Car Journal. It was also named by Time Magazine among its list of 25 Best Inventions of 2016, and among Popular Science 's 10 Greatest Automotive Innovations of 2016. The Bolt EV beat out the Cadillac CT6 and Jaguar XE to win the Detroit Free Press award for Car of the Year. Automobile magazine included the Bolt in its 2017 All Star list.
In 2015, Chevrolet acknowledged confusion between two vehicles with a similar - sounding names; Bolt and Volt.
Chevrolet 's marketing chief, Tim Mahoney, subsequently announced GM would keep the Bolt name.
Autoblog projected similar confusion among European customers where the Opel Ampera - e (the Bolt variant) is just one letter off from the Opel Ampera, the previous - generation Chevrolet Volt sold in Europe -- suggesting the names could confuse customers who think the new all - electric hatchback is closely related to the old plug - in hybrid hatchback.
Tata Motors has had a car named the Bolt on the market since 2014, and has registered the trademark in India and other countries.
If Chevrolet wants to sell the Bolt in India it would need to call it a different name due to the trademark Tata owns for its car or it license the name from Tata.
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pretty little liars why did spencer join the a team | Spencer Hastings - wikipedia
Jessica DiLaurentis (maternal aunt) Alison DiLaurentis (maternal cousin) sister
Spencer Hastings is a fictional character, one of the five main characters who appeared in the Pretty Little Liars novels and its television adaptation. Created by American author Sara Shepard, she is member of the group known as the Liars, and is best friend to the four other members, who are also protagonists. The character was developed for television by the series ' showrunner I. Marlene King, and appeared in each of the show 's 160 episodes during its seven - years - long run, from its premiere on June 8, 2010 to its finale on June 27, 2017. Spencer is known in the fictional town of Rosewood for her sophisticated charm and dedication to life goals. She is part of the extremely rich, powerful, old family Hastings; Spencer 's parents, Veronica and Peter, are both linked to politics and her sister, Melissa, is likewise intelligent and uses her sarcasm and success to affect Spencer psychologically whenever possible. Spencer 's characteristics and story have the same methodology in both books and television; however, there are some perceptual differences between the versions, since the television series does n't follows the books ' scripts.
For her role as Spencer, Bellisario was nominated thrice for Choice Summer TV Star: Female in the Teen Choice Awards, in which she won one. She was also nominated twice for Choice TV Actress: Drama, in which she won one of the two nominations.
Spencer is one of four primary protagonists in all sixteen of the Pretty Little Liars novels, starting with 2006 's Pretty Little Liars. She is portrayed as a competitive girl who strives for perfection in everything she does. Spencer is willing to do whatever it takes to win, often to the detriment of herself and others. She is known to have a dark side. She appears to suffer from rage - induced black outs, which leads her to question whether she had anything to do with the death of her friend Alison, and also shows signs of OCD. Spencer also suffers from drug addiction, which she began taking to help her improve her grades at a University of Pennsylvania summer school. She is the half - sister of Alison and Courtney DiLaurentis, as her father had an affair with Jessica DiLaurentis around the time of Spencer 's conception. Spencer has a permanent rivalry with her older sister, Melissa, who is also competitive. Throughout the series of books, the two discuss the implications of their individual successes of life, such as becoming the valedictorian of their classes and having winning essays. Throughout the story, the sisters make up, and in the later books they share a strong bond.
Troian Bellisario was cast as Spencer Hastings for the Pretty Little Liars television series adaptation in November 2009.
Spencer is a focused and intelligent girl. Unlike in the books, Spencer is more emotional and sentimental, and has great affection for her family and friends, and is also known to be more humorous than her book counterpart. She 's the most academically gifted of her friends, and in the running for valedictorian. Spencer is on the Rosewood Day field hockey team, and plays tennis at her family 's country club. She lives with her father, mother, and "perfect '' older sister, Melissa. She was the only one who could ever stand up to Alison, although they always made up.
Before the series ' chronology, Spencer had a brief affair with Ian Thomas, her sister 's groom at the time. Ian and Spencer kissed and Alison saw them together, and later she threatened to tell Melissa. It was later revealed that Alison asked Ian to kiss Spencer. Early in the series, Spencer 's sister Melissa was dating Wren Kingston. She was happy and confident, but Spencer and Wren started flirting and secretly dating. However, Melissa saw them together and banned Wren of her home. Their relationship continued till Spencer said goodbye to Wren and told him that she could n't stay with him anymore. Spencer and Wren seek each other again in the second season. Spencer and Alex Santiago were dating during early the first season. Alex confided the secret that he was accepted into a tennis clinic to Spencer. Later, they broke up when "A '' sent fake messages to Alex, making him believe that Spencer told his secret.
Spencer and Toby Cavanaugh had a friendly relationship in the second half of the first season, which was later evolved when they first kissed. Their relationship remained stable, until "A '' threatened Toby 's life to Spencer and she decided to end up things. They hook up again when Spencer discovers he was working to take "A '' down and they reunite at the town 's square. However, it was later revealed that Toby was actually working with "A, '' making Spencer break up with him. Then, Spencer started to believe that there were some reasons why Toby joined the A-Team, and she discovers that he 's alive and joined the team in order to protect her and to act as a double - agent. Their relationship stayed calm and on - going. In season 5, Toby becomes a cop, which makes his relationship with Spencer tough, since Spencer wants him to share all the information the police has, but Toby starts to prefer his duty. The love drought leads Spencer to other men -- Jonny Raymond and Colin. Spencer and Jonny were friends while Jonny was living in the renovated barn of Spencer 's family. He was discovered by the police and, before being arrested, kissed Spencer. Spencer goes to London with Melissa and she meets Colin there. They have happy days together, until Spencer had to leave London, and they kissed. When Spencer returned to Rosewood, she and Toby resumed their relationship. In the mid-season finale, Spencer moved to Georgetown to study and she had a pregnancy scare and she and Toby realized they wanted different things in their lives, leading to a break up.
Following the series ' five years jump on the mid-sixth season, Spencer and Caleb Rivers discovered their feelings for each other; they had sex and started dating later. They later broke up due to Caleb 's feelings for Hanna. Spencer and Toby begin dating again in the series finale.
Spencer Hastings is the "preppy girl '' of the group who strives to be perfect, because of her parent 's high expectations. Her newly engaged and condescending sister, Melissa, moves into the family barn which Spencer had been turning into a loft for herself. Spencer finds herself attracted to her sister 's fiancé, Wren, whom "A '' warns Spencer not to kiss or "A '' will tell. Wren does kiss Spencer and they are caught by Melissa, who insists that Wren move out.
Spencer starts dating a boy named Alex who works at her country club. Her mother initially dislikes him, but later reveals that he knew that she had a breast cancer scare. Spencer 's field hockey coach is her sister 's ex-boyfriend, Ian, whom both Ali and Spencer had a crush on. Spencer and Ali are always competing and she was the only one of Ali 's friends who would oppose her from time to time.
At the beginning of the series, Spencer was against Emily hanging out with Toby but eventually grew to like him and has been spending more and more time with him. In the episode "Person of Interest '', they spend time together in a motel room, as Spencer 's parents have a hard time understanding her connection with Ali 's murder. Spencer and Toby play scrabble, sleep in the same bed, and eventually kiss near the end of the episode.
In the following episodes, Spencer is told to stay away from Toby for her own good by her mother. Her sister Melissa was at the doctor and is asked all about Spencer 's case. She then makes an arrangement to see him in private at the town 's festival, only to be sent a fake text (presumably from "A '') telling her to meet Toby in the clown house. When she enters, she is locked into a small space. She is found by Ian, her mother, and her sister.
When leaving, she sees Toby and almost leaves without speaking to him, but then rushes to him, hugs him and kisses him in front of her shocked family. She anonymously tells Ian to meet them in the woods with money as they say that they know his secret. However, Spencer and Melissa get into a car accident and Melissa is stuck in the hospital. Spencer goes to the church to get Melissa 's phone and Ian is in the church waiting. She starts running upstairs and Ian tries to attack her but a mysterious figure appears and pushes Ian off the side and he dies. The rest of the girls arrive having been to the forest. They see the dead body and call the police.
When the police arrive the body is not there, leaving the rest of the town to think that the girls are liars. Spencer has a huge fight with Alison ending their friendship by telling Alison "You are dead to me '' the night she went missing. Melissa now thinks that Spencer has been texting her as Ian after finding his cell phone in her purse which was planted there by "A. ''.
In season 2, Spencer and Toby are dating. Toby does some yard work for the Hastings and digs up Spencer 's old field hockey stick which she gave to Ali before she died. Spencer 's father sees this and suspiciously takes the stick, and later burns it. After doing some further investigating, she reads Alison 's autopsy results and finds that she was struck in the head with an object similar to a field hockey stick. While Spencer and Toby are making out in Toby 's truck Toby believes he spots something in Jason DiLaurentis 's upstairs window but tells Spencer to ignore it. Spencer weary, looks for herself and spots two figures in the window presumably spying on Toby and her, Spencer wants to "show these bitches she is n't scared of them '' Toby protests thinking that it wo n't end up going over well when Spencer 's father comes out of the house. When Spencer asks questions her father refuses to answer. After fighting with both Spencer and Toby, Spencer 's father tells her to go home, Spencer ignores his wishes and gets into Toby truck and they drive away, while Spencer 's father yelling at her to get out of the car.
When Spencer later arrives home she wants answers, and gets some, finding out that her father did something illegal for the DiLaurentis 's implying that they had something on Spencer 's family but not giving away that information. Spencer later discovers that Wren came back to Rosewood for her. In order to keep Aria away from Jason, Spencer informed Ezra that they found pictures of his girlfriend Aria in Jason 's shed. When Spencer 's Chuckie doll orders her to "keep Toby safe '', Spencer resolves that the only way to keep Toby safe is to break up with him. Later, Toby is seen in the police station, professing his love to Spencer, but she unwillingly ignores him. She does seek Toby 's forgiveness on several occasions, but he seems to ignore her and stay brooding.
In episode 19 she finds out that Jason is her brother. This information causes a divide in her family. During episode 20 Spencer and Wren rekindle their relationship, however Spencer was drinking during the event. It is Spencer that keeps digging into the "A '' information, and is the one who eventually finds "A 's '' lair in the season 2 finale along with discovering A 's identity... who turns out to be Mona. She is essentially kidnapped by "A, '' and during a scuffle accidentally pushes "A '' off of a cliff, almost killing them. The rest of the girl 's arrive shaken by the ordeal and finding out their tormentor 's real identity. As the police arrive, Spencer is reunited with Toby, who says pretending not to love her back was the most difficult thing he 's ever done. The two then make up passionately kissing as Spencer smiles happily while kissing him.
Summer has passed since the unveiling of "A '', and the girls think they are safe - little do they know they need each other more than ever. The first half of the season focuses on Spencer finding out who the black swan was: her sister. Melissa tells her she received the dress at her door - with a note threatening her to wear it - and she assumed that it was Mona. Spencer decides to believe her, but is still a little suspicious. She grows closer to Toby, even having sex for the first time in the episode "The Lady Killer ''. In the same episode, however, it is revealed (not to the liars, but to the audience) that Toby is a member of The A-Team. Hanna finds the key to A 's new lair and gives it to Spencer. Toby sneaks into her house to retrieve it, not realizing Spencer set it as a trap to confirm her suspicions. She slaps him, after seeing him in the signature ' A jacket '. She does n't tell her friends, rather keeping it to herself.
She gives the key to a private investigator and gives him a picture of Toby and her, before ripping it in half. She tells him in order to find where the key leads to, follow him. He leaves and Spencer disturbingly begins to rip her own half of the picture of herself. She begins to withdraw herself from her friends, and becomes emotionally unstable. She is angry, and starts to unravel and do things she knows she should n't (attacking Mona physically, and telling Jason that Alison was pregnant before she died with Darren Wilden, but had no physical proof). In the episode "Hot Water '' she tells the girls the truth about Toby. Also in the same episode, she catches a glimpse of the girl in the red coat who is the leader of The ' A ' Team, but fails to catch up with her. In the episode "Out of Sight, Out of Mind '' she finds Toby 's dead body and tells him, "I love you ''. After failing to track Mona down in the woods she is found by a hiker in the morning with small injuries to her face and arms and is admitted to the Radley hospital in a catatonic state. She is unknown by doctors at the time and is simply known as, ' Jane Doe '. When her identity is revealed to the Radley staff, Mona visits her. They have a long discussion and it is revealed in "I 'm Your Puppet '' that Mona somehow convinces her to join the A team. Spencer is the third known member of the A team.
In the Season 3 finale "A Dangerous GAme '', it is revealed that Toby is alive. She meets him at a diner, and he reveals he only joined The ' A ' Team in order to protect her. They get back together and have sex for the second time in a motel. Spencer hosts a fake party at a lodge where the girls are supposed to meet "Red Coat '', when an unknown figure starts a fire, trapping Aria, Hanna, Emily, and Mona in the burning house. Toby leads Spencer in the woods to see who "Red Coat '' is. Red Coat lands in a helicopter, and Spencer catches a glimpse of her face and says "Ali? ''. The girl in the red coat drags everyone out of the house, and Hanna wakes up, face - to - face with Alison. Although 3 of the girls (Spencer, Hanna, Mona) claim to have seen Ali, it is still not 100 % sure that it was her, because it is possible it could have been a hallucination due to the effects of the fire. They drive and see Wilden 's car dug up from the lake. They (including Mona) get a text: You 're Mine Now. Kisses! - A, which is written in red font. They open the trunk, gasping and horrified at what they see.
Spencer and her friends continue to be tormented by A. After Ashley Marin is suspected to have killed Wilden and is taken into custody, Spencer supports Hanna while her mom defends Ashley 's case. She also supports Toby in finding out the truth about his mother even though she does not approve his trusting A for clues.
In the midseason finale, Spencer and her friends go to Ravenswood after receiving a puzzling clue from ' A. ' There she and her friends discover that there are two red coats, one being CeCe Drake. Spencer chase the other red coat who leads her to A 's Lair. Spencer presumes that the 2nd Redcoat is Alison. The second Redcoat leads Spencer and the other girls to an apartment, which when they enter and investigate, realize that it is A 's Lair and after finding a wardrobe with blazers and shoes that ' A ' is male, we later come to discover that it is Ezra 's apartment and he is ' A '. While in the lair they discover that A has not only been following them but also Alison, and ' A ' thinks that Alison will be in rosewood that night at a graveyard party. the girls discover what ' A ' costume is and decide to also go to the graveyard party and try to find Alison before ' A ' does. While looking for Alison, the girls find themselves separated in an old house, Spencer comes across ' A ' while looking for Hanna and knocks ' A ' out, however as she tries to unmask Ezra, she herself gets knocks out by Ezra. Once the girls are out of the house, they discover that Spencer 's tires are slashed and then Ezra turns up out of nowhere and drives them back home. The girls see Redcoat and follow her to Spencer 's garden and she turns around and we discover that it 's Alison and that she is not dead.
Following this, Spencer begins to try even harder to work out who A is, in order to make it safe for Alison to come home. Overwhelmed by both her investigation and school work, she begins abusing amphetamines. It is later revealed that she had abused them before and was addicted to them the summer prior to Ali 's disappearance. This leads her to begin to question her own role in the death of the girl in Ali 's grave that night. She eventually ends up being sent to rehab by her parents, and upon getting out, and meeting Ali in New York, is reassured that although her and Alison did fight whilst she was on the drugs, she did go back to sleep in the end.
With Alison 's return, Spencer has a hard time getting used with her domination. Spencer struggles with the idea of her father being the killer of Jessica DiLaurentis. Spencer 's rivalry with her sister Melissa is put to and end when Melissa reveals that she 's the one who buried Bethany Young, in order to protect Spencer. Later, Spencer is arrested for Bethany 's murder; however, she was released shortly after when the P.D. gets convinced that Alison is the one who is really responsible. Toby becomes a cop, which makes his relationship with Spencer tough, since Spencer wants him to share all the information the police has, but Toby starts to prefers to keep quiet. The love drought leads Spencer to other men -- Jonny and Colin. Spencer and Melissa 's relationship gets awkward again when Melissa lies to Spencer. In the season finale, Spencer and the others are arrested as accomplices to Mona 's murder; however, on the way to prison, their van is hijacked by "A. '' and they get taken to A 's ' DollHouse '
In the aftermath of the Liars ' abduction orchestrated by "A, '' Spencer 's old addiction surfaces again in order to relieve stress. A sleep disorder also recur due to the torture she had faced while being trapped in A 'S Dollhouse, and it heavily intensifies the addiction, making Spencer ask for help from Dean, and old counselor, and Sabrina, the new - in - charge at the Brew who gives Spencer brownies with marijuana. Spencer starts to investigate who 's behind the Carissimi Group and who Charles is. Meanwhile, her relationship with Toby remains untouchable. In the mid-season finale, it is revealed that CeCe Drake is "A, '' and the Liars finally gets peace.
Afterwards, Spencer moves to Georgetown in order to get involved with a future political career in Washington, D.C., and ends up in a lobbyist career. She returns to Rosewood five years later at Alison 's request, and also to depose on Charlotte 's release from psychological hospital. It is revealed that during the five last years she and Toby broke up because of the distance and the different future plans, and, following, she started a thrilling flirt with Caleb Rivers. Having to stay in Rosewood after Charlotte was murdered, she starts working on her mother 's election campaign for Senate, while the daughter of the other candidate is Yvonne Phillips, Toby 's current girlfriend. Spencer finds out that Charlotte was killed in a copycat manner off a murder she wrote an essay about in college, leading her to start thinking that the police could blame her for Charlotte 's death.
A new stalker, now entitled as "A.D. '', surfaces, resulting in tension. When a document about Yvonne 's mother leaks and Caleb takes the blame, Spencer goes crazy, and Toby fights with him. Spencer, along with the other Liars, Caleb, Mona and Toby, elaborate a plan to take "A.D. '' down, but everything goes down when the stalker kidnaps Hanna.
In "The Darkest Knight '', Spencer is shot by Uber A during the attack by Jenna and Noel. As Jenna is preparing to shoot her again, out of revenge for her and Charlotte, Mary Drake comes in and knocks Jenna out. Mary then cradles Spencer 's body and reveals that she is indeed Spencer 's mother, making Spencer the biological sister of CeCe Drake. In season 7b, Spencer and the other liars receive a big board game called "Liar 's Lament '', and in the episode "These Boots Are Made For Stalking '', it is revealed that Spencer is Mary Drake 's second child. In the last half of the last episode, we find out that Spencer was locked up inside a "cell ''. While the "Spencer '', who we saw kissing Toby and then having sex with, was actually Alex Drake, her twin sister, also known as A.D. Alex, jealous of Spencer, wanted to have everything she never had, a family, friends, and even Toby, who she had "fallen in love with '', so she kidnapped the real Spencer, pretending to be her all the time. And through the flashbacks, we are shown when Alex Drake impersonates her sister. It was Alex, not Spencer, who was with Hanna when Hanna was kidnapped. In the flashbacks, we are shown some examples of when Alex has "played '' Spencer. Alex was the one who asked Toby for "one last kiss, just to say goodbye '' in "The Darkest Knight ''. Spencer and Ezra, who had been kidnapped as well, escaped the cell, but soon were trapped with Alex. Spencer and Alex fought until the Liars plus Toby and Caleb found them. Both pleading to be the "real '' Spencer, Toby figures out who the real Spencer is by asking what is her favorite poem in the book she gave him in "The Darkest Knight ''. The real Spencer responds with the correct response and Alex is arrested along with Mary Drake. Spencer and Toby resume their relationship and start dating again at the end of the series.
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who played clyde in any which way you can | Manis (orangutan) - Wikipedia
Manis was the trained orangutan that played Clyde as Clint Eastwood 's sidekick in the 1978 box office hit Every Which Way But Loose. Its 1980 sequel, Any Which Way You Can (1980), did not feature Manis, as the "child actor '' had grown too much between productions. In the sequel two orangutans, C.J. and Buddha, shared the role. Although rumors about the cause of death of Buddha in 1980 point to abuse by his trainer on set, at least one source for the rumors may originate from a 1985 National Enquirer article.
Manis returned to working with his trainers ' act in Las Vegas.
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what episode does leela and fry get together | Meanwhile (Futurama) - wikipedia
"Meanwhile '' is the series finale of the American animated television series Futurama. It serves as the 26th episode of the seventh season, and the 140th episode of the series overall. The episode was written by Ken Keeler and directed by Peter Avanzino. It premiered on Comedy Central in the United States on September 4, 2013, along with a talk show special called Futurama Live that was aired prior to and following the episode.
Set in a retro - futuristic 31st century, the series follows the adventures of the employees of Planet Express, an interplanetary delivery company. As the conclusion to the series, "Meanwhile '' revolves around the romantic relationship between Fry and Leela. In the episode, Professor Farnsworth invents a button that allows the user to travel backwards in time by 10 seconds. However, the button is stolen and abused by Fry, who wants to use it to prolong the sunset during a romantic dinner after his marriage proposal to Leela.
Due to the recurrently uncertain production status of Futurama, "Meanwhile '' is the fourth episode written to serve as an ending to the series. It follows "The Devil 's Hands Are Idle Playthings '', Into the Wild Green Yonder and "Overclockwise '', all of which were also written by Ken Keeler.
The crew delivers a package to Luna Park, with Fry and Leela both mentioning that this is where they went on their first delivery. In the park, they go on a ride called the "Mecha - Hexadecapus ''. During the ride, Bender vomits out nuts and bolts and one of them jams the ride 's gears, causing Leela to fly out of the ride and out of the park 's glass dome and into space. Leela survives, however the worry of losing her again cements Fry 's decision to propose to her. Back at the Planet Express building, The Professor announces two new inventions: a time button that causes the entire universe to jump backward 10 seconds in time, and a shelter that shields people from the button 's effects. Fry takes the button and uses it to repeatedly steal candidate diamonds for an engagement ring. After presenting the ring to Leela, he invites her to meet him atop the Vampire State Building at 6: 30 pm if she agrees to marry him. If she does not arrive, he will infer rejection. His plan is to use the button to make the sunset last as long as he and Leela want. He is heartbroken when, at what his watch tells him is 7: 02 pm, she has still not arrived. He jumps off the roof, but sees Leela is approaching and notes the building 's clock reads 6: 25; his watch has continued to run normally through all his uses of the button. He tries to undo the jump but, because he has been falling longer than 10 seconds, is unable to return to the rooftop. As the device takes 10 seconds to recharge, he continually loops falling toward the ground from several feet below the roof, never able to reach safety.
The Professor notices the device has been stolen and is repeatedly looping time, and worries the universe could be damaged. He also warns that anyone leaving the shelter could be destroyed if the device is subsequently reused less than 10 seconds later, because the anti-chronitons would not know where in ten seconds to send that person back. Bender betrays Fry 's theft of the device, and, using the shelter, the crew approach the Vampire State Building to save him. By this time, Fry is tired after falling for so long and accidentally lets go of the button. He is instantly killed when he hits the ground, but Leela picks up the button from Fry 's splattered remains and uses it to loop the final seconds of Fry 's life. The Professor, being outside the time shelter, tries to stop her and is seemingly vaporized when Leela presses the button. After several loops, Bender engineers a method of saving Fry 's life using an airbag he contains. Fry survives this time but lands on the button, smashing it and freezing time throughout the universe for everyone and everything except himself and Leela.
With the world theirs alone, Fry and Leela conduct their wedding themselves and spend what is, for them, decades romantically wandering the stationary world. A mysterious glimmer bothers them from time to time, but otherwise, they are very happy. In old age, they go to the top of the Vampire State Building to drink the champagne Fry had laid out there before the button was destroyed. The glimmer finally reveals itself to be the Professor, who was not killed, but was instead rotated into an orthogonal time that runs at right angles to the familiar one. He has been trying to find the button for decades and, since Fry has kept the pieces, is able to rebuild it with one key modification: the next press will release an enormous anti-chroniton blast, ripping everyone out of stasis and reverting the entire universe right back to the instant before the Professor conceived of the device, and no one will have any memory of what has happened since then. Despite having enjoyed growing old together, Fry and Leela both agree to "go around again '' and the Professor presses the button.
The original American broadcast of "Meanwhile '' on September 4, 2013 was watched by 2.21 million households, making it the 5th most watched episode ever to originally air on Comedy Central. "Meanwhile '' has received critical acclaim. Max Nicholson, for IGN, wrote that "Meanwhile '' was "a fitting end to a classic animated series ''. He gave the episode a 9 out of 10.
Zack Handlen, writing for The A.V. Club, said that, "the first five minutes are passable but rushed, and the hook of Fry deciding he needed to ask Leela to marry him is n't all that exciting ''. However, he later went on to say that "this finale settles somewhere between the ' too happy ' and the ' oh dear God when will it end ', which makes it just about perfect. It has just about everything you could want from Futurama: there 's a nifty time - travel plot, Fry and Leela get married, Bender is a jackass, Zoidberg loses $10, and Fry dies ''. He graded the episode an A.
Sean Gardert, writing for Paste, was relatively more critical and summarized that, "Not to say that ' Meanwhile ' was a bad episode, as it was truly great, an epic 22 minutes that stood up to anything the show 's done before. But after toeing up to that line of doing something truly impressive and revolutionary for the show, they backed away again. I was disappointed, to say the least, but I still look forward to catching this episode as a rerun, and have already written fanfiction in my head as to what would happen were Fry and Leela allowed to return to the past with all of their memories still intact. ''
Indiewire listed "Meanwhile '' among their list of the best TV series finales.
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where did the steel for sydney harbour bridge come from | Sydney Harbour bridge - Wikipedia
The Sydney Harbour Bridge is a steel through arch bridge across Sydney Harbour that carries rail, vehicular, bicycle, and pedestrian traffic between the Sydney central business district (CBD) and the North Shore. The dramatic view of the bridge, the harbour, and the nearby Sydney Opera House is an iconic image of Sydney, and Australia itself. The bridge is nicknamed "The Coathanger '' because of its arch - based design.
Under the direction of Dr John Bradfield of the NSW Department of Public Works, the bridge was designed and built by British firm Dorman Long and Co Ltd of Middlesbrough and opened in 1932. The bridge 's design was influenced by the Hell Gate Bridge in New York City. It is the sixth longest spanning - arch bridge in the world and the tallest steel arch bridge, measuring 134 m (440 ft) from top to water level. It was also the world 's widest long - span bridge, at 48.8 m (160 ft) wide, until construction of the new Port Mann Bridge in Vancouver was completed in 2012.
The southern (CBD) end of the bridge is located at Dawes Point in The Rocks area, and the northern end at Milsons Point in the lower North Shore area. There are six original lanes of road traffic through the main roadway, plus an additional two lanes of road traffic on its eastern side, using lanes that were formerly tram tracks. Adjacent to the road traffic, a path for pedestrian use runs along the eastern side of the bridge, whilst a dedicated path for bicycle use only runs along the western side; between the main roadway and the western bicycle path are two lanes used for railway tracks, servicing the T1 North Shore Line for Sydney Trains.
The main roadway across the bridge is known as the Bradfield Highway and is about 2.4 km (1.5 mi) long, making it one of the shortest highways in Australia.
The arch is composed of two 28 - panel arch trusses; their heights vary from 18 m (59 ft) at the centre of the arch to 57 m (187 ft) at the ends next to the pylons.
The arch has a span of 504 m (1,654 ft) and its summit is 134 m (440 ft) above mean sea level; expansion of the steel structure on hot days can increase the height of the arch by 18 cm (7.1 in).
The total weight of the steelwork of the bridge, including the arch and approach spans, is 52,800 tonnes (52,000 long tons; 58,200 short tons), with the arch itself weighing 39,000 tonnes (38,000 long tons; 43,000 short tons). About 79 % of the steel was imported from England, with the rest being sourced from Newcastle. On site, the contractors (Dorman Long and Co.) set up two workshops at Milsons Point, at the site of the present day Luna Park, and fabricated the steel into the girders and other required parts.
The bridge is held together by six million Australian - made hand - driven rivets supplied by the McPherson company of Melbourne, the last being driven through the deck on 21 January 1932. The rivets were heated red - hot and inserted into the plates; the headless end was immediately rounded over with a large pneumatic rivet gun. The largest of the rivets used weighed 3.5 kg (8 lb) and was 39.5 cm (15.6 in) long. The practice of riveting large steel structures, rather than welding, was, at the time, a proven and understood construction technique, whilst structural welding had not at that stage been adequately developed for use on the bridge.
At each end of the arch stands a pair of 89 m (292 ft) high concrete pylons, faced with granite. The pylons were designed by the Scottish architect Thomas S. Tait, a partner in the architectural firm John Burnet & Partners.
Some 250 Australian, Scottish, and Italian stonemasons and their families relocated to a temporary settlement at Moruya, NSW, 300 km (186 mi) south of Sydney, where they quarried around 18,000 m (635,664 cu ft) of granite for the bridge pylons. The stonemasons cut, dressed, and numbered the blocks, which were then transported to Sydney on three ships built specifically for this purpose. The Moruya quarry was managed by John Gilmore, a Scottish stonemason who emigrated, with his young family to Australia in 1924, at the request of the project managers. The concrete used was also Australian - made and supplied from Devonport, Tasmania and shipped to Sydney on a ship named Goliath. Source: http://www.theadvocate.com.au/story/4438229/first-port-of-call-exhibition-gallery/#slide=5
Abutments at the base of the pylons are essential to support the loads from the arch and hold its span firmly in place, but the pylons themselves have no structural purpose. They were included to provide a frame for the arch panels and to give better visual balance to the bridge. The pylons were not part of the original design, and were only added to allay public concern about the structural integrity of the bridge.
Although originally added to the bridge solely for their aesthetic value, all four pylons have now been put to use. The south - eastern pylon contains a museum and tourist centre, with a 360 ° lookout at the top providing views across the harbour and city. The south - western pylon is used by the New South Wales Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) to support its CCTV cameras overlooking the bridge and the roads around that area. The two pylons on the north shore include venting chimneys for fumes from the Sydney Harbour Tunnel, with the base of the southern pylon containing the RMS maintenance shed for the bridge, and the base of the northern pylon containing the traffic management shed for tow trucks and safety vehicles used on the bridge.
In 1942 the pylons were modified to include parapets and anti-aircraft guns designed to assist in both Australia 's defence and general war effort. The top level of stonework was never removed.
There had been plans to build a bridge as early as 1815, when convict and noted architect Francis Greenway reputedly proposed to Governor Lachlan Macquarie that a bridge be built from the northern to the southern shore of the harbour. In 1825, Greenway wrote a letter to the then "The Australian '' newspaper stating that such a bridge would "give an idea of strength and magnificence that would reflect credit and glory on the colony and the Mother Country ''.
Nothing came of Greenway 's suggestions, but the idea remained alive, and many further suggestions were made during the nineteenth century. In 1840, naval architect Robert Brindley proposed that a floating bridge be built. Engineer Peter Henderson produced one of the earliest known drawings of a bridge across the harbour around 1857. A suggestion for a truss bridge was made in 1879, and in 1880 a high - level bridge estimated at $850,000 was proposed.
In 1900, the Lyne government committed to building a new Central railway station and organised a worldwide competition for the design and construction of a harbour bridge. Local engineer Norman Selfe submitted a design for a suspension bridge and won the second prize of £ 500. In 1902, when the outcome of the first competition became mired in controversy, Selfe won a second competition outright, with a design for a steel cantilever bridge. The selection board were unanimous, commenting that, "The structural lines are correct and in true proportion, and... the outline is graceful ''. However due to an economic downturn and a change of government at the 1904 NSW State election construction never began.
A unique three - span bridge was proposed in 1922 by Ernest Stowe with connections at Balls Head, Millers Point, and Balmain with a memorial tower and hub on Goat Island.
In 1914 John Bradfield was appointed "Chief Engineer of Sydney Harbour Bridge and Metropolitan Railway Construction '', and his work on the project over many years earned him the legacy as the "father '' of the bridge. Bradfield 's preference at the time was for a cantilever bridge without piers, and in 1916 the NSW Legislative Assembly passed a bill for such a construction, however it did not proceed as the Legislative Council rejected the legislation on the basis that the money would be better spent on the war effort.
Following World War I, plans to build the bridge again built momentum. Bradfield persevered with the project, fleshing out the details of the specifications and financing for his cantilever bridge proposal, and in 1921 he travelled overseas to investigate tenders. On return from his travels Bradfield decided that an arch design would also be suitable and he and officers of the NSW Department of Public Works prepared a general design for a single - arch bridge based upon New York City 's Hell Gate Bridge. In 1922 the government passed the Sydney Harbour Bridge Act No. 28, specifying the construction of a high - level cantilever or arch bridge across the harbour between Dawes Point and Milsons Point, along with construction of necessary approaches and electric railway lines, and worldwide tenders were invited for the project.
As a result of the tendering process, the government received twenty proposals from six companies; on 24 March 1924 the contract was awarded to British firm Dorman Long and Co Ltd, of Middlesbrough well known as the contractors who built the similar Tyne Bridge of Newcastle Upon Tyne, for an arch bridge at a quoted price of AU £ 4,217,721 11s 10d. The arch design was cheaper than alternative cantilever and suspension bridge proposals, and also provided greater rigidity making it better suited for the heavy loads expected.
Bradfield and his staff were ultimately to oversee the entire bridge design and building process, while Dorman Long and Co 's Consulting Engineer, Sir Ralph Freeman of Sir Douglas Fox and Partners, and his associate Mr. G.C. Imbault, carried out the detailed design and erection process of the bridge. Architects for the contractors were from the British firm John Burnet & Partners of Glasgow, Scotland.
The building of the bridge coincided with the construction of a system of underground railways in Sydney 's CBD, known today as the City Circle, and the bridge was designed with this in mind. The bridge was designed to carry six lanes of road traffic, flanked on each side by two railway tracks and a footpath. Both sets of rail tracks were linked into the underground Wynyard railway station on the south (city) side of the bridge by symmetrical ramps and tunnels. The eastern - side railway tracks were intended for use by a planned rail link to the Northern Beaches; in the interim they were used to carry trams from the North Shore into a terminal within Wynyard station, and when tram services were discontinued in 1958, they were converted into extra traffic lanes. The Bradfield Highway, which is the main roadway section of the bridge and its approaches, is named in honour of Bradfield 's contribution to the bridge.
The building of the bridge was under the management of Bradfield. Three other people heavily involved in the bridge 's design and construction were Lawrence Ennis, Edward Judge, and Sir Ralph Freeman. Ennis was the engineer - in - charge at Dorman Long and Co and the main on - site supervisor (Bradfield visited occasionally throughout the project and, in particular, at many key stages of the project, to inspect progress and make managerial decisions), Judge was chief technical engineer of Dorman Long, and Freeman was hired by the company to design the accepted model in further detail. Later a bitter disagreement broke out between Bradfield and Freeman as to who actually designed the bridge.
The official ceremony to mark the "turning of the first sod '' occurred on 28 July 1923, on the spot at Milsons Point on the north shore where two workshops to assist in building the bridge were to be constructed.
An estimated 469 buildings on the north shore, both private homes and commercial operations, were demolished to allow construction to proceed, with little or no compensation being paid. Work on the bridge itself commenced with the construction of approaches and approach spans, and by September 1926 concrete piers to support the approach spans were in place on each side of the harbour.
As construction of the approaches took place, work was also started on preparing the foundations required to support the enormous weight of the arch and loadings. Concrete and granite faced abutment towers were constructed, with the angled foundations built into their sides.
Once work had progressed sufficiently on the support structures, a giant "creeper crane '' was erected on each side of the harbour. These cranes were fitted with a cradle, and then used to hoist men and materials into position to allow for erection of the steelwork. To stabilise works while building the arches, tunnels were excavated on each shore with steel cables passed through them and then fixed to the upper sections of each half - arch to stop them collapsing as they extended outwards.
Arch construction itself began on 26 October 1928. The southern end of the bridge was worked on ahead of the northern end, to detect any errors and to help with alignment. The cranes would "creep '' along the arches as they were constructed, eventually meeting up in the middle. In less than two years, on Tuesday, 19 August 1930, the two halves of the arch touched for the first time. Workers riveted both top and bottom sections of the arch together, and the arch became self - supporting, allowing the support cables to be removed. On 20 August 1930 the joining of the arches was celebrated by flying the flags of Australia and the United Kingdom from the jibs of the creeper cranes.
Once the arch was completed, the creeper cranes were then worked back down the arches, allowing the roadway and other parts of the bridge to be constructed from the centre out. The vertical hangers were attached to the arch, and these were then joined with horizontal crossbeams. The deck for the roadway and railway were built on top of the crossbeams, with the deck itself being completed by June 1931, and the creeper cranes were dismantled. Rails for trains and trams were laid, and road was surfaced using concrete topped with asphalt. Power and telephone lines, and water, gas, and drainage pipes were also all added to the bridge in 1931.
The pylons were built atop the abutment towers, with construction advancing rapidly from July 1931. Carpenters built wooden scaffolding, with concreters and masons then setting the masonry and pouring the concrete behind it. Gangers built the steelwork in the towers, while day labourers manually cleaned the granite with wire brushes. The last stone of the north - west pylon was set in place on 15 January 1932, and the timber towers used to support the cranes were removed.
On 19 January 1932, the first test train, a steam locomotive, safely crossed the bridge. Load testing of the bridge took place in February 1932, with the four rail tracks being loaded with as many as 96 steam locomotives positioned end - to - end. The bridge underwent testing for three weeks, after which it was declared safe and ready to be opened. The construction worksheds were demolished after the bridge was completed, and the land that they were on is now occupied by Luna Park.
The standards of industrial safety during construction were poor by today 's standards. Sixteen workers died during construction, but surprisingly only two from falling off the bridge. Several more were injured from unsafe working practices undertaken whilst heating and inserting its rivets, and the deafness experienced by many of the workers in later years was blamed on the project. Henri Mallard between 1930 and 1932 produced hundreds of stills and film footage which reveal at close quarters the bravery of the workers in tough Depression - era conditions.
The total financial cost of the bridge was AU £ 6.25 million, which was not paid off in full until 1988.
The bridge was formally opened on Saturday, 19 March 1932. Amongst those who attended and gave speeches were the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Philip Game, and the Minister for Public Works, Lawrence Ennis. The Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, was to open the bridge by cutting a ribbon at its southern end.
However, just as Lang was about to cut the ribbon, a man in military uniform rode up on a horse, slashing the ribbon with his sword and opening the Sydney Harbour Bridge in the name of the people of New South Wales before the official ceremony began. He was promptly arrested. The ribbon was hurriedly retied and Lang performed the official opening ceremony and Game thereafter inaugurated the name of the bridge as ' Sydney Harbour Bridge ' and the associated roadway as the ' Bradfield Highway '. After they did so, there was a 21 - gun salute and an RAAF flypast. The intruder was identified as Francis de Groot. He was convicted of offensive behaviour and fined £ 5 after a psychiatric test proved he was sane, but this verdict was reversed on appeal. De Groot then successfully sued the Commissioner of Police for wrongful arrest, and was awarded an undisclosed out of court settlement. De Groot was a member of a right - wing paramilitary group called the New Guard, opposed to Lang 's leftist policies and resentful of the fact that a member of the Royal Family had not been asked to open the bridge. De Groot was not a member of the regular army but his uniform allowed him to blend in with the real cavalry. This incident was one of several involving Lang and the New Guard during that year.
A similar ribbon - cutting ceremony on the bridge 's northern side by North Sydney 's mayor, Alderman Primrose, was carried out without incident. It was later discovered that Primrose was also a New Guard member but his role in and knowledge of the de Groot incident, if any, are unclear. The pair of golden scissors used in the ribbon cutting ceremonies on both sides of the bridge was also used to cut the ribbon at the dedication of the Bayonne Bridge, which had opened in Bayonne, New Jersey, close to New York City, the year before.
Despite the bridge opening in the midst of the Great Depression, opening celebrations were organised by the Citizens of Sydney Organising Committee, an influential body of prominent men and politicians that formed in 1931 under the chairmanship of the Lord Mayor to oversee the festivities. The celebrations included an array of decorated floats, a procession of passenger ships sailing below the bridge, and a Venetian Carnival. A message from a primary school in Tottenham, 515 km (320 mi) away in rural New South Wales, arrived at the bridge on the day and was presented at the opening ceremony. It had been carried all the way from Tottenham to the bridge by relays of school children, with the final relay being run by two children from the nearby Fort Street Boys ' and Girls ' schools. After the official ceremonies, the public was allowed to walk across the bridge on the deck, something that would not be repeated until the 50th anniversary celebrations. Estimates suggest that between 300,000 and one million people took part in the opening festivities, a phenomenal number given that the entire population of Sydney at the time was estimated to be 1,256,000.
There had also been numerous preparatory arrangements. On 14 March 1932, three postage stamps were issued to commemorate the imminent opening of the bridge. Several songs were composed for the occasion.
The bridge itself was regarded as a triumph over Depression times, earning the nickname "the Iron Lung '', as it kept many Depression - era workers employed.
In 2010, the average daily traffic included 204 trains, 160,435 vehicles and 1650 bicycles.
From the Sydney CBD side, motor vehicle access to the bridge is normally via Grosvenor Street, Clarence Street, Kent Street, the Cahill Expressway, or the Western Distributor. Drivers on the northern side will find themselves on the Warringah Freeway, though it is easy to turn off the freeway to drive westwards into North Sydney or eastwards to Neutral Bay and beyond upon arrival on the northern side.
The bridge originally only had four wider traffic lanes occupying the central space which now has six, as photos taken soon after the opening clearly show. In 1958 tram services across the bridge were withdrawn and the tracks replaced by two extra road lanes; these lanes are now the leftmost southbound lanes on the bridge and are still clearly distinguishable from the other six road lanes. Lanes 7 and 8 now connect the bridge to the elevated Cahill Expressway that carries traffic to the Eastern Distributor.
In 1988, work began to build a tunnel to complement the bridge. It was determined that the bridge could no longer support the increased traffic flow of the 1980s. The Sydney Harbour Tunnel was completed in August 1992 and carries only motor vehicles.
The Bradfield Highway is designated as a Travelling Stock Route which means that it is permissible to herd livestock across the bridge, but only between midnight and dawn, and after giving notice of intention to do so. In practice, owing to the high - density urban nature of modern Sydney, and the relocation of abattoirs and markets, this has not taken place for approximately half a century.
The bridge is equipped for tidal flow operation, permitting the direction of traffic flow on the bridge to be altered to better suit the morning and evening rush hours ' traffic patterns.
The bridge has eight lanes in total, numbered one to eight from west to east. Lanes three, four and five are reversible. One and two always flow north. Six, seven, and eight always flow south. The default is four each way. For the morning rush hour, the lane changes on the bridge also require changes to the Warringah Freeway, with its inner western reversible carriageway directing traffic to the bridge lane numbers three and four southbound.
The bridge has a series of overhead gantries which indicate the direction of flow for each traffic lane. A green arrow pointing down to a traffic lane means the lane is open. A flashing red "X '' indicates the lane is closing, but is not yet in use for traffic travelling in the other direction. A static red "X '' means the lane is in use for oncoming traffic. This arrangement was introduced in the 1990s, replacing a slow operation where lane markers were manually moved to mark the centre median.
It is possible to see odd arrangements of flow during night periods when maintenance occurs, which may involve completely closing some lanes. Normally this is done between midnight and dawn, because of the enormous traffic demands placed on the bridge outside these hours.
The vehicular traffic lanes on the bridge are operated as a toll road. As of 27 January 2009 there is a variable tolling system for all vehicles headed into the CBD (southbound). The toll paid is dependent on the time of day in which the vehicle passes through the toll plaza. The toll varies from a minimum value of $2.50 to a maximum value of $4. There is no toll for northbound traffic (though taxis travelling north may charge passengers the toll in anticipation of the toll the taxi must pay on the return journey). There are toll plazas at the northern and southern ends. The two eastern lanes (which continue over the Cahill Expressway at the southern end of the bridge) have their tollbooths at the northern end, while the other southbound lanes (for CBD traffic) are serviced by tollbooths at the southern end of the bridge. There is a bridge - long median strip between lanes 6 and 7 to separate traffic which has already paid the toll (at the northern end) from other southbound traffic (which must pay the toll at the southern end).
The toll was originally placed on travel across the bridge, in both directions, to recoup the cost of its construction. This cost was recovered in the 1980s, but the toll has been kept (indeed increased) by the state government 's Roads and Traffic Authority to recoup the costs of the Sydney Harbour Tunnel.
After the decision to build the Sydney Harbour Tunnel was made in the early 1980s, the toll was increased (from 20 cents to $1, then to $1.50, and finally to $2 by the time the tunnel opened) to pay for its construction. The tunnel also had an initial toll of $2 southbound. After the increase to $1, the concrete barrier on the bridge separating the Bradfield Highway from the Cahill Expressway was increased in height, because of the large numbers of drivers crossing it illegally from lane 6 to 7, to avoid the toll. The toll for all southbound vehicles was increased to $3 in March 2004.
Originally it cost a car or motorcycle six pence to cross, a horse and rider being three pence. Use of the bridge by bicycle riders (provided that they use the cycleway) and by pedestrians is free. Later governments capped the fee for motorcycles at one - quarter of the passenger - vehicle cost, but now it is again the same as the cost for a passenger vehicle, although quarterly flat - fee passes are available which are much cheaper for frequent users.
In July 2008 a new electronic tolling system called e-TAG was introduced. The Sydney Harbour Tunnel was converted to this new tolling system while the Sydney Harbour Bridge itself had several cash lanes. The electronic system as of 12 January 2009 has now replaced all booths with E-tag lanes. In January 2017 work commenced to remove the southern toll booths.
The pedestrian - only footway is located on the east side of the bridge. Access from the northern side involves climbing an easily spotted flight of stairs, located on the east side of the bridge at Broughton St, Kirribilli. Pedestrian access on the southern side is more complicated, but signposts in the Rocks area now direct pedestrians to the long and sheltered flight of stairs that leads to the bridge 's southern end. These stairs are located near Gloucester Street and Cumberland Street.
The bridge can also be approached from the south by accessing Cahill Walk, which runs along the Cahill Expressway. Pedestrians can access this walkway from the east end of Circular Quay by a flight of stairs or a lift. Alternatively it can be accessed from the Botanic Gardens.
The bike - only cycleway is located on the western side of the bridge. Access from the northern side involves carrying or pushing a bicycle up a staircase, consisting of 55 steps, located on the western side of the bridge at Burton St, Milsons Point. A wide smooth concrete strip in the centre of the stairs permits cycles to be wheeled up and down from the bridge deck whilst the rider is dismounted. A campaign to eliminate the steps on this popular cycling route to the CBD has been running since at least 2008. On 7 December 2016 the NSW Roads Minister Duncan Gay confirmed that the northern stairway would be replaced with a A $ 20 million ramp alleviating the needs for cyclists to dismount. At the same time the NSW Government announced plans to upgrade the southern ramp at a projected cost of A $ 20 million. Both projects are expected to completed by late 2020. Access to the cycleway on the southern side is via the northern end of the Kent Street cycleway and / or Upper Fort Street in The Rocks.
The bridge lies between Milsons Point and Wynyard railway stations, located on the north and south shores respectively, with two tracks running along the western side of the bridge. These tracks are part of the North Shore railway line.
In 1958 tram services across the bridge were withdrawn and the tracks they had used were removed and replaced by two extra road lanes; these lanes are now the leftmost southbound lanes on the bridge and are still clearly distinguishable from the other six road lanes. The original ramp that took the trams into their terminus at the underground Wynyard railway station is still visible at the southern end of the main walkway under lanes 7 and 8, although the tunnels have been converted into a car park and firing range.
The Sydney Harbour Bridge requires constant inspections and other maintenance work to keep it safe for the public, and to protect from corrosion. Among the trades employed on the bridge are painters, ironworkers, boilermakers, fitters, electricians, plasterers, carpenters, plumbers, and riggers.
The most noticeable maintenance work on the bridge involves painting. The steelwork of the bridge that needs to be painted is a combined 485,000 m (120 acres), the equivalent of sixty football fields. Each coat on the bridge requires some 30,000 L (6,600 imp gal) of paint. A special fast - drying paint is used, so that any paint drops have dried before reaching the vehicles or bridge surface. One notable identity from previous bridge - painting crews is Australian comedian and actor Paul Hogan, who worked as a bridge painter before rising to media fame in the 1970s.
In 2003 the Roads & Traffic Authority began completely repainting the southern approach spans of the bridge. This involved removing the old lead - based paint, and repainting the 90,000 m (22 acres) of steel below the deck. Workers operated from self - contained platforms below the deck, with each platform having an air extraction system to filter airborne particles. An abrasive blasting was used, with the lead waste collected and safely removed from the site for disposal.
Between December 2006 and March 2010 the bridge was subject to works designed to ensure its longevity. The work included some strengthening.
Since 2013, two grit - blasting robots specially developed with the University of Technology, Sydney have been employed to help with the paint stripping operation on the bridge. The robots, nicknamed Rosie and Sandy, are intended to reduce workers ' potential exposure to dangerous lead paint and asbestos and the blasting equipment which has enough force to cut through clothes and skin.
Even during its construction, the bridge was such a prominent feature of Sydney that it would attract tourist interest. One of the ongoing tourist attractions of the bridge has been the south - east pylon, which is accessed via the pedestrian walkway across the bridge, and then a climb to the top of the pylon of about 200 steps.
Not long after the bridge 's opening, commencing in 1934, Archer Whitford first converted this pylon into a tourist destination. He installed a number of attractions, including a café, a camera obscura, an Aboriginal museum, a "Mother 's Nook '' where visitors could write letters, and a "pashometer ''. The main attraction was the viewing platform, where "charming attendants '' assisted visitors to use the telescopes available, and a copper cladding (still present) over the granite guard rails identified the suburbs and landmarks of Sydney at the time.
The outbreak of World War II in 1939 saw tourist activities on the bridge cease, as the military took over the four pylons and modified them to include parapets and anti-aircraft guns.
In 1948 Yvonne Rentoul opened the "All Australian Exhibition '' in the pylon. This contained dioramas, and displays about Australian perspectives on subjects such as farming, sport, transport, mining, and the armed forces. An orientation table was installed at the viewing platform, along with a wall guide and binoculars. The owner kept several white cats in a rooftop cattery, which also served as an attraction, and there was a souvenir shop and postal outlet. Rentoul 's lease expired in 1971, and the pylon and its lookout remained closed to the public for over a decade.
The pylon was reopened in 1982, with a new exhibition celebrating the bridge 's 50th anniversary. In 1987 a "Bicentennial Exhibition '' was opened to mark the 200th anniversary of European settlement in Australia in 1988.
The pylon was closed from April to November 2000 for the Roads & Traffic Authority and BridgeClimb to create a new exhibition called "Proud Arch ''. The exhibition focussed on Bradfield, and included a glass direction finder on the observation level, and various important heritage items.
The pylon again closed for four weeks in 2003 for the installation of an exhibit called "Dangerous Works '', highlighting the dangerous conditions experienced by the original construction workers on the bridge, and two stained glass feature windows in memory of the workers.
In 1950s and 1960s there were occasional newspaper reports of climbers who had made illegal arch traversals of the bridge, invariably by night. In 1973 Philippe Petit walked across a wire between the two pylons at the southern end of the Sydney Harbour Bridge. Since 1998, BridgeClimb has made it possible for tourists to legally climb the southern half of the bridge. Tours run throughout the day, from dawn to night, and are only cancelled for electrical storms or high wind.
Groups of climbers are provided with protective clothing appropriate to the prevailing weather conditions, and are given an orientation briefing before climbing. During the climb, attendees are secured to the bridge by a wire lifeline. Each climb begins on the eastern side of the bridge and ascends to the top. At the summit, the group crosses to the western side of the arch for the descent. Each climb takes three - and - a-half - hours, including the preparations.
In December 2006, BridgeClimb launched an alternative to climbing the upper arches of the bridge. The Discovery Climb allows climbers to ascend the lower chord of the bridge and view its internal structure. From the apex of the lower chord, climbers ascend a staircase to a platform at the summit.
Since the opening, the bridge has been the focal point of much tourism and national pride.
In 1982 the bridge celebrated the 50th anniversary of its opening. For the first time since its opening in 1932, the bridge was closed to most vehicles with the exception of vintage vehicles, and pedestrians were allowed full access for the day. The celebrations were attended by Edward Judge, who represented Dorman Long.
Australia 's bicentennial celebrations on 26 January 1988 attracted large crowds in the bridge 's vicinity as merrymakers flocked to the foreshores to view the events on the harbour. The highlight was the biggest parade of sail ever held in Sydney, square - riggers from all over the world, surrounded by hundreds of smaller craft of every description, passing majestically under the Sydney Harbour Bridge. The day 's festivities culminated in a fireworks display in which the bridge was the focal point of the finale, with fireworks streaming from the arch and roadway. This was to become the pattern for later firework displays.
The Harbour Bridge is an integral part of the Sydney New Year 's Eve celebrations, generally being used in spectacular ways during the fireworks displays at 21: 00 and midnight. In recent times, the bridge has included a ropelight display on a framework in the centre of the eastern arch, which is used to complement the fireworks. As the scaffolding and framework are clearly visible for some weeks before the event, revealing the outline of the design, there is much speculation as to how the effect is to be realised.
During the millennium celebrations in 2000, the Sydney Harbour Bridge was lit up with the word "Eternity '', as a tribute to the legacy of Arthur Stace a Sydney artist who for many years inscribed that word on pavements in chalk in beautiful copperplate writing despite the fact that he was illiterate.
The effects have been as follows:
The numbers for the New Year 's Eve countdown also appear on the eastern side of the Bridge pylons.
In May 2000 the bridge was closed to vehicular access for a day to allow a special reconciliation march -- the "Walk for Reconciliation '' -- to take place. This was part of a response to an Aboriginal Stolen Generations inquiry, which found widespread suffering had taken place amongst Australian Aboriginal children forcibly placed into the care of white parents in a little - publicised state government scheme. Between 200,000 and 300,000 people were estimated to have walked the bridge in a symbolic gesture of crossing a divide.
During the Sydney 2000 Olympics in September and October 2000, the bridge was adorned with the Olympic Rings. It was included in the Olympic torch 's route to the Olympic stadium. The men 's and women 's Olympic marathon events likewise included the bridge as part of their route to the Olympic stadium. A fireworks display at the end of the closing ceremony ended at the bridge. The east - facing side of the bridge has been used several times since as a framework from which to hang static fireworks, especially during the elaborate New Year 's Eve displays.
In 2005 Mark Webber drove a Williams - BMW Formula One car across the bridge.
In 2007, the 75th anniversary of its opening was commemorated with an exhibition at the Museum of Sydney, called "Bridging Sydney ''. An initiative of the Historic Houses Trust, the exhibition featured dramatic photographs and paintings with rare and previously unseen alternative bridge and tunnel proposals, plans and sketches.
On 18 March 2007, the Sydney Harbour Bridge celebrated its 75th anniversary. The occasion was marked with a ribbon - cutting ceremony by the governor, Marie Bashir and the premier of New South Wales, Morris Iemma. The bridge was subsequently open to the public to walk southward from Milsons Point or North Sydney. Several major roads, mainly in the CBD, were closed for the day. An Aboriginal smoking ceremony was held at 19: 00.
Approximately 250,000 people (50,000 more than were registered) took part in the event. Bright yellow souvenir caps were distributed to walkers. A series of speakers placed at intervals along the bridge formed a sound installation. Each group of speakers broadcast sound and music from a particular era (e.g. King Edward VIII 's abdication speech; Gough Whitlam 's speech at Parliament House in 1975), the overall effect being that the soundscape would "flow '' through history as walkers proceeded along the bridge. A light - show began after sunset and continued late into the night, the bridge being bathed in constantly changing, multi-coloured lighting, designed to highlight structural features of the bridge. In the evening the bright yellow caps were replaced by orange caps with a small, bright LED attached. The bridge was closed to walkers at about 20: 30.
On 25 October 2009 turf was laid across the eight lanes of bitumen, and 6,000 people celebrated a picnic on the bridge accompanied by live music. The event was repeated in 2010. Although originally scheduled again in 2011, this event was moved to Bondi Beach due to traffic concerns about the prolonged closing of the bridge.
On 19 March 2012 the 80th anniversary of the Sydney Harbour Bridge was celebrated with a picnic dedicated to the stories of people with personal connections to the bridge. In addition, Google dedicated its Google Doodle on the 19th to the event. The proposal to upgrade the bridge tolling equipment was announced by the NSW Roads Minister Duncan Gay.
There the proud arch Colossus like bestride Yon glittering streams and bound the strafing tide.
I open this bridge in the name of His Majesty the King and all the decent citizens of NSW.
To get on in Australia, you must make two observations. Say, "You have the most beautiful bridge in the world '' and "They tell me you trounced England again in the cricket. '' The first statement will be a lie. Sydney Bridge (sic) is big, utilitarian and the symbol of Australia, like the Statue of Liberty or the Eiffel Tower. But it is very ugly. No Australian will admit this.
... in a gesture of anomalous exhilaration, at the worst time of the depression Sydney opened its Harbour Bridge, one of the talismanic structures of the earth, and by far the most striking thing ever built in Australia. At that moment, I think, contemporary Sydney began, perhaps definitive Sydney.
... you can see it from every corner of the city, creeping into frame from the oddest angles, like an uncle who wants to get into every snapshot. From a distance it has a kind of gallant restraint, majestic but not assertive, but up close it is all might. It soars above you, so high that you could pass a ten - storey building beneath it, and looks like the heaviest thing on earth. Everything that is in it -- the stone blocks in its four towers, the latticework of girders, the metal plates, the six - million rivets (with heads like halved apples) -- is the biggest of its type you have ever seen... This is a great bridge.
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who selects the chairperson of the federal reserve system | Chair of the Federal Reserve - wikipedia
The Chair of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System is the head of the central banking system of the United States. The position is known colloquially as "Chair of the Fed '' or "Fed Chair ''. The chair is the "active executive officer '' of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
The chair is chosen by the President of the United States from among the members of the Board of Governors; and serves for four - year - terms after appointment. A chair may be appointed for several consecutive terms. William Martin was the longest serving chair, holding the position from 1951 to 1970.
The current chair is Janet Yellen, the first woman to hold the position. She began her term on February 1, 2014, and previously served as the Vice-Chair from 2010 to 2014. The current term will end on or about February 1, 2018. On November 2, 2017, President Donald Trump nominated Jerome Powell to serve as the next Chairman.
Section 203 of the Banking Act of 1935 changed the name of the "Federal Reserve Board '' to the "Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. '' The directors ' salaries were significantly lower (at $12,000 when first appointed in 1914) and their terms of office were much shorter prior to 1935. In effect, the Federal Reserve Board members in Washington, D.C., were significantly less powerful than the presidents of the regional Federal Reserve Banks prior to 1935.
In the 1935 Act, the district heads had their titles changed to "President '' (e.g., "President of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis '').
Thus, Marriner Eccles was the first actual "Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve Board ''. The others prior to 1935 were "Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Federal Reserve System '', with much more circumscribed power.
As stipulated by the Banking Act of 1935, the President of the United States appoints the seven members of the Board of Governors; they must then be confirmed by the Senate and serve four year terms.
The nominees for chair and vice-chair may be chosen by the President from among the sitting Governors for four - year terms; these appointments are also subject to Senate confirmation. By law, the chair reports twice a year to Congress on the Federal Reserve 's monetary policy objectives. He or she also testifies before Congress on numerous other issues and meets periodically with the Treasury Secretary.
The law applicable to the Chair and all other members of the Board provides (in part):
No member of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System shall be an officer or director of any bank, banking institution, trust company, or Federal Reserve bank or hold stock in any bank, banking institution, or trust company; and before entering upon his duties as a member of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System he shall certify under oath that he has complied with this requirement, and such certification shall be filed with the secretary of the Board.
The following is a list of past and present Chairs of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. A chair serves for a four - year term after appointment, but may be reappointed for several consecutive four - year terms. As of 2014, there have been a total of fifteen Fed Chairs.
(1953 --)
(2017 --)
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what was the objective of the constitution 19th amendment act 1966 | Nineteenth Amendment of the Constitution of India - Wikipedia
The Nineteenth Amendment of the Constitution of India, officially known as The Constitution (Nineteenth Amendment) Act, 1966, abolished Election Tribunals in India and enabled trial of election petitions by High Courts. It amended clause (1) of article 324 of the Constitution, which provides for vesting of the power of superintendence, direction and control of elections with the Election Commission. The 19th Amendment removed the provision relating to the power of "the appointment of election tribunals for the decision of doubts and disputes arising out of or in connection with elections to Parliament and to the Legislatures of States ''.
Provisions for the trial of election petitions by High Courts instead of the election tribunals, was provided for by amending the Representation of the People Act, 1951.
BE it enacted by Parliament in the Seventeenth Year of the Republic of India as follows: --
1. Short title This Act may be called the Constitution (Nineteenth Amendment) Act, 1966.
2. Amendment of article 324 In article 324 of the Constitution, in clause (1), the words "including the appointment of election tribunals for the decision of doubts and disputes arising out of or in connection with elections to Parliament and to the Legislatures of States '' shall be omitted.
The full text of clause (1) of article 324, after the 19th Amendment, is given below:
324. Superintendence, direction and control of elections to be vested in an Election Commission.
(1) The superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of the electoral rolls for, and the conduct of, all elections to Parliament and to the Legislature of every State and of elections to the offices of President and Vice-President held under this Constitution, including the appointment of election tribunals for the decision of doubts and disputes arising out of or in connection with elections to Parliament and to the Legislatures of States shall be vested in a Commission (referred to in this Constitution as the Election Commission).
The Constitution (Nineteenth Amendment) Act, 1966 was introduced in the Lok Sabha on 29 August 1966, as the Constitution (Twenty - first Amendment) Bill, 1966 (Bill No. 57 of 1966). It was introduced by Gopal Swarup Pathak, then Minister of Law, and sought to amend article 324 of the Constitution. Article 324 provides for vesting of the power of superintendence, direction and control of elections with the Election Commission. The full text of the Statement of Objects and Reasons appended to the bill is given below:
One of the important recommendations made by the Election Commission in its Report on the Third General Elections in India in 1962, and accepted by the Government relates to the abolition of election tribunals and trial of election petitions by High Courts.
If the proposal for a legislation to amend the Representation of the People Act, 1951, containing, inter alia, provisions for the trial of election petitions by High Courts instead of the election tribunals, as at present, is accepted by Parliament, it would be necessary to make a minor amendment in clause (1) of article 324 of the Constitution for the purpose of deleting therefrom the words ", including the appointment of election tribunals for the decision of doubts and disputes arising out of or in connection with elections to Parliament and to the Legislatures of States ''.
The Bill is intended to give effect to the aforesaid object.
The Bill was debated by the Lok Sabha on 8, 9, 10 and 22 November and passed on 22 November 1966, with only a formal amendment in clause 1, changing the short title to "Constitution (Nineteenth Amendment) Act ''. The bill, passed by the Lok Sabha, was considered and passed by the Rajya Sabha on 30 November 1966. Clause 2 was adopted in the original form by the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha on 22 and 30 November 1966, respectively. The bill received assent from then President Zakir Hussain on 11 December 1966. It came into force and was notified in The Gazette of India on the same date.
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nature and scope of history of economic thought | History of economic thought - wikipedia
The history of economic thought deals with different thinkers and theories in the subject that became political economy and economics, from the ancient world to the present day in the 21st Century. This field encompasses many disparate schools of economic thought. Ancient Greek writers such as the philosopher Aristotle examined ideas about the art of wealth acquisition, and questioned whether property is best left in private or public hands. In the Middle Ages, scholasticists such as Thomas Aquinas argued that it was a moral obligation of businesses to sell goods at a just price
In the Western world, economics was not a separate discipline, but part of philosophy until the 18th -- 19th century Industrial Revolution and the 19th century Great Divergence, which accelerated economic growth.
Hesiod active 750 to 650 BC, a Boeotian who wrote the earliest known work concerning the basic origins of economic thought, contemporary with Homer.
Fan Li (also known as Tao Zhu Gong) (born 517 BC), an adviser to King Goujian of Yue, wrote on economic issues and developed a set of "golden '' business rules.
Chanakya (born 350 BC) wrote the Arthashastra, a treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy.
Ancient Athens, an advanced city - state civilisation and progressive society, developed an embryonic model of democracy.
Xenophon 's (c. 430 -- 354 BC) Oeconomicus (c. 360 BC) is a dialogue principally about household management and agriculture.
Plato 's dialogue The Republic (c. 380 -- 360 BC) describing an ideal city - state run by philosopher - kings contained references to specialization of labor and to production. According to Joseph Schumpeter, Plato was the first known advocate of a credit theory of money that is, money as a unit of account for debt.
Aristotle 's Politics (c. 350 BC) analyzed different forms of the state (monarchy, aristocracy, constitutional government, tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy) as a critique of Plato 's model of a philosopher - kings. Of particular interest for economists, Plato provided a blueprint of a society based on common ownership of resources. Aristotle viewed this model as an oligarchical anathema. Though Aristotle did certainly advocate holding many things in common, he argued that not everything could be, simply because of the "wickedness of human nature ''.
"It is clearly better that property should be private '', wrote Aristotle, "but the use of it common; and the special business of the legislator is to create in men this benevolent disposition. '' In Politics Book I, Aristotle discusses the general nature of households and market exchanges. For him there is a certain "art of acquisition '' or "wealth - getting '', but because it is the same many people are obsessed with its accumulation, and "wealth - getting '' for one 's household is "necessary and honorable '', while exchange on the retail trade for simple accumulation is "justly censured, for it is dishonorable ''. Writing of the people, Aristotle stated that they as a whole thought acquisition of wealth (chrematistike) as being either the same as, or a principle of oikonomia ("household management '' -- oikonomos), with oikos meaning "house '' and with (themis meaning "custom '') nomos meaning "law ''. Aristotle himself highly disapproved of usury and cast scorn on making money through a monopoly.
Aristotle discarded Plato 's credit theory of money for metallism, the theory that money derives its value from the purchasing power of the commodity upon which it is based, and is only an "instrument '', its sole purpose being a medium of exchange, which means on its own "it is worthless... not useful as a means to any of the necessities of life ''.
Thomas Aquinas (1225 -- 1274) was an Italian theologian and economic writer. He taught in both Cologne and Paris, and was part of a group of Catholic scholars known as the Schoolmen, who moved their enquiries beyond theology to philosophical and scientific debates. In the treatise Summa Theologica Aquinas dealt with the concept of a just price, which he considered necessary for the reproduction of the social order. Similar in many ways to the modern concept of long run equilibrium, a just price was just sufficient to cover the costs of production, including the maintenance of a worker and his family. Aquinas argued it was immoral for sellers to raise their prices simply because buyers had a pressing need for a product.
Aquinas discusses a number of topics in the format of questions and replies, substantial tracts dealing with Aristotle 's theory. Questions 77 and 78 concern economic issues, primarily what a just price might be, and the fairness of a seller dispensing faulty goods. Aquinas argued against any form of cheating and recommended always paying compensation in lieu of good service. Whilst human laws might not impose sanctions for unfair dealing, divine law did, in his opinion.
One of Aquinas ' main critics was Duns Scotus (1265 -- 1308), originally from Duns Scotland, who taught in Oxford, Cologne, and Paris. In his work Sententiae (1295), he thought it possible to be more precise than Aquinas in calculating a just price, emphasizing the costs of labor and expenses, although he recognized that the latter might be inflated by exaggeration because buyer and seller usually have different ideas of a just price. If people did not benefit from a transaction, in Scotus ' view, they would not trade. Scotus said merchants perform a necessary and useful social role by transporting goods and making them available to the public.
Jean Buridan (French: (byʁidɑ̃); Latin Johannes Buridanus; c. 1300 -- after 1358) was a French priest. Buridanus looked at money from two angles: its metal value and its purchasing power, which he acknowledged can vary. He argued that aggregated, not individual, demand and supply determine market prices. Hence, for him a just price was what the society collectively and not just one individual is willing to pay.
Until Joseph J. Spengler 's 1964 work "Economic Thought of Islam: Ibn Khaldun '', Adam Smith (1723 -- 1790) was considered the "Father of Economics ''. Now there is a second candidate, Arab Muslim scholar Ibn Khaldun (1332 -- 1406) of Tunisia, although what influence Khaldun had in the West is unclear. Arnold Toynbee called Ibn Khaldun a "genius '' who "appears to have been inspired by no predecessors and to have found no kindred souls among his contemporaries... and yet, in the Prolegomena (Muqaddimat) to his Universal History he has conceived and formulated a philosophy of history which is undoubtedly the greatest work of its kind that has ever yet been created by any mind in any time or place. '' Ibn Khaldoun expressed a theory of the lifecycle of civilizations, the specialization of labor, and the value of money as a means of exchange rather than as a store of inherent value. His ideas on taxes bore a striking resemblance to supply - side economics ' Laffer curve, which posits that beyond a certain point higher taxes discourage production and actually cause revenues to fall.
French philosopher and priest Nicolas d'Oresme (1320 -- 1382) wrote De origine, natura, jure et mutationibus monetarum, about the origin, nature, law, and alterations of money. It is one of the earliest manuscripts on the concept of money.
Saint Antoninus of Florence (1389 -- 1459), O.P., was an Italian Dominican friar, who became Archbishop of Florence. Antoninus ' writings address social and economic development, and argued that the state has a duty to intervene in mercantile affairs for the common good, and an obligation to help the poor and needy. In his primary work, "summa theologica '' he was mainly concerned about price, justice and capital theory. Like Duns Scotus, he distinguishes between the natural value of a good and its practical value. The latter is determined by its suitability to satisfy needs (virtuositas), its rarity (raritas) and its subjective value (complacibilitas). Due to this subjective component there can not only be one just price, but a bandwidth of more or less just prices.
Mercantilism dominated Europe from the 16th to the 18th century. Despite the localism of the Middle Ages, the waning of feudalism saw new national economic frameworks begin to strengthen. After the 15th century voyages of Christopher Columbus and other explorers opened up new opportunities for trade with the New World and Asia, newly - powerful monarchies wanted a more powerful military state to boost their status. Mercantilism was a political movement and an economic theory that advocated the use of the state 's military power to ensure that local markets and supply sources were protected, spawning protectionism.
Mercantile theorists held that international trade could not benefit all countries at the same time. Money and precious metals were the only source of riches in their view, and limited resources must be allocated between countries, therefore tariffs should be used to encourage exports, which bring money into the country, and discourage imports which send it abroad. In other words, a positive balance of trade ought to be maintained through a surplus of exports, often backed by military might. Despite the prevalence of the model, the term mercantilism was not coined until 1763, by Victor de Riqueti, marquis de Mirabeau (1715 -- 1789), and popularized by Adam Smith in 1776, who vigorously opposed it.
In the 16th century the Jesuit School of Salamanca in Spain developed economic theory to a high level, only to have their contributions forgotten until the 20th century.
In 1516 English humanist Sir Thomas More (1478 -- 1535) published Utopia, which describes an ideal society where land is owned in common and there is universal education and religious tolerance, inspiring the English Poor Laws (1587) and the communism - socialism movement.
In 1517 Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 -- 1543) published the first known argument for the quantity theory of money. In 1519 he also published the first known form of Gresham 's Law: "Bad money drives out good ''.
In 1568 Jean Bodin (1530 -- 1596) of France published Reply to Malestroit, containing the first known analysis of inflation, which he claimed was caused by importation of gold and silver from South America, backing the quantity theory of money.
In 1598 French mercantilist economist Barthélemy de Laffemas (1545 -- 1612) published Les Trésors et richesses pour mettre l'Estat en splendeur, which blasted those who frowned on French silks because the industry created employment for the poor, the first known mention of underconsumption theory, which was later refined by John Maynard Keynes.
In 1605 Flemish Jesuit theologian Leonardus Lessius (1554 -- 1623) published On Justice and Law, the deepest moral - theological study of economics since Aquinas, whose just price approach he claimed was no longer workable. After comparing money 's growth via avarice to the propagation of hares, he made the first statement of the price of insurance as being based on risk.
In 1622 English merchants Edward Misselden and Gerard Malynes began a dispute over free trade and the desirability of government regulation of companies, with Malynes arguing against foreign exchange as under the control of bankers, and Misselden arguing that international money exchange and fluctuations in the exchange rate depend upon international trade and not bankers, and that the state should regulate trade to insure export surpluses.
English economist Thomas Mun (1571 -- 1641) describes early mercantilist policy in his book England 's Treasure by Foreign Trade, which was not published until 1664, although it was widely circulated in manuscript form during his lifetime. A member of the East India Company, he wrote about his experiences in A Discourse of Trade from England unto the East Indies (1621).
In 1662 English economist Sir William Petty (1623 -- 1687) began publishing short works applying the rational scientific tradition of Francis Bacon to economics, requiring that it only use measurable phenomena and seek quantitative precision, coining the term "political arithmetic '', introducing statistical mathematics, and becoming the first scientific economist.
Philipp von Hörnigk (1640 -- 1712, sometimes spelt Hornick or Horneck) was born in Frankfurt and became an Austrian civil servant writing in a time when his country was constantly threatened by Ottoman invasion. In Österreich Über Alles, Wann es Nur Will (1684, Austria Over All, If She Only Will) he laid out one of the clearest statements of mercantile policy, listing nine principal rules of national economy:
"To inspect the country 's soil with the greatest care, and not to leave the agricultural possibilities of a single corner or clod of earth unconsidered... All commodities found in a country, which can not be used in their natural state, should be worked up within the country... Attention should be given to the population, that it may be as large as the country can support... gold and silver once in the country are under no circumstances to be taken out for any purpose... The inhabitants should make every effort to get along with their domestic products... (Foreign commodities) should be obtained not for gold or silver, but in exchange for other domestic wares... and should be imported in unfinished form, and worked up within the country... Opportunities should be sought night and day for selling the country 's superfluous goods to these foreigners in manufactured form... No importation should be allowed under any circumstances of which there is a sufficient supply of suitable quality at home. ''
Nationalism, self - sufficiency and national power were the basic policies proposed.
In 1665 -- 1683 Jean - Baptiste Colbert (1619 -- 1683) was minister of finance under King Louis XIV of France, and set up national guilds to regulate major industries. Silk, linen, tapestry, furniture manufacture and wine were examples of the crafts in which France specialized, all of which came to require membership in a guild to operate in until the French Revolution. According to Colbert, "It is simply and solely the abundance of money within a state (which) makes the difference in its grandeur and power. ''
In 1695 French economist Pierre Le Pesant, sieur de Boisguilbert (1646 -- 1714) wrote a plea to Louis XIV to end Colbert 's mercantilist program, containing the first notion of an economical market, becoming the first economist to question mercantile economic policy and value the wealth of a country by its production and exchange of goods instead its assets.
In 1696 British mercantilist Tory Member of parliament Charles Davenant (1656 -- 1714) published Essay on the East India Trade, displaying the first understanding of consumer demand and perfect competition.
In 1767 Scottish mercantilist economist Sir James Steuart (1713 -- 1780) published An Inquiry into the Principles of Political Economy, the first book in English with the term "political economy '' in the title, and the first complete economics treatise.
In the 17th century Britain went through troubling times, enduring not only political and religious division in the English Civil War, King Charles I 's execution, and the Cromwellian dictatorship, but also the Great Plague of London and Great Fire of London. The restoration of the monarchy under Charles II, who had Roman Catholic sympathies, led to turmoil and strife, and his Catholic - leaning successor King James II was swiftly ousted. Invited in his place were Protestant William of Orange and Mary, who assented to the Bill of Rights 1689, ensuring that the Parliament was dominant in what became known as the Glorious Revolution.
The upheaval was accompanied by a number of major scientific advances, including Robert Boyle 's discovery of the gas pressure constant (1660) and Sir Isaac Newton 's publication of Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), which described Newton 's laws of motion and his universal law of gravitation.
All these factors spurred the advancement of economic thought. For instance, Richard Cantillon (1680 -- 1734) consciously imitated Newton 's forces of inertia and gravity in the natural world with human reason and market competition in the economic world. In his Essay on the Nature of Commerce in General, he argued rational self - interest in a system of freely - adjusting markets would lead to order and mutually - compatible prices. Unlike the mercantilist thinkers however, wealth was found not in trade but in human labor. The first person to tie these ideas into a political framework was John Locke.
John Locke (1632 -- 1704) was born near Bristol, and educated in London and Oxford. He is considered one of the most significant philosophers of his era mainly for his critique of Thomas Hobbes ' defense of absolutism in Leviathan (1651) and of his social contract theory. Locke believed that people contracted into society, which was bound to protect their property rights. He defined property broadly to include people 's lives and liberties, as well as their wealth. When people combined their labor with their surroundings, that created property rights. In his words from his Second Treatise on Civil Government (1689):
"God hath given the world to men in common... Yet every man has a property in his own person. The labour of his body and the work of his hands we may say are properly his. Whatsoever, then, he removes out of the state that nature hath provided and left it in, he hath mixed his labour with, and joined to it something that is his own, and thereby makes it his property. ''
Locke argued that not only should the government cease interference with people 's property (or their "lives, liberties and estates ''), but also that it should positively work to ensure their protection. His views on price and money were laid out in a letter to a Member of Parliament in 1691 entitled Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money (1691), arguing that the "price of any commodity rises or falls, by the proportion of the number of buyers and sellers '', a rule which "holds universally in all things that are to be bought and sold. ''
Dudley North (1641 -- 1691) was a wealthy merchant and landowner who worked for Her Majesty 's Treasury and opposed most mercantile policy. His Discourses upon trade (1691), published anonymously, argued against assuming a need for a favorable balance of trade. Trade, he argued, benefits both sides, promotes specialization, division of labor and wealth for everyone. Regulation of trade interferes with these benefits, he said.
David Hume (1711 -- 1776) agreed with North 's philosophy and denounced mercantilist assumptions. His contributions were set down in Political Discourses (1752), and later consolidated in his Essays, Moral, Political, Literary (1777). Adding to the argument that it was undesirable to strive for a favourable balance of trade, Hume argued that it is, in any case, impossible.
Hume held that any surplus of exports would be paid for by imports of gold and silver. This would increase the money supply, causing prices to rise. That in turn would cause a decline in exports until the balance with imports is restored.
Bernard Mandeville, (1670 -- 1733), was an Anglo - Dutch philosopher, political economist and satirist. His main thesis is that the actions of men can not be divided into lower and higher. The higher life of man is a mere fiction introduced by philosophers and rulers to simplify government and the relations of society. In fact, virtue (which he defined as "every performance by which man, contrary to the impulse of nature, should endeavour the benefit of others, or the conquest of his own passions, out of a rational ambition of being good '') is actually detrimental to the state in its commercial and intellectual progress. This is because it is the vices (i.e., the self - regarding actions of men) which alone, by means of inventions and the circulation of capital (economics) in connection with luxurious living, stimulate society into action and progress.
Francis Hutcheson (1694 -- 1746), the teacher of Adam Smith from 1737 to 1740 is considered the end of a long tradition of thought on economics as "household or family (οἶκος) management '', stemming from Xenophon 's work Oeconomicus.
Similarly disenchanted with regulation on trade inspired by mercantilism, a Frenchman named Vincent de Gournay (1712 -- 1759) is reputed to have asked why it was so hard to laissez faire ("let it be ''), laissez passer ("let it pass ''), advocating free enterprise and free trade. He was one of the early Physiocrats, a Greek word meaning "Government of nature '', who held that agriculture was the source of wealth. As historian David B. Danbom wrote, the Physiocrats "damned cities for their artificiality and praised more natural styles of living. They celebrated farmers. '' Over the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth century big advances in natural science and anatomy included discovery of blood circulation through the human body. This concept was mirrored in the physiocrats ' economic theory, with the notion of a circular flow of income throughout the economy.
François Quesnay (1694 -- 1774) was the court physician to King Louis XV of France. He believed that trade and industry were not sources of wealth, and instead in his book Tableau économique (1758, Economic Table) argued that agricultural surpluses, by flowing through the economy in the form of rent, wages, and purchases were the real economic movers. Firstly, said Quesnay, regulation impedes the flow of income throughout all social classes and therefore economic development. Secondly, taxes on the productive classes, such as farmers, should be reduced in favour of rises for unproductive classes, such as landowners, since their luxurious way of life distorts the income flow. David Ricardo later showed that taxes on land are non-transferable to tenants in his Law of Rent.
Jacques Turgot (1727 -- 1781) was born in Paris to an old Norman family. His best known work, Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution des richesses (Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth) (1766) developed Quesnay 's theory that land is the only source of wealth. Turgot viewed society in terms of three classes: the productive agricultural class, the salaried artisan class (classe stipendice) and the landowning class (classe disponible). He argued that only the net product of land should be taxed and advocated the complete freedom of commerce and industry.
In August 1774 Turgot was appointed to be minister of finance, and in the space of two years he introduced many anti-mercantile and anti-feudal measures supported by the king. A statement of his guiding principles, given to the king were "no bankruptcy, no tax increases, no borrowing. '' Turgot 's ultimate wish was to have a single tax on land and abolish all other indirect taxes, but measures he introduced before that were met with overwhelming opposition from landed interests. Two edicts in particular, one suppressing corvées (charges from farmers to aristocrats) and another renouncing privileges given to guilds, inflamed influential opinion. He was forced from office in 1776.
In 1751, Neapolitan philosopher Ferdinando Galiani published a nearly exhaustive treatise on money called Della Moneta, 25 years before Adam Smith 's The Wealth of Nations, and therefore is seen as possibly the first truly modern economic analysis. In its five sections, Della Moneta covered all modern aspects of monetary theory, including the value and origin of money, its regulation, and inflation. This text remained cited by various economists for centuries, as wide - ranging a list as Karl Marx and Austrian economist Joseph Schumpeter.
Adam Smith (1723 -- 1790) is popularly seen as the father of modern political economy. His 1776 publication An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations happened to coincide not only with the American Revolution, shortly before the Europe - wide upheavals of the French Revolution, but also the dawn of a new industrial revolution that allowed more wealth to be created on a larger scale than ever before.
Smith was a Scottish moral philosopher, whose first book was The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759). He argued in it that people 's ethical systems develop through personal relations with other individuals, that right and wrong are sensed through others ' reactions to one 's behaviour. This gained Smith more popularity than his next work, The Wealth of Nations, which the general public initially ignored. Yet Smith 's political economic magnum opus was successful in circles that mattered.
Smith argued for a "system of natural liberty '' where individual effort was the producer of social good. Smith believed even the selfish within society were kept under restraint and worked for the good of all when acting in a competitive market. Prices are often unrepresentative of the true value of goods and services. Following John Locke, Smith thought true value of things derived from the amount of labour invested in them.
Every man is rich or poor according to the degree in which he can afford to enjoy the necessaries, conveniencies, and amusements of human life. But after the division of labour has once thoroughly taken place, it is but a very small part of these with which a man 's own labour can supply him. The far greater part of them he must derive from the labour of other people, and he must be rich or poor according to the quantity of that labour which he can command, or which he can afford to purchase. The value of any commodity, therefore, to the person who possesses it, and who means not to use or consume it himself, but to exchange it for other commodities, is equal to the quantity of labour which it enables him to purchase or command. Labour, therefore, is the real measure of the exchangeable value of all commodities. The real price of every thing, what every thing really costs to the man who wants to acquire it, is the toil and trouble of acquiring it.
When the butchers, the brewers and the bakers acted under the restraint of an open market economy, their pursuit of self - interest, thought Smith, paradoxically drives the process to correct real life prices to their just values. His classic statement on competition goes as follows.
When the quantity of any commodity which is brought to market falls short of the effectual demand, all those who are willing to pay... can not be supplied with the quantity which they want... Some of them will be willing to give more. A competition will begin among them, and the market price will rise... When the quantity brought to market exceeds the effectual demand, it can not be all sold to those who are willing to pay the whole value of the rent, wages and profit, which must be paid to bring it thither... The market price will sink...
Smith 's vision of a free market economy, based on secure property, capital accumulation, widening markets and a division of labour contrasted with the mercantilist tendency to attempt to "regulate all evil human actions. '' Smith believed there were precisely three legitimate functions of government. The third function was...
... erecting and maintaining certain public works and certain public institutions, which it can never be for the interest of any individual or small number of individuals, to erect and maintain... Every system which endeavours... to draw towards a particular species of industry a greater share of the capital of the society than what would naturally go to it... retards, instead of accelerating, the progress of the society toward real wealth and greatness.
In addition to the necessity of public leadership in certain sectors Smith argued, secondly, that cartels were undesirable because of their potential to limit production and quality of goods and services. Thirdly, Smith criticised government support of any kind of monopoly which always charges the highest price "which can be squeezed out of the buyers ''. The existence of monopoly and the potential for cartels, which would later form the core of competition law policy, could distort the benefits of free markets to the advantage of businesses at the expense of consumer sovereignty.
William Pitt the Younger (1759 -- 1806), Tory Prime Minister in 1783 -- 1801 based his tax proposals on Smith 's ideas, and advocated free trade as a devout disciple of The Wealth of Nations. Smith was appointed a commissioner of customs and within twenty years Smith had a following of new generation writers who were intent on building the science of political economy.
Adam Smith expressed an affinity to the opinions of Irish MP Edmund Burke (1729 -- 1797), known widely as a political philosopher:
"Burke is the only man I ever knew who thinks on economic subjects exactly as I do without any previous communication having passed between us.
Burke was an established political economist himself, known for his book Thoughts and Details on Scarcity. He was widely critical of liberal politics, and condemned the French Revolution which began in 1789. In Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) he wrote that the "age of chivalry is dead, that of sophisters, economists and calculators has succeeded, and the glory of Europe is extinguished forever. '' Smith 's contemporary influences included François Quesnay and Jacques Turgot whom he met on a visit to Paris, and David Hume, his Scottish compatriot. The times produced a common need among thinkers to explain social upheavals of the Industrial revolution taking place, and in the seeming chaos without the feudal and monarchical structures of Europe, show there was order still.
Jeremy Bentham (1748 -- 1832) was perhaps the most radical thinker of his time, and developed the concept of utilitarianism. Bentham was an atheist, a prison reformer, animal rights activist, believer in universal suffrage, freedom of speech, free trade and health insurance at a time when few dared to argue for any of these ideas. He was schooled rigorously from an early age, finishing university and being called to the bar at 18. His first book, A Fragment on Government (1776), published anonymously, was a trenchant critique of William Blackstone 's Commentaries on the Laws of England. This gained wide success until it was found that the young Bentham, and not a revered Professor had penned it. In An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789) Bentham set out his theory of utility.
Jean - Baptiste Say (1767 -- 1832) was a Frenchman born in Lyon who helped popularize Adam Smith 's work in France. His book A Treatise on Political Economy (1803) contained a brief passage, which later became orthodoxy in political economics until the Great Depression, now known as Say 's Law of markets. Say argued that there could never be a general deficiency of demand or a general glut of commodities in the whole economy. People produce things, to fulfill their own wants rather than those of others, therefore production is not a question of supply but an indication of producers demanding goods.
Say agreed that a part of income is saved by households, but in the long term, savings are invested. Investment and consumption are the two elements of demand, so that production is demand, therefore it is impossible for production to outrun demand, or for there to be a "general glut '' of supply. Say also argued that money was neutral, because its sole role is to facilitate exchanges, therefore, people demand money only to buy commodities; "money is a veil ''.
David Ricardo (1772 -- 1823) was born in London. By the age of 26, he had become a wealthy stock market trader, and bought himself a constituency seat in Ireland to gain a platform in the British parliament 's House of Commons. Ricardo 's best known work is On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817), which contains his critique of barriers to international trade and a description of the manner in which income is distributed in the population. Ricardo made a distinction between workers, who received a wage fixed to a level at which they could survive, the landowners, who earn a rent, and capitalists, who own capital and receive a profit, a residual part of the income.
If population grows, it becomes necessary to cultivate additional land, whose fertility is lower than that of already cultivated fields, because of the law of decreasing productivity. Therefore, the cost of the production of the wheat increases, as well as the price of the wheat: The rents increase also, the wages, indexed to inflation (because they must allow workers to survive) as well. Profits decrease, until the capitalists can no longer invest. The economy, Ricardo concluded, is bound to tend towards a steady state.
Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi (1773 -- 1842) The earliest author of systemic Crisis theory.
John Stuart Mill (1806 -- 1873) was the dominant figure of political economic thought of his time, as well as a Member of parliament for the seat of Westminster, and a leading political philosopher. Mill was a child prodigy, reading Ancient Greek from the age of 3, and being vigorously schooled by his father James Mill. Jeremy Bentham was a close mentor and family friend, and Mill was heavily influenced by David Ricardo. Mill 's textbook, first published in 1848 and titled Principles of Political Economy was essentially a summary of the economic thought of the mid-nineteenth century.
Principles of Political Economy (1848) was used as the standard text by most universities well into the beginning of the twentieth century. On the question of economic growth Mill tried to find a middle ground between Adam Smith 's view of ever - expanding opportunities for trade and technological innovation and Thomas Malthus ' view of the inherent limits of population. In his fourth book Mill set out a number of possible future outcomes, rather than predicting one in particular.
The classical economists were referred to as a group for the first time by Karl Marx. One unifying part of their theories was the labour theory of value, contrasting to value deriving from a general equilibrium theory of supply and demand. These economists had seen the first economic and social transformation brought by the Industrial Revolution: rural depopulation, precariousness, poverty, apparition of a working class.
They wondered about population growth, because demographic transition had begun in Great Britain at that time. They also asked many fundamental questions, about the source of value, the causes of economic growth and the role of money in the economy. They supported a free - market economy, arguing it was a natural system based upon freedom and property. However, these economists were divided and did not make up a unified current of thought.
A notable current within classical economics was underconsumption theory, as advanced by the Birmingham School and Thomas Robert Malthus in the early 19th century. These argued for government action to mitigate unemployment and economic downturns, and were an intellectual predecessor of what later became Keynesian economics in the 1930s. Another notable school was Manchester capitalism, which advocated free trade, against the previous policy of mercantilism.
Just as the term "mercantilism '' had been coined and popularized by critics like Adam Smith, so the term "capitalism '' coined by Karl Marx (1818 -- 1883) was used by its critics. Socialism emerged in response to the miserable living and working conditions of the working class in the new industrial era, and the classical economics from which it sprang. The economic and political theory published in The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1867) combined with the dialectic theory of history inspired by Friedrich Hegel (1770 -- 1831) to provide a revolutionary critique of nineteenth - century capitalism.
In 1845 German radical Friedrich Engels (1820 -- 1895) published The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, describing workers in Manchester as "the most unconcealed pinnacle of social misery in our day. '' After Marx died, Engels completed the second volume of Das Kapital from his notes.
Marx wrote his magnum opus Das Kapital (1867) at the British Museum 's library in London. Karl Marx begins with the concept of commodities. Before capitalism, says Marx, production was based on slavery -- in ancient Rome for example -- then serfdom in the feudal societies of medieval Europe. The current mode of labor exchange has produced an erratic and unstable situation allowing the conditions for revolution. People buy and sell their labor as people buy and sell goods and services. People themselves have become disposable commodities. As Marx wrote in The Communist Manifesto,
The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guildmaster and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another... The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones.
From the first page of Das Kapital:
The wealth of those societies in which the capitalist mode of production prevails, presents itself as an immense accumulation of commodities, its unit being a single commodity. Our investigation must therefore begin with the analysis of a commodity.
Marx uses the word "commodity '' in an extensive metaphysical discussion of the nature of material wealth, how the objects of wealth are perceived and how they can be used. A commodity contrasts to objects of the natural world. When people mix their labor with an object it becomes a "commodity ''. In the natural world there are trees, diamonds, iron ore and people. In the economic world they become chairs, rings, factories and workers. However, says Marx, commodities have a dual nature, a dual value. He distinguishes the use value of a thing from its exchange value, which can be entirely different. The use value of a commodity exists only as that commodity is used or consumed. If commodities are considered absolutely isolated from their useful qualities the common property is human labor in the abstract. In this sense, value is human labor and is the most abstract and common property embodied in commodities. This follows the classical economists in the labor theory of value. He believed value can derive too from natural goods and refined his definition of value to "socially necessary labor time '', by which he meant the time people need to produce things when they are not lazy or inefficient. Furthermore, people subjectively inflate the value of things, for instance because there 's a commodity fetish for glimmering diamonds, and oppressive power relations involved in commodity production. These two factors mean exchange values differ greatly. An oppressive power relation, says Marx applying the use / exchange distinction to labor itself, in work - wage bargains derives from the fact that employers pay their workers less in "exchange value '' than the workers produce in "use value ''. The difference makes up the capitalist 's profit, or in Marx 's terminology, "surplus value ''. Therefore, says Marx, capitalism is a system of exploitation.
Marx 's work turned the labor theory of value, as the classicists called it, on its head. His dark irony goes deeper by asking what is the socially necessary labor time for the production of labor (i.e. working people) itself. Marx answers that this is the bare minimum for people to subsist and to reproduce with skills necessary in the economy.
People are therefore alienated from both the fruits of production and the means to realize their potential, psychologically, by their oppressed position in the labor market. But the tale told alongside exploitation and alienation is one of capital accumulation and economic growth. Employers are constantly under pressure from market competition to drive their workers harder, and at the limits invest in labor - displacing technology, by replacing an assembly line packer, for example. with a robot. This increases profits and expands growth, but for the sole benefit of those who have private property in these means of production. The working classes meanwhile face progressive immiseration, having had the product of their labor exploited from them, having been alienated from the tools of production. And having been fired from their jobs and replaced by machines, they end up unemployed. Marx believed that a reserve army of the unemployed would grow and grow, fueling a downward pressure on wages as desperate people accepted work for less. But this would produce a deficit of demand as the people 's power to purchase products lagged. A glut of unsold products would result, production would be cut back, and profits decline until capital accumulation halted in an economic depression. When the glut cleared, the economy would again start to boom before the next cyclical bust begins. With every boom and bust, with every capitalist crisis, thought Marx, tension and conflict between the increasingly polarized classes of capitalists and workers would heighten. Moreover, smaller firms are being gobbled by larger ones in every business cycle, as power is concentrated in the hands of the few and away from the many. Ultimately, led by the Communist party, Marx envisaged a revolution and the creation of a classless society. How this society might work, Marx never suggested. His primary contribution was not a blueprint for what a new society would be, but a criticism of the one he saw.
The first volume of Das Kapital was the only one Marx alone published. The second and third volumes were produced with the help of Friedrich Engels; Karl Kautsky, who had become a friend of Engels, saw through the publication of volume four. Published as the three volume ' Theories of Surplus Value '.
Marx began a tradition of economists who became political activists, including Rosa Luxemburg (1871 -- 1919), a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany who later turned towards the Communist Party of Germany because of their stance against the First World War, and Beatrice Webb (1858 -- 1943) of England, a socialist who helped found both the London School of Economics (LSE) and the Fabian Society and the principal re-articulator of his Crisis theory Henryk Grossman (1881 -- 1950).
In 1895 the London School of Economics (LSE) was founded by Fabian Society members Sidney Webb (1859 -- 1947), Beatrice Webb (1858 -- 1943), and George Bernard Shaw (1856 -- 1950), joining the University of London in 1900.
In the 1930s LSE member Sir Roy G.D. Allen (1906 -- 1983) popularized the use of mathematics in economics.
Neoclassical economics developed in the 1870s. There were three main independent schools. The Cambridge School was founded with the 1871 publication of Jevons ' Theory of Political Economy, developing theories of partial equilibrium and focusing on market failures. Its main representatives were Stanley Jevons, Alfred Marshall, and Arthur Pigou. The Austrian School of Economics was made up of Austrian economists Carl Menger, Eugen von Böhm - Bawerk, and Friedrich von Wieser, who developed the theory of capital and tried to explain economic crises. It was founded with the 1871 publication of Menger 's Principles of Economics. The Lausanne School, led by Léon Walras and Vilfredo Pareto, developed the theories of general equilibrium and Pareto efficiency. It was founded with the 1874 publication of Walras ' Elements of Pure Economics.
American economist John Bates Clark (1847 -- 1938) promoted the marginalist revolution, publishing The Distribution of Wealth (1899), which proposed Clark 's Law of Capitalism: "Given competition and homogeneous factors of production labor and capital, the repartition of the social product will be according to the productivity of the last physical input of units of labor and capital '', also expressed as "What a social class gets is, under natural law, what it contributes to the general output of industry. '' In 1947 the John Bates Clark Medal was established in his honor.
In 1871 Menger 's English counterpart Stanley Jevons (1835 -- 1882) independently published Theory of Political Economy (1871), stating that at the margin the satisfaction of goods and services decreases. An example of the Theory of Diminishing Marginal Utility is that for every orange one eats, one gets less pleasure until one stops eating oranges completely.
Alfred Marshall (1842 -- 1924) is also credited with an attempt to put economics on a more mathematical footing. The first professor of economics at the University of Cambridge, his 1890 work Principles of Economics abandoned the term "political economy '' for his favorite "economics ''. He viewed math as a way to simplify economic reasoning, although he had reservations as revealed in a letter to his student Arthur Cecil Pigou:
"(1) Use mathematics as shorthand language, rather than as an engine of inquiry. (2) Keep to them till you have done. (3) Translate into English. (4) Then illustrate by examples that are important in real life. (5) Burn the mathematics. (6) If you ca n't succeed in 4, burn 3. This I do often. ''
In 1972 American economists Harold Demsetz (1930 --) and Armen Alchian (1914 -- 2013) published Production, Information Costs and Economic Organization, founding New Institutional Economics, an updating of the works of Ronald Coase (1910 -- 2013) with mainstream economics.
In 1874 again working independently, French economist Léon Walras (1834 -- 1910) generalized marginal theory across the economy in Elements of Pure Economics: Small changes in people 's preferences, for instance shifting from beef to mushrooms, would lead to a mushroom price rise, and beef price fall; this stimulates producers to shift production, increasing mushrooming investment, which would increase market supply and a new price equilibrium between the products, e.g. lowering the price of mushrooms to a level between the two first levels. For many products across the economy the same would happen if one assumes markets are competitive, people choose on the basis of self - interest, and there 's no cost for shifting production.
While economics at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth was dominated increasingly by mathematical analysis, the followers of Carl Menger (1840 -- 1921) and his disciples Eugen von Böhm - Bawerk (1851 -- 1914) and Friedrich von Wieser (1851 -- 1926) (coiner of the term "marginal utility '') followed a different route, advocating the use of deductive logic instead. This group became known as the Austrian School of Economics, reflecting the Austrian origin of many of the early adherents. Thorstein Veblen in The Preconceptions of Economic Science (1900) contrasted neoclassical marginalists in the tradition of Alfred Marshall with the philosophies of the Austrian School.
In 1871 Austrian School economist Carl Menger (1840 -- 1921) restated the basic principles of marginal utility in Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftslehre (Principles of Economics): Consumers act rationally by seeking to maximize satisfaction of all their preferences; people allocate their spending so that the last unit of a commodity bought creates no more satisfaction than a last unit bought of something else.
In 1881 Irish economist Francis Ysidro Edgeworth (1845 -- 1926) published Mathematical Psychics: An Essay on the Application of Mathematics to the Moral Sciences, which introduced indifference curves and the generalized utility function, along with Edgeworth 's Limit Theorem, extending the Bertrand Model to handle capacity constraints, and proposing Edgeworth 's Paradox for when there is no limit to what the firms can sell.
Ludwig von Mises 's outspoken criticisms of socialism had a large influence on the economic thinking of Austrian School economist Friedrich Hayek (1899 -- 1992), who, while initially sympathetic, became one of the leading academic critics of collectivism in the 20th century. In echoes of Smith 's "system of natural liberty '', Hayek argued that the market is a "spontaneous order '' and actively disparaged the concept of "social justice ''. Hayek believed that all forms of collectivism (even those theoretically based on voluntary cooperation) could only be maintained by a central authority. But he argued that centralizing economic decision - making would lead not only to infringements of liberty but also to depressed standards of living because centralized experts could not gather and assess the knowledge required to allocate scarce resources efficiently or productively. In his book, The Road to Serfdom (1944) and in subsequent works, Hayek claimed that socialism required central economic planning and that such planning in turn would lead towards totalitarianism. Hayek attributed the birth of civilization to private property in his book The Fatal Conceit (1988). According to him, price signals are the only means of enabling each economic decision maker to communicate tacit knowledge or dispersed knowledge to each other, to solve the economic calculation problem. Along with his Socialist Swedish contemporary and opponent Gunnar Myrdal (1898 -- 1987), Hayek was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1974.
In the early 19th century German - born English astronomer Sir William Herschel (1738 -- 1822) noted a connection between 11 - year sunspot cycles and wheat prices. In 1860 French economist Clément Juglar (1819 -- 1905) posited business cycles seven to eleven years long. In 1925 the Soviet economist Nikolai Kondratiev (1892 -- 1938) proposed the existence of Kondratiev waves in Western capitalist economies fifty to sixty years long.
In the mid-1840s German economist Wilhelm Roscher (1817 -- 1894) founded the German historical school of economics, which promoted the cyclical theory of nations -- economies passing through youth, manhood, and senility -- and spread through academia in Britain and the U.S., dominating it for the rest of the 19th century.
Thorstein Veblen (1857 -- 1929), who came from rural midwestern America and worked at the University of Chicago is one of the best - known early critics of the "American Way ''. In The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899) he scorned materialistic culture and wealthy people who conspicuously consumed their riches as a way of demonstrating success. In The Theory of Business Enterprise (1904) Veblen distinguished production for people to use things and production for pure profit, arguing that the former is often hindered because businesses pursue the latter. Output and technological advance are restricted by business practices and the creation of monopolies. Businesses protect their existing capital investments and employ excessive credit, leading to depressions and increasing military expenditure and war through business control of political power. These two books, focusing on criticism of consumerism and profiteering did not advocate change. However, in 1918 he moved to New York to begin work as an editor of a magazine called The Dial, and then in 1919, along with Charles A. Beard, James Harvey Robinson, and John Dewey he helped found the New School for Social Research, known today as The New School) He was also part of the Technical Alliance, created in 1919 by Howard Scott. From 1919 through 1926 Veblen continued to write and to be involved in various activities at The New School. During this period he wrote The Engineers and the Price System (1921).
At the outbreak of World War I (1914 -- 1918), Alfred Marshall was still working on his last revisions of his Principles of Economics. The 20th century 's initial climate of optimism was soon violently dismembered in the trenches of the Western Front. During the war, production in Britain, Germany, and France was switched to the military. In 1917 Russia crumbled into revolution led by Vladimir Lenin and who promoted Marxist theory and collectivized the means of production. Also in 1917 the United States of America entered the war Allies (France and Britain), with President Woodrow Wilson claiming to be "making the world safe for democracy '', devising a peace plan of Fourteen Points. In 1918 Germany launched a spring offensive which failed, and as the allies counterattacked and more millions were slaughtered, Germany slid into the German Revolution, its interim government suing for peace on the basis of Wilson 's Fourteen Points. After the war, Europe lay in ruins, financially, physically, psychologically, and its future was dependent on the dictates of the Versailles Conference in 1919.
After World War I, Europe and the Soviet Union lay in ruins, and the British Empire was nearing its end, leaving the United States as the preeminent global economic power. Before World War II, American economists had played a minor role. During this time institutional economists had been largely critical of the "American Way '' of life, especially the conspicuous consumption of the Roaring Twenties before the Wall Street Crash of 1929. The most important development in economic thought during the Great Depression was the Keynesian revolution, including the publication in 1936 of The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money by John Maynard Keynes. (See the discussion of Keynesianism below.) Subsequently, a more orthodox body of thought took root, reacting against the lucid debating style of Keynes, and remathematizing the profession. The orthodox center was also challenged by a more radical group of scholars based at the University of Chicago, who advocated "liberty '' and "freedom '', looking back to 19th century - style non-interventionist governments.
In the 1930s Norwegian economist Ragnar Frisch (1895 -- 1973) and Dutch economist Jan Tinbergen (1903 -- 1994) pioneered Econometrics, receiving the first - ever Nobel Prize in Economics in 1969. In 1936 Russian - American economist Wassily Leontief (1905 -- 1999) proposed the Input - Output Model of economics, which uses linear algebra and is ideally suited to computers, receiving the 1973 Nobel Economics Prize. After World War II, Lawrence Klein (1920 --) pioneered the use of computers in econometric modeling, receiving the 1980 Nobel Economics Prize. In 1963 -- 1964 as John Tukey of Princeton University was developing the revolutionary Fast Fourier Transform, which greatly speed up the calculation of Fourier Transforms, his British assistant Sir Clive Granger (1934 -- 2009) pioneered the use of Fourier Transforms in economics, receiving the 2003 Nobel Economics Prize. Ragnar Frisch 's assistant Trygve Haavelmo (1911 -- 1999) received the 1989 Nobel Economics Prize for clarifying the probability foundations of econometrics and for analysis of simultaneous economic structures.
The Great Depression was a time of significant upheaval in the world economy. One of the most original contributions to understanding what went wrong came from Harvard University lawyer Adolf Berle (1895 -- 1971), who like John Maynard Keynes had resigned from his diplomatic job at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919 and was deeply disillusioned by the Versailles Treaty. In his book with American economist Gardiner C. Means (1896 -- 1988) The Modern Corporation and Private Property (1932) he detailed the evolution in the contemporary economy of big business, and argued that those who controlled big firms should be better held to account. Directors of companies are held to account to the shareholders of companies, or not, by the rules found in company law statutes. This might include rights to elect and fire the management, require for regular general meetings, accounting standards, and so on. In 1930s America the typical company laws (e.g. in Delaware) did not clearly mandate such rights. Berle argued that the unaccountable directors of companies were therefore apt to funnel the fruits of enterprise profits into their own pockets, as well as manage in their own interests. The ability to do this was supported by the fact that the majority of shareholders in big public companies were single individuals, with scant means of communication, in short, divided and conquered. Berle served in President Franklin Delano Roosevelt 's administration through the Great Depression as a key member of his Brain Trust, developing many New Deal policies.
In 1967 Berle and Means issued a revised edition of their work, in which the preface added a new dimension. It was not only the separation of controllers of companies from the owners as shareholders at stake. They posed the question of what the corporate structure was really meant to achieve:
"Stockholders toil not, neither do they spin, to earn (dividends and share price increases). They are beneficiaries by position only. Justification for their inheritance... can be founded only upon social grounds... that justification turns on the distribution as well as the existence of wealth. Its force exists only in direct ratio to the number of individuals who hold such wealth. Justification for the stockholder 's existence thus depends on increasing distribution within the American population. Ideally the stockholder 's position will be impregnable only when every American family has its fragment of that position and of the wealth by which the opportunity to develop individuality becomes fully actualized. ''
In 1933 American economist Edward Chamberlin (1899 -- 1967) published The Theory of Monopolistic Competition. The same year British economist Joan Robinson (1903 -- 1983) published The Economics of Imperfect Competition. Together they founded Industrial Organization Economics. Chamberlin also founded Experimental Economics.
In 1939 Russian economist Leonid Kantorovich (1912 -- 1986) developed Linear Programming for the optimal allocation of resources, receiving the 1975 Nobel Economics Prize.
By the twentieth century, the industrial revolution had led to an exponential increase in the human consumption of resources. The increase in health, wealth and population was perceived as a simple path of progress. However, in the 1930s economists began developing models of non-renewable resource management (see Hotelling 's rule) and the sustainability of welfare in an economy that uses non-renewable resources.
Concerns about the environmental and social impacts of industry had been expressed by some Enlightenment political economists and in the Romantic movement of the 1800s. Overpopulation had been discussed in an essay by Thomas Malthus (see Malthusian catastrophe), while John Stuart Mill foresaw the desirability of a stationary state economy, thus anticipating concerns of the modern discipline of ecological economics.
Ecological economics was founded in the works of Kenneth E. Boulding, Nicholas Georgescu - Roegen, Herman Daly and others. The disciplinary field of ecological economics also bears some similarity to the topic of green economics.
According to ecological economist Malte Faber, ecological economics is defined by its focus on nature, justice, and time. Issues of intergenerational equity, irreversibility of environmental change, uncertainty of long - term outcomes, thermodynamics limits to growth, and sustainable development guide ecological economic analysis and valuation.
Energy accounting was proposed in the early 1930s as a scientific alternative to a price system, or money method of regulating society. Joseph Tainter suggests that a diminishing ratio of energy returned on energy invested is a chief cause of the collapse of complex societies. Falling EROEI due to depletion of non-renewable resources also poses a difficult challenge for industrial economies. Sustainability becomes an issue as survival is threatened due to climate change.
In 1919 Yale economist Walton H. Hamilton coined the term "Institutional economics ''. In 1934 John R. Commons (1862 -- 1945), another economist from midwestern America published Institutional Economics (1934), based on the concept that the economy is a web of relationships between people with diverging interests, including monopolies, large corporations, labor disputes, and fluctuating business cycles. They do however have an interest in resolving these disputes. Government, thought Commons, ought to be the mediator between the conflicting groups. Commons himself devoted much of his time to advisory and mediation work on government boards and industrial commissions.
In 1920 Alfred Marshall 's student Arthur Cecil Pigou (1877 -- 1959) published Wealth and Welfare, which insisted on the possibility of market failures, claiming that markets are inefficient in the case of economic externalities, and the state must interfere to prevent them. However, Pigou retained free market beliefs, and in 1933, in the face of the economic crisis, he explained in The Theory of Unemployment that the excessive intervention of the state in the labor market was the real cause of massive unemployment because the governments had established a minimal wage, which prevented wages from adjusting automatically. This was to be the focus of attack from Keynes. In 1943 Pigou published the paper The Classical Stationary State, which popularized the Pigou (Real Balance) Effect, the stimulation of output and employment during deflation by increasing consumption due to a rise in wealth
In response to the Economic Calculation Problem proposed by the Austrian School of Economics that disputes the efficiency of a state - run economy, the theory of Market Socialism was developed in the late 1920s and 1930s by economists Fred M. Taylor (1855 -- 1932), Oskar R. Lange (1904 -- 1965), Abba Lerner (1903 -- 1982) et al., combining Marxian economics with neoclassical economics after dumping the labor theory of value. In 1938 Abram Bergson (1914 -- 2003) defined the Social Welfare Function.
In the 1930s the Stockholm School of Economics was founded by Eli Heckscher (1879 -- 1952), Bertil Ohlin (1899 -- 1977), Gunnar Myrdal (1898 -- 1987) et al. based on the works of John Maynard Keynes and Knut Wicksell (1851 -- 1926), advising the founders of the Swedish Socialist welfare state.
In 1933 Ohlin and Heckscher proposed the Heckscher - Ohlin Model of International Trade, which claims that countries will export products that use their abundant and cheap factors of production and import products that use their scarce factors of production. In 1977 Ohlin was awarded a share of the Nobel Economics Prize.
In 1957 Myrdal published his theory of Circular Cumulative Causation, in which a change in one institution ripples through others. In 1974 he received a share of the Nobel Economics Prize.
In 1885 the American Economic Association (AEA) was founded by Richard T. Ely (1854 -- 1943) et al., publishing the American Economic Review starting in 1911. In 1918 Ely published Private Colonization of Land, founding Lambda Alpha International in 1930 to promote Land Economics.
John Maynard Keynes (1883 -- 1946) was born in Cambridge, educated at Eton, and supervised by both A.C. Pigou and Alfred Marshall at Cambridge University. He began his career as a lecturer before working for the British government during the Great War, rising to be the British government 's financial representative at the Versailles Conference, where he profoundly disagreed with the decisions made. His observations were laid out in his book The Economic Consequences of the Peace (1919), where he documented his outrage at the collapse of American adherence to the Fourteen Points and the mood of vindictiveness that prevailed towards Germany., and he resigned from the conference, using extensive economic data provided by the conference records to argue that if the victors forced war reparations to be paid by the defeated Central Powers, then a world financial crisis would ensue, leading to a second world war. Keynes finished his treatise by advocating, first, a reduction in reparation payments by Germany to a realistically manageable level, increased intra-governmental management of continental coal production and a free trade union through the League of Nations; second, an arrangement to set off debt repayments between the Allied countries; third, complete reform of international currency exchange and an international loan fund; and fourth, a reconciliation of trade relations with Russia and Eastern Europe.
The book was an enormous success, and though it was criticized for false predictions by a number of people, without the changes he advocated, Keynes 's dark forecasts matched the world 's experience through the Great Depression which began in 1929, and the descent into World War II in 1939. World War I had been touted as the "war to end all wars '', and the absolute failure of the peace settlement generated an even greater determination to not repeat the same mistakes. With the defeat of Fascism, the Bretton Woods Conference was held in July 1944 to establish a new economic order, in which Keynes was again to play a leading role.
During the Great Depression, Keynes published his most important work, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936). The Great Depression had been sparked by the Wall Street Crash of 1929, leading to massive rises in unemployment in the United States, leading to debts being recalled from European borrowers, and an economic domino effect across the world. Orthodox economics called for a tightening of spending, until business confidence and profit levels could be restored. Keynes by contrast, had argued in A Tract on Monetary Reform (1923) (which argues for a stable currency) that a variety of factors determined economic activity, and that it was not enough to wait for the long run market equilibrium to restore itself. As Keynes famously remarked:
"... this long run is a misleading guide to current affairs. In the long run we are all dead. Economists set themselves too easy, too useless a task if in tempestuous seasons they can only tell us that when the storm is long past the ocean is flat again. ''
On top of the supply of money, Keynes identified the propensity to consume, inducement to invest, marginal efficiency of capital, liquidity preference, and multiplier effect as variables which determine the level of the economy 's output, employment, and price levels. Much of this esoteric terminology was invented by Keynes especially for his General Theory. Keynes argued that if savings were being withheld from investment in financial markets, total spending falls, leading to reduced incomes and unemployment, which reduces savings again. This continues until the desire to save becomes equal to the desire to invest, which means a new "equilibrium '' is reached and the spending decline halts. This new "equilibrium '' is a depression, where people are investing less, have less to save and less to spend.
Keynes argued that employment depends on total spending, which is composed of consumer spending and business investment in the private sector. Consumers only spend "passively '', or according to their income fluctuations. Businesses, on the other hand, are induced to invest by the expected rate of return on new investments (the benefit) and the rate of interest paid (the cost). So, said Keynes, if business expectations remained the same, and government reduces interest rates (the costs of borrowing), investment would increase, and would have a multiplied effect on total spending. Interest rates, in turn, depend on the quantity of money and the desire to hold money in bank accounts (as opposed to investing). If not enough money is available to match how much people want to hold, interest rates rise until enough people are put off. So if the quantity of money were increased, while the desire to hold money remained stable, interest rates would fall, leading to increased investment, output and employment. For both these reasons, Keynes therefore advocated low interest rates and easy credit, to combat unemployment.
But Keynes believed in the 1930s, conditions necessitated public sector action. Deficit spending, said Keynes, would kick - start economic activity. This he had advocated in an open letter to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the New York Times (1933). The New Deal programme in the U.S. had been well underway by the publication of the General Theory. It provided conceptual reinforcement for policies already pursued. Keynes also believed in a more egalitarian distribution of income, and taxation on unearned income arguing that high rates of savings (to which richer folk are prone) are not desirable in a developed economy. Keynes therefore advocated both monetary management and an active fiscal policy.
During World War II Keynes acted as adviser to HM Treasury again, negotiating major loans from the U.S., helping formulate the plans for the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the International Trade Organisation at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference, a package designed to stabilize world economy fluctuations that had occurred in the 1920s and create a level trading field across the globe. Keynes died little more than a year later, but his ideas had already shaped a new global economic order, and all Western governments followed the Keynesian economics program of deficit spending to avert crises and maintain full employment.
One of Keynes 's pupils at Cambridge was Joan Robinson (1903 -- 1983), a member of Keynes 's Cambridge Circus, who contributed to the notion that competition is seldom perfect in a market, an indictment of the theory of markets setting prices. In The Production Function and the Theory of Capital (1953) Robinson tackled what she saw to be some of the circularity in orthodox economics. Neoclassicists assert that a competitive market forces producers to minimize the costs of production. Robinson said that costs of production are merely the prices of inputs, like capital. Capital goods get their value from the final products. And if the price of the final products determines the price of capital, then it is, argued Robinson, utterly circular to say that the price of capital determines the price of the final products. Goods can not be priced until the costs of inputs are determined. This would not matter if everything in the economy happened instantaneously, but in the real world, price setting takes time -- goods are priced before they are sold. Since capital can not be adequately valued in independently measurable units, how can one show that capital earns a return equal to the contribution to production?
Alfred Eichner (1937 -- 1988) was an American post-Keynesian economist who challenged the neoclassical price mechanism and asserted that prices are not set through supply and demand but rather through mark - up pricing. Eichner is one of the founders of the post-Keynesian school of economics and was a professor at Rutgers University at the time of his death. Eichner 's writings and advocacy of thought, differed with the theories of John Maynard Keynes, who was an advocate of government intervention in the free market and proponent of public spending to increase employment. Eichner argued that investment was the key to economic expansion. He was considered an advocate of the concept that government incomes policy should prevent inflationary wage and price settlements in connection to the customary fiscal and monetary means of regulating the economy.
Richard Kahn (1905 -- 1989) was a member of the Cambridge Circus who in 1931 proposed the Multiplier.
Piero Sraffa (1898 -- 1983) came to England from Fascist Italy in the 1920s, and became a member of the Cambridge Circus. In 1960 he published a small book called Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities, which explained how technological relationships are the basis for production of goods and services. Prices result from wage - profit tradeoffs, collective bargaining, labour and management conflict and the intervention of government planning. Like Robinson, Sraffa was showing how the major force for price setting in the economy was not necessarily market adjustments.
John Hicks (1904 -- 1989) of England was a Keynesian who in 1937 proposed the Investment Saving -- Liquidity Preference Money Supply Model, which treats the intersection of the IS and LM curves as the general equilibrium in both markets.
In 1977 Edmund Phelps (1933 --) (who was awarded the 2006 Nobel Economics Prize) and John B. Taylor (1946 --) published a paper proving that staggered setting of wages and prices gives monetary policy a role in stabilizing economic fluctuations if the wages / prices are sticky, even when all workers and firms have rational expectations, which caused Keynesian economics to make a comeback among mainstream economists with New Keynesian Macroeconomics. Its central theme is the provision of a microeconomic foundation for Keynesian macroeconomics, obtained by identifying minimal deviations from the standard microeconomic assumptions which yield Keynesian macroeconomic conclusions, such as the possibility of significant welfare benefits from macroeconomic stabilization.
In 1985 George Akerlof (1940 --) and Janet Yellen (1946 --) published menu costs arguments showing that, under imperfect competition, small deviations from rationality generate significant (in welfare terms) price stickiness.
In 1987 British economist Huw Dixon (1958 --) published A simple model of imperfect competition with Walrasian features, the first work to demonstrate in a simple general equilibrium model that the fiscal multiplier could be increasing with the degree of imperfect competition in the output market, helping develop New Keynesian economics. The reason for this is that imperfect competition in the output market tends to reduce the real wage, leading to the household substituting away from consumption towards leisure. When government spending is increased, the corresponding increase in lump - sum taxation causes both leisure and consumption to decrease (assuming that they are both a normal good). The greater the degree of imperfect competition in the output market, the lower the real wage and hence the more the reduction falls on leisure (i.e. households work more) and less on consumption. Hence the fiscal multiplier is less than one, but increasing in the degree of imperfect competition in the output market.
In 1997 American economist Michael Woodford (1955 --) and Argentine economist Julio Rotemberg (1953 --) published the first paper describing a microfounded DSGE New Keynesian macroeconomic model.
In 1975 American economists Sidney Weintraub (1914 -- 1983) and Henry Wallich (1914 -- 1988) published A Tax - Based Incomes Policy, promoting Tax - Based Incomes Policy (TIP), using the income tax mechanism to implement an anti-inflationary incomes policy. In 1978 Weintraub and American economist Paul Davidson (1930 --) founded the Journal of Post Keynesian Economics. This opened the door to many younger economists such as E. Ray Canterbery (1935 --). Always Post Keynesian in his style and approach, Canterbery went on to make contributions outside traditional Post Keynesianism. His friend, John Kenneth Galbraith, was a long - time influence.
In 1913 English economist - diplomat Alfred Mitchell - Innes (1864 -- 1950) published What is Money?, which was reviewed favorably by John Maynard Keynes, followed in 1914 by The Credit Theory of Money, advocating the Credit Theory of Money, which economist L. Randall Wray called "The best pair of articles on the nature of money written in the twentieth century. ''
The government - interventionist monetary and fiscal policies that the postwar Keynesian economists recommended came under attack by a group of theorists working at the University of Chicago, which came in the 1950s to be known as the Chicago School of Economics. Before World War II, the Old Chicago School of strong Keynesians was founded by Frank Knight (1885 -- 1972), Jacob Viner (1892 -- 1970), and Henry Calvert Simons (1899 -- 1946). The second generation was known for a more conservative line of thought, reasserting a libertarian view of market activity that people are best left to themselves to be free to choose how to conduct their own affairs.
Ronald Coase (1910 -- 2013) of the Chicago School of Economics was the most prominent economic analyst of law, and the 1991 Nobel Prize in Economics winner. His first major article The Nature of the Firm (1937) argued that the reason for the existence of firms (companies, partnerships, etc.) is the existence of transaction costs. Homo economicus trades through bilateral contracts on open markets until the costs of transactions make the use of corporations to produce things more cost - effective. His second major article The Problem of Social Cost (1960) argued that if we lived in a world without transaction costs, people would bargain with one another to create the same allocation of resources, regardless of the way a court might rule in property disputes. Coase used the example of an old legal case about nuisance named Sturges v Bridgman, where a noisy sweets maker and a quiet doctor were neighbors and went to court to see who should have to move. Coase said that regardless of whether the judge ruled that the sweets maker had to stop using his machinery, or that the doctor had to put up with it, they could strike a mutually beneficial bargain about who moves house that reaches the same outcome of resource distribution. Only the existence of transaction costs may prevent this. So the law ought to preempt what would happen, and be guided by the most efficient solution. The idea is that law and regulation are not as important or effective at helping people as lawyers and government planners believe. Coase and others like him wanted a change of approach, to put the burden of proof for positive effects on a government that was intervening in the market, by analyzing the costs of action.
In the 1960s Gary Becker (1930 -- 2014) and Jacob Mincer (1922 -- 2006) of the Chicago School of Economics founded New Home Economics, which spawned Family Economics.
In 1973 Coase disciple Richard Posner (1939 --) published Economic Analysis of Law, which became a standard textbook, causing him to become the most cited legal scholar of the 20th century. In 1981 he published The Economics of Justice, which claimed that judges have been interpreting common law as it they were trying to maximize economic welfare.
Milton Friedman (1912 -- 2006) of the Chicago School of Economics is one of the most influential economists of the late 20th, century, receiving the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1976. He is known for A Monetary History of the United States (1963), in which he argued that the Great Depression was caused by the policies of the Federal Reserve. Friedman argues that laissez - faire government policy is more desirable than government intervention in the economy. Governments should aim for a neutral monetary policy oriented toward long - run economic growth, by gradual expansion of the money supply. He advocates the quantity theory of money, that general prices are determined by money. Therefore, active monetary (e.g. easy credit) or fiscal (e.g. tax and spend) policy can have unintended negative effects. In Capitalism and Freedom (1962), Friedman wrote:
"There is likely to be a lag between the need for action and government recognition of the need; a further lag between recognition of the need for action and the taking of action; and a still further lag between the action and its effects. ''
Friedman was also known for his work on the consumption function, the Permanent Income Hypothesis (1957), which Friedman referred to as his best scientific work. This work contended that rational consumers would spend a proportional amount of what they perceived to be their permanent income. Windfall gains would mostly be saved. Tax reductions likewise, as rational consumers would predict that taxes would have to rise later to balance public finances. Other important contributions include his critique of the Phillips Curve, and the concept of the natural rate of unemployment (1968).
In the early 1970s American Chicago School economist Robert E. Lucas, Jr. (1937 --) founded New Classical Macroeconomics based on Milton Friedman 's monetarist critique of Keynesian macroeconomics, and the idea of rational expectations, first proposed in 1961 by John F. Muth, opposing the idea that government intervention can or should stabilize the economy. The Policy - Ineffectiveness Proposition (1975) of Thomas J. Sargent (1943 --) and Neil Wallace (1939 --), which seemed to refute a basic assumption of Keynesian economics was also adopted. The Lucas aggregate supply function states that economic output is a function of money or price "surprise. '' Lucas was awarded the 1995 Nobel Economics Prize.
Lucas ' model was superseded as the standard model of New Classical Macroeconomics by the Real Business Cycle Theory, proposed in 1982 by Finn Kydland (1943 --) and Edward C. Prescott (1940 --), which seeks to explain observed fluctuations in output and employment in terms of real variables such as changes in technology and tastes. Assuming competitive markets, real business cycle theory implies that cyclical fluctuations are optimal responses to variability in technology and tastes, and that macroeconomic stabilization policies must reduce welfare.
In 1982 Kydland and Prescott also founded the theory of Dynamic Stochastic General Equilibrium (DSGE), large systems of microeconomic equations combined into models of the general economy, which became central to the New Neoclassical Synthesis, incorporating theoretical elements such as sticky prices from New Keynesian Macroeconomics. They shared the 2004 Nobel Economics Prize.
In 1965 Chicago School economist Eugene Fama (1939 --) published The Behavior of Stock Market Prices, which found that stock market prices follow a random walk, proposing the Efficient Market Hypothesis, that randomness is characteristic of a perfectly functioning financial market. The same year Paul Samuelson published a paper concluding the same thing with a mathematical proof, sharing the credit. Earlier in 1948 Holbrook Working (1895 -- 1985) published a paper saying the same thing, but not in a mathematical form. In 1970 Fama published Efficient Capital Markets: A Review of Theory and Empirical Work, proposing that efficient markets can be strong, semi-strong, or weak, and also proposing the Joint Hypothesis Problem, that the idea of market efficiency ca n't be rejected without also rejecting the market mechanism.
In 1898 Thorstein Veblen published Why is Economics not an Evolutionary Science, which coins the term Evolutionary economics, making use of anthropology to deny that there is a universal human nature, emphasizing the conflict between "industrial '' or instrumental and "pecuniary '' or ceremonial values, which became known as the Ceremonial / Instrumental Dichotomy.
Joseph Alois Schumpeter (1883 -- 1950) was an Austrian School economist and political scientist best known for his works on business cycles and innovation. He insisted on the role of the entrepreneurs in an economy. In Business Cycles: A theoretical, historical and statistical analysis of the Capitalist process (1939), Schumpeter synthesized the theories about business cycles, suggesting that they could explain the economic situations. According to Schumpeter, capitalism necessarily goes through long - term cycles because it is entirely based upon scientific inventions and innovations. A phase of expansion is made possible by innovations, because they bring productivity gains and encourage entrepreneurs to invest. However, when investors have no more opportunities to invest, the economy goes into recession, several firms collapse, closures and bankruptcy occur. This phase lasts until new innovations bring a creative destruction process, i.e. they destroy old products, reduce the employment, but they allow the economy to start a new phase of growth, based upon new products and new factors of production.
In 1944 Hungarian - American mathematician John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern published Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, founding Game Theory, which was widely adopted by economists. In 1951 Princeton mathematician John Forbes Nash Jr. published the article Non-Cooperative Games, becoming the first to define a Nash Equilibrium for non-zero - sum games.
In 1956 American economist Robert Solow (1924 --) and Australian economist Trevor Swan (1918 -- 1989) proposed the Solow -- Swan model, based on productivity, capital accumulation, population growth, and technological progress. In 1956 Swan also proposed the Swan diagram of the internal - external balance. In 1987 Solow was awarded the Nobel Economics Prize.
The globalization era began with the end of World War II and the rise of the U.S. as the world 's leading economic power, along with the United Nations. To prevent another global depression, the victorious U.S. forgave Germany its war debts and used its surpluses to rebuild Europe and encourage reindustrialization of Germany and Japan. In the 1960s it changed its role to recycling global surpluses.
After World War II, Canadian - born John Kenneth Galbraith (1908 -- 2006) became one of the standard bearers for pro-active government and liberal - democrat politics. In The Affluent Society (1958), Galbraith argued that voters reaching a certain material wealth begin to vote against the common good. He also argued that the "conventional wisdom '' of the conservative consensus was not enough to solve the problems of social inequality. In an age of big business, he argued, it is unrealistic to think of markets of the classical kind. They set prices and use advertising to create artificial demand for their own products, distorting people 's real preferences. Consumer preferences actually come to reflect those of corporations -- a "dependence effect '' -- and the economy as a whole is geared to irrational goals. In The New Industrial State Galbraith argued that economic decisions are planned by a private - bureaucracy, a technostructure of experts who manipulate marketing and public relations channels. This hierarchy is self - serving, profits are no longer the prime motivator, and even managers are not in control. Because they are the new planners, corporations detest risk, require steady economic and stable markets. They recruit governments to serve their interests with fiscal and monetary policy, for instance adhering to monetarist policies which enrich money - lenders in the City through increases in interest rates. While the goals of an affluent society and complicit government serve the irrational technostructure, public space is simultaneously impoverished. Galbraith paints the picture of stepping from penthouse villas onto unpaved streets, from landscaped gardens to unkempt public parks. In Economics and the Public Purpose (1973) Galbraith advocates a "new socialism '' as the solution, nationalising military production and public services such as health care, introducing disciplined salary and price controls to reduce inequality.
In contrast to Galbraith 's linguistic style, the post-war economics profession began to synthesize much of Keynes ' work with mathematical representations. Introductory university economics courses began to present economic theory as a unified whole in what is referred to as the neoclassical synthesis. "Positive economics '' became the term created to describe certain trends and "laws '' of economics that could be objectively observed and described in a value - free way, separate from "normative economic '' evaluations and judgments.
The Paul Samuelson 's (1915 -- 2009) Foundations of Economic Analysis published in 1947 was an attempt to show that mathematical methods could represent a core of testable economic theory. Samuelson started with two assumptions. First, people and firms will act to maximize their self - interested goals. Second, markets tend towards an equilibrium of prices, where demand matches supply. He extended the mathematics to describe equilibrating behavior of economic systems, including that of the then new macroeconomic theory of John Maynard Keynes. Whilst Richard Cantillon had imitated Isaac Newton 's mechanical physics of inertia and gravity in competition and the market, the physiocrats had copied the body 's blood system into circular flow of income models, William Jevons had found growth cycles to match the periodicity of sunspots, Samuelson adapted thermodynamics formulae to economic theory. Reasserting economics as a hard science was being done in the United Kingdom also, and one celebrated "discovery '', of A.W. Phillips, was of a correlative relationship between inflation and unemployment. The workable policy conclusion was that securing full employment could be traded - off against higher inflation. Samuelson incorporated the idea of the Phillips curve into his work. His introductory textbook Economics was influential and widely adopted. It became the most successful economics text ever. Paul Samuelson was awarded the new Nobel Prize in Economics in 1970 for his merging of mathematics and political economy.
American economist Kenneth Arrow 's (1921 --) published Social Choice and Individual Values in 1951. It consider connections between economics and political theory. It gave rise to social choice theory with the introduction of his "Possibility Theorem ''. This sparked widespread discussion over how to interpret the different conditions of the theorem and what implications it had for democracy and voting. Most controversial of his four (1963) or five (1950 / 1951) conditions is the independence of irrelevant alternatives.
In the 1950s Kenneth Arrow and Gérard Debreu (1921 -- 2004) developed the Arrow -- Debreu model of general equilibria. In 1963 Arrow published a paper which founded Health Economics.
In 1971 Arrow and Frank Hahn published General Competitive Analysis (1971), which reasserted a theory of general equilibrium of prices through the economy. In 1971, US President Richard Nixon 's had declared that "We are all Keynesians now '', announcing wage and price controls. He lifted this from a comment by Milton Friedman in 1965 which formed a Time.
In 1951 English economist James E. Meade (1907 -- 1995) published The Balance of Payments, volume 1 of "The Theory of International Economic Policy '', which proposed the theory of domestic divergence (internal and external balance), and promoted policy tools for governments. In 1955 he published volume 2 Trade and Welfare, which proposed the theory of the "second - best '', and promoted protectionism. He shared the 1977 Nobel Economic Prize with Bertil Ohlin.
In 1979 American economist Paul Krugman (1953 --) published a paper founding New trade theory, which attempts to explain the role of increasing returns to scale and network effects in international trade. In 1991 he published a paper founding New economic geography. His textbook International Economics (2007) appears on many undergraduate reading lists. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2008.
In 1954 Saint Lucian economist Sir Arthur Lewis (1915 -- 1991) proposed the Dual Sector Model of Development Economics, which claims that capitalism expands by making use of an unlimited supply of labor from the backward non-capitalist "subsistence sector '' until it reaches the Lewisian breaking point where wages begin to rise, receiving the 1979 Nobel Economics Prize.
In 1955 Russian - born American economist Simon Kuznets (1901 -- 1985), who introduced the concept of Gross domestic product (GDP) in 1934 published an article revealing an inverted U-shaped relation between income inequality and economic growth, meaning that economic growth increases income disparity between rich and poor in poor countries, but decreases it in wealthy countries. In 1971 he received the Nobel Economics Prize.
Indian economist Amartya Sen (1933 --) expressed considerable skepticism about the validity of neoclassical assumptions, and was highly critical of rational expectations theory, devoting his work to Development Economics and human rights.
In 1981, Sen published Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation (1981), a book in which he argued that famine occurs not only from a lack of food, but from inequalities built into mechanisms for distributing food. Sen also argued that the Bengal famine was caused by an urban economic boom that raised food prices, thereby causing millions of rural workers to starve to death when their wages did not keep up.
In addition to his important work on the causes of famines, Sen 's work in the field of development economics has had considerable influence in the formulation of the "Human Development Report '', published by the United Nations Development Programme. This annual publication that ranks countries on a variety of economic and social indicators owes much to the contributions by Sen among other social choice theorists in the area of economic measurement of poverty and inequality. Sen was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1998.
In 1958 American economists Alfred H. Conrad (1924 -- 1970) and John R. Meyer (1927 -- 2009) founded New Economic History, which in 1960 was called Cliometrics by American economist Stanley Reiter (1925 -- 2014) after Clio, the muse of history. It uses neoclassical economic theory to reinterpret historical data, spreading throughout academia, causing economic historians untrained in economics to disappear from history departments. American cliometric economists Douglass Cecil North (1920 --) and Robert William Fogel (1926 -- 2013) were awarded the 1993 Nobel Economics Prize.
In 1962 American economists James M. Buchanan (1919 -- 2013) and Gordon Tullock (1922 -- 2014) published The Calculus of Consent, which revived Public Choice Theory by differentiating politics (the rules of the game) from public policy (the strategies to adopt within the rules), founding Constitutional Economics, the economic analysis of constitutional law. Buchanan was awarded the 1986 Nobel Economics Prize.
In 1962 -- 1963 Scottish economist Marcus Fleming (1911 -- 1976) and Canadian economist Robert Mundell (1932 --) published the Mundell - Fleming Model of the Economy, an extension of the IS - LM Model to an open economy, proposing the Impossible Trinity of fixed exchange rate, free capital movement, and an independent monetary policy, only two of which can be maintained simultaneously. Mundell received the 1999 Nobel Economics Prize.
In 1965 American economist Henry G. Manne (1928 -- 2015) published Mergers and the Market for Corporate Control in Journal of Political Economy, which claims that changes in the price of a share of stock in the stock market will occur more rapidly when insider trading is prohibited than when it is permitted, founding the theory of market for corporate control.
In 1970 George Akerlof (1940 --) published the paper The Market for Lemons, founding the theory of Information Economics, receiving the 2001 Nobel Economics Prize.
Joseph E. Stiglitz (1943 --) also received the Nobel Economics Prize in 2001 for his work in Information Economics. He has served as chairman of President Clinton 's Council of Economic Advisers, and as chief economist for the World Bank. Stiglitz has taught at many universities, including Columbia, Stanford, Oxford, Manchester, Yale, and MIT. In recent years he has become an outspoken critic of global economic institutions. In Making Globalization Work (2007) he offers an account of his perspectives on issues of international economics:
"The fundamental problem with the neoclassical model and the corresponding model under market socialism is that they fail to take into account a variety of problems that arise from the absence of perfect information and the costs of acquiring information, as well as the absence or imperfections in certain key risk and capital markets. The absence or imperfection can, in turn, to a large extent be explained by problems of information. ''
Stiglitz talks about his book Making Globalization Work here.
In 1973 Russian - American mathematician - economist Leonid Hurwicz (1917 -- 2008) founded Market (Mechanism) Design Theory, a.k.a. Reverse Game Theory, which allows people to distinguish situations in which markets work well from those in which they do not, aiding the identification of efficient trading mechanisms, regulation schemes, and voting procedures; he developed the theory with Eric Maskin (1950 --) and Roger Myerson (1951 --), sharing the 2007 Nobel Economics Prize with them.
In 1974 American economist Arthur Laffer formulated the Laffer Curve, which postulates that no tax revenue will be raised at the extreme tax rates of 0 % and 100 %, and that there must be at least one rate where tax revenue would be a non-zero maximum. This concept was adopted by U.S. President Ronald Reagan in the early 1980s, becoming the cornerstone of Reaganomics, which was co-founded by American economist Paul Craig Roberts.
In 1986 French economist Jean Tirole (1953 -) published "Dynamic Models of Oligopoly '', followed by "The Theory of Industrial Organization '' (1988), launching his quest to understand market power and regulation, resulting in the 2014 Nobel Economics Prize.
In 2008, there was a financial crisis which led to a global recession. This prompted some economists to question the current orthodoxy.
One response was the Keynesian Resurgence. This emerged as a consensus among some policy makers and economists for a Keynesian solutions. As contrasted sharply with the previous economic orthodoxy in its support for government intervention in the economy. Figures in this school included Dominique Strauss - Kahn, Olivier Blanchard, Gordon Brown, Paul Krugman, and Martin Wolf.
Austerity was another response, the policy of reducing government budget deficits. Austerity policies may include spending cuts, tax increases, or a mixture of both. Two influential academic papers support this position. The first was Large Changes in Fiscal Policy: Taxes Versus Spending, published in October 2009 by Alberto Alesina and Silvia Ardagna. It asserted that fiscal austerity measures did not hurt economies, and actually helped their recovery. The second Growth in a Time of Debt, published in 2010 by Carmen Reinhart and Kenneth Rogoff. It analyzed public debt and GDP growth among 20 advanced economies and claimed that high debt countries grew at − 0.1 % since WWII. Many governments accepted this and followed the austerity course.
In April 2013 the IMF and the Roosevelt Institute exposed basic calculation flaws in the Reinhart - Rogoff paper, claiming that when the flaws were corrected, the growth of the "high debt '' countries was + 2.2 %, much higher than the original paper predicted. Following this, on June 6, 2013 Paul Krugman published How the Case for Austerity Has Crumbled in The New York Review of Books, arguing that the case for austerity was fundamentally flawed, and calling for an end to austerity measures.
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how did the civil rights movement inspire other minority groups in u.s. society | Civil rights movements - wikipedia
Civil rights movements are a worldwide series of political movements for equality before the law, that peaked in the 1960s. In many situations they have been characterized by nonviolent protests, or have taken the form of campaigns of civil resistance aimed at achieving change through nonviolent forms of resistance. In some situations, they have been accompanied, or followed, by civil unrest and armed rebellion. The process has been long and tenuous in many countries, and many of these movements did not, or have yet to, fully achieve their goals, although the efforts of these movements have led to improvements in the legal rights of some previously oppressed groups of people, in some places.
The main aim of the successful civil rights movement and other social movements for civil rights included ensuring that the rights of all people were and are equally protected by the law. These include but are not limited to the rights of minorities, women 's rights, and LGBT rights.
Northern Ireland is a part of the United Kingdom which has witnessed violence over many decades, known as the Troubles, arising from tensions between the British (Unionist, Protestant) majority and the Irish (Nationalist, Catholic) minority following the Partition of Ireland in 1920.
The civil rights struggle in Northern Ireland can be traced to activists in Dungannon, led by Austin Currie, who were fighting for equal access to public housing for the members of the Catholic community. This domestic issue would not have led to a fight for civil rights were it not for the fact that being a registered householder was a qualification for local government franchise in Northern Ireland.
In January 1964, the Campaign for Social Justice (CSJ) was launched in Belfast. This organisation joined the struggle for better housing and committed itself to ending discrimination in employment. The CSJ promised the Catholic community that their cries would be heard. They challenged the government and promised that they would take their case to the Commission for Human Rights in Strasbourg and to the United Nations.
Having started with basic domestic issues, the civil rights struggle in Northern Ireland escalated to a full - scale movement that found its embodiment in the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association. NICRA campaigned in the late sixties and early seventies, consciously modelling itself on the American civil rights movement and using similar methods of civil resistance. NICRA organised marches and protests to demand equal rights and an end to discrimination.
NICRA originally had five main demands:
All of these specific demands were aimed at an ultimate goal that had been the one of women at the very beginning: the end of discrimination.
Civil rights activists all over Northern Ireland soon launched a campaign of civil resistance. There was opposition from Loyalists, who were aided by the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), Northern Ireland 's police force. At this point, the RUC was over 90 % Protestant. Violence escalated, resulting in the rise of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) from the Catholic community, a group reminiscent of those from the War of Independence and the Civil War that occurred in the 1920s that had launched a campaign of violence to end British rule in Northern Ireland. Loyalist paramilitaries countered this with a defensive campaign of violence and the British government responded with a policy of internment without trial of suspected IRA members. For more than 300 people, the internment lasted several years. The huge majority of those interned by the British forces were Catholic. In 1978, in a case brought by the government of the Republic of Ireland against the government of the United Kingdom, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that the interrogation techniques approved for use by the British army on internees in 1971 amounted to "inhuman and degrading '' treatment.
The IRA encouraged Republicans to join in the movement for civil rights but never controlled NICRA. The Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association fought for the end of discrimination toward Catholics and did not take a position on the legitimacy of the state. Republican leader Gerry Adams explained subsequently that Catholics saw that it was possible for them to have their demands heard. He wrote that "we were able to see an example of the fact that you did n't just have to take it, you could fight back ''. For an account and critique of the movements for civil rights in Northern Ireland, reflecting on the ambiguous link between the causes of civil rights and opposition to the union with the United Kingdom, see the work of Richard English.
One of the most important events in the era of civil rights in Northern Ireland took place in Derry, which escalated the conflict from peaceful civil disobedience to armed conflict. The Battle of the Bogside started on 12 August when an Apprentice Boys, a Protestant order, parade passed through Waterloo Place, where a large crowd was gathered at the mouth of William Street, on the edge of the Bogside. Different accounts describe the first outbreak of violence, with reports stating that it was either an attack by youth from the Bogside on the RUC, or fighting broke out between Protestants and Catholics. The violence escalated and barricades were erected. Proclaiming this district to be the Free Derry, Bogsiders carried on fights with the RUC for days using stones and petrol bombs. The government finally withdrew the RUC and replaced it with the army, which disbanded the crowds of Catholics who were barricaded in the Bogside.
Bloody Sunday, 30 January 1972, in Derry is seen by some as a turning point in the movement for civil rights. Fourteen unarmed Catholic civil rights marchers protesting against internment were shot dead by the British army and many were left wounded on the streets.
The peace process has made significant gains in recent years. Through open dialogue from all parties, a state of ceasefire by all major paramilitary groups has lasted. A stronger economy improved Northern Ireland 's standard of living. Civil rights issues have become less of a concern for many in Northern Ireland over the past 20 years as laws and policies protecting their rights, and forms of affirmative action, have been implemented for all government offices and many private businesses. Tensions still exist, but the vast majority of citizens are no longer affected by violence.
The 1960s brought intense political and social change to the Canadian province of Quebec, with the election of Liberal Premier Jean Lesage after the death of Maurice Duplessis, whose government was widely viewed as corrupt. These changes included secularization of the education and health care systems, which were both heavily controlled by the Roman Catholic Church, whose support for Duplessis and his perceived corruption had angered many Québécois. Policies of the Liberal government also sought to give Quebec more economic autonomy, such as the nationalization of Hydro - Québec and the creation of public companies for the mining, forestry, iron / steel and petroleum industries of the province. Other changes included the creation of the Régie des Rentes du Québec (Quebec Pension Plan) and new labour codes that made unionizing easier and gave workers the right to strike.
The social and economic changes of the Quiet Revolution gave life to the Quebec sovereignty movement, as more and more Québécois saw themselves as a distinctly culturally different from the rest of Canada. The segregationist Parti Québécois was created in 1968 and won the 1976 Quebec general election. They enacted legislation meant to enshrine French as the language of business in the province, while also controversially restricting the usage of English on signs and restricting the eligibility of students to be taught in English.
A radical strand of French Canadian nationalism produced the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ), which since 1963 has been using terrorism to make Quebec a sovereign nation. In October 1970, in response to the arrest of some of its members earlier in the year, the FLQ kidnapped British diplomat James Cross and Quebec 's Minister of Labour Pierre Laporte, whom they later killed. The then Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau, himself a French Canadian, invoked the War Measures Act, declared martial law in Quebec, and arrested the kidnappers by the end of the year.
Movements for civil rights in the United States include noted legislation and organized efforts to abolish public and private acts of racial discrimination against African Americans and other disadvantaged groups between 1954 and 1968, particularly in the southern United States. It is sometimes referred to as the Second Reconstruction era, alluding to the unresolved issues of the Reconstruction Era (1863 -- 77).
After 1890, the system of Jim Crow, disenfranchisement, and second class citizenship degraded the citizenship rights of African Americans, especially in the South. It was the nadir of American race relations. There were three main aspects: racial segregation -- upheld by the United States Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 --, legally mandated by southern governments -- voter suppression or disfranchisement in the southern states, and private acts of violence and mass racial violence aimed at African Americans, unhindered or encouraged by government authorities. Although racial discrimination was present nationwide, the combination of law, public and private acts of discrimination, marginal economic opportunity, and violence directed toward African Americans in the southern states became known as Jim Crow.
Noted strategies employed prior to 1955 included litigation and lobbying attempts by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). These efforts were a hallmark of the early American Civil Rights Movement from 1896 to 1954. However, by 1955, blacks became frustrated by gradual approaches to implement desegregation by federal and state governments and the "massive resistance '' by whites. The black leadership adopted a combined strategy of direct action with nonviolence, sometimes resulting in nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience. Some of the acts of nonviolence and civil disobedience produced crisis situations between practitioners and government authorities. The authorities of federal, state, and local governments often acted with an immediate response to end the crisis situations -- sometimes in the practitioners ' favor. Some of the different forms of protests and / or civil disobedience employed included boycotts, as successfully practiced by the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955 -- 1956) in Alabama which gave the movement one of its more famous icons in Rosa Parks; "sit - ins '', as demonstrated by two influential events, the Greensboro sit - in (1960) in North Carolina and the Nashville sit - ins in Nashville, Tennessee; the influential 1963 Birmingham Children 's Crusade, in which children were set upon by the local authorities with fire hoses and attack dogs, and longer marches, as exhibited by the Selma to Montgomery marches (1965) in Alabama which at first was resisted and attacked by the state and local authorities, and resulted in the 1965 Voting Rights Act. The evidence of changing attitudes could also be seen around the country, where small businesses sprang up supporting the Civil Rights Movement, such as New Jersey 's Everybody 's Luncheonette.
Besides the Children 's Crusade and the Selma to Montgomery marches, another illustrious event of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement was the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in August, 1963. It is best remembered for the "I Have a Dream '' speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. in which the speech turned into a national text and eclipsed the troubles the organizers had to bring to march forward. It had been a fairly complicated affair to bring together various leaders of civil rights, religious and labor groups. As the name of the march implies, many compromises had to be made in order to unite the followers of so many different causes. The "March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom '' emphasized the combined purposes of the march and the goals that each of the leaders aimed at. The 1963 March on Washington organizers and organizational leaders, informally named the "Big Six '', were A. Philip Randolph, Roy Wilkins, Martin Luther King Jr., Whitney Young, James Farmer and John Lewis. Although they came from different backgrounds and political interests, these organizers and leaders were intent on the peacefulness of the march, which had its own marshal to ensure that the event would be peaceful and respectful of the law. The success of the march is still being debated, but one aspect which has been raised was the misrepresentation of women. A lot of feminine civil rights groups had participated in the organization of the march, but when it came to actual activity women were denied the right to speak and were relegated to figurative roles in the back of the stage. As some female participants noticed, the March can be remembered for the "I Have a Dream '' speech but for some female activists it was a new awakening, forcing black women not only to fight for civil rights but also to engage in the Feminist movement.
Noted achievements of the Civil Rights Movement include the judicial victory in the Brown v. Board of Education case that nullified the legal article of "separate but equal '' and made segregation legally impermissible, and the passages of the 1964 Civil Rights Act,. that banned discrimination in employment practices and public accommodations, passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that restored voting rights, and passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 that banned discrimination in the sale or rental of housing.
By 1967 the emergence of the Black Power movement (1966 -- 75) began to gradually eclipse the original "integrated power '' aims of the successful Civil Rights Movement that had been espoused by Martin Luther King Jr. and others. Advocates of Black Power argued for black self - determination, and asserted that the assimilation inherent in integration robs Africans of their common heritage and dignity. For example, the theorist and activist Omali Yeshitela argues that Africans have historically fought to protect their lands, cultures, and freedoms from European colonialists, and that any integration into the society which has stolen another people and their wealth is an act of treason.
Today, most Black Power advocates have not changed their self - sufficiency argument. Racism still exists worldwide, and some believe that blacks in the United States, on the whole, did not assimilate into U.S. "mainstream '' culture. Blacks arguably became even more oppressed, this time partially by "their own '' people in a new black stratum of the middle class and the ruling class. Black Power 's advocates generally argue that the reason for this stalemate and further oppression of the vast majority of U.S. blacks is because Black Power 's objectives have not had the opportunity to be fully carried through.
One of the most public manifestations of the Black Power movement took place in the 1968 Olympics, when two African - Americans, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, stood on the podium doing a Black Power salute. This act is still remembered today as the 1968 Olympics Black Power salute.
The Chicano Movement occurred during the civil rights era that sought political empowerment and social inclusion for Mexican - Americans around a generally nationalist argument. The Chicano movement blossomed in the 1960s and was active through the late 1970s in various regions of the U.S. The movement had roots in the civil rights struggles that had preceded it, adding to it the cultural and generational politics of the era.
The early heroes of the movement -- Rodolfo Gonzales in Denver and Reies Tijerina in New Mexico -- adopted a historical account of the preceding hundred and twenty - five years that had obscured much of Mexican - American history. Gonzales and Tijerina embraced a nationalism that identified the failure of the United States government to live up to its promises in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In that account, Mexican Americans were a conquered people who simply needed to reclaim their birthright and cultural heritage as part of a new nation, which later became known as Aztlán.
That version of the past did not, but take into account the history of those Mexicans who had immigrated to the United States. It also gave little attention to the rights of undocumented immigrants in the United States in the 1960s -- which is not surprising, since immigration did not have the political significance it later acquired. It was a decade later when activists, such as Bert Corona in California, embraced the rights of undocumented workers and helped broaden the movement to include their issues.
When the movement dealt with practical problems in the 1960s, most activists focused on the most immediate issues confronting Mexican Americans; unequal educational and employment opportunities, political disfranchisement, and police brutality. In the heady days of the late 1960s, when the student movement was active around the globe, the Chicano movement brought about more or less spontaneous actions, such as the mass walkouts by high school students in Denver and East Los Angeles in 1968 and the Chicano Moratorium in Los Angeles in 1970.
The movement was particularly strong at the college level, where activists formed MEChA, Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano de Aztlán, which promoted Chicano Studies programs and a generalized ethno - nationalist agenda.
At a time when peaceful sit - ins were a common protest tactic, the American Indian Movement (AIM) takeovers in their early days were noticeably violent. Some appeared to be spontaneous outcomes of protest gatherings, but others included armed seizure of public facilities.
The Alcatraz Island occupation of 1969, although commonly associated with NAM, pre-dated the organization, but was a catalyst for its formation.
In 1970, AIM occupied abandoned property at the Naval Air Station near Minneapolis. In July 1971, it assisted in a takeover of the Winter Dam, Lac Courte Oreilles, and Wisconsin. When activists took over the Bureau of Indian Affairs Headquarters in Washington, D.C. in November 1972, they sacked the building and 24 people were arrested. Activists occupied the Custer County Courthouse in 1973, though police routed the occupation after a riot took place.
In 1973 activists and military forces confronted each other in the Wounded Knee incident. The standoff lasted 71 days, and two men died in the violence.
If the period associated with first - wave feminism focused upon absolute rights such as suffrage (which led to women attaining the right to vote in the early part of the 20th century), the period of the second - wave feminism was concerned with the issues such as changing social attitudes and economic, reproductive, and educational equality (including the ability to have careers in addition to motherhood, or the right to choose not to have children) between the genders and addressed the rights of female minorities. The new feminist movement, which spanned from 1963 to 1982, explored economic equality, political power at all levels, professional equality, reproductive freedoms, issues with the family, educational equality, sexuality, and many other issues.
Since the mid-19th century in Germany, social reformers have used the language of civil rights to argue against the oppression of same - sex sexuality, same - sex emotional intimacy, and gender variance. Largely, but not exclusively, these LGBT movements have characterized gender variant and homosexually oriented people as a minority group (s); this was the approach taken by the homophile movement of the 1940s, 1950s and early 1960s. With the rise of secularism in the West, an increasing sexual openness, women 's liberation, the 1960s counterculture, the AIDS epidemic, and a range of new social movements, the homophile movement underwent a rapid growth and transformation, with a focus on building community and unapologetic activism which came to be known as the Gay Liberation.
The words "Gay Liberation '' echoed "Women 's Liberation ''; the Gay Liberation Front consciously took its name from the "National Liberation Fronts '' of Vietnam and Algeria, and the slogan "Gay Power '', as a defiant answer to the rights - oriented homophile movement, was inspired by Black Power and Chicano Power. The GLF 's statement of purpose explained:
We are a revolutionary group of men and women formed with the realization that complete sexual liberation for all people can not come about unless existing social institutions are abolished. We reject society 's attempt to impose sexual roles and definitions of our nature.
GLF activist Martha Shelley wrote,
We are women and men who, from the time of our earliest memories, have been in revolt against the sex - role structure and nuclear family structure.
Gay Liberationists aimed at transforming fundamental concepts and institutions of society, such as gender and the family. In order to achieve such liberation, consciousness raising and direct action were employed. Specifically, the word ' gay ' was preferred to previous designations such as homosexual or homophile; some saw ' gay ' as a rejection of the false dichotomy heterosexual / homosexual. Lesbians and gays were urged to "come out '' and publicly reveal their sexuality to family, friends and colleagues as a form of activism, and to counter shame with gay pride. "Gay Lib '' groups were formed in Australia, New Zealand, Germany, France, the UK, the US, Italy and elsewhere. The lesbian group Lavender Menace was also formed in the U.S. in response to both the male domination of other Gay Lib groups and the anti-lesbian sentiment in the Women 's Movement. Lesbianism was advocated as a feminist choice for women, and the first currents of lesbian separatism began to emerge.
By the late 1970s, the radicalism of Gay Liberation was eclipsed by a return to a more formal movement that became known as the Gay and Lesbian Rights Movement.
In the 1960s, the early years of the Brezhnev stagnation, dissidents in the Soviet Union increasingly turned their attention civil and eventually human rights concerns. The fight for civil and human rights focused on issues of freedom of expression, freedom of conscience, freedom to emigrate, punitive psychiatry, and the plight of political prisoners. It was characterized by a new openness of dissent, a concern for legality, the rejection of any ' underground ' and violent struggle. It played a significant role in providing a common language and goal for many Soviet dissidents, and became a cause for diverse social groups in the dissident millieu, ranging from activists in the youth subculture to academics such as Andrei Sakhrarov.
Significantly, Soviet dissidents of the 1960s introduced the "legalist '' approach of avoiding moral and political commentary in favor of close attention to legal and procedural issues. Following several landmark trials of writers (Sinyavsky - Daniel trial, the trials of Alexander Ginzburg and Yuri Galanskov) and an associated crackdown on dissidents by the KGB, coverage of arrests and trials in samizdat (unsanctioned press) became more common. This activity eventually led to the founding of the Chronicle of Current Events in April 1968. The unofficial newsletter reported violations of civil rights and judicial procedure by the Soviet government and responses to those violations by citizens across the USSR.
Throughout the 1960s -- 1980s, dissidents in the civil and human rights movement engaged in a variety of activities: The documentation of political repression and rights violations in samizdat (unsanctioned press); individual and collective protest letters and petitions; unsanctioned demonstrations; an informal network of mutual aid for prisoners of conscience; and, most prominently, civic watch groups appealing to the international community. All of these activities came at great personal risk and with repercussions ranging from dismissal from work and studies to many years of imprisonment in labor camps and being subjected to punitive psychiatry.
The rights - based strategy of dissent merged with the idea of human rights. The human rights movement included figures such as Valery Chalidze, Yuri Orlov, and Lyudmila Alexeyeva. Special groups were founded such as the Initiative Group for the Defense of Human Rights in the USSR (1969) and the Committee on Human Rights in the USSR (1970). Though faced with the loss of many members to prisons, labor camps, psychiatric institutions and exile, they documented abuses, wrote appeals to international human rights bodies, collected signatures for petitions, and attended trials.
The signing of the Helsinki Accords (1975) containing human rights clauses provided civil rights campaigners with a new hope to use international instruments. This led to the creation of dedicated Helsinki Watch Groups in Moscow (Moscow Helsinki Group), Kiev (Ukrainian Helsinki Group), Vilnius (Lithuanian Helsinki Group), Tbilisi, and Erevan (1976 -- 77).
The Prague Spring (Czech: Pražské jaro, Slovak: Pražská jar, Russian: пражская весна) was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia starting on January 5, 1968, and running until August 20 of that year, when the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies (except for Romania) invaded the country.
During World War II, Czechoslovakia fell into the Soviet sphere of influence, the Eastern Bloc. Since 1948 there were no parties other than the Communist Party in the country and it was indirectly managed by the Soviet Union. Unlike other countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the communist take - over in Czechoslovakia in 1948 was, although as brutal as elsewhere, a genuine popular movement. Reform in the country did not lead to the convulsions seen in Hungary.
Towards the end of World War II Joseph Stalin wanted Czechoslovakia, and signed an agreement with Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt that Prague would be liberated by the Red Army, despite the fact that the United States Army under General George S. Patton could have liberated the city earlier. This was important for the spread of pro-Russian (and pro-communist) propaganda that came right after the war. People still remembered what they felt as Czechoslovakia 's betrayal by the West at the Munich Agreement. For these reasons, the people voted for communists in the 1948 elections, the last democratic poll to take place there for a long time.
From the middle of the 1960s, Czechs and Slovaks showed increasing signs of rejection of the existing regime. This change was reflected by reformist elements within the communist party by installing Alexander Dubček as party leader. Dubček 's reforms of the political process inside Czechoslovakia, which he referred to as Socialism with a human face, did not represent a complete overthrow of the old regime, as was the case in Hungary in 1956. Dubček 's changes had broad support from the society, including the working class, but was seen by the Soviet leadership as a threat to their hegemony over other states of the Eastern Bloc and to the very safety of the Soviet Union. Czechoslovakia was in the middle of the defensive line of the Warsaw Pact and its possible defection to the enemy was unacceptable during the Cold War.
However, a sizeable minority in the ruling party, especially at higher leadership levels, was opposed to any lessening of the party 's grip on society and actively plotted with the leadership of the Soviet Union to overthrow the reformers. This group watched in horror as calls for multi-party elections and other reforms began echoing throughout the country.
Between the nights of August 20 and August 21, 1968, Eastern Bloc armies from five Warsaw Pact countries invaded Czechoslovakia. During the invasion, Soviet tanks ranging in numbers from 5,000 to 7,000 occupied the streets. They were followed by a large number of Warsaw Pact troops ranging from 200,000 to 600,000.
The Soviets insisted that they had been invited to invade the country, stating that loyal Czechoslovak Communists had told them that they were in need of "fraternal assistance against the counter-revolution ''. A letter which was found in 1989 proved an invitation to invade did indeed exist. During the attack of the Warsaw Pact armies, 72 Czechs and Slovaks were killed (19 of those in Slovakia) and hundreds were wounded (up to September 3, 1968). Alexander Dubček called upon his people not to resist. He was arrested and taken to Moscow, along with several of his colleagues.
Australia was settled by the British without a treaty or recognition of the indigenous population. Subsequent Australian Government laws and policies denied the indigenous population citizenship, voting rights, and land rights, and instead sought to create a single, uniform white culture with the White Australia Policy and forcible removal of Aboriginal children from their families (See articles on the Stolen Generations and the Intervention). Like other international civil rights movements, the push for progress has involved protests (See Freedom Ride (Australia) and Aboriginal Tent Embassy) and seen riots in response to social injustice (See 2004 Redfern Riots and 2004 Palm Island death in custody. While there has been significant progress in redressing discriminatory laws, Indigenous Australians continue to be at a disadvantage compared to their non-indigenous counterparts, on key measures such as: life expectancy; infant mortality; health; and levels of education and employment..
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something that can dissolve is described as being | Dissolution (chemistry) - Wikipedia
The dissolution of gases, liquids, or solids into a liquid or other solvent is a process by which these original states become solutes (dissolved components), forming a solution of the gas, liquid, or solid in the original solvent. Solid solutions are the result of dissolution of one solid into another, and occur, e.g., in metal alloys, where their formation is governed and described by the relevant phase diagram. In the case of a crystalline solid dissolving in a liquid, the crystalline structure must be disintegrated such that the separate atoms, ions, or molecules are released. For liquids and gases, the molecules must be able to form non-covalent intermolecular interactions with those of the solvent for a solution to form.
The free energy of the overall, isolated process of dissolution must be negative for it to occur, where the component free energies contributing include those describing the disintegration of the associations holding the original solute components together, the original associations of the bulk solvent, and the old and new associations between the undissolved and dissolved materials.
Dissolution is of fundamental importance in all chemical processes, natural and unnatural, from the decomposition of a dying organism and return of its chemical constituents into the biosphere, to the laboratory testing of new, man - made soluble drugs, catalysts, etc. Dissolution testing is widely used in industry, including in the pharmaceutical industry to prepare and formulate chemical agents of consistent quality that will dissolve, optimally, in their target millieus as they were designed.
Some distinctions can be made between solvation, dissolution, and solubility.
Gaseous elements and compounds will dissolve in liquids dependent on the interaction of their bonds with the liquid solvent.
Gaseous elements and compounds may also dissolve in another liquid depending on the compatibility of the chemical and physical bonds in the substance with those of the solvent. Hydrogen bonds play an important role in aqueous dissolution.
For ionic compounds, dissolution takes place when the ionic lattice breaks up and the separate ions are then solvated. This most commonly occurs in polar solvents, such as water or ammonia:
In a colloidal dispersed system, small dispersed particles of the ionic lattice exist in equilibrium with the saturated solution of the ions, i.e.
The solubility of ionic salts in water is generally determined by the degree of solvation of the ions by water molecules. Such coordination complexes occur by water donating spare electrons on the oxygen atom to the ion. The behavior of this system is characterised by the activity coefficients of the components and the solubility product, defined as:
The ability of an ion to preferentially dissolve (as a result of unequal activities) is classified as the Potential Determining Ion. This in turn results in the remaining particle possessing either a net positive / negative surface charge.
The dissolution of oxide minerals such as silicates occurs by several mechanisms which depend on the composition of the mineral and the chemistry of the solution. Dissolution rates partially depend on solution pH. Adsorbed protons or hydroxides polarize the mineral surface and weaken cation - oxygen bonds, accelerating dissolution. Silicate minerals containing metal cations undergo incongruent dissolution as the cations leach out of the mineral faster than the silica lattice degrades. Incongruent dissolution results in a surface layer with different composition than the bulk, called an alteration layer.
The reductive dissolution of a transition metal oxide can occur when a redox event in solution reduces a cation. Dissolution occurs when the reduced cation is unstable in the solid material. In minerals such as ferric oxides, reduction may be caused by electron transfer from organic molecules or bacteria in anoxic waters or soils. Charge carriers responsible for reductive dissolution may also be introduced by photoexcitation or by electrochemical poising at negative potentials. Reductive dissolution is integral to natural geochemical phenomena such as the iron cycle.
Using ferric oxide (Fe 2 O 3 (\ displaystyle (\ ce (Fe2O3)))) as an example, the fundamental formula of reductive dissolution is:
Here, an Fe 3 + (\ displaystyle (\ ce (Fe ^ (3) +))) cation at the oxide surface captures an electron (e − (\ displaystyle (\ ce (e ^ (-))))), converting the cation to Fe 2 + (\ displaystyle (\ ce (Fe ^ (2) +))). However, Fe 2 + (\ displaystyle (\ ce (Fe ^ (2) +))) is unstable in the oxide lattice relative to the solution and is subsequently solvated.
Reductants causing reductive dissolution include natural electron donors such as ascorbic acid and Fe (aq) 2 + (\ displaystyle (\ ce (Fe ^ (2) + _ (() aq)))). Chelating species such as oxalate accelerate the process by detaching surface - bound Fe 2 + (\ displaystyle (\ ce (Fe ^ (2) +))), opening surface sites for further attack by reductants. Reductive dissolution is also promoted by light.
Reductive dissolution does not necessarily occur at the site of reductant adsorption, particularly for conductive specimens. Excess electrons injected into a hematite particle during a redox event can travel through the particle, causing reductive dissolution elsewhere on the particle. The transport of charge across a hematite particle is driven by differences in the surface potential of different crystal terminations.
Photocorrosion is the light - induced degradation and dissolution of semiconductor materials used as electrodes in photoelectrochemical cells. This can occur when photoexcited charge carriers change the oxidation state of surface atoms or ions, destabilizing the material. Materials with smaller bandgaps which can absorb larger regions of the solar spectrum are more susceptible to photocorrosion. In photocatalytic water splitting using a cadmium sulfide photoelectrode, for example, it is desired that holes (h + (\ displaystyle (\ ce (h ^ (+))))) generated in CdS (\ displaystyle (\ ce (CdS))) by absorption of photons will oxidize hydroxyl species in solution:
However, in a competing pathway, holes may instead degrade CdS (\ displaystyle (\ ce (CdS))):
The photocorrosion of some photo - absorbing electrodes can be mitigated by using protective thin film coatings.
Polar solid compounds can be amorphous or crystalline. Crystalline solids dissolve with breakdown of their crystal lattice, and due to their polarity, or non-polarity, mix with the solvent.
The solubility of polymers depends on the chemical bonds present in the backbone chain and their compatibility with those of the solvent. The Hildebrand solubility parameter is commonly used to evaluate polymer solubility. The closer the value of the parameters, the more likely dissolution will occur.
The rate of dissolution quantifies the speed of the dissolution process. It depends on the chemical natures of the solvent and solute, the temperature (and possibly to a small degree, the pressure), the degree of undersaturation, the presence of a means of mixing during the dissolution, the interfacial surface area, and the presence of "inhibitors '' (e.g., substances adsorbed on the surface).
The rate can be often expressed by the Noyes -- Whitney equation or the Nernst and Brunner equation of the form:
where:
For dissolution limited by diffusion, C is equal to the solubility of the substance. When the dissolution rate of a pure substance is normalized to the surface area of the solid (which usually changes with time during the dissolution process), then it is expressed in kg / m s and referred to as "intrinsic dissolution rate ''. The intrinsic dissolution rate is defined by the United States Pharmacopeia.
Dissolution rates vary by orders of magnitude between different systems. Typically, very low dissolution rates parallel low solubilities, and substances with high solubilities exhibit high dissolution rates, as suggested by the Noyes - Whitney equation. However, this is not a rule.
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what bill divided the united states into 13 judicial districts | Judiciary Act of 1789 - wikipedia
The Judiciary Act of 1789 (ch. 20, 1 Stat. 73) was a United States federal statute adopted on September 24, 1789, in the first session of the First United States Congress. It established the federal judiciary of the United States. Article III, Section 1 of the Constitution prescribed that the "judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and such inferior Courts '' as Congress saw fit to establish. It made no provision for the composition or procedures of any of the courts, leaving this to Congress to decide.
The existence of a separate federal judiciary had been controversial during the debates over the ratification of the Constitution. Anti-Federalists had denounced the judicial power as a potential instrument of national tyranny. Indeed, of the ten amendments that eventually became the Bill of Rights, five (the fourth through the eighth) dealt primarily with judicial proceedings. Even after ratification, some opponents of a strong judiciary urged that the federal court system be limited to a Supreme Court and perhaps local admiralty judges. The Congress, however, decided to establish a system of federal trial courts with broader jurisdiction, thereby creating an arm for enforcement of national laws within each state.
Senator Richard Henry Lee (AA - Virginia) reported the judiciary bill out of committee on June 12, 1789; Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut was its chief author. The bill passed the Senate 14 -- 6 on July 17, 1789, and the House of Representatives then debated the bill in July and August 1789. The House passed an amended bill 37 -- 16 on September 17, 1789. The Senate struck four of the House amendments and approved the remaining provisions on September 19, 1789. The House passed the Senate 's final version of the bill on September 21, 1789. President George Washington signed the Act into law on September 24, 1789.
The Act set the number of Supreme Court justices at six: one Chief Justice and five Associate Justices. The Supreme Court was given exclusive original jurisdiction over all civil actions between states, or between a state and the United States, as well as over all suits and proceedings brought against ambassadors and other diplomatic personnel; and original, but not exclusive, jurisdiction over all other cases in which a state was a party and any cases brought by an ambassador. The Court was given appellate jurisdiction over decisions of the federal circuit courts as well as decisions by state courts holding invalid any statute or treaty of the United States; or holding valid any state law or practice that was challenged as being inconsistent with the federal constitution, treaties, or laws; or rejecting any claim made by a party under a provision of the federal constitution, treaties, or laws.
SECTION 1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the supreme court of the United States shall consist of a chief justice and five associate justices, any four of whom shall be a quorum, and shall hold annually at the seat of government two sessions, the one commencing the first Monday of February, and the other the first Monday of August. -- Judiciary Act of 1789
The Act also created 13 judicial districts within the 11 states that had then ratified the Constitution (North Carolina and Rhode Island were added as judicial districts in 1790, and other states as they were admitted to the Union). Each state comprised one district, except for Virginia and Massachusetts, each of which comprised two. Massachusetts was divided into the District of Maine (which was then part of Massachusetts) and the District of Massachusetts (which covered modern - day Massachusetts). Virginia was divided into the District of Kentucky (which was then part of Virginia) and the District of Virginia (which covered modern - day West Virginia and Virginia).
This Act established a circuit court and district court in each judicial district (except in Maine and Kentucky, where the district courts exercised much of the jurisdiction of the circuit courts). The circuit courts, which comprised a district judge and (initially) two Supreme Court justices "riding circuit, '' had original jurisdiction over serious crimes and civil cases of at least $500 involving diversity jurisdiction or the United States as plaintiff in common law and equity. The circuit courts also had appellate jurisdiction over the district courts. The single - judge district courts had jurisdiction primarily over admiralty cases, petty crimes, and suits by the United States for at least $100. Notably, the federal trial courts had not yet received original federal question jurisdiction.
Congress authorized all people to either represent themselves or to be represented by another person. The Act did not prohibit paying a representative to appear in court.
Congress authorized persons who were sued by citizens of another state, in the courts of the plaintiff 's home state, to remove the lawsuit to the federal circuit court. The power of removal, and the Supreme Court 's power to review state court decisions where federal law was at issue, established that the federal judicial power would be superior to that of the states.
The Act created the Office of Attorney General, whose primary responsibility was to represent the United States before the Supreme Court. The Act also created a United States Attorney and a United States Marshal for each judicial district.
The Judiciary Act of 1789 included the Alien Tort Statute, now codified as 28 U.S.C. § 1350, which provides jurisdiction in the district courts over lawsuits by aliens for torts in violation of the law of nations or treaties of the United States.
Immediately after signing the Judiciary Act into law, President Washington submitted his nominations to fill the offices created by the Act. Among the nominees were John Jay for Chief Justice of the United States; John Rutledge, William Cushing, Robert H. Harrison, James Wilson, and John Blair Jr. as Associate Justices; Edmund Randolph for Attorney General; and myriad district judges, United States Attorneys, and United States Marshals for Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Virginia. All six of Washington 's Supreme Court nominees were confirmed by the Senate. Harrison, however, declined to serve. In his place, Washington later nominated James Iredell, joined the Court in 1790, thereby bringing the Court to its "full strength '' complement of six members.
The first six persons to serve on the United States Supreme Court (ordered by seniority) were:
John Jay Chief Justice
John Rutledge Associate Justice
William Cushing Associate Justice
James Wilson Associate Justice
John Blair Associate Justice
James Iredell Associate Justice
A clause granting the Supreme Court the power to issue writs of mandamus under its original jurisdiction was declared unconstitutional by Marbury v. Madison, one of the seminal cases in American law. The Supreme Court held that Section 13 of the Judiciary Act was unconstitutional because it purported to enlarge the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court beyond that permitted by the Constitution. In Marbury, the Supreme Court ruled that Congress can not pass laws that are contrary to the Constitution, and that it is the role of the judicial system to interpret what the Constitution permits. Thus, the Judiciary Act of 1789 was the first act of Congress to be partially invalidated by the Supreme Court.
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how many season of the shannara chronicles are there | The Shannara Chronicles - Wikipedia
The Shannara Chronicles is an American fantasy drama television series created by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar. It is an adaptation of The Sword of Shannara trilogy of fantasy novels by Terry Brooks. The series was filmed in the Auckland Film Studios and on location elsewhere in New Zealand.
The first season of The Shannara Chronicles premiered on MTV in the United States on January 5, 2016 and consisted of 10 episodes. MTV originally greenlit a second season in April 2016; however, in May 2017, it was announced that the series would relocate to Spike. The second season premiered on October 11, 2017 and concluded November 22, 2017. On January 16, 2018, it was announced that the series had been cancelled after two seasons, and that the producers are shopping the series to other networks.
Season one of The Shannara Chronicles roughly follows the storylines set out in The Elfstones of Shannara, set in the fictional Four Lands. As the series opens, demons start to return after being banished from this world to a place known as the Forbidding -- locked by an ancient tree called the Ellcrys. The series chronicles the journey of Wil, Amberle and Eretria who, with the guidance of the last druid Allanon, must go on a quest to protect the Ellcrys from dying and releasing all the banished demons back into the Four Lands.
Sonar Entertainment and Farah Films acquired the TV rights to the Shannara universe in 2012. In December 2013, it was announced that a series based on the books was being produced for MTV and had been given a straight - to - series, 10 - episode order. On April 20, 2016, MTV greenlit a second season of The Shannara Chronicles.
The series is produced by Dan Farah, Jon Favreau, Miles Millar, Al Gough, Jonathan Liebesman, and author Terry Brooks. Brooks has stated in an interview that he is happy with the way his story has been adapted. Much like the television adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire, the series will not be a direct adaptation following the narrative order of the books, but will feature a mix of the books ' stories. The first book of the series to be adapted is The Elfstones of Shannara, the second book in the trilogy, with some elements of the other novels being gradually adapted to the show.
In December 2014, it was announced that Manu Bennett would star as Allanon and in January 2015 Ivana Baquero, Austin Butler, Poppy Drayton, Emelia Burns and John Rhys - Davies joined the show. Malese Jow, Vanessa Morgan, Gentry White, Desmond Chiam and Caroline Chikezie joined the cast as series regulars in season two.
Filming for the 10 - episode first season wrapped in New Zealand at Auckland Film Studios in June 2015, and the first trailer debuted on July 10, 2015. Filming for the second season, which also consists of 10 episodes, began January 31, 2017, in New Zealand.
The opening theme song, "Until We Go Down '', from the EP "Up in Flames '', is performed by Ruelle. Other songs featured in the show 's first season include "Midnight '' by Coldplay, "You Are a Memory '' by Message to Bears, "Wave '' by Beck and "Run Boy Run '' by Woodkid.
During the Shannara Chronicles panel at San Diego Comic - Con International in July 2015, a teaser trailer was revealed, giving audiences a first look at the sets and characters. A television version of the trailer was shown during the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards.
The Shannara Chronicles premiered on MTV in the United States on January 5, 2016, with a two - hour series premiere, right after the premiere of the second half of the fifth season of Teen Wolf on MTV. New episodes were broadcast every Tuesday at 10 pm ET. The third and fourth episodes were released online after the first two episodes aired on January 5, 2016, prior to their original broadcast schedule.
The series was simulcast on MTV in Canada. The two - hour pilot also aired on Bell Media sister network CTV on Wednesday, January 6, 2016. The series has also been licensed to a number of different countries, including the United Kingdom (airing on 5STAR), Australia (Syfy) and New Zealand (Sky TV). In Canada, season two is now being simulcast on Space, with season one viewable on - demand until November 2017.
Both seasons are available on Netflix, season 2 opening in May 2018.
On January 16, 2018, it was announced that the series had been cancelled after two seasons. Producers later announced that the series is being shopped to other networks.
The Shannara Chronicles has received mixed reviews, receiving a 52 / 100 score on Metacritic, based on 15 reviews and a 54 % for season 1 on Rotten Tomatoes based on 26 reviews, with an average rating of 5.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads: "The Shannara Chronicles wears its influences heavily on its sleeve and needs to find surer footing before it can tap its true potential, but it still might suffice for viewers in search of a teen - friendly Game of Thrones. ''
Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times wrote: "So give this reasonably absorbing series a little credit, even though it often seems to be merely reworking various fantasy formulas. It moves quickly and does a nice job of weaving together two story lines involving an elfin world that is threatened when a giant tree, known as the Ellcrys, begins to die. '' Maureen Ryan of Variety wrote: "Sure, Shannara, which harks back to the golden age of syndicated genre fare, is a standard quest journey in which there are trolls, gnomes, living trees and magic books, and characters say things like, ' If Allanon is here, there are dark days ahead. ' But there 's conviction in the show 's execution. ''
The series was nominated for a Saturn Award for "Best Fantasy TV Series '' for the 2015 -- 2016 season.
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who played the role of god in sanju | Sanju - Wikipedia
Sanju (Hindi pronunciation: (səndʒuː)) is a 2018 Indian biographical film directed by Rajkumar Hirani and written by Hirani and Abhijat Joshi. It was jointly produced by Hirani and Vidhu Vinod Chopra under the banners Rajkumar Hirani Films and Vinod Chopra Films respectively. The film follows the life of Bollywood actor Sanjay Dutt, his addiction with drugs, arrest for association with the 1993 Bombay bombings, relationship with his father, comeback in the industry, and his eventual release after completing his jail term. Ranbir Kapoor stars as Dutt, along with an ensemble cast which features Paresh Rawal as Sunil Dutt, Vicky Kaushal, Manisha Koirala as Nargis, Dia Mirza as Manyata Dutt, Sonam Kapoor, Anushka Sharma and Jim Sarbh.
In a conversation with Hirani, Dutt shared anecdotes from his life, which the former found intriguing and prompted him to make a film based on Dutt 's life. It was titled Sanju after the nickname Dutt 's mother Nargis used to call him. Principal photography began in January 2017 and was completed by January 2018. The film 's soundtrack was composed by Rohan - Rohan and Vikram Montrose, with A.R. Rahman as a guest composer. Fox Star Studios acquired the distribution rights of the film.
Sanju was released worldwide on 29 June 2018. It received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised Kapoor and Kaushal 's performance and Hirani 's direction, but were divided on the performances of the rest of the cast. The film was also criticised for its supposed image cleansing of its protagonist. It registered the highest opening for any film released in India in 2018, and on its third day, it had the highest single day collection ever for a Hindi film in India. With a worldwide gross of ₹ 500.43 crore (US $75 million) and ₹ 316.64 crore (US $47 million) domestically, Sanju ranks as the highest grossing Indian film of 2018 and is the 5th highest - grossing Indian films of all time.
D.N. Tripathi, a lyricist, attempts to write a biography on Sanjay "Sanju '' Dutt, comparing him with Mahatma Gandhi. A flabbergasted Sanjay has him thrown out. The Bombay High Court delivers its verdict regarding the 1993 Bombay bombings and sentences Dutt to five years jail term for violating the Arms Act. Manyata Dutt approaches Winnie Diaz, a London - based writer, to write Sanjay 's biography and present his version of his life to the public. Although unwilling at first, Winnie is asked by Zubin Mistry, a real estate builder to not write the biography, which intrigues her. Winnie first interviews Sanjay, and his life is revealed in a flashback.
Sanjay 's father Sunil Dutt plans to launch his acting career in Bollywood with the film Rocky (1981). Upset over his father 's controlling behaviour on set, Sanjay is encouraged by his friend Zubin "God '' Mistry to try drugs for the first time. Sanjay soon discovers that his mother Nargis is suffering from cancer and is taken to New York for treatment. This incident furthers his descent into alcoholism and drug addiction. He meets Kamlesh, a fan of Nargis, in New York, and they become quick friends. Kamlesh manages to make Sanjay stay his addiction; after learning of his girlfriend Ruby 's fixed marriage due to his ongoing drug addiction, Sanjay relapses. Kamli convinces Ruby to register marry Sanjay; upset with his intoxicated behaviour, she leaves him. Nargis passes away three days before the release of Rocky, which takes an emotional toll on Sanjay. Sanjay agrees to attend a rehabilitation centre in the United States, and eventually recovers with the help of his father and Kamlesh. On returning to India, he meets with God and beats him for selling him drugs.
The later part of Dutt 's life is narrated by his now - estranged friend Kamlesh, who Winnie tracks down. In the 1990s, Sanjay turns to bodybuilding and his career in Bollywood has greatly improved. After the 1992 Babri Masjid demolition, Sanjay acquires three AK - 56 rifles to ensure the protection of his father, who had by then ventured into politics, and sister, Priya Dutt. A series of bombings occur in Bombay shortly thereafter. Sanjay is arrested in 1993 for possession of illegal arms supposedly supplied by the D - Company to be trafficked for protection during potential communal rioting after the bombings. Sanjay is convicted and sentenced to imprisonment for five years under Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act (TADA), threatening his career. Indian media labels him as a terrorist, further tarnishing his public image. Believing Sanjay to be guilty, Kamlesh severs ties with him.
After his release in 1995, Sanjay appears in a string of flops. When his popularity had begun to wane, he is signed for the title role in Munna Bhai M.B.B.S. (2003), co-starring his father. Sanjay 's performance garners him the Filmfare Award for Best Performance in a Comic Role and his public image improves, making his father proud. Shortly afterwards, his father passes away. In 2006, the Bombay High Court finds Dutt guilty under the Possession of Arms Act, while not finding him to be a terrorist. In 2013, he is arrested again by the same verdict upheld by the Supreme Court of India. Sanjay convinces Winnie and Kamlesh of his innocence by blaming the media for falsely accusing him of terrorism, and is subsequently released from prison in 2016. Sanjay finds out that Winnie has completed writing his biography, titled Kuch Toh Log Kahenge (translation: People will keep saying something), named after one of his father 's favourite songs from the film Amar Prem (1972). He and his family reconciles with Kamlesh.
Director Rajkumar Hirani was first prompted to create a film based on Sanjay Dutt 's life by the latter 's wife Manyata Dutt in a casual conversation, an offer he refused, reasoning that "Sanju 's world is very different from my world ''. In an interview with Daily News & Analysis, Hirani revealed what eventually prompted him to create a film based on Sanjay Dutt 's life: "He was lonely. Manyata (I think) was in hospital and he used to go there (sometimes) and then come home to an empty house. So, he was just venting, speaking straight from the heart. And, he started giving me anecdotes that were just gems for a filmmaker ''. In regards to gaining resources in constructing the film, Hirani said, "... we sat for a crazy amount of time and recorded everything... I also met others who knew him -- journalists, cops, relatives and friends. I felt there was a movie that should be told. '' In an interview with DNA After Hrs, Hirani confirmed that the film was named Sanju after a lot of deliberation as Nargis, Sanjay 's mother, used to call him ' Sanju '.
Producer Vidhu Vinod Chopra was not a part of the project when Hirani initially approached him to produce the film. At first, Chopra was of the opinion that "it was hogwash... but when we started researching all that he 's said -- from the 308 girlfriends he had to how he begged on the streets of US for the money to buy a bus ticket -- we realised that everything he had told us was true! ''. Hirani had a pre-condition with Dutt that if the latter requested to change any lines or scenes, he "would not make it '', upon which Dutt allowed Hirani to make the film in his accord. He was okay with Hirani not glorifying him in the film. Hirani showed aspects of Dutt 's life that the public would not have known, such as "what was happening in the Dutt household when Sanju was accused of the crime? What was his father going through? What was happening with his sisters? How were his friends reacting? Later I met his sisters, Namrata and Priya, brother - in - law Kumar Gaurav and US - based friend Paresh Ghelani. '' Hirani stated, "The film is not about his romance. It has primarily two tracks, one is the gun story and the other is the drugs story and how he fought these two battles. ''
Speaking about Dutt 's journey, Kapoor revealed in an interview with Filmfare that the biopic will reach out to the audience by teaching them something. He stated that "It will talk about human flaws, the emotional father - son story (between Sanjay and the late Sunil Dutt), his relationship with his best friend, with the women in his life. It 's emotional, it 's funny, it 's sad, it 's bittersweet. The youth have a lot to learn from his mistakes. '' He also confirmed that "it 's not a propaganda film '' intending to glorify Dutt. Kapoor also revealed that for him the hardest aspect of playing the role was to give himself the confidence to go ahead with the project. For him, Sanjay Dutt is "a flawed but a wonderful person... a pop icon '' and that 's why it was scary. Kapoor also stated that there are "six different phases, six different looks and six different controversies '' in the film.
In an interview with Rajeev Masand, Hirani disclosed that the story - telling procedure was "challenging as it 's not a story of an achiever '' as most biopics are based on a heroic personality, yet Dutt is known for his tragedies and losses. He noted that "you ca n't really tamper '' and that the main scripting challenge was fitting "a very anecdotal story in a structured format ''. Writer Abhijat Joshi also revealed that there was no "deliberate '' attempt to make Dutt 's character sympathetic to the audience. Instead the team realised having listened to all the anecdotes conveyed by Dutt that it 's a "very engaging, incredibly fascinating '' story based on a "conflicted person, a flawed person '' who "deserved empathy ''. Hirani then confirmed that he has "put out the truth '' which includes "good things and bad things ''. In another interview, Hirani also revealed that like his other films, Sanju would also deliver a social message: "there is the father - son story, a friendship and one is a question mark. For the last one, you 'll have to see the film. Hirani also revealed that he did initially get "attracted to all the anecdotes (that Dutt was conveying) '' but soon "realized it was not enough - we had to be able to string it all together. '' which led him to come to the conclusion that "people need to know is his gun story (and his drug story), because it is important. If there is no gun story, there is no biopic '' which then in turn formed the "spine '' of the film.
Actor Ranbir Kapoor was Hirani 's first choice to play Dutt 's character. Hirani stated, "I first thought of Ranbir and went straight to him and I can tell you, we were right. ''. He also stated that he thought Kapoor is a fantastic actor and "at the perfect age. '' He further revealed the similarities and differences between Dutt and Kapoor stating that "they have lived the life of actors all through. Ranbir is not someone from outside the industry who came here to be a hero. In a sense, it was easier for me to see him as Sanju. '' He also revealed that Ranbir Kapoor worked very hard to get the correct physicality, spending days watching videos "to strike the right balance '' Initially Kapoor was reluctant to portray the role. However, he agreed once "he saw the angle of the story '' and that the story "broke certain notions I had about him (Dutt) ''. Kapoor also revealed that his initial "hesitation '' about playing Dutt 's role was that he is "still so relevant today '' and is a "superstar '' who is "working in movies today... (and) has lots to achieve and lots to do ''.
Chopra was also reluctant to produce the film with Kapoor in the lead role, as he believed Ranveer Singh would 've been a better fit to Dutt 's part by having the "flamboyance, the emotional depth as well as the ability to change himself completely to play Sanjay Dutt. ''. Chopra however, "had to kind of eat (his) words '' once shooting began and he witnessed Kapoor 's capabilities playing Dutt. Kapoor responded to Chopra 's comments by stating that he was "very happy '' to be a part of the film as it came at a time where "he was really in need of inspiration. '' Like Kapoor, Koirala was also "scepital '' about playing a mother to Kapoor due to the fear of being "typecast. ''
Aamir Khan was also approached to play the role of Dutt 's father, Sunil Dutt. However, the role was turned down as Khan was already playing the role of a father at that time in Dangal. Khan had also stated that he wished to have played Dutt 's role instead as his "role is so wonderful that it won my heart... so do n't offer me any other role as I wo n't be able to do it '' The role was then passed onto actor Paresh Rawal who stated that his character is "human '' and "does n't have a set mannerism, idiosyncrasy ''.
Initial reports suggested that actress Anushka Sharma was approached to play the character of one of Dutt 's girlfriends, and then a rumoured journalist. However, Sharma denied these claims by stating that "my character is the only fictional character in the film '' and "is not based on any living person ''. At the trailer launch, Hirani stated that Sharma plays a biographer from London who comes to India, and in turn plays a "mix '' of himself and Abhijat Joshi.
It was also reportedly initially that Sonam Kapoor would be playing the character of Tina Munim. Kapoor, however refuted these rumours and stated that "I have a small but important part in the movie. It 's not what everyone is thinking. I am not playing an actress. '' Though, Hirani confirmed that Kapoor is indeed playing the role of "a girlfriend ''.
Speaking on his role, Vicky Kaushal revealed that his character is an "amalgamation of three or four other friends '' of Dutt and is thus "fictionalized ''. Whilst Karishma Tanna 's role is yet unknown, Tanna revealed that it had been intended by Hirani and the rest of the team to keep her role a surprise and that Hirani "made it clear to (her) that (her) role would create a lot of speculation '' as it is "exactly what (they) had anticipated. '' Boman Irani expressed that he was cast as Hirani wanted him to do a special appearance. Speaking about his character, Irani stated that "it 's not a known character but may have existed ''.
Ranbir Kapoor requested and was given a month 's break between every phase to complete his transformation into Dutt. Speaking about it at the teaser launch of the film, he stated that it was hard for him to look like the muscular Dutt as Kapoor has a thinner frame. "... there was a lot of team effort behind this. A year before that we did a lot of prep and screen tests... '' In regards to Kapoor 's transformation, father Rishi Kapoor revealed that Ranbir "took 6 - 7 weeks to get each of his different looks '' In an interview, prosthetic artist, Dr Suresh Murkey said that he used prosthetics to make Ranbir Kapoor 's face and age resemble Dutt 's. Kapoor further commented that he would be sitting for hair and makeup for six hours and "tests after tests (they) kept failing ''. It was also difficult to develop Dutt 's ageing process as "because of alcohol, his face had gotten puffy and his chin had kind of come down. '' Kapoor however, was also "very clear that if we can not achieve his look, we will not make the film ''.
Mirza also opened up on Kapoor 's role stating that "he would be the first to reach the location because he would need five, six hours to do prosthetic make - up to play the older part. '' She also spoke about the uncanny resemblance of Kapoor as Dutt as a consequence of prosthetics revealing that "people who went on the sets thought Ranbir was Sanju sir. Koirala also expressed that she was "shocked at Ranbir 's capacity to transform ''. Hirani also revealed that Kapoor was "meeting Sanju separately... had a full timeline of how Sanju looked in the 80s, 90s, 2000s... and made a whole collection of look videos. '' Kapoor himself also stated that he "knew that there is a fine line between mimicry and representing someone who is loved by so many people '' which is why "it took us six to eight months to get ready... to prep, do the prosthetic tests, acting and character rehearsals. ''
Kapoor further mentioned that whilst the physical transformation was significantly easier, emotional transformation and "being able to understand the emotional level of the character was really daunting. '' However, he also revealed that as Dutt "represents an epitome of body building and if I had to play him on screen, body was essential ''. In order to build his body like Dutt 's, Kapoor revealed that it required "sacrifice '' and "discipline '' as he "was having 8 meals a day, waking up at 3 in the morning to drink a protein shake. '' He also mentioned that he "wanted to take a step back and did n't want to be around him too much because I did n't want to be obsessed with him. I would be always looking at him, trying to see what he is doing, how he is scratching his beard, how he is talking... but before any poignant moment in the script, for instance, the jail sequence, the drug sequence, his mother 's death, or when the TADA verdict (Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act came, I would always call him the night before the shoot. I just wanted to know what he was feeling, and very graciously, very honestly he would tell me and I would express that on screen. I wanted to represent him with respect '' and a "true representation of what was going on in his head. ''
Hairstylist Aalim Hakim revealed that it took "22 days to finalise Ranbir 's different avatars '' as it was a "challenge '' to create the "receding hairline for Ranbir and give him a broad forehead ''. Costumer designer Ekha Lakani, stated that in regards to Kapoor 's costume, she "discussed every look (with Kapoor)... spent hours trying to match every inch; how loose or how fitted it should be '' by "matching different body types (as) Sanjay Dutt has had a different body type all throughout his life ''.
Manisha Koirala who essays the character of Nargis in the film spoke about her transformation as well stating that "we did a couple of tests, from when she had short hair to when she had long hair. '' Koirala also revealed that she "did a lot of research on Nargisji '' by studying "various photographs, books (and) documentary ''. She also admitted that it was "traumatic '' reliving being a cancer patient as Koirala is an ovarian cancer survivor. She further mentioned that "it required a lot of inner strength... but was finally worth it as she tried to "capture (Nargis 's) essence, the core of her being ''. Regarding Koirala 's costume, Lakhani stated that Nargis ' "iconic images '' were taken and she then "recreated a look on that from every curl or twist in the hair to the way the body was or the makeup ''.
Vicky Kaushal who 's "character 's name is Kamlesh and is "more like a brother '' to Dutt revealed that he "went to Surat to study the body language and mannerism of Gujaratis '' as his character, although originally from India has been living in America for the maximum time so "his Gujarati was ought to fade with time. '' He also revealed that he went through a "huge physical transformation '' by losing weight to "look like a lean young Gujarati guy to an aged man of the present time ''. He also stated that "losing and gaining weight (brought a) change in the body language '' which thus enabled him get the "right look '' and thus "perform better ''.
Paresh Rawal expressed that he prepared for his role by trying to "maintain a distance off camera '' with Kapoor in order to "stay true to the character ''. He further added that "we were not pals who would chat together in between the shots '' which went on to embody the real life relationship between Dutt and his father as Sunil Dutt "loved his son to death but never had a friendly equation with (him) ''. Rawal also stated that he could not "look like Sunil Dutt '' following the look tests but had to "portray the emotions, the ' jazba ' (passion) that he had for the country, for his family and for his son ''
Dia Mirza however, stated that she prepared to play the role of Dutt 's wife through "workshops and look tests '' but also by studying some of the "news clips released around the time '' as well as "her interviews '' and "body language ''. Mirza also stated that she "wanted to understand Maanayata as a wife, woman and mother handled the public scrutiny that she was subjected to ''. She added that she mainly focussed on "understanding and being honest to the emotion more than anything else. '' Mirza also revealed that she had to "dye (her) hair jet black '' and eventually saw herself as Manyata Dutt once she "placed that mole on my face and saw myself in the mirror '' as she saw Maanayata in her "reflection. '' Mirza, also revealed that Maanayata was a "rock '' in Dutt 's life and with all "sincerity and honesty (wanted to) understand "what it meant to be a mother and a wife ''
On Sonam Kapoor 's costume, Lakhani revealed that Kapoor 's costume was designed to look like "the girl next door, pretty, giving out very delicate vibes (with) really soft fabrics, pastel hues, delicate embroidery. Kapoor 's costume was given "peter pan collars in all her outfits... to make her from that era '' except that the team stayed away from making her look like a "fashion diva '' but more "real ''.
Speaking about Sharma 's character, Hirani mentioned in an interview that he wanted Sharma to look "like an Indian who stayed in London and (was) brought up there '' which then led her to wearing a wig with voluptuous curly hair in the film. Aditi Gautam, who plays Namrata Dutt revealed that she was casted as Hirani thought she looked "exactly like '' Dutt. Seiya further mentioned that she prepared for her role by watching interviews that allowed her to gauge on Dutt 's "strong personality... (which is also) poised and dignified. ''
Shooting for the film began on 12 January 2017 with Ranbir Kapoor, Paresh Rawal, Dia Mirza and other cast and crew. Shooting was wrapped on 21 January 2018. At the wrap party, the cast and crew were seen wearing personalised T - shirts with the hashtag "# duttstheway '' in order to promote the film.
Initially, there were plans to bring Kapoor and Dutt together in the film at the end through a video chat where Dutt would interview Kapoor on his experience and journey. However, these plans were shelved due to both actor 's prior commitments. Instead, the film will showcase both actors coming together in the form of a peppy dance number at the end credits. Hirani revealed that the original running time of the film as supposed to be 2 hours and 25 minutes. However, the running time was reduced with an entire song cut out of the film as it "was obstructing the pace of the film and it was breaking the narrative ''. Hirani further commented on this decision by stating that "if you feel it does not work then you have to let it go. ''
A replica of Dutt 's childhood home which he lived in with his parents took 25 days to complete, as Hirani wanted to portray 's Dutt 's life right from childhood to present day.
The film 's soundtrack features 6 songs composed by A.R. Rahman, Rohan - Rohan and Vikram Montrose while lyrics are written by Irshad Kamil, Shekhar Astitwa, Puneet Sharma, Rohan Gokhale and Abhijat Joshi. The film score is composed by Sanjay Wandrekar and Atul Raninga. Vidhu Vinod Chopra, the film 's producer was initially dissatisfied with music and visuals for two songs. Instead of re-shooting the scenes with the songs, they decided to sign A.R. Rahman to compose original songs to fit in the same scenes. Rahman was roped in as a guest composer and has composed two songs for the movie with lyrics penned by his regular collaborator Irshad Kamil. The first single, "Main Badhiya Tu Bhi Badhiya '', was released on 3 June 2018 voiced by Sonu Nigam and Sunidhi Chauhan. The second single, "Kar Har Maidaan Fateh '' was released on 10 June 2018 sung by Shreya Ghoshal and Sukhwinder Singh. The album of the film was released by T - Series on 29 June 2018.
A short official teaser of the film was released on 24 April 2018. It became the highest viewed Hindi film teaser of all time, garnering more than 30 million views within the first 48 hours of its release and 150 million global views across several social media platforms. The marketing campaign of the film started with the teaser launch which appeared on "a roadblock on 80 channels across the Star network for the teaser launch, cashing in on the Indian Premier League traffic on TV as well as its streaming app Hotstar ''.
The official trailer was released on 30 May 2018 and accumulated over 20 million views within its first 24 hours of release.
The first poster was released on 30 April 2018 in which Kapoor looked as Sanjay Dutt when he first came out of jail in 2016. The next day, another poster was released showcasing another still of Kapoor as Dutt in 2016 leaving Yerwada jail. Subsequently, more posters were released portraying Kapoor as Dutt from the 90s and 2003 when the films Rocky and Munna Bhai M.B.B.S were released respectively. On 7 May, Hirani released another poster. Hirani then announced that he would now release poster stills of the rest of the cast and crew until the trailer release date. On 25 May, Hirani released a still of "Sanju 's crazy romantic love life '' on Twitter presenting Kapoor and Sonam Kapoor. The next day a still of Kapoor was released presenting Paresh Rawal who play 's Dutt 's father. Following this, a still of actor Vicky Kaushal was released confirming his role as Dutt 's best friend in USA. Hirani released a still of Anushka Sharma the day after but did not reveal her role, as he intended for the trailer to do so instead. At the trailer launch Hirani told that the character of Anushka Sharma is actually a comprised role of him and the writer, Abhijat Joshi showing that how they both collected the whole story about Sanjay Dutt. A still of Manisha Koirala playing Nargis was also released by Hirani. After that, Rajkumar Hirani had released the last poster in which, Dia Mirza was seen as Manyata Dutt.
Hirani released postcard stills of two prominent elements of the film and Dutt 's life: the first showed a still of Kapoor begging on the streets in order to buy a bus ticket to meet a friend, whilst the second presented him at the premiere of his debut film Rocky, just three days after losing his mother to cancer. Aside from poster releases, marketing was also successful through "Sanju - style lip sync and face filters and post videos to win prizes '' across social media. Actress Karishma Tanna also released a still of herself with Kapoor and Kaushal on June 20, confirming that she would be appearing in the film in a "fun song '' with the two actors.
On Father 's Day, the makers released second teaser of the film, starring a clip of Kapoor and Rawal essaying the father - son bond between Dutt and his father. The clip was promoted along with the hashtag "# JaaduKiJhappi '' (the magic of a hug), a line made famous by Sanjay in Munna Bhai M.B.B.S. A third teaser of the film was released on 22 June presenting Kapoor playing Dutt as Munna Bhai. Kapoor also promoted the film by making a rare appearance on social media as he took over the Twitter handle of Fox Star studios and was involved in a live tweet session with fans and shared personal childhood pictures of himself during Father 's Day.
Shikha Kapur, CEO of Fox Star Studios stated that the marketing "objective was to build conversations and scale '' without (defining the film 's) target group by age and geography but by affinities and behaviours online. She further mentioned that the "crux of the marketing narrative '' was that the film is "of a man who lived many lives in one life and a story that is so unbelievable that you almost want to pinch yourself and ask if it really happened ''. Saurabh Uboweja, international brand expert and CEO of Brands of Desire, stated that (the marketing campaign is about) "the ability to engage, crack some jokes and have fun backed by very strong messaging '' which is why "less than 10 % '' of budgeting has been spent on marketing compared to a usual big - ticket Bollywood film that would spend 20 - 25 % on. He also mentioned that "making Dutt appear flawed, yet sensitive and relatable is also a means to reach out to a generation for which the actor is past his prime '' and to "drive entire families '' out to watch the film.
Despite being cleared by the censor board in India, the film was granted a 15 certificate in Great Britain due to "drug references, drug misuse, infrequent strong sex references. ''
Activist Prithvi Mhaske raised objection over the toilet leakage scene shown in the trailer of the film through a letter sent to the Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC). The letter stated that "the government and authorities are taking a very well care of all the barracks of the jails '' indicating that "this particular scene will make a bad impression about the jails and jail authorities of the Indians ''. On June 25, it was reported that the censor board had cleared the film and finalised it for release in India. There has been one scene involving the overflowing toilet from Dutt 's jail cell to be removed and a few dialogues. Social activist Gaurav Gulati also filed to the National Commission for Women believing the film "contains derogatory words for women '' to which sex worker 's "identity (is) being demeaned ''.
Sanju has a worldwide gross of ₹ 500.43 crore (US $75 million) despite trade analyst predictions that the film would earn below ₹ 100 crore nett in India after its lifetime run. Advance bookings for the film began on 24 June. It was released across 4000 screens in India, and over 1300 screens overseas.
The film opened to an occupancy of 85 % in the domestic theatres. It collected ₹ 34.75 crore (US $5.2 million) nett on its opening day at the domestic box office, which was the highest for all films released in India in 2018. The film became Hirani 's highest opening ever surpassing ₹ 26.63 crore (US $4.0 million) collected by PK in 2014. It recorded the highest second day collection ever for a Hindi film domestically. Sanju earned over ₹ 157.87 crore (US $24 million) at the box office as of its third day. It collected over ₹ 46.71 crore (US $7.0 million) nett on its third day, setting the record for the highest single day collecting ever for a Hindi film in India, surpassing Baahubali 2: The Conclusion 's dubbed Hindi nett, while also becoming the highest weekend earner of the year. The film entered the 100 crore club in nett domestically within its first three days of release. Despite it being a non-holiday and with reduced tickets, the film collected ₹ 25.35 crore (US $3.8 million) nett on its first Monday. On its first Tuesday, the film collected ₹ 22.10 crore (US $3.3 million) nett taking its total to ₹ 167.51 crore (US $25 million) within its first 5 days of release. The following day, Sanju earned ₹ 18.90 crore (US $2.8 million) reaching a total of ₹ 186.41 crore (US $28 million) domestically. On its first Thursday, the film collected ₹ 16.10 crore (US $2.4 million) reaching a total of ₹ 202.51 crore (US $30 million). As a result, the film entered the 200 crore club within its first week of release, It also became the highest first week grosser of 2018, the fourth highest week of all time and also became the first Hindi film to have a non-holiday release and yet still earn over 200 crores in its first week of running. Therefore, Sanju also became Kapoor 's first film to earn over 200 crores.
In its second weekend, the film earned ₹ 12.50 crore (US $1.9 million) on Friday, ₹ 21.50 crore (US $3.2 million) on Saturday and ₹ 28 crore (US $4.2 million) on Sunday. The film thus entered the 250 crore club within 10 days of release. On its second Monday however, the film earned ₹ 9.25 crore (US $1.4 million) reaching blockbuster status and a total of ₹ 274.50 crore (US $41 million). The following Tuesday, the film earned ₹ 8 crore (US $1.2 million), ₹ 6 crore (US $890,000) on Wednesday and ₹ 5.50 crore (US $820,000) on Thursday. The film thus recorded the fourth highest second grossing week of all time, with approximately ₹ 90 crore (US $13 million).. As of the end of it 's second week run, Sanju has grossed ₹ 500.43 crore (US $75 million) globally.
In it 's third weekend, Sanju garnered ₹ 4 crore (US $600,000) on Friday, ₹ 7.75 crore (US $1.2 million) on Saturday and ₹ 9.29 crore (US $1.4 million) on Sunday reaching a total of ₹ 316.64 crore (US $47 million) domestically. The film thus entered the 300 crore club and became Kapoor 's first film and the 7th film of all time to reach this milestone. The film also surpassed the lifetime collections of the ₹ 302.15 crore (US $45 million) earned by Padmaavat to become the highest grossing Indian film of 2018 and the 5th highest - grossing Indian films of all time
The film opened overseas with an estimated collection of ₹ 1.32 crore (US $200,000) in Australia, ₹ 33.00 lakh (US $49,000) in New Zealand, ₹ 1.19 crore (US $180,000) in United Kingdom, and ₹ 1.11 crore (US $170,000) in the United States. Sanju debuted at number 8 at the US box office in the opening weekend, earning more than Avengers: Infinity War and Solo: A Star Wars Story in the same week on a comparatively lower number of 356 screens. Its opening week collection was US $ 2.5 million. The film also opened to an earning of ₹ 3.20 crore (US $480,000) in Pakistan. In Dubai, the government allowed cinemas to remain open for 24 hours on Friday and Saturday to prevent crowd frenzy, causing shows to start as early as 4: 30 am. In the GCC, the film opened to earnings of ₹ 6.19 crore (US $920,000), along with a collection of ₹ 34.90 crore (US $5.2 million) in Norway. Overseas, the film has garnered ₹ 122 crore (US $18 million) as of two weeks of it 's initial release.
Sanju received mostly positive reviews from critics, with particular praise for Kapoor 's performance and Hirani 's direction. Swetha Ramakrishnan of Firstpost praised the performances of the cast, especially Kapoor, further writing, "the film does n't attempt to decode Sanjay Dutt or justify his life. Neither does it try to whitewash his flaws. '' Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film four and a half stars out of five and writes, "Sanju is an entertaining saga that blends emotions, humour and drama in adequate doses. It is powerful, engaging, emotional as well as compelling ''. Meena Iyer of Daily News and Analysis similarly rated the film four and a half stars out of five, stating that "it 's an emotional roller - coaster that will give you the satisfaction of having read a bestseller. ''
Rachit Gupta of The Times of India rated the film four stars out of five and commented, "Whether he 's dancing like a hysterical man under the influence of drugs or he 's the broken, emotional wreck just staring blank, Ranbir portrays a variety of emotions and grey shades with flair. '' Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV praised Kapoor 's performance and Hirani 's direction, but felt that "other actors scramble to keep up '', especially Rawal. He concludes the review by writing, "an absolute must - watch ''. A reviewer for India Today writes, "Director Rajkumar Hirani, who has also co-written and edited Sanju, has taken more than a few dramatic liberties, but it feels refreshingly candid. '' He appreciates Kaushal as "(holding) his own against Ranbir 's superlative performance. ''
Devesh Sharma of Filmfare appreciated the film 's humour and applauded the writing as "the strength of the film ''. He notes, "Sanju tells you superstars are humans too ''. Gaurang Chauhan of Times Now rated the film three and a half stars out of five. While criticising the background score and the first half, he praised the performances and second half of the film. Ankita Chakravarti of Zee News praised the performances of the ensemble cast stating that "each and every cast is worth every attention '' as "all the actors have done complete justice to their characters. '' Rajeev Masand, writing for CNN - News18, gave the film three and a half stars out of five, believing that the "shrewd writing, and Ranbir Kapoor 's extraordinary performance makes it hard not to empathize with the protagonist. '' Rohit Bhatnagar of Deccan Chronicle labelled Sanju as "enjoyable '', while noting that it tries to clear Dutt 's image.
Uday Bhatia of Mint was critical of Dutt 's portrayal, while mostly appreciating Kapoor 's performance. Rohit Vats of Hindustan Times appreciated Kapoor 's pefromance, but criticized the predictable nature of the script and songs which "break the narrative ''. Shubhra Gupta of Indian Express rated the film two and a half stars out of five, stating that "Hirani is in top form getting all his reel characters to off the real characters, in the pursuit of a solid, entertaining tale '' but criticized the second half as to whether what had been left out of the film would have made it more better. Anna M.M. Vetticad of Firstpost described Kapoor 's pefromance as "superb '', but was unhappy with how "startlingly dishonest '' the film was. Nandini Ramanath of Scroll.in was impassive about the film, writing, "In its relentless quest to offer absolution, Sanju is no better or worse than many other biopics that have flooded Bollywood over the past few years. ''
Lisa Tsering of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film 3.5 / 5 and stated that whilst "Sanju grabs the viewer 's attention and delivers performances that glow long after the film is over '' felt that the film was "a glorified infomercial about the life of a Bollywood bad boy. '' Similarly, Mike McCahill of The Guardian criticised how "this three hour hagiography simply blames everyone else for his troubles '' though praised Kapoor for being "a lightweight film 's strongest suit ''. Shilpa Jamkhandikar of Reuters similarly praised Kapoor stating that what is "bearable is Hirani 's leading man and his chameleon - like ability to transform himself into various avatars '' and also criticized the script as it "stretches too long and resorts to melodrama over substance ''. Mary Gayen of The National however praised the film giving it 3.5 / 5 stars, stating that Hirani 's "direction is very matter of fact in relation to the incidents, but very thorough with the feelings expressed by the main characters. '' Vikran Mathur of American Bazaar also praised the film stating that the "team has weaved Sanju 's story together beautifully as a cinematic experience ''.
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what is the name of the thief series protagonist | Thief (series) - wikipedia
Thief is a series of stealth video games in which the player takes the role of Garrett, a master thief in a fantasy steampunk world resembling a cross between the Late Middle Ages and the Victorian era, with more advanced technologies interspersed.
The series consists of Thief: The Dark Project (1998), Thief II: The Metal Age (2000), Thief: Deadly Shadows (2004) and Thief (2014). An expanded version of Thief: The Dark Project, titled Thief Gold, was released in 1999 and features three extra maps and several bug fixes. Looking Glass Studios developed both The Dark Project and The Metal Age. After the studio had gone out of business in 2000, many former employees moved to Ion Storm and began developing the third part of the series, Deadly Shadows. Eidos Montréal was subsequently given the reins for Thief.
The main tactic of Thief is to avoid fights and instead sneak around the enemies. Thief is sometimes described as either a "first - person sneaker '', "sneak - em - up '' or a "first - person looter '' to emphasize this difference. Classification of the game has been slow coming, as three - dimensional stealth games, such as Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell and Assassin 's Creed, only became more common years after the first Thief. Another innovation employed extensively by Thief is the careful use of sound effects as an integral part of gameplay. Sound cues not only tell the player of other characters in the vicinity, but also indicate how much noise Garrett makes when moving about an area. Too much noise can alert nearby guards, who will grow suspicious and come looking for intruders. There are a variety of tactics to avoid being heard, however, such as walking gently, steering clear of noisy pavement, or using moss arrows to create a carpet that muffles the sound of footsteps. In a similar vein, using light and dark became one of the most important strategies. A gauge at the bottom of the screen (called the ' Light Gem ') indicates how visible the protagonist is. Entering deeper shadows or ducking makes the character less likely to be noticed. Walking about increases the risk of being spotted, and having a sword or bow drawn makes him very conspicuous in the game. The astute player is constantly keeping an eye on areas of light or shadow, guard patrol routes, and the type of terrain they are walking on, in case a hiding place is needed in a hurry. A light source, such as a torch or gas lamp, can be doused with a Water Arrow, creating an area of darkness in which the player may hide. Electrically powered lights, in all games, may simply be shut off by using a nearby switch or button; however, if no light switch is available, the electrical light will not turn off by simply shooting a Water Arrow at it. In Thief: Deadly Shadows, the player can simply ' pinch out ' a lit candle by pressing the use button on it. A guard or any civilian may notice if a light source has been put out, likewise if something valuable has been stolen.
Another large component of game play in "Thief '', along with the stealth, is exploration. In most missions, especially in the first two "Thief '' games, players can freely explore the game environment without much hindrance. Players are also free to experiment with how they approach the AI, as one may choose to take out all the AI either by blackjack, sword, or arrow, or one may choose to avoid any confrontation with the AI. "Ghosting '' is a play style by which one tries to leave no trace behind them as they explore and complete the objectives in each mission.
Released by Looking Glass Studios in 1998 and powered by their own in - house developed Dark Engine, Thief: The Dark Project was considered by many to be a revolutionary game. The foremost defense of this position is that it was arguably the first morally ambiguous video game to receive a major release (as one might expect from its title). Cast in the role of the thief, Garrett, the player can forgo all morality or choose to exercise restraint in multiple situations. This represented a departure from popular video games of the time, which tended to rely upon a Manichean conception of conflict along with "black and white '' settings and objectives. Another groundbreaking facet of the game was that although it utilized a first - person perspective, it was not an action - oriented shooter like almost all other first - person games. Instead, the emphasis was on stealth: The character is unusually agile, but is not a particularly skilled fighter, and much of the gameplay involves using shadows to avoid enemies. However, for those who desire action, there are weapons available that allow direct confrontation. A skilled player can often break cover and go head - to - head with the enemies. An even more skilled player can stay in cover and never let the enemies know that he was there. The game 's original gameplay quickly developed a cult following. A re-release of Thief: The Dark Project entitled Thief Gold fixed various bugs and added three new levels (mostly derived from, but not identical to, content that was planned for the original game but cut for budget or time constraints) which contributed significantly to the existing plot. The package also contains bonus content such as the DromEd Dark Engine editor, a behind - the - scenes "making of '' video, and a desktop theme designed for Windows 98. Looking Glass was working on a similar re-release of Thief II: The Metal Age, provisionally entitled "Thief II Gold '', at the time they went out of business in 2000.
Looking Glass Studios released the sequel to Thief in 2000. Utilizing the same Dark Engine that powered the original Thief, Thief II had an almost identical look and feel, with at some points differences in architecture and technology caused by the events of the first game, and only minor graphic and programming improvements, such as colored lighting. The basic gameplay was also fundamentally similar to the original Thief, but many new elements had been added, including technological gadgets such as a remote eye camera. Other changes include an increase in the number of AI behaviors. Responding to criticism of the original Thief that more time was spent on combat than actually living up to the title of the game, the missions in Thief II were designed much more around typical thief - like behavior, and much of the game is spent robbing the rich denizens of the City rather than battling monsters. In fact, the player encounters almost none of the monsters from the original Thief except for burrick (dinosaur - like creatures) heads mounted as trophies in some of the mansions, and a few zombies, undead and ghostly apparitions. The designers stated that, unlike the original Thief, where levels were developed to suit the plot, in Thief II levels were designed first and making the plot work with them was somewhat of a retrofit. A re-release of Thief II: The Metal Age entitled Thief II Gold was a game in development by Looking Glass Studios before the company closed down in 2000. It is believed to have been an expansion to Thief II similar to Thief Gold.
A major departure from the first two games in the series, Thief: Deadly Shadows was developed by Ion Storm rather than Looking Glass Studios (albeit with many of the same people). The game was powered by the Unreal - based Deus Ex: Invisible War engine. Unlike the original two games, the third Thief was developed simultaneously for Windows and the Xbox. Because of all these factors, Thief: Deadly Shadows was different (and vastly updated) from the first two games in the series in both appearance and gameplay. One of the game 's major new features was the ability to explore the City. While previous games sent Garrett straight from mission to mission, Thief: Deadly Shadows allows him to walk the City streets between missions, where he can steal from passersby, spy on the townspeople 's daily lives, and search for sidequests in addition to major story missions. Unlike sandbox games such as Grand Theft Auto III, the city is not one large continuous map, but rather several small neighborhood maps connected by load zones (similar to Postal 2). The game also introduced an ability to switch between first - and third - person views, and to flatten against walls. In addition, the lighting engine was updated to accommodate moving shadows and light sources, which dynamically affected where the player could hide, an innovation originally precluded by the more technically limited Dark Engine. Smaller improvements were made to AI behavior, allowing for guards who noted when items went missing from their field of view or when doors were left open, along with an overhauled sound - propagation mechanic.
Thief is the fourth game in the Thief series, developed by Eidos Montréal and published by Square Enix. Since early 2008, several rumors had been circulating regarding a fourth Thief game, which was allegedly under development. Eidos Montréal 's General Manager Stéphane D'Astous commented in an interview for Deus Ex: Human Revolution that confirmation of the company 's second "AAA title '', which its website states "begins with the letter ' T ' '', would occur "over the next year '' or so. The game was unveiled on May 11, 2009, originally titled as Thief 4.
With the release of DromEd, a map editor for the first two games, an active community of fans began providing a wealth of home - grown missions for the first two games, known as Fan Missions. Thousands of fan missions for these games have been created, some equally or more complex than the original game missions. These fan missions can be played by other fans using a loader. T3Ed, a map editor for the third game Deadly Shadows, was released in February 2005 after a letter - writing campaign by fans. This allows fans to design their level with all the interactive objects seen in original missions, as well as place stealable loot and lighting, factors which drastically affect gameplay. Human NPCs and creatures from all the various factions can be added into missions, and their behaviors (such as patrol routes) configured. Missions may be packaged and distributed to other players, who need a loader to play them.
The following are recurring characters, information on non-recurring characters may be found in Thief: The Dark Project, Thief II: The Metal Age and Thief: Deadly Shadows.
Viktoria (voiced by Terri Brosius) is a wood nymph in the series. She was a primary antagonist during the events of The Dark Project, being the one to remove Garrett 's eye. However, she and her followers become allies for Garrett 's war on the Mechanists during Metal Age. At the start there is little trust on Garrett 's part, but over time it becomes clear that she was able to gain Garrett 's respect, loyalty and, uncharacteristically of the cynical thief, care. Even to the point of Garrett being willing to defend her directly, immediately rushing to her aid upon hearing of her assault on Soulforge. It seems that this degree of respect and general sentiment on Garrett 's part is only seen in his relationships with Viktoria and the Keeper Artemus.
The character was well received. In 2000, Viktoria was included in GameSpot 's list of the ten best female characters according to readers ' choice, with the staff commenting: "Viktoria did n't make our TenSpot, which was a shame. We editors apologize to those of you who lamented our oversight. '' It was also accompanied by a poll asking who should play Viktoria in the movie adaptation of the Thief games (Catherine Zeta - Jones, Elizabeth Hurley, Salma Hayek or Jennifer Lopez). In 2007, Tom 's Games included this "bad girl with charisma and style '' on the list of the 50 greatest female characters in video game history, noting how "evolves from a deceptive villain in the first game to a more benevolent companion to Garrett in the sequel, which ends her heroic, sacrificial death '' and applauding her "hypnotic voice '' provided by Brosius. Tom 's Games stated she should be played in the live - action adaptation by "Naomi Watts, who 's got the sexy voice, beauty and charisma for the part. '' In 2013, Gameranx ranked her as the third sexiest female game villain in history.
The universe of Thief is a dark fantasy setting and is centered mostly on a dense, sprawling metropolitan complex known only as "The City '', which has some resemblance to 18th / 19th century London, minus the widespread use of electricity and an altogether more Medieval culture, reflected in the style of dress and semi-feudal social structure, along with a lack of firearms. It is a steampunk metropolis constantly being fought over by a corrupt aristocracy, an order of religious fanatics and a horde of vengeful woodland beings, all under the eye of a secret organization. Thief takes place hundreds of years after the original games, possibly with a heavier emphasis on the identity of "The City ''. Garrett works with the underground economy of the City, making a lucrative living for himself. Occasionally Garrett would leave the confines of the City and rob mansions, prisons, or graveyards.
Straight Up Films announced that they have acquired the film rights to Thief with plans to develop a movie, Adam Mason and Simon Boyes will write the screenplay, Straight Up Films ' President of Production Sandra Condito will serve as executive producer along with Khalid Jones of Source Rock and Square Enix while Straight Up principals Marisa Polvino and Kate Cohen will produce alongside Roy Lee and Adrian Askarieh.
In 2015 Adrian Askarieh told IGN in an interview that he may oversee a film universe with Just Cause, Hitman, Tomb Raider, Deus Ex and Thief.
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how many peaks are there in the peak district | List of hills in the Peak District - wikipedia
This is a list of the hills of the Peak District of England. Most lie within the Peak District National Park, but others lie outside its borders. The list is sorted by absolute height, then by relative height. Marilyns are marked in boldface. The top three are considered mountains as they are above 2,000 feet high.
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chris from a year to save my life | Chris Powell (personal trainer) - wikipedia
Christopher "Chris '' Powell (born March 2, 1978) is an American personal trainer, reality show personality, and author. Powell was the host of the ABC television series Extreme Weight Loss, which aired from 2011 to 2015.
Powell is the host and a personal trainer on Extreme Weight Loss, a U.S. reality television series. The show was formerly known as Extreme Makeover: Weight Loss Edition. Powell has also appeared in Extreme Weight Loss DVDs and is the author of two books: Choose to Lose: The 7 - Day Carb Cycle Solution and Chris Powell 's Choose More Lose More for Life. He has appeared on the Oprah Winfrey Show, 20 / 20, The View, and in a one - hour documentary that aired on TLC.
In 2008 Powell co-founded the web - based weight - loss program ReshapeTheNation.com. Powell also contributes to Good Morning Arizona, Good Morning America, and has a series of webisodes called "Meet the Powell Pack. ''
Powell is married to Heidi Powell. The two have four children, two of which were from a previous marriage.
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who has the most gold gloves of all time | Rawlings Gold Glove Award - wikipedia
The Rawlings Gold Glove Award, usually referred to as the Gold Glove, is the award given annually to the Major League Baseball players judged to have exhibited superior individual fielding performances at each fielding position in both the National League (NL) and the American League (AL), as voted by the managers and coaches in each league. Managers are not permitted to vote for their own players. Additionally, a sabermetric component provided by Society for American Baseball Research (SABR) accounts for approximately 25 percent of the vote. Eighteen Gold Gloves are awarded each year (with the exception of 1957, 1985 and 2007), one at each of the nine positions in each league. In 1957, the baseball glove manufacturer Rawlings created the Gold Glove Award to commemorate the best fielding performance at each position. The award was created from a glove made from gold lamé - tanned leather and affixed to a walnut base. Initially, only one Gold Glove per position was awarded to the top fielder at each position in Major League Baseball; however, separate awards were given for the National and American Leagues beginning in 1958.
For the first four seasons of the award (1957 to 1960), individual awards were presented to left fielders, center fielders, and right fielders. From 1961 through 2010, the phrase "at each position '' was no longer strictly accurate, since the prize was presented to three outfielders irrespective of their specific position. Any combination of outfielders, often three center fielders, could win the award in the same year. Critics called for awarding a single Gold Glove for each individual outfield position, arguing that the three outfield positions are not equivalent defensively. Starting in 2011, separate awards for each outfield position were once again presented. In the 1985 American League voting, a tie for third - place resulted in the presentation of Gold Glove Awards to four outfielders (Dwayne Murphy, Gary Pettis, Dwight Evans and Dave Winfield); this scenario was repeated in the National League in 2007 (Andruw Jones, Carlos Beltrán, Aaron Rowand, and Jeff Francoeur).
Before SABR 's involvement in the voting process, The Boston Globe writer Peter Abraham said the Fielding Bible Awards "are far more accurate (and accountable) '' than the Gold Glove awards since statistics are used along with the opinions of an expert panel. The Gold Gloves are selected by managers and coaches that may have seen a player as few as six times during the season. Bill Chuck of Comcast SportsNet New England wrote that Gold Glove voters frequently counted only errors to determine winners. Geoff Baker of The Seattle Times said the votes for the Gold Gloves rely largely on a player 's past reputation. The Associated Press wrote that "some fans have viewed the Gold Gloves as mostly a popularity contest, even suggesting that a player 's performance at the plate helped draw extra attention to his glove. '' After winning the AL Gold Glove at first base in both 1997 and 1998, Rafael Palmeiro won again in 1999 with the Texas Rangers while only appearing in 28 games as a first baseman; he played in 128 games as a designated hitter that season, resulting in a controversy. Derek Jeter, winner of five Gold Gloves, believes that many defensive factors can not be quantified. In 2013, Rawlings collaborated on the Gold Glove Award with SABR, who provided the SABR Defensive Index (SDI) to add a sabermetric component to the selection process. The index accounted for 25 percent of the vote, while managers and coaches continued to provide the majority. Afterwards, Jay Jaffe of Sports Illustrated wrote that the Gold Gloves "appear to have significantly closed the gap on their more statistically - driven counterparts. '' SABR and FiveThirtyEight believed that the impact to the voting results by SDI, which is also included on the voters ' ballots, went beyond its 25 own percent weight and also influenced the managers ' and coaches ' voting.
The most Gold Gloves ever won by one player is 18 by pitcher Greg Maddux. He won 13 consecutive awards from 1990 to 2002, all in the National League. Brooks Robinson has the most wins as a third baseman, with 16 Gold Gloves, and is tied for the second - highest total overall with pitcher Jim Kaat, who won his 16 awards consecutively. Iván Rodríguez has won the most Gold Gloves as a catcher, with 13 career awards in the American League. Ozzie Smith has 13 wins at shortstop; he and Rodríguez are tied for the fourth - highest total among all winners. Among outfielders, Roberto Clemente and Willie Mays, who played primarily right field and center field, respectively, are tied for the lead with 12 Gold Gloves. Keith Hernandez, the leader at first base, has won 11 times, and Roberto Alomar leads second basemen with 10 wins. Other players with 10 or more wins include shortstop Omar Vizquel (11), catcher Johnny Bench (10), third baseman Mike Schmidt (10), and outfielders Ken Griffey Jr., Ichiro Suzuki, Andruw Jones, and Al Kaline (10 each).
The only player to win Gold Gloves as an infielder and outfielder is Darin Erstad, who won Gold Gloves as an outfielder in 2000 and 2002 and as a first baseman in 2004, all with the Anaheim Angels. The only other player to win Gold Gloves at multiple positions is Plácido Polanco, who won at second base (2007, 2009 AL) and third base (2011 NL). Family pairs to win Gold Gloves include brothers Ken and Clete Boyer (third base), brothers Sandy Alomar, Jr. (catcher) and Roberto Alomar (second base), Bengie and Yadier Molina (catcher), father and son Bobby and Barry Bonds (outfield), and father and son Bob (catcher) and Bret Boone (second base).
In 2016, Rawlings announced it would begin awarding a gold glove annually to a female fastpitch softball player in the National Pro Fastpitch league. NPF coaches and managers vote for a winner (excluding those on their respective teams). This award is in addition to the collegiate and high school awards added in 2007, its 50th anniversary.
On February 20, 2007, Major League Baseball and Rawlings announced that an all - time Gold Glove Team would be named during the 50th anniversary of the first Gold Glove Awards. Rawlings asked 70 baseball reporters, former players and former managers to select 50 names for the ballot, from an initial selection of 250 names. The team was selected by fans, who voted at the Rawlings Gold Glove website, at United States Postal Service offices, and at sporting goods stores. The results were announced at the 2007 Major League Baseball All - Star Game.
In the history of the Gold Glove Award, there have been eleven double - play combinations, or pairs of middle infielders, that have won awards in the same year. Shortstops and second basemen depend upon each other for the majority of double plays. The most common type of double play occurs with a runner on first base and a ground ball hit towards the middle of the infield. The player fielding the ball (generally the shortstop or second baseman) throws to the fielder covering second base, who steps on the base before the runner from first arrives to force that runner out, and then throws the ball to the first baseman to force out the batter for the second out. Mark Belanger won four Gold Gloves with the Baltimore Orioles alongside winning partner Bobby Grich, and Joe Morgan paired with Dave Concepción for four combination wins with the Cincinnati Reds. The most recent teammates to accomplish the feat are Brandon Crawford and Joe Panik, who won with the San Francisco Giants in 2016.
Since 1957, there have been five Gold Glove batteries. The pitcher and catcher, collectively known as the battery, are the only two players on the field involved in every pitch. In particular, the pitcher and catcher control the running game with tools such as pickoffs or the strength of the catcher 's throwing arm. The first pitcher and catcher on the same team to win Gold Gloves in the same year were Jim Kaat and Earl Battey, with the Minnesota Twins in 1962. Only two pairs of batterymates have won Gold Gloves together more than once: Iván Rodríguez and Kenny Rogers won with the Texas Rangers in 2000, and again with the Detroit Tigers in 2004 and 2006. Yadier Molina and Adam Wainwright matched the feat, winning in both 2009 and 2013.
In 2011, Rawlings added an annual Platinum Glove Award awarded to the best defensive player in each league as voted by fans.
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when is the new 10 dollar bill coming out | United States TEN - dollar bill - wikipedia
The United States ten - dollar bill ($10) is a denomination of U.S. currency. The obverse of the bill features the portrait of Alexander Hamilton, who served as the first U.S. Secretary of the Treasury. The reverse features the U.S. Treasury Building. All $10 bills issued today are Federal Reserve Notes.
As of December 2013, the average life of a $10 bill is 4.5 years, or about 54 months, before it is replaced due to wear. Ten - dollar bills are delivered by Federal Reserve Banks in yellow straps.
The source of the portrait on the $10 bill is John Trumbull 's 1805 painting of Hamilton that belongs to the portrait collection of New York City Hall. The $10 bill is unique in that it is the only denomination in circulation in which the portrait faces to the left. It also features one of two non-presidents on currently issued U.S. bills, the other being Benjamin Franklin on the $100 bill. Hamilton is also the only person not born in the continental United States or British America (he was from the West Indies) currently depicted on U.S. paper currency; three others have been depicted in the past: Albert Gallatin, Switzerland ($500 1862 / 63 Legal Tender); George Meade, Spain ($1,000 1890 / 91 Treasury Note); and Robert Morris, England ($1,000 1862 / 63 Legal Tender; $10 1878 / 80 Silver Certificate).
In 2015, the Treasury Secretary announced that the obverse portrait of Hamilton would be replaced by the portrait of an as yet undecided woman, starting in 2020. However, due to the surging popularity of Hamilton, a hit Broadway musical based on Hamilton 's life, in 2016 this decision was reversed and Hamilton will remain on the $10 bill, and instead a woman will appear on the $20 bill.
(approximately 7.4218 × 3.125 in ≅ 189 × 79 mm)
(6.14 × 2.61 in ≅ 156 × 66 mm)
On June 17, 2015, Treasury Secretary Jack Lew announced that a woman 's portrait would be featured on a redesigned ten - dollar bill by 2020. The Department of Treasury was seeking the public 's input on who should appear on the new bill during the design phase.
Removal of Hamilton was controversial. Many believed that Hamilton, as the first Secretary of the Treasury, should remain on U.S. Currency in some form, all the while acknowledging that U.S. Currency was long overdue to feature a female historical figure -- names that had been raised included Eleanor Roosevelt, Harriet Tubman, Susan B. Anthony and Rosa Parks. This led to the Treasury Department stating that Hamilton would remain on the bill in some way. The $10 bill was chosen because it was scheduled for a regular security redesign, a years - long process. The redesigned ten - dollar bill will be the first U.S. note to incorporate tactile features to assist those with visual disabilities.
On April 20, 2016, it was announced that Alexander Hamilton would remain the primary face on the $10 bill, due in part to the sudden popularity of the first Treasury Secretary after the success of the Broadway musical Hamilton. It was simultaneously announced that Harriet Tubman 's likeness would appear on the $20 bill while Andrew Jackson would now appear on the reverse with the White House.
The design for the reverse of the 2020 $10 bill will feature the heroines of the Women 's Suffrage Movement in the United States, including Susan B. Anthony, Alice Paul, Sojourner Truth, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, and the participants of the 1913 Woman Suffrage Procession who marched in Washington D.C. in favor of full voting rights for American women.
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when does the house have to hit in blackjack | Blackjack - wikipedia
Blackjack, also known as twenty - one, is a comparing card game between usually several players and a dealer, where each player in turn competes against the dealer, but players do not play against each other. It is played with one or more decks of 52 cards, and is the most widely played casino banking game in the world. The objective of the game is to beat the dealer in one of the following ways:
Players are each dealt two cards, face up or down depending on the casino and the table at which you sit. In the U.S., the dealer is also dealt two cards, normally one up (exposed) and one down (hidden). In most other countries, the dealer receives one card face up. The value of cards two through ten is their pip value (2 through 10). Face cards (Jack, Queen, and King) are all worth ten. Aces can be worth one or eleven. A hand 's value is the sum of the card values. Players are allowed to draw additional cards to improve their hands. A hand with an ace valued as 11 is called "soft '', meaning that the hand will not bust by taking an additional card; the value of the ace will become one to prevent the hand from exceeding 21. Otherwise, the hand is "hard ''.
Once all the players have completed their hands, it is the dealer 's turn. The dealer hand will not be completed if all players have either busted or received Blackjacks. The dealer then reveals the hidden card and must hit until the cards total 17 or more points. (At most tables the dealer also hits on a "soft '' 17, i.e. a hand containing an ace and one or more other cards totaling six.) Players win by not busting and having a total higher than the dealer, or not busting and having the dealer bust, or getting a blackjack without the dealer getting a blackjack. If the player and dealer have the same total (not counting blackjacks), this is called a "push '', and the player typically does not win or lose money on that hand. Otherwise, the dealer wins.
Blackjack has many rule variations. Since the 1960s, blackjack has been a high - profile target of advantage players, particularly card counters, who track the profile of cards that have been dealt and adapt their wagers and playing strategies accordingly.
Blackjack has inspired other casino games, including Spanish 21 and pontoon.
Blackjack 's precursor was twenty - one, a game of unknown origin. The first written reference is found in a book by the Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes, most famous for writing Don Quixote. Cervantes was a gambler, and the main characters of his tale "Rinconete y Cortadillo '', from Novelas Ejemplares, are a couple of cheats working in Seville. They are proficient at cheating at veintiuna (Spanish for twenty - one), and state that the object of the game is to reach 21 points without going over and that the ace values 1 or 11. The game is played with the Spanish baraja deck, which lacks eights and nines. This short story was written between 1601 and 1602, implying that ventiuna was played in Castile since the beginning of the 17th century or earlier. Later references to this game are found in France and Spain.
When twenty - one was introduced in the United States, gambling houses offered bonus payouts to stimulate players ' interest. One such bonus was a ten - to - one payout if the player 's hand consisted of the ace of spades and a black jack (either the jack of clubs or the jack of spades). This hand was called a "blackjack '', and the name stuck to the game even though the ten - to - one bonus was soon withdrawn. In the modern game, a blackjack refers to any hand of an ace plus a ten or face card regardless of suits or colours.
The first scientific and mathematically sound attempt to devise an optimal blackjack playing strategy was revealed in September 1956. Roger Baldwin, Wilbert Cantey, Herbert Maisel and James McDermott published a paper titled The Optimum Strategy in Blackjack in the Journal of the American Statistical Association. This paper would become the foundation of all future sound efforts to beat the game of blackjack. Ed Thorp would use Baldwin 's hand calculations to verify the basic strategy and later publish (in 1963) his famous book Beat the Dealer.
At a casino blackjack table, the dealer faces five to seven playing positions from behind a semicircular table. Between one and eight standard 52 - card decks are shuffled together. At the beginning of each round, up to three players can place their bets in the "betting box '' at each position in play. That is, there could be up to three players at each position at a table in jurisdictions that allow back betting. The player whose bet is at the front of the betting box is deemed to have control over the position, and the dealer will consult the controlling player for playing decisions regarding the hand; the other players of that box are said to "play behind ''. Any player is usually allowed to control or bet in as many boxes as desired at a single table, but it is prohibited for an individual to play on more than one table at a time or to place multiple bets within a single box. In many U.S. casinos, however, players are limited to playing two or three positions at a table and often only one person is allowed to bet on each position.
The dealer deals cards from his / her left (the position on the dealer 's far left is often referred to as "first base '') to his / her far right ("third base ''). Each box is dealt an initial hand of two cards visible to the people playing on it, and often to any other players. The dealer 's hand receives its first card face up, and in "hole card '' games immediately receives its second card face down (the hole card), which the dealer peeks at but does not reveal unless it makes the dealer 's hand a blackjack. Hole card games are sometimes played on tables with a small mirror or electronic sensor that is used to peek securely at the hole card. In European casinos, "no hole card '' games are prevalent; the dealer 's second card is neither drawn nor consulted until the players have all played their hands.
Cards are dealt either from one or two handheld decks, from a dealer 's shoe, or from a shuffling machine. Single cards are dealt to each wagered - on position clockwise from the dealer 's left, followed by a single card to the dealer, followed by an additional card to each of the positions in play. The players ' initial cards may be dealt face up or face down (more common in single - deck games).
The players ' object is to win money by creating card totals that turn out to be higher than the dealer 's hand but do not exceed 21 ("busting '' / "breaking ''), or alternatively by allowing the dealer to take additional cards until he / she busts. On their turn, players must choose whether to "hit '' (take a card), "stand '' (end their turn), "double '' (double wager, take a single card and finish), "split '' (if the two cards have the same value, separate them to make two hands) or "surrender '' (give up a half - bet and retire from the game). Number cards count as their natural value; the jack, queen, and king (also known as "face cards '' or "pictures '') count as 10; aces are valued as either 1 or 11 according to the player 's choice. If the hand value exceeds 21 points, it busts, and all bets on it are immediately forfeit. After all boxes have finished playing, the dealer 's hand is resolved by drawing cards until the hand busts or achieves a value of 17 or higher (a dealer total of 17 including an ace, or "soft 17 '', must be drawn to in some games and must stand in others). The dealer never doubles, splits, or surrenders. If the dealer busts, all remaining player hands win. If the dealer does not bust, each remaining bet wins if its hand is higher than the dealer 's, and loses if it is lower. If a player receives 21 on the 1st and 2nd card it is considered a "natural '' or "blackjack '' and the player is paid out immediately unless dealer also has a natural, in which case the hand ties. In the case of a tied score, known as "push '' or "standoff '', bets are normally returned without adjustment; however, a blackjack beats any hand that is not a blackjack, even one with a value of 21. Wins are paid out at 1: 1, or equal to the wager, except for winning, player blackjacks, which are traditionally paid at 3: 2 (meaning the player receives three dollars for every two bet), or one - and - a-half times the wager. Many casinos today pay blackjacks at less than 3: 2 at some tables; for instance, single - deck blackjack tables often pay 6: 5 for a blackjack instead of 3: 2.
Blackjack games almost always provide a side bet called insurance, which may be played when dealer 's upcard is an ace. Additional side bets, such as "Dealer Match '' which pays when the player 's cards match the dealer 's up card, are sometimes available.
After receiving an initial two cards, the player has up to four standard options: "hit '', "stand '', "double down '', or "split ''. Each option has a corresponding hand signal. Some games give the player a fifth option, "surrender ''.
Hand signals are used to assist the "eye in the sky '', a person or video camera located above the table and sometimes concealed behind one - way glass. The eye in the sky usually makes a video recording of the table, which helps in resolving disputes and identifying dealer mistakes, and is also used to protect the casino against dealers who steal chips or players who cheat. The recording can further be used to identify advantage players whose activities, while legal, make them undesirable customers. In the event of a disagreement between a player 's hand signals and their words, the hand signal takes precedence.
Each hand may normally "hit '' as many times as desired so long as the total is not above hard 20. On reaching 21 (including soft 21), the hand is normally required to stand; busting is an irrevocable loss and the players ' wagers are immediately forfeited to the house. After a bust or a stand, play proceeds to the next hand clockwise around the table. When the last hand has finished being played, the dealer reveals the hole card, and stands or draws further cards according to the rules of the game for dealer drawing. When the outcome of the dealer 's hand is established, any hands with bets remaining on the table are resolved (usually in counterclockwise order): bets on losing hands are forfeited, the bet on a push is left on the table, and winners are paid out.
If the dealer 's upcard is an ace, the player is offered the option of taking "insurance '' before the dealer checks the hole card.
Insurance is a side bet that the dealer has blackjack and is treated independently of the main wager. It pays 2: 1 (meaning that the player receives two dollars for every dollar bet) and is available when the dealer 's exposed card is an ace. The idea is that the dealer 's second card has a fairly high probability (nearly one - third) to be ten - valued, giving the dealer blackjack and disappointment for the player. It is attractive (although not necessarily wise) for the player to insure against the possibility of a dealer blackjack by making a maximum "insurance '' bet, in which case the "insurance proceeds '' will make up for the concomitant loss on the original bet. The player may add up to half the value of their original bet to the insurance and these extra chips are placed on a portion of the table usually marked "Insurance pays 2 to 1 ''.
Players with a blackjack may also take insurance, and in taking maximum insurance they commit themselves to winning an amount exactly equal to their main wager, regardless of the dealer 's outcome. Fully insuring a blackjack against blackjack is thus referred to as "taking even money '', and paid out immediately, before the dealer 's hand is resolved; the players do not need to place more chips for the insurance wager.
Insurance bets are expected to lose money in the long run, because the dealer is likely to have blackjack less than one - third of the time. However the insurance outcome is strongly anti-correlated with that of the main wager, and if the player 's priority is to reduce variation, they might choose to pay for this.
Furthermore, the insurance bet is susceptible to advantage play. It is advantageous to make an insurance bet whenever the hole card has more than a chance of one in three of being a ten. Advantage play techniques can sometimes identify such situations. In a multi-hand, face - up, single deck game, it is possible to establish whether insurance is a good bet simply by observing the other cards on the table after the deal; even if there are just 2 player hands exposed, and neither of their two initial cards is a ten, then 16 in 47 of the remaining cards are tens, which is larger than 1 in 3, so insurance is a good bet. This is an elementary example of the family of advantage play techniques known as card counting.
Bets to insure against blackjack are slightly less likely to be advantageous than insurance bets in general, since the ten in the player 's blackjack makes it less likely that the dealer has blackjack too.
Note: where changes in the house edge due to changes in the rules are stated in percentage terms, the difference is usually stated here in percentage points, not percentage; strictly speaking if, say, an edge of 10 % is reduced to 9 %, the amount is reduced by ten percent, or by one percentage point.
The rules of casino blackjack are generally determined by law or regulation, which establishes certain rule variations allowed at the discretion of the casino. The rules of any particular game are generally posted on or near the table, failing which there is an expectation that casino staff will provide them on request. Over 100 variations of blackjack have been documented.
As with all casino games, blackjack incorporates a "house edge '', a statistical advantage for the casino that is built into the game. The advantage of the dealer 's position in blackjack relative to the player comes from the fact that if the player busts, the player loses, regardless of whether the dealer subsequently busts. Nonetheless, blackjack players using basic strategy will lose less than 1 % of their total wagered amount with strictly average luck; this is very favorable to the player compared to other casino games. The loss rate of players who deviate from basic strategy through ignorance is generally expected to be greater.
Surrender, for those games that allow it, is usually not permitted against a dealer blackjack; if the dealer 's first card is an ace or ten, the hole card is checked to make sure there is no blackjack before surrender is offered. This rule protocol is consequently known as "late '' surrender. The alternative, "early '' surrender, gives player the option to surrender before the dealer checks for blackjack, or in a no - hole - card game. Early surrender is much more favorable to the player than late surrender. Most medium - strength hands should be surrendered against a dealer Ace if the hole card has not been checked.
For late surrender, however, while it is tempting to opt for surrender on any hand which will probably lose, the correct strategy is to only surrender on the very worst hands, because having even a one in four chance of winning the full bet is better than losing half the bet and pushing the other half, as entailed by surrendering.
In most non-U.S. casinos, a ' no hole card ' game is played, meaning that the dealer does not draw nor consult his or her second card until after all players have finished making decisions. With no hole card, it is almost never correct basic strategy to double or split against a dealer ten or ace, since a dealer blackjack will result in the loss of the split and double bets; the only exception is with a pair of A 's against a dealer 10, where it is still correct to split. In all other cases, a stand, hit or surrender is called for. For instance, holding 11 against a dealer 10, the correct strategy is to double in a hole card game (where the player knows the dealer 's second card is not an ace), but to hit in a no hole card game. The no hole card rule adds approximately 0.11 % to the house edge.
The "original bets only '' rule variation appearing in certain no hole card games states that if the player 's hand loses to a dealer blackjack, only the mandatory initial bet ("original '') is forfeited, and all optional bets, meaning doubles and splits, are pushed. "Original bets only '' is also known by the acronym OBO; it has the same effect on basic strategy and house edge as reverting to a hole card game.
Each blackjack game has a basic strategy, which is playing a hand of any total value against any dealer 's up - card, which loses the least money to the house in the long term.
An example of basic strategy is shown in the table below, and includes the following parameters:
Key:
The bulk of basic strategy is common to all blackjack games, with most rule variations calling for changes in only a few situations. For example, if the above game used the hit on soft 17 rule, common in Las Vegas Strip casinos, only 6 cells of the table would need to be changed: double on 11 vs. A, surrender 15 or 17 vs. A, double on A, 7 vs. 2, double on A, 8 vs. 6, surrender (if not allowed, then hit) on 8, 8 vs. A. Also when playing basic strategy never take insurance or "even money. ''
Estimates of the house edge for blackjack games quoted by casinos and gaming regulators are generally based on the assumption that the players follow basic strategy and do not systematically change their bet size.
Most blackjack games have a house edge of between 0.5 % and 1 %, placing blackjack among the cheapest casino table games. Casino promotions such as complimentary matchplay vouchers or 2: 1 blackjack payouts allow the player to acquire an advantage without deviating from basic strategy.
Basic strategy is based upon a player 's point total and the dealer 's visible card. Players may be able to improve on this decision by considering the precise composition of their hand, not just the point total. For example, players should ordinarily stand when holding 12 against a dealer 4. However, in a single deck game, players should hit if their 12 consists of a 10 and a 2. The presence of a 10 in the player 's hand has two consequences:
However, even when basic and composition - dependent strategy lead to different actions, the difference in expected reward is small, and it becomes even smaller with more decks. Using a composition - dependent strategy rather than basic strategy in a single deck game reduces the house edge by 4 in 10,000, which falls to 3 in 100,000 for a six - deck game.
Blackjack has been a high - profile target for advantage players since the 1960s. Advantage play is the attempt to win more using skills such as memory, computation, and observation. These techniques, while generally legal, can be powerful enough to give the player a long - term edge in the game, making them an undesirable customer for the casino and potentially leading to ejection or blacklisting if they are detected. The main techniques of advantage play in blackjack are as follows:
During the course of a blackjack shoe, the dealer exposes the dealt cards. Careful accounting of the exposed cards allows a player to make inferences about the cards which remain to be dealt. These inferences can be used in the following ways:
A card counting system assigns a point score to each rank of card (e.g., 1 point for 2 -- 6, 0 points for 7 -- 9 and − 1 point for 10 -- A). When a card is exposed, a counter adds the score of that card to a running total, the ' count '. A card counter uses this count to make betting and playing decisions according to a table which they have learned. The count starts at 0 for a freshly shuffled deck for "balanced '' counting systems. Unbalanced counts are often started at a value which depends on the number of decks used in the game.
Blackjack 's house edge is usually between 0.5 % -- 1 % when players use basic strategy. Card counting can give the player an edge of up to 2 % over the house.
Card counting is most rewarding near the end of a complete shoe when as few as possible cards remain. Single - deck games are therefore particularly susceptible to card counting. As a result, casinos are more likely to insist that players do not reveal their cards to one another in single - deck games. In games with more decks of cards, casinos limit penetration by ending the shoe and reshuffling when one or more decks remain undealt. Casinos also sometimes use a shuffling machine to reintroduce the exhausted cards every time a deck has been played.
Card counting is legal and is not considered cheating as long as the counter is n't using an external device, but if a casino realizes a player is counting, the casino might inform them that they are no longer welcome to play blackjack. Sometimes a casino might ban a card counter from the property.
The use of external devices to help counting cards is illegal in all US states that license blackjack card games.
Techniques other than card counting can swing the advantage of casino blackjack toward the player. All such techniques are based on the value of the cards to the player and the casino as originally conceived by Edward O. Thorp. One technique, mainly applicable in multi-deck games, involves tracking groups of cards (also known as slugs, clumps, or packs) during the play of the shoe, following them through the shuffle, and then playing and betting accordingly when those cards come into play from the new shoe. Shuffle tracking requires excellent eyesight and powers of visual estimation but is more difficult to detect since the player 's actions are largely unrelated to the composition of the cards in the shoe.
Arnold Snyder 's articles in Blackjack Forum magazine brought shuffle tracking to the general public. His book, The Shuffle Tracker 's Cookbook, mathematically analyzed the player edge available from shuffle tracking based on the actual size of the tracked slug. Jerry L. Patterson also developed and published a shuffle - tracking method for tracking favorable clumps of cards and cutting them into play and tracking unfavorable clumps of cards and cutting them out of play.
The player can also gain an advantage by identifying cards from distinctive wear markings on their backs, or by hole carding (observing during the dealing process the front of a card dealt face down). These methods are generally legal although their status in particular jurisdictions may vary.
Many blackjack tables offer a side bet on various outcomes including:
The side wager is typically placed in a designated area next to the box for the main wager. A player wishing to wager on a side bet is usually required to place a wager on blackjack. Some games require that the blackjack wager should equal or exceed any side bet wager. A non-controlling player of a blackjack hand is usually permitted to place a side bet regardless of whether the controlling player does so.
The house edge for side bets is generally far higher than for the blackjack game itself. Nonetheless side bets can be susceptible to card counting. A side count, designed specifically for a particular side bet, can improve the player edge. Most side games do not offer a sufficient win rate to justify the effort of advantage play; exceptions include "Lucky ladies '' and "Over / Under ''.
In team play it is common for team members to be dedicated toward counting only a sidebet using a specialized count.
Blackjack can be played in tournament form. Players start with an equal numbers of chips; the goal is to finish among the top chip - holders. Depending on the number of competitors, tournaments may be held over several rounds, with one or two players qualifying from each table after a set number of deals to meet the qualifiers from the other tables in the next round. Another tournament format, Elimination Blackjack, drops the lowest - stacked player from the table at pre-determined points in the tournament. Good strategy for blackjack tournaments can differ from non-tournament strategy because of the added dimension of choosing the amount to be wagered. As in poker tournaments, players pay the casino an initial entry fee to participate in a tournament, and re-buys are sometimes permitted.
Some casinos, as well as general betting outlets, provide blackjack among a selection of casino - style games at electronic consoles. Video blackjack game rules are generally more favorable to the house; e.g., paying out only even money for winning blackjacks. Video and online blackjack games deal each coup from a fresh shoe, rendering card counting much less effective.
Blackjack is a member of a large family of traditional card games played recreationally all around the world. Most of these games have not been adapted for casino play. Furthermore, the casino game development industry is very active in producing blackjack variants, most of which are ultimately not adopted for widespread use in casinos. The following are the prominent twenty - one themed comparing card games which have been adapted or invented for use in casinos and have become established in the gambling industry.
Examples of the many local traditional and recreational blackjack - like games include French / German Blackjack, called Vingt - et - un (French: Twenty - one) or "Siebzehn und Vier '' (German: Seventeen and Four). The French / German game does not allow splitting. An ace can only count as eleven, but two aces count as a blackjack. It is mostly played in private circles and barracks. A British variation is called "Pontoon '', the name being probably a corruption of "Vingt - et - un ''.
Blackjack is also featured in various television shows. Here are a few shows inspired by the game.
In 2002, professional gamblers around the world were invited to nominate great blackjack players for admission into the Blackjack Hall of Fame. Seven members were inducted in 2002, with new people inducted every year after. The Hall of Fame is at the Barona Casino in San Diego. Members include Edward O. Thorp, author of the 1960s book Beat the Dealer which proved that the game could be beaten with a combination of basic strategy and card counting; Ken Uston, who popularized the concept of team play; Arnold Snyder, author and editor of the Blackjack Forum trade journal; Stanford Wong, author and popularizer of the "Wonging '' technique of only playing at a positive count, and several others.
Novels have been written around blackjack and the possibility of winning games via some kind of method. Among these were The Blackjack Hijack (Charles Einstein, 1976), later produced as the TV movie Nowhere to Run, Bringing Down the House (Ben Mezrich), also filmed as 21, and a 2008 remake. An almost identical theme was shown in the 2004 Canadian film The Last Casino.
Movies titled "21 '' or "Twenty One '' depicting the blackjack game as a central theme have been produced and released in 1918 (starring Bryant Washburn) and in 1923 (starring Richard Barthelmess). In The Hangover, an American comedy, four friends try to count cards to win back enough money to secure the release of their friend from the clutches of a notorious criminal they stole from the previous night while blacked out. A central part of the plot of Rain Man is that Raymond (Dustin Hoffman), an autistic savant, is able to win at blackjack by counting cards. In the 2014 film The Gambler we see Jim Bennett (Mark Wahlberg) playing high stakes Blackjack in order to win large sums of money. This movie displays different blackjack lingo and risky moves that have high rewards.
Regulation in the United Kingdom
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actress who played charlie on good luck charlie | Bridgit Mendler - Wikipedia
Bridgit Claire Mendler (born December 18, 1992) is an American actress, singer, and songwriter. Mendler has a degree in Anthropology from the University of Southern California. In 2004, she began her career in the animated Indian film The Legend of Buddha, later starring in the films Alice Upside Down (2007), The Clique (2008) and Labor Pains (2009) as a teenager. In 2009, Mendler signed with Disney Channel and played Juliet van Heusen on Wizards of Waverly Place. Following the positive reception to her character, she landed the role of Teddy Duncan on the Disney series Good Luck Charlie, which ran from April 2010 to February 2014. Mendler also notably starred in the Disney Channel Original Movie Lemonade Mouth in 2011. Subsequently, Mendler portrayed Candace in the NBC sitcom Undateable (2015 - 2016) and Ashley Willerman in the musical television series Nashville (2017).
Mendler was featured on two singles released from the soundtrack of Lemonade Mouth, with both charting on the US Billboard Hot 100. In 2012, Mendler released her debut studio album Hello My Name Is... It went on to peak at number 30 on the Billboard 200, with over 200,000 copies sold. The record spawned the lead single "Ready or Not '' (2012), which was certified Gold and Platinum in various countries. The follow - up single "Hurricane '' (2013) did not achieve the same success. Mendler has links with several philanthropic projects and humanitarian causes. From 2010 -- 2012, she notably became ambassador to First Book, a campaign to encourage reading and gives books to children in need, and Give With Target, with Target Corporation to raise funds to reform schools in the United States.
Mendler was born in Washington, D.C. She has a younger brother named Nick. She moved with her family to Mill Valley, California at the age of eight. It was there where she first expressed interest in acting and began working in plays. When she was eight years old, Mendler began taking part in local roles in both dramatic and musical theatre, and became the youngest performer in the San Francisco Fringe Festival. When she was 11 years old, she hired an agent to help her get acting jobs. On the decision, she stated, "I was 11 when I did a play out in Northern California and I really enjoyed it and I decided that I wanted to pursue a career, so I got an agent and did commercials and voice - overs and that sort of thing. ''
In 2004, Mendler got her first acting role in the animated Indian film The Legend of Buddha, in which she portrayed Lucy. When she was 13 years old, she got an acting role as a guest star on the soap opera General Hospital. She portrayed the dream child of character Lulu Spencer, in which the two have an argument on Mendler 's character 's birthday. The scene, lasting just under a minute, is later revealed to be a dream. That same year, Mendler was the voice of the character Thorn in the video game Bone: The Great Cow Race, which was based on the Bone comic series. In 2007, Mendler made her film debut in the film adaption of the Alice series, titled Alice Upside Down. Mendler starred alongside Disney Channel actress Alyson Stoner and Lucas Grabeel. Mendler portrayed the antagonistic role of Pamela, who is the rival of Stoner 's character, Alice. For the film 's soundtrack, Mendler provided backing vocals on the song "Free Spirit '', performed by Stoner. Also in 2007 Mendler auditioned for Sonny with a Chance for the role of Sonny Munroe, but Demi Lovato was chosen. In 2008, it was announced that Mendler would play the role of Kristen Gregory in the film adaption of the popular teen novel series The Clique by Lisi Harrison. Mendler had the role of Kristen, a girl who attends OCD on a scholarship, and works hard to keep her good grades.
She also had begun working on a film with actress and singer Lindsay Lohan titled Labor Pains, which kept being pushed back due to various conflicts and problems. Though initially slated for a theatrical release, the film did not receive one in the US and was instead released as a TV film on ABC Family in 2009. The film did, however, receive a theatrical release in countries such as Russia, Romania, Spain, the United Arab Emirates, Ecuador, and Mexico. The film drew 2.1 million viewers, a better - than - average prime - time audience for ABC Family, and per the network, was the week 's top cable film among coveted female demographic groups. She had a supporting role in the film Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel.
In 2009, Mendler became a recurring character in the Disney Channel series Wizards of Waverly Place. Mendler portrayed the role of Juliet Van Heusen, a vampire who later forms a romance with David Henrie 's character Justin Russo. This lasts till the series finale. Mendler would go on to appear in eleven episodes total for the series, spanning from 2009 to 2012 when the series ended. In 2010, Mendler became the star of the Disney Channel Original Series Good Luck Charlie, centering on a teenage girl who makes videos for her baby sister to watch as she gets older. The series premiered on April 4, 2010, and was met with a positive critical reception and viewership. In the third season, Disney Channel announced that the series would feature a same - sex couple. This decision caused a protest from the conservative group "One Million Moms '' asking Disney Channel not to air the episode. One of Disney 's spokespersons told TV Guide the episode was "developed to be relevant to kids and families around the world and to reflect themes of diversity and inclusiveness. '' Disney aired the episode as planned. Other people including actors Miley Cyrus and Evan Rachel Wood expressed their support.
In 2011, she starred as Olivia White, the lead role in the Disney Channel Original Movie Lemonade Mouth, watched by 5.7 million viewers on its premiere night. Mendler performed numerous songs for the film 's soundtrack, which was released on April 12, 2011 by Walt Disney Records. The first single released from the soundtrack, titled "Somebody '', was released on March 4, and peaked at number 89 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. The second single, "Determinate '', charted in numerous other countries and peaked at number 51 on the Billboard Hot 100. In an interview with Kidzworld Media, Mendler confirmed that there will not be a sequel to Lemonade Mouth, commenting: "There 's not (going to be a sequel to Lemonade Mouth) unfortunately. We had such a great experience working on the movie, and they tried to figure something out for a sequel, but everyone at Disney felt like the movie had completed its story in the first movie. It was a great experience, and I loved working with the cast members and still see them frequently. '' In 2011, Mendler had the supporting role of Appoline in the straight to DVD film Beverly Hills Chihuahua 2. Mendler recorded the song "This Is My Paradise '' for the film, which was released as a promotional single on January 11, 2011 with a music video directed by Alex Zamm.
On March 31, 2011, it was confirmed that Mendler had signed with Hollywood Records, and had begun working on her debut album. Also in 2011 Mendler also starred the Disney Channel Original Movie Good Luck Charlie, It 's Christmas!, which premiered on December 2, 2011. The song "I 'm Gonna Run to You '' was co-written and performed by Mendler, and was also featured in the film and released as promotional single on November 12, 2011. Mendler later co-wrote and sang the Disney 's Friends for Change Games anthem called "We Can Change the World '', released as her third promotional single on June 11, 2011. In 2012, she guest starred in the television series House as Callie Rogers, a homeless runaway teenager with a mysterious illness. She also made a guest cameo in Canadian teen drama Degrassi in the Season 11 episode "Do n't Panic (1) '' as Clare and Alli 's friend Emily Quagmire, in their civics class; she can also be seen in the show 's opening sequence sitting on Jake 's red truck alongside Alli and Clare. She voiced the lead role of Arrietty in the American English dub of The Secret World of Arrietty, and she recorded a song "Summertime '' for the movie which was released as a promotional single on February 2.
In Summer 2012, Mendler confirmed that the title of her official debut single was "Ready or Not '', written by Mendler herself, Emanuel "Eman '' Kiriakou and Evan "Kidd '' Bogart. The song was released for digital download on August 7 and for radio airplay on August 21, 2012. "Ready or Not '' peaked at 49 in the United States and 53 in Australia, but at number seven in the United Kingdom and within the top twenty of the charts in Belgium, the Republic of Ireland and New Zealand. The song received platinum certification in the United States and Canada and Gold in Denmark, New Zealand and Norway. Mendler ventured on her first headlining tour, Bridgit Mendler: Live in Concert, supporting her first studio album. The tour primarily reached only North America and she played at state fairs, music festivals and Jingle Ball 's concerts series. Mendler 's debut album, Hello My Name Is..., was released on October 22 by Hollywood Records and all the songs were written by Mendler with collaborators, included 12 tracks in standard version and 15 in deluxe edition. Mendler was also involved in its production. The album peaked at number 30 on the Billboard 200 and sold less than 200,000 copies in the country.
Internationally "Hello My Name Is... '' debuted in a few countries as Poland, Australia, United Kingdom, France and Spain. Mendler 's vocals have been compared to Lily Allen, Cher Lloyd, Jessie J and Karmin. She released two promotional singles on the album: "Forgot to Laugh '' and "Top of the World ''. On February 12, 2013, her second single, "Hurricane '', was released for radio airplay. The song peaked at number 1 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 in the United States. On April 2 Mendler released a remix single version and, on June 21, a EP remixed. Also in June Mendler debuted her second tour, the Summer Tour, reaching only the United States. In April 30 she released the extended play Live in London, by Universal Music, recorded at a special performance in the United Kingdom. It on Mendler 's VEVO On November 16, 2013 was premiered the music video for acoustic version of "Top of the World '', directed by Matt Wyatt. She recorded it on her own, independent of Hollywood Records, and filmed in Griffith Park, in Los Angeles.
On June 28, 2014, Mendler began the second leg of her Summer Tour, in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada. On that date, she sang one of her new songs, "Fly to You '', about a relationship that was said to be on the rocks but worth fighting for. On July 5, she performed another new song, "Deeper Shade Of Us '', with disco influences. On November 25, 2014, Mendler was announced as a member of the main cast of the NBC comedy series Undateable in season two. She portrays the character Candace, an unlucky and undefeatably optimistic waitress, who becomes part of the main group. During the season, Candace and Justin, played by Brent Morin, were dating. After initial reports in July 2015, On July 2, it was confirmed that Mendler left Hollywood Records earlier this year. NBC renewed with Mendler for the third season that consisted entirely of live episodes, premiered in October 15.
In early 2015, NBC renewed with Mendler for a third season that consisted entirely of live episodes that premiered in October 15. In the season Justin proposes to Candace during a Backstreet Boys show and she accepts. On November 13, 2015, minutes before air time, a decision was made to pre-empt the then - upcoming live program due to the November 2015 Paris attacks. The next week, the live episode references were made about the attack as a tribute. Following the third season, it was announced that NBC had cancelled continuation of the series.
In 2016, Mendler produced her second studio album. Mendler discussed some of the producers and songwriters she was working with for the new album, including Mitch Allan, Dan Book, Alexei Misoul, Augie Ray, Beloryze, TMS, Ina Wroldsen, and Steve Mac. On August 4, 2016, Mendler announced the title of her new single, "Atlantis '', featuring Kaiydo, which was released on August 26, 2016. The EP, Nemesis, was released on November 18. In October 2016 Mendler was cast as Ashley Willerman on the fifth season of the CMT television series Nashville. On February 3, 2017, Mendler announced her new single, "Temperamental Love '' featuring Devontée. The music video was featured the Youtuber Jam in The Van. On February 10, Mendler was cast in lead role of the Fox comedy television pilot Thin Ice, created by Elizabeth Meriwether, but the network ultimately passed on the pilot in May. In May 2017 it was announced that Mendler will star in the Netflix comedy film Who Do You Think Would Win? along with David Spade, Joey Bragg, Matt Shively and Jackie Sandler. On August 25, 2017, Mendler released the third single from her upcoming album titled "Diving '' with American group RKCB. The official music video was released hours after the release of the song.
In 2010, Mendler became ambassador to First Book, a campaign to encourage reading and gives books to children in need. In 2011 it became part of Disney 's Friends for Change, a pro-social "green '' initiative of charity for environmental issues encouraging fans to take action. As campaign theme that year Mendler released a promotional single on June 11, "We Can Change the World '', raising $250,000 for the Disney Worldwide Conservation Fund. She also participated of the Disney 's Friends for Change Games, an Olympic - based televised games aired on the Disney Channel, getting $125,000 donation to UNICEF as Yellow Team captain and also competing for $100,000. But her team lost to the World Wide Fund for Nature. In 2012 Mendler won the honorary award Common Sense Media as Role Model of the Year for her work against bullying. Mendler was the third young artist to win the award, which usually honors environmentalists and scholars. She also attended the annual UNICEF acoustic concert in New York to raise donations for charity in January 2013. In July 2012 Mendler became ambassador of the campaign Give With Target with Target Corporation to raise funds to reform schools in the United States. The campaign aims to get $1 billion by 2015. To start the Target campaign, they invested $5 million and distributed $25,000 grants to 100 in - need schools for the school year. Mendler said about the incentive: "I 'm excited to partner with Target on their Give With Target campaign and celebrate the start of a new school year with kids across the country. It 's so important for all kids to have everything they need for a successful school year ''. In August she got $5 million donated by The Walt Disney Company and more $2 million donated by people at Facebook.
She was featured in a March 2013 public campaign Delete Digital Drama with the Seventeen Magazine to end cyberbullying. About the campaign she said "Being bullied is something I experienced in school and it is not fun... I love working to end cyberbullying. People do n't have to push back as much as they would in real life. People need to realize bullying has just as much of an impact online because words are so cutting and difficult to deal with ''. In May 2013 Mendler traveled to the United Kingdom to fundraise for Comic Relief, given the aim of making her laugh with their jokes for a £ 1 donation. The campaign aimed to raising £ 100,000 and give families hope. About this work, she said: ' I love supporting something that is so positive and fun for people to get involved in and where people can really do something to help out. '' She also worked with Acuvue being a mentor to help Katie, a winner of the 2013 Acuvue 1 - Day Contest, get closer to her dream of making a difference. On October 8 Mendler hosted the event We Day of Free The Children Foundation, a campaign that helps build schools for underprivileged children of Canadian and American cities. Also for Free The Children Foundation she was godmother of We Create a Change to help needy children.
On November 16, 2013, Mendler participated of the World Challenge Marathon for Save the Children Foundation, a charity race to helps children with health problems. In March 2014, Mendler traveled to region of El Quiché, Guatemala to participate in the other project of Save the Children that helps underprivileged children in developing countries. On April 8, she released the Baby Sit In, that asks for teens to help give parents a break and give babies a healthy start to their life. Mendler said "It 's an easy way for kids to help little ones everywhere get a healthy start and an opportunity to learn just by doing something they do most weekends anyway ''. Mendler represented the institution during the charity congress Save the Children 's annual Advocacy Summit in Washington, D.C.. Carolyn Miles, the Save the Children 's president, thanked Mendler publicly for humanitarian work: "We are thrilled to have Bridgit on board. Her passion for helping children truly came through when she met with families and kids during her visits to the remote communities in the deserts of California and Guatemala 's western highlands ''.
On March 27, 2012, Shane Harper said in an interview with Officially the Hottest that he was dating Mendler. Harper told the interviewer that they became friends early in Good Luck Charlie and began dating in May 2011. In an interview with Cambio in September 2012, Mendler stated that it took two years between her meeting Harper and beginning to date him. In March 2013, Mendler said in an interview with the Daily Mail that the fact her boyfriend is also her on - screen boyfriend on Good Luck Charlie does n't disturb the relationship: "I think it makes it easier, especially when it 's a person who you 've worked with for a long time. '' To Classicalite, Mendler talked about dating Harper, and said it took time for them to begin something, because she needed time to think. She said, "We knew each other for a while, were friends for a long time. I think everybody was very respectful about it and wanted to make sure that it would n't be weird. '' In November 2015, Mendler revealed that she had ended her relationship with Harper.
In 2012 Mendler joined the anthropology class at the University of Southern California. She decided to study art after two members of her band joined her at USC. In an interview with Brian Mansfield of USA Today, Mendler said: "My plan right now is just to do one class at a time and see how that goes. I 'm just going to study something that will be interesting and doable from the road and just take care of my general education courses for now. I want to know something outside of what I do. '' In 2013, she chose anthropology and studied Medieval Visual Culture, and medical Anthropology. To the University Star, Mendler said the USC was important so that she does n't have a formulaic career: "I think seeing that college life and what that would 've been like, it does make you wonder what sort of lifestyle that would be, but I 'm really grateful for what I have, and I think it 's cool that, because my career path is not as formulaic, I can kind of decide when I want to take time off to do certain things. '' In 2016 she graduated as an anthropologist. Mendler has doctorate plans, inspired by her mother, doctor of public policy.
In May 2017, Mendler was announced as one of the 2017 MIT Media Lab 's Director 's Fellows. In May 2018, she announced on Twitter that she started a graduate program at MIT with a focus on improving social media: "As an entertainer, for years I struggled with social media because I felt like there was a more loving and human way to connect with fans. ''
Mendler has a clean and honest image and has thus far avoided trouble and scandals. She was listed as an "annoying '' artist by Top Ten because she was excessively "correct ''. Mendler was included in sixteen by Billboard as the next big artist in 2012. In 2013 she also appeared in the list of thirteen. She was also chosen as one of the ten hottest young female artists by Forbes Woman. In 2012, Mendler was chosen as role model of the year by Common Sense Media, a non-profit organization that honors innovative minds from the worlds of entertainment, public policy and technology and rewards mainly teachers, scientists and philanthropists. She was honored for her charity work in anti-bullying actions, improving the lives of families by providing a trustworthy role model and creating a positive impact in the world. Mendler was the second young artist to win the award, after Miranda Cosgrove.
Mendler has cited Bob Dylan as her biggest musical influence. To Ed Condran of Hartford Courant she said that: "You look at what Bob Dylan and artists like him have done and you just ca n't help but be blown away. I 'm just glad I have the opportunity to start with this and I just want to take it as far as I can ''. In an interview with Disney Channel Netherlands, she revealed that her favorite song was "Do n't Think Twice, It 's All Right '' from Dylan 's 1963 album The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan. To Taylor Trudon of Huffington Post she said: "He was the first musician I got into where I paid attention to songwriting. He has a way of writing songs that 's really playful with lyrics, but at the same time he 's saying something that people feel is important and that they relate to. He spoke for a whole generation. ''. Also to Trudon, Mendler cited Etta James, Elvis Presley, B.B. King, Lily Allen, Ella Fitzgerald and Billie Holiday, and talked about these artists: "I love that they have soul in their voices. I think that 's something important is having ''. Other musical influences include Elvis Costello, The Delfonics, Red Hot Chili Peppers and Van Morrison. During an interview with Yahoo!, in 2012, Mendler also commented that her first female influence was the R&B girl group Salt - N - Pepa and sang an impromptu a cappella rendition of the song "Shoop ''.
She said hip hop band Fugees had great influence in her music training and also the recording of the debut album and song "Ready or Not '', "One of the writers was like ' Check out this Fugees song, ' Ready or Not '. So we all listened to it and were like that would be kind of fun to do some sort of interpolation off of that song, which is what we did. I think it stands by itself as its own song but it still has that memorable quality of the Fugees song, which is fun. I think we were all really proud of it and hoping it will go far ''. For her debut album, Hello My Name Is..., Mendler was inspired by indie pop singers Ingrid Michaelson and Feist. She also mentioned Ed Sheeran and said she would love to write songs with him. Among the pop music artists, she cited Maroon 5, No Doubt, Destiny 's Child, Justin Timberlake, Beyoncé and Bruno Mars. She cited Jamie Foxx as a great model of how to have a career in acting and music.
Mendler said that is influenced by British neo-soul and listed Ellie Goulding, Florence and the Machine, Marina Diamandis, and Lianne La Havas as her biggest British influences. She has mentioned Natasha Bedingfield, Broken Bells, Mark Ronson and Amy Winehouse. In 2013 Mendler revealed to have a big admiration for the Adele 's musical style. To Disney Channel UK she said that "admire the career of Adele, because she has her own musical style. She does things her way and writes about things she is passionate about. It is really working out well for her ''. She was also influenced by Canadian artists Feist and Tegan and Sara. To Hartford Courant she commented: "I 've been a fan of Tegan and Sara 's for awhile. They just do what they want to do. They do n't follow trends ''. She covered the song "I Was a Fool '' by the duo and released with the message: "I heard this song by Tegan and Sara a couple weeks ago and could n't stop singing it, so I just had to do my own version ''. In 2014, she mentioned in an interview to CKQK - FM Canadian artists Nelly Furtado, Joni Mitchell and European bands Coldplay and Little Dragon as influences in composing her second album.
In acting career, Mendler has cited some influences as Jamie Foxx, Natalie Portman and Rachel McAdams. About McAdams she said that "She plays a variety of roles, she has a lot of charisma, and she does n't try to live her life in the public eye ''. She also admires the dedication of Christian Bale: "I could not live my life as committed to the craft as he does, with body transformations and such, he goes to such extremes but he is very admirable ''. Mendler also mentioned Lindsay Lohan as a great actress.
-- Mendler about the writing process.
Thematically, Guilherme Tintel of Portal It Pop has noted that Mendler was n't immature as the first work of other Hollywood artists. Tintel compares her songs to Jessie J, Katy Perry, Natalia Kills and Taylor Swift. Mendler said that the writing process is n't hard, because she was influenced by her own experiences. Her debut single, "Ready or Not '', talks about self - confidence and deal with boys. To Pop Dirt Mendler said: "I consider myself to be that girl sitting at the curb waiting for the world, so I think it 's a great message to send to just go for the things that you want to take charge of ''. Her debut album discussed relationships ("Rocks at My Window '', "Top of the World '', "Love Will Tell Us Where to Go '', "The Fall Song '' and "Hold On for Dear Love ''), break - up ("5: 15 ''), alienation and romantic chaos ("Hurricane '' and "Forgot to Laugh ''), self - confidence ("Ready or Not ''), self - esteem ("City Lights ''), friendship ("We 're Dancing ''), money ("All I See Is Gold '') and blonde girls ("Blonde '').
To Hartford Courant she commented that writing is a compulsion. "It 's also something I really enjoy. I like to create. It 's part of being a recording artist. I love to write songs ''. Mendler also said she did n't want to make commercial songs, but timeless songs. "I want to make music that stands the test of time. You look at what Bob Dylan and artists like him have done and you just ca n't help but be blown away. I 'm just glad I have the opportunity to start with this and I just want to take it as far as I can. I wanted variety and to just make things really interesting. This is n't just something that comes out of a machine. It came out of me. This is n't about product. I want to grow as an artist. I remember listening to certain recording artists and songs that had a really big impact on me ''.
Mendler 's vocal range spans 3.4 octaves. She 's a mezzo - soprano. She plays guitar, keyboard, and keytar Sávio Alves of Febre Teen Magazine said that Mendler 's voice was "strong and sweet ''. He calls Mendler 's voice as having a "metallic tone '' and this being "rare in young female singers ''. His voice was compared to indie and blues artists. Her music is generally pop and reggae fusion and has features of R&B, funk, and hip hop soul. In an interview, she said she prefers to escape the traditional pop and dance - pop and adding other elements. "I have funky, R&B tendencies when I write by myself. I really love doo - wop and a jazzy swing beat. Rhythm is a big emphasis in my own writing ''. Her voice and style has been compared constantly to that of Cher Lloyd and Lily Allen. She has been compared to Miley Cyrus, who also started on the Disney Channel, but in an interview to Christian Post Mendler said: "I 'm not Miley Cyrus. There may be some similarities but I 'm my own person. '' In 2013, during an interview with the Huffington Post, Mendler was compared to other young artists and asked if she would follow the footsteps in pop music. Mendler said that "They 've done so much and they 're so talented. I think it 's tricky because they 've been obviously very successful, but I think you always want to be your own person and not be categorized by doing the same thing ''.
In 2012, Mendler signed with Target Corporation to release an exclusive line of clothing inspired by her character Teddy Duncan of Good Luck Charlie. The D - Signed by Teddy Duncan fashion collection includes clothing, accessories, hats, scarves, and souvenirs for girls in range from 4 -- 18 years old.
In March 2013, a Spring edition was also released. While promoting her debut single "Ready or Not '', Mendler signed with The Hunt, a mobile app which combines clothes and shows fashion tendencies. She released exclusively her music video and registered some personal clothes and fashion searches. She also had her own version in the games FanFUN FANfinity. While promoting her debut album Hello My Name Is..., Mendler offered exclusive album promotions through Target. In 2014 she signed with the line of dermatology products Clean & Clear and recorded several commercials and campaigns for real beauty.
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national spelling bee winners where are they now | List of Scripps National Spelling Bee champions - wikipedia
The Scripps National Spelling Bee is a competition held annually in the Washington, D.C. area in the United States over a two - day period at the end of May or beginning of June. Since 2011 it has been held at the Gaylord National Resort & Convention Center.
The spelling bee competition began in 1925, and was organized by The Courier - Journal in Louisville, Kentucky, until the Scripps Howard Broadcasting Company assumed sponsorship in 1941. The media conglomerate, now known as the E.W. Scripps Company, has continued to sponsor the competition to this date. The competition was canceled from 1943 to 1945 due to World War II. Every speller in the competition has previously participated in a local spelling bee, usually organized by a local newspaper. Although the competition is titled "National '', spellers from Europe, Canada, New Zealand, Guam, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and American Samoa have entered the competition. Only two people from outside the fifty U.S. states have won the competition -- the first from Puerto Rico in 1975 and the second from Jamaica in 1998.
The competition has been televised live in the U.S. since 1994 on ESPN, a Disney - owned cable - television network dedicated to broadcasting and producing sports - related programming. Beginning in 2006, the ABC network, also owned by Disney, broadcast the final rounds during a live two - hour timeslot. In 2011, the final rounds returned to ESPN because of a scheduling conflict with that year 's NBA Finals. The competition is primarily an oral competition conducted in elimination rounds until only one speller remains. The first round consists of a 25 - word written test, the remaining rounds are oral spelling tests. The competition has been declared a tie six times, in 1950, 1957, 1962, 2014, 2015, and 2016. As of 2016, 47 champions have been girls and 46 have been boys. Eighteen out of the last twenty two winners (from 1999 to 2017), including all champions for the most recent ten years (from 2008 - 2017, including the 2014, the 2015, and the 2016 pairs of co-champions, for a total of twelve champions during this interval), have been Indian Americans, reflecting the recent dominance of students of this community in this competition; Indian - Americans make up less than one percent of the U.S. population. In 2016, Nihar Janga from Austin, Texas, became the youngest champion in the bee 's history when he won the title at the age of 11.
The 2016 Scripps National Spelling Bee featured co-champions for the sixth time in the competition 's history, the previous occurrences having been in 1950, 1957, 1962, 2014, and 2015.
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when does elena and damon get back together season 5 | Damon Salvatore - wikipedia
Damon Salvatore is a fictional character in The Vampire Diaries novel series. He is portrayed by Ian Somerhalder in the television series. Initially, Damon is the main antagonist in the beginning of the show and later became a protagonist. After the first few episodes, Damon begins working alongside his younger brother, Stefan Salvatore, to resist greater threats and gradually Elena begins to consider him a friend. His transition was completed after his younger brother Stefan, who is also a vampire, convinces him to drink blood. Damon thus vows to make his brother 's life sorrowful -- thus further causing a century - long rift between the two brothers, centering around Katherine and eventually a love triangle with Elena Gilbert. After on - again / off - again relationship with both brothers, Elena chooses to be with Damon in the series finale.
Ian Somerhalder was cast as Damon Salvatore at the end of March 2009, six months before the premiere of the series. The initial casting call for the character required an actor in his early - to mid-twenties to play a "darkly handsome, strong, charming, and smug vampire who can go from casual and playful to pure evil in less than a heartbeat. '' Somerhalder had not read the books until filming began.
Damon Salvatore is a vampire, turned by Katherine Pierce 145 years prior to the series ' debut. He is the son of late Giuseppe Salvatore, ripper Lily Salvatore and older brother of Stefan Salvatore. He is portrayed as a charming, handsome and snarky person who loves tricking humans, and takes pleasure in feeding on them and killing them during the early episodes of the first season, unlike his brother, Stefan. Damon and Stefan bite humans to feed on them since they are vampires.
In the first season, Damon appears as the frightening older brother to Stefan Salvatore, and plays as the main antagonist for the first initial episodes with a hidden agenda. Slowly, Damon begins to be kinder to the other characters, showing brief moments of compassion such as erasing Jeremy 's memory of vampires and removing his "suffering '' so Jeremy gets his life back on track. Damon apologizes for turning Vicki Donovan into a vampire and admits it was wrong. Later at the Gilbert house, Elena returns home. Damon admits that he came to the town wanting to destroy it but actually found himself wanting to protect it after everything that happened at the Founder 's Day celebrations and says he 's not a hero and does n't do good, saying it 's not in him - those traits are reserved for Stefan, Elena and Bonnie. The two begin to kiss passionately before getting interrupted - it is later revealed that it was n't Elena he kissed, but Katherine Pierce. Later in the season, it also implies that he actually feels human emotions, such as pain and love, which helps the viewer sympathize toward his character in some situations. But mostly, he likes to take care of himself and do the dirty work, in his own sadistic ways.
In season two, Katherine tells Damon that she never loved him and that it was always Stefan. Elena says something similar later, leaving Damon heartbroken. As an expression of his anger, pain, and hopelessness, he snaps Jeremy Gilbert 's neck, not realizing he is wearing a ring which reverses damage done by supernatural creatures or forces. Jeremy survives because of the ring, but Damon 's action incurs Elena 's wrath and pain. When Bonnie also discovers it was his blood that enabled Caroline Forbes to become a vampire, the two declare their hatred for him, leaving angrier than ever. After saving Elena with Stefan in episode 8 of season 2, Damon shows up in Elena 's room with the vervain necklace that was ripped from her neck earlier in the episode. Before he gives it back, he tells Elena that he is in love with her, and because he is in love with her, he can not be selfish with her. He also states that he does n't deserve her, but that his brother does. He kisses her forehead and says he wishes she could remember this, but she ca n't. As the camera shows a close up of Damon 's eye as he is compelling Elena to forget, a tear slips. Elena blinks and her vervain necklace is back around her neck, Damon is gone and her window is open with the curtains blowing. She had no recollection as to how the necklace was returned to her. In one episode, Damon joins Rose to find out why the originals are after Elena; after some time and clever banter, the two have sex, stating that they could rid themselves of emotion. However, when Rose, Damon 's old friend who turned Katerina, suffers from a werewolf bite, he gives her the memory of her life prior to becoming a vampire, and helps her remember how good it felt to be able to walk and feel the sunlight, without it burning her. During this meaningful moment, Damon mercifully kills her, leaving him to mourn the death of his one of very few friends. Elena and Damon then begin to mend fences, and Elena gives him an affectionate hug to help comfort him after Rose 's death. Damon begins showing another side of himself in small acts that help build what once was an impossible friendship between Elena and himself, after she clearly stated that he has lost her forever. After he spares Caroline 's mother, Elena says how that was the person she was once friends with. And it 's hard for Damon to accept that he has to change to have her in his life, which he explains to Andy Star, his compelled girlfriend a few more episodes in. Damon is bitten by Tyler the werewolf at the end of the season. Elena takes care of him, and right before he is cured by the blood of Klaus, the original hybrid, she gives him a "goodbye '' kiss, because she was sure he was going to die. She even forgives him, telling him that she cares for him through grief - stricken tears.
In the third season, Damon helps Elena in bringing his brother, Stefan, back to Mystic Falls after Stefan becomes Klaus ' henchman. The arrangement transpired after a bargain for his blood that would cure Damon of the werewolf bite he had received from Tyler. At first, he is reluctant to involve Elena in the rescue attempts, employing Alaric Saltzman, Elena 's guardian, instead as Klaus does not know that Elena is alive after the sacrifice which frees Klaus ' hybrid side. However, Elena involves herself, desperate to find Stefan. Damon, though hesitant at first, is unable to refuse her because of his love for her. He also points out to her that she once turned back from finding Stefan since she knew Damon would be in danger, clearly showing that she also has feelings for him. He tells her that "when (he) drag (s) (his) brother from the edge to deliver him back to (her), (he) wants her to remember the things (she) felt while he was gone. '' When Stefan finally returns to Mystic Falls, his attitude is different from that of the first and second seasons. This causes a rift between Elena and Stefan whereas the relationship between Damon and Elena becomes closer and more intimate. A still loyal Elena, however, refuses to admit her feelings for Damon. In ' Dangerous Liaisons ', Elena, frustrated with her feelings for him, tells Damon that his love for her may be a problem, and that this could be causing all their troubles. This incenses Damon, causing him to revert to the uncaring and reckless Damon seen in the previous seasons. The rocky relationship between the two continues until the sexual tension hits the fan and in a moment of heated passion, Elena -- for the first time in the three seasons -- kisses Damon of her own accord. This kiss finally causes Elena to admit that she loves both brothers and realize that she must ultimately make her choice as her own ancestress, Katherine Pierce, who turned the brothers, once did. In assessment of her feelings for Damon, she states this: "Damon just sort of snuck up on me. He got under my skin and no matter what I do, I ca n't shake him. '' In the season finale, a trip designed to get her to safety forces Elena to make her choice: to go to Damon and possibly see him one last time; or to go to Stefan and her friends and see them one last time. She chooses the latter when she calls Damon to tell him her decision. Damon, who is trying to stop Alaric, accepts what she says and she tells him that maybe if she had met Damon before she had met Stefan, her choice may have been different. This statement causes Damon to remember the first night he did meet Elena which was, in fact, the night her parents died - before she had met Stefan. Not wanting anyone to know he was in town and after giving her some advice about life and love, Damon compels her to forget. He remembers this as he fights Alaric and seems accepting of his death when Alaric, whose life line is tied to Elena 's, suddenly collapses in his arms. Damon is grief - stricken, knowing that this means that Elena has also died and yells, "No! You are not dead! '' A heartbroken Damon then goes to the hospital demanding to see Elena when the doctor, Meredith Fell, tells him that she gave Elena vampire blood. The last shot of the season finale episode shows Elena in transition.
Damon starts season 4 at Elena 's bedside after finding out about her dying with vampire blood in her system, causing her to start the transition to Vampire. Damon decides to firstly try to kill Rebekah with a White Oak Stake, yet she overpowers him. Rebekah is shot at through the Window and Damon escapes.
Later in part of a plan with the Sheriff and Meredith Fell, Damon uses Matt as bait to draw out the deputies and Pastor Young. After dispatching the deputies, Damon decides to take out some aggression on Matt and is about to snap his neck when stopped by the new vampire Elena. After Elena and Stefan go hunting on animals the next morning and Elena has her first feed on a deer she pukes the blood out. Meanwhile, it seems a new vampire hunter is in town. Elena goes to Damon for help, he pulls her with him to the bathroom and makes her drink his blood because he says "You need warm blood from the vein, so maybe this 'll do the trick. '' He says it 's personal and Elena wonders why but no answer was given. She drinks his blood but pukes hours later. When Stefan finds out Damon has feed Elena his blood he 's very angry and hits Damon who just got in a fight with the vampire hunter.
Damon has decided to leave town, but through the early episodes of Season 4 seems to be looking for reasons to stay. Meredith Fell seems to be one who convinces him in ' The Rager ' to stay to help Elena with her transition to Vampire. Indeed, a renewed conflict over ideology and what sort of Vampire Elena will become drives Damon and Stefan apart.
The Five, shows Damon tasking Stefan with learning more about the Vampire Hunter, Connor while Damon decides to accompany both Bonnie and Elena to College. This trip is ostensibly about teaching Elena the ' hunt ': how to catch, feed and erase. After some initial problems, Elena has a Frat Party gets success and seems to enjoy herself causing friction with Bonnie. She leaves the party and later states that she does n't want to be like Damon. In the next episode, she begins to believe that Stefan is lying to her and takes things into her own hands to kill the vampire hunter who is holding her brother, Matt, and April captive. She does, and begins to suffer from hallucinations at the end of the episode. After asking Stefan why he wants to cure Elena, Damon tells him that he loves Elena as a vampire or human.
In the episode ' We All Go a Little Mad Sometimes ', Damon helps Elena in dealing with her hallucinations and saves her from committing suicide. He also helps uncover the mystery about the hunter 's curse with the help of Bonnie and Professor Shane. At the end of the episode, he reveals the truth about the cure to Elena and explains how Stefan has been lying to her only to find this possible cure for vampirism. However, Elena breaks up with Stefan at the end of the episode after confessing her gradually growing feelings for Damon.
In the following episode "My Brother 's Keeper '', Elena tells Damon he is the reason she and Stefan broke up and at the end of the episode Damon and Elena finally have sex. After that it turns out Elena is sired with Damon, first they think it is the reason why Elena loves Damon, but in episode "We 'll Always Have Bourbon Street '' they found out that it only affects how you act, not how you feel. The sire - bond can only be broken when Damon leaves Elena and tells her to stop caring about him according to a witch in New Orleans named Nandi. In the following episode Damon goes with Elena to her family 's lake house to help with Jeremy 's Hunter instincts. In the episode Elena tries to act like a couple with Damon, but he refuses to even kiss her out of his guilt about the sire bond and worry that he 's taking advantage of her. In the end of the episode Damon invokes the sire bond telling Elena to return to Mystic Falls while he trains Jeremy "O Come, All Ye Faithful ''. Elena kisses him goodbye.
In ' After School Special ', Damon is at the Lake House training Jeremy, along with Matt Donovan. Klaus shows up and threatens Damon, wanting him to get Jeremy 's mark completed earlier rather than later. Damon is shown to be reluctant, not wanting to hurt innocents for Elena 's sake, but Klaus follows through with his plans regardless. Later in the episode Elena calls Damon and confesses she 's in love with him and it 's the ' most real thing she 's ever felt in her entire life ', in a moment of weakness Damon tells her to come see him. Afterward Damon is confronted with a bar of newly turned vampires for Jeremy to kill concedes that it 's the quickest way, however balks when Klaus takes control and compels the newly turned vamps to kill Matt Donovan. In Catch Me If You Can Damon tells the boys to run since Jeremy is n't ready to take on all these vampires. Later when Elena arrives her and Damon argue over the killing of innocents and tells her to take Matt home while he and Jeremy take care of Klaus 's newly turned vampires. However Kol shows up and has killed all the vampires, determined to stop them from finding the cure & waking Silas, and threatens Jeremy 's life. Kol compels Damon to stake himself and later to kill Jeremy and to forget what Kol compelled him to do. Upon arriving back in Mystic Falls Damon begins to seek out Jeremy due to the compulsion, however when he sees him in the grill he realizes what Kol compelled him to do and tells Jeremy to run. Damon chases Jeremy throughout Mystic Falls and advises Jeremy that he is compelled and he needs to kill him. Jeremy shoots Damon in the head and when Damon awakens later starts cursing the youngest Gilbert, calling him stupid for not killing him. At the end of the episode Damon catches up with Jeremy Elena follows and urges Damon to fight it because "You love me and I love you '', but he tells her that he ca n't, falls to his knees and urges Jeremy to kill him. Stefan shows up just in time to break Damon 's neck and lock him up until they can take care of Kol. Damon spends the next episode locked up and bled dry by a jealous and snarky Stefan and engages in a conversation with Klaus about Caroline, Rebekah and Elena.
When the group goes to the mysterious island to find the Cure, Damon continues to be suspicious of Professor Shane. When Jeremy goes missing and Bonnie and Shane stay behind to try a locator spell, Damon stays to keep an eye on Shane. He later begins torturing Shane for information, but Shane starts analyzing Damon and telling him Elena will go back to Stefan once she 's cured. Elena interrupts the torture session and Damon storms out and Elena follows. She tells Damon that she 's sure her feelings for him are real and asks him to become human with her, however Damon tells her he has no desire to be human and that human / vampire relationships are doomed and stalks off. Afterward he is captured by Vaughn, another member of the Five, who tortures Damon and leads him around with a noose around his neck. Damon goes with Vaughn to the cavern close to where Silas is buried and eventually overpowers him, but not before Vaughn injures Rebekah. Elena and Stefan come across the injured Damon and Rebekah, Stefan stays while Elena rushes to find Jeremy. Damon urges Stefan to go get the cure for Elena, uncaring that there is only enough for one, because he wants it for the girl he loves. After Stefan leave Rebekah comments that Damon did something selfless and remarks that he will always love Elena. An exhausted Damon admits that he ca n't control everything and is tired.
After Katherine kills Jeremy in ' Down the Rabbit Hole ' Damon stays behind determined to find the missing Bonnie, telling Stefan he ca n't come home without her. Eventually he finds Bonnie, hugging her in relief, but when the two arrive back in Mystic Falls in informs Stefan Bonnie has lost her mind. Elena, who had been in denial about Jeremy 's death, comes into reality and demands Damon bring Jeremy 's body downstairs. When Elena starts breaking down Stefan urges Damon to help her, indicating he should invoke the sire bond to take away her pain, however instead Damon tells Elena to shut off her emotions. In the next episode Damon begins trying to track Katherine in order to find the cure while Rebekah attempts to tag along. He finds an old friend from his past, Will, dying from a werewolf bite and kills him out of mercy. He arrives back home just in time to stop Elena from killing Caroline and takes her with to New York. While in NY Damon begins investigating Katherine 's whereabouts and tries to keep that he 's looking for the cure from Elena. Elena finds out and attempts to play him all the while Damon tells her and Rebekah about his time here in the 1970s. He admits that he had his emotions off and Lexi had come to help him on Stefan 's behalf, however he tricks her into believing he fell in love with her only to leave her trapped on the roof during the day as revenge. He reveals that the reason he killed Lexi in season one was out of the guilt she stirred in him. Elena kisses Damon and attempts to steal Katherine 's address out of his pocket, however Damon was aware she was trying to play him the entire time, and attempts to convince her to turn her emotions back on. Rebekah shows up and snaps his neck. He then calls Stefan and the brothers attempt to track down Elena. The decide to give up on the cure after Elena kills a waitress and threatens to kill people.
In ' Pictures of You ' Damon, along with Stefan, decide they 're going to try making Elena turn her emotions back on. The Salvatore brothers decide to take Elena to the prom, where Damon asks Elena why she told him she was in love with him and it 's the most real thing she ever felt. Elena tells Damon that she only said it because of the sire bond and she feels nothing for him. However, later when Bonnie nearly kills Elena, she cries out for Damon to help her and he locks her up in the Salvatore basement. Damon then manipulates Elena 's dreams in an attempt to remind how much she loves her friends in family, however when it does n't work the Salvatore brothers (per Stefan 's advice) try torturing Elena to get her to feel emotion. Elena however calls their bluff and attempts to kill herself, knowing Damon would never really hurt her and let her die. Damon realizes that Elena is smart and that torture will not work. After Katherine frees Elena Damon comes up with a plan, killing Matt in front of her (while he wore the Gilbert ring) and it works to get Elena 's emotions back on. When Elena focuses her hate on Katherine Damon tells Elena where Katherine is, but tells her she should n't try and kill her. Damon admits he hates Katherine, however he knows once Elena kills her all her other emotions (grief & guilt) will all come flooding back in. Elena stakes Damon in the stomach when he attempts to stop her.
In the season finale ' Graduation ', he tries to give the cure to Elena, but Elena refuses, which tells him that there is no more sire bond. He gets shot by Vaughn with a bullet laced with werewolf venom, and almost dies, but Klaus comes back to Mystic Falls and saves him. At the end of the episode, Elena proclaims her love for him stating that of all the decisions she has made choosing him will prove to be the worse one.
Not aware of Stefan 's absence and Bonnie 's death, Damon and Elena are having the time of their lives before Elena leaves for Whitmore college. College brings a lot of ups and downs to the on screen romance. Katherine begs Damon to protect her as she feels someone is after her, Damon by the help of Jeremy 's vampire hunter instincts that Silas is possessing as Stefan. Silas gives Damon a crash course on why he looks like Stefan and tells where was he the whole summer, shocked to know about this he starts to search Stefan with the help of Stefan. Silas mind - controlled Elena to kill Damon but Elena resists it by thinking about her worries for Stefan. Both Elena and Damon, with the help of Sheriff Forbes, finds the safe where Stefan was drowning the whole summer, but only to find a dead body. Due to both Elena and Katherine having same nightmare of Stefan all three, Damon, Elena and Katherine search for Stefan. Damon finally finds Stefan inside a hut where he is tied up in the chair and Qetsiyah makes a link of Stefan with Silas which fries Stefan 's brain. Qetsiyah reveals to Damon that his relationship with Elena is doomed. Damon and Elena take Stefan where both of them finds out that he has memory loss and ca n't remember anything. Damon, to make Stefan remember about his past life, gives him his journals and spends quality time with him. Jeremy tells Damon that Bonnie is dead and Damon finally tells Elena about Bonnie. At Bonnie 's funeral, Damon consoles Elena. Damon wants to help Silas so that Silas can do a spell to swap his life with Bonnie as Silas wants to die. Silas had seen Qetsiyah going to the party therefore both Damon and Silas goes to the ball party at Whitmore College. Silas needs Damon to kill Stefan, so that he can get back his power. Stefan, after waking up, tricked Damon and snapped his neck. At Salvatore 's mansion they bring a desiccated Silas, to trade Silas 's life with Bonnie he must become mortal (witch). The only way is by the cure so Elena and Damon calls Katherine who has the cure in her blood and after she arrives her blood is drained by Silas, but still Katherine lived. Amara is then awakened and revealed to be the mystic anchor. She then cures herself of her immortality by feeding off Silas.
At the beginning of season 6, Damon is still trapped in the 1994 snapshot with Bonnie, forced to relive the same day over and over again. As the season progresses, the duo meet Kai Parker who 's provides them with clues on how to get back home. In a truly selfless act, Bonnie manages to send Damon back while she remains in 1994 with Kai. Back home, things are n't as Damon expected them to be. Elena has compelled her memories of their time together and moved on. After a few initial set backs, Damon sets his mind to wooing her back.
As the season progresses, Elena falls for Damon all over again as they search for a way to free Bonnie and she becomes a large part of his support as his good friend Liz Forbes becomes more and more ill with cancer. Kai, who escaped the Prison World without Bonnie and merged with Luke, has absorbed some of Luke 's qualities and is now moved by guilt to help free Bonnie. With his help, he, along with Damon, Elena, and Jeremy, are able to visit the Prison World and remind Bonnie that there is still magic residing in Qetsiyah 's headstone in Nova Scotia.
After the death of Liz, Caroline is unable to bear the pain of losing her mother and chooses to turn off her humanity just as Bonnie returns. Bonnie brought back with her a strange video she 'd caught while leaving a second Prison World she 'd been moved to set in October 31, 1903. She shows the video to Damon and he recognizes his own mother, Lillian Salvatore, standing in the background. Troubled with the news that his mother is still alive after believing she 'd been dead since 1858, Damon 's informed by Kai that his mother was placed in a Prison World due to being a Ripper and the heinous number of deaths she 'd caused. Unfortunately, Stefan is forced by Caroline to turn off his humanity and Kai, Bonnie, Damon, and Elena have to travel to Lily 's 1903 Prison World to retrieve her and use her as a means to get Stefan back.
Damon is disturbed to learn when he gets to Lily that she has been trapped with other vampires and they allowed her to drink their portions of blood to stay alive. She is reluctant to leave without them, but Damon threatens to leave her behind if she does n't go. Bonnie, Damon, and Elena leave with Lily, leaving Kai behind. When they return, Bonnie gives Damon a gift she 'd gotten for him during her trip to Nova Scotia in the 1994 Prison World: the cure to vampirism. He struggles with whether or not to give it to Elena and provide her with the life she 'd been robbed of.
After using Lily to get Stefan 's humanity back and he is used to bring Caroline back, Lily is adamant about returning to her Prison World to retrieve what she considers to be her family. Damon confronts Bonnie, who had taken the Ascendant, and tells her that Lily is threatening to destroy the cure if he does n't return with the means to get her "family '' back. However, when he decides to let Bonnie destroy the Ascendant, he comes home to find that Lily had actually given the cure to Elena instead. He confesses that he was selfish and afraid of losing her but agrees that she should take it and that he 'll take it with her.
Elena takes the cure and, unexpectedly, her memories return and she remembers when she 'd traveled to Nova Scotia with Damon in search of the cure the first time, he 'd told her that he used to miss being human, but, now, he could n't imagine anything more miserable. She tells him he needs to think about it before making that decision and enlists Stefan to try to make sure Damon is certain of his choice to become human. Damon almost decides he 'd rather stay a vampire until he witnesses an interaction between an older couple. Before Jo and Ric 's wedding, he tells Elena he 'd made his choice to live one lifetime with her. During the wedding, Kai shows up and stabs Jo before causing an explosion. The second to last episode ends with Elena lying unconscious on the ground.
In the last episode of the 6th season titled "I 'm Thinking Of You All The While '' Damon rushes Elena to the hospital after vampire blood fails to heal and awaken her. At the hospital the doctors tell him that she is medically healthy and they see no reason why she 's not awake. Kai stumbles into the hospital injured. After consuming Lily 's blood and killing himself, Kai 's ability to siphon magic allowed him to become another Heretic (vampire with witch - like power), but he was soon bitten by a transforming Tyler, who had re-triggered his werewolf curse. Kai tells Damon and he 's linked Elena 's life to Bonnie 's and as long as Bonnie lives, Elena will remain asleep but perfectly healthy. He also tells him that the spell is permanent and any attempt to find a loophole in the spell will result in the death of both Bonnie and Elena. Damon returns to the wedding to find Bonnie badly injured on the floor and Kai 's reminder that letting Bonnie die will allow Elena to regain consciousness. Damon tells Bonnie he 's sorry and leaves the room. Kai is irritated that his plan to torture Damon with an impossible choice had failed and, while he 's distracted, Damon decapitates him from behind. Damon saves Bonnie 's life and they go to the Salvatore boarding house to say their goodbyes to Elena, deciding that they will allow Bonnie to live her life and, when she dies, Elena will wake. Damon allows himself to enter Elena 's subconscious to say his goodbye, dancing with her and telling her that he 'll never be ready to live the next 60 years of his life without her. Stefan and Damon move the coffin holding Elena to a crypt and have Bonnie seal the door magically to keep away those seeking the Cure.
The season ends with the impression that quite a bit of time has passed. Mystic Falls is desolate and run down after the return of the other Heretics, Lily 's "family ''. The last scene shows Damon looking torn standing on the clock tower he once sat on with Elena.
At the start of season 1, Damon was a self - proclaimed loner, often keeps to himself. Despite his initially antagonistic relationships with humans such as Alaric Saltzman and Sheriff Elizabeth Forbes, Caroline 's mother. Damon gradually involved himself into the lives of many people in Mystic Falls by developing friendships with several humans. After spending time with Elena Gilbert, Damon becomes more empathetic and falls deeply, madly and passionately in love with her. He always puts her safety first before anyone else, even his.
Damon 's most prominent love, aside from Elena, was Rose. He met her while searching for Klaus and hooked up with her shortly after. Unfortunately Damon ticked off Jules, a werewolf, and she showed up on a full moon for revenge.
Damon has had a challenging relationship with his younger brother Stefan Salvatore for over a century. Before they became vampires, they both loved the vampire Katherine Pierce. Damon shows that he has nurtured a long - standing desire to reunite with Katherine throughout the first season. In the first season, we learn that it was Stefan who convinced Damon to feed and complete his transformation after Katherine turned both brothers into vampires. Despite the feud between the Salvatore brothers, both Damon and Stefan always have each other 's backs. Damon is always there for Stefan when it really matters, e.g., saving him from being tortured, helping him through withdrawal, and working with him to kill common enemies. And Stefan will still give up his own life for Damon 's survival. They both actually love each other but wo n't admit it, however:
After learning of Katherine 's deceit, Damon starts to fall for, Elena. In general, Damon is fiercely protective of Elena and always puts her safety ahead of all else. Damon comes to Elena 's rescue at the Miss Mystic Falls pageant when Elena is left stranded without a partner, and the two dance. In the episode "Rose '', Damon confesses his love for her only to compel her to forget about it because he does n't believe he is worthy of her. Throughout the third season his relationship with Elena grows; she learns to fully trust him, and they begin to rely on each other as a team. They share two passionate kisses, but Elena remains in denial about her feelings for him. After a long struggle, Elena still chooses Stefan much to Damon 's dismay. In the following season, however, Elena realizes that her feelings for Damon can not be denied any longer. She and Stefan break up, and in the following episode Damon and Elena finally get together and have sex. Damon and Elena then both individually discover that Elena is sired to Damon, making Elena 's feelings unfortunately known; however, Elena insists that her love for Damon is the most real thing that she 's ever felt in her entire life. Damon remains doubtful, so in "O Come, All Ye Faithful '' he sets her "free ''. In an interview before the season finale, Julie Plec stated that "This year, she 's had a very traumatic roller coaster of life experience and it 's changed her irrevocably -- and at the center of it all was the diehard belief that she loved Damon, that she loved him more than she 'd ever loved anyone. '' In "Graduation '', after the sire bond is broken and there remains no doubt about Elena 's feelings, she reveals that she is in love with Damon.
Damon and Elena spend the next few months together, having the summer of their lives. When Elena has to leave for college, Damon stays behind in Mystic Falls and they have a functional long distance relationship. However, in the episode "Original Sin '', Tessa, who is revealed to be Qetsiyah, tells Damon that the doppelgangers are fated to fall in love and that he is only a bump in the road that makes their story interesting. Damon refuses to believe in this and assures Elena that he will fight for her and their future together as she is his life. It is later revealed that there is nothing fated about Stefan and Elena, but that they were merely drawn together by a spell. After a tumultuous, back and forth relationship, Damon and Elena get back together at the end of the season, and they choose to sacrifice themselves together to save Stefan and Alaric and their other friends on the Other Side. When Elena makes it back but Damon is trapped on the collapsing Other Side, Elena is devastated. Damon says his last goodbye to Elena, telling her that she is by far the best thing that has ever happened to him, and that being loved by her is "the epitome of a fulfilled life '', as Elena sobs inconsolably. In season 6, Elena is unable to move on from Damon 's death months later. She pretends to be happy, but she is secretly taking witch herbs to hallucinate Damon. When the herbs make her dangerous to humans, Elena decides to have Alaric compel away her memories of Damon, because she will never be able to move on otherwise. When Damon returns, he attempts to help her remember their love story, but the compulsion will not break. Not remembering any of the good things about Damon, Elena still decides to give him another chance. She slowly falls in love with him again, ultimately declaring that no matter whether she has memories of him or not, she always finds her way back to him. When Bonnie returns from the prison world, she gifts Damon with the cure for vampirism, knowing that he wanted to give it to Elena. However, Damon is afraid that this will mean losing Elena. They discuss what a human life together would be like. Elena initially rejects the cure, but Damon decides to take it with her so that they can have a human life together, including children. Damon always wanted Elena to have the human life she always dreamed of. Elena takes the cure, which breaks the compulsion, and her memories of Damon return to her. She recalls a memory from season 4, where Damon declares that there would be nothing more miserable than becoming human again. Elena is afraid that Damon would regret taking the cure, so she challenges him to think it through carefully. Stefan attempts to convince Damon that becoming human would be a bad decision, but Damon ultimately realizes that one lifetime with Elena is infinitely better than an immortal one without her, and confidently believes her to be his soulmate. Damon and Elena excitedly anticipate the beginning of their human future together, until Kai puts Elena under a sleeping spell, tied to Bonnie 's life.
Damon spends the next two seasons devoted to Elena, waiting for her to wake up. He repeatedly states that he is miserable without her, and will spend the next 60 or so years unhappily until Bonnie dies. However, Damon is committed to staying true to Elena, and doing right by her. Elena is shown to be Damon 's moral compass, and his guiding force throughout the two seasons. When Damon is in the Phoenix Stone 's version of hell, a vision of Stefan asks Damon "What would Elena do? '' and this prompts Damon to forgive his mother, freeing him from hell. The phoenix stone 's influence remains, and Damon accidentally lights Elena 's coffin on fire (or so he thinks). Believing that he has unwittingly killed the love of his life, Damon becomes suicidal. When confronted with the hunter Rayna, Damon commands her to kill him because he is already in hell in a world without Elena. Enzo then reveals to Damon that Elena is still alive, renewing Damon 's hope. When Damon realizes that he is a potential danger to his friends and family because he does not believe he is good without Elena, he decides to desiccate himself next to her. He write to Alaric that before Elena, he did n't know what it was like to be happy, fulfilled or complete, and that he does n't want to continue living without that feeling. After Stefan wakes Damon from his desiccation, Damon continues to be devoted to his future with Elena. At the end of season 7, he is lured into a trap by a siren, hearing Elena 's voice calling out to him. When the siren takes control of Damon 's mind in season 8, Damon spends a significant amount of time sleeping, seeking refuge in dreams of his memories of Elena. When Sybil erases Elena from Damon 's consciousness only to insert herself into their memories, Damon fights back, instinctively drawn back to Elena. His love for her prevails, and he breaks the siren 's mind control, regaining his memories of Elena. Julie Plec stated that "I think the only hope that he 's holding on to is the idea of the two of them living in Tribeca in their brownstone and raising kids and having a life together as humans when this is all said and done. '' After Stefan gives Damon the cure to vampirism, turning him into a human, and Bonnie unbreaks the spell on Elena, Damon and Elena finally reunite. They begin their life together, getting married while Elena goes to medical school and becomes a doctor. Eventually they return to Mystic Falls to grow old together, where they died together of old age. We last see them walking hand in hand in the afterlife before reuniting with their respective families.
Alaric is a vampire hunter looking to avenge his wife by killing the vampire that killed her. It is soon revealed that the vampire that Alaric is hunting is actually Damon. Before killing Alaric, he confesses that he did n't kill Isobel but turned her. Alaric is brought back to life by the Gilbert ring. The two remain enemies but work together on occasion. Eventually, the two become best friends and drinking buddies. Even after Alaric is turned into a vampire who kills other vampires, Damon does his best to ensure that they do n't have to kill him. But with Elena 's death, Alaric dies as well while Damon holds him. In the episode, "Memorial '', it 's clear that Damon still misses his friend as he talks to Alaric at his grave. Unknown to him, Alaric listens to the whole thing and even responds with "I miss you too, buddy ''. Damon 's best friend.
Bonnie first saw Damon in Friday Night Bites when he dropped Caroline off at cheerleading practice. They first interacted in Haunted, when Damon learned that Bonnie had come into possession of the Bennett Talisman. He needed this to open the tomb which Katherine was locked in (for 145 years or so he believed). At first, Bonnie did n't want to have anything to do with Damon, saving his life only for Elena 's sake and soon blaming him for Caroline 's transition into a vampire. However, as time went on, Bonnie was put into situations where she had to work with Damon to achieve what they both wanted (albeit reluctantly at first). Their teamwork has often proved to be beneficial for the both of them. Their relationship has even come to a point where Damon is visibly worried for Bonnie 's well - being and was devastated when he found out about her death. The improvement of their relationship is seen in Damon 's efforts to help bring Bonnie back from the dead. However, their unique friendship hit a speed bump when Damon reverted to his old ways. Finally, they stood side by side with each other as The Other Side collapsed, holding each other 's hand and at peace with what is to come for the both of them. They later discover that they are trapped in a 1994 Prison World. During that time, they start to bond and form a close alliance to take down Kai. Before sending Damon back home, she mentions that he 's not exactly the last person she would wan na be stuck with. When Damon returns home, he does everything he can to find a way to bring Bonnie back, including a long road trip to Oregon to seek the Gemini Coven, and also compelling Alaric to steal the Ascendant from Jo. They finally reunite at the Salvatore Boarding House with a hug after Sheriff Forbes 's funeral. It 's shown that Damon and Bonnie genuinely care about each other and have made sacrifices for each other.
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which of the following is the benefit of e-governance based services | E-governance - wikipedia
Electronic governance or e-governance is the application of information and communication technology (ICT) for delivering government services, exchange of information, communication transactions, integration of various stand - alone systems and services between government - to - citizen (G2C), government - to - business (G2B), government - to - government (G2G), government - to - employees (G2E) as well as back office processes and interactions within the entire government framework. Through e-governance, government services will be made available to citizens in a convenient, efficient and transparent manner. The three main target groups that can be distinguished in governance concepts are government, citizens and businesses / interest groups. In e-governance there are no distinct boundaries.
Generally four basic models are available -- government - to - citizen (customer), government - to - employees, government - to - government and government - to - business.
Both terms are treated to be the same; however, there is a difference between the two. "E-government '' is the use of the ICTs in public administration -- combined with organizational change and new skills -- to improve public services and democratic processes and to strengthen support to public. The problem in this definition to be congruence definition of e-governance is that there is no provision for governance of ICTs. As a matter of fact, the governance of ICTs requires most probably a substantial increase in regulation and policy - making capabilities, with all the expertise and opinion - shaping processes along the various social stakeholders of these concerns. So, the perspective of the e-governance is "the use of the technologies that both help governing and have to be governed ''. The public -- private partnership (PPP) - based e-governance projects are hugely successful in India.
Many countries are looking forward to a corruption - free government. E-government is one - way communication protocol whereas e-governance is two - way communication protocol. The essence of e-governance is to reach the beneficiary and ensure that the services intended to reach the desired individual has been met with. There should be an auto - response to support the essence of e-governance, whereby the Government realizes the efficacy of its governance. E-governance is by the governed, for the governed and of the governed.
Establishing the identity of the end beneficiary is a challenge in all citizen - centric services. Statistical information published by governments and world bodies does not always reveal the facts. The best form of e-governance cuts down on unwanted interference of too many layers while delivering governmental services. It depends on good infrastructural setup with the support of local processes and parameters for governments to reach their citizens or end beneficiaries. Budget for planning, development and growth can be derived from well laid out e-governance systems
The relevance of BI Analytics has brought forth a paradigm shift in assimilating and visualizing huge chunks of data in near real - time manner. The pivot of all good decision making systems is correct, up - to - date and compliant data. Governments not only want transformation of their own country and countrymen, but also expect improved relations and healthy trade across the world. Development should be transformative and continuously evolving. Internal as well as external IT systems should work in tandem with government policies and procedures. Data Analytics has the ability to change the colour and complexion of the world. E-Governance should induce up - to - date information, initiate effective interaction, engage with transparent transaction in compliance with ' rule of law ' thus enabling a sustainable transformation model.
The goal of government - to - citizen (G2C) e-governance is to offer a variety of ICT services to citizens in an efficient and economical manner, and to strengthen the relationship between government and citizens using technology.
There are several methods of government - to - customer e-governance. Two - way communication allows citizens to instant message directly with public administrators, and cast remote electronic votes (electronic voting) and instant opinion voting. Transactions such as payment of services, such as city utilities, can be completed online or over the phone. Mundane services such as name or address changes, applying for services or grants, or transferring existing services are more convenient and no longer have to be completed face to face.
G2C e-Governance is unbalanced across the globe as not everyone has Internet access and computing skills, but the United States, European Union, and Asia are ranked the top three in development.
The Federal Government of the United States has a broad framework of G2C technology to enhance citizen access to Government information and services. Benefits.Gov is an official US government website that informs citizens of benefits they are eligible for and provides information of how to apply assistance. US State Governments also engage in G2C interaction through the Department of Transportation, Department of Public Safety, United States Department of Health and Human Services, United States Department of Education, and others. As with e-Governance on the global level, G2C services vary from state to state. The Digital States Survey ranks states on social measures, digital democracy, e-commerce, taxation, and revenue. The 2012 report shows Michigan and Utah in the lead and Florida and Idaho with the lowest scores. Municipal governments in the United States also use government - to - customer technology to complete transactions and inform the public. Much like states, cities are awarded for innovative technology. Government Technology 's "Best of the Web 2012 '' named Louissville, KY, Arvada, CO, Raleigh, NC, Riverside, CA, and Austin, TX the top five G2C city portals.
European countries were ranked second among all geographic regions. The Single Point of Access for Citizens of Europe supports travel within Europe and eEurope is a 1999 initiative supporting online government. Main focuses are to provide public information, allow customers to have access to basic public services, simplify online procedures, and promote electronic signatures.
Asia is ranked third in comparison, and there are diverse G2C programs between countries. Singapore 's eCitizen Portal is an organized single access point to government information and services. South Korea 's Home Tax Service (HTS) provides citizens with 24 / 7 online services such as tax declaration. Taiwan has top ranking G2C technology including an online motor vehicle services system, which provides 21 applications and payment services to citizens.
Government - to - Citizen is the communication link between a government and private individuals or residents. Such G2C communication most often refers to that which takes place through Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), but can also include direct mail and media campaigns. G2C can take place at the federal, state, and local levels. G2C stands in contrast to G2B, or Government - to - Business networks.
One such Federal G2C network is USA.gov: the United States ' official web portal, though there are many other examples from governments around the world.
A full switch to government - to - customer e-governance will cost a large amount of money in development and implementation. In addition, Government agencies do not always engage citizens in the development of their e-Gov services or accept feedback. Customers identified the following barriers to government - to - customer e-governance: not everyone has Internet access, especially in rural or low income areas, G2C technology can be problematic for citizens who lack computing skills. some G2C sites have technology requirements (such as browser requirements and plug - ins) that wo n't allow access to certain services, language barriers, the necessity for an e-mail address to access certain services, and a lack of privacy.
E-Governance to Employee partnership (G2E) Is one of four main primary interactions in the delivery model of E-Governance. It is the relationship between online tools, sources, and articles that help employees maintain communication with the government and their own companies. E-Governance relationship with Employees allows new learning technology in one simple place as the computer. Documents can now be stored and shared with other colleagues online. E-governance makes it possible for employees to become paperless and makes it easy for employees to send important documents back and forth to colleagues all over the world instead of having to print out these records or fax G2E services also include software for maintaining personal information and records of employees. Some of the benefits of G2E expansion include:
Government - to - employees (abbreviated G2E) is the online interactions through instantaneous communication tools between government units and their employees. G2E is one out of the four primary delivery models of e-Government.
G2E is an effective way to provide e-learning to the employees, bring them together and to promote knowledge sharing among them. It also gives employees the possibility of accessing information in regard to compensation and benefit policies, training and learning opportunities and civil rights laws. G2E services also includes software for maintaining personnel information and records of employees.
G2E is adopted in many countries including the United States, Hong Kong and New Zealand.
From the start of 1990s e-commerce and e-product, there has rampant integration of e-forms of government process. Governments have now tried to use their efficiencies of their techniques to cut down on waste. E-government is a fairly broad subject matter, but all relate to how the services and representation are now delivered and how they are now being implemented.
Many governments around the world have gradually turned to Information technologies (IT) in an effort to keep up with today 's demands. Historically, many governments in this sphere have only been reactive but up until recently there has been a more proactive approach in developing comparable services such things as e-commerce and e-business.
Before, the structure emulated private - like business techniques. Recently that has all changed as e-government begins to make its own plan. Not only does e-government introduce a new form of record keeping, it also continues to become more interactive to better the process of delivering services and promoting constituency participation.
The framework of such organization is now expected to increase more than ever by becoming efficient and reducing the time it takes to complete an objective. Some examples include paying utilities, tickets, and applying for permits. So far, the biggest concern is accessibility to Internet technologies for the average citizen. In an effort to help, administrations are now trying to aid those who do not have the skills to fully participate in this new medium of governance, especially now as e-government progressing to more e-governance terms
An overhaul of structure is now required as every pre-existing sub-entity must now merge under one concept of e - government. As a result, Public Policy has also seen changes due to the emerging of constituent participation and the Internet. Many governments such as Canada 's have begun to invest in developing new mediums of communication of issues and information through virtual communication and participation. In practice this has led to several responses and adaptations by interest groups, activist, and lobbying groups. This new medium has changed the way the polis interacts with government.
The purpose to include e-governance to government is to means more efficient in various aspects. Whether it means to reduce cost by reducing paper clutter, staffing cost, or communicating with private citizens or public government. E-government brings many advantages into play such as facilitating information delivery, application process / renewal between both business and private citizen, and participation with constituency. There are both internal and external advantages to the emergence of IT in government, though not all municipalities are alike in size and participation.
In theory, there are currently 4 major levels of E-government in municipal governments:
These, along with 5 degrees of technical integration and interaction of users include:
The adoption of e-government in municipalities evokes greater innovation in e - governance by being specialized and localized. The level success and feedback depends greatly on the city size and government type. A council - manager government municipality typically works the best with this method, as opposed to mayor - council government positions, which tend to be more political. Therefore, they have greater barriers towards its application. Council - Manager governments are also more inclined to be effective here by bringing innovation and reinvention of governance to e - governance.
The International City / County Management Association and Public Technology Inc. have done surveys over the effectiveness of this method. The results are indicating that most governments are still in either the primary stages (1 or stage 2), which revolves around public service requests. Though application of integration is now accelerating, there has been little to no instigating research to see its progression as e-governance to government. We can only theorize it 's still within the primitive stages of e-governance.
Government - to - Government (abbreviated G2G) is the online non-commercial interaction between Government organisations, departments, and authorities and other Government organisations, departments, and authorities. Its use is common in the UK, along with G2C, the online non-commercial interaction of local and central Government and private individuals, and G2B the online non-commercial interaction of local and central Government and the commercial business sector.
G2G systems generally come in one of two types: Internal facing - joining up a single Governments departments, agencies, organisations and authorities - examples include the integration aspect of the Government Gateway, and the UK NHS Connecting for Health Data SPINE. External facing - joining up multiple Governments IS systems - an example would include the integration aspect of the Schengen Information System (SIS), developed to meet the requirements of the Schengen Agreement.
The strategic objective of e-governance, or in this case G2G is to support and simplify governance for government, citizens and businesses. The use of ICT can connect all parties and support processes and activities. Other objectives are to make government administration more transparent, speedy and accountable, while addressing the society 's needs and expectations through efficient public services and effective interaction between the people, businesses and government.
Within every of those interaction domains, four sorts of activities take place:
Pushing data over the internet, e.g.: regulative services, general holidays, public hearing schedules, issue briefs, notifications, etc. two - way communications between one governmental department and another, users will interact in dialogue with agencies and post issues, comments, or requests to the agency. Conducting transactions, e.g.: Lodging tax returns, applying for services and grants. Governance, e.g.: To alter the national transition from passive info access to individual participation by:
In the field of networking, the Government Secure Intranet (GSI) puts in place a secure link between central government departments. It is an IP - based virtual private network based on broadband technology introduced in April 1998 and further upgraded in February 2004. Among other things it offers a variety of advanced services including file transfer and search facilities, directory services, email exchange facilities (both between network members and over the Internet) as well as voice and video services. An additional network is currently also under development: the Public Sector Network (PSN) will be the network to interconnect public authorities (including departments and agencies in England; devolved administrations and local governments) and facilitate in particular sharing of information and services among each other.
Government - to - Business (G2B) is the online non-commercial interaction between local and central government and the commercial business sector with the purpose of providing businesses information and advice on e-business ' best practices '. G2B: Refers to the conduction through the Internet between government agencies and trading companies. B2G: Professional transactions between the company and the district, city, or federal regulatory agencies. B2G usually include recommendations to complete the measurement and evaluation of books and contracts.
The objective of G2B is to reduce difficulties for business, provide immediate information and enable digital communication by e-business (XML). In addition, the government should re-use the data in the report proper, and take advantage of commercial electronic transaction protocol. Government services are concentrated to the following groups: human services; community services; judicial services; transport services; land resources; business services; financial services and other. Each of the components listed above for each cluster of related services to the enterprise.
E-government reduces costs and lowers the barrier of allowing companies to interact with the government. The interaction between the government and businesses reduces the time required for businesses to conduct a transaction. For instance, there is no need to commute to a government agency 's office, and transactions may be conducted online instantly with the click of a mouse. This significantly reduces transaction time for the government and businesses alike.
E-Government provides a greater amount of information that business needed, also it makes those information more clear. A key factor in business success is the ability to plan for the future. Planning and forecasting through data - driven future. The government collected a lot of economic, demographic and other trends in the data. This makes the data more accessible to companies which may increase the chance of economic prosperity.
In addition, E-Government can help businesses navigate through government regulations by providing an intuitive site organization with a wealth of useful applications. The electronic filings of applications for environmental permits gives an example of it. Companies often do not know how, when, and what they must apply. Therefore, failure to comply with environmental regulations up to 70 %, a staggering figure most likely to confusion about the requirements, rather than the product of willful disregard of the law.
The government should concern that not all people are able to access the internet to gain on - line government services. The network reliability, as well as information on government bodies can influence public opinion and prejudice hiden agenda. There are many considerations and implementation, designing e-government, including the potential impact of government and citizens of disintermediation, the impact on economic, social and political factors, vulnerable to cyber attacks, and disturbances to the status quo in these areas.
G2B rises the connection between government and businesses. Once the e-government began to develop, become more sophisticated, people will be forced to interact with e-government in the larger area. This may result in a lack of privacy for businesses as their government get their more and more information. In the worst case, there is so much information in the electron transfer between the government and business, a system which is like totalitarian could be developed. As government can access more information, the loss privacy could be a cost.
The government site does not consider about "potential to reach many users including those who live in remote areas, are homebound, have low literacy levels, exist on poverty line incomes. ''
The Main Goal of Government to Business -- is to increase productivity by giving business more access to information in a more organize manner while lowering the cost of doing business as well as the ability to cut "red tape '', save time, reduce operational cost and to create a more transparent business environment when dealing with government.
Government to business key points:
Difference between G2B and B2G
Conclusion:
The overall benefit of e-governance when dealing with business is that it enables business to perform more efficiently.
E-governance is facing numerous challenges world over. These challenges are arising from administrative, legal, institutional and technological factors.
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mention any six tectonic plates of the earth crust | List of tectonic plates - wikipedia
This is a list of tectonic plates on the Earth 's surface. Tectonic plates are pieces of Earth 's crust and uppermost mantle, together referred to as the lithosphere. The plates are around 100 km (62 mi) thick and consist of two principal types of material: oceanic crust (also called sima from silicon and magnesium) and continental crust (sial from silicon and aluminium). The composition of the two types of crust differs markedly, with mafic basaltic rocks dominating oceanic crust, while continental crust consists principally of lower - density felsic granitic rocks.
Geologists generally agree that the following tectonic plates currently exist on the Earth 's surface with roughly definable boundaries. Tectonic plates are sometimes subdivided into three fairly arbitrary categories: major (or primary) plates, minor (or secondary) plates, and microplates (or tertiary plates).
These plates comprise the bulk of the continents and the Pacific Ocean. For purposes of this list, a major plate is any plate with an area greater than 20 million km.
These smaller plates are often not shown on major plate maps, as the majority do not comprise significant land area. For purposes of this list, a minor plate is any plate with an area less than 20 million km but greater than 1 million km.
These plates are often grouped with an adjacent major plate on a major plate map. For purposes of this list, a microplate is any plate with an area less than 1 million km. Some models identify more minor plates within current orogens (events that lead to a large structural deformation of the Earth 's lithosphere) like the Apulian, Explorer, Gorda, and Philippine Mobile Belt plates. There may be scientific consensus as to whether such plates should be considered distinct portions of the crust; thus new research could change this list.
In the history of Earth many tectonic plates have come into existence and have over the intervening years either accreted onto other plates to form larger plates, rifted into smaller plates, or have been crushed by or subducted under other plates (or have done all three).
A supercontinent is a landmass consisting of multiple continental cores. The following list includes the supercontinents known or speculated to have existed in the Earth 's past:
Not all plate boundaries are easily defined, especially for ancient pieces of crust. The following list of ancient cratons, microplates, plates, shields, terranes, and zones no longer exist as separate plates. Cratons are the oldest and most stable parts of the continental lithosphere and shields are the exposed area of a craton (s). Microplates are tiny tectonic plates, terranes are fragments of crustal material formed on one tectonic plate and accreted to crust lying on another plate, and zones are bands of similar rocks on a plate formed by terrane accretion or native rock formation. Terranes may or may not have originated as independent microplates: a terrane may not contain the full thickness of the lithosphere.
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what is an m2 slot on a motherboard | M. 2 - Wikipedia
M. 2, formerly known as the Next Generation Form Factor (NGFF), is a specification for internally mounted computer expansion cards and associated connectors. It replaces the mSATA standard, which uses the PCI Express Mini Card physical card layout and connectors. M. 2 's more flexible physical specification allows different module widths and lengths, and, paired with the availability of more advanced interfacing features, makes the M. 2 more suitable than mSATA for solid - state storage applications in general and particularly for the use in small devices such as ultrabooks or tablets.
Computer bus interfaces provided through the M. 2 connector are PCI Express 3.0 (up to four lanes), Serial ATA 3.0, and USB 3.0 (a single logical port for each of the latter two). It is up to the manufacturer of the M. 2 host or device to select which interfaces are to be supported, depending on the desired level of host support and device type. The M. 2 connector has different keying notches that denote various purposes and capabilities of M. 2 hosts and modules, preventing plugging of M. 2 modules into feature - incompatible host connectors.
In addition to supporting legacy Advanced Host Controller Interface (AHCI) at the logical interface level, M. 2 specification also supports NVM Express (NVMe) as the logical device interface for M. 2 PCI Express SSDs. While the support for AHCI ensures software - level backward compatibility with legacy SATA devices and legacy operating systems, NVM Express is designed to fully utilize the capability of high - speed PCI Express storage devices to perform many I / O operations in parallel.
Buses exposed through the M. 2 connector are PCI Express 3.0, Serial ATA (SATA) 3.0 and USB 3.0, which is backward compatible with USB 2.0. As a result, M. 2 modules can integrate multiple functions, including the following device classes: Wi - Fi, Bluetooth, satellite navigation, near field communication (NFC), digital radio, Wireless Gigabit Alliance (WiGig), wireless WAN (WWAN), and solid - state drives (SSDs). The SATA revision 3.2 specification, in its gold revision as of August 2013, standardizes the M. 2 as a new format for storage devices and specifies its hardware layout.
The M. 2 specification provides up to four PCI Express lanes and one logical SATA 3.0 (6 Gbit / s) port, and exposes them through the same connector so both PCI Express and SATA storage devices may exist in the form of M. 2 modules. Exposed PCI Express lanes provide a pure PCI Express connection between the host and storage device, with no additional layers of bus abstraction. PCI - SIG M. 2 specification, in its revision 1.0 as of December 2013, provides detailed M. 2 specifications.
There are three options available for the logical device interfaces and command sets used for interfacing with M. 2 storage devices, which may be used depending on the type of M. 2 storage device and available operating system support:
The M. 2 standard has been designed as a revision and improvement to the mSATA standard, with the possibility of larger printed circuit boards (PCBs) as one of its primary incentives. While the mSATA took advantage of the existing PCI Express Mini Card (Mini PCIe) form factor and connector, M. 2 has been designed from the ground up to maximize usage of the PCB space while minimizing the module footprint. As the result of the M. 2 standard allowing longer modules and double - sided component population, M. 2 SSD devices can provide larger storage capacities and can also double the storage capacity within the footprints of mSATA devices.
M. 2 modules are rectangular, with an edge connector on one side (75 positions with up to 67 pins, 0.5 mm pitch, pins on opposing sides of the PCB are offset from each other), and a semicircular mounting hole at the center of the opposite edge. Each pin on the connector is rated for up to 50 V and 0.5 A, while the connector itself is specified to endure up to 60 mating cycles. The M. 2 standard allows module widths of 12, 16, 22 and 30 mm, and lengths of 16, 26, 30, 38, 42, 60, 80 and 110 mm. Initial line - up of the commercially available M. 2 expansion cards is 22 mm wide, with varying lengths of 30, 42, 60, 80 and 110 mm. M. 2 module codes contain both the width and length of a particular module; for example, 2242 as a module code means that the module is 22 mm wide and 42 mm long, while 2280 denotes a module 22 mm wide and 80 mm long.
An M. 2 module is installed into a mating connector provided by the host 's circuit board, and a single mounting screw secures the module into place. Components may be mounted on either side of the module, with the actual module type limiting how thick the components can be; the maximum allowable thickness of components is 1.5 mm per side. Different host - side connectors are used for single - and double - sided M. 2 modules, providing different amounts of space between the M. 2 expansion card and the host 's PCB. Circuit boards on the hosts are usually designed to accept multiple lengths of M. 2 modules, which means that the sockets capable of accepting longer M. 2 modules usually also accept shorter ones by providing different positions for the mounting screw.
PCB of an M. 2 module provides a 75 - position edge connector; depending on the type of module, certain pin positions are removed to present one or more keying notches. Host - side M. 2 connectors (sockets) may populate one or more mating key positions, determining the type of modules accepted by the host; as of April 2014, host - side connectors are available with only one mating key position populated (either B or M). Furthermore, M. 2 sockets keyed for SATA or two PCI Express lanes (PCIe × 2) are referred to as "socket 2 configuration '' or "socket 2 '', while the sockets keyed for four PCI Express lanes (PCIe × 4) are referred to as "socket 3 configuration '' or "socket 3 ''.
For example, M. 2 modules with two notches in B and M positions use up to two PCI Express lanes and provide broader compatibility at the same time, while the M. 2 modules with only one notch in the M position use up to four PCI Express lanes; both examples may also provide SATA storage devices. Similar keying applies to M. 2 modules that utilize provided USB 3.0 connectivity.
Various types of M. 2 devices are denoted using the "WWLL - HH - K-K '' or "WWLL - HH - K '' naming schemes, in which "WW '' and "LL '' specify the module width and length in millimeters, respectively. The "HH '' part specifies, in an encoded form, whether a module is single - or double - sided, and the maximum allowed thickness of mounted components; possible values are listed in the right table above. Module keying is specified by the "K-K '' part, in an encoded form using the key IDs from the left table above; it can also be specified as "K '' only, if a module has only one keying notch.
Beside socketed modules, the M. 2 standard also includes the option for having permanently soldered single - sided modules.
Next Generation Small Form Factor (NGSFF), also known as NF1, or M. 3, is simply a standard of 4 × PCIe Gen3 NVMe drives using M. 2 socket, with dimensions 110 mm length and 30.5 mm width. As of 2018, this allows up to 16 TiB of NAND SSD storage per module, in a width that is less than 1 rack unit, and allowing about 36 such modules to be mounted in full width of rack server with hot swap and air cooling still permitted.
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when the home construction industry does poorly due to a recession this is an example of | Savings and Loan crisis - wikipedia
The savings and loan crisis of the 1980s and 1990s (commonly dubbed the S&L crisis) was the failure of 1,043 out of the 3,234 savings and loan associations in the United States from 1986 to 1995: the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC) closed or otherwise resolved 296 institutions from 1986 to 1989 and the Resolution Trust Corporation (RTC) closed or otherwise resolved 747 institutions from 1989 to 1995.
A savings and loan or "thrift '' is a financial institution that accepts savings deposits and makes mortgage, car and other personal loans to individual members (a cooperative venture known in the United Kingdom as a building society). By 1995, the RTC had closed 747 failed institutions nationwide, worth a total possible book value of between $402 and $407 billion. In 1996, the General Accounting Office estimated the total cost to be $160 billion, including $132.1 billion taken from taxpayers. The RTC was created to resolve the S&L crisis.
In 1979, the Federal Reserve System of the United States raised the discount rate that it charged its member banks from 9.5 % to 12 % in an effort to reduce inflation. The building or savings and loans associations (S&Ls) had issued long - term loans at fixed interest rates that were lower than the interest rate at which they could borrow. In addition, the S&Ls had the liability of the deposits which paid higher interest rates than the rate at which they could borrow. When interest rates at which they could borrow increased, the S&Ls could not attract adequate capital, from deposits to savings accounts of members for instance, they became insolvent. Rather than admit to insolvency, lax regulatory oversight allowed some S&Ls to invest in highly speculative investment strategies. This had the effect of extending the period where S&Ls were likely technically insolvent. These adverse actions also substantially increased the economic losses for the S&Ls than would otherwise have been realized had their insolvency been discovered earlier. One extreme example was that of financier Charles Keating, who paid $51 million financed through Michael Milken 's "junk bond '' operation, for his Lincoln Savings and Loan Association which at the time had a negative net worth exceeding $100 million.
Others, such as author / financial historian Kenneth J. Robinson or the account of the crisis published in 2000 by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), give multiple reasons as to why the Savings and Loan Crisis came to pass. In no particular order of significance, they identify the rising monetary inflation beginning in the late 1960s spurred by simultaneous domestic spending programs of President Lyndon B. Johnson 's "Great Society '' programs coupled with the military expenses of the continuing Vietnam War that continued into the late 1970s. The efforts to end rampant inflation of the late 1970s and early 1980s by raising interest rates brought on recession in the early 1980s and the beginning of the S&L crisis. Deregulation of the S&L industry, combined with regulatory forbearance, and fraud worsened the crisis.
The "thrift '' or "building '' or "savings and loans associations '' industry has its origins in the British building society movement that emerged in the late 18th century. American thrifts (also known as "building and loans '' or "B&Ls '') shared many of the same basic goals: to help the working class save for the future and purchase homes. Thrifts were not - for - profit cooperative organizations that were typically managed by the membership and local institutions that served well - defined groups of aspiring homeowners. While banks offered a wide array of products to individuals and businesses, thrifts often made only home mortgages primarily to working - class men and women. Thrift leaders believed they were part of a broader social reform effort and not a financial industry. According to thrift leaders, B&Ls not only helped people become better citizens by making it easier to buy a home, they also taught the habits of systematic savings and mutual cooperation which strengthened personal morals.
The first thrift was formed in 1831, and for 40 years there were few B&Ls, found in only a handful of Midwestern and Eastern states. This situation changed in the late 19th century as urban growth and the demand for housing related to the Second Industrial Revolution caused the number of thrifts to explode. The popularity of B&Ls led to the creation of a new type of thrift in the 1880s called the "national '' B&L. The "nationals '' were often for - profit businesses formed by bankers or industrialists that employed promoters to form local branches to sell shares to prospective members. The "nationals '' promised to pay savings rates up to four times greater than any other financial institution.
The Depression of 1893 (resulting from the financial Panic of 1893, which lasted for several years) caused a sharp decline in members, and so "nationals '' experienced a sudden reversal of fortunes. Because a steady stream of new members was critical for a "national '' to pay both the interest on savings and the hefty salaries for the organizers, the falloff in payments caused dozens of "nationals '' to fail. By the end of the 19th century, nearly all the "nationals '' were out of business (National Building and Loans Crisis). This led to the creation of the first state regulations governing B&Ls, to make thrift operations more uniform, and the formation of a national trade association to not only protect B&L interests, but also promote business growth. The trade association led efforts to create more uniform accounting, appraisal, and lending procedures. It also spearheaded the drive to have all thrifts refer to themselves as "savings and loans '', not B&Ls, and to convince managers of the need to assume more professional roles as financiers.
In the 20th century, the two decades that followed the end of World War II were the most successful period in the history of the thrift industry. The return of millions of servicemen eager to take up their prewar lives led to an unprecedented post-war housing crisis and boom with a dramatic increase in new families, and this so - called "baby boom '' caused a surge in new mostly suburban home construction, and vast expansion beyond the central core cities with additional commercial development on radiating spoke roads and highways plus the additional construction by 1956, during the Eisenhower administration of the Interstate Highways system throughout the country allowed the explosion of suburban communities in formerly rural surrounding counties. By the 1940s S&Ls (the name change for many associations occurred gradually after the late 1930s) provided most of the financing for this expansion, which now had some sort of state regulation which predated the later similar regulation of banks instituted after the 1929 Stock Market "Crash '' and the later "bank holiday '' of the beginning of the administration of 32nd President Franklin D. Roosevelt in March 1933, and the subsequent requirements and regulations in the "New Deal '' programs to combat the Great Depression. The result was strong industry expansion that lasted through the early 1960s.
An important trend involved raising rates paid on savings to lure deposits, a practice that resulted in periodic rate wars between thrifts and even commercial banks. These wars became so severe that in 1966, the United States Congress took the highly unusual move of setting limits on savings rates for both commercial banks and S&Ls. From 1966 to 1979, the enactment of rate controls presented thrifts with a number of unprecedented challenges, chief of which was finding ways to continue to expand in an economy characterized by slow growth, high interest rates and inflation. These conditions, which came to be known as stagflation, wreaked havoc with thrift finances for a variety of reasons. Because regulators controlled the rates that thrifts could pay on savings, when interest rates rose depositors often withdrew their funds and placed them in accounts that earned market rates, a process known as disintermediation. At the same time, rising loan rates and a slow growth economy made it harder for people to qualify for mortgages that in turn limited the ability of the S&Ls to generate income.
In response to these complex economic conditions, thrift managers resorted to several innovations, such as alternative mortgage instruments and interest - bearing checking accounts, as a way to retain funds and generate lending business. Such actions allowed the industry to continue to record steady asset growth and profitability during the 1970s even though the actual number of thrifts was falling. Despite such growth, there were still clear signs that the industry was chafing under the constraints of regulation. This was especially true with the large S&Ls in the western United States that yearned for additional lending powers to ensure continued growth. Despite several efforts to modernize these laws in the 1970s, few substantive changes were enacted.
In 1979, the financial health of the thrift industry was again challenged by a return of high interest rates and inflation, sparked this time by a doubling of oil prices and exacerbated by dwindling resources of the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC) It was not a small problem: In 1980 there were more than 4,000 savings & loans institutions with assets of $600 billion, of which $480 billion were mortgage loans, many of them made at low interest rates fixed in an earlier era. In the United States, this was 50 percent of the entire home mortgage market. In 1983, the FSLIC 's reserves for failures amounted to around $6 billion, whereas, according to Robinson (footnoted), the cost of paying off insured depositors in failed institutions would have been around $25 billion. Hence, regulators were forced into "forbearance '' -- allowing insolvent institutions to remain open -- and to hope that they could grow out of their problems.
In the early 1980s Congress passed two laws with the intent to deregulate the Savings and Loans industry, the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act of 1980 and the Garn -- St. Germain Depository Institutions Act of 1982. These laws allowed thrifts to offer a wider array of savings products (including adjustable rate mortgages), but also significantly expanded their lending authority and reduced regulatory oversight. These changes were intended to allow S&Ls to "grow '' out of their problems, and as such represented the first time that the government explicitly sought to influence S&L profits as opposed to promoting housing and homeownership. Other changes in thrift oversight included authorizing the use of more lenient accounting rules to report their financial condition, and the elimination of restrictions on the minimum numbers of S&L stockholders. Such policies, combined with an overall decline in regulatory oversight (known as forbearance), would later be cited as factors in the collapse of the thrift industry.
Between 1982 and 1985, S&L assets grew by 56 % (compared to growth in commercial banks of 24 %). In part, the growth was tilted toward financially weaker institutions which could only attract deposits by offering very high rates and which could only afford those rates by investing in high - yield, risky investments and loans.
The deregulation of S&Ls in 1980, by the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act signed by President Jimmy Carter on March 31, 1980, gave them many of the capabilities of banks without the same regulations as banks, without explicit FDIC oversight. Savings and loan associations could choose to be under either a state or a federal charter. This decision was made in response to the dramatically increasing interest rates and inflation rates that the S&L market experienced due to vulnerabilities in the structure of the market. Immediately after deregulation of the federally chartered thrifts, state - chartered thrifts rushed to become federally chartered, because of the advantages associated with a federal charter. In response, states such as California and Texas changed their regulations to be similar to federal regulations.
Another factor was the efforts of the Federal Reserve to wring inflation out of the economy, marked by Paul Volcker 's speech of October 6, 1979, with a series of rises in short - term interest rates. This led to a scenario in which increases in the short - term cost of funding were higher than the return on portfolios of mortgage loans, a large proportion of which may have been fixed - rate mortgages (a problem that is known as an asset - liability mismatch). Interest rates continued to rise, placing even more pressure on S&Ls as the 1980s dawned and led to increased focus on high interest - rate transactions. Zvi Bodie, professor of finance and economics at Boston University School of Management, writing in the St. Louis Federal Reserve Review, "asset - liability mismatch was a principal cause of the Savings and Loan Crisis ''.
The relatively greater concentration of S&L lending in mortgages, coupled with a reliance on deposits with short maturities for their funding, made savings institutions especially vulnerable to increases in interest rates. As inflation accelerated and interest rates began to rise rapidly in the late 1970s, many S&Ls began to suffer extensive losses. The rates they had to pay to attract deposits rose sharply, but the amount they earned on long - term, fixed - rate mortgages did not change. Losses began to mount. This led to a regulatory response of forbearance, which is arguably the cause to the symptoms and causes found below. To be clear, it was the practice and enabling of policy that is the cause to the turmoil that the S&L market experienced. Many insolvent thrifts were allowed to remain open, and their financial problems only worsened over time. Moreover, capital standards were reduced both by legislation and by decisions taken by regulators. Federally chartered S&Ls were granted the authority to make new (and ultimately riskier) loans other than residential mortgages.
In an effort to take advantage of the real estate boom (outstanding U.S. mortgage loans: 1976 $700 billion; 1980 $1.2 trillion) and high interest rates of the late 1970s and early 1980s, many S&Ls lent far more money than was prudent, and to ventures which many S&Ls were not qualified to assess, especially regarding commercial real estate. L. William Seidman, former chairman of both the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) and the Resolution Trust Corporation, stated, "The banking problems of the ' 80s and ' 90s came primarily, but not exclusively, from unsound real estate lending ''.
Deposit brokers, somewhat like stockbrokers, are paid a commission by the customer to find the best certificate of deposit (CD) rates and place their customers ' money in those CDs. Previously, banks and thrifts could only have five percent of their deposits be brokered deposits; the race to the bottom caused this limit to be lifted. A small one - branch thrift could then attract a large number of deposits simply by offering the highest rate. To make money off this expensive money, it had to lend at even higher rates, meaning that it had to make more, riskier investments. This system was made even more damaging when certain deposit brokers instituted a scam known as "linked financing ''. In "linked financing '', a deposit broker would approach a thrift and say he would steer a large amount of deposits to that thrift if the thrift would lend certain people money. The people, however, were paid a fee to apply for the loans and told to give the loan proceeds to the deposit broker.
The following is a detailed summary of the major causes for losses that hurt the savings and loan business in the 1980s:
In 2005, former bank regulator William K. Black listed a number of lessons that should have been learned from the S&L Crisis that have not been translated into effective governmental action:
In 1980, the United States Congress granted all thrifts, including savings and loan associations, the power to make consumer and commercial loans and to issue transaction accounts. Designed to help the thrift industry retain its deposit base and to improve its profitability, the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act (DIDMCA) of 1980 allowed thrifts to make consumer loans up to 20 percent of their assets, issue credit cards, accept negotiable order of withdrawal accounts from individuals and nonprofit organizations, and invest up to 20 percent of their assets in commercial real estate loans.
The damage to S&L operations led Congress to act, passing the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 (ERTA) in August 1981 and initiating the regulatory changes by the Federal Home Loan Bank Board allowing S&Ls to sell their mortgage loans and use the cash generated to seek better returns soon after enactment; the losses created by the sales were to be amortized over the life of the loan, and any losses could also be offset against taxes paid over the preceding ten years. This all made S&Ls eager to sell their loans. The buyers -- major Wall Street firms -- were quick to take advantage of the S&Ls ' lack of expertise, buying at 60 % to 90 % of value and then transforming the loans by bundling them as, effectively, government - backed bonds by virtue of Ginnie Mae, Freddie Mac, or Fannie Mae guarantees. S&Ls were one group buying these bonds, holding $150 billion by 1986, and being charged substantial fees for the transactions.
In 1982, the Garn - St Germain Depository Institutions Act was passed and increased the proportion of assets that thrifts could hold in consumer and commercial real estate loans and allowed thrifts to invest 5 percent of their assets in commercial loans until January 1, 1984, when this percentage increased to 10 percent.
A large number of S&L customers ' defaults and bankruptcies ensued, and the S&Ls that had overextended themselves were forced into insolvency proceedings themselves.
The Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC), a federal government agency that insured S&L accounts in the same way the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation insures commercial bank accounts, then had to repay all the depositors whose money was lost. From 1986 to 1989, FSLIC closed or otherwise resolved 296 institutions with total assets of $125 billion. An even more traumatic period followed, with the creation of the Resolution Trust Corporation in 1989 and that agency 's resolution by mid-1995 of an additional 747 thrifts.
A Federal Reserve Bank panel stated the resulting taxpayer bailout ended up being even larger than it would have been because moral hazard and adverse selection incentives that compounded the system 's losses.
There also were state - chartered S&Ls that failed. Some state insurance funds failed, requiring state taxpayer bailouts.
In March 1985, it came to public knowledge that the large Cincinnati, Ohio - based Home State Savings Bank was about to collapse. Ohio Governor Dick Celeste declared a bank holiday in the state as Home State depositors lined up in a "run '' on the bank 's branches to withdraw their deposits. Celeste ordered the closure of all the state 's S&Ls. Only those that were able to qualify for membership in the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation were allowed to reopen. Claims by Ohio S&L depositors drained the state 's deposit insurance funds. A similar event involving Old Court Savings and Loans took place in Maryland.
Midwest Federal Savings & Loan was a federally chartered savings and loan based in Minneapolis, Minnesota, until its failure in 1990. The St. Paul Pioneer Press called the bank 's failure the "largest financial disaster in Minnesota history ''.
The chairman, Hal Greenwood Jr., his daughter, Susan Greenwood Olson, and two former executives, Robert A. Mampel, and Charlotte E. Masica, were convicted of racketeering that led to the institution 's collapse. The failure cost taxpayers $1.2 billion.
The Megadeth song "Foreclosure of a Dream '' is presumed to have been written about this particular failure. Megadeth 's then bassist Dave Ellefson contributed lyrics to the song after his family 's Minnesota farm was in jeopardy as a result of the S&L financial crisis.
The Lincoln Savings collapse led to the Keating Five political scandal, in which five U.S. senators were implicated in an influence - peddling scheme. It was named for Charles Keating, who headed Lincoln Savings and made $300,000 as political contributions to them in the 1980s. Three of those senators, Alan Cranston (D -- CA), Don Riegle (D -- MI), and Dennis DeConcini (D -- AZ), found their political careers cut short as a result. Two others, John Glenn (D -- OH) and John McCain (R -- AZ), were rebuked by the Senate Ethics Committee for exercising "poor judgment '' for intervening with the federal regulators on behalf of Keating.
Lincoln Savings and Loan collapsed in 1989, at a cost of $3.4 billion to the federal government (and thus taxpayers). Some 23,000 Lincoln bondholders were defrauded and many investors lost their life savings.
Silverado Savings and Loan collapsed in 1988, costing taxpayers $1.3 billion. Neil Bush, the son of then Vice President of the United States George H.W. Bush, was on the Board of Directors of Silverado at the time. Neil Bush was accused of giving himself a loan from Silverado, but he denied all wrongdoing.
The U.S. Office of Thrift Supervision investigated Silverado 's failure and determined that Neil Bush had engaged in numerous "breaches of his fiduciary duties involving multiple conflicts of interest ''. Although Bush was not indicted on criminal charges, a civil action was brought against him and the other Silverado directors by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation; it was eventually settled out of court, with Bush paying $50,000 as part of the settlement, The Washington Post reported.
As a director of a failing thrift, Bush voted to approve $100 million in what were ultimately bad loans to two of his business partners. And in voting for the loans, he failed to inform fellow board members at Silverado Savings & Loan that the loan applicants were his business partners.
Neil Bush paid a $50,000 fine, paid for him by Republican supporters, and was banned from banking activities for his role in taking down Silverado, which cost taxpayers $1.3 billion. An RTC suit against Bush and other Silverado officers was settled in 1991 for $26.5 million.
On June 9, 1988, the House Committee on Standards of Official Conduct adopted a six - count preliminary inquiry resolution representing a determination by the committee that in 69 instances there was reason to believe that Rep. Jim Wright (D -- TX) violated House rules on conduct unbecoming a Representative. A report by special counsel implicated him in a number of influence peddling charges, such as Vernon Savings and Loan, and attempting to get William K. Black fired as deputy director of the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC) under Gray. Wright resigned on May 31, 1989, to avoid a full hearing after the Committee on Standards of Official Conduct unanimously approved a statement of alleged violation April 17.
On November 17, 1989, the Senate Ethics Committee investigation began of the Keating Five, Alan Cranston (D -- CA), Dennis DeConcini (D -- AZ), John Glenn (D -- OH), John McCain (R -- AZ), and Donald W. Riegle, Jr. (D -- MI), who were accused of improperly intervening in 1987 on behalf of Charles H. Keating, Jr., chairman of the Lincoln Savings and Loan Association.
Keating 's Lincoln Savings failed in 1989, costing the federal government over $3 billion and leaving 23,000 customers with worthless bonds. In the early 1990s, Keating was convicted in both federal and state courts of many counts of fraud, racketeering and conspiracy. He served four and a half years in prison before those convictions were overturned in 1996. In 1999, he pleaded guilty to a more limited set of wire fraud and bankruptcy fraud counts, and sentenced to the time he had already served.
As a result of the savings and loan crisis, Congress passed the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act of 1989 (FIRREA), which dramatically changed the savings and loan industry and its federal regulation. The highlights of the legislation, which was signed into law on August 9, 1989, were:
The legislation also required S&Ls to meet minimum capital standards (some of which were risk - based) and raised deposit - insurance premiums. It limited to 30 % of their portfolios loans not in residential mortgages or mortgage - related securities and set down standards preventing concentrations of loans to single borrowers. It required them to completely divest themselves of junk bonds by July 1, 1994, meanwhile segregating junk bond holdings and direct investments in separately capitalized subsidiaries.
While not part of the savings and loan crisis, many other banks failed. Between 1980 and 1994 more than 1,600 banks insured by the FDIC were closed or received FDIC financial assistance.
From 1986 to 1995, the number of federally insured savings and loans in the United States declined from 3,234 to 1,645. This was primarily, but not exclusively, due to unsound real estate lending.
The market share of S&Ls for single family mortgage loans went from 53 % in 1975 to 30 % in 1990. U.S. General Accounting Office estimated cost of the crisis to around $160.1 billion, about $124.6 billion of which was directly paid for by the U.S. government from 1986 to 1996. That figure does not include thrift insurance funds used before 1986 or after 1996. It also does not include state run thrift insurance funds or state bailouts.
The federal government ultimately appropriated $105 billion to resolve the crisis. After banks repaid loans through various procedures, there was a net loss to taxpayers of approximately $124 -- 132.1 billion by the end of 1999.
The concomitant slowdown in the finance industry and the real estate market may have been a contributing cause of the 1990 -- 1991 economic recession. Between 1986 and 1991, the number of new homes constructed dropped from 1.8 million to 1 million, the lowest rate since World War II.
Some commentators believe that a taxpayer - funded government bailout related to mortgages during the savings and loan crisis may have created a moral hazard and acted as encouragement to lenders to make similar higher risk loans during the 2007 subprime mortgage financial crisis.
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where does the british royal get their money | Finances of the British Royal family - wikipedia
The finances of the British royal family come from a number of sources. The UK Parliament supports the monarch and other members of the royal household financially by means of the Sovereign Grant, a percentage of the annual profits of the Crown Estate which is intended to meet the costs of the sovereign 's official expenditures. This includes the costs of the upkeep of the various royal residences, staffing, travel and state visits, public engagements, and official entertainment. Other sources of income include revenues from the Duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall, a parliamentary annuity, and income from private investments. The Keeper of the Privy Purse is Head of the Privy Purse and Treasurer 's Office and has overall responsibility for the management of the sovereign 's financial affairs.
Until 1760 the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary revenues, which included the profits of the Crown Estate (the royal property portfolio). King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the Crown in return for the Civil List. Under this arrangement the Crown Estate remained the property of the sovereign, but the hereditary revenues of the crown were placed at the disposal of the House of Commons. The Civil List was paid from public funds and was intended to support the exercise of the monarch 's duties as head of state of the United Kingdom. This arrangement persisted from 1760 until 2012. In modern times, the Government 's profits from the Crown Estate always significantly exceeded the Civil List. Under the Civil List arrangements the royal family faced criticism for the lack of transparency surrounding Royal finances. The National Audit Office was not entitled to audit the Royal Household.
The Queen received an annual £ 7.9 million a year from the Civil List between 2001 and 2012. The total income of the Royal Household from the Treasury was always significantly larger than the Civil List because it included additional income such as Grants - in - Aid from the Treasury and revenues from the Duchies of Cornwall and Lancaster. The total Royal Household income for the financial years 2011 -- 12 and 2012 -- 13 was £ 30 million per annum, followed by a 14 % cut in the following year. However, the Treasury provided an additional £ 1 million to pay for Diamond Jubilee celebrations in 2012.
Royal expenditure differs from income due to the use of a Reserve Fund, which can be added to or drawn from. The official reported annual expenditure of the Head of State was £ 41.5 million for the 2008 -- 09 financial year. This figure did not include the cost of security provided by the police and the Army and some other expenses.
Under the Sovereign Grant Act 2011, the system of funding the Royal Household by a mixture of Civil List payments and Grants - in - Aid was replaced. From 1 April 2012 a single annual Sovereign Grant has been paid by the Treasury. The level of funding for the Royal Household is now linked to the Government 's revenue from The Crown Estate.
The Sovereign Grant Annual Report states that the Sovereign Grant was £ 31 million for 2012 - 13, £ 36.1 million for 2013 - 14 and £ 37.9 million for 2014 - 15. The amount of the Sovereign Grant is 15 % of the income account net surplus of the Crown Estate for the financial year that began two years previously. The arrangements will be reviewed by 2016 (subsection 7 (5) of the Act). Step 4 of subsection 6 (1), and subsection 6 (4), of the Act provide a mechanism to prevent the amount of the Sovereign Grant increasing beyond what is necessary because of the growth in Crown Estate revenue. Under the Sovereign Grant the National Audit Office is able to audit the Royal Household.
On November 18, 2016 a plan was announced to increase the Sovereign Grant from 15 % to 25 % to renovate and repair Buckingham Palace. The percentage is set to revert to 15 % when the project is finished in 2027.
The Duchy of Lancaster is the private estate of the British Sovereign (now Queen Elizabeth II) consisting of land holdings and other assets. As it is held in perpetual trust for future generations of Sovereigns, the Sovereign is not entitled to the estate 's capital. The revenue profits of the Duchy are presented to the Sovereign each year and form part of the Privy Purse, providing income for both the official and private expenses of the monarch. In the financial year ending 31 March 2015, the Duchy was valued at £ 472 million, providing £ 16 million in income.
In 2017, the Paradise Papers revealed that the Duchy held investments in two offshore financial centres, the Cayman Islands and Bermuda. Both are British Overseas Territories of which Queen Elizabeth II is monarch, and nominally appoints governors. Britain handles foreign policy for both islands to a large extent, but Bermuda has been self - governing since 1620. The Duchy 's investments included First Quench Retailing off - licences and rent - to - own retailer BrightHouse. Labour Party Leader Jeremy Corbyn posited that the Queen should apologize, saying anyone with money offshore for tax avoidance should "not just apologise for it, (but) recognise what it does to our society ''. A spokesman for the Duchy said that all of their investments are audited and legitimate and that the Queen voluntarily pays taxes on income she receives from Duchy investments.
The Duchy of Cornwall is a Crown entity holding land and other assets to produce an income for the monarch 's eldest son. The Duke of Cornwall (currently, Charles, Prince of Wales) receives revenue which he applies towards charitable work and official activities, supported by the Queen 's grant - in - aid funding to provide assistance with official travel and property. These financial arrangements also cover the official expenditure of some members of his immediate family. The Duchess of Cornwall, the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge and the Duke of Sussex all have their official expenses paid from Duchy income, assisted by grants - in aid from the Queen. For the fiscal year 2011 -- 12 the Duchy was valued at £ 728 million with an annual profit of £ 18.3 million paid to the Prince.
The Duke of Edinburgh receives a parliamentary annuity of £ 359,000 per year from the Treasury. In the past some other members of the British royal family also received funding in the form of parliamentary annuities. The Civil List Act 1952 provided for an allowance to Princess Margaret as well as allowances to the queen 's younger children among others. The Civil List Act 1972 added further members of the royal family to the annuity list. By 2002 there were eight recipients of parliamentary annuities (all children or cousins of the Queen) receiving a combined total of £ 1.5 million annually. Between 1993 and 2012 the Queen voluntarily refunded the cost of these annuities to the Treasury. The Sovereign Grant Act 2011 abolished all of these other than that received by the Duke of Edinburgh. Subsequently, the living costs of the members of the royal family who carry out official duties, including the Princess Royal, the Duke of York, and the Earl and Countess of Wessex, have mainly been met through the Queen 's income from the Duchy of Lancaster.
The Crown has a legal tax - exempt status because certain acts of parliament do not apply to it. Crown bodies such as The Duchy of Lancaster are not subject to legislation concerning income tax, capital gains tax or inheritance tax. Furthermore, the Sovereign has no legal liability to pay such taxes. The Duchy of Cornwall has a Crown exemption and the Prince of Wales is not legally liable to pay income tax on Duchy revenues.
A "Memorandum of Understanding on Royal Taxation '' was published on 5 February 1993 and amended in 1996, 2009 and 2013. It is intended that the arrangements in the memorandum will be followed by the next monarch. The memorandum describes the arrangements by which The Queen and The Prince of Wales make voluntary payments to the HM Revenue and Customs in lieu of tax to compensate for their tax exemption. The details of the payments are private. The Queen voluntarily pays a sum equivalent to income tax on her private income and income from the Privy Purse (which includes the Duchy of Lancaster) that is not used for official purposes. The Sovereign Grant is exempted. A sum equivalent to capital gains tax is voluntarily paid on any gains from the disposal of private assets made after 5 April 1993. Many of the Sovereign 's assets were acquired earlier than this date but payment is only made on the gains made afterwards. Arrangements also exist for a sum in lieu of inheritance tax to be voluntarily paid on some of the Queen 's private assets. Property passing from monarch to monarch is exempted, as is property passing from the consort of a former monarch to the current monarch.
The Prince of Wales voluntarily pays a sum equivalent to income tax on that part of his income from the Duchy of Cornwall that is in excess of what is needed to meet official expenditure. From 1969 he made voluntary tax payments of 50 % of the profits, but this reduced to 25 % in 1981 when he married Lady Diana Spencer. These arrangements were replaced by the memorandum in 1993. The income of the Prince of Wales from sources other than the Duchy of Cornwall is subject to tax in the normal way.
The Queen has a private income from her personal investment portfolio, though her personal wealth and income are not known. Jock Colville, a former private secretary to the Queen (when she was Princess Elizabeth) and a director of her bank, Coutts, estimated her wealth at £ 2 million in 1971 (the equivalent of about £ 26 million today). An official statement from Buckingham Palace in 1993 called estimates of £ 100 million "grossly overstated ''. In 2002, she inherited her mother 's estate, thought to have been worth £ 70 million (the equivalent of about £ 105 million today).
Forbes magazine estimated the Queen 's net worth at around $500 million (about £ 325 million) in 2011, while an analysis by the Bloomberg Billionaires Index put it at $425 million (about £ 275 million) in 2015. In 2012 the Sunday Times estimated the Queen 's wealth as being £ 310 million ($504 million), and that year the Queen received a Guinness World Record as Wealthiest Queen. The Sunday Times Rich List 2015 estimated her wealth at £ 340 million, making her the 302nd richest person in the United Kingdom; that was the first year she was not among the Sunday Times Rich List 's top 300 most wealthy since the list began in 1989. She was number one on the list when it began in 1989.
Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle are privately owned by the Queen.
The Crown Estate is one of the largest property owners in the United Kingdom, producing £ 211 million for the Treasury in the financial year 2007 -- 8. and with holdings of £ 7.3 billion in 2011. The Crown Estate is not the private property of the Monarch. It can not be sold or owned by the Sovereign in a private capacity, nor do any revenues, or debts, from the estate accrue to her. Instead the Crown Estate is owned by the Crown, a corporation representing the legal embodiment of the State. It is held in trust and governed by Act of Parliament, to which it makes an annual report. Revenue from the Crown Estate is thought to be due to double in real terms between 2010 and 2020 with additional lease revenues deriving from the development of offshore wind farms within Britain 's Renewable Energy Zone, the rights of which were granted to the Crown Estate by the Energy Act 2004.
A number of State possessions are held in trust by the Sovereign.
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who does selena gomez play in hotel transylvania 2 | Hotel Transylvania 2 - Wikipedia
Hotel Transylvania 2 is a 2015 American 3D computer animated comedy film. It is the second installment in the Hotel Transylvania franchise, and the sequel to the 2012 film Hotel Transylvania, with its director, Genndy Tartakovsky, and writer, Robert Smigel, returning for the film. Produced by Sony Pictures Animation, it was animated by Sony Pictures Imageworks, with an additional funding provided by LStar Capital.
Hotel Transylvania 2 takes place seven years after the first film, with the hotel now open to human guests. Mavis and Johnny have a young son named Dennis, whose lack of any vampire abilities worries his grandfather Dracula. When Mavis and Johnny go on a visit to Johnny 's parents, Dracula calls his friends to help him make Dennis a vampire. Soon, things turn upside - down when Dracula 's old - school human - hating father Vlad unexpectedly visits the hotel.
Original voices from the first film -- Adam Sandler, Andy Samberg, Selena Gomez, Kevin James, Steve Buscemi, David Spade, Fran Drescher and Molly Shannon -- returned for the sequel, with Keegan - Michael Key replacing CeeLo Green as Murray. New additions to the cast include Mel Brooks, Asher Blinkoff, Nick Offerman, Megan Mullally, Dana Carvey and Rob Riggle. The film was released on September 25, 2015, by Columbia Pictures and was a box office success, grossing $473 million worldwide on an $80 million budget.
A third film, titled Hotel Transylvania 3: Summer Vacation, was released on July 13, 2018.
Seven years after the first film, Mavis and her new fiancé Johnny are finally married, with the approval of her father Dracula, and the world becomes aware of (and unfazed by) the existence of monsters. A year later, Mavis reveals to Dracula that she is pregnant and gives birth to a baby boy named Dennis, who later befriends Wayne the Werewolf 's daughter Winnie. Nearing his fifth birthday, Dennis has yet to grow his fangs and Dracula worries that his grandson might not gain vampire powers. Noticing the dangers of Transylvania, Mavis starts to consider raising Dennis in California where Johnny grew up, much to Dracula 's disapproval.
Dracula tells Johnny, who also opposes leaving, to bring Mavis to California to visit his parents, Mike and Linda, but to make sure to keep her distracted so that she will not move, leaving Dracula to "babysit '' Dennis. Believing Dennis is a "late fanger '', Dracula enlists his friends Frank, Wayne, Griffin the Invisible Man, Murray the Mummy, and Blobby the Blob to help train Dennis to become a monster, to no avail.
Dracula takes Dennis to his childhood summer camp, Camp Winnepacaca, where he learned to hone his vampire abilities and discovers that the camp is safer than it was when he went there. Dracula hurls Dennis from a tall, unstable tower to pressure the boy 's transformation into a bat, but he does not transform, and Dracula has to fly and rescue him at the last second. The stunt is filmed by the campers and uploaded to the Internet, which eventually reaches Mavis and Johnny.
Mavis angrily transforms into a bat to fly her and Johnny back to Transylvania. Dracula and his friends reach the hotel a couple of seconds after Mavis. She confronts her father for putting Dennis in grave danger and his inability to accept that he is human, and states she will move out of the hotel after Dennis ' fifth birthday the following Wednesday.
Mavis invites Vlad, her grandfather and Dracula 's father, to Dennis ' birthday party, in hopes that Dennis will meet him. As Vlad is much worse than he was when it comes to humans, Dracula tells Johnny to have the human party - goers disguise themselves as monsters. Vlad receives the invitation and arrives with his monstrous bat - like servant Bela. Meeting Dennis, he believes that fear will cause Dennis ' fangs to sprout and possesses a stage performer dressed as Dennis 's favorite television monster, "Kakie the Cake Monster '', to scare Dennis, but Dracula shields his grandson at the last moment and exposes the deception to Vlad, who is outraged that Dracula has accepted humans as guests in his hotel, forcing Dracula to confront Vlad.
While the family argues, Dennis sadly flees the hotel and enters the forest with Winnie in tow, hiding in her treehouse. They are attacked by Bela, who mistakes Dennis for a human. When Bela injures Winnie and threatens to destroy the hotel, Dennis ' anger causes him to instantly grow his fangs and his vampire abilities manifest. He begins to fight Bela, who calls his giant - bat minions. Dracula, Mavis, Dennis, Johnny, the rest of the monsters, and Johnny 's family team up to defeat Bela 's allies. A livid Bela then attempts to kill Johnny himself with a stake. Having been won over by Dracula 's claim that humans are harmless now, Vlad shrinks Bela and tells him never to bother his family again.
With Dennis having vampire abilities, Mavis and Johnny continue to raise him in Transylvania, and they resume the party with his friends.
Director Genndy Tartakovsky commented about the possibility of the sequel in October 2012, "Everyone is talking about it, but we have n't started writing it. There are a lot of fun ideas we could totally play with. It 's a ripe world. '' The next month it was announced that a sequel had been greenlit, and was scheduled for release on September 25, 2015. On March 12, 2014, it was announced that Tartakovsky would return to direct the sequel, even though he was originally too busy due to his developing an adaptation of Popeye, which would later get shelved.
It was suggested by director Genndy Tartakovsky that Adam Sandler had more creative control over this film than its predecessor and that at times he was difficult to work with.
In March 2015, it was announced that Mark Mothersbaugh, who scored the first film, had signed on to score the sequel.
American girl group Fifth Harmony recorded a song for the film entitled "I 'm in Love with a Monster ''. It was featured in the film 's official trailer and was also played when the film itself was released.
Columbia Pictures released the film in the United States on September 25, 2015.
Hotel Transylvania 2 was released on DVD and Blu - ray (2D and 3D) on January 12, 2016, by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment. The film was also released in Digital HD on December 22, 2015.
Hotel Transylvania 2 has grossed $169.7 million in North America and $303.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $473 million, against a budget of $80 million. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $159.48 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film.
Predictions for the opening of Hotel Transylvania 2 in North America were continuously revised upwards, starting from $35 -- $48 million. Hotel Transylvania 2 earned $13.3 million from 3,754 theaters on its opening day in North America, which was the second - biggest Friday opening day in September, behind Insidious Chapter 2 ($20.3 million). During its opening weekend, Hotel Transylvania 2 earned $48.5 million from 3,754 theaters, which at the time set new records such as the highest opening for a Sony Pictures Animation film, the biggest opening in Adam Sandler 's career, beating 2005 's The Longest Yard ($47.6 million), and previously held the biggest opening in the month of September (record overtaken by It in 2017). Regarding the film 's successful opening, Josh Greenstein, Sony 's president of marketing said, "We had a great date, and this is a big win for Sony Pictures Animation. '' The largest demographic of the opening weekend audience was under the age of 25 (60 %) and female (59 %), followed by male (41 %), 25 and over (40 %) and kids (38 %). According to Rentrak 's PostTrak reports, 23 % of the audience bought tickets because it was an animated film, while 16 % were attracted to the toon 's subject matter and plot.
Hotel Transylvania 2 was released in a total of 90 countries. It was released in 42 markets between September 25 and 27, 2015, the same weekend as its North American release, and earned $30.18 million from 6,500 screens that weekend. Its overall rank for the weekend was second, behind Everest. Its opening weekends in the U.K., Ireland and Malta ($9.5 million including previews), Mexico ($7.84 million), South Korea ($4.2 million), Russia and the CIS ($6 million), Germany ($3.9 million), Italy ($3.7 million) and France and Spain ($3.2 million respectively) in October represented its largest takings. In China, it opened with an estimated $12.1 million debuting at second place behind the Chinese local film The Witness which grossed $18.5 million. While the China figures are low in comparison to recent Hollywood movie openings, it actually excelled the first film 's local lifetime gross by 19 % in just the first six days. In terms of total earnings, its largest market outside of North America is the U.K. ($29.4 million) followed by Mexico ($23.7 million) and Venezuela ($19.9 million).
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film received a rating of 55 %, based on 103 reviews, with an average rating of 5.2 / 10. The site 's consensus states: "Hotel Transylvania 2 is marginally better than the original, which may or may not be enough of a recommendation to watch 89 minutes of corny, colorfully animated gags from Adam Sandler and company. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 44 out of 100, based on 24 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A - '' on an A+ to F scale.
Max Nicholson of IGN awarded it a score of 6.5 out of 10, saying "While Genndy Tartakovsky 's animation is top - notch, Hotel Transylvania 2 does n't live up to the first monster mash. '' Nick Schager of Variety gave the film a negative review, saying "Its plot comes across as just a rickety skeleton designed to prop up Sandler and company 's litany of cornball punchlines and gags, only a few of which cleverly play off of these characters ' iconography '' Alonso Duralde of The Wrap gave the film a positive review, saying "Whereas the jokes in the Grown Ups series feel reactionary and bullying, the family - friendly Hotel Transylvania gags instead come off as clever and humane, even when they 're making fun of helicopter moms and lawsuit - sensitive summer camps. '' Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star - Ledger gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "Great movies like ParaNorman and Frankenweenie showed the laughs you could get out of funny fiends; Hotel Transylvania 2 just digs up a few corny gags. '' Bruce Demara of the Toronto Star gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "While the first Hotel Trans had humour for both younger and older audiences, this one will likely fall short in its appeal to adults, although there 's plenty for the little monsters to enjoy. ''
Peter Hartlaub of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film one out of four stars, saying "Hotel Transylvania 2 is an unfortunate throwback to about 20 years ago, when animated movies were more widely accepted as cinematic babysitters. '' Sandie Angulo Chen of The Washington Post gave the film two out of four stars, saying "Tartakovsky has n't created the sort of sequel that eclipses the original, but then again the original was n't exactly Toy Story or How to Train Your Dragon. '' Jesse Hassenger of The A.V. Club gave the film a C+, saying "It 's an episodic, energetically animated gag factory from the pen of Adam Sandler, and while it 's the best screenplay to bear his name in years, it also warps some overfamiliar family - movie concerns until they become unavoidable in their ickiness. '' Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review, saying "This time around, greater attention has been paid to story and character development (while scaling back on all the sight gags) and the substantial results give the ample voice cast and returning director Genndy Tartakovsky more to sink their teeth into, with pleasing results. '' Josh Kupecki of The Austin Chronicle gave the film one out of five stars, saying "Channeling your inner child, you may find solace in Hotel Transylvania 2, but in the end it has no bite, doing continued disservice to the Universal monsters it scabs out, and adding another soiled feather to Sandler 's cap of mediocrity. ''
Michelle Murdocca, the film 's producer, said before the film 's release that the studio was "talking about number 3 and moving forward and taking the franchise to the next level. '' On November 2, 2015, it was announced Hotel Transylvania 3 will be released on September 21, 2018. Despite previously leaving the series to direct other projects, Genndy Tartakovsky will return as director for this installment. According to Tartakovsky, he returned after he got an inspiration from a "miserable '' family vacation. Adam Sandler, Selena Gomez, and Andy Samberg will also reprise their previous roles as Dracula, Mavis and Johnny in the film, which is being written by Austin Powers writer Michael McCullers. The film will take place aboard a cruise ship. On February 6, 2017, the release date was moved up to July 13, 2018.
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what are the main products of the tca cycle | Citric acid cycle - wikipedia
The citric acid cycle (CAC) -- also known as the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle or the Krebs cycle -- is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl - CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into carbon dioxide and chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In addition, the cycle provides precursors of certain amino acids, as well as the reducing agent NADH, that are used in numerous other biochemical reactions. Its central importance to many biochemical pathways suggests that it was one of the earliest established components of cellular metabolism and may have originated abiogenically.
The name of this metabolic pathway is derived from the citric acid (a type of tricarboxylic acid, often called citrate, as the ionized form predominates at biological pH) that is consumed and then regenerated by this sequence of reactions to complete the cycle. The cycle consumes acetate (in the form of acetyl - CoA) and water, reduces NAD to NADH, and produces carbon dioxide as a waste byproduct. The NADH generated by the citric acid cycle is fed into the oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport) pathway. The net result of these two closely linked pathways is the oxidation of nutrients to produce usable chemical energy in the form of ATP.
In eukaryotic cells, the citric acid cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion. In prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria which lack mitochondria, the citric acid cycle reaction sequence is performed in the cytosol with the proton gradient for ATP production being across the cell 's surface (plasma membrane) rather than the inner membrane of the mitochondrion
Several of the components and reactions of the citric acid cycle were established in the 1930s by the research of Albert Szent - Györgyi, who received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1937 specifically for his discoveries pertaining to fumaric acid, a key component of the cycle. The citric acid cycle itself was finally identified in 1937 by Hans Adolf Krebs and William Arthur Johnson while at the University of Sheffield, for which the former received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1953, and for whom the cycle is sometimes named (Krebs cycle).
Components of the citric acid cycle were derived from anaerobic bacteria, and the TCA cycle itself may have evolved more than once. Theoretically, several alternatives to the TCA cycle exist; however, the TCA cycle appears to be the most efficient. If several TCA alternatives had evolved independently, they all appear to have converged to the TCA cycle.
The citric acid cycle is a key metabolic pathway that connects carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. The reactions of the cycle are carried out by eight enzymes that completely oxidize acetate, in the form of acetyl - CoA, into two molecules each of carbon dioxide and water. Through catabolism of sugars, fats, and proteins, the two - carbon organic product acetyl - CoA (a form of acetate) is produced which enters the citric acid cycle. The reactions of the cycle also convert three equivalents of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) into three equivalents of reduced NAD (NADH), one equivalent of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) into one equivalent of FADH, and one equivalent each of guanosine diphosphate (GDP) and inorganic phosphate (P) into one equivalent of guanosine triphosphate (GTP). The NADH and FADH generated by the citric acid cycle are, in turn, used by the oxidative phosphorylation pathway to generate energy - rich ATP.
One of the primary sources of acetyl - CoA is from the breakdown of sugars by glycolysis which yield pyruvate that in turn is decarboxylated by the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase generating acetyl - CoA according to the following reaction scheme:
The product of this reaction, acetyl - CoA, is the starting point for the citric acid cycle. Acetyl - CoA may also be obtained from the oxidation of fatty acids. Below is a schematic outline of the cycle:
Two carbon atoms are oxidized to CO, the energy from these reactions is transferred to other metabolic processes through GTP (or ATP), and as electrons in NADH and QH. The NADH generated in the citric acid cycle may later be oxidized (donate its electrons) to drive ATP synthesis in a type of process called oxidative phosphorylation. FADH is covalently attached to succinate dehydrogenase, an enzyme which functions both in the CAC and the mitochondrial electron transport chain in oxidative phosphorylation. FADH, therefore, facilitates transfer of electrons to coenzyme Q, which is the final electron acceptor of the reaction catalyzed by the succinate: ubiquinone oxidoreductase complex, also acting as an intermediate in the electron transport chain.
The citric acid cycle is continuously supplied with new carbon in the form of acetyl - CoA, entering at step 0 below.
Condensation reaction of GDP + P and hydrolysis of Succinyl - CoA involve the H O needed for balanced equation.
Mitochondria in animals, including humans, possess two succinyl - CoA synthetases: one that produces GTP from GDP, and another that produces ATP from ADP. Plants have the type that produces ATP (ADP - forming succinyl - CoA synthetase). Several of the enzymes in the cycle may be loosely associated in a multienzyme protein complex within the mitochondrial matrix.
The GTP that is formed by GDP - forming succinyl - CoA synthetase may be utilized by nucleoside - diphosphate kinase to form ATP (the catalyzed reaction is GTP + ADP → GDP + ATP).
The intermediates of citric cycle depicted in Fischer projections show the chemical changing step by step. Such image can be compared to polygonal model representation.
Products of the first turn of the cycle are one GTP (or ATP), three NADH, one QH, and two CO.
Because two acetyl - CoA molecules are produced from each glucose molecule, two cycles are required per glucose molecule. Therefore, at the end of two cycles, the products are: two GTP, six NADH, two QH, and four CO.
The above reactions are balanced if P represents the H PO ion, ADP and GDP the ADP and GDP ions, respectively, and ATP and GTP the ATP and GTP ions, respectively.
The total number of ATP molecules obtained after complete oxidation of one glucose in glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation is estimated to be between 30 and 38.
The theoretical maximum yield of ATP through oxidation of one molecule of glucose in glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation is 38 (assuming 3 molar equivalents of ATP per equivalent NADH and 2 ATP per FADH). In eukaryotes, two equivalents of NADH are generated in glycolysis, which takes place in the cytoplasm. Transport of these two equivalents into the mitochondria consumes two equivalents of ATP, thus reducing the net production of ATP to 36. Furthermore, inefficiencies in oxidative phosphorylation due to leakage of protons across the mitochondrial membrane and slippage of the ATP synthase / proton pump commonly reduces the ATP yield from NADH and FADH to less than the theoretical maximum yield. The observed yields are, therefore, closer to ~ 2.5 ATP per NADH and ~ 1.5 ATP per FADH, further reducing the total net production of ATP to approximately 30. An assessment of the total ATP yield with newly revised proton - to - ATP ratios provides an estimate of 29.85 ATP per glucose molecule.
While the citric acid cycle is in general highly conserved, there is significant variability in the enzymes found in different taxa (note that the diagrams on this page are specific to the mammalian pathway variant).
Some differences exist between eukaryotes and prokaryotes. The conversion of D - threo - isocitrate to 2 - oxoglutarate is catalyzed in eukaryotes by the NAD - dependent EC 1.1. 1.41, while prokaryotes employ the NADP - dependent EC 1.1. 1.42. Similarly, the conversion of (S) - malate to oxaloacetate is catalyzed in eukaryotes by the NAD - dependent EC 1.1. 1.37, while most prokaryotes utilize a quinone - dependent enzyme, EC 1.1. 5.4.
A step with significant variability is the conversion of succinyl - CoA to succinate. Most organisms utilize EC 6.2. 1.5, succinate -- CoA ligase (ADP - forming) (despite its name, the enzyme operates in the pathway in the direction of ATP formation). In mammals a GTP - forming enzyme, succinate -- CoA ligase (GDP - forming) (EC 6.2. 1.4) also operates. The level of utilization of each isoform is tissue dependent. In some acetate - producing bacteria, such as Acetobacter aceti, an entirely different enzyme catalyzes this conversion -- EC 2.8. 3.18, succinyl - CoA: acetate CoA - transferase. This specialized enzyme links the TCA cycle with acetate metabolism in these organisms. Some bacteria, such as Helicobacter pylori, employ yet another enzyme for this conversion -- succinyl - CoA: acetoacetate CoA - transferase (EC 2.8. 3.5).
Some variability also exists at the previous step -- the conversion of 2 - oxoglutarate to succinyl - CoA. While most organisms utilize the ubiquitous NAD - dependent 2 - oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, some bacteria utilize a ferredoxin - dependent 2 - oxoglutarate synthase (EC 1.2. 7.3). Other organisms, including obligately autotrophic and methanotrophic bacteria and archaea, bypass succinyl - CoA entirely, and convert 2 - oxoglutarate to succinate via succinate semialdehyde, using EC 4.1. 1.71, 2 - oxoglutarate decarboxylase, and EC 1.2. 1.79, succinate - semialdehyde dehydrogenase.
The regulation of the citric acid cycle is largely determined by product inhibition and substrate availability. If the cycle were permitted to run unchecked, large amounts of metabolic energy could be wasted in overproduction of reduced coenzyme such as NADH and ATP. The major eventual substrate of the cycle is ADP which gets converted to ATP. A reduced amount of ADP causes accumulation of precursor NADH which in turn can inhibit a number of enzymes. NADH, a product of all dehydrogenases in the citric acid cycle with the exception of succinate dehydrogenase, inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, α - ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and also citrate synthase. Acetyl - coA inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase, while succinyl - CoA inhibits alpha - ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and citrate synthase. When tested in vitro with TCA enzymes, ATP inhibits citrate synthase and α - ketoglutarate dehydrogenase; however, ATP levels do not change more than 10 % in vivo between rest and vigorous exercise. There is no known allosteric mechanism that can account for large changes in reaction rate from an allosteric effector whose concentration changes less than 10 %.
Calcium is also used as a regulator in the citric acid cycle. Calcium levels in the mitochondrial matrix can reach up to the tens of micromolar levels during cellular activation. It activates pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase which in turn activates the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. Calcium also activates isocitrate dehydrogenase and α - ketoglutarate dehydrogenase. This increases the reaction rate of many of the steps in the cycle, and therefore increases flux throughout the pathway.
Citrate is used for feedback inhibition, as it inhibits phosphofructokinase, an enzyme involved in glycolysis that catalyses formation of fructose 1, 6 - bisphosphate, a precursor of pyruvate. This prevents a constant high rate of flux when there is an accumulation of citrate and a decrease in substrate for the enzyme.
Recent work has demonstrated an important link between intermediates of the citric acid cycle and the regulation of hypoxia - inducible factors (HIF). HIF plays a role in the regulation of oxygen homeostasis, and is a transcription factor that targets angiogenesis, vascular remodeling, glucose utilization, iron transport and apoptosis. HIF is synthesized consititutively, and hydroxylation of at least one of two critical proline residues mediates their interaction with the von Hippel Lindau E3 ubiquitin ligase complex, which targets them for rapid degradation. This reaction is catalysed by prolyl 4 - hydroxylases. Fumarate and succinate have been identified as potent inhibitors of prolyl hydroxylases, thus leading to the stabilisation of HIF.
Several catabolic pathways converge on the citric acid cycle. Most of these reactions add intermediates to the citric acid cycle, and are therefore known as anaplerotic reactions, from the Greek meaning to "fill up ''. These increase the amount of acetyl CoA that the cycle is able to carry, increasing the mitochondrion 's capability to carry out respiration if this is otherwise a limiting factor. Processes that remove intermediates from the cycle are termed "cataplerotic '' reactions.
In this section and in the next, the citric acid cycle intermediates are indicated in italics to distinguish them from other substrates and end - products.
Pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis are actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane, and into the matrix. Here they can be oxidized and combined with coenzyme A to form CO, acetyl - CoA, and NADH, as in the normal cycle.
However, it is also possible for pyruvate to be carboxylated by pyruvate carboxylase to form oxaloacetate. This latter reaction "fills up '' the amount of oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle, and is therefore an anaplerotic reaction, increasing the cycle 's capacity to metabolize acetyl - CoA when the tissue 's energy needs (e.g. in muscle) are suddenly increased by activity.
In the citric acid cycle all the intermediates (e.g. citrate, iso - citrate, alpha - ketoglutarate, succinate, fumarate, malate and oxaloacetate) are regenerated during each turn of the cycle. Adding more of any of these intermediates to the mitochondrion therefore means that that additional amount is retained within the cycle, increasing all the other intermediates as one is converted into the other. Hence the addition of any one of them to the cycle has an anaplerotic effect, and its removal has a cataplerotic effect. These anaplerotic and cataplerotic reactions will, during the course of the cycle, increase or decrease the amount of oxaloacetate available to combine with acetyl - CoA to form citric acid. This in turn increases or decreases the rate of ATP production by the mitochondrion, and thus the availability of ATP to the cell.
Acetyl - CoA, on the other hand, derived from pyruvate oxidation, or from the beta - oxidation of fatty acids, is the only fuel to enter the citric acid cycle. With each turn of the cycle one molecule of acetyl - CoA is consumed for every molecule of oxaloacetate present in the mitochondrial matrix, and is never regenerated. It is the oxidation of the acetate portion of acetyl - CoA that produces CO and water, with the energy thus released captured in the form of ATP.
In the liver, the carboxylation of cytosolic pyruvate into intra-mitochondrial oxaloacetate is an early step in the gluconeogenic pathway which converts lactate and de-aminated alanine into glucose, under the influence of high levels of glucagon and / or epinephrine in the blood. Here the addition of oxaloacetate to the mitochondrion does not have a net anaplerotic effect, as another citric acid cycle intermediate (malate) is immediately removed from the mitochondrion to be converted into cytosolic oxaloacetate, which is ultimately converted into glucose, in a process that is almost the reverse of glycolysis.
In protein catabolism, proteins are broken down by proteases into their constituent amino acids. Their carbon skeletons (i.e. the de-aminated amino acids) may either enter the citric acid cycle as intermediates (e.g. alpha - ketoglutarate derived from glutamate or glutamine), having an anaplerotic effect on the cycle, or, in the case of leucine, isoleucine, lysine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine, they are converted into acetyl - CoA which can be burned to CO and water, or used to form ketone bodies, which too can only be burned in tissues other than the liver where they are formed, or excreted via the urine or breath. These latter amino acids are therefore termed "ketogenic '' amino acids, whereas those that enter the citric acid cycle as intermediates can only be cataplerotically removed by entering the gluconeogenic pathway via malate which is transported out of the mitochondrion to be converted into cytosolic oxaloacetate and ultimately into glucose. These are the so - called "glucogenic '' amino acids. De-aminated alanine, cysteine, glycine, serine, and threonine are converted to pyruvate and can consequently either enter the citric acid cycle as oxaloacetate (an anaplerotic reaction) or as acetyl - CoA to be disposed of as CO and water.
In fat catabolism, triglycerides are hydrolyzed to break them into fatty acids and glycerol. In the liver the glycerol can be converted into glucose via dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate by way of gluconeogenesis. In many tissues, especially heart and skeletal muscle tissue, fatty acids are broken down through a process known as beta oxidation, which results in the production of mitochondrial acetyl - CoA, which can be used in the citric acid cycle. Beta oxidation of fatty acids with an odd number of methylene bridges produces propionyl - CoA, which is then converted into succinyl - CoA and fed into the citric acid cycle as an anaplerotic intermediate.
The total energy gained from the complete breakdown of one (six - carbon) molecule of glucose by glycolysis, the formation of 2 acetyl - CoA molecules, their catabolism in the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation equals about 30 ATP molecules, in eukaryotes. The number of ATP molecules derived from the beta oxidation of a 6 carbon segment of a fatty acid chain, and the subsequent oxidation of the resulting 3 molecules of acetyl - CoA is 40.
In this subheading, as in the previous one, the TCA intermediates are identified by italics.
Several of the citric acid cycle intermediates are used for the synthesis of important compounds, which will have significant cataplerotic effects on the cycle. Acetyl - CoA can not be transported out of the mitochondrion. To obtain cytosolic acetyl - CoA, citrate is removed from the citric acid cycle and carried across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the cytosol. There it is cleaved by ATP citrate lyase into acetyl - CoA and oxaloacetate. The oxaloacetate is returned to mitochondrion as malate (and then converted back into oxaloacetate to transfer more acetyl - CoA out of the mitochondrion). The cytosolic acetyl - CoA is used for fatty acid synthesis and the production of cholesterol. Cholesterol can, in turn, be used to synthesize the steroid hormones, bile salts, and vitamin D.
The carbon skeletons of many non-essential amino acids are made from citric acid cycle intermediates. To turn them into amino acids the alpha keto - acids formed from the citric acid cycle intermediates have to acquire their amino groups from glutamate in a transamination reaction, in which pyridoxal phosphate is a cofactor. In this reaction the glutamate is converted into alpha - ketoglutarate, which is a citric acid cycle intermediate. The intermediates that can provide the carbon skeletons for amino acid synthesis are oxaloacetate which forms aspartate and asparagine; and alpha - ketoglutarate which forms glutamine, proline, and arginine.
Of these amino acids, aspartate and glutamine are used, together with carbon and nitrogen atoms from other sources, to form the purines that are used as the bases in DNA and RNA, as well as in ATP, AMP, GTP, NAD, FAD and CoA.
The pyrimidines are partly assembled from aspartate (derived from oxaloacetate). The pyrimidines, thymine, cytosine and uracil, form the complementary bases to the purine bases in DNA and RNA, and are also components of CTP, UMP, UDP and UTP.
The majority of the carbon atoms in the porphyrins come from the citric acid cycle intermediate, succinyl - CoA. These molecules are an important component of the hemoproteins, such as hemoglobin, myoglobin and various cytochromes.
During gluconeogenesis mitochondrial oxaloacetate is reduced to malate which is then transported out of the mitochondrion, to be oxidized back to oxaloacetate in the cytosol. Cytosolic oxaloacetate is then decarboxylated to phosphoenolpyruvate by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, which is the rate limiting step in the conversion of nearly all the gluconeogenic precursors (such as the glucogenic amino acids and lactate) into glucose by the liver and kidney.
Because the citric acid cycle is involved in both catabolic and anabolic processes, it is known as an amphibolic pathway.
Click on genes, proteins and metabolites below to link to respective articles.
The metabolic role of lactate is well recognized, including as a fuel for tissues and tumors. In the classical Cori cycle, muscles produce lactate which is then taken up by the liver for gluconeogenesis. New studies suggest that lactate can be used as a source of carbon for the TCA cycle.
Acetyl - CoA
Oxaloacetate
Malate
Fumarate
Succinate
Succinyl - CoA
Citrate
cis - Aconitate
Isocitrate
Oxalosuccinate
2 - oxoglutarate
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where were the anzac troops sent to train instead of england | Military History of Australia during World war I - Wikipedia
In Australia, the outbreak of World War I was greeted with considerable enthusiasm. Even before Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914, the nation pledged its support alongside other states of the British Empire and almost immediately began preparations to send forces overseas to participate in the conflict. The first campaign that Australians were involved in was in German New Guinea after a hastily raised force known as the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force was dispatched from Australia to seize German possessions in the Pacific in September 1914. At the same time another expeditionary force, initially consisting of 20,000 men and known as the First Australian Imperial Force (AIF), was raised for service overseas.
The AIF departed Australia in November 1914 and, after several delays due to the presence of German naval vessels in the Indian Ocean, arrived in Egypt, where they were initially used to defend the Suez Canal. In early 1915, however, it was decided to carry out an amphibious landing on the Gallipoli peninsula with the goal of opening up a second front and securing the passage of the Dardanelles. The Australians and New Zealanders, grouped together as the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), went ashore on 25 April 1915 and for the next eight months the Anzacs, alongside their British, French and other allies, fought a costly and ultimately unsuccessful campaign against the Turks.
The force was evacuated from the peninsula in December 1915 and returned to Egypt, where the AIF was expanded. In early 1916 it was decided that the infantry divisions would be sent to France, where they took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front. Most of the light horse units remained in the Middle East until the end of the war, carrying out further operations against the Turks in Egypt and Palestine. Small numbers of Australians served in other theatres of war. While the main focus of the Australian military 's effort was the ground war, air and naval forces were also committed. Squadrons of the Australian Flying Corps served in the Middle East and on the Western Front, while elements of the Royal Australian Navy carried out operations in the Atlantic, North Sea, Adriatic and Black Sea, as well as the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
By the end of the war, Australians were far more circumspect. The nation 's involvement cost more than 60,000 Australian lives and many more were left unable to work as a result of their injuries. The impact of the war was felt in many other areas as well. Financially it was very costly, while the effect on the social and political landscape was considerable and threatened to cause serious divides in the nation 's social fabric. Conscription was possibly the most contentious issue and ultimately, despite having conscription for home service, Australia was one of only two combatants not to use conscripts in the fighting. Nevertheless, for many Australians the nation 's involvement in World War I and the Gallipoli campaign was seen as a symbol of its emergence as an international actor, while many of the notions of the Australian character and nationhood that exist today have their origins in the war and Anzac Day is commemorated as a national holiday.
Following Britain 's declaration of war on Germany on 4 August 1914, Australia and the other members of the British Empire became automatically involved, with Prime Minister Joseph Cook stating on 5 August 1914 that "... when the Empire is at war, so also is Australia. '' Given the predominantly British heritage of most Australians at the time, there was considerable support from all corners of the country and large numbers of young Australian men reported to recruiting centres around the country to enlist in the following months. When Prime Minister Andrew Fisher 's Labor Party came to power in September 1914, he reiterated Cook 's statement saying, "Should the worst happen... '', Australia would "... rally to the Mother Country... to help and defend her to our last man and our last shilling. ''
Within days, plans for an Australian expeditionary force were completed by Brigadier General William Throsby Bridges and his staff officer, Major Cyril Brudenell Bingham White. White proposed a force of 18,000 men (12,000 Australians and 6,000 New Zealanders). This proposal was approved by Prime Minister Cook but he increased the offer to the British to 20,000 men to serve in any destination desired by the Home Government. On 6 August 1914, London cabled its acceptance of the force and asked that it be sent as soon as possible. Recruiting offices opened on 10 August 1914 and by the end of 1914, 52,561 volunteers had been accepted, although strict physical fitness guidelines were put in place.
In 1884, Germany had colonised the north eastern part of New Guinea and several nearby island groups. By the outbreak of the war, the Germans had been using the colony as a wireless radio base, and supporting the German East Asia Squadron which threatened merchant shipping in the region. As a consequence, Britain required the wireless installations to be destroyed. Shortly after the outbreak of war -- following a request by the British government on 6 August 1914 -- the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force (AN&MEF) began forming. The objectives of the force were the German stations at Yap in the Caroline Islands, Nauru and at Rabaul, New Britain. The AN&MEF comprised one battalion of infantry (1,023 men) enlisted in Sydney, 500 naval reservists and ex-sailors organised into six companies who would serve as infantry and a further 500 men from the Kennedy Regiment, a Queensland militia battalion that had volunteered for overseas service and had been sent to garrison Thursday Island. Together, these forces were placed under the command of Colonel William Holmes, an officer in the militia who was at the time commander of the 6th Brigade and secretary of the Sydney Water and Sewerage Board.
The task force sailed from Sydney on 19 August 1914, and hove to off Port Moresby where they waited for their escorts to arrive. While they were at Port Moresby, Holmes decided to disembark the Queensland militia soldiers due to concerns about their preparedness for action. Escorted by the cruiser Sydney and the battlecruiser Australia, the task force reached Rabaul on 11 September 1914 and found that the port was free of German forces. Sydney and the destroyer HMAS Warrego landed small parties of naval reservists at the settlements of Kabakaul and the German gubernatorial capital Herbertshöhe on Neu - Pommern, south - east of Rabaul. These parties were reinforced first by sailors from HMAS Warrego and HMAS Yarra and later by infantry from the transport HMAS Berrima.
A small 25 - man force of naval reservists was subsequently landed at Kabakaul Bay and continued inland to capture the radio station believed to be in operation at Bita Paka, 4 miles (7 km) to the south. The Australians were resisted by a mixed force of German reservists and Melanesian native police, who forced them to fight their way to the radio station. By nightfall, the radio station was reached and it was found to have been abandoned, the mast dropped but its instruments and machinery intact. During the Battle of Bita Paka six Australians were killed and five wounded, while the defenders lost one German non-commissioned officer (NCO) and about 30 Melanesians killed, and one German and ten Melanesians wounded. Later it was alleged that the heavy losses among the Melanesian troops was the result of the Australians bayoneting all those they had captured during the fighting. As a result of this engagement, Able Seaman W.G.V. Williams became the first Australian fatality of the war. The first Army fatality was a medical officer, Captain B.C.A. Pockley, who died the same day.
At nightfall on 12 September, the Berrima landed the AN&MEF infantry battalion at Rabaul. The following afternoon, although the governor had not yet surrendered the territory, a ceremony was carried out to signal the British occupation of New Britain. The German administration had withdrawn inland to Toma and at dawn on 14 September, and HMAS Encounter subsequently bombarded a ridge near the town, while half a battalion advanced towards the town supported by a field gun. The show of firepower was sufficient to start negotiations, ending the Siege of Toma following the surrender of the remaining garrison of 40 Germans and 110 native police. The German territory surrendered on 17 September 1914.
Although successful the operation was arguably not well managed, and the Australians had been effectively delayed by a half - trained native force. Regardless the Australians had prevailed not least of all because of their unexpected ability to fight in close terrain, while the outflanking of the German positions had unnerved their opponents. The losses of the AN&MEF were light in the context of later operations but were sufficiently heavy given the relatively modest gain. These losses were further compounded by the unexplained disappearance of the Australian submarine HMAS AE1 during a patrol off Rabaul on 14 September, with 35 men aboard.
Following the capture of German possessions in the region, the AN&MEF provided occupation forces for the duration of the war. On 9 January 1915, Holmes handed over command of the AN&MEF to Brigadier General Sir Samuel Pethebridge, the former Secretary of the Department of Defence. Holmes returned to Australia and re-enlisted in the AIF, as did most of his men. They were replaced by the 3rd Battalion, known as the "Tropical Force '' because it had been specially enlisted for service in the tropics. Pethebridge established the administrative structures that remained through the period of military occupation. Although required by international law to follow the German forms of government, the territory gradually acquired the appearance of a British colony.
At the start of the war, Australia 's military forces were focused upon the militia and what Regular forces existed were mostly serving in the artillery or engineers and were assigned in most part to the task of coastal defence. Due to the provisions of the Defence Act 1903, which precluded sending conscripts overseas, upon the outbreak of war it was realised that a totally separate, all volunteer force would need to be raised. This force was known as the Australian Imperial Force (AIF).
The AIF began forming shortly after the outbreak of war and was the brain child of Bridges and White. Upon formation, the AIF consisted of only one infantry division, the 1st Division, and the 1st Light Horse Brigade. The 1st Division was made up of the 1st Infantry Brigade under Colonel Henry MacLaurin; the 2nd, under Colonel James Whiteside McCay, an Australian politician and former Minister for Defence; and the 3rd, under Colonel Ewen Sinclair - Maclagan, a British regular officer seconded to the Australian Army before the war. The 1st Light Horse Brigade was commanded by Colonel Harry Chauvel, an Australian regular, while the divisional artillery was commanded by Colonel Talbot Hobbs.
In the early stages of mobilisation the men of the AIF were selected under some of the toughest criterion of any army in World War I and it is believed that roughly 30 per cent of men that applied were rejected on medical grounds. In order to enlist, men had to be aged between 18 and 35 years of age (although it is believed that men as old as 70 and as young as 14 managed to enlist), and they had to be at least five foot six inches tall (168 centimetres), with a chest measurement of at least 34 inches (86 centimetres). Many of these strict requirements were lifted later in the war, however, as the need for replacements grew. Indeed, casualties among the initial volunteers were so high, that of the 32,000 original soldiers of the AIF only 7,000 would survive to the end of the war.
The initial response was so good that in September 1914 the decision was made to raise the 4th Infantry Brigade and 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades. The 4th Infantry Brigade was commanded by Colonel John Monash, a prominent Melbourne civil engineer and businessman. The AIF continued to grow through the war, eventually numbering five infantry divisions, two mounted divisions and a mixture of other units. A sixth infantry division, the 6th Division, was partially formed in the United Kingdom February 1917. Casualties from the First Battle of Bullecourt and the Battle of Messines caused the disbandment of the partially formed unit to allow the other five divisions to be brought back up to strength.
The 1st Division departed Australia from Albany, Western Australia on 1 November 1914 in convoy of 10 transports escorted by several British, Australian and Japanese warships. Initially bound for British - controlled Egypt, with a stopover in Ceylon, the convoy had been delayed several times due to fears of interception by German warships in the area. These fears later proved valid when the German cruiser Emden was sighted off Cocos Island. As the convoy steered to avoid the threat, the Australian cruiser HMAS Sydney, engaged the Emden with her heavier guns and after an engagement that lasted only twenty - five minutes, the Sydney emerged victorious.
The threat of the German Squadron neutralised, the convoy was able to continue its voyage unmolested. Upon their arrival in Egypt in November, the 1st Division moved to Camp Mena, near Cairo, where they were used to defend the Suez Canal against Turkey who had declared war on 29 October. During this time, the Australians commenced a period of training to prepare them for combat on the Western Front as it was still expected that they would be sent to England for deployment in the European theatre. As they waited, however, the Australian and New Zealand forces in Egypt at the time were formed into the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) under the command of Lieutenant General William Birdwood, and consisting of the Australian 1st Division and the composite New Zealand and Australian Division (NZ&A).
Overcrowding and shortages of equipment in England meant that it was decided to keep the Anzacs in Egypt during the European winter, during which time they would undertake further training in order to prepare them for their eventual use in the trenches in France. Despite this, however, the training that the Australians and New Zealanders received in this time could only be considered very rudimentary in nature, and despite popular opinion at the time, it did little to prepare them for what was to come.
In the background, though, moves were being made to commit the Australians and New Zealanders elsewhere. Later in November, Winston Churchill, in his capacity as First Lord of the Admiralty, put forward his first plans for a naval attack on the Dardanelles. A plan for an attack and invasion of the Gallipoli peninsula was eventually approved by the British cabinet in January 1915. It was decided that the Australian and New Zealand troops would take part in the operation, although they were outnumbered by the British, Indian and French contingents, a fact which is often overlooked today by many Australians and New Zealanders. The objective of the invasion was to open up another front against the Central Powers and to open the Black Sea 's only entrance to the Mediterranean, via the Dardanelles and Bosphorus, to allow shipping to Russia all year round.
After the failure of naval attacks, it was decided that ground forces were necessary to eliminate the Turkish mobile artillery and allow minesweepers to clear the waters for larger vessels. The British Secretary of State for War, Field Marshal Lord Kitchener, appointed General Sir Ian Hamilton to command the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force (MEF) that was to carry out the mission. The MEF consisted of Birdwood 's ANZAC, British 29th Division, British Royal Naval Division and the French Corps expéditionnaire d'Orient. Some 40,000 Russian troops would participate in the capture or occupation of Constantinople.
The invasion plan was for the 29th Division to land at Cape Helles on the tip of the peninsula and then advance upon the forts at Kilitbahir. The Anzacs were to land north of Gaba Tepe on the Aegean coast from where they could advance across the peninsula and prevent retreat from or reinforcement of Kilitbahir. The Anzac assault force, the 3rd Brigade of the Australian 1st Division, began to go ashore shortly before dawn at 4: 30 am on 25 April 1915. The intended landing zone was a broad front centred about a mile north of Gaba Tepe, however, possibly due to navigational error or an unexpected current, the landing went awry and the boats concentrated about a mile and a half further north than intended in a shallow, nameless cove between Ari Burnu to the north and Hell Spit to the south. Since 1985, the cove has been officially known as Anzac Koyu (Anzac Cove).
The Anzacs were confronted by a treacherous, confusing tangle of ravines and spurs that descended from the heights of the Sarı Baır range to the sea. The landing was only lightly opposed by scattered Turkish units until Mustafa Kemal, commanding the 19th Division and perceiving the threat posed by the landings, rushed reinforcements to the area in what became a race for the high ground. The contest for the heights was decided on the second ridge line where the Anzacs and Turks fought over a knoll called Baby 700. The position changed hands a number of times on the first day before the Turks, having the advantage of the higher ground on Battleship Hill, took final possession of it. Once the Anzac advance was checked, the Turks counter-attacked, trying to force the invaders back to the shore, but failed to dislodge them from the foothold they had gained. A trench perimeter quickly developed and a bloody stalemate ensued until August.
In May 1915, Hamilton decided to concentrate his resources in the Helles sector. Birdwood withdrew Colonel McCay 's 2nd Infantry Brigade and the New Zealand Infantry Brigade and they moved by sea to Cape Helles on 6 May. During the subsequent Second Battle of Krithia the two brigades suffered 1,827 casualties, including McCay, in an ill - advised daylight advance over open ground that could have been occupied after dark without loss. During May Turkish snipers were particularly active in Monash Valley. On 15 May, one shot and fatally wounded Major General Bridges. His body was returned to Australia and buried on the hill overlooking Royal Military College, Duntroon in Canberra. The Australian government sent Major General James Gordon Legge from Australia to replace him.
On 19 May 1915, the Turkish launched an assault against the Anzac perimeter. Forewarned by naval reconnaissance aircraft, the troops were on alert and the position was reinforced by the return of the 2nd and New Zealand Infantry Brigades from Cape Helles and the arrival of the 1st Light Horse Brigade and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade from Egypt. Along most of the line, the attack met with immediate disaster, with the Turkish attackers swept away by the rifle and machine gun fire of the Anzac defenders. At Courtney 's Post, one of the most exposed parts of the perimeter, the Turks managed to enter the trenches but there they encountered Lance Corporal Albert Jacka and others, who drove them out again. For his action, Jacka became the first Australian to win the Victoria Cross in the war.
The repeated failure of the Allies to capture Krithia or make any progress on the Helles front led Hamilton to pursue an imaginative new plan for the campaign. On the night of 6 August a fresh landing of two infantry divisions was to be made at Suvla, 5 miles (8 km) north of Anzac. Meanwhile, at Anzac a strong assault would be made on the Sari Bair range by breaking out through thinly defended sector at the north of the Anzac perimeter. The offensive was preceded on the evening of 6 August by diversionary assaults at Helles and Anzac. At Helles, the diversion at Krithia Vineyard became another futile battle with no gains and heavy casualties for both sides. At Anzac, an attack on the Turkish trenches at Lone Pine by the infantry brigades of the Australian 1st Division was a rare victory for the ANZACs. At a cost of over 2,000 men, the Australians inflicted 7,000 casualties on the Turks. Because it was an effective attack on a vital position, it was the most effective diversionary attack carried out by the Australians of the war, drawing in the Turkish reserves.
However, the main assault aimed at the peaks of Chunuk Bair and Hill 971 was less successful. The force striking for the nearer peak of Chunuk Bair comprised the New Zealand Infantry Brigade. It came within 500 metres (1,600 ft) of the peak by dawn on 7 August but was not able to seize the summit until the following morning. This delay had fatal consequences for another supporting attack on the morning of 7 August, that of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at the Nek which was to coincide with the New Zealanders attacking back down from Chunuk Bair against the rear of the Turkish defences. The New Zealanders held out on Chunuk Bair for two days before relief was provided by two New Army battalions from the Wiltshire and Loyal North Lancashire Regiments. A massive Turkish counter-attack, led in person by Mustafa Kemal, swept these two battalions from the heights. Meanwhile, the landing at Suvla Bay was only lightly opposed but the British commander, Lieutenant General Sir Frederick Stopford, had so diluted his early objectives that little more than the beach was seized. Again the Turks were able to win the race for the high ground of the Anafarta Hills thereby rendering the Suvla front another case of static trench warfare.
The Suvla landing was reinforced by the arrival of the British 53rd and 54th Divisions along with the British 10th Division from Kitchener 's New Army divisions plus the dismounted yeomanry of the 2nd Mounted Division. The unfortunate 29th Division was also shifted from Helles to Suvla for one more push. The final British attempt to resuscitate the offensive came on 21 August with attacks at Scimitar Hill and Hill 60. Control of these hills would have united the Anzac and Suvla fronts, but neither battle achieved success. When fighting at Hill 60 ceased on 29 August, the battle for the Sari Bair heights, and indeed the battle for the peninsula, was effectively over.
After eight months of bloody fighting it was decided to evacuate the entire force on the Gallipoli peninsula. Troop numbers were progressively reduced from 7 December and cunning ruses were performed to fool the Turks and to prevent them from discovering the Allies that were departing. At Anzac, the troops would maintain utter silence for an hour or more until the curious Turks would venture out to inspect the trenches, whereupon the Anzacs would open fire. As the numbers in the trenches were thinned, rifles were rigged to fire by water dripped into a pan attached to the trigger. In what was ironically the best planned operation of the campaign, the evacuation was completed by dawn on 20 December 1915, without a single casualty.
Ultimately the Gallipoli campaign was a disastrous failure. It did not achieve any of the objectives that had been given as a justification for it, and due to the inexperience of high commanders and mismanagement there were an unacceptably high number of casualties amongst the participating troops, not only from as a result of combat, but also due to widespread disease that resulted from poor sanitation and hygiene in the front lines and a breakdown in the casualty clearance and resupply and logistics systems. It has been estimated that over the course of the campaign there were 26,111 Australian casualties with 8,141 killed. Other Allied casualties -- killed and wounded -- included: 7,571 New Zealanders, 120,000 British and 27,000 French.
After the war, the bad conditions and high casualties amongst the Anzac troops resulted in a reasonably prevalent view in Australia that these had been due to the incompetence of British officers commanding the Australian troops and their disregard for the casualties that resulted from poorly planned or ill - conceived attacks. Whether these claims are valid or not, there can be little doubt that the entire campaign was poorly conducted, and as a result there were many military lessons learnt that were to be applied in later campaigns. Despite this, for Australians and New Zealanders the Gallipoli campaign has come to symbolise an important milestone in the emergence of both nations as independent actors on the world stage and the development of a sense of national identity. Today, the date of the initial landings, 25 April, is a public holiday known as Anzac Day in Australia and New Zealand and every year thousands of people gather at memorials in both nations, and indeed in Turkey, to honour the bravery and sacrifice of the original Anzacs, and of all those who have subsequently lost their lives in war.
After the Gallipoli Campaign, Australian troops returned to Egypt and the AIF underwent a major expansion, which involved the raising of another three infantry divisions -- the 3rd, 4th and 5th -- and the establishment of the Anzac Mounted Division. In March 1916, the infantry began to move to France while the cavalry units stayed in the area and fought Turkish troops and the Senussi Arab tribes that were threatening British control of Egypt. Mounted troops were particularly important in the defence of Egypt and Australian troops of the Anzac Mounted Division saw action in all the major battles of the campaign, first seeing combat in the Battle of Romani. Apart from the horsemen, the mounted troops included the 1st Imperial Camel Corps Brigade. This was organised as a mounted infantry brigade. Of its four battalions, the 1st and 3rd were composed of Australians, the 2nd was British, and the 4th was half Australian and half New Zealand. The cameliers participated in most of the fighting in Egypt and Palestine until the brigade was disbanded in July 1918. The Australian and New Zealand components then traded their camels for horses and became the 5th Light Horse Brigade.
In response to the growing threat from a pro-Turkish Islamic Arab sect known as the Senussi, a composite British force -- the "Western Frontier Force '' -- under the command of the British Indian Army officer Major General Alexander Wallace, was sent into the Libyan Desert to Mersa Matruh in late - November 1915. This force included a composite regiment of Australian light horse and the horse transport of the 1st Division. A series of sharp battles against the Arabs ensued at Um Rakhum, Gebel Medwa and Halazin during December and January. British casualties were comparatively light, although many were killed or wounded, including Australians. Arab losses were much higher however, with hundreds killed during the fighting. Meanwhile, a number of the Australian Light Horse units returning from Gallipoli were sent further south to guard the edge of the Nile Valley against the Senussi. The 1st Armoured Car Section was also involved in guarding the Western Desert until it was sent to Palestine as the 1st Light Car Patrol at the end of 1916.
The Battle of Romani took place near the Egyptian town of Romani, 23 miles (37 km) east of the Suez Canal, on 3 -- 5 August 1916. The goal of the Turkish and German army was to control or destroy the Suez Canal, thereby denying the use of the waterway to the Allies and in doing so aiding the Central Powers. Both the Anzac Mounted Division, under Major General Harry Chauvel, and the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division saw action against the German and Turkish force.
Since first making contact with the advancing German and Turkish force on 20 July they had been harassed alternately by the Australian 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades. During the night of 3 -- 4 August, the day before the battle commenced, both brigades were involved in fighting. By about midday on 4 August, the Turkish and German force had pushed the two Australian brigades back to a point where the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division, in their trenches, were able to attack the Turkish right flank, and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and British 5th Mounted Brigade arrived from their deployment protecting the Suez Canal, to extend the Australians ' line on the left flank. The Turkish and German advance was stopped by the fire brought to bear on them by the combined British infantry and Australian, British and New Zealand mounted forces and the deep sand, the midday summer heat, and thirst.
In these extremely tough conditions, the British infantry were unable to move effectively against the retreating German and Turkish force in the following days. Alone, the Anzac Mounted Division was unable to stop the retreating force withdrawing to Katia and eventually back to their base at Bir el Abd. This base was abandoned the day after it was attacked by the Anzac Mounted Division, on 12 August 1916, ending any threat to the Suez Canal for the remainder of the war. The battle cost the Allies 1,202 casualties of which 222 were killed, 71 died of wounds and 909 were wounded; half of these were Australians.
Following the victory at Romani the Anzac Mounted Division pushed the German and Turkish Army back across the Sinai Peninsula. The German and Turkish forces had been put on the defensive and retreated from Bir el Abd on 12 August 1916 towards the Egyptian -- Turkish frontier, the day after being attacked by the Anzac Mounted Division. A Turkish rearguard action was fought at Bir el Mazar before the German and Turkish force retired to El Arish in September. In the Maghara Hills in October 1916 a strongly defended position was attacked by an Allied force based on the Suez Canal. Both Bir el Mazar and Maghara Hills positions were subsequently abandoned. During November, an aerial bombing raid by 5 B.E.s and a Martinsyde, the largest air attack yet organised in the East was carried out on Beersheba. By the beginning of December the railway had reached Bir el Mazar and with the development of lines of communications, garrisons, support and services, it became possible to plan for an advance to El Arish.
On 21 December, after a night march of 30 miles (48 km) the Anzac Mounted Division, commanded by Chauvel, entered El Arish, which had been abandoned by the German and Turkish force who had retreated to Madghaba where the mounted force won a fierce daylong engagement against strong well constructed defences manned by determined defenders. Situated on the British right flank, the Egyptian outpost of Magdhaba was some 23 miles (37 km) to the south - south - east into the Sinai desert, from El Arish on the Mediterranean coast. With Turkish forces on the defensive, Madghaba, along with another position at Rafa, were the last main obstacles standing in the way of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force 's advance into Palestine. Chauvel, with the agreement of Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode commanding the Desert Column who had arrived earlier that day, set out to attack the Turkish forces at Magdhaba with the Anzac Mounted Division. Leaving at about midnight on 22 December, the Anzac Mounted Division was in a position by 03.50 am on 23 December to see enemy fires still some miles away at Magdhaba.
With the 1st Light Horse Brigade in reserve, Chauvel sent the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade to move on Magdhaba by the north and north - east to cut off the possibility of retreat while the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade followed the telegraph line straight to Magdhaba. The 1st Light Horse Brigade advanced mounted to the attack but fierce shrapnel fire forced them to advance up the wadi bed. By midday all three brigades and the Camel Brigade, despite support from machine - guns and artillery, were hotly engaged. Aerial reconnaissance from Australian and British aircraft, which scouted out the Turkish positions, greatly assisted the attack, although the Turkish positions were obscured by the effect of a mirage and dust clouds.
When the fighting began the going was tough and by 1.00 pm, after hearing that the Turkish defenders still had possession of most of the water in the area, Chauvel decided to call off the attack. However, the message reached the commander of the 1st Light Horse Brigade just as the Australians were preparing to assault the main redoubt, and the message was deliberately misplaced until the attacked had commenced. Both the 1st Light Horse and the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigades made progress capturing about 100 prisoners and by 3.30 pm the Turkish defenders began to surrender. By 4.30 pm, the entire Turkish garrison had surrendered, having suffered heavy casualties, and the town was captured. The victory cost the Australians 22 dead and 121 wounded.
Two and a half weeks later, on the evening of 8 January 1917 the mounted units of the Desert Column commanded by Chetwode rode out of El Arish towards Rafa where a 2,000 - strong Turkish garrison was based. The attacking force comprised the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade, 3rd Light Horse Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade of the Anzac Mounted Division under the command of Chauvel, the 5th Mounted Brigade and three battalions of the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade. After a long night march, the Egyptian Expeditionary Force attacked the strongly entrenched position at El Magruntein. A fierce day - long battle resulted in the mounted troops (fighting dismounted) capturing the town around nightfall with the loss of 71 killed and 415 wounded. The Turkish garrison suffered heavily, with 200 killed and another 1,600 taken prisoner.
In early 1917, the Imperial Mounted Division was formed from the 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades and two British mounted brigades. The division first saw service during the First Battle of Gaza, which occurred in southern Gaza on 26 March 1917. At around noon two mounted brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division attacked Gaza from the north and east. At 6.00 pm the Turkish position had become perilous with the ring closing tightly around Gaza. However, in a decision that dismayed most of their soldiers the British commanders decided to call off the attack and retreat, delivering victory to the Turks. A second attempt was made to capture Gaza on 19 April by which time the Turkish defences were even more formidable and the task confronting the British even more difficult. This battle became known as the Second Battle of Gaza. The Anzac Mounted Division played only a minor role in this battle suffering only 105 casualties out of the 5,917 suffered. The second battle of Gaza was a disastrous defeat for the Allied forces.
In June 1917, the Imperial Mounted Division was renamed as the Australian Mounted Division. In August 1917 Chauvel was placed in command of the Desert Mounted Corps, which included the two Australian mounted divisions, as well as the British Yeomanry Division and the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade. Chauvel became the first Australian to command a corps, as well as the first to achieve the rank of lieutenant general.
With the failure of the Second Battle of Gaza a third assault was launched on Gaza between 31 October and 7 November 1917. Units from the Anzac Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division took part in the battle. The battle was a complete success for the Allies. The Gaza -- Beersheba line was completely overrun and 12,000 Turkish soldiers were captured or surrendered. The critical moment of the battle was the capture of the town of Beersheba on the first day by Australian light horsemen. The Australian 4th Light Horse Brigade, under Brigadier General William Grant, charged more than 4 miles (6.4 km) at the Turkish trenches, overran them and captured the wells at Beersheba. In the capture of Beersheba, the Australians lost 31 men killed. A further 32 were wounded, while 80 horses were lost. On the Turkish side, more than 500 men were killed and 1,500 captured as well as nine artillery pieces and a number of machine guns and other pieces of equipment.
From 1 to 7 November, strong Turkish rearguards at Tel el Khuweilfe in the southern Judean Hills, at Hareira and Sheria on the maritime plain and at Sausage Ridge and Gaza close to the Mediterranean coast, held the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in heavy fighting. During this time the Turkish Army was able to withdraw in good order. The rearguard garrisons themselves were also able to retire under cover of darkness, during the night of 6 / 7 or 7 / 8 November. On 7 and 8 November, the surviving units of the 7th and 8th Turkish armies further delayed the advance of Desert Mounted Corps commanded by Chauvel and the XXI Corps 's 52nd (Lowland) Division and the 75th Yeomanry Division.
All other units of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force had come to the end of their lines of communication. These units were the XXI Corps ' 54th (East Anglian) Division resting at Gaza and the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade at Beit Hanun. Also in the rear was the whole of Chetwode 's XX Corps which had transferred its transport to XXI Corps. Its 53rd (Welsh) Division and corps cavalry, together with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, were deployed in the front line near Tel el Khuweilfe, in the Judean Hills north of Beersheba. While its 60th (London) Infantry Division was resting at Huj, its 10th (Irish) Division and 74th Infantry Division were both resting back at Karm.
The Desert Mounted Corps and the two infantry divisions of XX Corps became involved in a series of engagements during the days leading up to the battle and on the day after. These began on 10 November when one brigade of the 52nd (Lowland) Division and two brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division commanded by Major General Edward Chaytor successfully pushed across the Nahr Sukereir to establish a bridgehead on the Turkish right flank. Three brigades of the Australian Mounted Division under the command of Major General Henry West Hodgson ran into the Turkish rearguard 's left flank around the village of Summeil. The mounted troops occupied the village on 11 November but were unable to advance further due to intense Turkish artillery fire which continued throughout the day.
On 12 November Allenby made preparations for battle the following day. He ordered an attack by the 52nd (Lowland) Division to extend their position across the Nahr Sukereir on the Turkish Army 's right flank. Reinforced with two additional brigades, he ordered the Australian Mounted Division to advance towards Tel es Safi where they encountered a determined and substantial Turkish counterattack. This counterattack forced the mounted division to concede the territory gained during the day, before fighting the Turkish Army to a standstill in front of Summeil. On the morning after the battle at Mughar Ridge, Junction Station was occupied and during the following days other villages in the area were found to have been abandoned. Later in the morning of 14 November New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade ran into a determined and well entrenched Turkish rearguard near Ayun Kara, which they attacked. Fierce close quarter fighting against the Turkish 3rd Infantry Division continued during the afternoon. Although severely threatened, the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade eventually prevailed and went on to occupy Jaffa two days later.
The Battle of Mughar Ridge was fought on 13 November by the 52nd (Lowland) Division and the 75th Division in the centre, with the Australian Mounted Division on their right flank and the Anzac Mounted Division and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions on the infantry 's left flank. The battle was divided into two stages with a pause for artillery to be brought forward. Following the Yeomanry 's successful charge up onto El Mughar ridge, two crucial fortified villages were captured by elements of the 52nd (Lowland) Division. This victory resulted in the subsequent occupation of Junction Station, a vital railway station on the Turk 's lines of communication between Jaffa and Jerusalem.
The Australian mounted troops took part the Capture of Jerusalem in late 1917. These operations included two battles fought in the Judean Hills; the Battle of Nebi Samwil from 17 to 24 November and the Defence of Jerusalem from 26 to 30 December and another fought on the maritime plain; the subsidiary Battle of Jaffa on 21 -- 22 December 1917. This series of battles involved the British Empire 's XX Corps, XXI Corps and the Desert Mounted Corps fighting the Turkish 7th Army in the Judean Hills and the 8th Army north of Jaffa on the Mediterranean coast.
After the failure of widespread and determined Turkish counterattacks fought from 27 November to 1 December by the 7th Turkish Army they evacuated Jerusalem. Troops from the Australian Mounted Division were the first mounted troops to enter Jerusalem in December 1917. Towards the end of December the British Empire forces at the Battle of Jaffa and the Defence of Jerusalem succeeded in pushing the Turkish armies north. A strong British defensive line was established which remained in place until mid September 1918. The line stretched across from well north of the Nahr el Auja on the Mediterranean coast in the west to north and east of Jerusalem. It was extended during the middle of February 1918 when Jericho in the Jordan Valley was captured and the eastern end of the line was secured on the Dead Sea.
In March and April 1918, Australian and New Zealand mounted troops and British infantry took part in two raids east across the Jordan River to Amman and Es Salt, a village in Palestine 23 kilometres (14 mi) west of Amman. Although these raids were unsuccessful, they encouraged Turkish commanders to believe that the main British effort would be launched across the Jordan when it would be launched along the coastal plain. Before these operations could commence it was necessary to capture the country east of Jerusalem and into the Jordan Valley to Jericho. The attack on the Turkish 26th and 53rd Infantry Divisions was made by the 60th (London) and the Anzac Mounted Divisions on 19 February. Talat ed Dumm, on the road from Jerusalem, was captured the next day and in the evening the Wady Fara and Nebi Musa were also captured. On 21 February Jericho was occupied by the two divisions of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force.
During the final offensive in September 1918, the two divisions of Australian mounted troops, as well as the 1st Light Car Patrol and No. 1 Squadron AFC, took part in Battle of Megiddo on 28 September 1918, a decisive British victory in which 70,000 Turkish soldiers were taken prisoner. The Desert Mounted Corps attacked across the Golan Heights, cutting off the north and north - west exits to Damascus on 29 September. On 30 September, the head of a column of 20,000 Turkish and German troops was annihilated by the Australian light horsemen as it attempted to withdraw west through the Barada Gorge. Australian troops were the first to enter Damascus, which fell on 1 October. Following an advance of 300 kilometres (190 mi), Aleppo was captured on 25 October. The Turkish government signed an armistice on 28 October 1918 and surrendered outright two days later.
Following the armistice, the Australian Mounted Division went into camp at Tripoli while the Anzac Mounted Division, having borne the brunt of the entire campaign, suffered heavily from malaria and influenza in the Jordan Valley. Australia 's role in the Sinai and Palestine campaign was later acknowledged by Field Marshal Edmund Allenby, who had been commander - in - chief of the Allied forces in the Middle East, as having been considerable. Total Australian battle casualties in the campaign were 4,851, including 1,374 dead.
In March 1916, the infantry units of the AIF were transferred from Egypt to Europe for service on the Western Front. Initially they were organised into I Anzac Corps and II Anzac Corps alongside the New Zealand Division. The 2nd Division was the first to arrive in France, followed by the 1st Division, while the 4th and 5th left Egypt later in June 1916. The 3rd Division was the last to arrive, having been formed in Australia in March 1916, and moving to England for training in July 1916, before being sent to France in December 1916. For the next two and a half years the constant rotations in and out of the line were punctuated by a number of major battles, during which the Australians earned for themselves a formidable reputation. On 1 November 1917 the Australian divisions were re-grouped together to form the Australian Corps.
When the 1st Division arrived, it was reunited with its mechanical transport. In September 1914, the Army had decided to supply mechanical transport for the 1st Division and formed a company in New South Wales and one in Victoria. These were the first ever mechanical transport units in the Australian Army. Nearly 200 vehicles were purchased and the two units departed Melbourne for Egypt on 22 December 1914. Unfortunately, vehicles over 5 long tons (5.1 t) were prohibited in Cairo as most bridges could not hold their weight, whereas they possessed vehicles weighing up to 7 long tons (7.1 t). It was therefore arranged for them to continue to England where they arrived on 15 February 1915. There they lived in tents on Salisbury Plain and hauled gravel for roads before being sent to France in July 1915.
They were not the first Australians to serve on the Western Front. An Australian Voluntary Hospital had been formed in England in August 1914 from Australian expatriates. All medical practitioners in the unit were Australians and although women were not allowed to serve as doctors, Australian nurses were accepted. The unit left for France in August 1914 and from October was based at Wimereux, where the 2nd General Hospital joined it in June 1916. In July 1916, the Australian Voluntary Hospital was absorbed into the British Army. Another group of Australians had also arrived in France before I Anzac Corps. In June 1915, the 1st Siege Artillery Brigade was formed under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Walter Adams Coxen, the Australian Army 's Director of Artillery, for service on the Western Front. About half the men in the unit were permanent gunners of the Garrison Artillery. The brigade departed Melbourne for England on 17 July 1915 and landed in France on 27 February 1916. Its 54th Siege Battery was equipped with 8 inch howitzers and its 55th Siege Battery with 9.2 inch howitzers.
With the move of the majority of the AIF to France, the base organisation was transferred to the United Kingdom. Most of the training units moved to the Salisbury Plain, establishing depots at Perham Down, Rollestone, Larkhill and Tidworth. When it arrived, the 3rd Division also moved into camps in this area. Command Depots, where men returning from hospitals were sent before being returned to their units, were established at Perham Down, Weymouth, Wool, Dorset and Worgret. Depots for men moving from the United Kingdom to France were established at Étaples. In June 1917, these were swapped with the Canadians for depots around Le Havre, thereby reducing travelling time from the Salisbury Plain. AIF Headquarters was established at Horseferry Road in London and Colonel R.M. McC. Anderson, a businessman, was appointed as its commandant. Anderson negotiated a new method of payment for services provided by the British Army as a per capita per diem payment.
On 7 April 1916, I Anzac Corps took up positions in a quiet sector south of Armentières, known as the "Nursery ''. The Australians were spared from participating in the disastrous first day on the Somme, nevertheless within three weeks of the beginning of the Allied offensive, four divisions of the AIF had been committed to the battle. Only the 3rd Division did not take part, having only just recently arrived in England from Australia. The 5th Division, positioned on the left flank of the salient, was the first to see action during the Battle of Fromelles on 19 July 1916, suffering a staggering 5,533 casualties in a single day.
The 1st Division entered the line on 23 July 1916, taking part in the assault on Pozières. Initially they succeeded in carrying the German positions with relatively small losses, however, once the Germans had recovered they directed an intense artillery barrage upon the town which resulted in heavy losses. By the time that they were relieved by the 2nd Division on 27 July, they had suffered 5,286 casualties. Two days after taking over the line, the 2nd Division was thrown into a hastily planned attack that resulted in further casualties when the Germans spotted the Australians forming up and once again subjected them to the weight of their artillery and machine guns. Another attack was launched on 4 August which, although it met with success, resulted again in such heavy casualties -- almost 7,000 -- that the division was relieved the next day.
Following the attack on Pozières the Australians were called upon to attack Mouquet Farm in August. All three divisions of I Anzac Corps were committed in an effort to force a breach in the German lines behind Thiepval, to the north of Pozières. The task of the initial advance fell to the 4th Division on 10 August, which had already suffered 1,000 casualties resisting the final German counter-attack, but in the ensuing battle it would lose a further three times that number as the Australians once again suffered at the hands of the German artillery, finding themselves squeezed into a frontage of less than 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) against which the Germans were able to concentrate the weight of their defence. Three more attacks were made over the course of the next three weeks as the Australians fought their way across the shell - pocked countryside to the farm, only to be forced out again shortly after by the concentration of German artillery. The other two divisions of I Anzac fared only slightly better in these attacks and at the end of the engagement, Australian casualties at Mouquet Farm totalled 6,300 men.
As that battle on the Somme dragged on, the Canadian Corps was brought up and the AIF was withdrawn from the line to re-organise and reform, having suffered almost 23,000 casualties over the course of the 45 days that they had been involved. The 5th Division had been so badly mauled, having been incapacitated by the losses they had suffered at Fromelles, that it was not until October that the 5th Division finally returned to the line and joined the 1st, 2nd and 4th Divisions on the Somme near Flers.
In March 1917 two ' flying columns ' from the 2nd and 5th Divisions pursued the German back to the Hindenburg Line, capturing the town of Bapaume. On 11 April, the 4th Division, consisting of the 4th and 12th Brigades, assaulted the Hindenburg Line in the First Battle of Bullecourt. The battle was a disaster, with over 3,000 casualties and 1,170 taken prisoner by the Germans. On 15 April the 1st and 2nd Divisions were struck by a German counterattack at dawn near the town of Lagnicourt, by a force of up to 23 battalions as the Germans attempted to take advantage of the weakness that had developed in the Allied line following the British offensive at Arras. The Australians were initially forced to abandon the town to the Germans and in the process several artillery batteries were lost, however, at 7: 00 am a successful counterattack was launched by four Australian battalions, resulting in the town being recaptured and the guns reclaimed. Later, on 3 May two brigades of the 2nd Division -- the 5th and the 6th -- took part in the Second Battle of Bullecourt, where they succeeded in taking sections of the Hindenburg Line and eventually managed to hold most these gains until they were relieved by the 1st Division. On 7 May the 5th Division was committed to relieve the 1st, remaining in the line until the battle ended in mid May. While the battle resulted in a victory for the Allies, the effort cost the AIF some 7,482 casualties and ultimately ended plans to expand the AIF to a sixth division.
On 7 June 1917, along with two British corps, the II Anzac Corps, consisting of the Australian 3rd Division, the British 25th Division and the New Zealand Division, with the Australian 4th Division attached, launched an operation in the Flanders region of southern Belgium, near Messines The objective was to eliminate a salient that had developed in the line south of Ypres, enclosing the Wytschaete -- Messines ridge and thus providing the Germans with good observation and fields of fire that could threaten the major offensive that the British planned to launch around Ypres later in the year. The attack commenced with the detonation of 1,000,000 pounds (450,000 kg) of explosives that had been placed underneath the Messines ridge in 19 separate tunnels, completely destroying the German trenches.
Following the explosions, the Allied advance was virtually unopposed as the Germans were too stunned and demoralised to put up much resistance. However, not everything went the Australians ' way. The 3rd Division, under Major General John Monash, suffered heavy casualties when they were shelled by phosgene gas and shrapnel shells while moving towards the line of departure, nevertheless the division still managed to get into position for the start of the attack. Strong German counterattacks were launched the next day, once again supported by concentrated artillery fire; however, the advance was able to continue on through the mess of concrete blockhouses the Germans had erected and continued on until all the objectives had been taken. Australian casualties amounted to nearly 6,800 men. On 2 July 1917, Major General Holmes was mortally wounded by a German shellburst while surveying the Messines battlefield with the Premier of New South Wales, William Holman.
Between September and November 1917, I Anzac Corps took part in a number of actions around Ypres in Belgium as the Allies launched a campaign in order to capture the Gheluvelt Plateau in Belgium. Collectively these actions have come to be known as the Third Battle of Ypres, of which they were a part, although to Australians they are more commonly known by the names of the places where the individual actions took place -- Menin Road, Polygon Wood, Broodseinde, Poelcappelle and Passchendaele.
I Anzac Corps was committed six weeks after the start of the battle and on 16 September, having marched through Ypres the night before, the 1st and 2nd Divisions took up a position in the trenches on the main ridge at Glencorse Wood. The first attack came on 20 September at Menin Road, where the Australians experienced success making considerable gains against the enemy for the loss of about 5,000 casualties. On 26 September, the 4th and 5th Divisions attacked and captured Polygon Wood, while later on 4 October, another successful attack was made on the main ridge at Broodseinde, where the four Australian divisions involved fought side by side, as they clashed head on with a German counterattack that had been launched at the same time the Australians had risen to carry out their assault. The result was a rout by the Australians, as the German line broke and following further attacks against German pillboxes, the ridge was captured.
The first two attacks had been successful and as Allied commanders began to believe that a breakthrough was possible further attacks were made at Poelcappelle on 9 October and at Passchendaele on 12 October despite heavy rain that turned the ground into a muddy quagmire. Both attacks were ultimately doomed to failure, with heavy casualties, as the attacks foundered in the mud and as the battle petered out, it was decided that it was time for the Australians to be withdrawn from the line. This was completed by 14 November 1917. Over the course of the eight weeks they had been involved in the fighting around Ypres, they had suffered 38,000 casualties.
On 21 March 1918, having been buoyed by the capitulation of Tsarist Russia, the German Army launched their Spring Offensive against the Allies with a staggering 63 divisions over a front of 70 miles (110 km). As the Allies began to fall back against the tremendous weight of this offensive, on 25 March the Australian 3rd and 4th Divisions were rushed south to Amiens from where they had been holding the line at Messines. The German offensive lasted with varying intensity for the next five months and during this time, all five divisions of the AIF in France were involved in the fighting as they attempted to stem the tide of the German advance, which achieved large territorial gains and at one stage looked like it might ultimately secure a remarkable victory for the Germans as they pushed to within 50 miles (80 km) from Paris late in May. During this time, the Australians were involved in a number of actions at Dernancourt, Morlancourt, Villers - Bretonneux, Hangard Wood, Hazebrouck, and Hamel.
Of these actions, the last one, at Hamel on 4 July 1918, is perhaps the most notable. Even though the action was relatively minor in terms of the scale of previous operations mounted on the Western Front, it is notable because it was the first ' set - piece ' operation planned and carried out by the newly appointed commander of the Australian Corps, Lieutenant General John Monash and it has since been used as the model of how to successfully carry out a combined arms attack. Using aircraft, artillery and armour in effective combination with infantry, the attack was over in the space of 93 minutes; although Monash had planned for a 90 - minute operation. It achieved its objectives of straightening the Allied line and taking the town of Hamel. The Australians had advanced the line almost 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) across a front of 6.5 kilometres (4.0 mi) and in the process taken roughly 1,600 German prisoners as well as over 200 machine guns, trench mortars and anti-tank weapons. Against this the Australians suffered 1,062 casualties.
The last - ditched effort by the Germans to win the war came to a grinding halt in mid-July and after that there followed a brief period of lull, during which time the Australians undertook a series of small unit actions aimed at capturing parts of the German line with limited support. These actions became known as Peaceful Penetrations and were essentially a cross between trench raids and patrolling. Their success relied heavily upon the leadership and initiative of junior commanders and the ability of soldiers to employ principles of fire and manouevre. This lull did not last long, however, as the Allies were soon ready to launch their own offensive, known as the Hundred Days Offensive, which would ultimately bring about an end to the war.
The offensive began on 8 August 1918 when 20 Allied divisions, including four Australian, struck at Amiens on the Somme. Using the combined arms techniques developed earlier at Hamel, the Allies achieved territorial gains that had been unheard of since the start of the war. In the Australian sector, the 4th and 5th Divisions had initially spearheaded the advance, before the 2nd and 3rd Divisions had advanced another three kilometres to secure the secondary objectives. The attack had been so successful that it was later described by German General Erich Ludendorff as a "black day '' for the German Army.
Following that the Allied offensive continued for the next four months, right up until the end of the war. During the Second Battle of the Somme the Australian Corps fought actions at Lihons, Etinehem, Proyart, Chuignes, and Mont St Quentin, before taking part in their final engagement of the war on 5 October 1918 at Montbrehain. Australian casualties during these battles were very high and coupled with the drying up of reinforcements from Australia, the rejection of the proposal to introduce conscription and the granting of home leave to men who been serving since 1914 meant that by the end of the war the AIF was severely stretched to the limit. Consequently, during the height of the offensive it was decided to disband three battalions -- the 36th, 47th and 52nd -- in order to reinforce other units.
The engagement at Montbrehain was the Australian Corps ' last contribution to the war and they were out of the line training when the Armistice was declared on 11 November 1918. Total Australian casualties on the Western Front numbered 181,000, including 46,000 of whom died. Another 114,000 men were wounded, 16,000 gassed, and approximately 3,850 were taken prisoners of war.
When the war ended, there were 92,000 Australian soldiers in France, 60,000 in England and 17,000 in Egypt, Palestine and Syria. Small numbers were serving in other theatres. Australian troops from the 1st Australian Wireless Signal Squadron provided communications for British forces during the Mesopotamian Campaign. They participated in a number of battles, including the Battle of Baghdad in March 1917 and the Battle of Ramadi in September that year. Meanwhile, following the Russian Revolution in 1917, the Caucasus Front collapsed, leaving Central Asia open to the Turkish Army. A special force, known as Dunsterforce after its commander, Major General Lionel Dunsterville, was formed from hand - picked British officers and NCOs to organise any remaining Russian forces or civilians who were ready to fight the Turkish forces. Some 20 Australian officers served with Dunsterforce in the Caucasus Campaign and one party under Captain Stanley Savige was instrumental in protecting thousands of Assyrian refugees. Australian nurses also staffed four British hospitals in Salonika, and another 10 in India.
The Australian Flying Corps (AFC) was formed in March 1914 and it was soon deployed to German New Guinea, with one BE2c aircraft and crew dispatched with the AN&MEF, although the colonies surrendered before the plane was even unpacked. The first operational flights did not occur until 27 May 1915, when the Mesopotamian Half Flight was called upon to assist the Indian Army in protecting British oil interests in what is now Iraq. The Corps later saw action in Egypt, Palestine and on the Western Front throughout the remainder of the war. Organised into four operational squadrons in France and the Middle East and another four training squadrons in England, the AFC remained part of the AIF.
The Mesopotamian Half - Flight -- also known as the Australian Half - Flight -- was the first AFC unit to see active service. On 8 February 1915, the Australian Government had received a request for air assistance from the Viceroy of India for assistance fighting the Turks. The AFC was still forming and could provide enough aircrew and ground staff for only half a flight: the unit therefore became known as the Mesopotamian Half - Flight and Captain Henry Petre was appointed commander. The AFC contingent sailed for Bombay, and on 20 April 1915 it left for Basra, arriving at the end of May. Flying underpowered and unreliable aircraft such as the Caudron, Maurice Farman Longhorn and Martinsyde, the Half - Flight suffered a high attrition rate, losing two killed and six captured out of its strength of just nine pilots. The arrival of reinforcements allowed the formation of a squadron, (No. 30 Squadron RFC), however by November 1915 only one of the original pilots remained. The squadron was mainly involved in unarmed reconnaissance, although later small 9 pounds (4.1 kg) bombs were added to the aircraft. In October, three Australian aircraft bombed an Arab tribe known to be hostile in an unsuccessful attempt to bring them to surrender. During the Siege of Kut the last Australian pilot in Mesopotamia, Captain Petre, dropped supplies to the garrison. When Kut surrendered, the AFC ground crewmen located in the city were captured, seven of them later dying in captivity. Petre flew the only remaining Shorthorn to Egypt on 7 December 1915, where he rendezvoused with No. 1 Squadron AFC, effectively marking the end of the Half - Flight 's service.
By late 1915 the AFC began forming complete squadrons. At British request No. 1 Squadron was dispatched to Egypt with 28 officers and 195 other ranks, where they were equipped with British aircraft including BE2c and Martinsyde G100. The squadron operated from Heliopolis, Palestine and Syria over the next two years, supporting ground forces in all the major battles of the Palestine campaign against the Turks. Missions included aerial reconnaissance, bombing enemy positions, communications and artillery spotting. They were also involved in many air - to - air battles with German aircraft, while it was in this theatre that the Australians first encountered anti-aircraft fire. The squadron was re-equipped in 1917 with BE2a, RE8 and Martinsyde G102 aircraft, while by 1918 these types were replaced with Bristol F. 2 Fighters. Notably during this time Lieutenant Frank McNamara was awarded the Victoria Cross for rescuing another Australian pilot who had been shot down by ground fire and forced to land close to Turkish positions on 20 March 1917. No. 1 Squadron also took part in the actions at Wadi Fara on 21 September 1918 as part of the Battle of Megiddo, which witnessed the destruction of the bulk of the Turkish Seventh Army by British airpower.
Additional AFC squadrons began forming in Australia for service on the Western Front, with No. 2, 3 and 4 Squadrons arriving in France between August and December 1917. No. 2 Squadron, equipped with DH5s, was subsequently involved in the Battle of Cambrai on 20 November 1917, conducting patrol duties, ground strafing and bombing enemy troops and positions. Casualties were high with 7 of the squadrons 18 aircraft shot down, and 2 pilots lost. No. 3 Squadron, equipped with RE8s, was supporting the final phase of the Battle of Passchendaele in Flanders, conducting mainly artillery spotting duties. No. 4 Squadron, equipped with Sopwith Camels, was the last to arrive in France, and was assigned to the First Army around Lens. Notably during March 1918 the squadron was engaged in aerial combat with aircraft commanded by Manfred von Richthofen -- known as the ' Red Baron ' -- shooting down two German aircraft for the loss of one of their own. The Lens sector had been relatively quiet until 21 March 1918 when the Germans launched a major offensive, with No. 4 Squadron heavily engaged in low - level bombing to support the 4th Australian Division.
The Australian squadrons played a limited role in the allied advance from Amiens on 8 August 1918, with No. 3 Squadron engaged in reconnaissance and contact patrols to help identify the locations of forward troops. They also undertook extensive aerial photography to aid in remapping and the locating of German artillery positions. During this period Nos. 2 and 4 Squadrons were in the Ypres -- Arras area and were involved in patrols and raids on the railways in the vicinity of Lille. With the Germans in retreat during September 1918, the squadrons felt considerable pressure just keeping up. Regardless, No. 4 Squadron took part in, perhaps its most spectacular action, in the very last weeks of the war. On 29 October, 15 Australian Sopwith Snipes encountered more than 60 German Fokkers, in an action which became one of the largest air battles of the war. The Australians gained the upper hand and 10 Fokkers were shot down for the loss of one Snipe, and the damage of several others.
During their time on the Western Front, No. 2 and No 4. Squadrons had been used mainly in the fighter role, while No. 3 Squadron was primarily used for reconnaissance. No. 4 Squadron became the most successful fighter squadron in France, accounting for 199 enemy aircraft, while No. 2 Squadron was credited with the destruction of 185. The total AFC casualties on the Western Front included 78 killed, 68 wounded and 33 taken prisoner. Following the end of the war on 11 November 1918, No. 4 Squadron was the only Australian unit assigned to the British Army of Occupation, arriving in Germany in December and being based in Cologne. The three AFC squadrons subsequently handed over their equipment to the RAF in February 1919 and returned to Australia where they disbanded.
Despite Australian military aviation being in its infancy, the AFC 's identity as a separate national force was considered important, not to mention unusual. Thousands of aircrew from the other Dominions -- such as New Zealand and Canada -- flew with the Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service, and their unified successor force after 1 April 1918, the Royal Air Force during the war, without gaining the benefits of command and the administrative experience which came with an independent air service. By the end of the war, four squadrons had seen active service, 460 officers and 2,234 other ranks had served in the AFC, and another 200 men had served as aircrew in the British flying services. Casualties included 175 dead, 111 wounded, 6 gassed and 40 captured. The AFC was subsequently disbanded after the war in 1919 being replaced by the Australian Air Corps, which became the Royal Australian Air Force in 1921.
At the outbreak of war the Royal Australian Navy consisted of the battlecruiser HMAS Australia, the light cruisers Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane (under construction), the destroyers Parramatta, Yarra and Warrego, and the submarines AE1 and AE2. Three more destroyers were also under construction. The Squadron was under the command of Rear Admiral Sir George E. Patey, a British admiral who was knighted on the deck of the Australia before it departed England in 1913.
The first naval operation of the war was in support of the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force during the occupation of German New Guinea. The naval portion of the force included the Australia, Melbourne, Sydney, Warrego, Encounter, and submarine AE1. The only loss during the New Guinea Campaign occurred when the AE1 disappeared on 14 September 1914, taking three officers and 32 men with it.
The first major RAN victory of the war occurred when the cruiser, HMAS Sydney sank the German light cruiser, SMS Emden off the Cocos Islands in the Indian Ocean on 9 November 1914. Four Australians were killed in the engagement and another 12 were wounded. Ships of the RAN helped provide naval cover for the ambitious landings at Gallipoli, and the submarine AE2 broke the blockade of the Dardanelles to harass Turkish shipping but was later sunk and her crew captured in the Sea of Marmara.
In 1915 the light cruisers Melbourne and Sydney were deployed to the Atlantic where they worked alongside the Royal Navy 's North American and West Indies Squadrons, which were engaged in surveillance operations on the large number of German ships that had taken refuge in neutral American ports when the war had broken out. This continued until September 1916 when both cruisers were moved to the North Sea where they joined Australia, which had been assisting the Royal Navy in its blockade of the German High Seas Fleet.
During this time the RAN also continued to carry out operations in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. By 1915 there were up to 74 German ships which had taken refuge in ports in the Netherlands East Indies. The presence of these ships close to Australia and the sea lanes that connected the nation to the United Kingdom and the Middle East was a cause of concern to the Navy and so in the middle of 1915 the cruiser HMAS Psyche and the sloop Fantome were sent to the Bay of Bengal to conduct patrol operations. Later in the year, in October, a force of three destroyers, a yacht and the cruiser Encounter were sent into the Macassar Strait to search for a German munitions base that had been reported in the area. Nothing was found, although the patrol served to interrupt German efforts to carry out subversive activities in a number of British possessions.
In May 1917 the British government requested assistance from the Australian government in dealing with the increasing threat posed by German U-boats. Six destroyers -- the Warrego, Parramatta, Yarra, Swan, Torrens and Huon -- were sent in response to this request, and undertook anti-submarine operations in the Adriatic, working out of Brindisi, Italy as part of the Otranto Barrage.
The most decorated RAN unit of the war was the Bridging Train. A reserve unit commanded by Lieutenant Commander Leighton Bracegirdle, it supported the British at Suvla Bay during the Gallipoli Campaign by constructing piers and harbours in the bay. Afterwards it served in Egypt and Palestine, taking part in an amphibious assault in El Arish and the First Battle of Gaza before it was disbanded in 1917. A number of members later went on to serve with the AIF and RAN. During the war the RAN lost 171 men killed, including 15 officers and 156 sailors, of which six officers and 57 sailors had been on loan from the Royal Navy.
Although the main focus of Australia 's military during World War I was overseas in Europe and the Middle East, there was still a necessity to maintain troops in Australia on home service to carry out a number of essential tasks. As the AIF was otherwise engaged these duties out of necessity fell to the soldiers of the militia and a small number of regular soldiers.
In the early stages of mobilisation a number of militia infantry battalions were called out to carry out guard duties upon infrastructure that was considered important to the war effort, such as munitions factories, communications facilities, ammunition dumps and transportation centres. 500 men from the Kennedy Regiment were sent to Thursday Island from Townsville to garrison the island in response to a possible threat from German forces in the Pacific. Additionally, militia troops were used to establish and guard internment camps and garrison artillery and engineer units from the militia were also mobilised to assist the regular units that were manning coastal defences.
By the end of 1914 the naval situation in the Pacific had eased to a large extent due to the sinking of the Emden, and it was decided that there was no longer a need to maintain guards on many of the less important facilities, and instead it was decided to concentrate the home defence network upon maintaining the coastal defences and on guarding ships while they were in port. Nevertheless, in the larger seaports these precautions required the commitment of considerable resources, requiring several hundred men to provide security. The requirement for the militia to undertake these duties was eased, however, when a special corps was raised from men that had been rejected for service with the AIF, to which a corps of garrison military police that had served in the AIF was added later.
The militia garrison artillery and engineers were required throughout the war, however, to man the coastal defences. Despite the fact that after 1915 it was decided that only small garrisons were required on active service, the militia was ordered to maintain their readiness in case they were required to be called out and such was the importance placed upon their role that to a large extent they were barred from joining the AIF for overseas service. In February 1916 a large - scale effort by militia artillerymen to enlist in the artillery units that were being raised for the 3rd Division was prevented when they were called out to man the coastal defences due to the threat posed by a German commerce raider that was believed to be in the Pacific. This mobilisation lasted until April 1916, when the garrisons were again reduced and the ban on men serving in militia artillery and engineer units volunteering for overseas service was lifted.
In April 1918 the militia artillery was again mobilised, although this time only for a month, when news that the German commerce raiders Wolf and Seeadler had entered Australian waters the previous year. In June 1918 the number of troops actively employed on home service was 9,215, of which 2,476 were regulars. At this time the Navy took over the task of providing guards for ships in harbour and communications facilities, thus allowing for many of the militia troops to be released for further training, and as such it was decided to increase the period of camp training for the militia from eight days to 24.
Throughout World War I the Australian forces deployed overseas were all volunteers, however, on the home front there was considerable debate about the issue of conscription. Conscription had been a contentious issue ever since Federation and when the AIF was initially raised in 1914 it had been decided that it would be an all - volunteer force due to the provisions of the Defence Act that precluded sending conscripts overseas. Nevertheless, as the war progressed, casualties amongst the deployed forces began to reach alarming rates and as the flow of reinforcements and recruits for the AIF began to drop in 1916, the issue of conscription rose once more.
In Australia, however, public opinion about the matter was divided with many Australians opposed to the issue on moral grounds, feeling that the situation was not desperate enough to require such a drastic measure, while others felt it necessary in order to achieve final victory. The Hughes Labor government decided to hold a plebiscite on the matter and on 28 October 1916 the matter was decided by a narrow margin of 51 per cent to 49 per cent, with the no vote prevailing. Despite the result, the issue split the Labor Party and the pro-conscription prime minister, Billy Hughes, ultimately left the party and joined with members of the opposition that supported conscription to form a new party, known as the Nationalist Party.
As manpower shortages on the Western Front began to become acute, a second plebiscite was held on 20 December 1917. This time it was defeated by an even greater margin of 94,152 votes. This effectively put an end to plans to expand the AIF in France and ultimately led to severe manpower shortages that the AIF in France experienced in 1917 and 1918. As a result, plans to expand the force to a 6th Division were shelved and its manpower distributed amongst the other five divisions, while the five divisions were amalgamated together under the banner of the Australian Corps, thus effectively allowing the 4th Division, which was struggling to maintain its numbers to act as a depot formation within the Corps with the other three divisions providing most of the combat power.
As the war continued, the manpower shortages continued. Wounded men were being pressed back into service, and there were cases of "combat refusal '' by the 1st and 59th Battalions. On 23 September 1918, Monash ordered the breakup of some under - strength battalions to reinforce others. In the AIF the battalion was the source of pride and identification for the men, rather than the regiment as in the British Army, so in some cases this order was defied -- some men, who were not eligible to draw rations as their unit no longer officially existed, lived by stealing food or sharing with other units. Monash rescinded the order for a while but eventually "the Heads '' (as Australians called their senior officers) enforced the change by marching off companies by night into different battalions. The change ultimately proved unnecessary as the war ended shortly after.
The global nature of the war meant that many functions that were previously vested in the individual Australian state governments had to be placed under the control of the Commonwealth government. Additionally, the exigencies of the war meant that the government required the power to enact certain laws that under the Constitution it would not normally be able to do. In order to enable this to occur, the War Precautions Act 1914 was introduced in October 1914, providing the Commonwealth government with wide - ranging powers for a period of up to six months after the duration of the war.
The main provisions of the Act were focused upon allowing the Commonwealth to enact legislation that was required for the smooth prosecution of the war. The main areas in which legislation was enacted under the War Precautions Act were: the prevention of trade with hostile nations, the creation of loans to raise money for the war effort, the introduction of a national taxation scheme, the fixing of the prices of certain goods, the internment of people considered a danger to the war effort, the compulsory purchase of strategic goods, and the censorship of the media.
At the outbreak of the war there were about 35,000 people who had been born in either Germany or Austria - Hungary living in Australia. Due to large - scale German migration in the late 19th century, there were also an inestimable number of people of German origin, many of whom maintained an affinity for their ancestral roots. Many of these were naturalised Australians, and indeed it is believed that many men of German origin enlisted in the AIF. However, due to concerns about the loyalties of some members of the German and Austrian communities, internment camps were set up where those suspected of unpatriotic acts were sent. In total it is believed that 4,500 people were interned under the provisions of the War Precautions Act, of which 700 were naturalised Australians and 70 Australian - born. Following the end of the war, 6,150 were deported.
There was a considerable public backlash to the way in which some of the provisions of the War Precautions Act were applied, particularly in relation to certain sections of the community such as trade unions and other sections of the community that were for various reasons not as sympathetic to the British cause as the wider community. Indeed, in 1917, following the suppression of a prominent trade union and the jailing of 12 of its members on charges of sedition and sabotage, it seemed as if Australia 's war effort might have been in danger of breaking down.
After the war, the continued operation of the War Precautions Act led to considerable social and political unrest in late 1918 and into 1919 and a number of violent incidents broke out. The most notable of these was the so - called Red Flag Riots in Brisbane, in 1919.
At the outset of the war, Australia 's economy had been quite small and dependent largely upon agriculture and the resources industries for export earnings, while most manufactured products were imported from overseas. Almost immediately uncertainty over the continuation of foreign trade led to a rise in unemployment, indeed it was estimated that after only a couple of days of Britain having declared war, that up to 15,000 men had been retrenched in New South Wales alone due to concerns about the continued availability of foreign markets for Australian produce.
These initial concerns, however, were short lived, at least in the beginning as the British government provided assurances that it would underwrite a large amount of the war risk insurance for shipping in order to allow trade amongst the Commonwealth to continue. Shortly thereafter the wartime direction of trade began when the British asked the Australian government to place certain restrictions upon overseas trade in order to secure resources vital to the war effort and to limit the ability of the Central Powers from obtaining these goods from Commonwealth nations via neutral third parties. To an extent these restrictions served to reduce the ability of Australian producers to find buyers for their products, at least initially, however, in many cases the British stepped in to buy these goods, thus alleviating Australian concerns about a significant reduction in the standard of living. This understanding proved particularly beneficial for the wool and wheat industries, where the British government undertook to buy Australian products even though the shortage of shipping meant that there was no chance that they would ever receive them.
On the whole Australian commerce was expanded due to the war, although the cost of the war was quite considerable and the Australian government had to borrow considerably from overseas to fund the war effort. In terms of value, Australian exports rose almost 45 per cent, while the number of Australians employed in the manufacturing industry increased over 11 per cent. This was due in the most part to the reduced ability of traditional sources to continue supplying Australia with manufactured products, which out of necessity stimulated the development of the Australian manufacturing industry.
In terms of goods produced indigenously, it was estimated that due to the inability of traditional suppliers to deliver manufactured goods because of trade embargoes and shipping shortages up to 400 new articles were produced in Australian factories as a result of the war. This was not an insignificant number, although the transformation of the Australian economy as a result of World War I was by no means as significant as that which occurred during World War II. The expansion of the steel industry that occurred during this time laid the foundation for future industrialisation.
Despite this increase in the domestic manufacturing industry there was still a significant shortfall in many items. In part this was due to the priority that military consumption and production necessarily had over civilian, however, there was also a considerable scarcity of raw materials and other components required for manufacturing. This was due both to the lack of shipping available from the United Kingdom, as well as the limitations placed upon the flow of such goods from Britain due to their own increased requirements. The result of this was inflationary. Domestic prices went up, while the cost of exports was deliberately kept lower than market value in an effort to prevent further inflationary pressures worldwide. As a result, the cost of living for many average Australians was increased considerably.
An increase in the trade union movement was an inevitable corollary of this and during the war years there was a considerable increase in the membership of the various unions. Despite the considerable rises in the costs of many basic items, the government sought to maintain wages largely as they were. Although the average weekly wage during the war was increased by between 8 -- 12 per cent, it was not enough to keep up with inflation and as a result there was considerable discontent amongst workers, to the extent that industrial action followed. Not all of these disputes were due to economic factors, and indeed in some part they were the result of violent opposition to the issue of conscription, which many trade unionists were opposed to. Nevertheless, the result was very disruptive and it has been estimated that between 1914 and 1918 there were 1,945 industrial disputes, resulting in 8,533,061 working days lost and £ 4,785,607 in lost wages.
Overall, the war had a significantly negative impact on the Australia economy. Real aggregate Gross Domestic Product (GDP) declined by 9.5 per cent over the period 1914 to 1920, while the mobilization of personnel resulted in a 6 per cent decline in civilian employment. Meanwhile, although population growth continued during the war years, it was only half that of the prewar rate. Per capita incomes also declined sharply, falling by 16 per cent.
Following the end of hostilities in Europe the Australian government decided against contributing Australian forces to the occupation forces that were sent to Germany as part of the post war settlement so that it could begin the repatriation of the AIF early. Lieutenant General Sir John Monash was appointed Director - General of Repatriation and Demobilisation and oversaw the process in Britain, while Lieutenant General Henry Chauvel took charge of the efforts in the Middle East.
Rather than employing a system that returned men by units, or by employment categories, it was decided to utilise an egalitarian system that saw men who had been away for the longest period of time being returned first. Due to the size of the forces deployed overseas -- roughly 167, 000 personnel in France, Britain and Egypt -- and the logistical requirements of bringing them home the process was nevertheless a lengthy one and as such it became important to occupy the troops while they waited. In order to achieve this and to prepare the men for a return to civilian employment, a vocational education scheme was set up by George Long and troops in Britain were offered educational courses and civilian work placement opportunities and although these programs were not as successful as hoped, several thousand soldiers took advantage of them.
Some Australians decided to delay their departure and instead joined the British Army and went on to serve in Northern Russia during the Russian Civil War, although officially the Australian government refused to contribute forces to the campaign. HMAS Yarra, Torrens, Swan and Parramatta served in the Black Sea during the same conflict. Elsewhere, in Egypt in early 1919, a number of Australian light horse units were used to quell a nationalist uprising while they were waiting for passage back to Australia. Despite shortages in shipping, the process of returning the soldiers to Australia was completed faster than expected and by September 1919 there were 10,000 men still left in Britain waiting for repatriation. The last of the main transports conveying Australian troops left England on 23 December 1919, arriving in Australia in early 1920. A year later, on 1 April 1921, the AIF was officially disbanded.
The process of repatriation did not end there, though. Upon their return to Australia the effort shifted towards placing the returned soldiers into employment, or education and taking care of those that were too badly injured to work. In order to meet these needs the Commonwealth established the Repatriation Department, tasked with managing the placement of returned soldiers into employment, training, education, housing. Eventually this also included the colossal task of managing the provision of war pensions, managing repatriation hospitals and convalescent homes and administering the Soldier Settlement Scheme. The total cost of these provisions was considerable, and in June 1935 it was estimated to have cost approximately £ 238,000,000 which was more than the total amount spent on defence during the war.
In order to advocate for the many thousands of returned servicemen and women many ex-services organisations sprang up. The most prominent of these was probably the Returned Sailors and Soldiers Imperial League of Australia which had been established in 1916 by representatives from many state - based organisations already in existence. Following the war this organisation grew in its political influence as its numbers grew and was very active in the repatriation process, advocating for financial entitlements for veterans and securing concessions for soldiers returning to civilian employment. By 1919 it was estimated to have 150,000 members although this fell dramatically in the mid-1920s.
The war affected Australia in many ways, although arguably not as greatly as it did the many European nations that were more directly involved. Economically the war had a number of significant impacts, although the Great Depression would later prove far more significant and Australian industry was not as greatly transformed as it would be following World War II. The political landscape was also transformed due to the rifts that resulted from the issue of conscription, while to a smaller extent the role of women in society also evolved as more women entered the workforce. Indeed, between 1914 and 1918 there had been a 13 per cent increase in the employment of women; however, this was mainly in areas were women were traditionally employed. Equally, although around 2,000 women were employed as nurses in the AIF, there was no great involvement of women in the military during the war.
Another legacy was the manner in which it led to the emergence -- albeit only fleetingly -- of an independence in Australian foreign affairs. Although previously Australian foreign interests had been largely handled by Britain, as a combatant Australia sent its own delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, while it also began to take a more assertive role in regional affairs in the Pacific. At the peace conference Prime Minister Hughes pushed aggressively for reparations and an Australian mandate over German New Guinea; a stance which conflicted with the liberal internationalist inspired Fourteen Points put forward by American President Woodrow Wilson. Regardless, following the war there was little real change in Imperial relations and Dominion affairs, and as a result the war arguably did not lead to any significant change in Australia 's perception of its role in the world. Indeed, profound change would only occur following the Japanese crisis of 1942, which ultimately saw Australia pursue a foreign policy more independent of Britain, and an alliance with the United States.
Perhaps the greatest effect of the war was a psychological one. The heavy losses deeply affected many directly, and war memorials were built all over the country as people sought to remember those that had been killed. However, despite the size of Australia 's contribution to the fighting, there were many Australians who had had no actual experience of it. Realising this, and having witnessed the impact of the war first hand, Charles Bean, who was instrumental in editing and writing the official history of Australia 's involvement in the war, advocated the need for a national memorial and was one of the main architects in establishing the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. The experience of the war also perpetuated many notions about the Australian character and national identity that endure to this day. For many Australians the performance of their soldiers -- particularly during the failed Gallipoli campaign -- served to highlight the nation 's emergence as a member of the international community, while bringing to the fore a belief in Australians ' natural ability as soldiers. The attitudes of many Australians towards war itself were also greatly affected. There was a widespread revulsion at the large - scale destruction and loss of life that had occurred and a desire that it should never occur again. In many regards this led to a general complacency towards defence and military matters after the war and arguably led to the nation 's lack of preparedness for the next major conflict, while it may still be evident in Australian strategic behaviour to this day.
During World War I over 421,809 Australians served in the military with 331,781 serving overseas. Over 60,000 Australians lost their lives and 137,000 were wounded. As a percentage of forces committed, this equalled a casualty rate of almost 65 per cent, one of the highest casualty rates amongst the British Empire forces. The financial cost of the war to the Australian government was £ 188,480,000.
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order of st john priory for wales medal | Service medal of the Order of St John - wikipedia
The Service Medal of the Order of St John is an award given to those that have provided a requisite number or years service to the Order of St John. The award was announced in the St John Ambulance Brigade General Regulations for 1895 and minted in 1899, though the first honorees had been selected the previous year.
The cupro - nickel, rhodium - plated medal features the head of Queen Victoria and the legend VICTORIA + D + G + BRITT + REG + F + D + IND + IMP (Victoria, by the Grace of God, Queen of Britain, Defender of the Faith, and Empress of India) on one side, while the other displays the legend MAGNUS PRIORATUS ORDINIS HOSPITALIS SANCTI JOHANNIS JERUSALEM IN ANGLIA (Grand Priory of the Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem in England) along with five equally sized circles in a cross holding individual heraldic icons supported by sprawling St John 's Wort. These are the St Edward 's Crown, the shield of Great Britain, two icons of the Order of St John in England, and the cipher bearing the feathers of the Prince of Wales. The "only British medal to retain the head of Queen Victoria on a current issue '', the image utilized is based on a bust of the queen created by Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll. The medal 's design has been largely unaltered since creation, though the script has changed from gothic to seriffed capital letters and the original practice of naming the recipient on the medal gradually ceased except in New Zealand, but the metal composition has evolved from its original silver to various silver - plated base metals before reaching its current composition in 1966.
The medal is suspended from a ribbon that is 1.5 inches wide with five equally spaced stripes, of black and white. Where additional services beyond those required for the award have been performed, the ribbon may display bars and laurel leaves. In most countries (Including New Zealand and Canada) a recipient is awarded a silver bar for every five years up to three silver bars, beyond which all silver bars are removed and a gilt bar is put on the medal for each five years. At the fifty two year mark, the recipient is awarded a laurel leaf and all bars are removed. All bars are represented on the undress ribbon by appropriately coloured Maltese crosses, while the laurel leaf is also used on the undress ribbon.
The medal is typically rewarded to recognise efficient service of appropriate duration. The length varies by location, with current terms for the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa set for 12 years, while other territories require 10. Other forms of conspicuous service have also been recognized with the medal.
In the United Kingdom, the Service Medal is after the Solomon Islands Independence Medal and before the Badge of the Order of the League of Mercy in the order precedence. In Canada, the medal is after the Ontario Provincial Police Long Service and Good Conduct Medal and before the Commissionaire Long Service Medal.
In 2010, the Order of St John England and the Islands decided that time spent as a Cadet, (previously ONE year for every THREE YEARS proficient as a cadet), would not count towards the Service Medal.
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should organized labor have a special role in us politics | Labor unions in the United States - wikipedia
Labor unions in the United States are representatives of workers in many industries recognized under US labor law. Their activity today centers on collective bargaining over wages, benefits, and working conditions for their membership, and on representing their members in disputes with management over violations of contract provisions. Larger unions also typically engage in lobbying activities and electioneering at the state and federal level.
Most unions in the United States are aligned with one of two larger umbrella organizations: the AFL - CIO created in 1955, and the Change to Win Federation which split from the AFL - CIO in 2005. Both advocate policies and legislation on behalf of workers in the United States and Canada, and take an active role in politics. The AFL - CIO is especially concerned with global trade issues.
In 2016, there were 14.6 million members in the U.S., down from 17.7 million in 1983. The percentage of workers belonging to a union in the United States (or total labor union "density '') was 10.7 %, compared to 20.1 % in 1983. Union membership in the private sector has fallen under 7 % -- levels not seen since 1932. From a global perspective, the density in 2013 was 7.7 % in France, 18.1 % in Germany, 27.1 % in Canada, and 85.5 % in Iceland, which is currently highest in the world.
In the 21st century the most prominent unions are among public sector employees such as city employees, government workers, teachers and police. Members of unions are disproportionately older, male, and residents of the Northeast, the Midwest, and California. Union workers average 10 - 30 % higher pay than non-union in the United States after controlling for individual, job, and labor market characteristics.
Although much smaller compared to their peak membership in the 1950s, American unions remain a political factor, both through mobilization of their own memberships and through coalitions with like - minded activist organizations around issues such as immigrant rights, trade policy, health care, and living wage campaigns. Of special concern are efforts by cities and states to reduce the pension obligations owed to unionized workers who retire in the future. Republicans elected with Tea Party support in 2010, most notably Governor Scott Walker of Wisconsin, have launched major efforts against public sector unions due in part to state government pension obligations along with the allegation that the unions are too powerful. States with higher levels of union membership tend to have higher median incomes and standards of living. It has been asserted by scholars and the International Monetary Fund that rising income inequality in the United States is directly attributable to the decline of the labor movement and union membership.
Unions began forming in the mid-19th century in response to the social and economic impact of the industrial revolution. National labor unions began to form in the post-Civil War Era. The Knights of Labor emerged as a major force in the late 1880s, but it collapsed because of poor organization, lack of effective leadership, disagreement over goals, and strong opposition from employers and government forces.
The American Federation of Labor, founded in 1886 and led by Samuel Gompers until his death in 1924, proved much more durable. It arose as a loose coalition of various local unions. It helped coordinate and support strikes and eventually became a major player in national politics, usually on the side of the Democrats.
American labor unions benefited greatly from the New Deal policies of Franklin Delano Roosevelt in the 1930s. The Wagner Act, in particular, legally protected the right of unions to organize. Unions from this point developed increasingly closer ties to the Democratic Party, and are considered a backbone element of the New Deal Coalition.
Pro-business conservatives gained control of Congress in 1946, and in 1947 passed the Taft - Hartley Act, drafted by Senator Robert A. Taft. President Truman vetoed it but the Conservative coalition overrode the veto. The veto override had considerable Democratic support, including 106 out of 177 Democrats in the House, and 20 out of 42 Democrats in the Senate. The law, which is still in effect, banned union contributions to political candidates, restricted the power of unions to call strikes that "threatened national security, '' and forced the expulsion of Communist union leaders (the Supreme Court found the anticommunist provision to be unconstitutional, and it is no longer in force). The unions campaigned vigorously for years to repeal the law but failed. During the late 1950s, the Landrum Griffin Act of 1959 passed in the wake of Congressional investigations of corruption and undemocratic internal politics in the Teamsters and other unions.
The percentage of workers belonging to a union (or "density '') in the United States peaked in 1954 at almost 35 % and the total number of union members peaked in 1979 at an estimated 21.0 million. Membership has declined since, with private sector union membership beginning a steady decline that continues into the 2010s, but the membership of public sector unions grew steadily.
After 1960 public sector unions grew rapidly and secured good wages and high pensions for their members. While manufacturing and farming steadily declined, state - and local - government employment quadrupled from 4 million workers in 1950 to 12 million in 1976 and 16.6 million in 2009. Adding in the 3.7 million federal civilian employees, in 2010 8.4 million government workers were represented by unions, including 31 % of federal workers, 35 % of state workers and 46 % of local workers. As Daniel Disalvo notes, "In today 's public sector, good pay, generous benefits, and job security make possible a stable middle - class existence for nearly everyone from janitors to jailors. ''
By the 1970s, a rapidly increasing flow of imports (such as automobiles, steel and electronics from Germany and Japan, and clothing and shoes from Asia) undercut American producers. By the 1980s there was a large - scale shift in employment with fewer workers in high - wage sectors and more in the low - wage sectors. Many companies closed or moved factories to Southern states (where unions were weak), countered the threat of a strike by threatening to close or move a plant, or moved their factories offshore to low - wage countries. The number of major strikes and lockouts fell by 97 % from 381 in 1970 to 187 in 1980 to only 11 in 2010. On the political front, the shrinking unions lost influence in the Democratic Party, and pro-Union liberal Republicans faded away. Union membership among workers in private industry shrank dramatically, though after 1970 there was growth in employees unions of federal, state and local governments. The intellectual mood in the 1970s and 1980s favored deregulation and free competition. Numerous industries were deregulated, including airlines, trucking, railroads and telephones, over the objections of the unions involved. The climax came when President Ronald Reagan -- a former union president -- broke the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) strike in 1981, dealing a major blow to unions.
Republicans, using conservative think tanks as idea farms, began to push through legislative blueprints to curb the power of public employee unions as well as eliminate business regulations.
Total: 11.1 % Public sector: 35.7 % Private sector: 6.6 % Demographics Age 16 -- 24: 5.1 % 25 -- 34: 10.0 % 35 -- 44: 13.0 % 45 -- 54: 14.4 % 55 -- 64: 14.9 % 65 and over: 10.4 % Women: 10.5 % Men:
Management, professional: 11.9 % Service: 9.2 % Sales and office: 6.5 % Natural resources, construction, and maintenance: 15.3 % Production, transportation, and material moving:
Today most labor unions in the United States are members of one of two larger umbrella organizations: the American Federation of Labor -- Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL - CIO) or the Change to Win Federation, which split from the AFL - CIO in 2005 - 2006. Both organizations advocate policies and legislation favorable to workers in the United States and Canada, and take an active role in politics favoring the Democratic party but not exclusively so. The AFL - CIO is especially concerned with global trade and economic issues.
Private sector unions are regulated by the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA), passed in 1935 and amended since then. The law is overseen by the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), an independent federal agency. Public sector unions are regulated partly by federal and partly by state laws. In general they have shown robust growth rates, because wages and working conditions are set through negotiations with elected local and state officials. The unions ' political power thus comes into play, and of course the local government can not threaten to move elsewhere, nor is there any threat from foreign competition.
To join a traditional labor union, workers must either be given voluntary recognition from their employer or have a majority of workers in a bargaining unit vote for union representation. In either case, the government must then certify the newly formed union. Other forms of unionism include minority unionism, solidarity unionism, and the practices of organizations such as the Industrial Workers of the World, which do not always follow traditional organizational models.
Public sector worker unions are governed by labor laws and labor boards in each of the 50 states. Northern states typically model their laws and boards after the NLRA and the NLRB. In other states, public workers have no right to establish a union as a legal entity. (About 40 % of public employees in the USA do not have the right to organize a legally established union.)
A review conducted by the federal government on pay scale shows that employees in a labor union earn up to 33 % more income than their nonunion counterparts, as well as having more job security, and safer and higher - quality work conditions. The median weekly income for union workers was $973 in 2014, compared with $763 for nonunion workers.
Once the union has won the support of a majority of the bargaining unit and is certified in a workplace, it has the sole authority to negotiate the conditions of employment. However, under the NLRA, if a minority of employees voted for a union, those employees can then form a union which represents the rights of only those members who voted for the union. This minority model was once widely used, but was discarded when unions began to consistently win majority support. Unions are beginning to revisit the "members only '' model of unionism because of new changes to labor law which unions view as curbing workers ' ability to organize.
The employer and the union write the terms and conditions of employment in a legally binding contract. When disputes arise over the contract, most contracts call for the parties to resolve their differences through a grievance process to see if the dispute can be mutually resolved. If the union and the employer still can not settle the matter, either party can choose to send the dispute to arbitration, where the case is argued before a neutral third party.
Right - to - work statutes forbid unions from negotiating union shops and agency shops. Thus, while unions do exist in "right - to - work '' states, they are typically weaker.
Members of labor unions enjoy "Weingarten Rights. '' If management questions the union member on a matter that may lead to discipline or other changes in working conditions, union members can request representation by a union representative. Weingarten Rights are named for the first Supreme Court decision to recognize those rights.
The NLRA goes farther in protecting the right of workers to organize unions. It protects the right of workers to engage in any "concerted activity '' for mutual aid or protection. Thus, no union connection is needed. Concerted activity "in its inception involves only a speaker and a listener, for such activity is an indispensable preliminary step to employee self - organization. ''
Unions are currently advocating new federal legislation, the Employee Free Choice Act (EFCA), that would allow workers to elect union representation by simply signing a support card (card check). The current process established by federal law requires at least 30 % of employees to sign cards for the union, then wait 45 to 90 days for a federal official to conduct a secret ballot election in which a simple majority of the employees must vote for the union in order to obligate the employer to bargain.
Unions report that, under the present system, many employers use the 45 - to 90 - day period to conduct anti-union campaigns. Some opponents of this legislation fear that removing secret balloting from the process will lead to the intimidation and coercion of workers on behalf of the unions. During the 2008 elections, the Employee Free Choice Act had widespread support of many legislators in the House and Senate, and of the President. Since then, support for the "card check '' provisions of the EFCA subsided substantially.
Union membership had been declining in the US since 1954, and since 1967, as union membership rates decreased, middle class incomes shrank correspondingly. In 2007, the labor department reported the first increase in union memberships in 25 years and the largest increase since 1979. Most of the recent gains in union membership have been in the service sector while the number of unionized employees in the manufacturing sector has declined. Most of the gains in the service sector have come in West Coast states like California where union membership is now at 16.7 % compared with a national average of about 12.1 %. Historically, the rapid growth of public employee unions since the 1960s has served to mask an even more dramatic decline in private - sector union membership.
At the apex of union density in the 1940s, only about 9.8 % of public employees were represented by unions, while 33.9 % of private, non-agricultural workers had such representation. In this decade, those proportions have essentially reversed, with 36 % of public workers being represented by unions while private sector union density had plummeted to around 7 %. The US Bureau of Labor Statistics most recent survey indicates that union membership in the US has risen to 12.4 % of all workers, from 12.1 % in 2007. For a short period, private sector union membership rebounded, increasing from 7.5 % in 2007 to 7.6 % in 2008. However, that trend has since reversed. In 2013 there were 14.5 million members in the U.S., compared with 17.7 million in 1983. In 2013, the percentage of workers belonging to a union was 11.3 %, compared to 20.1 % in 1983. The rate for the private sector was 6.7 %, and for the public sector 35.3 %.
In the ten years 2005 through 2014, the National Labor Relations Board recorded 18,577 labor union representation elections; in 11,086 of these elections (60 percent), the majority of workers voted for union representation. Most of the elections (15,517) were triggered by employee petitions for representation, of which unions won 9,933. Less common were elections caused by employee petitions for decertification (2792, of which unions won 1070), and employer - filed petitions for either representation or decertification (268, of which unions won 85).
In the US, labor education programs such as the Harvard Trade Union Program created in 1942 by Harvard University professor John Thomas Dunlop sought to educate union members to deal with important contemporary workplace and labor law issues of the day. The Harvard Trade Union Program is currently part of a broader initiative at Harvard Law School called the Labor and Worklife Program that deals with a wide variety of labor and employment issues from union pension investment funds to the effects of nanotechnology on labor markets and the workplace.
Cornell University is known to be one of the leading centers for labor education in the world, establishing the Cornell University School of Industrial and Labor Relations in 1945. The school 's mission is to prepare leaders, inform national and international employment and labor policy, and improve working lives through undergraduate and graduate education. The school publishes the Industrial and Labor Relations Review and had Frances Perkins on its faculty. The school has six academic departments: Economics, Human Resource Management, International and Comparative Labor, Labor Relations, Organizational Behavior, and Social Statistics. Classes include "Politics of the Global North '' and "Economic Analysis of the University. ''
Labor unions use the term jurisdiction to refer to their claims to represent workers who perform a certain type of work and the right of their members to perform such work. For example, the work of unloading containerized cargo at United States ports, which the International Longshoremen 's Association, the International Longshore and Warehouse Union and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters have claimed rightfully should be assigned to workers they represent. A jurisdictional strike is a concerted refusal to work undertaken by a union to assert its members ' right to such job assignments and to protest the assignment of disputed work to members of another union or to unorganized workers. Jurisdictional strikes occur most frequently in the United States in the construction industry.
Unions also use jurisdiction to refer to the geographical boundaries of their operations, as in those cases in which a national or international union allocates the right to represent workers among different local unions based on the place of those workers ' employment, either along geographical lines or by adopting the boundaries between political jurisdictions.
Although not as overwhelmingly supportive as it was from the 1930s through the early 1960s, a clear majority of the American public approves of labor unions. The Gallup organization has tracked public opinion of unions since 1936, when it found that 72 percent approved of unions. The overwhelming approval declined in the late 1960s, but - except for one poll in 2009 in which the unions received a favorable rating by only 48 percent of those interviewed, majorities have always supported labor unions. The latest poll in August 2016 gave labor unions a 56 percent approval rating, versus 36 percent who disapproved of unions.
On the question of whether or not unions should have more influence or less influence, Gallup has found the public consistently split since Gallup first posed the question in 2000, with no majority favoring either more influence or less influence. In August 2016, 36 percent wanted unions to have more influence, 34 percent less influence, with 26 percent wanting the influence of labor unions to remain about the same.
Although most industrialized countries have seen a drop in unionization rates, the drop in union density (the unionized proportion of the working population) has been more significant in the United States than elsewhere.
The US Bureau of Labor Statistics surveyed the histories of union membership rates in industrialized countries from 1970 to 2003, and found that of 20 advanced economies which had union density statistics going back to 1970, 16 of them had experienced drops in union density from 1970 to 2003. Over the same period during which union density in the US declined from 23.5 percent to 12.4 percent, some counties saw even steeper drops. Australian unionization fell from 50.2 percent in 1970 to 22.9 percent in 2003, in New Zealand it dropped from 55.2 percent to 22.1 percent, and in Austria union participation fell from 62.8 percent down to 35.4 percent. All the English - speaking countries studied saw union membership decline to some degree. In the United Kingdom, union participation fell from 44.8 percent in 1970 to 29.3 percent in 2003. In Ireland the decline was from 53.7 percent down to 35.3 percent. Canada had one of the smallest declines over the period, going from 31.6 percent in 1970 to 28.4 percent in 2003. Most of the countries studied started in 1970 with higher participation rates than the US, but France, which in 1970 had a union participation rate of 21.7 percent, by 2003 had fallen to 8.3 percent. The remaining four countries which had gained in union density were Finland, Sweden, Denmark, and Belgium.
Public approval of unions climbed during the 1980s much as it did in other industrialized nations, but declined to below 50 % for the first time in 2009 during the Great Recession. It is not clear if this is a long term trend or a function of a high unemployment rate which historically correlates with lower public approval of labor unions.
One explanation for loss of public support is simply the lack of union power or critical mass. No longer do a sizable percentage of American workers belong to unions, or have family members who do. Unions no longer carry the "threat effect '': the power of unions to raise wages of non-union shops by virtue of the threat of unions to organize those shops.
A New York Times / CBS Poll found that 60 % of Americans opposed restricting collective bargaining while 33 % were for it. The poll also found that 56 % of Americans opposed reducing pay of public employees compared to the 37 % who approved. The details of the poll also stated that 26 % of those surveyed, thought pay and benefits for public employees were too high, 25 % thought too low, and 36 % thought about right. Mark Tapscott of the Washington Examiner criticized the poll, accusing it of over-sampling union and public employee households.
A Gallup poll released on March 9, 2011, showed that Americans were more likely to support limiting the collective bargaining powers of state employee unions to balance a state 's budget (49 %) than disapprove of such a measure (45 %), while 6 % had no opinion. 66 % of Republicans approved of such a measure as did 51 % of independents. Only 31 % of Democrats approved.
A Gallup poll released on March 11, 2011, showed that nationwide, Americans were more likely to give unions a negative word or phrase when describing them (38 %) than a positive word or phrase (34 %). 17 % were neutral and 12 % did n't know. Republicans were much more likely to say a negative term (58 %) than Democrats (19 %). Democrats were much more likely to say a positive term (49 %) than Republicans (18 %).
A nationwide Gallup poll (margin of error ± 4 %) released on April 1, 2011, showed the following;
A nationwide Gallup poll released on August 31, 2011, revealed the following:
A nationwide Gallup poll released on September 1, 2011, revealed the following:
A broad range of forces have been identified as potential contributors to the drop in union density across countries. Sano and Williamson outline quantitative studies that assess the relevance of these factors across countries. The first relevant set of factors relate to the receptiveness of unions ' institutional environments. For example, the presence of a Ghent system (where unions are responsible for the distribution of unemployment insurance) and of centralized collective bargaining (organized at a national or industry level as opposed to local or firm level) have both been shown to give unions more bargaining power and to correlate positively to higher rates of union density.
Unions have enjoyed higher rates of success in locations where they have greater access to the workplace as an organizing space (as determined both by law and by employer acceptance), and where they benefit from a corporatist relationship to the state and are thus allowed to participate more directly in the official governance structure. Moreover, the fluctuations of business cycles, particularly the rise and fall of unemployment rates and inflation, are also closely linked to changes in union density.
Labor lawyer Thomas Geoghegan attributes the drop to the long - term effects of the 1947 Taft - Hartley Act, which slowed and then halted labor 's growth and then, over many decades, enabled management to roll back labor 's previous gains.
First, it ended organizing on the grand, 1930s scale. It outlawed mass picketing, secondary strikes of neutral employers, sit downs: in short, everything (Congress of Industrial Organizations founder John L.) Lewis did in the 1930s.
The second effect of Taft - Hartley was subtler and slower - working. It was to hold up any new organizing at all, even on a quiet, low - key scale. For example, Taft - Hartley ended "card checks. ''... Taft - Hartley required hearings, campaign periods, secret - ballot elections, and sometimes more hearings, before a union could be officially recognized. It also allowed and even encouraged employers to threaten workers who want to organize. Employers could hold "captive meetings, '' bring workers into the office and chew them out for thinking about the Union. And Taft - Hartley led to the "union - busting '' that started in the late 1960s and continues today. It started when a new "profession '' of labor consultants began to convince employers that they could violate the (pro-labor 1935) Wagner Act, fire workers at will, fire them deliberately for exercising their legal rights, and nothing would happen. The Wagner Act had never had any real sanctions. (...)
In general, scholars debate the influence of politics in determining union strength in the US and other countries. One argument is that political parties play an expected role in determining union strength, with left - wing governments generally promoting greater union density, while others contest this finding by pointing out important counterexamples and explaining the reverse causality inherent in this relationship.
More recently, as unions have become increasingly concerned with the impacts of market integration on their well - being, scholars have begun to assess whether popular concerns about a global "race to the bottom '' are reflected in cross-country comparisons of union strength. These scholars use foreign direct investment (FDI) and the size of a country 's international trade as a percentage of its GDP to assess a country 's relative degree of market integration. These researchers typically find that globalization does affect union density, but is dependent on other factors, such as unions ' access to the workplace and the centralization of bargaining.
Sano and Williamson argue that globalization 's impact is conditional upon a country 's labor history. In the United States in particular, which has traditionally had relatively low levels of union density, globalization did not appear to significantly affect union density.
Studies focusing more narrowly on the U.S. labor movement corroborate the comparative findings about the importance of structural factors, but tend to emphasize the effects of changing labor markets due to globalization to a greater extent. Bronfenbrenner notes that changes in the economy, such as increased global competition, capital flight, and the transitions from a manufacturing to a service economy and to a greater reliance on transitory and contingent workers, accounts for only a third of the decline in union density.
Bronfenbrenner claims that the federal government in the 1980s was largely responsible for giving employers the perception that they could engage in aggressive strategies to repress the formation of unions. Richard Freeman also points to the role of repressive employer strategies in reducing unionization, and highlights the way in which a state ideology of anti-unionism tacitly accepted these strategies
Goldfield writes that the overall effects of globalization on unionization in the particular case of the United States may be understated in econometric studies on the subject. He writes that the threat of production shifts reduces unions ' bargaining power even if it does not eliminate them, and also claims that most of the effects of globalization on labor 's strength are indirect. They are most present in change towards a neoliberal political context that has promoted the deregulation and privatization of some industries and accepted increased employer flexibility in labor markets.
Regardless of the actual impact of market integration on union density or on workers themselves, organized labor has been engaged in a variety of strategies to limit the agenda of globalization and to promote labor regulations in an international context. The most prominent example of this has been the opposition of labor groups to free trade initiatives such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Dominican Republic - Central American Free Trade Agreement (DR - CAFTA). In both cases, unions expressed strong opposition to the agreements, but to some extent pushed for the incorporation of basic labor standards in the agreement if one were to pass.
However, Mayer has written that it was precisely unions ' opposition to NAFTA overall that jeopardized organized labor 's ability to influence the debate on labor standards in a significant way. During Clinton 's presidential campaign, labor unions wanted NAFTA to include a side deal to provide for a kind of international social charter, a set of standards that would be enforceable both in domestic courts and through international institutions. Mickey Kantor, then U.S. trade representative, had strong ties to organized labor and believed that he could get unions to come along with the agreement, particularly if they were given a strong voice in the negotiation process.
When it became clear that Mexico would not stand for this kind of an agreement, some critics from the labor movement would not settle for any viable alternatives. In response, part of the labor movement wanted to declare their open opposition to the agreement, and to push for NAFTA 's rejection in Congress. Ultimately, the ambivalence of labor groups led those within the Administration who supported NAFTA to believe that strengthening NAFTA 's labor side agreement too much would cost more votes among Republicans than it would garner among Democrats, and would make it harder for the United States to elicit support from Mexico.
Graubart writes that, despite unions ' open disappointment with the outcome of this labor - side negotiation, labor activists, including the AFL - CIO have used the side agreement 's citizen petition process to highlight ongoing political campaigns and struggles in their home countries. He claims that despite the relative weakness of the legal provisions themselves, the side - agreement has served a legitimizing functioning, giving certain social struggles a new kind of standing.
Unions have recently been engaged in a developing field of transnational labor regulation embodied in corporate codes of conduct. However, O'Brien cautions that unions have been only peripherally involved in this process, and remain ambivalent about its potential effects. They worry that these codes could have legitimizing effects on companies that do not actually live up to good practices, and that companies could use codes to excuse or distract attention from the repression of unions.
Braun and Gearhart note that although unions do participate in the structure of a number of these agreements, their original interest in codes of conduct differed from the interests of human rights and other non-governmental activists. Unions believed that codes of conduct would be important first steps in creating written principles that a company would be compelled to comply with in later organizing contracts, but did not foresee the establishment of monitoring systems such as the Fair Labor Association. These authors point out that are motivated by power, want to gain insider status politically and are accountable to a constituency that requires them to provide them with direct benefits.
In contrast, activists from the non-governmental sector are motivated by ideals, are free of accountability and gain legitimacy from being political outsiders. Therefore, the interests of unions are not likely to align well with the interests of those who draft and monitor corporate codes of conduct.
Arguing against the idea that high union wages necessarily make manufacturing uncompetitive in a globalized economy is labor lawyer Thomas Geoghegan. Busting
unions, in the U.S. manner, as the prime way of competing with China and other countries (does not work). It 's no accident that the social democracies, Sweden, France, and Germany, which kept on paying high wages, now have more industry than the U.S. or the UK.... (T) hat 's what the U.S. and the UK did: they smashed the unions, in the belief that they had to compete on cost. The result? They quickly ended up wrecking their industrial base.
Unions have made some attempts to organize across borders. Eder observes that transnational organizing is not a new phenomenon but has been facilitated by technological change. Nevertheless, he claims that while unions pay lip service to global solidarity, they still act largely in their national self - interest. He argues that unions in the global North are becoming increasingly depoliticized while those in the South grow politically, and that global differentiation of production processes leads to divergent strategies and interests in different regions of the world. These structural differences tend to hinder effective global solidarity. However, in light of the weakness of international labor, Herod writes that globalization of production need not be met by a globalization of union strategies in order to be contained. Herod also points out that local strategies, such as the United Auto Workers ' strike against General Motors in 1998, can sometimes effectively interrupt global production processes in ways that they could not before the advent of widespread market integration. Thus, workers need not be connected organizationally to others around the world to effectively influence the behavior of a transnational corporation.
History:
International:
General:
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who plays the pigeon in cats and dogs | Cats & Dogs: the Revenge of Kitty Galore - Wikipedia
Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore (also known as Cats & Dogs 2 or Cats & Dogs 2: The Revenge of Kitty Galore) is a 2010 American - Australia spy comedy film directed by Brad Peyton, produced by Andrew Lazar, Polly Johnsen, Greg Michael and Brent O'Connor with music by Christopher Lennertz and Shirley Bassey and written by Ron J. Friedman and Steve Bencich. The film stars Chris O'Donnell and Jack McBrayer. The film also stars the voices of James Marsden, Nick Nolte, Christina Applegate, Katt Williams, Bette Midler, and Neil Patrick Harris. The film is a stand - alone sequel to the 2001 film Cats & Dogs, with more focus on its animal characters than the previous film, and was released on July 30, 2010 by Warner Bros. Pictures. It received extremely negative reviews from film critics and it earned $112.5 million on an $85 million budget. A video game of the same title was developed by 505 Games and was released on July 20, 2010 for the Nintendo DS.
In Germany, a bloodhound named Rex discovers a Cocker Spaniel puppy stealing secret codes before revealing itself as Kitty Galore, a hairless Sphynx cat. Rex reports this incident to D.O.G. HQ. At a car dealership in San Francisco, the mascot Crazy Carlito plans to destroy the dealership building. The police arrive, and officer Shane Larson and his police dog Diggs arrive to stop Carlito. Diggs takes the remote detonator from Carlito but bites it in the process, blowing up the building. Butch and Lou, now a fully grown Beagle and the head of D.O.G. HQ, watch Diggs blowing up the car dealership. Lou wants to recruit Diggs as an agent, and Butch reluctantly agrees.
Diggs gets locked up in the police kennels to prevent him from causing any more incidents. When Shane leaves, Butch comes in through the floor, recruits him, and takes him to D.O.G. HQ. After tracking down a pigeon named Seamus with valuable information, Diggs and Butch meet a M.E.O.W.S. (Mousers Enforcing Our World 's Safety) agent named Catherine who was after Seamus for the same reason the dogs were. Catherine reveals to Diggs that Kitty Galore was a former M.E.O.W.S. agent named Ivana Clawyu who, while on a mission at a cosmetics factory, was chased by a guard dog and fell into a vat of hair removal gel, causing her to lose all her fur. Unrecognized and humiliated by her fellow agents and humans, Kitty left M.E.O.W.S. and vowed to exact revenge on humans and dogs.
Lou forms an alliance with Tab Lazenby, the head of M.E.O.W.S, to take down Kitty Galore. At a cat lady 's home, the team discover that Calico, the middle - cat who was Mr. Tinkles ' former aid, has been sending parts of stolen technology to Kitty using pigeons that work for her. Diggs tries to attack Calico, who then attempts to drown the team in cat litter; due to some quick thinking they eventually manage to escape. Afterwards, they interrogate Calico as to Kitty 's whereabouts, but he claims that he does n't know where she is because the pigeon couriers are flying the stolen technology to a secret location.
The group travels to Alcatraz where Mr. Tinkles is currently a mental patient. They try to get him to tell him Kitty Galore 's whereabouts, but he only gives them one clue: A cat 's eye reveals everything. When Kitty Galore learns about the cats and dogs working together, she hires two mercenaries named Angus and Duncan MacDougall to attempt to assassinate Seamus on the boat returning from the prison. Diggs subdues Angus and accidentally throws him overboard. Fed up with Diggs ruining the mission, Butch dismisses him from the team and leaves with Seamus to salvage clues.
Catherine takes Diggs to her home. She learns that the reason why Diggs never follows orders is because his past experiences have caused him to believe that he can not trust anyone except himself, which led to him spending the majority of his life in kennels. She tells Diggs if he continues to think in this way, no one will able to help him. Diggs realizes how stupid he has been. Catherine takes Diggs to M.E.O.W.S. HQ, where they learn that Kitty is hiding at a fairground with her new master, an amateur magician named Chuck the Magnificent.
Not long after arriving, Diggs and Catherine are captured by Kitty Galore and her henchcat, Paws. Kitty reveals to Diggs and Catherine that she plots to transmit "The Call of the Wild '' via an orbiting satellite which only dogs can hear through televisions, radios and cell phones to cause them to act hostile towards their humans. They will then be left alone and unwanted in kennels. Diggs and Catherine escape and meet up with Butch and Seamus. Kitty uses the roof of the fairground 's flying swings ride for a satellite dish. Diggs, Butch, Catherine and Seamus arrive. Seamus presses a red button, thinking it is a shutdown button, but it instead loads the "Call of the Wild '' signal. Dogs around the world start acting insane in their homes. Paws battles them, revealing he is a robot in the process. Diggs tricks Paws into biting the wires, destroying the satellite. Kitty 's pet mouse, Scrumptious, fed up with Kitty 's abuse towards him, fires her away. Kitty gets covered in cotton candy and lands in the magician 's hat with the humans thinking it was a stunt.
After the mission, Diggs goes to live with Shane before returning to H.Q. to learn that Mr. Tinkles has escaped from prison with Calico.
John Whitesell was attached to direct this film, but Brad Peyton replaced him as director.
Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore earned $4,225,000 on opening day, and $12,279,363 on its opening weekend reaching # 5 at the box office and having a $3,314 average from a very wide 3,705 theaters. In its second weekend, its drop was very similar to the first movie, retreating 44 % to $6,902,116 to 7th place and lifting its total to $26,428,266 in 2 weeks. It held better in its third weekend, dropping 39 % to $4,190,426 and remaining in the Top 10. The film closed on October 21, 2010 after 84 days of release, earning $43,585,753 domestically. Produced on an $85 million budget, the movie is considered a huge box office bomb, as it grossed less than half of the first Cats & Dogs, but it did manage to do better business than fellow summer talking animal competition Marmaduke. It earned an additional $69 million overseas for a worldwide total of $112.5 million. During its initial American theatre release, the film was preceded by the new 3D animated short film titled Coyote Falls with Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner.
Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 14 % of 96 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 3.6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Dull and unfunny, this inexplicable sequel offers little more than the spectacle of digitally rendered talking animals with celebrity voices. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 30 out of 100 based on 22 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B - '' on an A+ to F scale.
Joe Leydon of Variety wrote a positive - leaning review towards the film which reads "Nine years after Cats & Dogs fetched more than $200 million worldwide with its comic take on interspecies animosity, Warners is unleashing Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore, a faster, funnier follow - up in which CGI - enhanced canines and felines effect a temporary truce to combat a common enemy. '' Critics cited the plot as recycled. Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club negatively reviewed the film 's plot saying "it 's still about a feline plot for world domination, and the slobbering secret agents who stand in the way. '' The film was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for "Worst Eye - Gouging Misuse of 3D '', but it lost to The Last Airbender.
TBA
A video game was developed by 505 Games and it was released on July 20, 2010 for the Nintendo DS. It is called Cats and Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore after the movie with the same name.
The DVD, Blu - ray, and 3D Blu - ray copies of Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore were released on November 16, 2010.
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what structures are found entering and leaving the kidney at the hilus | Renal hilum - Wikipedia
The renal hilum (Latin: hilum renale) or renal pedicle is the hilum of the kidney, that is, its recessed central fissure where its vessels, nerves and ureter pass. The medial border of the kidney is concave in the center and convex toward either extremity; it is directed forward and a little downward. Its central part presents a deep longitudinal fissure, bounded by prominent overhanging anterior and posterior lips. This fissure is a hilum that transmits the vessels, nerves, and ureter. From anterior to posterior, the renal vein exits, the renal artery enters, and the renal pelvis exits the kidney.
The superior, middle, and inferior vessels enter or leave the hilum of kidney: renal artery, renal vein and renal pelvis, respectively.
Hilum of kidney
This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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where was the movie the little rascals filmed | The Little Rascals (film) - wikipedia
The Little Rascals is a 1994 American family comedy film produced by Amblin Entertainment, and released by Universal Pictures on August 5, 1994. The film is an adaptation of Hal Roach 's Our Gang, a series of short films of the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s (many of which were broadcast on television as The Little Rascals) which centered on the adventures of a group of neighborhood children. The film, with a screenplay by Paul Guay, Stephen Mazur, and Penelope Spheeris -- who also directed -- presents several of the Our Gang characters in an updated setting, and features re-interpretations of several of the original shorts. It was the first collaboration by Guay and Mazur, whose subsequent comedies were Liar Liar and Heartbreakers.
Another film based on Our Gang, The Little Rascals Save the Day, was released as a direct - to - video feature in 2014.
Spanky McFarland (Travis Tedford) is the president of the "He - Man Woman Haters Club '' with many school - aged boys from around the neighborhood as members. Alfalfa Switzer (Bug Hall), Spanky 's best friend, has been chosen to be the driver for the club 's prize - winning go - kart, "The Blur '', in the upcoming Soap Box Derby go - kart race. Unfortunately, Alfalfa is nowhere to be found.
The boys go to find Alfalfa and they discover him in the company of his sweetheart Darla (Brittany Ashton Holmes), with whom he is forbidden to be in love because she is a girl and that is against club rules. Alfalfa invites Darla on a picnic, and to prove his devotion to her, he agrees to have the picnic inside the clubhouse. Unbeknownst to Alfalfa, his fellow club members find out about his plans.
At the picnic, Alfalfa and Darla think they are alone, but the other club members secretly pull several silly pranks to sabotage their romantic date (whoopee cushion, cat litter in sandwiches, etc.). When they finally reveal themselves and demand to come inside the clubhouse, Alfalfa frantically tries to convince Darla to hide in the closet, which leads her to mistakenly believe that Alfalfa feels ashamed of her. In the frenzy, a candle flame gets out of control, ultimately causing the clubhouse to burn down.
Darla breaks up with Alfalfa and turns her attentions toward Waldo (Blake McIver Ewing), the new kid in town whose father (Donald Trump) is an oil tycoon. Because Alfalfa burned down the clubhouse and also fraternized with a girl, he is assigned by Stymie (Kevin Jamal Woods), to guard the go - kart until the day of the race.
Alfalfa makes several attempts to win back Darla, including sending her a fake love note. When that fails, Spanky goes with him to formally break things off with Darla. They are initially turned from the door of her ballet school, but Spanky insists that they will wait for Darla to come out; Spanky gives Alfalfa a frog to play with while they wait. They are soon spotted by the neighborhood bullies Butch (Sam Saletta) and Woim (Blake Jeremy Collins), who chase them inside the building. To get away, the boys duck into a costume room and disguise themselves in ballet drag. They manage to evade the bullies, but when they attempt to enter another room to get out of their disguises, they are surprised to find the room filled with girls, including Darla, dressed in ballet outfits. The boys nervously pretend to be in the ballet recital that is about to take place, but Alfalfa almost gives them away when the frog he is still holding croaks. Just as they are about to back out of the room, the ballet mistress (Lea Thompson) enters and ushers them all on stage.
Spanky and Alfalfa awkwardly try to dance along but Alfalfa immediately begins squirming in discomfort, for the frog was in his tights. The recital quickly falls into chaos, and Alfalfa and Spanky run off of the stage and dispose of the frog.
The ballet mistress, furious that they ruined her recital, confronts them and throws them out immediately, Alfalfa in his underwear and Spanky still in drag. Butch and Woim are waiting for them outside the door, so Spanky distracts them while Alfalfa sneaks out. When Spanky loses his wig, the bullies give chase. Spanky manages to lose them, but they bump into Alfalfa, who is trying to run home in his underwear. They chase him into a mansion but are turned away by the butler. Alfalfa gets through and escapes out the back door, but is chased by Waldo 's Doberman and he leaps into a pool and swims to the other side, but just as he climbs out of the pool, his underwear slips right off, now floating on the surface of the pool. As Alfalfa retrieves his underwear, he discovers Darla and Waldo in a hot tub, laughing at him, to his embarrassment. The doberman then chases Alfalfa off the property.
At the carnival talent show the day before the race, Alfalfa once again tries to win Darla back, this time through song, being that Darla mentioned after she dumped him that the only thing she ever really missed about him was his voice. Waldo and Darla also entered the show in a duet. Alfalfa then requests the chance to perform for her and win her back. However, Waldo sabotages his attempts to serenade her by putting soap in his drinking water, causing him to burp out bubbles all throughout his song.
The boys try to fund - raise $450, the cost of the lumber needed to rebuild their clubhouse. The youngest club members, Buckwheat (Ross Elliot Bagley) and Porky (Zachary Mabry), have unwittingly come up with $500, not realizing that their method for earning the money was not exactly honest. Their school teacher, Miss Crabtree (Daryl Hannah), finds out about the scheme and confronts them, but Spanky convinces her to donate the money to be given as first prize in the go - kart derby.
As a result of Alfalfa 's carelessness, "The Blur '' is eventually stolen by Butch and Woim, so that now, in addition to having to rebuild the clubhouse, the boys need a new go - kart. They band together to build "Blur 2: The Sequel, '' and prior to race day, Spanky and Alfalfa (who previously had a falling out when the latter discovers the gang 's "prank list '') reconcile their friendship and decide to ride in the two - seat go - kart together. They hope to win the prize money and the trophy, which is to be presented to the winners by A.J. Ferguson.
Butch and Woim make several sneaky attempts to stop Alfalfa and Spanky from winning the race. Waldo and Darla are also in the go - kart race, but they 're eventually annoyed with each other, and Waldo seemingly kicks Darla out from his car midway through the race. In a wild dash to the finish, and despite the many scrapes and crashes throughout the race, "The Blur 2 '' crosses the finish line ahead of the pack in a photo - finish between "The Blur '' and "The Blur 2 '' literally by a hair, due to Alfalfa 's pointy hairstyle. After the race, Butch and Woim are angry towards Alfalfa because he won the trophy and the prize money. They attempt to beat him up, but Alfalfa finally stands up for himself and punches Butch in the face, knocking him into a pool of pig slop. Woim then gets scared and jumps into the slop willingly.
Along with first prize, Alfalfa also wins back Darla, after it is revealed that it had been Darla who had kicked Waldo out of their car and finished the race alone because she found out that Waldo was responsible for the bubbles at the talent show. Spanky, meanwhile, is shocked at the trophy presentation when he finally meets his favorite driver, A.J. Ferguson, who turns out to be female (Reba McEntire). Spanky confesses to Darla that he and the boys pulled the pranks on her at their picnic lunch, not Alfalfa. After the club house is rebuilt, the boys collectively have a change of heart towards membership and they decide to welcome Darla as well as other girls into the club, adding a "Women Welcome '' sign onto the front door.
Animals
Bill Thomas, Jr., son of the late Bill Thomas, who played the original Buckwheat, contacted the studio and was invited down to visit the set, but got the impression that the filmmakers did not want him or any of the surviving original cast members involved in any production capacity. The surviving cast members saw this as especially hurtful, in light of the fact that director Penelope Spheeris had previously made a point of including Buddy Ebsen, from the original Beverly Hillbillies, in her 1993 feature film adaptation of that series. Eugene Jackson, who played the original Pineapple from the silent Our Gang comedies, and tried unsuccessfully to contact the studio to be a part of production, stated, "It 's real cold. They have no respect for the old - timers. At least they could have recognized some of the living legends surviving from the first films. '' Filming took place from January 11, 1994 to April 6, 1994.
The film received mostly negative critical reviews upon its original release; it currently holds a 23 % "rotten '' rating at Rotten Tomatoes. Despite the mostly negative reception, the film had scored a 70 % audience rating and Roger Ebert of Chicago Sun - Times gave the film a thumbs up.
The Little Rascals earned $10 million at the North American box office during its opening weekend. The film grossed a worldwide total of $67,308,282.
Many of the gags and subplots in the film were borrowed from the original Our Gang / Little Rascals shorts. These include:
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who wrote the score for pirates of the caribbean | Pirates of the Caribbean: the Curse of the Black Pearl (soundtrack) - wikipedia
Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl soundtrack is the official soundtrack album from the eponymous film. The album was released on July 22 2003, by Walt Disney Records, and contains selections of music from the film score. The music of the film and this album are credited to composer Klaus Badelt and producer Hans Zimmer.
Despite its title, the cue underscores Jack Sparrow 's escape from James Norrington 's marines in Port Royal. The main theme appears elsewhere in the score, notably during "Will and Elizabeth ''.
Despite the name, this track underscores the duel between Jack Sparrow and William Turner in the Blacksmith shop.
Despite its name, taken from Pintel 's line concerning William "Bootstrap Bill '' Turner being tied to a cannon by his bootstraps, this cue is played during the battle of the Isla de Muerta between the Commodore Norrington and his soldiers of the Royal Navy against the Cursed crew, and the duel between Jack Sparrow and Hector Barbossa.
Composer Alan Silvestri was originally hired to write the score for The Curse of the Black Pearl. However, due to creative differences between the producer Jerry Bruckheimer and him, Silvestri left the project and Gore Verbinski asked Hans Zimmer, with whom he had worked on The Ring, to step in. Zimmer declined to do the bulk of the composing, as he was busy scoring The Last Samurai, a project during which he claimed he had promised not to take any other assignments. As a result, he referred Verbinski to Klaus Badelt, a relatively new composer who had been a part of Remote Control Productions (known as Media Ventures at the time) for three years.
Zimmer however ended up collaborating with Badelt to write most of the score 's primary themes. Zimmer said he wrote most of the tunes in the space of one night, and then recorded them in an all - synthesized demo credited to him. This demo presents three of the score 's themes and motifs, concluding with an early version of "He 's A Pirate '' which differs from the final cue and includes a development of a melody Zimmer wrote for the score to Drop Zone. Since the schedule was very tight and the music was needed for the film in three weeks, seven other composers -- Ramin Djawadi, James Dooley, Nick Glennie - Smith, Steve Jablonsky, Blake Neely, James McKee Smith, and Geoff Zanelli -- were called upon to help orchestrate the music and write additional cues. The resulting score was recorded with a group of musicians, credited as the Hollywood Studio Symphony, over the course of four days. The short time frame demanded the use of a different recording studio for each session. The Metro Voices, a male choir, was recorded in London and added to the finished recordings.
The soundtrack album, consisting of 43 minutes of the film 's score, was released with Klaus Badelt credited as the composer. The cues were edited for length, and minor changes to the mix were also made. For unknown reasons, the mixing of several cues are executed with gain levels so high that it causes distortion. This is noticeable particularly during the action cues and the reprise of the love theme in track 14, "One Last Shot ''. It is also noted that besides the first two cues, the tracks ' generic names were unrelated to their contents. According to the official website of composer Geoff Zanelli, this was because the production "schedule was so short that (they) had to decide on the track names for the album packaging before the score was even written! ''
Badelt was credited as the conductor on early batches of the disc, but it was actually conducted by Blake Neely.
For the most part, The Curse of the Black Pearl features simple orchestration. Counterpoint is rare; most of the louder music consists of melody, simple harmony, and rhythmic figures in the low brass and low strings. Sampled drum beats including tom - toms and various cymbals are used ubiquitously in such sections. A very low, rumbling bass line was also introduced into the mix to reinforce the cello and double basses. Quieter sections tend to rely either on the string section or on sound effects. Pan flute, possibly synthesized or sampled, and claves can be heard repeatedly in the eerier cues.
One of the defining characteristics of this score 's sound is the use of horn for melody. Nearly all of the score 's louder sections feature the horns on the melody, frequently doubled by various string instruments.
For the video game Kingdom Hearts II, which features a number of scenes based on the movie, composer Yoko Shimomura arranged a synthesized "He 's a Pirate '' to serve as the musical theme for all combat in the Port Royal world. This arrangement is identical in structure to the original cue, though a number of changes were made to the melody and chords.
The score received mixed reviews from critics. Christian Clemmensen of Filmtracks.com gave it one out of a possible five stars, criticizing its similarities to past Remote Control scores such as The Rock and Gladiator. He also criticized its lack of connections to the "swashbuckling '' genre, stating, "The most disgraceful part of the pounding and shouting score for The Curse of the Black Pearl is that there is really nothing swashbuckling about it. If you remove the tepid little thirty - second jig from the start of the opening cue, then this score could easily accompany a movie about alien attacks, police force raids, chases for nuclear weapons, or any other militaristic setting. ''
Conversely, Andrew Granade of Soundtrack.net gave the score a mostly positive review, giving it a 3.5 out of 5 rating and stating, "Pirates of the Caribbean is over the top in both movie and score, yet in a good - natured way. Badelt 's work here is pleasing without being too heavy and is fully melded with the onscreen action. ''
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what is the seating capacity of wembley arena | Wembley Arena - wikipedia
Wembley Arena / ˈwɛmbli / (originally the Empire Pool and, since 1 July 2014, currently known as The SSE Arena, Wembley for sponsorship reasons) is an indoor arena in Wembley, London.
It was built for the 1934 British Empire Games at Wembley, by Arthur Elvin, and originally housed a swimming pool, as reflected by its former name, Empire Pool. The pool itself was last used for the 1948 Summer Olympics. The building is used for music, comedy, family entertainment and sport.
The venue was renovated, along with Wembley Stadium, as part of the early - 21st - century regeneration of the Wembley Park area. The arena refurbishment cost £ 35m and the new arena opened to the public on 2 April 2006, with a concert by the English electronic - music band Depeche Mode.
With 12,500 seats, it is London 's second - largest indoor arena after The O2.
In September 2013, it was announced that AEG Facilities had signed a 15 - year contract to operate the arena.
The building was renamed The SSE Arena on 1 June 2014 after SSE plc bought the naming rights to the venue for 10 years.
When the venue was known as the Empire Pool, it hosted the annual New Musical Express Poll Winners ' concert during the mid-1960s. Audiences of 10,000 viewed acts like The Beatles (who performed there three times), T. Rex (whose Ringo Starr - directed documentary film Born to Boogie is centered on a 1972 concert at the Empire Pool); David Bowie, Cliff Richard & The Shadows, The Monkees, The Hollies, Dusty Springfield, Joe Brown & the Bruvvers, The Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd, (who played there on their 1977 "In the Flesh '' tour). The Grateful Dead, Status Quo, The Who, Dave Dee, Dozy, Beaky, Mick & Tich, were among many others. The individual performances were then finished by a famous personality joining the respective performer on stage and presenting them with their award. The Beatles were presented with one of their awards by actor Roger Moore and Cliff Richard was joined on stage by Roy Orbison, to present him with his own award. These ceremonies were filmed and recorded and later broadcast on television.
The Grateful Dead have released recordings of complete shows from 7 -- 8 April 1972 as part of Europe ' 72: The Complete Recordings. The Grateful Dead also performed at Wembley Arena on 31 October 1990 as part of their fall 1990 European concert tour. Bruce Hornsby accompanied the band for this concert.
A notable attendance record was set in the early 1970s by David Cassidy, in his first tour of Great Britain in 1973, when he sold out six performances in one weekend.
ABBA played six sold - out concerts, from 5 to 10 November 1979. The shows were filmed by Swedish television for a documentary which was released in 2004 on DVD as ABBA in Concert. In September 2014 Universal Music released Live at Wembley Arena, featuring most of the 10 November concert on CD, vinyl LP and digital format. After the tour, the members of the band talked about the warmth of the Wembley audience. "It was like coming home after a couple of nights, '' said guitarist Björn Ulvaeus. A finale from these concerts, "The Way Old Friends Do '', is the closing track on ABBA 's seventh studio album, Super Trouper. Vocalist Agnetha Fältskog said it was the vibe from the audience that made the track work so much better as a live performance than as a studio track.
Whitney Houston is the female artists with the most shows with 29, Cliff Richard is the male artist with the most number of shows with 61, whereas Status Quo hold the record for a rock band with 45 performances. Irish band Westlife are the pop band with most shows with 28, and comedian Lee Evans 23 performances.
American pop superstar Prince played 35 concerts at the venue between 1986 -- 1998.
Britney Spears performed there on 10, 11 and 12 October 2000 as part of her Oops!... I Did It Again Tour. She returned on 2004 for four shows during her The Onyx Hotel Tour.
Kylie Minogue performed there on 24, 25, 26 and 27 May 2002 as part of her KylieFever2002. She returned in 2006 and 2007 for seven shows during her Showgirl: The Homecoming Tour.
Beyoncé performed there on 10 and 11 November 2003 as part of her Dangerously in Love Tour. Live at Wembley was filmed during these two concerts.
Pearl Jam hold the attendance record for one show, with 12,470 fans at their 2007 gig.
Bob Dylan has performed at the arena 13 times over his career to date, selling more than 160,000 tickets.
Britney Spears played a concert on 31 October 2011 as part of her Femme Fatale Tour.
Alter Bridge performed on 29 November 2011 and released a DVD later.
On August 3, 2013, Nepathya became the first Nepalese band to perform at the Arena.
John Mayer performed an additional date of his 2013 world tour at Wembley Arena on 26 October 2013.
On 5 December 2014, British band Bring Me the Horizon played their last show before taking a break to write their next album. The show was recorded and will be made into a DVD.
System of a Down played a concert on 10 April 2015 as part of their Wake Up The Souls Tour.
On 19 September 2015, Nightwish became the first Finnish act to headline the Arena.
On 2 April 2016, Babymetal became the first Japanese act to headline the Arena and set the record for the Arena 's highest ever merchandise sales.
On November 15, 2016, Welsh rock band Catfish and the bottlemen played a sold out concert at the arena.
From 1934 until 1990 the Empire Pool / Wembley Arena was the venue for the Wembley Professional Tennis Championships which was a part of the professional Grand Slam from 1927 until 1967.
Indoor sporting events such as boxing, five - a-side football and ice hockey have long been popular at the venue, notably the World Championship bout between then champion Alan Minter and challenger Marvin Hagler, which the latter won.
From the late 1960s to the late 1970s, the Skol 6 - Day cycle race was held here. An indoor velodrome of 166 metres was assembled from sections each September. This was Britain 's first indoor velodrome. Top professional riders from the European 6 - Day circuit came to London, including Eddy Merckx, Peter Post, Patrick Sercu and many others. British riders such as World pursuit champion Hugh Porter and British Champion Tony Gowland rode with distinction.
From 1979 to 1983, indoor speedway was held during the winter as a one off event, with the riders racing on concrete on a 181 - yard track
The Wembley Lions and Wembley Monarchs were two ice hockey teams that used the venue regularly during the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s, while the London Lions used the venue for a season in the 1970s. Wembley also hosted the British Hockey League play - off finals weekend at the end of each season up until the league 's disbandment in 1996. The arena also played host to NHL teams the Toronto Maple Leafs and the New York Rangers for a pair of challenge matches in 1993.
More recently netball, darts, basketball, mixed martial arts and cage fighting have made regular appearances on the calendar.
During the 1948 Summer Olympics, the venue hosted the Olympic boxing, Olympic diving, Olympic swimming, and Olympic water polo events.
The Horse of the Year Show was held there from 1959 -- 2002.
It hosted the final of the Whyte and Mackay Premier League Darts 2009. Whyte and Mackay Premier League Darts also hosted the playoff finals in 2010 at Wembley Arena. The 888.com 2011 Premier League Darts Finals also took place at Wembley.
The venue has hosted many professional wrestling events from Joint Promotions, WWE, NXT (TakeOver: London), WCW, World Wrestling All - Stars and TNA Impact Wrestling including Impact TV tapings on 28 January 2012. On 30 September 2018, British wrestling promotion Progress Wrestling will host their biggest ever show at the arena, entitled "Hello Wembley ''.
The arena played host to a BAMMA event on 21 May 2011 (BAMMA 6) and 15 September 2012 (BAMMA 10).
The venue hosted Olympic badminton and Olympic rhythmic gymnastics at the 2012 Summer Olympics.
On Saturday 16 February 2013, it played host to UFC on Fuel TV: Barão vs. McDonald, the first ever UFC event to be held at the venue.
On 21 and 22 June 2014, the European League Of Legends Championship Series, which is a competitive eSports league in the computer game League of Legends, played its Week 5 matches in this arena.
Between 15 -- 18 October 2015, the 2015 League of Legends World Championship quarterfinals took place in the Arena.
Two NBA exhibition matches were played at the arena; on 30 and 31 October 1993, the Atlanta Hawks and the Orlando Magic were the two teams that played.
With the reopening of Wembley Arena in 2006, a "Square of Fame '' area has been created in front of the arena. Similar to the Hollywood Walk of Fame, notable Wembley Arena performers are invited to have bronze plaques imprinted with their names and handprints. The first star to have a plaque was Madonna, on 1 August 2006.
The SSE Arena, Wembley is served by Wembley Park Station on the London Underground via Olympic Way, and Wembley Central via the White Horse Bridge. It also has a rail link provided by the Wembley Stadium railway station to London Marylebone and Birmingham Operated By Chiltern Railways The 92 bus route stops directly outside the arena. Wembley Central station is nearby, located on High Road, providing London Overground, London Underground, London Midland and Southern rail services.
The onsite parking facility is shared with Wembley Stadium, essentially being the open air surface parking surrounding the eastern flank of Wembley Stadium and the multistory car park. These are called Green Car Park and Red Car Park respectively. There is disabled parking available onsite, at the Green Car Park, at a reduced rate but on a first come first served basis.
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who led the nfl in passing yards this year | List of National Football League annual passing yards leaders - wikipedia
This is a list of National Football League quarterbacks who have led the regular season in passing yards each year. The record for passing yards in a season is held by Peyton Manning of the Denver Broncos who threw for 5,477 in 2013. Drew Brees has led the NFL in passing yards in seven seasons, more than any other quarterback in NFL history. Brees also has more 5,000 yard passing seasons (five) than every other quarterback in NFL history combined (four).
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